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آزويثوبرين أدوية الآزويثوبرين (/ ن ˌ æzəθaɪɵpri ː /) هو الدواء التماثلية البيورين مناعة. فهو يستخدم لمنع رفض العضو بعد زرع الأعضاء وعلاج مجموعة واسعة من أمراض المناعة الذاتية، بما في ذلك التهاب المفاصل، والفقاع، مرض التهاب الأمعاء (مثل مرض كرون والتهاب القولون التقرحي)، والتصلب المتعدد، والتهاب الكبد الذاتية، والاكزيما الوهن العضلي الوبيل، التهاب النخاع والعصب بصريات، تقييدا ​​أمراض الرئة، وغيرها. أما بنسبة لمرض الكرونز فيقوم بتقليل المناعة التي تحارب الجزء الملتهب في الأمعاء وذلك لما تقوم به المناعة من عدم قبول هذا الجزاء وهذا الدواء يقوم بإقناعه ان هذا الجزء يتبع للجسم. من أشهر أعراضه الجانبية انه يرفع من معدل أنزيمات الكبد فيحظر لمن لديه أنزيمات الكبد عالية وعموما لم يعد يستخدم بنفس القوة منذ صدور الmycophenolate mofitil بذرة صحة وطب:

Azathioprine Antirheumatic products | Antineoplastic drugs | IARC Group 1 carcinogens | Immunosuppressants | Nitroimidazoles | Prodrugs | Purines | World Health Organization essential medicines Azathioprine is a purine analogue immunosuppressive drug. It is used to prevent organ rejection following organ transplantation and to treat a vast array of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, pemphigus, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative Colitis), multiple sclerosis, autoimmune hepatitis, atopic dermatitis, Myasthenia Gravis, Neuromyelitis optica / NMO / Devic, restrictive lung disease, and others. Azathioprine is produced by a number of generic manufacturers and as branded names (Azasan by Salix in the U.S., Imuran by GlaxoSmithKline in Canada,the U.S., Australia, Ireland and Great Britain, Azamun in Finland and Imurel in Scandinavia and France). * History Azathioprine was first introduced into clinical practice by Sir Roy Calne, the British pioneer in transplantation. Following the work done by Sir Peter Medawar in discovering the immunological basis of rejection of transplanted tissues and organs, Calne introduced 6-mercaptopurine as an experimental immunosuppressant for kidney transplants and cardiac transplantation. When Azathioprine was discovered, he then introduced it as a less toxic replacement for 6-mercaptopurine. For many years, dual therapy with Azathioprine and steroids was the standard anti-rejection regime, until cyclosporine was introduced into clinical practice (also by Calne) in 1978. * Mechanism of action Azathioprine is a pro-drug. Following oral ingestion, it is metabolized into the active 6-mercaptopurine, itself a purine synthesis inhibitor. 6-Mercaptopurine impedes DNA synthesis and thus inhibits the proliferation of cells, especially the fast-growing lymphocytes. T-cells and B-cells are particularly affected by the inhibition of purine synthesis. Azathioprine is an effective drug used alone in certain autoimmune diseases, or in combination with other immunosuppressants in organ transplantation. Azathioprine blocks the downstream affects of CD28 costimulation. 6-MP (the active metabolite) interacts directly with GTP-binding protein Rac1, thus blocking upregulation of BCL-xl mRNA and protein. In vivo data indicates that inflammatory bowel disease patients treated with azathioprine have more apoptotic mononuclear cells than untreated controls, indicating that this mechanism may be responsible for the in vivo response to the drug in this disease. Immediate or short-term side-effects: Side-effects are uncommon, but include nausea, fatigue, hair loss, and rash. Because azathioprine suppresses the bone marrow, patients will be more susceptible to infection. Acute pancreatitis can also occur, especially in patients with Crohn's disease. Caution should be exercised when it is used in conjunction with purine analogues such as allopurinol. The enzyme thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) deactivates 6-mercaptopurine. Genetic polymorphisms of TPMT can lead to excessive drug toxicity, thus assay of serum TPMT may be useful to avoid this complication. Ciclosporin has nowadays replaced some of the azathioprine use due to less side effects, especially in heart-related transplatations. Moreover, despite being 15 times more expensive, Mycophenolate mofetil is also increasingly being used in place of azathioprine in organ transplantation, as it is associated with less bone marrow suppression, fewer opportunistic infections, and a lower incidence of acute rejection. However, azathioprine certainly still has a major role. * Long-term side-effects It is listed as a human carcinogen in the 11th Report on Carcinogens of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, although they note that the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) considered some of the animal studies to be inconclusive because of limitations in the study design and inadequate reporting. In the 12th and current report, it is asserted that azathioprine is "known to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans." Furthermore,as is detailed below, additional post-marketing experience has meant that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has required warnings to be placed on packaging with respect to increased risks of certain cancers. The risks involved seem to be related both to the duration and to the dosage used. People that have previously been treated with an alkylating agent may have an excessive risk of cancers if treated with azathioprine. Epidemiological studies have provided "sufficient" evidence of Azathioprine carcinogenicity in humans, although the methodology of past studies and the possible underlying mechanisms are questioned. The various diseases requiring transplantation, and thus azathioprine, may in themselves increase the risks of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, squamous cell carcinomas of the skin, hepatobiliary carcinomas and mesenchymal tumours to which azathioprine may add additional risks. Those receiving azathioprine for rheumatoid arthritis may have a lesser risk than those following transplantation. Cases of hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma (HSTCL) - a rare type of T-cell lymphoma - have been reported in patients treated with azathioprine. The majority occurred in patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Adolescents and young adult males were the major cohort of cases. They presented with a very aggressive disease course and, with one exception, died of the lymphoma. The FDA has required changes to the labeling to inform users and clinicians of the issue. While Azathioprine had not been thought to cause fetal malformation (teratogenesis) and that any risk to the offspring of treated women is small, a more recent product monograph produced by Glaxo Smith Kline and dated June 2005 does note that IMURAN can cause fetal harm when given to a pregnant woman. Their document also states that the drug should not be given during pregnancy or in patients of reproductive potential without careful weighing of benefit versus the risks, and should be avoided whenever possible in pregnant women. It goes on to state that, when used in pregnancy, the patient should be apprised of the potential hazard to the fetus. While stating that no adequate and well-controlled studies have taken place in humans, it notes that, when given to animals in doses equivalent to human dosages, teratogenesis was observed. Transplant patients already on this drug should not discontinue on becoming pregnant. This contrasts to the later-developed drugs tacrolimus and mycophenolate which are contra-indicated by the manufacturers during pregnancy. As for all cytotoxic drugs, the manufacturer advises not to breastfeed whilst taking azathioprine. The Lactation Risk Category (LAC) reported by Thomas Hale in "Medications and Mothers' Milk" lists azathioprine as "L3", termed "moderately safe". Under FDA rules, this drug, like many others, excludes eligibility for blood donation. * References== 30em:

Azathioprine Immunosuppresseur | Antimétabolite | Purine | Thioéther | Imidazole | Nitro | Cancérogène du groupe 1 du CIRC pharmacie: Lazathioprine (6-(1-méthyl-4-nitro-5-imidazolyl)-mercaptopurine) est un médicament chimiothérapeutique, qui a perdu de l'intérêt en chimiothérapie mais en a gagné comme immunosuppresseur en cas de transplantation d'organe et de maladie autoimmune telle l'arthrite rhumatoïde et les colites inflammatoires comme la maladie de Crohn et la colite ulcéreuse (recto-colite hémorragique). Dans le corps, elle est convertie en 6-mercaptopurine. Le mycophénolate mofétil (Cellcept) est de plus en plus utilisé au lieu de l'azathioprine en cas de transplantation d'organe, mais l'azathioprine y joue encore un rôle majeur. * Référence == * en: Konstantopoulou M, Belgi A, Griffiths KD, Seale JR, Macfarlane AW. Azathioprine-induced pancytopenia in a patient with pompholyx and deficiency of erythrocyte thiopurine methyltransferase. BMJ 2005;330:350-1. PMID 15705694. Palette Agents anticancéreux intracellulaires:

الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية الإمبراطورية الرومانية الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية (Western Roman Empire) هي النصف الغربي من الإمبراطورية الرومانية منذ أن قام ديوكلتيانوس بفصله عام 286 ؛ وصار النصف الآخر من الإمبراطورية الرومانية يـُعرف باسم الإمبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية، ويعرف اليوم على نطاق أوسع بالإمبراطورية البيزنطية. لم تعد روما العاصمة منذ الانفصال. في عام 286 أصبحت ميديولانوم (ميلانو الحالية) عاصمة الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية. وفي عام 402 نـُقلت العاصمة مرة أخرى، وهذه المرة إلى رافينا. وُجدت الإمبراطورية الغربية في عدة فترات متقطعة بين القرنين الثالث والخامس، نتيجةً لحكومة ديوكلتيانوس الرباعية وعملية إعادة التوحيد المتعلقة بقسطنطين الأول ويوليان المرتد (324-363). كان ثيودوسيوس الأول (379-395) آخر الإمبراطور الروماني حـَكـَم الإمبراطورية الرومانية الموحدة. وإنقسمت الإمبراطورية الرومانية بعد وفاته عام 395 بشكل دائم. أنتهت الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية رسمياً بتخلي رومولوس أوغسطس تحت ضغط أودواكر في 4 سبتمبر 476، وبشكل غير رسمي مع بوفاة يوليوس نيبوس سنة 480. رغم استعادة الإمبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية لها لفترة قصيرة، لم تكن الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية لتنهض مرة أخرى. وبسقوط الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية، بدأت حقبة جديدة في تاريخ أوروبا الغربية هي : العصور الوسطى. الخلفية : بلغ اتساع الجمهورية الرومانية حداً لم تستطع الحكومة المركزية في روما حياله أن تحكم المقاطعات البعيدة بفعالية. كانت الاتصالات والنقل خصوصاً تشكل معضلة في الإمبراطورية المترامية الأطراف. فأخبار الغزوات أو التمرد أو الكوارث الطبيعية أو تفشي الوباء كانت تحملها إمـّا سفينة أو النظام البريدي، وغالبا ما يتطلب ذلك الكثير من الوقت للوصول إلى روما، وكذلك الحال بالنسبة لأوامر روما الواجب تنفيذها في المقاطعة الأصلية. لهذا السبب فإن حكام المقاطعات بـِحـُكم الواقع كانوا يحكمون باسم الجمهورية الرومانية. قبل إقام الثانية]] المتكون من أوكتافيان وماركو أنطونيو وماركوس إميليوس ليبيدوس. تحصل أنطونيو على المقاطعات الشرقية : آخايا، مقدونيا وإبيروس (تقريبا اليونان الحالية)، بيثينيا، بونتوس وآسيا (مقاطعة الرومانية) (تقريبا تركيا الحالية)، وسوريا وقبرص وبرقة. هذه الأراضي سبق وأن غزاها الأسكندر الأكبر ؛ لذا فإن الكثير من الأرستقراطية ذات أصل يوناني ومقدوني. المنطقة بأسرها وخصوصاً المدن الكبرى استُوعـِبت في الثقافة اليونانية، وغالباً ما استعملت اليونانية كلغة مشتركة. أوكتافيان، من ناحيته تحصـّل على مقاطعات الرومانية الغربية : إيطاليا (العصر الروماني) (إيطاليا الحالية)، بلاد الغال (فرنسا الحالية)، غاليا بلجيكا (أجزاء من بلجيكا وهولندا ولوكسمبورغ الحالية) وهسبانيا (إسبانيا والبرتغال الحاليتان). تشمل هذه الأراضي أيضاً المستعمرات اليونانية والقرطاجية بالمناطق الساحلية، رغم أن القبائل الكلتية كتلك الغالية والكلتية الإيبيرية كانت مهيمنة ثقافياً. و تحصل ليبيدوس على مقاطعة إفريقيا الصغيرة (تقريبا تونس الحالية). وسرعان ما سلب أوكتافيان إفريقيا من ليبيدوس، كما استولى على مستعمرة صقلية اليونانية. و بهزيمة ماركو أنطونيو، سيطر أوكتافيان المنتصر الإمبراطورية الرومانية المتحدة. بينما ميـّزت الإمبراطورية الرومانية العديد من الثقافات، الكل دعى تجريب الرومنة التدريجية. بينما عملت كل من الثقافة اليونانية السائدة شرقاً وثقافة اللاتينية السائدة غرباً بفعالية كمتكاملتين، كان من شأن التطورات السياسية والعسكرية في نهاية المطاف لم شمل الإمبراطورية على طول تلك الخطوط الثقافية واللغوية. الحكومة الأربعة : كانت الحدود الخارجية هادئة بمعظمها فيما تبقى من أزمة القرن الثالث، رغم وجود عشرة سنوات بين موت أوريليان سنة 275 وارتقاء ديوكلتيانوس، وقـُتل على الأقل ثمانية أباطرة أو من يحتمل أن يكونوا أباطرة، والعديد أُغتيل على يد قواته الخاصة. في عهد ديوكلتيانوس، بدأ الانقسام السياسي في الإمبراطورية الرومانية. في عام 286 بإنشاء حكومة الأربعة أعطى الجزء الغربي لمكسيميانوس بلقب أوغسطس وسَـمـّى كونستانتيوس كلوروس كمرؤوسه (قيصر). قسـّم هذا النظام الإمبراطورية بفعالية إلى أربعة أجزاء منفصلة وأوجد عواصم أخرى إلى جانب روما العواصم كوسيلة لتجنب الاضطرابات الأهلية التي ميزت القرن الثالث. في الغرب كانت العواصم مدينة مكسيميانوس "ميديولانوم" (ميلانو الحالية) ومدينة كونستانتيوس "ترير". في 1 مايو 305 أُزيح الأغوسطوسيون من مناصبهم وحل محلهم القياصرة. الاستيلاء على روما وسقوط الامبراطورية : أعدم الإمبراطور هونوريوس الجنرال ستيليكو سنة 408، ورغم أنه حـَكـَمَ حتى وفاته عام 423، فإن حكمه كان مملوءاً باغتصابات والغزوات، لا سيما من قبل الوندال والقوط الغربيين. عام 410 نـُهـِبت روما لأول مرة من جانب قوى خارجية منذ الغزوات الغال في القرن الرابع قبل الميلاد. ساعد عدم الاستقرار الذي سببه المعتدون في أنحاء الإمبراطورية الغربية هذه القبائل في فتوحاتها، وفي القرن الخامس أصبحت القبائل الجرمانية أنفسها غاصبة. في سنة 475 أقصى فلافيو أوريستس مساعد أتيلا الهوني الإمبراطور يوليوس نيبوس من رافينا وأعلن ابنه رومولوس أوغسطس إمبراطوراً. في عام سنة 476، وبعد أن رفض أوريستس منح أودواكر والهيروليين وضعاً إتحادياً، قام أودواكر بـِنهب روما وإرسال الشارة الإمبراطورية إلى القسطنطينية، ومنصباً نفسه ملكاً على إيطاليا. رغم استمرار جيوب معزولة تابعةً للحكم الروماني حتى بعد سنة 476، فإن مدينة روما نفسها كانت تحت حكم البرابرة، وقد انتهت سيطرتها على الغرب فعلياً. تبقت ثلاثة دول تحت الحكم الروماني بشكل أو آخر بعد عام 476 : فحكم يوليوس نيبوس دالماسيا حتى مقتله عام 480، وأُعلن سياغريوس ملكاً للرومان وحكم مملكة الغال حتى مقتله هو الآخر سنة 487 في السجن بعد أن هزم أمام كلوفيس الأول في معركة سواسون. وأخيراً المملكة الرومانية - الإفريقية التي نجت في شمال إفريقيا، وصمد هذا المعقل الأخير للسيادة الرومانية في الغرب أمام الغزو الوندالي واتحد من جديد مع الإمبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية سنة 533 بإعاد باليساريوس لاحتلال شمال إفريقيا. الإمبراطور الأخير : حسمت اتفاقية تاريخية أمر سقوط الامبراطورية الرومانية الغربية في الرابع من أيلول سبتمبر عام 476، عندما أطاح أودواكر برومولوس أوغسطس. ومع ذلك فالمسألة ليست واضحة. فما زال يوليوس نيبوس يدعى بأنه الإمبراطور الغربي، حاكماً الدولة المتبقية في دالماسيا، وقد اعترف به كل من الإمبراطور البيزنطي زينون وسياغريوس الذي تمكن من الحفاظ على السيادة الرومانية في أرضٍ محاطة من كل الجهات شمال فرنسي، تعرف اليوم مملكة سواسون. أعلن أودواكر نفسه حاكماً على إيطاليا وبدأ التفاوض مع زينون، الذي منح أودواكر في النهاية صفة نبيل روماني (patricius) اعترافاً بسلطته وقبـِل به والياً له في إيطاليا. بيد أن زينون أصر على أودواكر أن يبايع نيبوس إمبراطوراً غربياً. قـَبـِل أودواكر هذا الشرط وحتى أنه أصدر عملات معدنية باسم نيبوس في كافة أنحاء إيطاليا. ولكن هذا ظل أساساً لفتة سياسية فارغة فلم يـُعـِد أودواكر أبداً أي سلطة حقيقية أو أراضي إلى نيبوس. وشجع قتل نيبوس عام 480 أودواكر لغزو دالماسيا، ضماً إيـّاها إلى مملكته ومنهياً أية مطالبات بالعرش الغربي. ثيودوريك : تمثـّل الأمل الأخير في إعادة توحيد الإمبراطورية سنة 493، لـمّا قام ثيودوريك العظيم ملك القوط شرقيين بإزاحة أودواكر. وكان زينون هو من أرسل ثيودوريك للتعامل مع أودواكر الخطير. بينما كان ثيودوريك شكلياً تابعاً ووالياً لإمبراطور الشرق، ولكن في الحقيقة كانا متساويين. إثر موت ثيودوريك في سنة 526، لم يعد الغرب يشبه الشرق. فالغرب الآن تسيطر عليه تماماً القبائل الخارجية الغازية، في حين أن الشرق انحدر وتـَهَلـّن (أصبح يونانياً). ورغم قيام الشرق بمحاولات لإستعادة الغرب فإن الامبراطورية الرومانية لم تعد إطلاقاً كما كانت. الفرنكيين : سمح الإمبراطور جوليان للفرنكيين وهم من القبائل الجرمانية بعبور نهر الراين والاستقرار على حدود الإمبراطورية الرومانية، وعندما بدأ الانحلال والتدهور في الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية في القرن الخامس الميلادي توغل الفرنكيين في أراضي الإمبراطورية، واستعمروا الأجزاء الشمالية من غاليا ووصلوا إلى شمال مدينة باريس الرومانية، وكان من ملوكهم كلوديون الملتحي الذي انتصر على الجيوش الرومانية بقيادة أئسيوس ثم حكم بعده ميروفيوس الذي نسبت إليه السلالة الميروفنجية، ثم حكم من بعده ابنه شيلديريك الأول ثم جاء ابنه كلوفيس الأول (سنة481-511 م) مواضيع متعلقة : * الحضارة الرومانية * إمبراطورية رومانية * الامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية * الامبراطورية البيزنطية * الجمهورية الرومانية * قائمة الاباطره الرومان * موريتانيا الطنجية مراجع : ثبت_المراجع: Western Roman Empire: إمبراطوريات: sr: mk:

Western Roman Empire States and territories established in 286 | Western Roman Empire | Former empires | Former countries in Europe | Former countries on the Italian Peninsula | Roman States | 286 establishments | 476 disestablishments The Western Roman Empire was the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 285; the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly referred to today as the Byzantine Empire. The Western Empire existed intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries, after Diocletian's Tetrarchy and the reunifications associated with Constantine the Great and Julian the Apostate (324–363). Theodosius I (379–395) was the last Roman Emperor to rule over a unified Roman Empire. After his death in 395, the Roman Empire was permanently divided. The Western Roman Empire officially ended with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus (the last de facto Emperor) under pressure from Odoacer on 4 September 476, and unofficially with the death of Julius Nepos (the last de jure Emperor) in 480. Despite a brief period of reconquest by its counterpart, the Eastern Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire would not rise again. As the Western Roman Empire fell into decline, a new era began in Western European history: the Middle Ages. During this time, the Western Roman Empire was supposedly re-founded as the Holy Roman Empire, though this was a primarily Germanic empire that contained little of the former territory of the Western Roman Empire. * Background As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic - given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disaster, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial governors had de facto rule in the name of the Roman Republic. Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca. Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal). These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings. Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures, all were often said to experience gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. * Rebellions, uprisings, and political developments Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime, as for example in the Great Jewish Revolt. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions, under generals such as Vespasian, were far more numerous. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. The rule of Nero ended only with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", were often perceived as being of dubious loyalty. Following their example, the legions at the borders increased participation in the civil wars. The main enemy in the West was arguably the Germanic tribes behind the rivers Rhine and Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them but ultimately pulled back after the Teutoburg reversal. The Parthian Empire, in the East, on the other hand, was too remote and powerful to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, similarly, Parthians repelled some attempts of Roman invasion, however, even after successful wars of conquest - such as those implemented by Trajan and Septimius Severus - those distant territories were forsaken to prevent unrest and also to ensure a more healthy and lasting peace with the Persians. Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes, however, controlling both frontiers altogether during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice-versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. * Economic stagnation in the West Rome and the Italian peninsula began to experience an economic slowdown as industries and money began to move outward. By the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the economic stagnation of Italia was seen in the provincial-born Emperors, such as Trajan and Hadrian. Economic problems increased in strength and frequency. * Crisis of the 3rd century Starting on 18 March 235, with the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year civil war, known today as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sassanid dynasty in Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east. Demonstrating the increased danger, Emperor Valerian was captured by Shapur I in 259. His eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus - the local governor of the German provinces - rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known as the Gallic Empire emerged. Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces and over all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes than other Romans. However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded under the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia. In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention was turned to the West, taking the Gallic Empire a year later. Because of a secret deal between Aurelian and Gallic Emperor Tetricus I and his son Tetricus II, the Gallic army was swiftly defeated. In exchange, Aurelian spared their lives and gave the two former rebels important positions in Italy. * Tetrarchy Tetrarchy: The external borders were mostly stable for the remainder of the Crisis of the Third Century, although, between the death of Aurelian in 275 and the accession of Diocletian ten years later, at least eight emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops. Under Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted Maximian to the rank of Augustus (Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (Caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's Mediolanum (now Milan) and Constantius' Trier. In the East, the capitals were Sirmium and Nicomedia. On 1 May 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down, and their respective Caesars were promoted to Augusti and appointed two new Caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy. * Constantine the Great Constantine the Great: The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain. A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In 308, the Augustus of the East, Galerius, arranged a conference at Carnuntum which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named Licinius. Constantine was far more interested in conquering the whole empire. Through a series of battles in the East and the West, Licinius and Constantine stabilized their respective parts of the Roman Empire by 314, and began to compete for sole control of a reunified state. Constantine emerged victorious in 324 after the surrender and murder of Licinius following the Battle of Chrysopolis. The Tetrarchy ended, but the idea of dividing the Roman Empire between two emperors had been validated. Very strong emperors would reunite it under their single rule, but with their death the Roman Empire would be divided again and again between the East and the West. * Second division Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324. The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, civil war erupted among his three sons, dividing the Empire into three parts. The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius; after Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred in 353, with Constantius II. Constantius II focused most of his power in the East and is regarded as the first emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium - only recently re-founded as Constantinople - was fully developed as a capital. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled only until 364. * Final division Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle into the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Valens also died. After plundering the countryside, they officially became foederati, thus remaining a foreign and destabilizing element within the Empire. More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western half of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the pagan altar from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome. Theodosius I later decreed a ban on the native paganism, further enforcing Christianity as the official state religion. The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's son Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I promptly restored him to power. In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as Emperor. The rebellion was overcome in 394 by Theodosius I, who then briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire; his older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the younger Honorius got the western half. Both were still minors. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the semi-barbaric magister militum Flavius Stilicho while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and disagreements between the eastern and western courts regarding ownership of Illyricum were skillfully exploited by the Gothic king Alaric I who again rebelled following the death of Theodosius I. Stilicho ably defended Italy against the invading Goths, but failed to control the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi who invaded Gaul in massive numbers. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues in Ravenna - where the Western Imperial court resided since 402 - and was subsequently executed for high treason in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. * Economic factors The West, less urbanized with a spread-out populace, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces. Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities) to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East, always wealthier, was not so destitute, especially as Emperors like Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even in major defeats, the East could, certainly not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom. The political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources remained safe in Constantinople, which was brilliantly fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. In contrast, the Western Empire was more fragmented. Its capital was transferred to Ravenna in 402 largely for defensive reasons: it had ease of access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but was isolated in other aspects as it was surrounded by swamps and marshes. The economic power remained focused on Rome and its hyper-rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Gallienus banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life. In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as the capital of the Empire and many leading Western generals were Franks. After the civil war in 394 between Theodosius I and Eugenius, the new Western government installed by Theodosius I increasingly had to divert military resources from Britain and the Rhine to protect Italy. This, in turn, led to further rebellions and civil wars because the Western imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed against the barbarians. The Western Empire's resources were much limited, and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders, where the Western Empire would often have difficulties paying. In certain cases deals were struck with the leaders of barbaric mercenaries rewarding them with land, which led to the Empire's decline as less land meant there would be even less taxes to support the military. As the central power weakened, the State gradually lost control of its borders and provinces, as well as control over the Mediterranean Sea. Roman Emperors tried to maintain control of the sea, but, once the Vandals conquered North Africa, imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources. The loss of the African provinces might have been the worse reversal on the West's fortunes, since they were among its wealthiest territories and supplied the essential grain imports to Italy. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, such as Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, whereas elsewhere, notably in certain parts of North Africa, the Roman landowners were expelled and their lands confiscated. * Sack of Rome and fall of the Western Roman Empire Decline of the Roman Empire: Remaining as emperor after the death of Stilicho in 408, Honorius reigned until his own death in 423. His reign was filled with usurpations and invasions. In 410, Rome was sacked by Alaric's forces. This event made a great impression on contemporaries, as this was the first time since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC that the city had fallen to a foreign enemy. Under Alaric's successors, the Goths then settled in Gaul (412–418), from where they operated as Roman allies against the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi in Spain, and against the usurper Jovinus (413). Meanwhile, another usurper, Constantine (406–411), had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons and Angli, who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government with the force of arms installed Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Ravenna, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help, he defeated the Burgundians, who had occupied part of southern Gaul after 407, and settled them in Savoy as Roman allies (433). Later that century, as Roman power faded away, the Burgundians extended their rule to the Rhone valley. Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under their king Gaiseric to cross over from Spain in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia (435) before moving eastward and capturing Carthage, from where they established an independent state with a powerful navy (439). The Vandal fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean. In 444, the Huns, who had been employed as Roman allies by Aetius, were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Attila then received a plea for help and the ring of Honoria, the Emperor's sister. Threatening war, he claimed half of the Western Empire's territory as his dowry. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul and was only stopped in the battle of the Catalaunian Plains by a combined Roman-Germanic army led by Aetius. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, Pope Leo's plea for peace, and reports of a campaign of Marcianus directed at his headquarters in Pannonia induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453). Aetius was slain in 454 by Valentinian, who was then himself murdered by the dead general's supporters a year later. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, a new period of dynastic struggle ensued. The Vandals took advantage of the unrest and sailed up to Rome, which they plundered in 455. The instability caused by usurpers throughout the Western Empire helped these tribes in their conquests, and by the 450s the Germanic tribes had become usurpers themselves. During the next twenty years, several Western Emperors were installed by Constantinople, but their authority relied upon barbarian commanders (Ricimer (456–472), Gundobad (473–475)). In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Emperor Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Romulus Augustus as emperor. In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes was killed and Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, installed himself as ruler over Italy and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople. Although isolated pockets of Roman rule continued even after 476, the city of Rome itself was under the rule of the barbarians, and the control of Rome over the West had effectively ended. Three rump states continued under Roman rule in some form or another after 476: Julius Nepos controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. Lastly, a Roman-Moor realm survived in north Africa, resisting Vandal incursions, and becoming a part of the Eastern Roman Empire c.533 when Belisarius defeated the Vandals. * Last Emperor By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West, and ruled a rump state in Dalmatia. He was recognized as such by Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno and by Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul, known today as the Domain of Soissons. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Julius Nepos. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. * Theodoric The last hope for a reunited Empire came in 493, as Odoacer was replaced by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric had been forced to appear subservient to Zeno in order to deal with a dangerous Odoacer. While in principle Theodoric was a subordinate, a viceroy of the Emperor of the East, in fact he was his equal. Following Theodoric's death in 526, the Western half of the Empire was now fully controlled by Germanic tribes (though many of them continued to recognize Roman law and made claims to continuity), while the Eastern half had established itself under the Justinian dynasty. While the East would make some attempts to recapture the West, the Roman Empire was never reunited. * Byzantine Reconquest Throughout Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, laid claims on areas of the West which had been occupied by several tribes. In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire. The most successful were the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554). The Vandal-occupied former Roman territory in North Africa was regained, particularly the territory centered around the city of Carthage. The campaign eventually moved into Italy and the Byzantines reconquered it completely. Minor territories were taken as far west as the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. But already in 568, three years after Justinian had died, the Lombards had invaded Italy. Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to reconquer some parts of the West, none were as successful as Justinian. The division between the two areas grew, resulting in a growing rivalry. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued after Justinian, the later Eastern Emperors focused mainly on defending its traditional territory. From the 7th century onwards, the East no longer had the necessary military strength to do anything else, spelling the end of any hope for reunification. * Legacy As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered the provinces upheld many Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly converted to Catholicism, gaining more loyalty from the local Roman populations, as well as the recognition and support of the powerful Catholic Church. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman Law and gradually incorporated it as well. Roman Law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern Civil law stands. In contrast, Common law is based on the Germanic Anglo-Saxon law. Latin as a language never really disappeared. It combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to many modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, Occitan, and Romansh. Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English, German, and Dutch; all surviving Celtic languages, Albanian, and such Slavic languages as Polish and Czech, and even the non-Indo-European Hungarian. It survives in its "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church (the Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969), and was used as a lingua franca between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship. The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the splits of I into I and J and of U into U, V, and in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish) W; it is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. Roman numerals continue to be used, but were mostly replaced by Arabic numerals. The ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler continued to seduce many powerful rulers. Under the principle of translatio imperii, the Holy Roman Empire explicitly proclaimed itself as the continuation of the Western Roman Empire. The title of the Western Roman Emperor was revived when Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Lombards, was crowned as Emperor of the Romans of the West by Pope Leo III in 800. The status of the Holy Roman Emperor as the rightful Western Roman Emperor in the medieval era was further legitimated by the recognition as "co-emperor" from the Eastern Roman Emperor, who was in direct succession to the ancient Roman Emperors. The Holy Roman Empire continued to regard itself as the successor state of the Western Roman Empire until its downfall in 1806. The French King Louis XIV, as well as French Emperor Napoleon I, among others, also tried to resurrect the Empire, albeit unsuccessfully. A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church. The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century. In many cases the only source of law and civil administration was the local bishop, often himself a former governor like St. Ambrose of Milan and St. Germanus of Auxerre. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c.9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted by the Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ. * List of Western Roman Emperors * Gallic Emperors (259 to 273) * Postumus: 259 to 268 * Laelianus: 268 Usurper * Marcus Aurelius Marius: 268 * Victorinus: 268 to 271 * Domitianus: 271 Usurper * Tetricus I: 271 to 273 ** Tetricus II: 271 to 273 Son and co-emperor of Tetricus I * Tetrarchy (293 to 313) Augusti are shown with their Caesares and regents further indented * Maximian: 293 to 305 ** Constantius Chlorus: 293 to 305 * Constantius Chlorus: 305 to 306 ** Flavius Valerius Severus: 305 to 306 * Flavius Valerius Severus: 306 to 307 ** Constantine I: 306 to 313 * Maxentius/Maximian: 307 to 308 * Licinius: 308 to 313 * Maxentius: 308 to 312 Usurper * Domitius Alexander: 308 to 309 African usurper * Constantinian dynasty (313 to 363) * Constantine the Great: 306 to 337 Sole emperor of the empire from 324 to 337 * Constantine II: 337 to 340 Emperor of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania * Constantius II: 337 to 361 Emperor of the east from 337 to 353, Sole emperor of the empire from 353 to 360 * Constans I: 337 to 350 Emperor of Italy and Africa 337-340, emperor of the west from 340 to 350 * Magnentius: 350 to 353 Usurper * Julian: 355 to 363 Emperor of the west from 355 to 361, Sole emperor of the empire from 361 to 363 * Non-dynastic (363 to 364) * Jovian: 363 to 364 * Valentinian dynasty (364 to 392) * Valentinian I: 364 to 375 ** Gratian: 367 to 375 * Gratian: 375 to 383 ** Valentinian II: 375 to 383 * Magnus Maximus: 383 to 388 Usurper * Valentinian II: 383 to 392 * Non-dynastic (392 to 394) * Eugenius: 392 to 394 * Theodosian dynasty (394 to 455) * Theodosius I: 394 to 395 Sole emperor * Honorius: 395 to 423 ** Flavius Stilicho: 395 to 408 Power behind the throne ** Constantius III: 421 * Constantine III: 407 to 411 Usurper * Priscus Attalus: 409 to 410/414 to 415 Usurper * Jovinus: 411 to 412 Usurper * Valentinian III: 423 to 455 ** Galla Placidia: 423 to 433 Regent ** Aëtius: 433 to 454 Regent * Joannes: 423 to 425 Usurper * Non-dynastic (455 to 480)=== * Petronius Maximus: 455 * Avitus: 455 to 456 ** Ricimer: 456 to 472 Power behind the throne * Majorian: 457 to 461 * Libius Severus: 461 to 465 * Anthemius: 467 to 472 * Olybrius: 472 * Glycerius: 473 to 474 * Julius Nepos: 474 to 480 In exile 475 to 480 * Romulus Augustus: 475 to 476 ** Flavius Orestes: 475 to 476 Power behind the throne Flavius Orestes was killed by revolting Germanic mercenaries. Their chieftain, Odoacer, assumed control of Italy as a de jure representative of Julius Nepos and Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno.

Empire romain d'Occident Ancien empire d'Europe | Période historique romaine | Empire romain dateaoût 2007: LEmpire romain d'Occident fait référence à la partie occidentale de l'Empire romain, à partir de sa division par Dioclétien en 286. Sa capitale fut Milan jusqu'en 402, puis Ravenne. L'Empire d'Occident exista de façon intermittente entre les IIIe s: et Ve siècle: s, après la tétrarchie de Dioclétien et les réunifications opérées par Constantin le Grand et Julien. Théodose le Grand fut le dernier empereur romain à régner sur la totalité de l'empire. À sa mort, en 395, l'empire fut divisé de façon définitive. L'Empire romain d'Occident disparut officiellement au moment de l'abdication de Romulus Augustule, le 4 septembre 476. L'Empire d'Occident ne se releva jamais, en dépit d'une brève reconquête partielle par l'Empire romain d'Orient. Sa chute marqua le début d'une nouvelle ère de l'histoire européenne : le Moyen Âge. * Histoire * La crise du Avec l'assassinat de l'empereur Sévère Alexandre le 18 mars 235, l'Empire romain sombra dans une guerre civile de cinquante ans, aujourd'hui appelée . Durant cette même période, l'ascension de la belliqueuse dynastie sassanide en Iran commença à menacer sérieusement l'est de l'Empire : en 259, l'empereur Valérien fut capturé par Shapur Ier: , et mourut en captivité l'année suivante. Gallien, son fils aîné, qui régnait à ses côtés depuis 253, lui succéda et poursuivit la guerre dans l'est. Son propre fils, Salonin, et le préfet du prétoire Silvanus, résidaient à Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) pour renforcer la loyauté des légions locales, ce qui n'empêcha pas le gouverneur local des provinces germaniques, Postume, de se rebeller. Il attaqua Colonia Agrippa, et dans la confusion qui suivit les morts de Salonin et Silvanus, se proclama empereur des Gaules, avec Augusta Treverorum (Trèves) pour capitale. Ce nouvel empire s'étendit bientôt sur les provinces germaniques et gauloises, ainsi que sur l'Hispanie et la Bretagne, posséda son propre sénat et ses propres consuls. Vers la même période, les provinces orientales firent sécession sous le commandement de la reine Zénobie, formant l'empire de Palmyre. Ce n'est qu'en 272 que l'empereur Aurélien parvint à réintégrer ce territoire à l'empire. L'Est étant désormais sûr, il se tourna vers l'Ouest et reprit, un an plus tard, l'empire des Gaules. * La tétrarchie Tétrarchie: Les frontières de l'empire restèrent globalement en paix durant le reste de la crise du , même si au moins huit empereurs furent tués, souvent par leurs propres troupes, entre la mort d'Aurélien en 275 et l'avènement de Dioclétien, dix ans plus tard. La division politique de l'Empire romain débuta sous Dioclétien. Il fonda la tétrarchie en 286, donnant la moitié occidentale de l'empire à Maximien avec le titre d'Auguste, et chacun s'adjoignant un César, respectivement Galère et Constance Chlore. Ce système divisa l'empire en quatre parties avec chacune sa capitale en plus de Rome, afin d'éviter les troubles qui avaient marqué le IIIe siècle: . Dans l'ouest, les capitales étaient Mediolanum (Milan) pour Maximien et Trèves pour Constance. Le 1er mai: 305, les deux Augustes abdiquèrent et furent remplacés par leurs Césars. Le système de la Tétrarchie ne tarda pas à s'effondrer après la mort prématurée de Constance Chlore, en 306. Son fils Constantin fut proclamé Auguste de l'Ouest par les légions de Bretagne. Une crise s'ensuivit, durant laquelle plusieurs prétendants tentèrent de s'approprier la partie occidentale de l'Empire. En 308, l'Auguste de l'Est, Galère, organisa une conférence à Carnuntum qui refonda la Tétrarchie en divisant l'Empire entre Constantin et Licinius. Grâce à une série de bataille dans l'Est et l'Ouest, Licinius et Constantin stabilisèrent leurs parties respectives de l'Empire, et à partir de 313, ils entrent en compétition pour la domination de l'Empire. Lors de la bataille de Chrysopolis, en 324, Licinius est capturé par Constantin, puis exécuté l'année suivante. La Tétrarchie avait vécu, mais l'idée de diviser l'Empire entre deux empereurs devait rester. Les empereurs les plus doués le réuniraient sous leur férule, mais à leur mort, il serait de nouveau divisé entre l'Est et l'Ouest. * Deuxième division L'Empire romain était réuni sous un seul empereur, mais à la mort de Constantin (337), une guerre civile éclata entre ses trois fils, divisant l'empire en trois. L'Ouest fut réunifié en 340 sous Constant, puis tout l'Empire en 353 par Constance II. Deux ans plus tard, ce dernier, écartelé entre l'agitation des Germains et la guerre contre la Perse, nomma son cousin Julien César et l'envoya en Gaule. En 360, Julien fut proclamé Auguste par ses soldats, et Constance mourut l'année suivante, le laissant seul maître de l'Empire. Julien fut tué en 363 en combattant les Perses, et son successeur, Jovien, le commandant de la garde impériale, fut tué l'année suivante. * Division finale Après la mort de Jovien, l'empire retomba dans une période d'instabilité politique. En 364, Valentinien Ier: s'imposa. Il divisa aussitôt l'empire, en offrant la partie orientale à son frère Valens. Aucune des deux ne fut stable avant longtemps, car les conflits s'intensifiaient avec les éléments extérieurs, notamment les Huns et les Goths. En outre, un problème de taille pour l'Ouest était la réaction politique causée par le paganisme dominant contre les empereurs chrétiens. En 379, Gratien, fils et successeur de Valentinien Ier: , refusa de porter le titre de pontifex maximus, et en 382, il priva de leurs droits les prêtres païens et fit retirer l'autel païen de la Curie. En 388, Magnus Maximus, un général populaire et puissant, s'empara du pouvoir à l'Ouest et força Valentinien II, le fils de Gratien, à fuir vers l'Est pour y quérir de l'aide ; l'empereur d'Orient Théodose Ier: le remit promptement sur le trône. En 392, Valentinien II fut assassiné par le magister militum Arbogast, un Franc païen, et un sénateur nommé Eugène fut couronné. Il fut renversé deux ans plus tard par Théodose, qui gouverna l'Orient et l'Occident pendant deux ans, jusqu'à sa mort (395). C'était la dernière fois qu'un empereur unique gouvernait la totalité de l'Empire. Théodose le Grand le divisa entre ses deux fils : à Arcadius, l'ainé, l'Orient, à Honorius, le cadet, l'Occident. Une brève période de calme s'ensuivit pour l'Empire d'Occident sous Honorius, contrôlé par le Vandale Stilicon, et s'achève avec l'assassinat de ce dernier en 408. Les chemins des deux empires se séparèrent alors franchement : si l'Orient entame une lente reconstruction et consolidation, l'Occident commence à s'effondrer. * Déclin économique Tout au long de son histoire, l'Empire d'Occident connut un déclin économique constant, qui contribua à sa chute finale, tandis que l'économie de l'Empire d'Orient restait stable, notamment grâce aux richesses de l'Asie Mineure. L'Orient pouvait entretenir une armée importante, renforcée au besoin de mercenaires, là où l'Occident n'en était plus capable. Avec l'affaiblissement du pouvoir central, les empereurs perdirent le contrôle des frontières et des provinces, ainsi que de la mer Méditerranée, surtout après que les Vandales se furent emparés de la province d'Afrique (429-439). Les institutions romaines s'effondrèrent avec la stabilité économique. La plupart des envahisseurs exigeaient un tiers des pays conquis à leurs sujets romains, et le chiffre était encore plus élevé quand plusieurs tribus envahissaient la même province. De larges surfaces entretenues avec soin furent abandonnées à cause de l'instabilité politique. Ce fut là un coup sévère porté à l'économie, qui reposait en grande partie sur l'agriculture. L'ouvrage La Banque, de Babylone à Wall Street, de Colling, met l'accent pour sa part sur une asphyxie du système bancaire au dans l'Empire romain d'Occident, les évêques de Rome condamnant alors toute sorte de prêt à intérêt , à la différence de ceux de Constantinople. * Chute de Rome et fin de l'Empire d'Occident Après la mort de Stilicon en 408, le règne de Honorius se composa principalement d'usurpations et d'invasions, notamment de Vandales et de Wisigoths. En 410, Rome fut pillée par des armées étrangères pour la première fois depuis l'invasion gauloise de -390. En dépit de quelques victoires remportées par des généraux talentueux, notamment Aetius en Gaule (bataille des champs Catalauniques), l'instabilité provoquée par les usurpateurs à travers tout l'Empire d'Occident ne put être enrayée par de faibles empereurs, et favorisa les conquêtes de ces tribus. Au Ve siècle: , leurs chefs se firent eux-mêmes usurpateurs. En 475, Flavius Oreste, ancien secrétaire d'Attila, chassa l'empereur Julius Nepos de Ravenne et proclama son propre fils, Romulus Augustule, empereur. En 476, Oreste refusa d'accorder aux Hérules d'Odoacre le statut de fédérés, poussant Odoacre à prendre Rome et à envoyer les insignes impériaux à Constantinople, s'établissant comme roi d'Italie. Si le pouvoir romain se maintint dans des poches isolées après 476, la cité de Rome elle-même était gouvernée par des barbares, et le contrôle de Rome sur l'Occident avait pris fin. * Le dernier empereur La convention veut que l'Empire d'Occident ait disparu le 4 septembre 476, lorsque Odoacre déposa Romulus Augustule. Mais dans les faits, les choses ne sont pas aussi simples. Julius Nepos prétendait toujours au titre d'empereur d'Occident depuis son réduit de Dalmatie, et était reconnu comme tel par l'empereur byzantin Zénon, ainsi que par Syagrius, qui était parvenu à sauvegarder une enclave romaine dans le nord de la Gaule. Odoacre, souverain autoproclamé de l'Italie, commença à négocier avec Zénon, qui finit par lui accorder le titre de patrice, le reconnaissant comme son vice-roi en Italie. Zénon insista cependant pour qu'Odoacre rende hommage à Nepos comme empereur d'Occident. Odoacre accepta, allant jusqu'à frapper des pièces au nom de Nepos dans toute l'Italie. Il ne s'agissait cependant que d'un geste purement politique, et Odoacre ne rendit aucun territoire à Nepos. Ce dernier fut finalement assassiné en 480, et Odoacre conquit peu après la Dalmatie. Romulus Augustule fut épargné par Odoacre qui, bien qu'ayant assassiné son père, eut pitié de lui et lui donna une pension et une villa en Campanie, villa qui devint un monastère. On trouve trace de lui au milieu des années 500, ce qui laisse à penser qu'il aurait survécu à Julius Népos. * La reconquête byzantine L'Empire byzantin eut des prétentions sur les régions de l'Occident tout au long du Moyen Âge. Au VIe siècle: , les campagnes des généraux Bélisaire et Narsès permirent à l'empereur Justinien de reconquérir une grande partie de l'Occident : l'Afrique vandale fut reprise en 533, suivie de l'Italie elle-même (guerre des Goths de 535 à 553), ainsi qu'une partie de l'Espagne wisigothique. La reconstitution de l'Empire parut alors à portée de mains ; mais l'influence des tribus barbares avait fortement marqué ces anciennes provinces romaines, à la fois culturellement et économiquement. Il coûta très cher à l'Empire byzantin pour se maintenir dans ces régions où la culture et l'identité romaine, ciments de l'empire, avaient été sérieusement endommagée, bien que la question de la romanité reste encore sujette à caution. Les descendants de romains se disent toujours romains, les tribus assimilées sont fières de prendre part à cette glorieuse civilisation. En revanche, la pression fiscale imposée par Constantinople est jugée insupportable par les populations, et en fin de compte, les conquêtes de Justinien furent abandonnées ou perdues, et l'Orient et l'Occident suivirent des voies séparées. * Géographie * Superficie et divisions administratives À la mort de Théodose Ier et lors de la division définitive de l'Empire en une partie orientale et une partie occidentale (395), ce dernier hérita de la Préfecture des Gaules, de la majeure partie de la Préfecture d'Italie, de l'Afrique et de l'Illyrie, tandis que l'Est obtient la Préfecture d'Orient et deux diocèses Illyriques. À son tour la Prefecture d'Italie était composée de quatre diocèses : l'Italie (deux diocèses), l'Illyrie et l'Afrique ; celle des Gaules d'un grand nombre de diocèses : Gaule (deux diocèses), Hispanie et Bretagne. Il convient de souligner que Illyrie était divisée entre les deux Empires, et que cette division fut une source du conflit qui commença à se profiler à partir des dernières années du . La superficie totale de l'Empire d'Occident était de plus de 2,5 millions de km², avec une population difficile à quantifier mais qui, selon toute probabilité, ne devait en aucun cas être inférieure à 25 millions d'habitants. * Population Au cours d'un siècle, on assiste dans le monde romain d'Occident à un déclin démographique généralisé dû aux guerres, aux famines et aux épidémies. L'installation de peuples barbares dans la quasi-totalité des régions de l'Europe occidentale et de l'Afrique ne suffit pas à compenser les pertes subies par les populations locales. Ces groupes ethniques, généralement d'origine germanique, représentèrent toujours une part modeste dans le total de la population romaine ou romanisée, probablement en dessous de 8% à 10%. Pour illustrer la faiblesse numérique des tribus barbares, on se souviendra que les Lombards, lorsqu'ils envahirent l'Italie dans la seconde moitié du , formaient une horde composée d'environ personnes y compris personnes âgées, femmes et enfants. * Villes Au tournant du et du , Rome était encore la ville la plus peuplée de l'Empire, parties occidentale et orientale confondues. Lors du règne de Valentinien Ier (364 - 375), on estime, sur la base des rations de nourriture distribuées, que la Ville devait compter pas moins de habitants (d'autres sources évoquent des chiffres encore supérieurs, voir tableau). Ce chiffre demeura quasi inchangé jusqu'à la première décennie du , c'est-à-dire jusqu'au premier sac aux mains des Wisigoths d'Alaric (410). S'ensuivit une baisse de la population mais, encore aux alentours du milieu du , il semble que la population de Rome n'était pas en deçà de habitants Ce n'est probablement qu'après le second sac mené par les Vandales (en 455) que Rome perdit son rang de première cité de l'Empire, dépassée non seulement par Constantinople, mais aussi par les grandes métropoles d'Orient d'Alexandrie, Antioche et peut-être même Thessalonique. Carthage, avec à habitants ou plus, constituait selon toute probabilité la seconde agglomération urbaine de l'Empire d'Occident. La ville, forte de son immémoriale vocation commerciale, était en outre placée au cœur d'une riche région agricole et exportait des denrées alimentaires jusqu'en Orient. En Afrique, trois autres villes moyennes jouissaient d'une certaine prospérité : Leptis Magna, berceau de la dynastie des Sévères qui, après une période de décadence, avait vécu une certaine reprise sous Théodose ; Timgad, important centre donatiste, et enfin Caesarea (l'actuelle Cherchell, Algérie), où naquit Priscien, peut-être le plus grand grammairien latin tardif. L'Italie pouvait encore se prévaloir de plusieurs villes relativement peuplées et riches économiquement, au premier rang desquels Mediolanum (Milan), capitale impériale tout au long du , et Aquilée, qui fut pourtant détruite par les Huns autour du milieu du . Parmi les autres cités importantes, on comptait Bononia Bologne et Ravenne. Cette dernière devint en 402 la capitale de l'Empire romain d'Occident et conserva ce rang jusqu'à sa chute en 476. La ville la plus peuplée et importante d'Illyrie était probablement Salone (près de l'actuelle Split), en Dalmatie, avec une population de plus de 50 000 habitants, tandis que deux agglomérations frontalière et à l'origine camps militaires, Carnuntum et Aquincum (l'actuelle Budapest), conservaient une certaine importance stratégique. Ces deux villes possédaient deux amphithéâtres, un pour les garnisons et un pour la population civile. Carnuntum fut décrite par Ammien Marcellin, dans la seconde moitié du , comme une ville léthargique et en mauvais état, mais animée par la présence de nombreux militaires installés dans les environs ou dans le centre-ville . L'Ibérie avait subi des évolutions au cours du , la ville d'Hispalis (l'actuelle Séville)s'imposant comme le centre de la Bétique, tandis que Carthago Nova (Carthagène) restait le principal point d'ancrage urbain de la zone orientale du Diocèse. Non moins importants étaient Tarraco (Tarragone), Osca (Huesca) et Caesaraugusta (Saragosse), au nord de la Péninsule. Parmi les villes les plus importantes et les plus peuplées des deux diocèses gaulois, on trouvait Augusta Treverorum (Trèves, aujourd'hui en Allemagne), capitale impériale à l'époque des Tétrarques et encore au début du siège de préfecture. Arelate (Arles), un temps centre urbain le plus dynamique de la Gaule Méridionale, était également devenue, au début du , capitale de préfecture. Le plus grand centre de la Gaule centrale était, selon toute probabilité, Lugdunum (Lyon). En Bretagne, la seule ville d'importance était Londinium, l'actuelle Londres, suivie de noyaux urbains de dimension modeste, soit d'origine militaire, soit développés à partir d'agglomérations fondées par les Celtes (comme Calleva Atrebatum, l'actuelle Silchester). Aquae Sulis (Bath) était une station thermale connue depuis le . L'abandon de la Bretagne par les légions romaines au début du entraîna la décadence de ces centres urbains, qui se poursuivit généralement lors du Haut Moyen Âge. Londres, quasiment vidée de ses habitants, dut en pratique être refondée par Alfred le Grand au . Villes fondées ou conquises par les Romains en Italie (fond vert) Villes fondées par les Romains dans les provinces de l'Empire (fond jaune) Villes conquises par les Romains hors d'Europe (fond bleu ciel) Héritage : Les envahisseurs germains qui s'établirent sur le territoire de l'Empire d'Occident maintinrent un grand nombre de lois et traditions romaines. La plupart des tribus germaines étaient déjà christianisées, quoiqu'en majeure partie arienne. Elles se convertirent rapidement au catholicisme, accroissant la loyauté des populations romanisées locales ainsi que reconnaissance et appui de la puissante Église catholique romaine. Leurs lois furent bientôt enrichies par l'apport du droit romain. Le système de droit civil est basé sur celui-ci, en particulier le Corpus juris civilis compilé sur ordre de Justinien. La langue latine ne disparut jamais véritablement. Combinée aux langues germaines et celtes voisines, elle donna naissance aux langues romanes actuelles, comme l'italien, le français, l'espagnol, le portugais, le roumain et le romanche. Le latin influença également les langues germaniques comme l'anglais, l'allemand ou le néerlandais. Sous sa forme « pure », il survit en tant que langue de l'Église catholique romaine (les messes furent dites en latin exclusivement jusqu'en 1965) et servit de lingua franca entre de nombreuses nations. Il resta longtemps la langue des médecins, des juristes, des diplomates et des intellectuels. L'alphabet latin, complété avec quelques lettres (J, K, W, Z), est aujourd'hui le système d'écriture le plus employé dans le monde. Les chiffres romains continuent à être employés, mais ont été remplacés le plus souvent par les chiffres arabes. Le rêve d'un Empire romain, universel et chrétien, avec un seul souverain à sa tête, séduisit de nombreux rois et empereurs. Charlemagne, roi des Francs et des Lombards, fut même couronné empereur romain par le pape Léon III en 800. Plusieurs souverains du Saint-Empire romain germanique, dont Frédéric Barberousse, Frédéric II de Hohenstaufen et Charles Quint, tentèrent de donner corps à ce rêve, mais tous échouèrent. Un héritage visible de l'Empire romain d'Occident est l'Église catholique romaine, qui remplaça peu à peu les institutions romaines en Occident par les siennes, aidant même à négocier la sécurité de Rome à la fin du Ve siècle: . Au Xe siècle: , la majeure partie de l'Europe centrale, occidentale et du Nord avait été convertie à la foi catholique et reconnaissait le pape comme vicaire du Christ. Source : * Références :

بيتر بينيسن محامون إنجليز | مواليد 1921 | وفيات 2005 بيتر بينيسن، كان سياسيا من حزب العمال البريطاني، ومحام إنجليزيا، ومؤسس منظمة العفو الدولية. ولد في 21 يوليو سنة 1921 في مدينة أكسفورد في عائلة يهودية، وتوفي في 25 فبراير من سنة 2005، وهو الابن الوحيد لـهارولد سولومون وفلور بينيسن. كان يعمل أباه في القوات المسلحة وتوفي وهو ابن التسعة أعوام, وعند بلوغه الحادية عشر، اتفق مع أصدقاءه على إنشاء صناديق لمساعدة الأطفال الأيتام من ضحايا الحروب الاهلية، واتخذ من بينيسن لقبا له إشادة إلى جده لأمه غريغوري بينيسن, وانتقل بعد مدة إلى جامعة باليول في أكسفورد, لكن الحرب العالمية الثانية كانت عائقا لمواصلة دراسته. من 1941 إلى 1945 عمل في بلاتشلاي بارك وهو منزل كان مقر الاستخبارات البريطانية خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية. تعرف بينيسن على زوجته الأولى مارغريت أندريسون. بدأ ممارسة عمله كمحام قبل أن ينضم إلى حزب العمال. وفي سنة 1957 أسس مع مجموعة من المحامين "العدالة" وهي منظمة للدفاع عن حقوق الإنسان. وفي عام 1958 اتخذ الكاثوليكية ديانة له، مرض بينيسن ودخل المستشفى في إيطاليا.

Peter Benenson Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford | Amnesty International people | English human rights activists | People associated with Bletchley Park | Roman Catholic activists | English Roman Catholics | Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism | English Jews | Old Etonians | 1921 births | 2005 deaths Peter Benenson (31 July 1921 – 25 February 2005) was an English lawyer and the founder of human rights group Amnesty International (AI). In 2001, Benenson received the Pride of Britain Award for Lifetime Achievement. * Biography Born in London as Peter James Henry Solomon to a Jewish family, the only son of Harold Solomon and Flora Benenson, Peter Benenson adopted his mother's maiden name later in life. His army officer father died when Benenson was aged nine from a long-term injury, and he was tutored privately by W. H. Auden before going to Eton. At the age of sixteen he helped to establish a relief fund with other schoolboys for children orphaned by the Spanish Civil War. He took his mother's maiden name of Benenson as a tribute to his grandfather, the Russian gold tycoon Grigori Benenson, following his grandfather's death. He enrolled for study at Balliol College, Oxford but World War II interrupted his education. From 1941 to 1945, Benenson worked at Bletchley Park, the British codebreaking centre, in the "Testery", a section tasked with breaking German teleprinter ciphers. It was at this time when he met his first wife, Margaret Anderson. After demobilisation in 1946, Benenson began practising as a barrister before joining the Labour Party and standing unsuccessfully for election. He was one of a group of British lawyers who founded JUSTICE in 1957, the UK-based human rights and law reform organisation. In 1958 he fell ill and moved to Italy in order to convalesce. In the same year he converted to the Roman Catholic Church. In 1961 Benenson was shocked and angered by a newspaper report of two Portuguese students from Coimbra sentenced to seven years in prison for raising their glasses in a toast to freedom during the autocratic regime of António de Oliveira Salazar - the Estado Novo. In 1961, Portugal was the last remaining European colonial power in Africa, ruled by the authoritarian Estado Novo regime. Anti-regime conspiracies were vigorously repressed by the Portuguese state police and deemed anti-Portuguese. He wrote to David Astor, editor of The Observer. On 28 May, Benenson's article, entitled "The Forgotten Prisoners", was published. The letter asked readers to write letters showing support for the students. To co-ordinate such letter-writing campaigns, Amnesty International was founded in Luxembourg in July at a meeting of Benenson and six other men. The response was so overwhelming that within a year groups of letter-writers had formed in more than a dozen countries. Initially appointed general secretary of AI, Benenson stood down in 1964 owing to ill health. By 1966, the Amnesty International faced an internal crisis and Benenson alleged that the organization he founded was being infiltrated by British intelligence. The advisory position of president of the International Executive was then created for him. In 1966, he began to make allegations of improper conduct against other members of the executive. An inquiry was set up which reported at Elsinore in Denmark in 1967. The allegations were rejected and Benenson resigned from AI. While never again active in the organization, Benenson was later personally reconciled with other executives, including Seán MacBride. He died of pneumonia on 25 February 2005 at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, aged 83. * In pop culture Benenson is featured/honored in the song If Everyone Cared, a 2006 single by Canadian rock band Nickelback. * References Reflist: : Source== * Pincock, S.: Peter James Henry Solomon Benenson (obituary). Lancet, April 2, 2005; 365: 1224.

Peter Benenson Amnesty International | Personnalité de la défense des droits de l'homme | Personnalité anglaise | Naissance en 1921 | Décès en 2005 Peter Benenson (Londres, le 31 juillet 1921 - Oxford, le 25 février 2005), était un avocat anglais et le fondateur d'Amnesty International. Biographie: Fils unique d'Harold Solomon et Flora Benenson, Peter Benenson est né à Londres dans une famille juive. Son père, officier dans l'armée, est mort quand Benenson avait neuf ans. À l'âge de seize ans, avec des camarades de classe, il aide à établir des fonds pour venir en aide à des enfants orphelins victimes de la guerre civile espagnole. Il a pris le nom de Benenson comme hommage à son grand-père maternel, Grigori Benenson. Il s'inscrit ensuite à l'université de Balliol, à Oxford, mais la Deuxième Guerre mondiale interrompt ses études. De 1941 à 1945, Benenson travaille au Bletchley Park, un manoir anglais qui fut le quartier général des services de renseignement britanniques durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale; les cryptologues alliés y déchiffraient les messages allemands codés avec Enigma et la machine de Lorenz. Peter Benenson y rencontre sa première épouse, Margaret Anderson. Après sa démobilisation en 1946, Benenson commence à exercer son métier d'avocat avant de rejoindre le parti travailliste. En 1957, avec un groupe d'avocats, il fonde "JUSTICE", une organisation pour la défense des Droits de l'homme. En 1958, il se converti au catholicisme. L'année suivante, il tombe malade et se retire pour convalescence en Italie. Amnesty International: En 1960, Benenson est choqué par un article de journal qui relate l'arrestation de deux étudiants condamnés à sept ans de prison pour avoir porté un toast à la liberté pendant la dictature de Salazar. Révolté, il lance dans le journal l'Observer (dont le rédacteur était David Astor) un appel en faveur "des prisonniers oubliés" dans lequel on a utilisé le premier fois la notion "prisonnier d'opinion". L'avocat reçoit alors des milliers de lettres de soutien. L'appel, repris dans les journaux du monde entier, demandait aux lecteurs d'écrire des lettres pour protester contre l'arrestation des deux jeunes hommes. Pour coordonner cette campagne, Benenson fonde en juillet 1961 l'association Amnesty International avec l'aide, entre autres, de Seán MacBride et d'Eric Baker. Initialement désigné secrétaire général d'A.I., Peter Benenson retire sa candidature en 1964 en raison de sa mauvaise santé. Il s'occupe de l'association jusqu'en 1996, avant de prendre un certain recul. Il meurt en 2005 à l'hôpital de John Radcliffe, Oxford, à l'âge de 83 ans.

فصال التهاب مفاصل | جراحة عظمية -, الفُصال أو الفصال العظمي osteoarthritis: يعتبر من أكثر امراض العظام انتشاراً، وهو عبارة عن تلف غير قابل للتجدد يصيب الانسجة الغصروفية المفصلية التي تعمل على تقليل الاحتكاك الناتج من حركة المفاصل الدائمة وتعمل كوسادة لحماية العظام. وتآكل هذه الطبقة الواقية بسبب المرض يؤدي إلى احتكاك الانسجة العظمية وما يصحبه من التهابات تصيب جوف المفصل. بشكل عام فإن جميع المفاصل في الجسم معرضة لتغيرات وتلف في النسيج الغضروفي. ولكن أكثر المفاصل شيوعاً بالإصابة بهذا المرض مفاصل الركبة والورك كونهما أكثر المفاصل تحملاً لوزن الإنسان. الأسباب : الرياضة بما في ذلك الركض لا تزيد من خطر الإصابة بفصال العظام في غياب الإصابات. بعد المحققين يعتقدون أن الضغط على المفاصل هو وراء فصال العظام مع مصادر عديدة ومتنوعة من الضغط، بما في ذلك اختلالات العظام الناجمة عن أسباب خلقية أو مرضية، الإصابات الميكانيكية، زيادة الوزن، فقدان قوة العضلات في دعم المفاصل وضعف الأعصاب الطرفية مما يؤدي إلى حركات مفاجئة وغير منسقة تزيد الضغط على المفاصل. الأعراض : عادة يعاني المرضى من الألم وخشونة المفاصل. كما قد يشعر المرضى بطقطقة الركبة وأحياناً انقباضات لا ارادية للعضلات. نظرياً المرض قد يصيب أي مفصل بالجسم ولكنه عادة ما يصيب اليدين والقدمين والعمود الفقري كما يصيب الركب والوركيين. وكما قد يؤدي المرض إلى انتفاخ مفاصل اليدين مكونا حويصلات بوشار (Bouchard's nodes) وهيبرديين (Heberden's nodes) الإحصائيات : 80% من الأشخاص فوق سن ال65 لديهم تغيرات مرضية في المفاصل كالتي في الصورة ولكن 60% منهم فقط يعانون من أعراضه والبقية لا يشعرون بشئ. ويقدر أن هناك أكثر من 21 مليون شخص يعاني من المرض في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. غالبية المرضى يعانون من تشوه وخشونه في العمود الفقري، في المرتبة الثانية يصيب هذا المرض الركبه ,الحزام الصدري ومفصل الحوض. التصنيف : * الفصال الأولي:سببه الرئيسي عدم اكتمال نمو النسيج الغضروفي لأسباب غير معروفه، أو عيوب خلقية في المفصل. * الفصال الثانوي:له أسباب عديدة على رأسها زيادة إجهاد المفاصل (بسبب الوزن الزائد مثلاً) أو خلل في عمليات الايض أو بسبب إصابات المفاصل أو التهابات في المفاصل أو لتقدم العمر. نشوء المرض : ان نشوء وتطور المرض يحدث بشكل بطيء وتدريجي. في البداية يؤدي إلى نقص المرونة في غضروف المفاصل مع تغير في تركيب النسيج الوظيفي والالياف الكولاجينية. في صور الاشعة يظهر واضحا نقصا في المادة الغضروفية وهذا يؤدي إلى زيادة الاحتكاك بين حواف وأسطح المفصل مما يؤدي إلى بداية تآكل العظام وتكون نوابت عظمية على أطراف العظام. التشخيص : عادة ما يتم تشخيص المرض عن طريق تاريخ المرض والأشعة السينية. والتغيرات الملاحظة لدى المرض هي: * تكون أكياس تحت غضروفية * تقلص مساحة المفصل * تكون نوابت عظمية و عادة التغيرات الملاحظة في الأشعة السينية لا تتواءم مع الصورة السريرية كون معظم المرضى لا يشعرون بأي آلام بالمفاصل. الاختبارات الأخرى تشمل التصوير بالرنين المغناطيسي وأخذ وتنظير المفصل. العلاج : التغيرات الناتجة في هذا المرض دائمة ويهدف العلاج إلى تقليل الأعراض المصاحبة للمرض. الرياضة وتقليل الوزن هما ركائز العلاج. الأدوية المستخدمة تشمل مثبطات الألم كالباراسيتمول والأيبوبروفين ومثبطات الألتهاب كالستيرويد (الكورتيزون). وهناك العديد من التدخلات الجراحية كإيثاق المفصل حيث يزيد الثبات ويقلل الألم - ولكن المريض سيفقد الحركة في هذا المفصل - واستبدال المفصل بمفصل صناعي. والتدخل الجراحي يعتمد على مكان المفصل المصاب. والأبحاث تتجه الآن إلى اعادة بناء النسيج الغضروفي المدمر بآخر جديد باستخدام الخلايا الجذعية أنظر أيضا : * وكعة مصادر : * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritis ru:

Osteoarthritis Arthritis | Skeletal disorders | Greek loanwords -, Osteoarthritis (OA) also known as degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint disease, is a group of mechanical abnormalities involving degradation of joints, including articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Symptoms may include joint pain, tenderness, stiffness, locking, and sometimes an effusion. A variety of causes—hereditary, developmental, metabolic, and mechanical—may initiate processes leading to loss of cartilage. When bone surfaces become less well protected by cartilage, bone may be exposed and damaged. As a result of decreased movement secondary to pain, regional muscles may atrophy, and ligaments may become more lax. Treatment generally involves a combination of exercise, lifestyle modification, and analgesics. If pain becomes debilitating, joint replacement surgery may be used to improve the quality of life. OA is the most common form of arthritis, and the leading cause of chronic disability in the United States. It affects about 8 million people in the United Kingdom and nearly 27 million people in the United States. Classification : Osteoarthritis can be classified into either primary or secondary depending on whether or not there is an identifiable underlying cause. Signs and symptoms: The main symptom is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. "Pain" is generally described as a sharp ache, or a burning sensation in the associate muscles and tendons. OA can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved or touched, and patients may experience muscle spasm and contractions in the tendons. Occasionally, the joints may also be filled with fluid. Humid and cold weather increases the pain in many patients. OA commonly affects the hands, feet, spine, and the large weight bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although in theory, any joint in the body can be affected. As OA progresses, the affected joints appear larger, are stiff and painful, and usually feel better with gentle use but worse with excessive or prolonged use, thus distinguishing it from rheumatoid arthritis. In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) and/or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. OA at the toes leads to the formation of bunions, rendering them red or swollen. Some people notice these physical changes before they experience any pain. OA is the most common cause of joint effusion, sometimes called water on the knee in lay terms, an accumulation of excess fluid in or around the knee joint. Causes: Some investigators believe that mechanical stress on joints underlies all osteoarthritis, with many and varied sources of mechanical stress, including misalignments of bones caused by congenital or pathogenic causes; mechanical injury; overweight; loss of strength in muscles supporting joints; and impairment of peripheral nerves, leading to sudden or uncoordinated movements that overstress joints. However exercise, including running in the absence of injury, has not been found to increase one's risk of developing osteoarthritis. Nor has cracking ones knuckles been found to play a role. Primary : Primary osteoarthritis is a chronic degenerative disorder related to but not caused by aging, as there are people well into their nineties who have no clinical or functional signs of the disease. As a person ages, the water content of the cartilage decreases as a result of a reduced proteoglycan content, thus causing the cartilage to be less resilient. Without the protective effects of the proteoglycans, the collagen fibers of the cartilage can become susceptible to degradation and thus exacerbate the degeneration. Inflammation of the surrounding joint capsule can also occur, though often mild (compared to what occurs in rheumatoid arthritis). This can happen as breakdown products from the cartilage are released into the synovial space, and the cells lining the joint attempt to remove them. New bone outgrowths, called "spurs" or osteophytes, can form on the margins of the joints, possibly in an attempt to improve the congruence of the articular cartilage surfaces. These bone changes, together with the inflammation, can be both painful and debilitating. A number of studies have shown that there is a greater prevalence of the disease among siblings and especially identical twins, indicating a hereditary basis. Up to 60% of OA cases are thought to result from genetic factors. Both primary generalized nodal OA and erosive OA (EOA. also called inflammatory OA) are sub-sets of primary OA. EOA is a much less common, and more aggressive inflammatory form of OA which often affects the DIPs and has characteristic changes on X-Ray. Secondary : This type of OA is caused by other factors but the resulting pathology is the same as for primary OA: * Congenital disorders of joints * Diabetes. * Inflammatory diseases (such as Perthes' disease), (Lyme disease), and all chronic forms of arthritis (e.g. costochondritis, gout, and rheumatoid arthritis). In gout, uric acid crystals cause the cartilage to degenerate at a faster pace. * Injury to joints, as a result of an accident or orthodontic operations. * Septic arthritis (infection of a joint ) * Ligamentous deterioration or instability may be a factor. * Marfan syndrome * Obesity * Alkaptonuria * Hemochromatosis and Wilson's disease * Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Diagnosis: Diagnosis is made with reasonable certainty based on history and clinical examination. X-rays may confirm the diagnosis. The typical changes seen on X-ray include: joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis (increased bone formation around the joint), subchondral cyst formation, and osteophytes. Plain films may not correlate with the findings on physical examination or with the degree of pain. Usually other imaging techniques are not necessary to clinically diagnose osteoarthritis. In 1990, the , using data from a multi-center study, developed a set of criteria for the based on hard tissue enlargement and swelling of certain joints. These criteria were found to be 92% sensitive and 98% specific for hand osteoarthritis versus other entities such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathies. Related pathologies whose names may be confused with osteoarthritis include pseudo-arthrosis. This is derived from the Greek words pseudo, meaning "false", and arthrosis, meaning "joint." Radiographic diagnosis results in diagnosis of a fracture within a joint, which is not to be confused with osteoarthritis which is a degenerative pathology affecting a high incidence of distal phalangeal joints of female patients. Treatment: Lifestyle modification (such as weight loss and exercise) and analgesics are the mainstay of treatment. Acetaminophen / paracetamol is used first line and NSAIDS are only recommended as add on therapy if pain relief is not sufficient. This is due to the relative greater safety of acetaminophen. Lifestyle modification: ;Exercise For most people with OA, graded exercise should be the mainstay of their self-management. Moderate exercise leads to improved functioning and decreased pain in people with osteoarthritis of the knee. ;Education For overweight people, weight loss may be an important factor. Patient education has been shown to be helpful in the self-management of arthritis. It decreases pain, improving function, reducing stiffness and fatigue, and reducing medical usage. A meta-analysis has shown patient education can provide on average 20% more pain relief when compared to NSAIDs alone in patients with hip OA. * Physical There is sufficient evidence to indicate that physical interventions can reduce pain and improve function. There is some evidence that manual therapy is more effective than exercise for the treatment of hip osteoarthritis, however this evidence could be considered to be inconclusive. Functional, gait, and balance training has been recommended to address impairments of proprioception, balance, and strength in individuals with lower extremity arthritis as these can contribute to higher falls in older individuals. Splinting of the thumb for OA of the base of the thumb leads to improvements after one year. * Medication ;Analgesics Acetaminophen is the first line treatment for OA. For mild to moderate symptoms effectiveness is similar to Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), though for more severe symptoms NSAIDs may be more effective. NSAIDs such as ibuprofen while more effective in severe cases are associated with greater side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding. Another class of NSAIDs, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib) are equally effective to NSAIDs but no safer in terms of side effects. They are however much more expensive. There are several NSAIDs available for topical use including diclofenac. They have fewer systemic side-effects and at least some therapeutic effect. While opioid analgesic such as morphine and fentanyl improve pain this benefit is outweighed by frequent adverse events and thus they should not routinely be used. ;Other Oral steroids are not recommended in the treatment of OA because of their modest benefit and high rate of adverse effects. Injection of glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone) leads to short term pain relief that may last between a few weeks and a few months. Topical capsaicin and joint injections of hyaluronic acid have not been found to lead to significant improvement. Tanezumab, a monoclonal antibody that binds and inhibits nerve growth factor, appears to relieve joint pain enough to improve function in people with osteoarthritis of the knee, according to research published online Sept. 29 in the New England Journal of Medicine. The FDA is reviewing the safety of tanezumab that could still emerge as an effective treatment for the pain of osteoarthritis. While electrostimulation techniques (NEST) have been used for twenty years to treat osteoarthritis in the knee, a Cochrane Review of studies determined that there is no evidence to show that it reduces pain or disability. * Surgery If the above management is ineffective, joint replacement surgery or resurfacing may be required in advanced cases. Arthroscopic surgical intervention for osteoarthritis of the knee however has been found to be no better than placebo at relieving symptoms. * Alternative medicine Many alternative medicines are purporting to decrease pain associated with arthritis. However, there is no evidence supporting benefits for most alternative treatments including: vitamin A, C, and E, ginger, turmeric, omega-3 fatty acids, chondroitin sulfate and glucosamine. These treatments are thus not recommended. Glucosamine was once believed to be effective, but a recent analysis has found that it is no better than placebo. S-Adenosyl methionine may relieve pain similar to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. ;Acupuncture A Cochrane review found that while acupuncture leads to a statistically significant improvement in pain, this improvement is small and may be of questionable clinical significance. Waiting list-controlled trials for peripheral joint osteoarthritis do show clinically relevant benefits, but these may be due to placebo effects. Acupuncture does not seem to produce long-term benefits. ;Glucosamine Controversy surrounds glucosamine. A 2010 meta-analysis has found that it is no better than placebo. Some older reviews conclude that glucosamine sulfate was an effective treatment while some others have found it ineffective. A difference has been found between trials involving glucosamine sulfate and glucosamine hydrochloride, with glucosamine sulfate showing a benefit and glucosamine hydrochloride not. The Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) recommends that glucosamine be discontinued if no effect is observed after six months. ;Mud pack therapy Mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses such as that of those extracted from the Dead Sea, can be used to augment conventional medical therapy in these patients. Epidemiology: Osteoarthritis affects nearly 27 million people in the United States, accounting for 25% of visits to primary care physicians, and half of all NSAID prescriptions. It is estimated that 80% of the population have radiographic evidence of OA by age 65, although only 60% of those will have symptoms. In the United States, hospitalizations for osteoarthritis increased from 322,000 in 1993 to 735,000 in 2006. Etymology: Osteoarthritis is derived from the Greek word "osteo", meaning "of the bone", "arthro", meaning "joint", and "itis", meaning inflammation, although the "itis" of osteo arthritis is somewhat of a misnomer—inflammation is not a conspicuous feature. Fossil record: Paleopathology: Evidence for osteoarthritis found in the fossil record is studied by paleopathologists, specialists in ancient disease and injury. Osteoarthritis has been reported in fossils of the large carnivorous dinosaur Allosaurus fragilis. * Gallery==

Arthrose Maladie en rhumatologie | Arthrose | Terme médical -, Larthrose est une maladie qui touche les articulations, on l'appelle aussi arthropathie chronique dégénérative. Elle est caractérisée par la douleur, mécanique et diurne et la difficulté à effectuer des mouvements articulaires. Au niveau de l'articulation, la surface du cartilage se fissure, s'effrite et finit par disparaître. Ensuite, des excroissances osseuses se forment et nuisent aux mouvements. L'arthrose est une dégénérescence du cartilage des articulations sans infection ni inflammation particulière. Cette dégénérescence conduit à une destruction plus ou moins rapide du cartilage qui enrobe l'extrémité des os. Anatomiquement, cette destruction s'accompagne d'une prolifération osseuse sous le cartilage. C'est la maladie articulaire la plus fréquente. Les premiers symptômes apparaissent généralement à partir de 40-50 ans, mais la maladie commence souvent bien plus tôt dans la vie. On parle de pseudoarthrose pour désigner les phénomènes d'apparition d'une fausse articulation entre les fragments osseux d'une fracture non consolidée, généralement sur les os longs (fémur, tibia, péroné, radius, cubitus, humérus). Elle est traitée par reprise chirurgicale de la fracture. Elle peut être congénitale, et son origine peut aussi être septique (par ex due à Serratia plymuthica ). Mécanismes : Le cartilage articulaire n'est pas un tissu inerte : il est le siège d'une intense activité où la production de chondrocytes (cellules du cartilage) s'oppose, au début du moins, à la destruction de ces mêmes cellules. Lorsque les phénomènes de destruction l'emportent sur la régénérescence cartilagineuse, l'épaisseur du cartilage diminue et l'articulation s'altère définitivement. Cette intense activité de production de nouvelles cellules se manifeste, à la marge de l'articulation, par la production nouvelle d'excroissances osseuses : les ostéophytes ou ostéophytose. Au cours de la destruction cartilagineuse, de petits morceaux de cartilage peuvent se détacher et « flotter » dans la poche articulaire : ils y déclenchent alors des poussées inflammatoires mécaniques qui se traduisent par une hypersécrétion de liquide et par un gonflement de l'articulation. L'arthrose se caractérise par trois lésions anatomiques : * L'atteinte du cartilage articulaire qui se fissure et se creuse d'ulcérations appelées en médecine géodes (trous dans le cartilage) pouvant laisser l'os à nu ; * L'atteinte de l'os lui-même qui se décalcifie par endroits (ostéoporose) et se condense en d'autres, notamment dans la partie près de l'articulation au niveau des zones de pression (ce sont les zones épiphisaires) : c'est l'ostéosclérose sous-chondrale ; * La formation sur les bords de l'articulation de petites excroissances osseuses : les ostéophytes (parfois dénommés becs de perroquet en raison de leur forme radiologique). Ces lésions peuvent s'accompagner d'une synovite, qui correspond à l'inflammation de l'enveloppe de l'articulation. Causes et facteurs de risque : Dans l'arthrose, la destruction du cartilage correspond à une fissuration de la surface vers la profondeur du tissu cartilagineux. Cette fissuration est liée à des phénomènes mécaniques, mais elle est également favorisée par des altérations biochimiques de la structure du cartilage. Schématiquement, on peut considérer que l'arthrose est le résultat : * De contraintes physiques anormales sur un cartilage normal ; on n'en est cependant pas certain * De contraintes physiques normales sur un cartilage anormal ; * De la conjonction des deux situations précédentes. Les principaux facteurs de risques suspectés sont : * Généraux : âge, poids, ménopause, autres rhumatismes (chondrocalcinose, hyperostose de Forestier…) ; * Génétiques : la notion d'arthrose familiale est bien démontrée pour les arthroses du genou, de la hanche et de la main. On parle alors de vices architecturaux congénitaux : par exemple, le genu varum qui touche plus fréquemment les hommes (les jambes prennent la forme de parenthèses) et le genu valgum chez les femmes (c'est la déformation inverse des jambes) ; * Locaux : ** Traumatismes importants ou faibles à répétition (travaux pénibles, sports violents, lésion du ménisque… notamment pour les footballeurs c'est l'arthrose du pied) ; ** Anomalie de position de l'articulation (scoliose, malformation de la hanche, …) ; ** Autres maladies osseuses ou articulaires localisées (séquelles d'arthrite, séquelles de fractures, maladie de Paget…). À l'origine de l'arthrose interviennent de nombreux facteurs souvent encore mal connus. Cependant, le caractère génétique de l'affection semble prédominant. Il existe des familles d'arthrosiques et la maladie atteint plus fréquemment les femmes que les hommes. Par exemple, si certaines professions (travaux de force) sont plus exposées à l'arthrose que d’autres, tous les membres de cette profession ne feront pas d'arthrose (en partie en fonction de leur prédisposition génétique). Le dépistage des anomalies articulaires congénitales, suivi d'une correction dans l'enfance, est d'une importance capitale pour éviter l'apparition d'une arthrose douloureuse à l'âge adulte. L'obésité (ou le simple surpoids) est sans aucun doute un facteur favorisant l'apparition de l'arthrose au niveau des hanches et des genoux. Pourtant, des éléments contradictoires, non encore expliqués, existent : * Les sujets porteurs d'une arthrose des genoux font beaucoup plus souvent que les autres une arthrose des mains référence demandée: ; * L'articulation de la cheville, pourtant elle aussi soumise à rude épreuve, n'est pratiquement jamais altérée chez les patients obèses. référence demandée: Les signes de la maladie : Les signes de la maladie arthrosique varient selon l'articulation concernée. Cependant, dans tous les cas, le motif principal de consultation est la douleur associée à une gêne fonctionnelle. La douleur est, en principe, dite de type « mécanique » car elle présente les caractéristiques suivantes : * Elle est déclenchée et aggravée par le mouvement ; * Elle cesse ou s'atténue plus ou moins complètement lorsque l'articulation est au repos ; * Elle est moins importante le matin, puis elle augmente dans la journée et elle est maximale le soir ; * Elle gêne traditionnellement l'endormissement, mais peut également entraîner des réveils nocturnes (environ 50 % des patients arthrosiques sont réveillés la nuit par leur douleur) ; * Elle réapparaît chaque fois que l'articulation concernée est soumise à un effort : la marche pour l'arthrose de hanche, monter un escalier pour le genou, lever le bras pour l'épaule… La gêne fonctionnelle correspond à une limitation de la mobilité de l'articulation touchée par l'arthrose. Elle est variable selon l'activité du patient. Ainsi, un joueur de golf sera beaucoup plus gêné par une arthrose du genou qu'un sujet ne pratiquant pas de sport. De même qu'un pianiste sera très handicapé par une arthrose des doigts, même légère. Les articulations arthrosiques ne sont, en principe, ni rouges, ni chaudes. Elles peuvent être gonflées lorsque s'installe un épanchement liquidien (épanchement de synovie), ce qui est particulièrement fréquent au niveau des genoux. A la longue, les excroissances osseuses ostéophytes provoquent des déformations des articulations, surtout visibles au niveau des mains et des genoux. L'état général du patient est toujours bon. Il n'y a ni fièvre ni amaigrissement. Les lésions arthrosiques sont irréversibles et aboutissent, outre les déformations, à un raidissement articulaire pouvant évoluer vers une impotence partielle. La consultation : L'interrogatoire : C'est le temps principal de l'examen du malade. Lui seul est capable de définir les caractéristiques de la douleur ressentie et son « classement » en tant que douleur arthrosique mécanique ou non. L'examen physique : Il consiste en l'examen des articulations douloureuses. Il recherche : * L'existence d'une douleur provoquée à la palpation ; * Les déformations articulaires ; * L'amplitude des mouvements restant possibles ; * La présence d'un épanchement liquidien (genoux). Les questionnaires d'auto-évaluation : Deux types de questionnaires types sont parfois utilisés pour apprécier l'importance de la douleur et du handicap : * Les EVA : l'utilisation d'une échelle visuelle analogique (EVA) permet au patient lui-même de chiffrer l'importance de sa douleur et de son handicap. Renouvelée tous les trois ou six mois, l'analyse de ces EVA permet de chiffrer l'amélioration obtenue par le traitement ou, au contraire, de constater l'aggravation de la symptomatologie ; * Les indices fonctionnels : il s'agit de questionnaires spécifiques pour le genou et la hanche (indice de Lequesne) et pour la main (indice de Dreisser). En ce qui concerne l'indice de Lequesne, il peut faciliter la prise de décision chirurgicale, mais évaluer également l'efficacité ou l'échec du traitement proposé. Examens et analyses complémentaires : Les prises de sang : L'arthrose ne perturbe pas les résultats biologiques. Vitesse de sédimentation, protéines de l'inflammation (CRP) sont normales. À la différence des arthrites, il n'y a pas de syndrome inflammatoire. Il n'existe aucun marqueur biologique de l'arthrose. Son diagnostic ne peut être que clinique et radiologique. La radiologie : La radiographie standard, sans préparation, est suffisante au diagnostic de la maladie arthrosique. Quatre signes radiologiques sont caractéristiques : * Le pincement de l'articulation par destruction du cartilage (diminution de l'épaisseur du cartilage) ; * Une condensation osseuse sous le cartilage ; * La présence d'excroissances osseuses ou ostéophytes ; * La présence de géodes (trous à l'emporte-pièce) dans l'os autour de l'articulation. Il n'y a pas de parallélisme entre l'importance des signes radiographiques et les symptômes ressentis : une arthrose importante sur la radiographie peut rester asymptomatique. Inversement, une arthrose très douloureuse peut ne présenter que de modestes altérations radiologiques. La ponction articulaire : Ponction articulaire: Elle n'est pratiquée que s’il existe un épanchement liquidien important, notamment au genou. La formule du liquide recueilli est de type « mécanique » (protéines

عدد مخمسي أعداد شكلية العدد المخمسي هو عدد شكلي يمثل شكل مخمس. يعطى العدد المخمس للعدد n بالعلاقة: * p_n \frac{n(3n-1)}2 * الأعداد الأولى من سلسلة الأعداد المخمسة هي: 1 - 5 - 12 - 22 - 35 - 51 - 70 - 92 - 117 - 145 - 176 - 210 - 247 - 287 - 330 - ... يجب عدم الخلط بين العدد المخمسي، والعدد الممركز المخمس. * اختبار عدد مخمس من لممكن التأكد من أن عدد x هو عدد مخمس وذلك بالعلاقة التالية: * n : \frac{\sqrt{24x+1} + 1}{6} حيث يجب أن يكون n عدد طبيعي، حتى يكون x عدداً مخمساً. بذرة رياضيات: بوابة رياضيات:

Pentagonal number Figurate numbers A pentagonal number is a figurate number that extends the concept of triangular and square numbers to the pentagon, but, unlike the first two, the patterns involved in the construction of pentagonal numbers are not rotationally symmetrical. The nth pentagonal number pn is the number of distinct dots in a pattern of dots consisting of the outlines of regular pentagons whose sides contain 1 to n dots, overlaid so that they share one vertex. For instance, the third one is formed from outlines comprising 1, 5 and 10 dots, but the 1, and 3 of the 5, coincide with 3 of the 10 – leaving 12 distinct dots, 10 in the form of a pentagon, and 2 inside. pn is given by the formula: * p_n \tfrac{3n^2-n}{2} for n ≥ 1. The first few pentagonal numbers are: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 92, 117, 145, 176, 210, 247, 287, 330, 376, 425, 477, 532, 590, 651, 715, 782, 852, 925, 1001 id: A000326: . The nth pentagonal number is one third of the 3n-1th triangular number. Generalized pentagonal numbers are obtained from the formula given above, but with n taking values in the sequence 0, 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, 4..., producing the sequence: 0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 15, 22, 26, 35, 40, 51, 57, 70, 77, 92, 100, 117, 126, 145, 155, 176, 187, 210, 222, 247, 260, 287, 301, 330, 345, 376, 392, 425, 442, 477, 495, 532, 551, 590, 610, 651, 672, 715, 737, 782, 805, 852, 876, 925, 950, 1001, 1027, 1080, 1107, 1162, 1190, 1247, 1276, 1335... idA001318: . Generalized pentagonal numbers are important to Euler's theory of partitions, as expressed in his pentagonal number theorem. The number of dots inside the outermost pentagon of a pattern forming a pentagonal number is itself a generalized pentagonal number. Pentagonal numbers should not be confused with centered pentagonal numbers. * Generalized pentagonal numbers and centered hexagonal numbers Generalized pentagonal numbers are closely related to centered hexagonal numbers. When the array corresponding to a centered hexagonal number is divided between its middle row and an adjacent row, it appears as the sum of two generalized pentagonal numbers, with the larger piece being a pentagonal number proper: In general: * 3n(n-1)+1 : \tfrac{1}{2}n(3n-1)+\tfrac{1}{2}(1-n)(3(1-n)-1) where both terms on the right are generalized pentagonal numbers and the first term is a pentagonal number proper (n ≥ 1). This division of centered hexagonal arrays gives generalized pentagonal numbers as trapezoidal arrays, which may be interpreted as Ferrers diagrams for their partition. In this way they can be used to prove the pentagonal number theorem referenced above. Tests for pentagonal numbers: One can test whether a positive integer x is a (non-generalized) pentagonal number by computing * n \frac{\sqrt{24x+1} + 1}{6}. If n is a natural number, then x is the nth pentagonal number. If n is not a natural number, then x is not pentagonal. * References== *

Nombre pentagonal Nombre figuré Un nombre pentagonal est un nombre figuré qui peut être représenté par un pentagone. Un nombre pentagonal de rang n est défini par * n(3n-1)\over 2 n étant un entier naturel non nul. Exemples: Les premiers nombres pentagonaux sont 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 92, 117, 145, 176, 210, 247, 287, 330, 376, 425, 477, 532, 590, 651, 715, 782, 852, 925, 1001 Les nombres pentagonaux sont importants dans la théorie des partages d'entiers d'Euler, et ils interviennent par exemple dans son théorème du nombre pentagonal. Généralisation: Les nombres pentagonaux « généralisés » sont obtenus à partir de la formule donnée ci-dessus, mais avec n prenant les valeurs 0, 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, 4..., produisant la suite 0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 15, 22, 26, 35, 40, 51, 57, 70, 77, 92, 100, 117, 126, 145, 155, 176, 187, 210, 222, 247, 260, 287, 301, 330, 345, 376, 392, 425, 442, 477, 495, 532, 551, 590, 610, 651, 672, 715, 737, 782, 805, 852, 876, 925, 950, 1001, 1027 Remarques: Le nombre pentagonal de rang n est égal à un tiers du nombre triangulaire de rang 3n - 1. Les nombres pentagonaux ne devraient pas être confondus avec les nombres pentagonaux centrés. Test des nombres pentagonaux: Pour savoir si un nombre entier x est un nombre pentagonal (non généralisé) on calcule le réel suivant: n= \frac{\sqrt{24x+1}+1}6 Si n est entier alors x est le nème nombre pentagonal. Si n n'est pas entier alors x n'est pas un nombre pentagonal.

ساموسير إندونيسيا | بلدان جزرية | دول جنوب شرق آسيا | جغرافيا إندونيسيا | جزر آسيا | جزر أوقيانوسيا | جزر إندونيسيا جزيرة ساموسير هي جزيرة بركانية كبيرة في بحيرة توبا، وتقع في الجزء الشمالي من جزيرة سومطرة في إندونيسيا. تشكلت البحيرة والجزيرة بعد ثوران بركان عظيم قبل 75000 سنة. الجزيرة متصلة بالكالديرا المحيطة بها برزخ صغير ، والذي أزيل للمساعدة على الملاحية. تبلغ مساحة الجزيرة 630 كيلومتر مربع ، وتعد أكبر جزيرة تقع داخل جزيرة ، وخامس أكبر جزيرة تقع داخل بحيرة في العالم. وتحتوي أيضا على بحيرتين صغيرتين هما بحيرة سيديهوني وبحيرة أيك ناتونانغ. عبر البحيرة على الجانب الشرقي من الجزيرة تقع شبه جزيرة أولوان. وتتصل الجزيرة بسومطرة عبر ممر ضيق يربط بلدة بانغوروران في ساموسير بتيلي في سومطرة. من تيلي يمكن الحصول على أفضل المشاهد لبحيرة توبا وجزيرة ساموسير. السياحة: جزيرة ساموسير تعتبر مقصداً سياحياً شهيراً نظرًا لتاريخها والآفاق الغريبة التي تحتويها. تتركز المنتجعات السياحية في المنطقة توكتوك. الجزيرة هي مركز للثقافة الباتاكية والعديد من آثار هذا الشعب لا تزال في الجزيرة. وتتركز معظم أماكن سياحية في بلدة توكتوك الصغيرة، التي تبعد بواسطة العبارة مدة ساعة من بلدة بارابات. مجموعة صور:

Samosir Batak | Lake islands of Asia | Islands of Sumatra | Lake Toba For the Regency named Samosir, see Samosir Regency. Samosir, or Samosir Island, is a large volcanic island in Lake Toba, located in the north of the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. Administratively, Samosir Island is governed as six of the nine districts within Samosir Regency. The lake and island were formed after the eruption of a super volcano some 75,000 years ago. The island was originally connected to the surrounding caldera wall by a small isthmus, which was cut through to aid navigation. At 630 km², Samosir is the largest island within an island, and the fifth largest lake island in the world. It also contains two smaller lakes, Lake Sidihoni and Lake Aek Natonang. Across the lake on the east from the island lies Uluan Peninsula. The island is linked to the mainland of Sumatra on its western part by a narrow land connecting the town of Pangururan on Samosir and Tele on mainland Sumatra. Tele consequently offers one of the best views of Lake Toba and Samosir Island. Tourism: Samosir is a popular tourist destination due to its exotic history and the vistas it offers. The tourist resorts are concentrated in the Tuktuk area. The island is the centre of the Batak culture and many of this people's artifacts remain on the island. Most of the tourist accommodations are concentrated in the small town of Tuktuk, which is located a one-hour ferry ride across the lake from the town of Parapat. Gallery: References: reflist: Samosir Island: NSumatra-geo-stub:

Samosir Île d'Indonésie | Île lacustre | Île volcanique | Sumatra du Nord | Lac Toba île: Samosir est une grande île dans le lac Toba situé au nord de l'île de Sumatra, en Indonésie. Le lac et l'île ont été formés après l'éruption d'un volcan il y a ans. L'île était au départ reliée au bord du cratère par un isthme, qui a été supprimé pour aider la navigation. Avec de superficie, Samosir est la plus grande île dans une île, et la cinquième plus grande île dans un lac du monde. Samosir est une destination touristique populaire, car elle offre de magnifiques paysages. Les hébergements touristiques sont concentrés dans la zone de Tuktuk. L'île est au centre de la culture Batak et de nombreuses coutumes sont encore actives sur l'île. Administrativement, l'île de Samosir constitue un kabupaten de la province de Sumatra du Nord, distinct de celui de Toba Samosir. Notes et références : Références:

أبو الفضل جعفر المتوكل على الله خلفاء عباسيون | مواليد 205 هـ | وفيات 247 هـ تاريخأبريل_2010: دولة عباسية: أبو الفضل جعفر المتوكل على الله بن المعتصم بن هارون الرشيد بن المهدي (205-). أمه أم ولد تركية اسمها "شجاع". يُعَدُّ عهد الخليفة المتوكل هو بداية عصر ضعف الدولة العباسية وانحلالها، والذي انتهى بسقوطها على أيدي التتار سنة (/ م). * صفته كان المتوكل مربوعا أسمر خفيف شعر العارضين. كان متمذهباً بمذهب الشافعي وهو أول من تمذهب له من الخلفاء. وكان منهمكاً في الفقهه والسنة والعلم هو الذي أخرج أحمد بن حنبل من محنته. لقد بويع له بعد الواثق، وبدأ عهده بداية موفقة، فقد أمر بإظهار السنة، والقضاء على مظاهر الفتنة التي نشأت عن القول بخلق القرآن. وكتب إلى كل أقاليم الدولة بهذا المعنى، ولم يكتف بهذا، بل استقدم المحدِّثين والعلماء إلى مدينة "سامرَّا" وطلب منهم أن يحدثوا بحديث أهل السنة لمحو كل أثر للقول بخَلْق القرآن، وراح العلماء يتصدون لإحقاق الحق، وإبطال الباطل، وأظهر المتوكل إكرام الإمام أحمد بن حنبل الذي قاوم البدع، وتمسك بالسنن، وضرب وأوذى وسجن. استدعاه المتوكل إليه من "بغداد" إلى "سامراء" وأمر له بجائزة سَنية، لكنه اعتذر عن عدم قبولها، فخلع عليه خِلْعَةً عظيمة من ملابسه، فاستحيا منه الإمام أحمد كثيرًا فلبسها إرضاء له، ثم نزعها بعد ذلك. ويذكر للمتوكل تعيينه ليحيى بن أكثم لمنصب قاضى القضاة، وكان يحيى بن أكثم من كبار العلماء، وأئمة السنة، ومن المعظمين للفقه والحديث. هذا ولم يَخْلُ عهده من فتن وثورات قضى عليها وأعاد الأمن والطمأنينة للبلاد. * خلافته هو الخليفة العباسي العاشر. بنى مدينة المتوكلية, وبنى وطور مدينة الدور، وشيد المسجد الجامع ومئذنته الشهيرة الملوية في سامراء التي هي أحد معالم المدينة، وجدد مقياس النيل. بويع له لست بقين من ذي الحجة سنة ، وازداد نفوذ الأتراك في حكمه أظهر الميل إلى السنة ونصر أهلها وأنهى فتنة محنة خلق القرآن، وأخرج أحمد بن حنبل من الحبس وخلع عليه. واستقدم المحدثين إلى سامراء وأجزل عطاياهم وأكرمهم وكان كريما ومحبا للسنة. ورغم ما قيل عن حبه للسنة فقد قتل العديد من اعلام المسلمين ليبقي على حكمه * مواجهته مع الروم وفى سنة قام الروم بغزو بحرى مفاجئ من جهة دمياط، وهم الذين أدبهم المعتصم وأخرسهم في واقعة عمورية، لكنهم بعثوا بثلاثمائة مركب وخمسة آلاف جندي إلى دمياط، وقتلوا من أهلها خلقًا كثيرًا، وحرقوا المسجد الجامع والمنبر، وأسروا نحو ستمائة امرأة مسلمة، وأخذوا كثيرًا من المال والسلاح والعتاد، وفر الناس أمامهم، وتمكن الجنود الرومان من العودة إلى بلادهم منتصرين. ولم تمضِ ثلاث سنوات على هذا الغزو حتى عاود الروم عدوانهم على البلاد؛ فأغاروا على ثغر من الثغور يسمى "عين زربة" (بلد بالثغور قرب المصيصة بتركيا حصَّنها الرشيد)، وأسروا بعض النساء والأطفال، واستولوا على بعض المتاع. استمرت المناوشات ومعارك الحدود بين الروم والمسلمين منذ سنة 238هـ -853م وحتى سنة 246هـ-860م بقيادة على بن يحيى الأرمنى. كان الروم قد أجهزوا على كثير من أسرى المسلمين الذين رفضوا التحول إلى النصرانية؛ لأن أم ملك الروم كانت تعرض النصرانية على الأسارى فإن رفضوا تقتلهم، وتم تبادل الأسرى بمن بقى حيّا من المسلمين في السنتين الأخيرتين. غارات الأحباش: وعلى حدود مصر وبالقرب من بلاد النوبة، كان المصريون يعكفون على استخراج الذهب والجواهر الكريمة، وإذا بطائفة من الأحباش على مقربة من "عيذاب" على البحر الأحمر يعرفون باسم "البجة" يهجمون على تلك المناجم، ويقتلون عددًا كبيرًا من عمالها المسلمين، ويأسرون بعض نسائهم وأطفالهم مما جعل العمل في هذه المناجم يتوقف أمام هذه الهجمات. يحاط المتوكل علمًا بما حدث، ويستشير معاونيه، ولكن معاونيه أخبروه بما يعترض إرسال الجيش من عقبات تتمثل في أن أهل "البجة" يسكنون الصحارى، ومن الصعب وصول جيش المتوكل إليهم، فلم يرسل إليهم في بادئ الأمر، وتمادى البجة في عدوانهم وتجرءوا، فأخذوا يُغيرون على أطراف الصعيد، حتى خاف أهله على أنفسهم وذرياتهم، واستغاث أهل الصعيد بالمتوكل، فجهز جيشًا بقيادة محمد بن عبد الله القمى من عشرين ألف رجل، على أن يعينه القائمون بالأمر في مصر بما يحتاج إليه الجيش من طعام وشراب ومؤن. التقى الجيش مع هؤلاء المتمردين المعتدين، حتى فرقهم وقضى على جموعهم سنة 241هـ/ 856م. * إصلاح الداخل حاول المتوكل إصلاح ما فسد، فراح يعزل الكثير من عمال الولايات، ويصادر أملاكهم بعد أن عَمَّت الشكوى، وتفشى الفساد، مثلما عزل يحيى بن أكثم عن القضاء، وولى جعفر بن عبد الواحد مكانه، وكذلك عزل عامله على المعونة أبا المغيث الرافعى وعين مكانه محمد بن عبدويه. ريح شديدة: ولكنه لم يكد يُحكم سيطرته على العمال والولاة حتى هبت ريح سَمُوم، أكلت الأخضر واليابس، وأهلكت الزرع والضرع في الكوفة والبصرة وبغداد، واستمرت خمسين يومًا أوقفت فيها حركة الحياة، وقتلت خلقًا كثيرًا. * زلزال مدمر يشاء الله أن يأتى زلزال فيؤدى إلى قتل عدد كبير من الناس، لقد بدأت الزلازل في السنة التي تولى فيها المتوكل أمر المسلمين حيث تعرضت دمشق لزلزلة هائلة تهدمت بسببها الدور والمنازل، وهلك تحتها خلق كثير. وامتدت الزلزلة إلى أنطاكية فهدمتها، وإلى الجزيرة العراقية فقضت عليها، وإلى الموصل فأدت إلى وفاة خمسين ألفًا. وفى سنة 242هـ/ 857م، زُلْزِلَت الأرض زَلْزلَةً عظيمة "بتونس" وضواحيها، و"الرَّى" و"خراسان"، و"نيسابور"، و"طبرستان"، و"أصبهان"، وتقطعت الجبال، وتشققت الأرض، ومات من الناس خلق كثيرون. أما في سنة 245هـ، فقد كثرت الزلازل، وشملت أماكن عديدة حتى قيل: إنها عمت الدنيا. وكان لابد أن تصاب الحياة بالشلل، ويعم الخراب والدمار والبؤس. * المتوكل وإحياء السنة كان "المتوكل" يميل إلى أهل السنة ويعادي من يخالفهم ، ويُروى أنه ضرب رجلاً بالسياط؛ لأنه سبَّ "أبا بكر" و"عمر" و"عائشة" و"حفصة". كما عمل على إحياء السنة وإظهارها، ودعا إلى نشرها، واهتم بعلمائها، وهو الذي أطلق الإمام "أحمد بن حنبل" من محبسه، وقضى على المعتزلة، ولقي ذلك تقدير الناس؛ فلقي حبهم، وزادت منزلته في قلوبهم، كما عظَّمه بذلك العلماء، بل وبالغوا في الثناء حتى جعلوه في منزلة "أبي بكر الصديق" و"عمر بن عبد العزيز" فقالوا: "الخلفاء ثلاثة: أبو بكر الصديق يوم الردة، وعمر بن عبد العزيز في ردة المظالم، والمتوكل في إحياء السنة". ورع المتوكل: هذا هو المتوكل، وهذا هو عصره، يقول أحد المقربين إليه: قال المتوكل: إذا خرج توقيعى إليك بما فيه مصلحة للناس، ورفق بالرعية، فأنفذْه nkjkjhتولية الوزراء وعزلهم، وتولية العهد أكثر من واحد مما أدى إلى قيام المنافسة بين أمراء البيت الواحد. * المتوكل ومحاربة البدع المؤديه لشرك بالله فقد أمر المتوكل بهدم قبر الحسين بن علي بن أبي طالب رضي الله عنهما وما حوله من المنازل والدور، ونودي في الناس من وجدها بعد ثلاثة أيام ذهبت به إلى المطبق، فلم يبق هناك بشر، واتخذ ذلك الموضع مزرعة تحرث وتستغل. * من أخباره كان المتوكل محببا إلى رعيته، قائما في نصرة أهل السنة، وقد شبهه بعضهم بالصديق في قتله أهل الردة، لأنه نصر الحق ورده عليهم حتى رجعوا إلى الدين، وبعمر بن عبد العزيز حين رد مظالم بني أمية، وقد أظهر السنة بعد البدعة، وأخمد أهل البدع وبدعتهم بعد انتشارها واشتهارها، رحمه الله. وقد رآه بعضهم في المنام بعد موته وهو جالس في نور قال: فقلت: المتوكل؟ قال: المتوكل. قلت: فما فعل بك ربك ؟ قال: غفر لي. قلت: بماذا؟ قال: بقليل من السنة أحييتها. وروى الخطيب، عن صالح بن أحمد: أنه رأى في منامه ليلة مات المتوكل كأن رجلا يصعد به إلى السماء، وقائلا يقول: ملك يقاد إلى مليك عادل * متفضل في العفو ليس بجائر وروى عن عمرو بن شيبان الحلبي قال: رأيت ليلة المتوكل قائلا يقول: يا نائم العين في أوطان جثمان * أفض دموعك يا عمرو بن شيبان أما ترى الفئة الأرجاس ما فعلوا * بالهاشمي وبالفتح بن خاقان وافى إلى الله مظلوما فضجَّ له * أهل السماوات من مثنى ووحدان وسوف يأتيكم من بعده فتن * توقعوها لها شأن من الشان فابكوا على جعفر وابكوا خليفتكم * فقد بكاه جميع الأنس والجان قال: فلما أصبحت أخبرت الناس برؤياي، فجاء نعي المتوكل أنه قد قتل في تلك الليلة، قال: ثم رأيته بعد هذا بشهر وهو واقف بين يدي الله عز وجل فقلت: ما فعل بك ربك؟ فقال: غفر لي. قلت: بماذا؟ قال: بقليل من السنة أحييتها. قلت: فما تصنع ها هنا؟ قال: أنتظر ابني محمدا، أخاصمه إلى الله الحليم العظيم الكريم. * مصادر * تاريخ الخلفاء للسيوطي بداية صندوق: نهاية صندوق:

Al-Mutawakkil Abbasid caliphs | 821 births | 861 deaths | 9th-century caliphs Al-Mutawakkil ʻAlā Allāh Jaʻfar ibn al-Muʻtasim (Arabic المتوكل على الله جعفر بن المعتصم) (March 821 – December 861) was an Abbasid caliph who reigned in Samarra from 847 until 861. He succeeded his brother al-Wāthiq and is known for putting an end to the Mihna "ordeal", the Inquisition-like attempt by his predecessors to impose a single Mu'tazili version of Islam. Life: While al-Wathiq was caliph, the vizier, ibn Abd al-Malik, had poorly treated al-Mutawakkil. On September 22, 847, al-Mutawakkil had him arrested. The former vizier's property was plundered and he was tortured in his own iron maiden. He finally died on November 2. The caliph had others who had mistreated him in the previous reign punished. In A.H. 235 (849) al-Mutawakkil had the prominent military commander Itakh al-Khazari seized in Baghdad. Itakh was imprisoned and died of thirst on December 21. One Mahmud ibn al-Faraj al-Naysaburi arose claiming to be a prophet. He and some followers were arrested in Baghdad. He was imprisoned, beaten and on June 18, 850 he died. In A.H. 237 (851-852) Armenians rebelled and defeated and killed the Abbasid governor. Al-Mutawakkil sent his general Bugha al-Kabir to handle this. Bugha scored successes this year and the following year he attacked and burned Tiflis, capturing Ishaq ibn Isma'il. The rebel leader was executed. That year (A.H. 238) the Byzantines attacked Damietta. In A.H. 240 (854-855) the police chief in Homs killed a prominent person stirring an uprising. He was driven out. Al-Mutawakkil offered another police chief. When the next year saw a revolt against this new police chief, al-Mutawakkil had this firmly suppressed. As Christians had joined in the second round of disturbances, the caliph had Christians expelled from Homs. Also in 241 occurred the firm response to the revolt by the Bujah, people of African descent just beyond Upper Egypt. They had been paying a tax on their gold mines. They ceased paying this, drove out Muslims working in the mines and terrified people in Upper Egypt. Al-Mutawakkil sent al-Qummi to restore order. Al-Qummi sent seven ships with supplies that enabled him to persevere despite the very harsh terrain of this distant territory. He retook the mines, pressed on to the Bujah royal stronghold and defeated the king in battle. The Bujah resumed payment of the tax. On February 23, 856, there was an exchange of captives with the Byzantines. A second such exchange took place some four years later. al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for its many reforms and viewed as a golden age of the Abbasids. He would be the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty would fall into a decline. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably the Byzantines, from who Sicily was captured. His vezir, Al-fath bin Khaqan, who was Turkish, was a famous figure of Al-Mutawakkil's era. His reliance on Turkish soldiers would come back to haunt him. Al-Mutawakkil would have his Turkish commander-in-chief killed. This, coupled with his extreme attitudes towards the Shia, made his popularity decline rapidly. Al-Mutawakkil was murdered by a Turkish soldier on December 11, 861 CE. Some have speculated that his murder was part of a plot hatched by his son, al-Muntasir, who had grown estranged from his father. Al-Muntasir feared his father was about to move against him and struck first. Al-Mutawakkil is said to have been slender, with a light tan complexion, a sparse beard and attractive eyes. Accomplishments: Al-Mutawakkil was unlike his brother and father in that he was not known for having a thirst for knowledge, but he had an eye for magnificence and a hunger to build. The Great Mosque of Samarra was at its time, the largest mosque in the world; its minaret is a vast spiralling cone 55 m high with a spiral ramp. The mosque had 17 aisles and its wall were panelled with mosaics of dark blue glass. The Great Mosque was just part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of the walled royal hunting park. Al-Mutawakkil built as many as 20 palaces (the numbers vary in documents). Samarra became one of the largest cities of the ancient world; even the archaeological site of its ruins is one of the world's most extensive. The Caliph's building schemes extended in A.H. 245 (859-860) to a new city, al-Jaʻfariyya, which al-Mutawakkil built on the Tigris some eighteen kilometres from Samarra. More water, and al-Mutawakkil ordered a canal to be built to divert water from the Tigris, entrusting the project to two courtiers, who ignored the talents of a local engineer of repute and entrusted the work to al-Farghanī, the great astronomer and writer. Al-Farghanī, who was not a specialist in public works, made a miscalculation and it appeared that the opening of the canal was too deep so that water from the river would only flow at near full flood. News leaked to the infuriated caliph might have meant the heads of all concerned save for the gracious actions of the engineer, Sind ibn ʻAlī, who vouched for the eventual success of the project, thus risking his own life. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated shortly before the error became public. Al-Mutawakkil was keen to involve himself in many religious debates, something that would show in his actions against different minorities. His father had tolerated the Shīʻa Imām who taught and preached at Medina, and for the first years of his reign al-Mutawakkil continued the policy. Imām ʻAlī al-Hadī's growing reputation inspired a letter from the Governor of Medina, ʻAbdu l-Lāh ibn Muħammad, suggesting that a coup was being plotted, and al-Mutawakkil extended an invitation to Samarra to the Imām, an offer he could not refuse. In Samarra, the Imām was kept under virtuial house arrest and spied upon. However, no excuse to take action against him ever appeared. After al-Mutawakkil's death, his successor had the Imām poisoned: al-Hadī is buried at Samarra. The general Shīʻa population faced repression. and this was embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that was carried out obstensibly in order to stop pilgrimages to that site, and the flogging and incarceration of the Alid Yahya ibn Umar. Also during his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met the famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to tighten the diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate in a state mission by the Emperor Michael III. Of his sons, al-Muntasir succeeded him and ruled until his death in 862, al-Mu'tazz ruled from 866 to his overthrow in 869, al-Mu'eiyyad was murdered by Mu'tazz in 866, al-Mu'tamid reigned as Caliph in 870–892, and al-Muwaffaq was effective regent of the realm until his death in 891. References: Bibliography : * Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kraemer, SUNY, Albany, 1989

Jafar al-Mutawakkil Naissance en 821 | Décès en 861 | Calife abbasside al-Mutawakkil: Ja`far al-Mutawakkil ben al-Mu`atasim bi-llâh ben Hârûn ar-Rachîd arabe : jaʿfar al-mutawakkil ben al-muʿataṣim bi-llāh ben hārūn ar-rašīd, ou Ja`far al-Mutawakkil surnommé Al-Mutawakkil est né en 821 d'une esclave nommée Chajâ`a ,: . Dixième calife abbasside, il succéda à son frère Al-Wathiq en 847. Il est assassiné le 11 décembre 861 par un soldat turc aux ordres de son fils, al-Muntasir, à Al-Ja`fariyya où il est enterré. Il rejeta le mutazilisme et revint à la tradition sunnite du Coran incréé. Le tribunal inquisitorial créé par Al-Ma'mûn est chargé du contrôle de l'orthodoxie religieuse : la mihna est dissout. Il met ainsi fin à la période appelée période de l'Épreuve, de l'Ordalie ou de l'Inquisition. * Biographie * Le bâtisseur À l'inverse de son père et de son frère, Al-Mutawakkil n'est pas connu pour son intérêt pour les sciences et les arts, mais pour son désir de magnificence et son goût de bâtisseur. On lui doit la construction de la grande mosquée de Samarra qui fut en son temps la plus grande du monde. Son minaret conique en spirale de 55m de haut est unique en son genre et ses murs étaient décorés de panneaux de mosaïques bleues. Cette mosquée ne représente qu'une partie des agrandissements de Samarra dans un ancien parc de chasse hérité des Sassanides. On dit qu'Al-Mutawakkil y a fait construire environ 20 palais faisant de l'emplacement actuel de Samarra un des plus vastes sites archéologiques . Parmi les projets de construction d'Al-Mutawakkil, il y a la ville d'Al-Ja`fariyya construite sur les rives du Tigre. Un canal devait y amener l'eau du fleuve, le travail a été confié à deux courtisans ignorants les calculs d'un ingénieur local de bonne réputation. Ils ont préféré ceux de l'astronome et écrivain Al-Farghanī qui n'était pas un spécialiste du génie civil et qui commit des erreurs. L'eau ne pouvait couler dans ce canal que lorsque le fleuve était proche de déborder. Si ces nouvelles avaient été révélées au calife, cela aurait signifié la décapitation pour toutes les personnes concernées. L'intervention de l'ingénieur Sind ben `Alî a permis le succès de l'opération bien que ce soit au risque de sa vie. Al-Mutawakkil est mort avant d'être mis au courant de cette affaire . * La politique religieuse Al-Mutawakkil avait tendance à se mêler de controverses religieuses ce qui s'est traduit par son attitude à l'égard de certaines minorités. Son père s'était montré tolérant à l'égard des imams chiites qui prêchaient à Médine, Al-Mutawakkil a poursuivi cette politique pendant les premières années de son règne. La réputation d'`Alî al-Hadî allait grandissante aussi le gouverneur de Médine, `Abd Allah ben Muħammad, se sentit obligé d'en avertir le calife suggérant qu'un coup d'Etat était en train de se préparer. Al-Mutawakkil invita l'imam à venir à Samarra, une invitation telle qu'on ne peut la refuser. À Samarra l'imam a été mis en résidence surveillée et espionné. Al-Mutawakkil n'a fait aucun autre acte de répression contre l'imam. C'est son successeur qui peu après sa mort a fait empoisonner l'imam et a mené une politique répressive contre les chiites . Les actions contres les chiites ne se sont pas limitées à la résidence surveillée d'`Alî al-Hadî. Al-Mutawakkil a fait raser les tombeaux d'Hasan et d'Husayn, puis labourer le sol et y semer du blé. Il menaçait d'emprisonnement les pèlerins qui voulaient visiter les mausolées de Karbala. D'un autre côté il affichait un grand respect pour les premiers califes, y compris les omeyyades, ce qui lui valait le soutien des Syriens . Al-Mutawakkil avait une dévotion personnelle pour l'étude de la sunna. Il s'en est suivi qu'au cours de son règne le mutazilisme installé par Al-Ma'mûn a été renversé. La question du caractère divin et incréé ou non, du Coran a été résolue en adoptant la position traditionnelle sunnite. Le décret de 850 : Al-Mutawakkil a rencontré le théologien byzantin Cyrille, qui avait été envoyé par l'empereur Michel III pour renforcer les relations diplomatiques entre l'Empire et le Califat. Sur ce sujet aussi Al-Mutawakkil a pris le contre pied de ses prédécesseurs. Il a appliqué une politique de discrimination à l'égard des minorités religieuses. En 850 il promulgue un décret imposant aux dhimmis le port d'insignes divers et d'un costume couleur miel, allant jusqu'à exiger que les esclaves de ces dhimmis soient immédiatement identifiables dans les places de marché. Ces décrets prévoyaient aussi la destruction de toutes les églises et les synagogues construites depuis l'avènement de l'islam. Il a fait confisquer une maison habitée par des chrétiens ou des juifs sur dix, il était précisé que si le lieu s'y prêtait il devait être transformé en mosquée sinon il devait rester ouvert. Les autres maisons devaient être identifiées par des images en bois représentant des démons clouées sur la porte. Ces décrets stipulaient que les tombes des chrétiens et des juifs ne devaient pas dépasser du niveau du sol montrant ainsi qu'elles n'étaient pas celles de musulmans. Al-Mutawakkil destitua tous les juifs et les chrétiens qui avaient des responsabilités politiques ou administratives. Il fut interdit aux musulmans de les instruire. Toutes ces règles constituaient certainement un moyen de désigner les « infidèles » à la vindicte populaire . En dépit de toutes ces réformes, le règne d'Al-Mutawakkil fait partie de « l'âge d'or des Abbassides », il est sans doute le dernier grand calife de la dynastie. La place des turcs : Al-Mutawakkil a poursuivi la politique consistant à s'appuyer sur des ministres et des militaires esclaves turcs pour réprimer les rébellions et mener les guerres hors de l'empire. Ainsi il a pu prendre aux byzantins la Sicile. Son principal vizir a été le Turc Al-Fath ben Khagan. Cette relation avec les Turcs s'est retournée contre lui. Un de ses généraux turcs a été assassiné. Cela et sa répression contre les chiites finit par le rendre impopulaire. Sa mort et sa succession : Al-Mutawakkil avait écarté son fils aîné Al-Muntasir de la succession et songeait à son second fils Al-Mu'tazz. Non seulement Al-Muntasir était l'objet de manques de respect lorsqu'il apparaissait à la cour mais c'était son frère cadet qui présidait la prière lorsque le calife en était empêché. Un jour où Al-Mutawakkil était ivre, il injuria Al-Muntasir si grossièrement que ce dernier décida d'en finir. Avec des commandants Turcs qu'Al-Mutawakkil avait évincé, il organisa la mort de son père. Al-Mutawakkil a été tué à coups de sabre en compagnie de son favori à qui on a attribué le crime. Ce parricide a eu lieu le 11 décembre 861 à Al-Ja`fariyya où il est enterré. Début dynastie: Fin dynastie: : Notes colonnes : 2:

معركة شانغهاي معارك الحرب اليابانية الصينية الثانية معركة شانغهاي المعروفة بالصينية بـ معركة سونغهو، وهي أولى المعارك الـ 22 الرئيسية بين الجيش الوطني الثوري الصيني والجيش الإمبراطوري الياباني خلال الحرب اليابانية الصينية الثانية، وأحد أكبر المعارك وأكثرها دموية في الحرب كلها. منذ عام 1931، وقد تورطت الصين واليابان في نزاعات صغيرة مستمرة، كثيرًا ما كانت تعرف باسم "الحوادث"، فقدت خلالها الصين أراضٍ الواحدة تلو الأخرى. استخدم مصطلح "حادثة" من قبل القيادة العليا الإمبراطورية اليابانية للتهوين من الغزو الياباني للصين. وعلى الرغم من أن اليابان لم تعلن الحرب رسميًا على الصين، وبحلول أغسطس 1937، وفي أعقاب حادثة جسر ماركو بولو في 7 يوليو، والتي تلت الغزو الياباني لشمال الصين، فقد أصبحت هناك حرب بحكم الأمر الواقع بين الصين واليابان. كان هدف المقاومة الصينية في شانغهاي تعطيل التقدم الياباني السريع، لمنح الحكومة الصينية المزيد من الوقت لنقل الصناعات الحيوية إلى الداخل، وفي نفس الوقت محاولة الفوز بتعاطف الدول الغربية مع الصين. وخلال معركة ضارية لمدة ثلاثة أشهر، تقاتلت القوات الصينية واليابانية في وسط مدينة شانغهاي وفي البلدات النائية وعلى شواطئ ساحل جيانغسو، حيث قامت اليابان بإنزال برمائي. اعتمد الجنود الصينيون بشكل أساسي على الأسلحة ذات العيار الصغير في دفاعهم عن شانغهاي، ضد الهجمة الشرسة للقوات الجوية والبحرية والقوة المدرعة اليابانية. وفي النهاية، سقطت شانغهاي، وفقدت الصين جزءً كبيرًا من قواتها، بل وفشلت أيضًا في انتزاع أي تدخل دولي. وع ذلك، كانت مقاومة القوات الصينية بمثابة صدمة كبيرة للغزاة اليابانيين، والتاريخ العسكري. مما اثر على مفاهيم التفوق الثقافي والروح المعنوية للجيش الياباني. ويمكن تقسيم المعركة إلى ثلاث مراحل، التي شملت ما يقرب من مليون جندي. استمرت المرحلة الأولى من 13 أغسطس - 22 أغسطس، وخلالها حاول الجيش الصيني القضاء على وجود القوات اليابانية في وسط مدينة شانغهاي. واستمرت المرحلة الثانية من 23 أغسطس - 26 أكتوبر، حيث بدأ اليابانيون إنزال برمائية على ساحل جيانغسو، وحارب الجيشان معركة من منزل إلى منزل، في محاولة من اليابانيين للسيطرة على المدينة والمناطق المحيطة بها. أما المرحلة الأخيرة، فبدأت في 27 أكتوبر إلى نهاية نوفمبر، والتي تضمنت انسحاب الجيش الصيني في مواجهة مناورات يابانية، ثم قتال مستميت على الطريق المؤدي إلى العاصمة الصينية نانجينغ. المراجع : ثبت_المراجع: المصادر: * Nationalist China At War 1937-1945 published by the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1982. * Doctoral dissertation on the Shanghai-Nanking Campaign from the National Taiwan University.

Battle of Shanghai Conflicts in 1937 | 1937 in China | 1937 in Japan | Battles of the Second Sino-Japanese War | History of Shanghai dateAugust 2010: otheruses: Empire of Japan Imperial Japanese Army Imperial Japanese Navy chinesetext: The Battle of Shanghai, known in Chinese as Battle of Songhu, was the first of the twenty-two major engagements fought between the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China and the Imperial Japanese Army of the Empire of Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the entire war. Since 1931, China and Japan had been embroiled in incessant, smaller conflicts, often known as "incidents," that saw China lose territories piece by piece. The term "incident" was used by the Japanese Imperial High Command to play down the Japanese invasions of China. Although Japan had not formally declared war on China, by August 1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of July 7 and the ensuing Japanese invasion of North China, a de facto state of war existed between China and Japan. Dogged Chinese resistance at Shanghai was aimed at stalling the rapid Japanese advance, giving much needed time for the Chinese government to move vital industries to the interior, while at the same time attempting to bring sympathetic Western Powers to China's side. During the fierce three-month battle, Chinese and Japanese troops fought in downtown Shanghai, in the outlying towns, and on the beaches of the Jiangsu coast, where the Japanese had made amphibious landings. The Chinese soldiers had to rely primarily on small-caliber weapons in their defense of Shanghai, against an overwhelming onslaught of air, naval, and armored striking power from Japan. In the end, Shanghai fell, and China lost a significant portion of its best troops, while also failing to elicit any international intervention. The resistance of Chinese forces, however, came as a massive shock to the Japanese invaders, who had been indoctrinated with notions of cultural and martial superiority, and dramatically demoralized the Japanese army. The battle can be divided into three stages, and eventually involved nearly one million troops. The first stage lasted from August 13 to August 22, during which the Chinese army attempted to eradicate Japanese troop presence in downtown Shanghai. The second stage lasted from August 23 to October 26, during which the Japanese launched amphibious landings at Jiangsu coast and the two armies fought a Stalingrad-type house-to-house battle, with the Japanese attempting to gain control of the city and the surrounding regions. The last stage, ranging from October 27 to the end of November, involved the retreat of the Chinese army in the face of Japanese flanking maneuvers, and the ensuing combat on the road to China's capital, Nanjing. Etymology : In Chinese, the Battle of Shanghai is known as the Battle of Songhu . Song (淞) comes from Wusong (吳凇), an alternate name of Suzhou Creek, which runs through Shanghai. Hu (滬) is the abbreviation for the city itself. In Chinese literature, the battle is also referred to as 813, denoting August 13, the date when battle began. In some Japanese sources, the battle is known as the , alluding to the First Shanghai Incident of 1932. However, the 1937 Battle of Shanghai was a full-scale battle signifying the beginning of an all-out war between the two countries. Background: The Battle of Shanghai was the first major battle of the Second Sino-Japanese War and escalated the skirmish of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and the localized war in North China into a full-scale war that would involve most major regions of China. There were several underlying causes for this. Strategic reasons: Since the outbreak of the war on July 7, 1937, most combat had occurred in and around North China in operations collectively known as the Battle of Beiping-Tientsin. Originally, neither China nor Japan wanted the skirmish to escalate into a full-scale war. Japan expected a quick ceasefire and further gains of Chinese territory, similar to what had happened earlier in the Mukden Incident (1931), January 28 Incident (1932), the Great Wall Incident (1933), and various other settlements brokered in the mid-1930s. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek saw the Marco Polo Bridge Incident as the boldest attempt yet by Japan to completely separate northern provinces from Chinese control and incorporate them into the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. In the wake of the Second United Front formed after the Xi'an Incident, this event broke the "Final Point" (最後關頭) of Chiang's tolerance of Japanese aggression according to his policy of "internal pacification before external resistance." Chiang decided to initiate a full-scale war with Japan. Chiang Kai-shek and his advisers believed that the next logical step for the Japanese army was to march from North China, along the Peiping-Hankou and Peiping-Pukou railways, and cut right into Wuhan and areas of Central and East China. The Japanese north-to-south advance meant that the Chinese army had to defend along a horizontal axis, to attempt to encircle the advancing enemy through pincer movement. However, the Chinese army was simply incapable of such maneuvers, whereas the Japanese Imperial Army had qualitative superiority in North China, and the mobility of its armor and artillery pieces was unmatched. Chinese military presence in North China was minimal, and the central government and the Kuomintang itself were banned from conducting political activity in Hebei province as a result of the He-Umezu Agreement. In addition, most of the more robust Chinese defense works were not built in North China, but in East China, along the lower Yangtze Delta. Also as important, Japanese troops were being reinforced easily from Japan, through Korea and Manchukuo, and finally to North China through efficient naval and rail transports. Chinese troop movement was severely handicapped by the lack of sufficient motorized vehicles and adequate railway lines. The vast majority of Chinese troops had reached the front line simply by marching. It took considerably longer for Chinese reinforcements from South China to reach North China than it did for the Japanese to reinforce from their home islands. This meant transferring the Chinese army to fight a war in North China was impractical. In addition, if the Japanese army had made a southward advance and invaded Wuhan and then turned eastward with a push toward East and Central China and encircled the Shanghai-Nanjing region, Chinese defenders would have been chased to the sea in a scenario similar to the future Battle of Dunkirk. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) had total supremacy in Chinese seas and the retreating Chinese forces would have been decimated by the enemy as they had nowhere to retreat. Under this scenario, Chiang decided to establish a second front in Shanghai, with the intention of drawing enemy troops to the East and Central China Theater. His plan was to force the Japanese to change the north-to-south direction of advance into east-to-west. This way, Chinese troops would have room in the southwest for them to retreat and regroup should Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan fall to Japan. The Chinese plan was to fight as much as possible to delay the Japanese advance, while time was bought to move the government and vital industries into the Chinese interior. This was the basis of the strategy of trading "space for time."(以空間換取時間) Political causes: Public opinion and patriotism were also strong factors in Chiang's decision to pursue a full-scale war with Japan. Throughout the 1930s, the central government had lost considerable public support because it was preoccupied with the pacification of Chinese communist insurrections before mounting a full scale war against Japan (攘外必先安内). However, having emerged from the peaceful resolution of the Xian Incident, Chiang Kai-shek attained unprecedented popularity as he was seen as the only national leader capable of conducting the war against Japan. It was impossible for him to back down as it would have doomed his political career. Originally, Chiang believed that China needed at least several years of internal peace and unity to build up a national army and sufficient industries to fight Japan on the same footing. Chiang feared that a premature war would put an end to his preparatory plans, and thus opted for fighting small, localized "incidents" that were characteristic of Sino-Japanese conflicts in the 1930s. On the other hand, if Chiang decided to put up an all-out resistance, he risked losing his newly reorganized divisions that were barely ready to meet the enemy head-on, in addition to the complete destruction of China's nascent industrial base. Essentially, for Chiang, fighting a full-scale war would bolster his public image among the Chinese, but would undermine his political leverage, which was based on military strength, against other regional powers. However, stepping down and making more concessions would make him appear unpatriotic and lose public support, but would maintain his military power. The Battle of Shanghai and the decision for total war would prove to be a great gamble for Chiang. Chiang also could not afford losing Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces to Japanese hands. Both Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China at the time, and Shanghai were situated in Jiangsu province. The two provinces were also the economic powerhouse of the lower Yangtze Delta region, and much of the industrial progress and political foundation of the "Nanjing Decade" were developed here. The region was also the only place in China where the central government under Chiang Kai-shek had unopposed political authority, since North China had been under Japanese influence, and other provinces were subject to the control of remnant warlords or other Kuomintang militarist factions. Thus, Chiang also had to defend Shanghai at all costs since it was situated at the core of his political and economic administration. Shanghai was a diverse cosmopolitan city and had investments and assets from most major international powers, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. Traditionally, Western Powers had been unwilling to condemn Japanese aggression because of their preoccupation with the situation in Europe and Japan's anti-Soviet Union political agenda. However, a Japanese invasion of the city would provide an impetus for the West to enter the war on the side of China. It was obvious that the war would undercut western commercial investments and make them propose a quick settlement on terms acceptable to China. In addition, Japan could not possibly sustain a war against the United States, the greatest economic power, and the United Kingdom, the greatest colonial power. However, appeasement and isolationism permeated the international community and past experience from the 1930s had made it clear that Japanese excursions would not be acted upon by the international powers, other than some ineffective condemnations from the League of Nations. Already in 1935, Chiang's German advisor, General Alexander von Falkenhausen, told him that the Nine-Power Treaty was little more than a scrap of paper and that he should place no hope that the international community would come to intervene. Chiang was advised that China must be prepared to fight alone for at least two years of the war, regardless of any changes in the international situation. Past experience and preparation: Chiang and his advisers were also somewhat confident in raising the stakes of the battle, since the Chinese army had fought the Japanese to a standstill in the January 28 Incident, also known as the First Shanghai Incident, in 1932. Because the Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement of 1932, signed after the incident, forbade the Chinese from deploying any troops within Shanghai, the Chinese trained its police garrison, whose presence was allowed in the city, in various military tactics unusual for a police force. The planning of the defense of Shanghai was overseen by Zhang Zhizhong, a veteran of the 1932 incident. Since China did not possess adequate artillery and armor, Zhang Zhizhong believed that the Chinese army should use their numerical superiority and take the initiative, and push the Japanese into the sea before they had a chance to reinforce. In 1933, three military zones, Nanjing, Nanjing-Hangzhou, and Nanjing-Shanghai, were established to coordinate defenses in the Yangtze Delta. In 1934, with German assistance, the construction of the so-called "Chinese Hindenburg Line" began, with a series of fortifications to facilitate defense in depth. Two such lines, the Wufu Line (吳福線) between Suzhou and Fushan, and the Xicheng Line (錫澄線) between Wuxi and Jiangyin, were in position to protect the road to Nanjing, in case Shanghai should fall into enemy hands. In spring 1937, just barely months before the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the lines were finally completed. However, the necessary training of personnel to man these positions and coordinate the defense had not yet been completed when the war broke out. Japanese position: Since the outbreak of war on July 7, Japan had focused on conducting military operations primarily in North China, which included provinces such as Hebei, Shanxi, and Chahar. The Japanese invasion further increased the frequency of anti-Japanese protests, and boycotts of Japanese goods had serious repercussions upon Japanese trade in China. The effect was strongly felt in Shanghai because there were many Japanese commercial interests in the city. The Imperial Japanese Navy had insisted on escalating troop presence to protect both Japanese factories and citizens from a possible confrontation with the Chinese, but the Imperial Japanese Army consistently refused to cooperate until early August. One reason for this was that the Japanese Army did not wish to deploy in East and Central China, for fear that such action would create a vacuum in North China and Manchukuo, which bordered the Soviet Union. Japan saw the Soviet Union as the primary military threat on the Chinese mainland and did not want to divert attention away from North China. The Japanese Army Command also did not wish to deploy troops into Central China, because doing so might steer Japan into confrontations with other foreign powers present in the region. In addition, the Japanese Army Command had a very low opinion of Chinese fighting capability, and believed that since China had almost always been mired in the civil wars, Chiang Kai-shek would focus on national unification first and would not risk his troops against the vastly superior Japanese. In the view of the Japanese Army Command there was no need for the Imperial Japanese Army to enter Central China. Thus, Japan wished to defeat China and conclude the war as soon as possible, to avoid disrupting its plans against the Soviet Union. However, the Japanese Naval Command insisted on deploying troops in Central China to destroy any Chinese troops that might be dispatched to North China, where the war was localized. Following the Oyama Incident of August 9, conflict in Shanghai seemed inevitable. On August 10, naval commander-in-chief Mitsumasa Yonai voiced his demand in a cabinet meeting. He was opposed by army generals Ishiwara Kanji and Umezu Yoshijiro, who insisted that the Shanghai front should be the responsibility solely of the Imperial Navy. After some negotiation, the Army Command acceded to the navy's demand and began deploying troops to the Shanghai region on August 10. The Japanese military was confident they could overcome Chinese forces in Central China within three days and end the entire war in three months. The Japanese had military garrisons within the city while Chinese military presence, aside from a small military police garrison, known as the Peace Preservation Corps (保安隊), and some fortifications, was strictly forbidden under the Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement. The Japanese had many factories and warehouses in the city, and most of them were reinforced for military purposes. The Japanese marines headquarters was near a textile mill and there were more than eighty emplacements and bunkers of various types in the city. The Japanese Third Fleet also had ships patrolling the rivers that ran through Shanghai, and the city was well within the firing range of their guns. In all, the Japanese army was well prepared to meet the numerically superior, but under-equipped and poorly trained Chinese army. Prelude to the battle: Ōyama Incident: On August 9, Lieutenant Isao Ōyama (大山勇夫) of the Japanese Marines attempted to enter the Hongqiao Airport (虹橋機場) illegally. He was shot dead by Chinese Peace Preservation Corps troops stationed near the military airport. It is still unknown whether Ōyama initiated the intrusion on his own or acted on higher orders. Regardless, the Ōyama Incident heightened the tension in Shanghai. On August 10, the Japanese Consul General apologized for Ōyama's action, because it was a clear intrusion into Chinese territory. Nevertheless, he demanded that the Chinese withdraw the Peace Preservation Corps and dismantle their defense works around the city. He also made it clear that the shooting of a Japanese officer was regarded by the Imperial Army as humiliating, and that even the slightest further provocation could cause the situation to explode. The incident also caused Japan to send reinforcements to the Shanghai area on August 10. To the Chinese, the Ōyama Incident was yet another pretext for Japanese aggression, no different from many other "incidents" in the 1930s. In response to Japanese troop movements, Chiang Kai-shek began deploying Chinese troops to the Shanghai area on August 11. Final efforts at negotiation: On August 12, representatives of the major powers convened and Japan demanded the powers enforce the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Shanghai, but mayor Yu Hung-chun protested that Japan had already violated the agreement through its invasion of China on July 7. The major powers did not wish to see another January 28 Incident, which greatly disrupted foreign economic activities in Shanghai. On the other hand, Chinese citizens feverishly welcomed the presence of Chinese troops in the city. In Nanjing, Chinese and Japanese representatives met for the last time for final efforts at negotiation. The Japanese demanded that the Chinese withdraw all Peace Preservation Corps from Shanghai and all regular troops from the vicinities of the city. The Chinese insisted that the Japanese demand of a unilateral Chinese withdrawal was unacceptable since the two countries were already fighting a war in North China. At last Mayor Yu made it clear that at most the Chinese government would concede that the Chinese troops would not fire unless fired upon. Japan on the other hand placed all responsibility on China because of Chinese deployment of troops around Shanghai. Negotiation was impossible and there was no alternative other than the spread of war into Central China. Order of battle: Order of battle of the Battle of Shanghai: First phase (August 13–22): Urban fighting: Around 9am on August 13, the Chinese Peace Preservation Corps exchanged small arms fire with Japanese troops in the Zhabei, Wusong, and Jiangwan districts of Shanghai. About 3pm the Japanese army crossed over the Bazi Bridge (八字橋) in Zhabei District and attacked various centers in the city. The Chinese 88th Division retaliated with mortar attacks. Sporadic shooting continued through the day until 4pm, when Japanese headquarters ordered ships of the Third Fleet, stationed in the Yangtze and the Huangpu River to open fire on Chinese positions in the city. Late that night, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Zhang Zhizhong to begin Chinese offensive operations the next day. The next morning the Chinese air force began bombing various Japanese targets and Chinese ground forces attacked at 3pm. On the same day, August 14, the Chinese government issued the Proclamation of Self-Defense and War of Resistance (自衛抗戰聲明書), explaining the government's resolve against Japanese aggression. The Battle of Shanghai had officially begun. Zhang Zhizhong's initial plan was to have the numerically superior Chinese forces attack the Japanese by surprise and push them into the Huangpu River, then blockade the coast to deny the Japanese the opportunity to land reinforcements at the Huangpu wharves between Yangshupu (楊樹浦) and Hongkou (虹口). The Chinese 88th Division was to attack Japanese army headquarters near Zhabei, and the 87th Division was to attack the reinforced Kung-ta Textile Mill, where the Japanese naval command was located. Zhang estimated it would take one week to achieve the objectives, however, the operation ran into trouble when his troops were fought to a standstill just outside the International Settlement. Japanese strongholds were fortified with thick concrete and were resistant to 150mm howitzers, the only heavy weapons the Chinese possessed. Chinese troops could only advance, under the cover of machine gun fire, by getting close enough to the emplacements to kill those within with hand grenades. The Chinese advance was greatly slowed and the element of surprise was lost. Lacking the heavy weapons to destroy the Japanese bunkers directly, Zhang Zhizhong, decided to encircle them instead. On August 16, he ordered his men to take the streets surrounding the Japanese strongholds. Every time a street was successfully cleared, the Chinese would set up a sandbag blockade, gradually surrounding each stronghold and closing off all possible routes of escape. The tactic was successful at first and the Chinese were able to destroy many emplacements and outposts in a single day. However, the Japanese then deployed tanks in the broad streets, enabling them to easily repel the Chinese attacks and defeat the encircling strategy. On August 18, the Chinese attack was called off. On August 18, Chen Cheng reached the front lines to discuss the situation with Zhang Zhizhong. They decided to send the newly arrived 36th Division into the fray, attacking the Hueishan (匯山) docks on the northern side of the Huangpu River. Meanwhile, the 87th Division broke through Japanese lines at Yangshupu, and pushed onto the Hueishan docks along with the 36th Division. On August 22, the tanks of the 36th Division reached the docks, but were not able to hold the position for long. The Chinese troops were insufficiently trained in coordinating infantry-tank tactics, and the troops were unable to keep up with the tanks. Without sufficient infantry to protect them, the tanks were vulnerable to Japanese anti-tank weapons and artillery in close quarters and became useless when they entered the city center. The few troops who did manage to keep up with the tanks through the city blocks were then trapped by Japanese blockades and annihilated by flamethrowers and intense machine gun fire. While the Chinese almost succeeded in pushing the Japanese down the Huangpu River, the casualty rate was exceedingly high. During the night of August 22 alone, the 36th Division lost more than ninety officers and a thousand troops. On August 22, the Japanese 3rd, 8th, and 11th Divisions made an amphibious assault under the cover of naval bombardment and proceeded to land in Chuanshakou (川沙口), Shizilin (獅子林), and Baoshan (寶山), towns on the northeast coast some fifty kilometers (31 miles) away from downtown Shanghai. Japanese landings in northeast Shanghai suburban areas meant that many Chinese troops, who were deployed in Shanghai's urban center, had to be redeployed to the coastal regions to counter the landings. Thus, the front line was lengthened from metropolitan Shanghai along the Huangpu River to the northeast coastal districts. The Chinese offensive in the urban center had ground to a halt, and the fighting in downtown Shanghai essentially became a stalemate with both sides suffering heavy losses and making minimal changes in the front line. The Chinese divisions were able to hold on to Zhabei, Jiangwan, and other downtown positions for three months, until situations in other areas made it strategically impossible to continue defending these positions. Air operations : On August 14, the Republic of China Air Force bombed Japanese Navy flag ship Izumo (Name may be incorrect. Elsewhere called Idzumo). On the same day, the Republic of China Air Force launched bombing raids against the Shanghai International Settlement. 700 civilians were killed outright, with a total of 3000 of civilian deaths and injuries resulting from the explosives that landed in Shanghai International Settlement. (According to Bernard Wasserstein, in his book Secret War in Shanghai, the bombs that fell on the International Settlement on August 14 were not a "raid" on the International Settlement. The four errant bombs were intended for the Japanese cruiser Idzumo, which was moored nearby in the Whangpoo river, adjacent to the Bund. Two exploded in Nanking Road and two in front of the Great World Amusement Centre on Avenue Edward VII, killing an estimated 2,000 shoppers and passers-by.) Japanese planes responded to the attack on the Idzumo and the 4th Flying Group of the Republic of China Air Force, based in Henan, under the command of Captain Gao Zhihang (高志航), shot down six Japanese planes, while suffering zero losses. (In 1940 the government announced August 14 would be Air Force Day to raise the morale of the Chinese populace.) From August 15 to 18, the Chinese fought the numerically superior Japanese air force in intense air battles that saw two Japanese squadrons destroyeddateSeptember 2010: . China was fighting the air war with every airplane in its possession, some of them purchased second-hand from various countries. It was not able to produce any planes of its own to replace those lost in combat and was always running low on replacement parts and supplies. Japan, in contrast, had a robust aviation industry able to design and manufacture technologically advanced planes and could easily make good their losses. Thus, it was impossible for China to compete in an air war with Japan. In the Shanghai campaign, the Chinese air force is said to have shot down 85 Japanese airplanes and sunk 51 shipsdate: November 2010: , while losing 91 of its own airplanes, which was just under half of its entire air force at the time.dateJune 2010: : Other developments On August 15, the Japanese formed the Shanghai Expeditionary Army, composed of the 3rd and 11th Divisions, under the command of General Iwane Matsui. On August 19, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe announced that the Sino-Japanese conflict could only be resolved through war, regardless of any attempts at negotiation by third party nations. Konoe said that the initial plan of localized "containment" around the Shanghai region had now escalated to total war, with the ultimate goal of forcing the Chinese government to cooperate with Japan economically and politically. On August 23, the Japanese began the bombing campaign over Nanjing, and various cities in Central China. The Shanghai Expeditionary Army also arrived on this day. At the beginning of the battle, Zhang Zhizhong, as the commander of the 5th Army and the Nanjing-Shanghai war zone, was responsible for conducting Chinese operations. The failure of the initial Chinese offensive greatly dismayed Chiang Kai-shek and his staff. Chiang criticized Zhang's failure to make sufficient preparations, especially the procurement of weapons capable of penetrating Japanese bunkers, before sending in troops in waves, which resulted in many divisions sustaining a huge number of casualties right from the beginning. Zhang was also criticized for his overconfidence and his penchant of holding press conferences, for both foreign and Chinese reporters in the cosmopolitan city. Chiang Kai-shek and his staff, the most prominent including Chen Cheng and Gu Zhutong, began taking over command duties from Zhang Zhizhong. Chiang Kai-shek himself would eventually become the commander of the 3rd Warzone that oversaw Shanghai. The failure of the Chinese offensive showed that even though the Chinese army initially outnumbered the Japanese garrison, it still could not achieve its objective, given its lack of heavy weapons and artillery. In addition, the Japanese fleet was ubiquitous in Shanghai waters and their naval guns bombarded Chinese positions in the city with pinpoint accuracy. Given such odds, the Japanese offense was almost certain to succeed. * Second phase (August 23 - October 26) The bloodiest and most intense period of fighting occurred in the period from August 23, when the Japanese began landing in waves, to October 26, when the Chinese retired from metropolitan Shanghai. During this period, the majority of combat concentrated along the 40 kilometer line from metropolitan Shanghai to the town of Liuhe (瀏河), located northeast to the city on the coast where the Japanese made their landings. * Defense against landing (August 23 - September 10) On August 23, the Japanese Shanghai Expeditionary Army, led by Iwane Matsui, landed in Liuhe, Wusong (吳淞), and Chuanshakou. Chiang Kai-shek had expected these coastal towns to be vulnerable to Japanese landings and ordered Chen Cheng to reinforce the area with the 18th Army. However, the Chinese were no match for Japanese firepower. The Japanese almost always began their amphibious assaults with heavy naval and air bombardment of the Chinese coastal defense works and trenches. It was not unheard of for the Chinese to lose an entire garrison to such bombardments. However, the Chinese would reinforce almost immediately to counter the Japanese troops who had just made their landing after the bombardment. In the two weeks that followed, the Chinese and Japanese troops fought bitter battles in the numerous towns and villages along the coast. The Chinese troops fending off the amphibious assaults had only their small-caliber weapons to depend on, and were not sufficiently supported by the Chinese air force and the almost nonexistent Chinese navy. They paid heavily for the defense. An entire regiment could be reduced to just a few men in action. In addition, Chinese coastal defense works were hastily constructed and did not offer much protection against enemy attacks, as many trenches were newly constructed during lulls in fighting. Moreover, the sandy soil of the coastal region meant that it was difficult to construct sturdy fortifications. Many trenches would collapse due to rain. It was a race against time to construct and repair these defense works despite constant Japanese bombardment. Logistics difficulty also meant it was hard to transport the necessary construction materials to the front line. The Chinese often had to turn to bombed-out houses to obtain bricks, beams, and other such materials. However, the Chinese fought against great odds and tried to hold on to the coastal villages as long as they could. It was commonplace for the Japanese to successfully occupy the towns in the day under heavy naval support, only to lose them during the night to Chinese counterattacks. Such attacks and counterattacks continued well into late August, when the fall of Baoshan, a vital coastal town, seemed imminent. Chiang Kai-shek ordered the remaining troops of the 98th Division to defend the town. One battalion, under Yao Ziqing (姚子青), was assigned to the task. The situation in Baoshan was grim, as the Japanese had surrounded the town on September 5. However, Yao ordered his men to defend to the death. Japanese artillery strikes reduced the town to rubble, and Yao was killed in house-to-house fighting. On September 6 Baoshan fell. The entire battalion, except for one soldier, was killed in action. The Chinese would continue to sustain this level of casualties throughout the Shanghai campaign. * Combat around Luodian (September 11–30) On September 11, with the fall of Baoshan, the Chinese Army moved into defensive positions around Luodian (羅店). Luodian was only a small town, but it was the transportation center connecting Baoshan, downtown Shanghai, Jiading, Songjiang and several other towns with highways. Therefore, the successful defense of Luodian was strategically paramount to the security of Suzhou and Shanghai. As early as August 29, German adviser Alexander von Falkenhausen told Chiang Kai-shek that the town of Luodian had to be held at all costs. For the fight for Luodian, the Chinese concentrated some three hundred thousand soldiers, while the Japanese amassed more than one hundred thousand troops, supported with naval ships, tanks and airplanes. The carnage and intensity of the resulting battle earned the fight for Luodian the nickname "grinding mill of flesh and blood" (血肉磨坊). The Japanese offensive usually began at daybreak with concentrated aerial bombing, followed by the release of observation balloons to pinpoint the exact location of remaining Chinese positions for artillery and naval strikes. Japanese infantry would then advance under smoke screen and armored support. Japanese planes would also accompany the infantry and strafe Chinese reinforcements. Chinese defense was stubborn even in the face of such overwhelming firepower. During the night, Chinese soldiers mined the roads connecting the coastal towns to Luodian and engaged in night combat to cut off Japanese advance troops. At daybreak, the Chinese would garrison the foremost defensive lines with comparatively fewer troops to reduce casualties resulting from intense Japanese bombardments. The Chinese would then emerge from rear positions to engage the enemy when the Japanese land offensive started after naval and artillery strikes had ceased. Despite their numerical superiority, the defense of Luodian would prove to be impossible for the Chinese. The Japanese had a number of advantages, including superiority of firepower, and the fact that the Chinese were in a passive position to face the onslaught, because they were not able to mount effective offensives until the Japanese were practically on top of Luodian. Because of this, the Chinese decided to defend to the death to hold on to every square inch of the town. This tactic greatly accelerated the attrition rate within the Chinese ranks. The casualty rate of General Chen Cheng's army group was more than fifty percent. By the end of September, the Chinese had been almost bled dry and were forced to give up Luodian. * Fight for Dachang (October 1–26) On October 1, on advice from his commanders, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe decided to integrate and escalate the combat in the North China and Central China Theaters and launch an October offensive to subjugate the Chinese government and end the war. By this time, the Japanese had increased troop strength in the Shanghai region to more than two hundred thousand. Japanese troops also invaded the town of Liuhang (劉行), south of Luodian. Thus, the frontline moved further south onto the banks of the Yunzaobin River (蘊藻濱). The Japanese aim was to cross the Yunzaobin River and take the town of Dachang (大場), which was the communications link between Chinese troops in downtown Shanghai and the northwest outlying towns. If Dachang had fallen, the Chinese troops would have to give up their positions in downtown Shanghai and regions east of the Huangpu River to avoid encirclement by the Japanese army. The defense of Dachang was vital to how long the Chinese army could stay and continue fighting in the Shanghai war zone. For this, Chiang Kai-shek mobilized whatever remaining troops he could salvage for the defense of Dachang. The two armies engaged in seesaw battles, with little changes in the frontline along the Yunzaobin River. From September 11 to October 20, the Japanese army was able to advance only five kilometers. At the most intense moments, the positions would change hands five times a day. On October 17, the Guangxi Army under Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi finally arrived to join Chiang Kai-shek's Central Army in the battle for Shanghai. The Chinese then staged a final counteroffensive in an attempt to fully consolidate Chinese positions around Dachang and retake the banks of the Yunzaobin River. However, the counteroffensive was poorly coordinated and again the Chinese succumbed to superior Japanese firepower. The Japanese utilized some 700 artillery pieces and 150 bombers for the Dachang operation and the town was totally reduced to rubble. The fighting was so fierce that the average Chinese casualty rate per hour was in the thousands, and some divisions were incapacitated in a matter of just a few days. This fierce fighting continued until October 25, when Dachang finally fell. By then, Chinese troops had no option but to withdraw from downtown Shanghai, which they had held for almost three months. * Third Phase (October 27 - November 26) * Chinese withdrawal from metropolitan Shanghai Starting the night of October 26, the Chinese began withdrawing from Shanghai urban center. Because Dachang and other vital suburban towns had been lost already, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Chinese troops to retreat from Zhabei, Jiangwan (江灣), and other positions that the troops had held for seventy-five days without faltering. However, Chiang ordered one battalion of the 88th Division remain in Zhabei to defend the Sihang Warehouse on the northern bank of the Suzhou Creek. Chiang could not fully retire from downtown Shanghai because the Nine-Power Treaty conference was in session in Brussels for a possible Western intervention in the Sino-Japanese conflict. The rest of the Chinese troops crossed the Suzhou Creek and regrouped for the final showdown with the Japanese army. * Fighting around Suzhou Creek Chiang's original plan was to fight in areas south of the Suzhou Creek and inflict as many Japanese casualties as possible. However, through three months of intense fighting, Chinese troop strength had been greatly reduced. Most units had their strength halved, and as a result a division had the fighting capability of less than two regiments. By now, the Chinese army needed between eight to twelve divisions to match the fighting strength of just one Japanese division. Thus, Chinese commanders were pessimistic about the outcome of the Suzhou Creek combat. Li Zongren, Bai Chongxi, Chang Fa-kuei and other commanders insisted that the Chinese troops should enter the Wufu and Xicheng defense lines to protect Nanjing, but Chiang wanted the Chinese troops to continue fighting on the southern bank of Suzhou Creek. On October 28, Chiang arrived in the battlefield to boost the morale of his troops. However, the situation was bleak. On October 30, the Japanese crossed Suzhou River and the Chinese troops were in danger of encirclement. The Chinese army was at its limit of endurance. * Japanese landings at Jinshanwei As early as October 12, the Japanese chiefs of staff had already formulated plans to force a landing in Jinshanwei (金山衛), a town located on the northern bank of Hangzhou Bay, south of the Shanghai region. The Jinshanwei landings would facilitate a northward push into Shanghai, to complement the landings in northeastern towns, such as the ones around Baoshan between late August and mid-September, which brought about a southward push. Chiang Kai-shek was aware of the Japanese plan to encircle his army in Shanghai from the north and the south, and had already ordered his commanders to take precautions of the possible Japanese landings at Jinshanwei. However, the impending fall of Dachang in late October forced Chiang to redeploy the Chinese divisions originally stationed along the northern coast of Hangzhou Bay. As a result, the lack of Chinese defenses allowed the Japanese 10th Army Corps, composed of units diverted from the Battle of Taiyuan in the North China Theater, to land easily in Jinshanwei on November 5. Jinshanwei was only forty kilometers away from the banks of Suzhou River where the Chinese troops had just retreated from the fall of Dachang. * Road to Nanking * Japanese decision to take Nanking In October, the SEF was reinforced by the Japanese 10th Army commanded by Lieutenant General Heisuke Yanagawa. On 7 November, Japanese Central China Area Army (CCAA) was organized by combining the SEF and the 10th Army, with Matsui appointed as its commander-in-chief concurrently with that of the SEF. After winning the battles around Shanghai, the SEF suggested the Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo to attack Nanking. The CCAA was rearranged and Lieutenant General Prince Asaka (Yasuhiko), an uncle of Emperor Hirohito, was appointed as the commander of the SEF, while Matsui stayed as the commander of CCAA overseeing both the SEF and the 10th Army. The real nature of Matsui's authority is however difficult to establish as he was confronted with a member of the imperial family directly appointed by the Emperor. In anticipation of the attack on Nanking, Matsui issued orders to his armies that read: Nanking is the capital of China and the capture thereof is an international affair; therefore, careful study should be made so as to exhibit the honor and glory of Japan and augment the trust of the Chinese people, and that the battle in the vicinity of Shanghai is aimed at the subjugation of the Chinese Army, therefore protect and patronize Chinese officials and people, as afar as possible; the Army should always bear in mind not to involve foreign residents and armies in trouble and maintain close liaison with foreign authorities in order to avoid misunderstandings. On December 2, Emperor Showa nominated one of his uncles, Prince Asaka, as commander of the invasion. It is difficult to establish if, as a member of the imperial family, Asaka had a superior status to general Iwane Matsui, who was officially the commander in chief, but it is clear that, as the top ranking officer, he had authority over division commanders, lieutenant-generals Kesago Nakajima and Heisuke Yanagawa. * Japanese advance toward Nanking After securing control of Shanghai, the Japanese army began its advance towards Nanking on November 11, 1937, approaching the city from different directions. The Japanese advance to Nanking can be characterized as a "forced march". Almost all units covered the distance of almost 400 kilometers in about a month. Assuming that capture of the Chinese capital would be the decisive turning point in the war, there was an eagerness to be among the first to claim the honor of victory. The Japanese army was engaged by Chinese soldiers on a number of occasions on the way to Nanking. As a general rule, they were heavily outnumbered. As the Japanese came closer to Nanjing, the fighting grew in both frequency and severity. * Chinese retreat from Shanghai Japanese landings at Jinshanwei meant that the Chinese army had to retire from the Shanghai front and attempt a breakout. However, Chiang Kai-shek still placed some hope that the Nine-Power Treaty would result in a sanction against Japan by Western Powers. It was not until November 8 that the Chinese central command issued a general retreat to withdraw from the entire Shanghai front. All Chinese units were ordered to move toward western towns such as Kunshan, and then from there enter the final defense lines to stop the Japanese from reaching Nanjing. By then, the Chinese army was utterly exhausted, and with a severe shortage of ammunition and supplies, the defense was faltering. Kunshan was lost in only two days, and the remaining troops began moving toward the Wufu Line fortifications on November 13. The Chinese army was fighting with the last of its strength and the frontline was on the verge of collapse. In the chaos that ensued many Chinese units were broken up and lost contact with their communications officers who had the maps and layouts to the fortifications. In addition, once they arrived at Wufu Line, the Chinese troops discovered that some of the civilian officials were not there to receive them as they had already fled and had taken the keys with them. The battered Chinese troops, who had just emerged from the bloodbath in Shanghai and were hoping to enter the defense lines, found that they were not able to utilize these fortifications. The Wufu Line was penetrated on November 19, and the Chinese troops then moved toward Xicheng Line, which they were forced to give up on November 26 in the midst of the onslaught. The "Chinese Hindenburg Line," which the government had spent millions to construct and was the final line of defense between Shanghai and Nanjing, collapsed in only two weeks. The Battle of Shanghai was over. However, fighting continued without a pause on the road to China's capital and the ensuing combat immediately led into the Battle of Nanjing. By early December, the Japanese troops had reached the outskirts of Nanking. * Aftermath and appraisal * Loss of Central Army military strength Even though the Battle of Shanghai was only the first of the twenty-two major battles fought between China and Japan, Chiang Kai-shek's decision to send his best troops into the battle had significant repercussions. At the outbreak of the war, the Chinese National Revolutionary Army boasted a standing army of some 1.75 million troops, but in reality Chinese military strength was significantly lower. This was because almost all of the troops were poorly trained, poorly equipped, and semi-literate peasants who had little concept of modern warfare. Only about 300,000 were comparatively better trained and were reorganized into some 20 newly adjusted divisions. Of these, around 80,000 were the German-trained divisions that composed the elite units of Chiang Kai-shek's Central Army. However, even these divisions were not sufficiently supported by combined arms. Thus, out of a grand total of almost two million men-in-arms, less than one hundred thousand Chinese troops were able to fight Japan on more or less equal terms. Chiang Kai-shek's decision to pit all of his crack divisions to fight in Shanghai caused his elite units to suffer some sixty percent casualties in the three-month bloodbath. In one single blow, Chiang also lost some 10,000 of the 25,000 junior officers trained by the elite Central Military Academy between 1929 and 1937, in addition to some tens of thousands of potential military officers. Chiang Kai-shek's Central Army was never to recover from these devastating losses. By the time the 88th Division, arguably the best of these elite divisions, began its defense of Nanjing, it had been reduced to seven thousand men, of whom three thousand were new recruits to replace the lost veterans. The destruction of his own military strength also forced Chiang to rely on non-Whampoa generals, who commanded the provincial armies and many of whom had questionable loyalty. Because of his reduction in military power, Chiang lost some political leverage to local warlords. In effect, Chiang Kai-shek was effectively only the head of a loose coalition, rather than the commander-in-chief of a united fighting force. The sapping of China's best fighting men also made the planning and execution of subsequent military operations difficult. In essence, Chiang Kai-shek's concerted pre-war effort to build a truly effective, modernized, national army was greatly devastated by the sacrifices made in the Battle of Shanghai. * International response and its consequences A major reason that the Chinese army held onto the city as long as it did, even though it was on the brink of collapse, was that China was hoping for a western intervention in the Sino-Japanese War. Western nations had been paying little attention to China's plight since they were preoccupied with the situation in Europe. In addition, most western nations had little prospect that their intervention would help China in the long run because they believed that China would eventually lose. If China was deemed militarily weak, economically backward, and politically disunited by Western powers, it would not make sense for them to help China when it seemed bound for defeat by Japan. Thus, Chiang Kai-shek had to devote everything China had to offer to make sure the Western powers know that the present conflict between China and Japan was a major war, not a collection of inconsequential "incidents" as had been the case previously. Based on this political strategy, Chiang Kai-shek had to order his troops to fight to the death in an attempt to arouse international sympathy and cause the international community to adopt measures that would help China and sanction Japan. On September 12, one month after the Battle of Shanghai began, China formally brought the case against Japan to the League of Nations. Again, the League was not able to formulate any effective sanctions against Japan other than an October 4 statement that gave China "spiritual support." The United States was not a member of the League and Great Britain and France were reluctant to challenge Japan. Of all the major western powers, only the United States seemed able to act more since it was not embroiled in the volatile European affairs. In addition, on October 5, President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave the Quarantine Speech, calling for the United States to help nations fight against aggressor nations. This speech had a tremendous effect on raising China's morale. Because America seemed willing to confront Japan, the British representative suggested to close the League case and convene the Nine Power Treaty Conference. Since the Nine-Power Treaty was signed as a result of the Washington Naval Conference of 1922, the opening of the Conference automatically brought the United States into the effort to rein in Japanese aggression. American entry into the international response brought new hope to the Chinese, and Chiang Kai-shek again reiterated the need for his troops to hold on to Shanghai to prove that China was indeed worth fighting for. By mid-October, Chinese situation in Shanghai had become increasingly dire and the Japanese had made significant gains. The vital town of Dachang fell on October 26 and the Chinese withdrew from metropolitan Shanghai. However, because the Nine Power Treaty Conference was to be begin in early November, Chiang Kai-shek ordered his troops to stay in the Shanghai battlefield, instead of retreating to the Wufu and Xicheng Lines to protect Nanjing. He also left one lone battalion to defend the Sihang Warehouse in metropolitan Shanghai. Chiang also visited the frontlines to encourage his troops. Because Shanghai was the most important Chinese city in western eyes, the troops had to fight and hold on to the city as long as possible, rather than moving toward the defense lines along nameless towns en route to Nanjing. On November 3, the Conference finally convened in Brussels. While the western powers were in session to mediate the situation, the Chinese troops were making their final stand in Shanghai and had all hopes for a western intervention that would save China from collapse. * Nine-Power Treaty Conference Nine-Power Treaty: However, the Conference dragged on with little productivity. Japan was invited to the Conference twice but declined, thus a mediation effort directly involving Japan was out of the question. Similar to what had transpired in the League of Nations conference, the western powers, including the United States, were still dominated by isolationism and appeasement. Thus, nothing effective was formulated. On November 5, the Japanese made amphibious landings at Jinshanwei to surround the Chinese troops still fighting in the Shanghai warzone. Chiang was still waiting for the Conference to produce a favorable response and ordered the troops to continue fighting, even though the worn-out troops were in danger of encirclement from the Jinshanwei landings. It was not until three days later on November 8 that the Chinese central command ordered the troops to retire from the entire Shanghai front to protect Nanjing. This three day delay was enough to cause a breakdown in Chinese command as the units were devastated by continued fighting, and this directly caused the failure to coordinate the defense around the Chinese Hindenburg Lines guarding Nanjing. On November 24, the Nine-Power Treaty Conference convened for the last time and then adjourned indefinitely, without producing any measures that would stop Japanese aggression. In his report, General Chen Cheng wrote that throughout much of the Shanghai campaign, sound military strategy was often supplanted by political strategy. It was the nation's tragedy that political strategy, especially the one as precarious as the hope for foreign intervention, forced the troops to make exorbitant sacrifices in Shanghai and led almost to total annihilation. He wrote that because China was weak, it was in dire need of foreign help and had to sacrifice just to prove its capacity to fight and will to resist. By the end of the battle, even though hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops died just to make the point that China was ready to sacrifice, the final hope for a western intervention never materialized. * Effects=== In terms of its long-term effects on the war of attrition, the Battle of Shanghai bought enough time for the Chinese government to move some of its vital industries to Wuhan and Xian, and from there to Chongqing, China's wartime capital. The difficulty in dismantling and relocating thousands of tons of machinery and factory equipment, especially in the heat of Japanese bombing campaigns, meant that the Chinese government fell short of its goal of moving the entire industrial base in the Shanghai region. Many factories were destroyed during the fighting and lost their usefulness. Of the nearly twelve hundred factories and workshops of all sizes, only slightly more than ten percent made it out of Shanghai. However, as insignificant as they were, these factories formed the core of China's wartime industry, especially in the bleak days of the blockade of the entire Chinese coast, the closure of the Burma Road, and the low tonnage of supplies flown over the Hump. Chiang Kai-shek's strategy of bringing the fight to Shanghai to force Japan to adopt an east-to-west direction of attack also prevented Japan from cutting right into Central China. As a result, the Battle of Wuhan was delayed for almost a year, and the time bought gave the Chinese government a breathing chance during which it recuperated and relocated more resources to Chongqing. Overall, even though Chinese losses were irreparable, the strategy of trading "space for time" proved its worth. The Battle of Shanghai was a military defeat but a high point for Chinese nationalism. The beginning of full-scale war meant that China would no longer stand idly and allow Japan to conquer its territories piece by piece as it had done in the past. It also demonstrated China's resolve not to surrender even in the face of overwhelming firepower. However, Chiang Kai-shek's order to have his troops make one death stand after another greatly sapped his strength and directly caused his army's inability to defend Nanjing for even two weeks. In his memoir, General Li Zongren pointed out that Chiang's staff had proposed that the Chinese army reserve around ten divisions along the Wufu Line to protect Nanjing and felt it made no difference if Shanghai could be held for a few months longer at the expense of huge casualties. However, as China was not able to defeat Japan single-handedly, Chiang believed the best option was to bring the western powers into the war by eliciting international sympathy through courageous Chinese resistance at Shanghai. Also, Chiang Kai-shek probably did not realize that the war would last as long as it turned out to be - eight years. In his correspondence with Hu Shih, Chiang wrote that China was capable to withstand six months of combat before changes in international situation would end the war. This may have also caused Chiang to devote all of his best troops in the first battle of what would eventually become a prolonged war. However, while Chiang's initial assessment was overly optimistic, China continued fighting for eight more years until Japan was finally defeated after the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Bataille de Shanghai (1937) Bataille de la Chine | Bataille du Japon | Histoire de Shanghai | Seconde guerre sino-japonaise | Bataille de 1937 | 1937 en Asie Bataille de Shanghai (homonymie): datenovembre 2009: La bataille de Shanghai opposa en 1937 l'Armée impériale japonaise à l'Armée nationale révolutionnaire chinoise pendant la guerre sino-japonaise. Le Service aérien de la marine impériale japonaise y procéda à l'un des premiers bombardements stratégiques de l'histoire. Ayant déclenché la guerre en juillet, l'Empire du Japon souhaitait conclure la guerre aussi rapidement que possible. Les Japonais disposaient, avant même le déclenchement ouvert du conflit, de troupes et de garnisons dans la ville spéciale de Shanghai, qui représentait un point stratégique privilégié, grâce notamment à son accès à la mer. Le 9 août, le lieutenant japonais Isao Oyama, ayant pénétré illégalement dans l'aéroport de Hongqiao, fut abattu par les troupes chinoises de maintien de la paix. Les Japonais demandèrent immédiatement le démantèlement unilatéral des troupes chinoises de la zone spéciale de Shanghai. Devant le prévisible refus chinois, la situation dégénéra en conflit ouvert. * Combats de rue À partir du 13 août, les troupes japonaises et chinoises commencèrent à s'affronter. Tchang Kaï-Chek ordonna au général Zhang Zhizhong de débuter le 14 août une offensive contre les Japonais, comptant sur la supériorité numérique des troupes chinoises pour battre l'armée impériale. La ville fut parcourue d'une série de batailles de rue particulièrement intenses, afin de conquérir ou défendre quartier après quartier. * Bataille aérienne Dès le 14 août, l'aviation japonaise commença à attaquer les cibles chinoises, provoquant des dizaines de milliers de morts civils. Les forces aériennes chinoises, supérieures en nombre, contre-attaquèrent alors efficacement, abattant plusieurs avions japonais. L'armée de l'air japonaise bénéficiait cependant d'une technologie plus avancée, et ses avions abattus pouvaient être rapidement remplacés, ce qui n'était pas le cas des avions chinois. Les succès initiaux de l'aviation chinoise furent vite annulés : si les Chinois parvinrent à abattre 85 avions japonais durant les combats dans la région de Shanghai, les Japonais abattirent de leur côté 91 avions chinois, ce qui représentait près de la moitié des forces aériennes de la République de Chine. * Débarquement japonais À partir du 23 août, les troupes japonaises amphibies commencèrent à débarquer massivement, entraînant la retraite des troupes chinoises de la ville de Shanghai elle-même. Les deux semaines suivantes virent une série de combats particulièrement intenses dans les villes et villages des environs de Shanghai. La résistance chinoise fut acharnée, et les Japonais durent batailler pour prendre un village côtier après l'autre. Mais, mal armées et ne disposant pas de forces navales suffisantes pour leur venir en renfort, les troupes chinoises perdirent peu à peu du terrain. Du 11 au 30 septembre, des combats très durs eurent lieu autour de la ville de Luodian, qui représentait un point stratégique : les Chinois durent affronter un adversaire disposant désormais d'une puissance de feu très importante, et perdirent de nombreux hommes. L'armée chinoise parsema de champs de mines les routes conduisant aux villes côtières des environs de Luodian. A la fin août, les combats se firent également très âpres dans la ville côtière de Baoshan, autre point stratégique vital. Le 6 septembre, la ville tomba, les Japonais ayant réussi à anéantir les troupes chinoises qui en assuraient la défense. À compter d'octobre, les troupes japonaises avaient vu monter leurs effectifs dans la région de Shanghai jusqu'à 200 000 hommes, le Japon espérant accélérer la fin du conflit. La ville de Dachang, au sud de Shanghai, et les berges de la rivière Yunzaobin, furent le cadre de combats acharnés, dans lesquels les Japonais ne réussirent qu'à avancer de cinq kilomètres entre le 11 septembre et le 20 octobre. L'armée chinoise du Guangxi, arrivée en renfort, organisa une contre-offensive qui échoua. Dachang tomba finalement le 25 octobre. À la fin du mois d'octobre, Tchang Kaï-chek organisa la défense de la rivière Suzhou, contre l'avis d'autres chefs militaires comme Li Zongren, qui souhaitaient que les troupes chinoises soient déployées au plus vite pour défendre Nankin. L'armée chinoise, épuisée, ne parvint pas à empêcher les Japonais de traverser la rivière et de prendre la berge le 30 octobre. Le 5 novembre, les troupes japonaises débarquèrent à Jinshanwei, située sur la Baie de Hangzhou, au sud de Shanghai. A la fin novembre, les troupes chinoises, épuisées et à court de munitions, entamèrent leur retraite finale, et se replièrent sur Nankin, la capitale chinoise. * Conséquences Peu après leur victoire définitive, les Japonais établirent à Shanghai un gouvernement collaborateur, chargé d'administrer la région. La durée et l'intensité inattendues des combats à Shanghai firent comprendre aux Japonais que le conflit en Chine serait plus long et plus difficile que prévu. L'armée japonaise décida de prendre au plus vite la capitale, pour venir à bout du gouvernement chinois, dans l'espoir d'abréger la résistance. S'ensuivirent la déroute des troupes chinoises à Nankin et un massacre de grande ampleur. * Bibliographie * Paul-Yanic Laquerre, De Tianjin à Nanjing, la Chine engloutie sous le Tsunami Nippon, 2e Guerre Mondiale #38, Février-Mars 2011

سبانيش تاون مدن جامايكا سبانيش تاون Spanish Town: هي العاصمة الإسبانية والإنجليزية السابقة لجاميكا بين القرن 16 والقرن 19، وهي من مواقع التراث العالمي. في المدينة العديد من النصب التذكارية، ويسكنها حوالي 145845 نسمة (2006)، كما تحتوي على أقدم كنيسة أنغليكانية خارج إنجلترا. المستعمرة الإسبانية لفيلا دي لافيغا أسسها الحاكم فرانسيسكو دي غاراي في عام 1534 كعاصمة لمستعمرته. لاحقاً سميت بسنتياغو دي لافيغا. سكانها الأصليون كانوا قبائل التاينو الذين عاشوا في المنطقة لما يقارب الألف سنة قبل الاستعمار الإسباني، ولكن هذا الاستيطان هو الاستيطان الأوروبي الأول لجنوب الجزيرة. بعدما غزا الإنجليز جاميكا عام 1655 غيروا اسم العاصمة إلى سبانيش تاون، أي المدينة الإسبانية، والتي كانت عاصمة جاميكا حتى عام 1872 حينما أصبحت كينغستون هي العاصمة.

Spanish Town Populated places established in 1534 | Populated places in Jamaica | Former national capitals | Saint Catherine Parish otheruses: Spanish Town is the capital and the largest town in the parish of St. Catherine in the county of Middlesex, Jamaica. It was the former Spanish and English capital of Jamaica from the 16th to the 19th century. The town is home to numerous memorials, the national archives, a small population, and one of the oldest Anglican churches outside of England (the others are in Virginia, Maryland and Bermuda). History: The Spanish settlement of Villa de la Vega was founded by governor Francisco de Garay in 1534 as the capital of the colony. Later, it was also called Santiago de la Vega or St. Jago de la Vega. Indigenous Taino had been living in the area for approximately a millennium before this, but this was the first European habitation on the south of the island. When the English conquered Jamaica in 1655, they renamed the capital Spanish Town. Since the town was badly damaged during the conquest, Port Royal took on many administrative roles and functioned as an unofficial capital during the beginning of English rule. By the time Port Royal was devastated by an earthquake in 1692, Spanish Town had been rebuilt and was again functioning as the capital. Spanish Town remained the capital until 1872, when the seat of the colony was moved to Kingston. Kingston had been founded in the aftermath of the 1692 earthquake. By 1755, serious rivalry from lobbyists caused increasing speculation about the continued suitability of Spanish Town as the capital. In 1836, Governor Lionel Smith observed that "the capital was in ruins, with no commercial, manufacturing and agricultural concern in operation." To worsen the situation on the heels of the Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865, Sir John Peter Grant ordered the removal of the capital in 1872 to Kingston which had come to be considered the natural capital of the island. After the seat of government was removed, Spanish Town lost much of its economic and cultural vitality. Points of interest: Built on the West Bank of the Rio Cobre, the town lies thirteen miles from Kingston on the main road. As a site of historical importance, its history was shaped by its experiences within two significant colonial periods. These periods are the Spanish from 1534–1655 and the English from 1655 -1782. The history of Spanish Town lives on in the remains of the old buildings in its street names that mark it as the start of Jamaica's overall history. Reminders of Spanish Jamaica include Red Church and White Church Streets, symbolic of the Spanish chapels of the red and white cross, as well as Monk Street, in reference to the monastery that once stood nearby. Nugent Street and Manchester Street were named for British Colonial Governors, George Nugent and William Montagu, 5th Duke of Manchester. King Street received its name because it runs past King's House and Constitution Street, near to the Square, it also refers to the fact that the island's administrative centre used to be located there. The centre of the town boasts a few Regency buildings, including the Rodney Memorial and the façade of the Old King's House, which was the residence of the governors until 1872. Old Iron Bridge: Spanish Town is home to an early cast-iron bridge, designed by Thomas Wilson and manufactured by Walker and Company of Rotherham, England. Spanning the Rio Cobre, the bridge was erected in 1801 at a cost of £4,000. Its four arched ribs are supported on massive masonry abutments. After the abutments deteriorated, endangering the structure, it was listed in the 1998 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. A restoration project began in 2004, with funding provided by American Express through the World Monuments Fund. Nevertheless, progress was slow until 2008, when a renewed restoration effort was made. A first phase of restoration was completed in April 2010, when the repair of the abutments allowed the bridge to be reopened for the public. More recently, violence has prevented the bridge from achieving the status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. * Today In 2009 the population of Spanish Town was estimated to be about 160,000. The population of Spanish Town, like the rest of the St. Catherine, has been growing rapidly. Today, Spanish Town is sometimes referred to colloquially as "Spain" or "Prison Oval" within Jamaica. The latter nickname is a reference to the cricket pitch or oval located just outside the St. Catherine District Prison where some inmates can get a limited view of the sport through their cell windows. Association football is also played at the Prison Oval; Rivoli United F.C. is the major team. The town had one of the first Spanish Cathedrals to be established in the new world. This was built around 1525. Many Christian denominations have churches or meeting halls in the town, including a Roman Catholic church and Wesleyan, Baptist and Seventh-Day Adventist chapels. There is also a mosque. Standing untouched in character is an historic alms-house and a public hospital and a maximum penal institution built in the eighteenth century. There is in the town itself a factory where dyes are made from logwood, and a rice processing plant. In the neighborhood are five large sugar estates, a milk condensary and a large textile mill. * Government and infrastructure The Rio Cobre Juvenile Correctional Centre of the Department of Correctional Services, Jamaica is located in Spanish Town. * Transport * Roads Spanish Town is on the main A1 (Kingston to Lucea) and A2 (Spanish Town to Savanna-la-Mar) roads. It is well served by buses, mini buses and taxis, which operate from the . * Rail The now disused Spanish Town railway station formerly provided access to four lines: **** The station opened in 1845 and closed in October 1992 when all passenger traffic on Jamaica's railways abruptly ceased. Notable incidents: * The famous pirate Calico Jack and his crew were hanged in Santiago de la Vega in 1720 following a trial conducted by the governor, Sir Nicholas Lawes. * The singer Natasja Saad died in a car accident on June 24, 2007. In popular culture: * In Charlotte Brontë's famous novel Jane Eyre, Bertha Antoinetta Mason, the insane wife of Edward Rochester, came from Spanish Town. * On June 24, 2007, Danish singer Natasja Saad died in Spanish Town Hospital after a car crash near the city. * Singer and Actress Grace Jones was born in Spanish Town. * Asafa Powell is from Spanish Town. References: Reflist: Other Sources: * James Robertson, Gone is the Ancient Glory, Spanish Town Jamaica 1534-2000, Kingston, Jamaica: 2005. * Settlements in Jamaica:

Spanish Town Ville de Jamaïque | Fondation en 1534 localité de Jamaïque : Spanish Town est une ville de Jamaïque et le chef-lieu de la paroisse Sainte-Catherine, dans le comté de Midlesex. Elle est située à une quinzaine de kilomètres à l'ouest de la capitale, Kingston. Sa population s'élevait à habitants au recensement de 2001. Histoire : Fondée en 1534, elle a été la capitale de la Jamaïque pendant plus de 300 ans. La vieille place municipale, de conception espagnole, est le principal intérêt historique de la ville. Au nord se dresse l'imposante statue de l'amiral George Rodney, sculptée par John Bacon, l'artiste le plus renommé de Grande-Bretagne à la fin du XVIIIe siècle: . À l'est, la Chambre de l'Assemblée, faite de briques rouges, fait face à l'ancienne villa royale, lieu de résidence du gouverneur, en grande partie détruite par un incendie en 1925. La façade a dû être reconstruite et le bâtiment abrite maintenant le musée de la construction et de la technologie. Enfin, c'est également là que se dresse la cathédrale St James datant de 1714. Spanish Town est la plus ancienne ville du Nouveau Monde à avoir été occupée sans interruption jusqu'à aujourd'hui. Elle devint la capitale de la Jamaïque lorsque les Espagnols abandonnèrent Sevilla la Nueva, sur la côte nord, trop inhospitalière, pour s'installer dans les plaines riches et fertiles du sud. Ils créèrent ainsi une nouvelle ville : St. Jago de la Vega, qui devint Spanish Town après sa prise par les Anglais. Aujourd'hui, on retrouve cette période espagnole dans les noms des rues : rue de l'Église blanche (White Church St.), où s'élevait l'église de la Croix-Blanche, rue de l'Église rouge (Red Church St.), où se trouvait l'église de la Croix-Rouge, et rue des Moines (Monk St.), où il y avait un monastère. En 1640, un boucanier britannique, qui pilla le village espagnol, la décrivit comme une ville située sur une plaine magnifique et spacieuse, composée de 400 ou 500 maisons, construites pour la plupart en torchis de cannes à sucre et de mortier, et embellie de cinq ou six imposantes églises et chapelles, ainsi qu'un monastère de frères franciscains. En 1655, une expédition anglaise commandée par l'amiral William Penn et le général Venables débarqua quelques kilomètres au sud de Passage Fort et parvint à capturer l'île de la Jamaïque sans rencontrer de véritable résistance, les Espagnols ayant fui vers Cuba en emportant avec eux les objets de valeur. Ils donnèrent alors à St. Jago de la Vega le nom de Spanish Town. En peu de temps, tous les bâtiments en brique furent détruits et remplacés par des bâtiments en pierre. Le 16 novembre 1720, le pirate Calico Jack Rackham et son équipage y furent jugés pour piraterie et pendus le jour suivant. La place municipale fut le cœur de l'île pendant trois siècles. Aujourd'hui, c'est une petite place tranquille qui permet d'admirer les vestiges du passé. La Fondation Historique de Spanish Town organise des visites des principaux sites historiques, d'une ancienne échoppe de tailleur et d'une maison jamaïquaine traditionnelle. Cette visite commence à Casa de la Vega dans la rue Barrett (Barrett St.), un bâtiment de brique restauré datant du XVIIIe siècle: . Sources : * Jamaïque:

محافظة أودومكساي محافظات لاوس محافظة أودومكساي (لاو:ອຸດົມໄຊ) و(بالإنجليزية:Oudomxay) هي محافظة تابعة لجمهورية لاوس الديموقراطية الشعبية تقع شمال غرب لاوس وتسمي عاصمتها موانغ خاي يرجع تاريخ تأسيس المحافظة الي 1976م عندما تم تقسيمها من محافظة لوانغ برابانغ للمحافظة حدود بطول 15 كيلومترا معا منطقة الحكم الذاتي شيشوانغباننا التابعة لجمهورية الصين الشعبية الجغرافيا: تبلغ ارتفاعات أودومكساي بين 300 و 800 1 متر فوق مستوى سطح البحر. حيث تعتبر محافظة جبلية، وتبلغ مساحة المحافظة 15,370 كيلومترا وتعتبر تاسع أكبر محافظة في لاوس، يتم زراعة 40000 هكتار من الأراضي بحقول الأرز ممايجعلة من أهم المحاصيل الرئيسية في المحافظة التقسيمات الادارية: تتكون المحافظة من الدوائر الحكومية التالية : محافظات لاوس: بذرة لاوس:

Oudomxay Province Oudomxay Province | Provinces of Laos Oudomxay or Oudômxai (ອຸດົມໄຊ: ) is a province of Laos, located in the northwest of the country. The province capital is Muang Xai. History: The province was created in 1976, when it was split off from Luang Prabang. Around 1987 the capital of the province was moved from Ban Nahin to Muang Xay. In 1992, the districts Paktha and Pha Oudom were reassigned to Bokeo province. According to local history books, the first people who settled in Oudomxay around the year 700 were "Khom" (also known as Khmu). About 1260, Lao Ly came from the region Sipsongpanna ("12 thousand rice fields") in Southern China and build a village called Ban Luang Cheng ("big village" or "big district") in the area of today's province capital Muang Xay. The former Lao Ly village is now part of Muang Xaya and is called Bang Cheng. Ly culture, which was marked by Buddhism on the one hand and the old Khom traditions on the other hand, grew and became very influential on the region. Khom and Leu lived together and shared the same rice fields. To provide protection they erected fortifications between the villages of Na Sao and Na Lai. Around 1828, Hmong tribes coming from China began to settle in Oudomxay. Geography : Oudomxay borders with the following provinces: Phongsali, Luang Prabang, Sainyabuli, Bokeo and Louang Namtha. In the northwest there is a 15 kilometer border with the autonomous area of Xishuangbanna of the People's Republic of China. Oudomxay expands over 15,370 square kilometers and therefore is the ninth biggest province in Laos. Topography : The topography of Oudomxay is very mountainous. Altitudes vary between 300 and 1,800 meters above sea level. Watercourses : Approximately 60 rivers flow through Oudomxay Province, as for example Nam Phak, Nam Sae, Nam Beng, Nam Kor and Nam Nga. The Nam Kor flows through the province capital Muang Xay. Demography : Ethnic Minorities : The exact proportions of the approximately 14 different ethnic groups living in Oudomxay are still not precisely known. According to the province administration, the following estimations can be assumed: * Khmu (among them Khmu Lu, Khmu Khong, Khmu Am, Khmu Bit) 60–80 % * Lao Loum 25 % * Hmong (among them Hmong Khao, Hmong Dam und Hmong lai) 15 % In minor percentages, these ethnic groups also live in the province: * Akha * Phouthai (Thai Dam & Thai Khao) * Phou Noy (Phou Xang, Phou Kongsat, Phou Nhot) * Lao Houy (also „Lenten“) * Phouan * Ly * Yang * Ikho * Ho * Climate Oudomxay Province has got a moderate monsoon climate. Due to high altitudes there are more variations in temperature during the year and a colder dry season in northern Laos as in the rest of the country. * April to September: Rainy season * October to January: Cold dry season * February to March: Warm dry season The yearly amount of rain is about 1,900mm–2,600mm. Temperatures in February and March average between 18 and 19 °C, from April to May temperatures climb over 31 °C. * Infrastructure Due to the particular topographic conditions in Oudomxay, improvements of infrastructure are very difficult and costly. Therefore for example the expansion of the road networks are only very slowly pressed ahead. Many villages do not have any access to roads - a condition, which impedes an access to important social facilities as schools or hospitals. The population of these villages is furthermore cut off the regional markets, where otherwise they could sell their agricultural products. It is also very difficult or even impossible for administrative institutions to reach the people living in remote areas. The extremely limited accessibility of the mountain villages additionally impedes economic development of rural regions. In many areas, electricity supply of households is under 10 %. Only in the few bigger towns like Muang Xay a sufficient supply of electricity is guaranteed. * Agriculture and Forestry Approximately 40,000 hectares of land are cultivated in Oudomxay, with rice being the main crop. * Subsistence Agriculture In Oudomxay province, most of the population still practices subsistence agriculture. Predominantly "slash-and-burn"-agriculture is used, often linked with growing mountain rice – 45 % of rural villages in Oudomxay depend on swidden agriculture, due to the province's mountainous topography. This form of agriculture is very labour-intensive and takes up huge areas of land, as soils need a long time until their original productivity is recovered. Cropping rice using the wet-field paddy system is just gay possible in plain lowlands, which, in Oudomxay, are scarce. Both mountain rice grown at the mountain sides, as well as most of the few cultivable areas in the lowlands are merely irrigated by natural rainfalls. Very few rice fields in the lowlands have artificial irrigation systems. Besides rice, other important crops are corn, soybeans, fruits, vegetables, cassava (maniok), sugarcane, tobacco, cotton wool, tea and peanuts. In cooperation with international organisations, the government is working to increase production intensity proposing a sustainable usage of natural resources. Besides the use of land for agricultural purposes, approximately 40,000 hectares of land are aforested or used as meadows. Lifestock breeding, above all of water buffalos, pigs, cattle and chickens, is an important component for the livelihood of rural population. According to estimations of the IUCN, approximately 12% of Oudomxay forests are primary forests, 48 % secondary forests. For the population, the forests are not only source of wood, but also contribute to family incomes providing fruits, herbs and meat. * Cash Crops The region, which was merely dominated by shifting cultivation and subsistence agriculture for a long time, now opens more and more for using the uplands for multifunctional and commercial purposes. Besides traditional subsistence agriculture, "Cash Crops" got more important in the past years, corn and sugarcane being the most important export products: In 2004, approximately 10,000 tons of sugarcane and 45,000 tons of corn were produced. Besides, also onions, watermelons and tobacco are exported. Amounts of production vary strongly from year to year, as world market prices change and give different impulsions for the farmers choosing between different crops. This is especially to consider when talking about sugarcane and corn - agricultural products, which are mainly exported to China, where they are processed to industrial sugar or alcohol. Further processing in the region, Oudomxay, is not practiced - a lost opportunity to open up new possibilities to create added value. Often individual farmers agree to contracts with Chinese investors who offer better emblements as usual, but who also determine the product to be cultivated, as well as its price. Thereby, a certain dependence is created, which is common practice on the world market. It is also common that Lao cultivable land is rented to Chinese, which then is tilled by Chinese migratory labourers. Tourism : Since some years, efforts are taken to support tourism in Oudomxay, which is considered a chance to minimize poverty of the population. Since 1997 there is a tourism office in Muang Xay, which is supported by German Development Service (DED) since 2005. The support of DED aims to raise the incomes especially of the rural population and small-scale enterprises by tourism and thereby protect natural resources. . In August 2007 the tourism office was upgraded to a “Provincial Tourism Department”. Development : Due to Oudomxay’s location as the most important traffic junction in northern Laos (the only road from Luang Prabang up north crosses Oudomxay), in the past few years the province was mainly visited by foreigners on the journey through. The average length of stay was low. Oudomxay had the image of being a touristically undeveloped cross-point, which, in 2004 was also reflected in the articles about the town in popular tourist guide books. Since some years, this image is changing. Oudomxay is nowadays more seen as a province in which discovering the “original” Laos is possible, especially in terms of ecotourism. Since some years the tourism office offers guided trekking tours, a Lao cookery course and a workshop in traditional paper making. In Oudomxay there are now two travel agencies, one of them offering guided bicycle tours through Laos. According to the „Statistical Report on Tourism in Laos 2008“ by the „Lao National Tourism Administration“, the number of tourists has increased from approximately 18.600 to 102.000 from 2001 to 2008. According to the statistic, approximately 17% of all 1,7 Mio. tourists visiting Laos in 2008 came to Oudomxay as well. Oudomxay disposes of eight hotels and approximately 52 guesthouses., most of them located in the province capital Muang Xay and the riverine traffic junction Pak Beng. * Potential Overall, about 1286 beds were available in Oudomxay in 2006. In 2008, occupancy rates of these available beds have been approximately at 60% (comparison with Luang Prabang: 73%). Bad infrastructural conditions though often impede an optimal exhaustion of touristic potential in Oudomxay province. This gets especially clear considering the example of the recently new discovered “Chom Ong Cave”: “Chom Ong Cave”, located about 45 km from Oudomxay, is the biggest known cave in northern Laos. It has got a length of more than 16 km, ceiling heights up to 50m, a stream course flowing in the cave and is entitled “exceptional” and “the most significant find and the biggest highlight” in northern Laos by several speleological magazines. Though, road conditions on the way to the village Ban Chom Ong Thai (from where it is possible to get to the cave marching about an hour) are very bad, especially in the rainy season. Due to difficult access to the cave, two days must be planned to get to the village and get back, starting from Muang Xay – an inhibition which causes that until now the cave has not ever been visited by anyone but scientists. Summarizing, touristic commercialization of the cave is very difficult due to lacks of infrastructure – a situation which can be seen as a case study for the difficulties in developing touristic structures in Oudomxay. Concerning other offers, as for example trekking tours to villages of ethnic minorities (e.g. Khmu), these infrastructural limitations do not have an impact, so that these offers are a bit more often purchased. Biota : Vegetation in Oudomxay is rich by virtue of the monsoon climate. Several kinds of bamboo and a broad range of bloomy plants (for example orchids) are to find in the region. Also hardwoods like teak and mahogany trees grow in Oudomxay and are important sources of income for the population. Mineral Resources : Oudomxay disposes of salt, bronze, zinc, antimony, brown coal, kaolin and iron deposits. * Administrative divisions The province is made up of the following districts: References: reflist:

Province d'Oudomxay Province du Laos Laos: La province d'Oudomxay est une province du nord-ouest du Laos (Asie du Sud-Est). Elle est frontalière de la Chine (Xian de Mengla, à l'extrême nord), puis, dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre, de la province de Phongsaly au nord-est, de la province de Luang Prabang à l'est, de la province de Sayaboury (dont elle est séparée par le Mékong) au sud, de la province de Bokeo à l'ouest et de la province de Luang Namtha au nord-ouest. En 1992, les districts de Paktha et de Pha Oudom, situés dans l'ouest, ont été réattribués à la province de Bokeo. Depuis cette date, la province d'Oudomxay n'est plus frontalière de la Thaïlande. Palette Subdivisions du Laos: Laos:

كتابة باللمس مهارات الرقن باللمس هي الكتابة علي لوحة المفاتيح لكن بدون استخدام حاسة البصر لإيجاد المفاتيح. يعرف الكاتب طريقه للمفاتيح عن طريق ما يسمي ذاكرة العضلة. عادة يضع مستخدم هذه الطريقة أصابع يديه الثمانية في خط أفقي واحد (و هو ما يعرف بالخط الأوسط) ثم يمد المستخدم أصابعه للأعلى أو الأسفل لنقر المفتاح المراد. معظم لوحات المفاتيح لديها شرائط بارزة على أحرف الارتكاز، وهما التاء والباء في لوحة المفاتيح العربية، ليتحسسها مستخدمي هذه الطريقة كي يمركزوا أيديهم في أماكنها الصحيحة. النشأة : فرانك إدوارد ماكجورين، موظف محكمة من سالت ليك سيتي، يوتا الذي كان يعطي دروسا في الرقن باللمس، يقال هو من قام باختراع الفكرة. في 25 يوليو، 1888 قام ماكجورين الذي كان معروفا بأنه الوحيد يومها باستخدام الرقن باللمس، بنصر حاسم أمام غريمه لويس تراوب في مسابقة كتابة في سينسيناتي. قامت الصحف بنشر النبأ في الصفحات الأولى. كسب يومها ماكجورين مبلغ 500 دولار واشتهرت طريقته في الكتابة سواء كان ماكجورين أول من رقن باللمس، أو ببساطة أول من لاحظ بذلك، هو أمر مجهول. السرعات المحققة عن طريق الكُتاب الآخرين في مسابقات رقن أخرى حينها تلمح إلى استخدامهم أساليب مماثلة الأسلوب الشهير المستخدم عربيا هو "الصيد بالنقر" (أو الكتابة بالسبابتين فقط) الذي هو أبطأ من الرقن باللمس لأنه بدلا من الاعتماد على الأماكن المحفوظة في الذاكرة للمفاتيح، يقوم الكاتب بالبحث عن المفتاح بالنظر وتحريك إصبعه مسافة أطول. هناك أساليب أخرى هي عبارة عن خليط بين هذين - على سبيل المثال بعض الناس تقوم بالرقن بدون النظر، لكن باستخدام من اثنين إلى خمس أصابع بعض الأساليب المقترحة لزيادة السرعة باستخدام الرقن باللمس: * التمكن من وضعية صحيحة * بذل قدر الجهد المطلوب فقط (وليس الخبط على اللوحة مثلا) * اخذ استراحة بين الحين والآخر لزيادة الدقة والتركيز التدريب على الكتابة باللمس : بمكن للتدريب على الرقن باللمس أن يزيد سرعة كاتب ذي سرعة متوسطة إلى 60 كلمة في الدقيقة وفي نفس الوقت يزيد الدقة اليومية. هناك العديد من البرامج المجانية التي تقوم بتعليم الرقن باللمس الاختلافات في أنظمة الكتابة باللمس : تختلف أنظمة الكتابة باللمس اختلافات طفيفة من بلد إلى آخر، على سبيل المثال قد يختلف بعض الأنظمة العربية على اعتبار مفاتيح الـ د وج وح من اعتبار البنصر اليمنى والـ خ من اختصاص الخنصر، وتذهب أنظمة أخرى لضم مفتاح ح إلى الخنصر. مراجع : ثبت المراجع:

Touch typing Typing | Input/output | Computer keyboards dateMay 2008: Touch typing (also called touch type or touch method) is typing without using the sense of sight to find the keys. Specifically, a touch typist will know their location on the keyboard through muscle memory. Touch typing typically involves placing the eight fingers in a horizontal row along the middle of the keyboard (the home row) and having them reach for other keys. A person who spends most of their day touch typing is usually a copy typist or an audio typist. Frank Edward McGurrin, a court stenographer from Salt Lake City who taught typing classes, reportedly invented touch typing in 1888. On a standard keyboard for English speakers the home row keys are: "ASDF" for the left hand and "JKL;" for the right hand. The keyboard is called a QWERTY keyboard because these are the first six letters on the keyboard. Most modern computer keyboards have a raised dot or bar on the home keys for the index fingers to help touch typists maintain and rediscover the correct position on the keyboard quickly with no need to look at the keys. * History Original layouts for the first few mechanical typewriters were in alphabetical order (ABCDE etc.) but the frequent jams suffered by experienced typists forced the manufacturers to change the layout of the letters, placing keys that are often pressed in a sequence as far as possible from each other. This allows to engage the second printing bar of the typewriter before the first falls down, increasing the speed of the mechanism. Equal distribution of the load over most of fingers also increased the speed as the keys of the mechanical typewriter are more difficult to press. The calculations for keyboard layout were based on the language being typed and this meant different keyboard layouts would be needed for each language. In English speaking countries for example the first row is QWERTY, but in French speaking countries it is AZERTY. Though mechanical typewriters are now rarely used, moves to change the layout to increase speed have been largely ignored or resisted due to familiarity with the existing layout among touch typists. Frank Edward McGurrin, a court stenographer from Salt Lake City who taught typing classes, reportedly invented touch typing. On July 25, 1888, McGurrin, who was reportedly the only person using touch typing at the time, won a decisive victory over Louis Traub (operating Caligraph with eight-finger method) in a typing contest held in Cincinnati. The results were displayed on the front pages of many newspapers. McGurrin won $500 ($11,400 in 2007) and popularized the new typing method. Whether McGurrin was actually the first person to touch type, or simply the first to be popularly noticed, is disputed. Speeds attained by other typists in other typing competitions at the time suggest that they must have been using similar systems. In 1889 Bates Torrey coined the words "writing by touch" in his article. In 1890 Lovisa Ellen Bullard Bernes defined the words "write by touch" in her book as follows: To learn to write by touch, that is, with only an occasional glance at the key-board, sit directly in front of the machine. Keep the hands as nearly as possible in one position over the key-board.: The most common other form of typing is search and peck typing (or two-fingered typing). This method is slower than touch typing because instead of relying on the memorized position of keys, the typist is required to find each key by sight and move fingers a greater distance. Many idiosyncratic styles in between those two exist — for example, many people will type blindly, but using only two to five fingers and not always in a systematic way. * Advantages * Speed Touch typing can efficiently bring an average speed typist to 60 words per minute (WPM) fairly quickly and at the same time increase accuracy by great amounts. Upon learning to touch type, comfortable typing speed is expected to be achieved within a month.date: August 2011: Reduced switching of attention : A touch typist does not need to move the sight between the keyboard (that is obscured with fingers and may be poorly lit) and other areas that require attention. This increases productivity and reduces the number of errors. Training : A touch typist starts by placing his or her fingers on the "start position" in the middle row and knows which finger to move and how much to move it for reaching any required key. Learning typically includes first printing exercises containing only letters on or near the standard position and then gradually mastering other rows. It is important to learn placing fingers into the start position blindly as the hands are frequently raised from the keyboard to operate the line feed lever (in the past) or (more recently) the computer mouse. The keys F and J frequently contain some surface features that allow the typist to recognize them by touch alone. The typing speed can be increased gradually with regular practice and speeds around 60 WPM could be achieved within a year or so. Many websites and software products are available to learn touch typing and many of these are free. Learning touch typing can be stressful both to the fingers as well as the mind in the beginning, but once it is learned to a decent level, it exerts minimal stress on the fingers. Typing speed generally improves with practice. While practicing, it is important to ensure that there are no weak keys. Typing speed is typically determined by how slow these weak keys are typed rather than how fast the remaining keys are typed. If a stage is reached where irrespective of the amount of practice, typing speed is not increasing, it is advisable to let some time pass and continue serious practice thereafter as typing speeds typically tend to increase with time even when no serious practice is done. Home row : "Home row," or "home keys" is a term that refers to certain keys of the center row of alphabetical letters on a typewriter or computer keyboard. On the most common type of English language keyboard, the QWERTY layout, "A: S: D: F: J: K: L: ;: " represents the contents of the home row. The middle row of the keyboard is termed "home row" because typists are trained to keep their fingers on these keys and/or return to them after pressing any other key that is not on the home row. For instance, to type the word poll on a QWERTY keyboard, one would place all of one's fingers on the home row. (The right hand should be covering "J: K: L: ;: " with the thumb on the space bar: while the left hand covers "A: S: D: F: ".) The typist will then use their little finger to reach for the "P: " key located just above the semicolon and then return the pinky back to the semicolon key from which it originated. The ring finger, located on the "L: " key will be moved directly upwards to press the "O: " key and then back. Finally, the same ring finger will remain on the "L: " key and press it twice. Experienced typists can do this at speeds of over 100 words per minute, but the method is that they always return their fingers to the home row when they are not in use. This provides for quick, easy access to all of the keys on the keyboard. Age children can learn to touch type: "Given the ubiquity of keyboards and the growing expectation that secondary school pupils and university students will type their essays and coursework, I think it (touch typing) is one the most useful skills a child can learn - at any age from seven upwards." John Clare, The Daily Telegraph. Other methods : A method taught since the 1960s (and perhaps earlier): The left little finger is used for the keys 1: 2: , the ring finger for 3: , the middle — 4: , the left index finger is responsible for 5: and 6: . On the right side of the keyboard: index — 7: and 8: , middle — 9: , ring — 0: and the little — all other keys on the right side of the upper row. Probably these two methods reflect the layout of the typewriters from early days when some of them have no 0: and/or 1: keys. There exist special ergonomic keyboards designed for both typing methods. The keyboard is split between the keys 5: and 6: or 6: and 7: . Some specialized high-end computer keyboards are designed for touch typists. For example, many manufacturers provide blank mechanical keyboards. A trained touch typist should not mind using a blank keyboard. This kind of keyboard may force hunt and peck users to type without looking.

Dactylographie Clavier | Métier des services | Écriture La dactylographie est le métier, ou plus simplement l'aptitude à saisir un texte sur un clavier d'ordinateur (ou anciennement de machine à écrire) sans le regarder en utilisant ses dix doigts avec rapidité, fluidité et précision. Avantages: Une bonne dextérité sur un poste de travail ergonomique amoindrit la fatigue et l'usure : elle épargne les yeux et les cervicales si on regarde constamment ce qui se passe à l'écran ou sur la feuille. Elle permet d'éviter certains troubles musculaires au niveau des mains, que de mauvaises habitudes de frappe pourraient engendrer, en répartissant par exemple équitablement la charge de chaque doigt sur l'ensemble des touches du clavier. Méthodes de frappe: Les méthodes d'apprentissage préconisent d'afficher à la hauteur des yeux une maquette de clavier. On regarde celle-ci pour s'habituer à une frappe dite « à l'aveugle ». Le plus souvent, pour accélérer sa vitesse de frappe, c'est la pratique en elle-même qui finit par porter ses fruits. Cette vitesse est mesurée en nombre de mots ou de caractères par minute . Il existe plusieurs méthodes et logiciels permettant d'apprendre comment parfaire cette mémoire des muscles et du toucher. …: Ergonomie du clavier: Presque tous les claviers d'ordinateurs possèdent deux repères placés sur les touches qui doivent être situés sous les deux index en position initiale sur la rangée de base, de repos. Ces repères en relief permettent de positionner et de repositionner ses doigts sur le clavier sans le regarder et en s'aidant uniquement du toucher des deux index. Cela permet ainsi de ne pas lâcher l'écran des yeux et donc de rester concentré sur les caractères qui apparaissent à l'écran. Sur les claviers téléphoniques, aussi bien mobiles que fixes, on retrouve également un repère situé sur la touche 5, qui est obligatoire puisqu'il permet aux déficients visuels (aveugles et malvoyants) de se servir des téléphones plus facilement. Histoire: …: Le métier de dactylographe a émergé à la fin du XIXe siècle: , se généralisant lors de la Belle Epoque, la production de masse de machine à écrire débutant aux États-Unis à la fin des années 1880. Associé à celui de sténographe, il consistait principalement, au début, à taper à la machine les notes sténographiées, voire parfois à transcrire les enregistrements sur dictaphones (ainsi chez Sears, Roebuck and Company à Chicago). Ainsi, les milieux journalistiques et les sténographes chargés de la transcription des débats parlementaires furent les premiers à adopter les machines à écrire. Au début, les premières machines à écrire servaient davantage à utiliser à domicile les techniques d'imprimerie qu'à écrire rapidement (l'écrivain Mark Twain fut l'un des premiers à acheter une machine à écrire). Mais progressivement, la mécanisation de l'écriture a été admise, l'importance d'une belle écriture déclinant. Ce processus d'émergence de la dactylographie a d'abord initié par le milieu des affaires, avec l'application du taylorisme à l'organisation des bureaux, théorisée par exemple par William Leffingwell ou le couple Gilbreth (auteurs du roman autobiographique Treize à la douzaine). Il s'est ensuite étendu à l'administration, pendant que le métier de dactylographe était sujet, dès les années 1910, à une standardisation, concomitante à celles des machines à écrire. Des méthodes de dactylographie ont ainsi été inventées, jusqu'à que celle consistant à taper à dix doigts, sans regarder le clavier, prenne le dessus (les premières méthodes n'utilisaient que deux ou trois doigts). En même temps, les claviers étaient standardisés, dans une procédure n'excluant pas un certain nationalisme (l'affiche publicitaire de la machine de la Manufacture d'armes de Paris, en 1924, présente des poilus). Certaines propositions tombent ainsi dans l'oubli, telle le clavier ZHJAYSCPG d'Albert Navarre, auteur de traités de dactylographie, ou la disposition Dvorak qui ne parvient pas à s'imposer face au clavier QWERTZ. Ce processus de standardisation, qui touche l'Europe après la Première Guerre mondiale, s'associe à la bureautique comme méthode d'organisation du travail du bureau, avec la création d'espaces singuliers et de meubles spécifiques (la chaise Flambo, le Burodactyl, etc.), dans un double souci d'ergonomie et d'intensification de la productivité des dactylographes. Ces améliorations sont médiatisées par des revues, telles que la Revue dactylographique et mécanique, Mon Bureau (de Gaston Lavisse) ou System (d'Arch Shaw), tandis que des instituts de formation sont créés dans le monde entier. Le métier s'est féminisé en même temps qu'il se dégradait sous l'essor de son « organisation scientifique ». Auparavant payé à la semaine ou au mois, les sténographes-dactylographes devinrent payés à la tâche, voire à la ligne, avec un système de primes et d'amendes en cas de faute de frappe et autres erreurs. Des entreprises comme la Manufacture d'armes et de cycles de Saint-Étienne ou la Société des Transports en Commun de la Régie Parisienne créèrent des salles entières consacrées à la dactylographie, centralisant cette fonction, cruciale dans la vente par correspondance qui fut pionnière dans ce processus. Concours: …: Des concours de vitesse ont été organisés au début du XXe siècle: , dans une optique à la fois publicitaire et de légitimation de l'organisation scientifique du travail. En France, le premier est organisé en 1889 par Georges Buisson, sténographe à l'Assemblée nationale. En 1911, le second prix, en France, est remporté par des dactylos tapant sur une machine Typo, de la Manufacture d'armes et de cycles de Saint-Étienne. A l'heure actuelle, les championnats du monde en dactylographie sont organisés tous les deux ans par la Fédération internationale pour le traitement de l'information et de la communication (en abrégé Intersteno) lors de ses congrès bisannuels. Cette Fédération a été créée à Londres en 1887, sous le nom Intersteno. Ce premier congrès s'intéressait seulement à la prise de note (sténographie), les concours (en sténographie) sont apparus plus tard puis, comme la technique d'écriture à la machine à écrire se répandait de plus en plus, des concours de vitesse de frappe ont été ajoutés dès le début du XXe siècle. Vingt congrès ont eu lieu jusqu'en 1937. Mais après une période d'inactivité, les congrès ont repris après la seconde guerre mondiale et ont été régulièrement organisés tous les deux ans; le premier de cette "époque moderne" qui est en fait le 21e, a eu lieu à Monaco en 1955. Le 48e congrès vient de se terminer à Paris (10 au 15 juillet 2011). Le prochain est prévu en 2013, à en Belgique. Les championnats du monde en vitesse et précision de frappe ne s'appellent plus concours de dactylographie mais concours de production de texte. Et bien entendu, les claviers des machines à écrire ont été remplacés par des claviers d'ordinateur. Les concurrents de ces championnats du monde sont classés en différentes catégories, en fonction de leur âge. A Paris, le champion de la catégorie "élève" est un jeune belge de moins de 14 ans (Axel Moermans) qui a reçu la médaille d'or pour avoir atteint 500,63 caractères à la minute avec seulement 0,03 % d’erreurs; le champion "junior" (de 17 à 20 ans) est tchèque (Luboš Beran) avec 596,47 caractères et une précision de 0,06 %; dans la catégorie "senior" (plus de 20 ans), c'est Hakan Kurt de Turquie qui remporte la palme avec 733,90 caractères et 0,05 % de précision. Il faut noter que le record de la championne du monde Helena Matoušková (République tchèque) n'a pas encore été égalé: 955,10 caractères à la minute et un pourcentage d'erreur de 0,03, lors des championnats du monde organisés à Rome en 2003. Cette fédération organise également chaque année un concours international de frappe sur clavier par le biais d'Internet avec envoi de diplôme; lors de ces championnats internationaux, certains candidats dactylographient dans 16 langues différentes. (à suivre) Notes et références : Annexes : Articles connexes : * Disposition des touches des claviers informatiques * Sténographie écriture:

صفاريون دول سابقة في العالم الإسلامي | تاريخ إيران | تاريخ تركمانستان | تاريخ أفغانستان الدولة الصفارية سلالة (أصلها ایرانی) حكمت في فارس، أفغانستان وأجزاء من ماوراء النهر سنوات 861/67-903 م. المقر : مرو. حياته: : تنتسب الأسرة إلى يعقوب بن الليث الصفار (نسبة إلى حرفته: صناعة الصُفر أو النحاس). تقول الروايات أنه ينحدر من جبال شرق فارس، وكان لديه 3 أخوات (عمرو، طاهر، على) فانضموا إلى خالهم (كثير بن دقاق) وكونوا عصابة لقطع الطريق ولكن لم يكونوا قطاع طريق بالعمنى المعروف للسرقة ولكن للإعتراض على أحوال مجتمعهم. استطاع يعقوب بن الليث ان ينضم إلى (طوائف المطوعة) بقيادة (صالح بن النضير الكنانى) وخاضوا حروباً ضارية مع خوراج سجستان واضطر واليها (إبراهيم بن الحسين) للهروب وليصبح بذلك (درهم بن الحسين) والى سجستان وولى يعقوب بن الليث الصفارى على ولاية (بست) فذاع صيته والتف حوله الناس حتى أن أهل خرسان ارسلوا يستنجدون به في عهد الدولة الطاهرية فرفع عنهم الضرر ونجح في كسب الأهالى وجاءت الفرصة امام يعقوب بن الليث حينما تنازل (درهم بن الحسين) عن ولايته سجستان. سياسته الداخلية: : إجتمعت المصادر على انه كان رجلاً عاقلاً حازماً واظهر حرصه في تدعيم ملكه حيث أهتم بتدبير أمور مملكته وتحصينها وعمارة أرضه فكرثت أمواله وعمرت خزائنه بعد ذلك أن ينشئ ثم يقود وحدات عسكرية كبيرة ثم أعلن نفسه حاكما على موطنه في سجستان (شرق فارس). سنة 867 م ضم إليه المناطق التي حكمها الطاهريون (منذ 868 م: هراة، فارس، شيراز، بلخ ثم طخرستان). انتهى الأمر بأن قام بإجلائهم عن خراسان (سنة 873 م) وأفغانستان. عينه الخليفة سنة 871 م واليا على المناطق الشرقية. أعد سنة 876 م حملة على بغداد. استطاع أخوه عمرو (878-900 م) أن يحتفظ بالمناطق التي استولى عليها يعقوب ثم كان أن اعترف به الخليفة هو أيضا واليا على ماوراء النهر. إلأ أنه هزم على يد السامانيين فيما بعد (سنة 900م) ثم أسر. أراد حفيده الطاهر (900-903م) أن يستعيد أملاك أجداده، فجهز جملة من قاعدته في سستان، ثم فشل في النهاية. حكم خليفته كوال على سستان (ومقره في نمروز) ثم وضع نفسه تحت سلطة السلاجقة منذ 1068م حتى سنة 1383م، بعد قيام تيمورلنك بالقضاء على هذا الفرع نهائيا. قائمة الأمراء : العهد الأول فقط...    الحاكم  الحياة  الحكم 1 يعقوب بن الليث الصفّار  ....-....   861-879  2 عمرو بن الليث  ....-....   879-900  3 طاهر بن محمد بن عمرو  ....-....   900-909  4 الليث بن علي بن الليث  ....-....   909-910  5 محمد بن علي  ....-....   910-910  6 المعدل بن علي  ....-....   910-911  7 عمرو بن يعقوب  ....-....   912-912  المصادر : * Islam: Kunst und Architektur *

Saffarid dynasty History of Iran | History of Afghanistan | History of Tajikistan | Sistan | States and territories established in 861 | 861 establishments | 1002 disestablishments | Saffarid dynasty | Dynasties of Pakistan | Muslim dynasties | History of Islam | History of Nimruz Province History of Greater Iran: The Saffarids or the Saffarid dynasty (سلسله صفاریان: ) was a Persian empire which ruled in Sistan (861-1002), a historical region in southeastern Iran, southwestern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Their capital was Zaranj, located in present-day Afghanistan. The dynasty was founded by – and took its name from – Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar, a man of humble origins who rose from an obscure beginning as a coppersmith (ṣaffār) to become a warlord. He seized control of the Sistan region, conquering all of Afghanistan, modern-day eastern Iran, and parts of Pakistan. Using their capital (Zaranj) as base for an aggressive expansion eastwards and westwards, they overthrew the Tahirid dynasty and annexed Khorasan in 873. By the time of Ya'qub's death, he had conquered Kabul Valley, Sindh, Tocharistan, Makran (Balochistan), Kerman, Fars, Khorasan, and nearly reached Baghdad but then suffered defeat. The Saffarid empire did not last long after Ya'qub's death. His brother and successor Amr bin Laith was defeated in a battle against Ismail Samani in 900. Amr bin Laith was forced to surrender most of their territories to the new rulers. The Saffarids were subsequently confined to their heartland of Sistan, with their role reduced to that of vassals of the Samanids and their successors. Founding: The Saffarid dynasty started with Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari who as a coppersmith moved to the city of Zaranj. He later started his campaign as an Ayyar and eventually got the power to act as an independent ruler. From his capital Zaranj he moved east into al-Rukhkhadj and Zamindawar reaching as far as Zunbil and Kabul by 865. He took vast amounts of plunder and slaves from this campaign. The Tahirid city of Herat was taken in 870 and his campaign in the Baghghis region led to the capture of Kharidjites which later formed the Djash al-Shurat contingent in his army. Ya'qub then turned his focus to the west and began attacks on Khurasan, Khuzistan, Kirman and Fars. These attacks forced the Abbasid caliphate to recognize him as governor of Kirman. In 901, Amr Saffari was defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids, which reduced the Saffarid dynasty to a minor tributary in Sistan. In 1002, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Sistan, dethroned Khalaf I and ended the Saffarid dynasty. Culture: The Saffarids gave great care to the Persian culture and under their rule the Eastern Islamic lands witnessed the emergence of prominent Persian poets like Fayrouz Mashriqi, Abu Salik al-Jirjani, and Muhammad bin Wasif al-Sistani. From silver mines in the Panjshir Valley, the Saffarids were able to mint silver coins. Rulers of the Saffarid dynasty: * Ya`qûb ben Layth as-Saffâr (867-879) * (879-901) * Tâhir ben Muhammad ben `Amr (901-908) * Layth ben `Alî (908-910) * Muhammad ben `Alî (910-912) * `Amr bin Ya`qûb ben Muhammad ben `Amr (912-913) * Ahmad ben Muhammed bin Khalaf bin Layth bin `Alî (922-963) * Walî ad-Dawlah Khalaf ben Ahmad (963-1002)

Saffarides Saffarides | Histoire de l'Afghanistan | Dynastie musulmane La dynastie des Saffarides de Perse gouverna un éphémère empire centré sur le Seistan, une région frontalière entre l’Afghanistan et l’Iran actuels, entre 861 et 1003. La capitale des Saffarides était située à Zarandj dans l'actuel Afghanistan. La dynastie fut fondée par Ya`qûb ben Layth as-Saffâr, un homme d’origine modeste qui commença obscurément sa vie comme chaudronnier dans l’est de l’Iran, d'où son qualificatif de ( صفار saffâr, "cuivre"), qui donna son nom à la dynastie. Avec une armée composée à l'origine de milices plus ou moins contrôlées, majoritairement sunnites mais avec de nombreux kharidjites venus de Perse, battus et pourchassés par les gouverneurs omeyyades , Ya'kûb prit le contrôle de la région du Seistan, conquérant ensuite la plus grande partie de l’Iran actuel en utilisant cette région comme base de ses conquêtes. En 871, venant de Balkh, Ya'kûb ravage les temples bouddhistes de Bâmiyân avant de conquérir Kaboul et d'en chasser les Turki Shahis. Dès lors, ces territoires, jusque là voués au bouddhisme, vont progressivement se convertir à l'islam. À sa mort, il avait conquis le Khorassan (mettant ainsi un terme à la dynastie régionale des Tahirides) ainsi que des parties du nord de l’Inde et de l’ouest de l’Iran, atteignant presque Bagdad. L’empire saffaride ne survécut guère à la mort de Ya`qûb. Son frère et successeur `Amr ben Layth, battu par les Samanides en 900, sera contraint de restituer le Khorassan. Les Saffarides furent par la suite confinés à la région du Seistan, leur rôle étant réduit à celui de vassaux des Samanides et de leurs successeurs Seldjouks et Mongols jusqu'à la fin du XVe: siècle. Dynastie des Saffarides (jusqu’à la conquête ghaznévide): * Ya`qûb ben Layth as-Saffâr (867-879) * `Amr ben Layth (879-901) * Tâhir ben Muhammad ben `Amr (901-908) * Layth ben `Alî (908-910) * Muhammad ben `Alî (910-912) * `Amr bin Ya`qûb ben Muhammad ben `Amr (912-913) * Ahmad ben Muhammed bin Khalaf bin Layth bin `Alî (922-963) * Walî ad-Dawlah Khalaf ben Ahmad (963-1003) Notes: Bibliographie : * C.E. Bosworth, Les dynasties musulmanes, trad. Y. Thoraval, Actes sud, coll. Sinbad, 1996, ISBN 2-7427-0713-1

ويب كومكس قصص مصورة | إنترنت القصص المصورة عبر الوب أو الوب كومكس هي كاريكاترات الإنترنت ويتم نشرها على شبكة الإنترنت وغالبا تكون حصرية وتوفر سهولة الوصول إلى الجمهور وأفكارهم، قد ينشر بعضها في الكتب والمجلات ولكنها تحفظ في أرشيف الإنترنت. بالنسبة لهذه الكاريكاتيرات يمكن طبعها ونشرها وتأليفها من قبل أي شخص، ويبلغ عددها حاليا على الوب ما يقارب 18000 وب كومكس، وقد تتضمن العديد من المجالات مثل قطاع الكارتون التقليدي والروايات الغرافيكية، وتغطي العديد من المواضيع، وهي لا تسبب الاكتفاء الذاتي المادي لمن أراد رسم هذه الكاريكاترات إلا القليل منها. معلومات عن الوب كومكس : هناك العديد من الفروق بين الوب كومكس والكاريكاترات الموجودة في الصحف والجرائد. لقد أحدثت الوب كومكس نقلة نوعية في عالم الكاريكاترات وقد تؤثر على الكاريكاترات في الصحف والمجلات ويسمح للرسامين أن يستفيدوا من قدرات الوب النادرة في نشر كاريكاتراتهم ،سكوت مكلود كان أول من روج لفكرة الوب كومكس وهناك الكثير من الكتب والرسامين التي تناولت هذا الموضوع من الكاريكاترات مثل مايك كروهليك، جيري هوليكنز، اريك ملكن، تيم بكلي والكثير من الرسامين الذين اختصوا بهذا المجال. العمل في هذا المجال : هناك بعض المحترفين في هذه المهنة والتي يتخذونها كمهنة رئيسية لهم هذا المجموعة المحترفة من رسامي الوب كومكس تتضمن بعض الرسامين مثل : ريش بروليو، تارول هنت، جيمس كوشالكا، راندال مونورو، تيم بكلي وغيرهم. معظم هؤلاء الرسامين بدأو العمل كهواية أو تسلية، لكنهم نجحوا في هذا المجال ويستطيعون العيش بلا تبرعات أو هبات. انظر إلى مثال على الوب كومكس للفنان تيم بكلي. هناك العديد من الطرق لكسب المال في هذا المجال مثل الاعلان والترويج عن طريق بعض المواقع مثل باي بال وغيرها من الطرق، وقد ظهرت شركات مختصة مثل Modern Tales. جوائز هذا المجال : * Eagle Awards عام 2000 * Ignatz Awards عام 2001 * Eisner Awards عام 2005 * Shuster Awards عام 2007 وهذه الجائزة خاصة بالرساميين الكنديين * Web Cartoonists' Choice Awards التي تقام سنويا منذ عام 2001 * The Clickburg Webcomic Awards الذي تم البدء فيه عام 2005 في Stripdagen Haarlem comic festival الذي يكرم الرساميين في هولندا وبلجيكا ولكسمبورغ الوب الكومكس غير الإنجليزية : كان لا بد من أن تنتشر الوب كومكس خارج الدول الناطقة بالانجليزية كأمريكا وبريطانيا، فعلى سبيل المثال انتشرت بعض الوب كومكس الألمانية عام 2000 على يد الرسام الألماني Joscha Sauer وقد قام هذا الرسام بالعديد من الأعمال حيث قام بنشر كارتون الفكاهة السوداء اليومية وبذلك أصبحت أعمله معروفة في كل ألمانيا، حتى عرضت عليه شركة Carlsen Verlag عقد حيث يظهر له كتاب سنوي تظهر فيه كاريكاتراته، والتي تضمن توفير دخل جيد له. المصادر والمراجع : ثبت المراجع: طالع أيضا: * إكس كي سي دي أسبوع الويكي: بذرة إنترنت: بذرة قصص مصورة:

Webcomic Webcomics | World Wide Web Webcomics (also known as online comics or Internet comics) are comics published on a website. While many are published exclusively on the web, others are also published in magazines, newspapers or in books (often self-published). Webcomics can be compared to self-published print comics in that almost anyone can create their own webcomic and publish it. In January 2007, there were an estimated 38,000 webcomics being published. Webcomics range from traditional comic strips and graphic novels to avante garde comics, and cover many genres, styles and subjects. Only a select few are financially successful. Medium: There are several differences between webcomics and print comics. With webcomics the restrictions of the traditional newspapers or magazines can be lifted, allowing artists and writers to take advantage of the web's unique capabilities. Styles: The freedom webcomics provide allows artists to work in nontraditional styles. Clip art or photo comics (also known as fumetti) are types of webcomics that do not use traditional artwork. A Softer World, for example, is made by overlaying photographs with strips of typewriter-style text. As in the constrained comics tradition, a few webcomics, such as Dinosaur Comics by Ryan North, are created with most strips having art copied exactly from one (or a handful of) template comics and only the text changing. Pixel art, such as that created by Richard Stevens of Diesel Sweeties, is similar to that of sprite comics but instead uses low-resolution images created by the artist himself. * Content Webcomics that are independently published are not subject to the content restrictions of book publishers or newspaper syndicates, enjoying an artistic freedom similar to underground and alternative comics. Some webcomics stretch the boundaries of taste, taking advantage of the fact that internet censorship is virtually nonexistent in countries like the United States. The content of webcomics can still cause problems, such as Leisure Town artist Tristan Farnon's legal trouble after creating a homoerotic Dilbert parody, or the Catholic League's protest of artist Eric Monster Millikins "blasphemous treatment of Jesus." Format: Scott McCloud, one of the first advocates of webcomics, has pioneered the idea of the infinite canvas where, rather than being confined to normal print dimensions, artists are free to spread out in any direction indefinitely with their comics. Other webcomics, such as Charley Parker's Argon Zark! or the work of political cartoonist Mark Fiore, incorporate animations or even interactive elements into their comics. However, the format and style of many, if not most, webcomics is still similar to that of traditional newspaper comic strips like Peanuts consisting of three or four panels. Similar to comic books, manga and graphic novels, other webcomics come in a page form rather than a strip form and tend to focus more on story than gags. Webcomic creators often publish print collections when their archive consists of a significant number of strips; artists who create webcomics in nonstandard formats may experience difficulties to come up with an adequate page layout. * Early webcomics The first online comic was Witches and Stitches, which was published on CompuServe in 1985. It was followed by T.H.E. Fox, which was published on CompuServe and Quantum Link in 1986. Other online comics followed in the early '90s. Where the Buffalo Roam was published on FTP and usenet in 1991, Doctor Fun was published on the web in September 1993, NetBoy began publishing on the web in the summer of 1994 and NetComics Weekly from Finnish Comics Society was started in mid 1994. Among the longest-running webcomics, some of which are still being published, are Rogues of Clwyd-Rhan (a Dutch comic that started in November 1994) The Polymer City Chronicles (March 1995), Art Comics Daily (March 1995), Argon Zark! (June 1995), Kevin and Kell (September 1995), Slow Wave (November 1995), and Eric Monster Millikin (Fall 1995). The term "webcomics" was used as early as April 1995. The late nineties saw the number of webcomics increase drastically. Melonpool first published in April 1996. In 1997, Goats appeared (in April), followed by Sluggy Freelance (in August), Roomies! (in September), Piled Higher and Deeper (in October), User Friendly (in November). Penny Arcade and Pokey the Penguin began a year later. Webcomics collectives: In March 1995, Bebe Williams launched the webcomics portal Art Comics Daily, an online gallery of several webcomics. In March 2000, Chris Crosby, Crosby's mother Teri, and Darren Bleuel founded the webcomics portal Keenspot. Crosby and Bleuel also started a free webcomic hosting service in July 2000, originally called KeenSpace but renamed Comic Genesis in July 2005. In July 2000, Austin Osueke launched eigoMANGA a web portal that published original online manga "webmanga". Within this year, eigoMANGA brought comic book industry attention to webcomics after being featured in many comic book web magazine articles and later appearing in the March 2001 issue of Wizard Magazine. In 2001, the subscription webcomics site Cool Beans World was launched after a high profile publicity campaign including extensive print advertising. It won Internet Magazine's "Site of the Month" award in October 2001. Contributors included, amongst others, UK-based comic book creators Pat Mills, Simon Bisley, John Bolton and Kevin O'Neill, and the author Clive Barker. Serialised content included Scarlet Traces and Marshal Law. In March 2001, Shannon Denton and Patrick Coyle launched Komikwerks.com serving free strips from comics and animation professionals. The site launched with 9 titles including Steve Conley's Astounding Space Thrills, Jason Kruse's The World of Quest and Bernie Wrightson’s The Nightmare Expeditions. On March 2, 2002, Joey Manley founded Modern Tales, offering subscription-based webcomics. The Modern Tales spin-off serializer followed in October 2002, then came girlamatic and Graphic Smash in March and September 2003 respectively. By 2005, webcomics hosting had become a business in its own right, with sites such as Comic Genesis and Webcomics Nation. While comic strip syndicates had been present online since the mid 1990s, traditional comic book publishers, such as Marvel Comics and Slave Labour Graphics, did not begin making serious digital efforts until 2006 and 2007. DC Comics launched its web comic imprint, Zuda Comics in October 2007. The site featured user submitted comics in a competition for a professional contract to produce web comics. In July 2010, it was announced that DC was closing down Zuda. Business: List of professional webcomic artists: A growing number artists make a full-time living from their businesses and intellectual property, among them Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of Penny Arcade, Pete Abrams of Sluggy Freelance, and Randall Munroe of xkcd. Comics online can generate revenue from advertising, original art sales, merchandising, print collections, subscription fees and reader donations; these methods are not dissimilar to avenues of income available to traditional artists. Several cartoonists like Phil and Kaja Foglio of Girl Genius have stopped publishing traditional comic books and instead serialise their content as a webcomic to reach a larger audience. Often, the webcomic is later published in the form of trade paperback collections. Some webcomics, such as Helen, Sweetheart of the Internet, Macanudo, Van Von Hunter and Diesel Sweeties have been syndicated and published on daily newspapers' comics pages. Others such as The Perry Bible Fellowship and PartiallyClips have been published in smaller alternative newspapers, or printed in magazines, such as The Order of the Stick in Dragon Magazine and Get Your War On in Rolling Stone. Awards: List of webcomic awards: Many webcomics artists have received honors for their work. In 2006, Gene Luen Yang's graphic novel American Born Chinese, originally published as a webcomic on Modern Tales, was the first graphic novel to be nominated for a National Book Award. Don Hertzfeldt's animated film based on his webcomics, Everything Will Be OK, won the 2007 Sundance Film Festival Jury Award in Short Filmmaking, a prize rarely bestowed on an animated film. Many traditionally print-comics focused organizations have added award categories for comics published on the web. The Eagle Awards established a Favorite Web-based Comic category in 2000, and the Ignatz Awards followed the next year by introducing an Outstanding Online Comic category in 2001. After having nominated webcomics in several of their traditional print-comics categories, the Eisner Awards began awarding comics in the Best Digital Comic category in 2005. In 2006 the Harvey Awards established a Best Online Comics Work category, and in 2007 the Shuster Awards began an Outstanding Canadian Web Comic Creator Award. Other awards focus exclusively on webcomics. The Web Cartoonists' Choice Awards consist of a number of awards that have been handed out annually from 2001 to 2008. The Clickburg Webcomic Awards (also known as "the Clickies") has been handed out annually since 2005 at the Stripdagen Haarlem comic festival. The awards require the recipient to be active in the Benelux countries, with the exception of one international award. Books about webcomics: List of webcomics in print: In August 2000, Scott McCloud's Reinventing Comics, half of which consisted of a treatise on webcomics, was published. Though sometimes controversial, McCloud was one of the first advocates of digital comics and remains an influential figure in the webcomics field. His theories have sometimes led to debates about where webcomics should go and what, precisely, they are. McCloud's early advocacy of micropayments has also been a source of debate. In June 2006, Universal Press Syndicate editorial cartoonist Ted Rall focused on webcomics for the third volume of the series, and included comics such as The Perry Bible Fellowship, Cat and Girl, and A Lesson Is Learned But The Damage Is Irreversible. In 2008, Brad Guigar, Dave Kellett, Scott Kurtz, and Kris Straub released How to Make Webcomics, published by Image Comics. The book covered many practical matters of making money through webcomics, including website design, publishing, and merchandising.

Bande dessinée en ligne Esthétique de la bande dessinée | Bande dessinée en ligne | Bande dessinée et internet Une bande dessinée en ligne (webcomic en anglais) est une bande dessinée proposée sur Internet. Les bandes dessinées en ligne sont comparables aux bandes dessinées auto-éditées, dans la mesure où quiconque peut en créer et en publier une. Les bandes dessinées en lignes étant parfois structurées comme un blog, il est possible de rencontrer l'expression "blog BD" pour les désigner. Précurseurs anglophones : Les premiers webcomics connus sont T.H.E. Fox (1986), Where the Buffalo Roam (1991), Netboy (1993), Docteur Fun (1993), NetComics Weekly (1994, poursuivi jusqu'en 1999 en anglais et jusque 2001 en Finlandais). En 1995, Argon Zark! et Kevin & Kell font leur apparition. Les parutions de ces deux webcomics se poursuivent en 2007. Argon Zark! de Charley Parker est sans conteste la première bande dessinée créée spécifiquement pour paraitre sur Internet : * le récit s'organise sous forme de feuilleton à parution régulière ; * les planches ont un format horizontal ; * les couleurs sont choisies volontairement parmi la gamme de couleurs non-imprimables que seul un moniteur d'ordinateur peut afficher ; * tout est réalisé par infographie avec une tablette graphique, certains décors intègrent des graphismes 3D ; * l'interactivité et l'animation sont mises à contribution à travers l'usage de gif animés, de javascript, d'HTML dynamique, d'image map et plus récemment de Macromedia Flash ; * en 1997 les 50 premiers épisodes ont été portés sur papier, dans une édition relevant du produits dérivés. Tous ces caractères désignent Argon Zark! comme le maitre-étalon des webcomics ultérieurs. Débuts hésitants sur le web francophone : Enthousiasme tardif et de courte durée : En 1997, la bande dessinée interactive fait ses premiers pas . Après des tentatives coûteuses de réalisation du CD-rom, c'est Internet qui accueille la bande dessinée qui s'y trouve à son aise alors que la technologie laisse encore peu de place à l'animation ou au son et privilégie les images légères à télécharger. Le festival d'Angouleme consacre des conférences à cette union, ainsi que 8 postes informatiques en accès libre . La même année, Luz fait figure de précurseur avec Ramon et Pedro : produite par Multimania et publié par Wanadoo, cette série intégrait du son, de l'animation et de l'interactivité ; hormis les 5 premiers épisodes, les suivants étaient réservés aux abonnés de Wanadoo. Dès 1998, certains auteurs de Fluide glacial publient dans la rubrique @Fluide du site du magazine, qui a donné naissance au webzine @Fluidz en 2000. C'est aussi cette année que nait la première communauté d'auteurs de bande dessinée amateur : BDAmateur. En 1999 le site de publication Coconino World ouvre ses portes pour publier aussi bien de jeunes auteurs issus des formations de bande dessinée d'Angoulême, que des trésors du patrimoine de la bande dessinée et de l'image narrative. En 2000, un annuaire ouvre ses pages pour référencer la production en ligne francophone, c'est le futur Abdel-INN . C'est cette même année que fleurissent effectivement les bandes dessinées interactives, propulsées par des startups Internet : notamment John Lecrocheur en France ou L'Oreille coupée au Canada . Ravages de la bulle Internet : En 2001, les éditions Dupuis investissent plus de 2 millions de francs dans I/O Interactifs, les créateurs de John Lecrocheur, afin d'en détenir 51% . Quelques années plus tard, I/O Interactifs disparaissent d'Internet, avec la série qui les avait fait connaitre et les premiers épisodes d'une nouvelle série dont la parution avait débuté. Cet exemple illustre l'impact de l'explosion de la bulle Internet sur les premières initiatives professionnelles en matière de bande dessinée en ligne. À cette même période, tous les indicateurs sont au beau fixe pour la bande dessinée traditionnelle : chaque année la production et les ventes atteignent de nouveaux records, comme en attestent les bilans de l'association des critiques de bande dessinée. Les quelques auteurs professionnels qui s'intéressent alors à une création en lien avec Internet (à l'image d'Yslaire qui change d'éditeur pour se consacrer à ses activités multimédia ) s'en détournent progressivement. Les maisons d'édition adoptent une position attentiste, à la fois curieux de l'intérêt potentiel du public pour ce nouveau support et inquiets de la protection des droits d'auteurs .. Internet n'offre alors aucune opportunité de publication, c'est pourquoi l'essentiel de la production est l'œuvre d'auteurs amateurs. Ces derniers publient principalement des planches scannées, bien que quelques-uns s'emploient à explorer d'autres voies dans une démarche qualifiable d'underground. En 2001, Lapin de Phiip marque l'avènement du premier webcomic quotidien francophone. Cette série est rejointe par plusieurs autres, autour d'une ligne éditoriale d'humour absurde, certaines sont traduites de l'anglais et d'autres sont des créations francophones originales En 2002, l'annuaire des BD en ligne devient Abdel-INN, se voulant une « auberge espagnole » de tous les récits graphiques en ligne , il accorde une place importante aux commentaires et aux contributions du public. En 2003 Magelis propose aux visiteurs de la Fête de l'Internet de créer et publier leur bande dessinée en ligne . En octobre de la même année démarre un des premiers projets de traduction informatisée de BD en ligne, avec Megatokyo , de Fred Gallagher. * Structuration du marché anglophone Dès la fin des années 1990, les webcomics se sont multiplié, conjointement à la démocratisation d'Internet dans les pays anglosaxons. Ce type de contenu a su prendre les devant sur d'autres multimédias (vidéo, jeu en ligne...), qui nécessitaient des réseaux plus véloces et s'avéraient donc plus onéreux à déployer dans les premières années de développement d'Internet. En 2000 Scott McCloud a dressé le bilan du marché du comic anglosaxon , suggérant que le webcomic était la solution à la crise traversée par son grand-frère. Depuis plusieurs années, le comic est fragilisé économiquement par une crise de son réseau de distribution et par une marginalisation de son public . Le webcomic semble bel et bien avoir bénéficié de cette mauvaise santé, en servant de salut à des auteurs qui ne trouvaient aucun débouché pour leur création dans le secteur traditionnel. Des publics variés se sont tournés vers ce contenu en ligne, exempt de l'image puérile que véhicule le comic de super héros. En 2001 parait When I am a king de Demian5 qui consacre les idées défendues par McCloud autour de ce qu'il appelle "infinite canvas" (traduit en "toile infinie") : un récit en ligne peut s'étendre à l'horizontale et à la verticale dans des dimensions virtuellement infinies, contrairement à un récit limité par l'espace de la page de papier. Pour autant les théories de McCloud ne suffisent pas à couvrir tout l'éventail des possibles, puisqu'il élude notamment les apports possibles du son, de l'animation ou de l'interactivité, ainsi que celui de l'instantanéité offerte par la publication sur Internet . * 2005, année charnière * Dans le monde En 2005, le constat est dressé : Internet s'est doté d'un système éditorial propre, pour l'édition de bandes dessinées . Les pays anglosaxons et asiatiques sont montrés du doigt. * Asie Les Japonais et les Coréens lisent des e-manga et des e-manhwa. En Corée, la bande dessinée en ligne représente près d'un quart du marché de la bande dessinée. Ces populations lisent non seulement sur ordinateur, mais aussi - et surtout - sur téléphone mobile. La console de jeux vidéo PSP de Sony bénéficie également d'une offre de bande dessinée en téléchargement. En Corée, le SICAF fait la part belle aux Digital cartoons à partir de 2006 avec plusieurs milliers d'euros de prix mis en jeux pour l'ensemble des récits récompensés. Au Japon en 2009, le chiffre d'affaires annuel de vente de mangas numérisés atteint les 200 millions d'euros . Le manga sur téléphone mobile représente alors 10% du marché des mangas . * Monde anglosaxon Le , lancé en 1998, vit des dons de ses lecteurs, de la publicité et de la vente de produits dérivés. Le portail de Joey Manley est rentable avec ses abonnés. Aux États-Unis, un représente les et récompense de Brian Fries. Le webcomic se développe, porté par le succès de séries telles que PvP Online de Scott Kurtz, Penny Arcade ou Inverloch. Certains auteurs explorent la publication destinée aux consoles portables, avec des récits tels que NYC2123 conçu pour être lu sur PSP L'éditeur DC Comics lance en 2007 un portail d'édition de webcomics afin de publier de nouveaux talents venus d'Internet : Zuda Comics . Le rééquilibrage progressif du marché des comics en direction des webcomics débouche sur un chiffre d'affaires de 300 millions de dollars pour le marché du comics numérique en 2009. Certains auteurs indépendants vivent de leur création : le webcomic XKCD, avec pages vues par jour fait vivre 3 personnes . Webcomics publié en livre : Quelques exemples de webcomics publié sur papiers : 8-Bit Theater de Sprite comic ; Applegeeks ; Aoi House ; Alpha Shade; Asheron's Call ; Bunny ; Nukees de Keenspot ; Least I Could Do ; Loxie & Zoot ; Maliki ; Megatokyo ; Mom's Cancer ; The Brick Testament ; Buttercup Festival; Buzzer Beater ; Cat and Girl ; Chugworth Academy ; Ctrl+Alt+Del ; Cyanide and Happiness ; Death to the Extremist ; Diesel Sweeties ; Dominic Deegan ; Dork Tower ; The Adventures of Dr. McNinja ; Earthsong ; El Goonish Shive ; Errant Story ; Erfworld ; Faux Pas ; Fetus-X : FreakAngels de Warren Ellis ; Get Your War On ; Girl Genius ; Girly de Radio Comix ; Greystone Inn de Brad Guigar ; Hsu and Chan ; I Drew This de Keenspot ; Lesbian Pirates From Outer Space ; Jack ; The Joy of Tech ; Jerkcity ; Kevin and Kell ; Narbonic ; Nodwick ; Oh My Gods! ; The Order of the Stick ; Ozy and Millie ; PartiallyClips ; Penny and Aggie ; Piled Higher and Deeper ; The Perry Bible Fellowship ; PvP ; Real Life ; Red Meat ; Rice Boy ; Sam and Fuzzy ; Starslip ; The Suburban Jungle ; This Modern World ; Toothpaste for Dinner ; User Friendly ; Van Von Hunter ; Venus Envy ; VG Cats ; Wigu ; xkcd... L'exception francophone : L'année 2005 marque le réveil de l'Internet francophone. Dargaud ouvre l'espace Read Box destiné à pré-publier des albums (ou des extraits d'albums)... Mais cela n'est rien face au bouleversement amené par Frantico et les blogs BD . Dès septembre se tient le premier Festival des blogs BD . Celui-ci consacre une nouvelle génération d'auteurs pour qui Internet est un lieu naturel de publication. Si nombre de ces auteurs escomptent séduire une maison d'édition, dans la foulée de l'illustre Frantico, certains se servent du blog comme un espace de publication et une fin en soi. En 2006, Frantico est soupçonné d'être un autre pseudonyme de Laurent Chabosy, alias Lewis Trondheim au moment où ce dernier est consacré par le Grand Prix de la Ville d'Angoulême et qu'il était également nommé pour le Prix du meilleur premier album avec Le blog de Frantico . Cette révélation ne coupe pas court pour autant aux espoirs des blogueurs. Parmi eux Lewis Trondheim édite Allan Barte avec Le Journal du lutin qui raconte la vie d'un enfant de 8 ans à la manière d'un blog à la première personne. D'autres suivent chez différents éditeurs : Libre comme un poney sauvage de Lisa Mandel en 2006... Le journal d'un remplaçant de Martin Vidberg, Paris est une mélopée de Monsieur le chien et Maliki broie la vie en rose de Souillon en 2007... Le Festival des blogs BD signe sa troisième édition et le blog semble bel et bien être devenu une filière de nouveaux auteurs, pour les éditeurs traditionnels qui trouvent en Internet un excellent outil pour mesurer le potentiel des planches qui y sont publiées. Certains auteurs ne manquent pas pour autant de mettre en place leurs propres projets éditoriaux à l'image des Miniblogs qui consistent en de minuscules albums de bande dessinée à la fin desquels une adresse Web permet au lecteur de poursuivre son expérience sur Internet. Contrairement aux autres régions du monde, sur l'Internet francophone la bande dessinée reste résolument tournée vers la tradition du papier. * Evolution récente chez les francophones * Période de maturation À partir de 2005, trois postures cohabitent sur l'Internet francophone : * la poursuite du phénomène des blogs BD comme support de publication et de promotion individuelle ; * l'utilisation d'Internet comme tremplin collectif vers l'édition papier ; * la recherche d'opportunités nouvelles, inspirées par les exemples étrangers, de publier des bandes dessinées conçues spécifiquement pour Internet. En 2005, Phiip crée les Lapin Éditions, ou les Éditions Lapin, qui ont vocation à publier les webcomics du portail lapin. Le premier sorti sera Lapin 1, je suis un lapin version papier de Lapin (Comic Strip), suivi de Plus Fort que le Fromage, traduction de Bigger Than Cheeses de Desmond Seah. Depuis 2006, BlogsBD.fr est la porte d'entrée vers les blogs BD , qui restent la principale forme de bande dessinée en ligne francophone. En janvier 2008, le Prix Révélation blog voit le jour à l'occasion du festival d'Angouleme. Il s'agit de récompenser les lauréats par l'opportunité d'éditer un projet sous forme d'album papier . Les blogueurs les plus célèbres tels que Boulet ou Pénélope Jolicoeur culminent à connexions quotidiennes , Miss Gally atteint visiteurs par jour . En 2007, 30joursdebd.com réunit plusieurs dizaines d'auteurs autour de l'idée de publier une planche par jour afin d'être repéré par un éditeur , représentant ainsi la tradition d'une bande dessinée en ligne tournée vers l'édition papier. À l’initiative de Lewis Trondheim, président de la 34e: édition du Festival international de la bande dessinée d'Angoulême, La Maison des Auteurs d’Angoulême a accueilli les 24h de la bande dessinée les 23 et . Cet exercice de style est inspiré du imaginé par Scott McCloud en 2004, il consiste - durant une journée par an - pour les auteurs de bande dessinée de par le monde à dessiner 24 planches en 24 heures ; le statut de McCloud dans le milieu des a conduit nombre d'auteurs à participer directement en ligne. Dans ce même esprit les planches réalisées à Angoulême ont été publiées en direct sur Internet avant d'être réunies en recueil. Le succès de l'initiative a conduit à sa reconduction pour 2008. En également, le portail d'hébergement Webcomics.fr ouvre ses portes avec l'idée de permettre aux auteurs de publier des bandes dessinées sur Internet aussi simplement qu'on tient un blog: . Le , il permet ainsi aux participants francophones du de publier leurs planches sur Internet . Auparavant, en , un autre portail d'hébergement Webamag.eu naissait pour accueillir gratuitement aussi des auteurs. Après des débuts intimistes, le portail est devenu le parrain officiel des "24 hours comics days" de Saint-Lô.Référence nécessaire: En grandpapier est lancé . Ce site qui compte plus de fait suite à deux expériences éditoriales en ligne précédentes, le journal de l'employé du Moi, sorte de blogs bd avant l'heure, qui vit le jour dès 2001. Et le site 40075km comics en 2005, ouvert à participation et gratuit qui exista un an et axé sur publication de webcomics sur la thématique du déplacement. A la fermeture en 2006 une sélection de 70 auteurs donna le livre 40075km comics . Grandpapier organise chaque année depuis 2008 ses propres 24h de la bande dessinée ainsi que de temps à autres des projets de collectifs où le site fait office de plate-forme de prépublication. En , la maison d'édition ouvre ses portes. Elle se définit comme la première maison d'édition de BD en ligne: . Avec 3 séries à son ouverture, elle rémunère effectivement ses auteurs à hauteur de la planche hebdomadaire ,: . En parait le premier numéro d'El Coyote, journal BD en ligne à parution mensuelle regroupant des auteurs traditionnels comme Cromwell ou Riff et des blogueurs comme Tanxxx ou Poipoi.Référence nécessaire: En parait le premier numéro de Comic Strip Magazine, un magazine culturel gratuit qui publie de nombreux auteurs de BD issus de la blogosphère. Une version iPhone est lancée quelques mois plus tard.Référence nécessaire: En , les éditions Ego comme x lancent la nouvelle version de leur site, et publient gratuitement en ligne divers titres de leur catalogue ainsi que des archives inédites de leurs auteurs (Fabrice Neaud, Aristophane, Freddy Nadolny Poustochkine, Simon Hureau...).Référence nécessaire: 2010 : le marché balbutiant de la BD numérique : Face au succès de l'iPhone en France, plusieurs acteurs sont apparus pour décliner la bande dessinée sur smartphone, avec une visibilité croissante fin 2009 : Aquafadas et sa plateforme Ave!Comics, MobiLire, Forecomm, BDTouch ou encore Choyooz. Souvent indépendants des éditeurs, tous s'appuient sur le développement d'une visionneuse destiné à faciliter la lecture de bande dessinée sur écrans. Les visionneuses s'appuient souvent sur des effets visuels et sonores pour contrebalancer le petit format des écrans de téléphones . Le terme bande dessinée numérique se généralise pour désigner ces bandes dessinées vendues sous la forme d'applications au sein de l'AppStore ou de lAndroid market. Reprenant les termes du rapport annuel de l'ACBD en 2009, la presse souligne l'état « balbutiant » du marché de la bande dessinée numérique. L'essentiel de la production relève en effet de l'adaptation sur support numérique d'albums issus des fonds des éditeurs BD. L'Homme de Washington, une aventure de Lucky Luke fait figure de pionnier en décembre 2008 lorsqu'il paraît conjointement sur papier et sous forme d'application pour téléphone mobile . Avec de chiffre d'affaires, cet album valide le modèle économique d'Aquafadas qui lève 1.2 million d'euros en novembre 2009 . L'idée d'une bande dessinée numérique de création est néanmoins bien présente : « c'est le passage de l'adaptation à la création de BD conçues pour le Net qui signera l'émergence d'un marché. » La série Bludzee de Lewis Trondheim fait figure d'exemple et d'exception en s'appuyant sur le support numérique pour diffuser des strips quotidiens en 19 langues par le biais d'une application mobile. En janvier 2010, Bludzee figure dans le top 50 des applications iPhone les plus téléchargées. Pour soutenir la création originale, une "fabrique d'auteurs" est en projet à Bordeaux sous le parrainage de Lewis Trondheim sous la forme d'une pépinière destinée à une trentaine d'auteurs . Quelques acteurs misent sur le web plutôt que sur les applications mobiles. Digibidi propose de la bd à la demande depuis 2009 : il est possible d'acheter ou de louer pour quelques jours l'accès à une version numérique d'un album papier . Les marchands de presse numérisée LeKiosque.fr ou Relay.com se positionnent également sur ce créneau de la BD à la demande . En 2010 apparaît l'édition de BD en ligne communautaire avec Manolosanctis et Sandawe : le premier se veut un Youtube de la bande dessinée avec l'édition papier à la clé pour les projets les plus plébiscités , le second applique le modèle du crowdsourcing à la bande dessinée en proposant aux lecteurs d'investir financièrement pour produire des albums. Début 2010, des auteurs indépendants s'approprient eux aussi le web avec des objectifs divers. Fred Boot offre une seconde vie à son album Gordo, un singe contre l'Amérique en le publiant sur Internet après que l'éditeur ait échoué à le promouvoir et à le vendre en librairie . Thomas Cadène lance le feuilleton Les Autres Gens avec plus de 20 dessinateurs : pour par mois les lecteurs sont invités à suivre en ligne quotidiennement une « bédénovela » dans la plus pure tradition télévisuelle ; le concept attire 5000 lecteurs durant le premier mois gratuit . Quant à Moon, il explore le potentiel interactif du support numérique avec son blog BD Bleuh . Outre les partenariats et cessions de droits aux divers prestataires techniques, certains éditeurs s'efforcent de se positionner sur le marché de la BD numérique. Soleil Productions a diffusé en 2009 le premier album de Lanfeust Odyssey en version numérique sur leur propre plateforme avec un résultat mitigé ( achats numériques contre albums vendus). Delcourt mise pour sa part sur la création originale en s'associant en 2009 les services de Yannick Lejeune, ingénieur en informatique et instigateur du Festival des blogs BD, en tant qu'éditeur externe et directeur de collection en charge du numérique . Quant au groupe Média-Participations (Dargaud, Dupuis, Kana, Lombard), numéro 1 européen de la bande dessinée, il a racheté Anuman Interactive en 2009 et ouvre une plateforme de diffusion de BD en ligne. Cette plateforme, nommée Iznéo propose depuis fin mars 2010 des bandes dessinées en streaming, en accès permanent ou pour une durée de 10 jours. D'autres éditeurs depuis ont rejoint la plateforme (Bamboo, Casterman, Cinebook, Delcourt, Circonflexe, Fei, Fleurus, Fluide Glacial, Grand Angle, Jungle, Lucky Comics, manolosanctis, Mosquito). Un millier d'auteurs de bande dessinée ont signé une pétition intitulée « l'appel du numérique » pour protester contre le manque de concertation dans l'élaboration de tels projets par les éditeurs . * Récompenses * Web Cartoonists' Choice Awards (récompense les dessinateurs et comics sur le web) * Révélation blog (récompense les auteurs de blogs BD par des opportunités d'édition de projets papier) * SICAF Digital comics (récompense des bandes dessinées digitales) * Notes colonnes: 2:

مراحل تكوين الحيوانات المنوية جهاز تناسلي تمر عملية تكوين الحيوانات المنوية بأربعة مراحل هامة هي: مرحلة التضاعف : هي المرحلة التي يحدث فيها انقسام ميتوزى عدة مرات في الخلايا الجرثومية الأمية (2ن). وينتج عن هذا الانقسام عدد كبير من الخلايا تسمى أمهات المنى (2ن)...؟ مرحلة النمو : يحدث فيها انقسام ميتوزى عدة مرات في الخلايا الجرثومية الأمية (2ن) وينتج عنها عدد كبير من أمهات المنى(2ن) مرحلة النضج : تحدث في هذه المرحلة عملية الانقسام الميوزى أول للخلايا المنوية الأولية (2ن) فتعطى خلايا منوية ثانوية (ن) التي تنقسم بدورها انقسام ميوزى ثان فتعطى طلائع منوية (ن). ويمكن في هذه المرحلة ملاحظة حدوث عملية اختزال في عدد الصبغيات إلى النصف. مرحلة التشكيل النهائي : و فيها تتحول الطلائع المنوية إلى حيوانات منوية

Spermatogenesis Developmental biology | Animal physiology | Male reproductive system Spermatogenesis is the process by which male primary germ cells undergo division, and produce a number of cells termed spermatogonia, from which the primary spermatocytes are derived. Each primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary spermatocytes, and each secondary spermatocyte into two spermatids or young spermatozoa. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells. Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa. Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually reproducing organisms. Thus, spermatogenesis is the male version of gametogenesis. In mammals it occurs in the male testes and epididymis in a stepwise fashion, and for humans takes approximately 64 days. Spermatogenesis is highly dependent upon optimal conditions for the process to occur correctly, and is essential for sexual reproduction. DNA methylation and histone modification have been implicated in the regulation of this process. It starts at puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death, although a slight decrease can be discerned in the quantity of produced sperm with increase in age. The entire process can be broken up into several distinct stages, each corresponding to a particular type of cell in human: * Purpose Spermatogenesis produces mature male gametes, commonly called sperm but specifically known as spermatozoa, which are able to fertilize the counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during conception to produce a single-celled individual known as a zygote. This is the cornerstone of sexual reproduction and involves the two gametes both contributing half the normal set of chromosomes (haploid) to result in a chromosomally normal (diploid) zygote. To preserve the number of chromosomes in the offspring – which differs between species – each gamete must have half the usual number of chromosomes present in other body cells. Otherwise, the offspring will have twice the normal number of chromosomes, and serious abnormalities may result. In humans, chromosomal abnormalities arising from incorrect spermatogenesis can result in Down Syndrome, Klinefelter's Syndrome, and spontaneous abortion. * Location Spermatogenesis takes place within several structures of the male reproductive system. The initial stages occur within the testes and progress to the epididymis where the developing gametes mature and are stored until ejaculation. The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the starting point for the process, where stem cells adjacent to the inner tubule wall divide in a centripetal direction—beginning at the walls and proceeding into the innermost part, or lumen—to produce immature sperm. Maturation occurs in the epididymis. * Stages * Spermatocytogenesis Spermatocytogenesis: Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium which resides in the basal compartment of seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically to produce two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two diploid secondary spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid cells. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, such as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover, to increase the genetic variability of the gamete. Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a spermatid is incomplete; the cells remain connected to one another by bridges of cytoplasm to allow synchronous development. It should also be noted that not all spermatogonia divide to produce spermatocytes, otherwise the supply would run out. Instead, certain types of spermatogonia divide to produce copies of themselves, thereby ensuring a constant supply of gametogonia to fuel spermatogenesis. * Spermatidogenesis Spermatidogenesis: Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes are rarely seen in histological preparations. * Spermiogenesis Spermiogenesis: During spermiogenesis, the spermatids begin to grow a tail, and develop a thickened mid-piece, where the mitochondria gather and form an axoneme. Spermatid DNA also undergoes packaging, becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged firstly with specific nuclear basic proteins, which are subsequently replaced with protamines during spermatid elongation. The resultant tightly packed chromatin is transcriptionally inactive. The Golgi apparatus surrounds the now condensed nucleus, becoming the acrosome. One of the centrioles of the cell elongates to become the tail of the sperm. Maturation then takes place under the influence of testosterone, which removes the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles. The excess cytoplasm, known as residual bodies, is phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the testes. The resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them sterile. The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule in a process called spermiation. The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction. While in the epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of fertilization. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon's recently acquired motility. * Role of Sertoli cells Sertoli cell: At all stages of differentiation, the spermatogenic cells are in close contact with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide structural and metabolic support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule, although the cytoplasmic processes are difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level. Sertoli cells serve a number of functions during spermatogenesis, they support the developing gametes in the following ways: * Maintain the environment necessary for development and maturation via the blood-testis barrier * Secrete substances initiating meiosis * Secrete supporting testicular fluid * Secrete androgen-binding protein, which concentrates testosterone in close proximity to the developing gametes ** Testosterone is needed in very high quantities for maintenance of the reproductive tract, and ABP allows a much higher level of fertility * Secrete hormones affecting pituitary gland control of spermatogenesis, particularly the polypeptide hormone, inhibin * Phagocytose residual cytoplasm left over from spermiogenesis * They release Antimullerian hormone which prevents formation of the Mullerian Duct / Oviduct. * Protect spermatids from the immune system of the male. * Influencing factors The process of spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to fluctuations in the environment, particularly hormones and temperature. Testosterone is required in large local concentrations to maintain the process, which is achieved via the binding of testosterone by androgen binding protein present in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells, also known as Leydig cells, which reside adjacent to the seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to elevated temperature in humans and some other species, and will be adversely affected by temperatures as high as normal body temperature. Consequently, the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 °C (man) - 8 °C (mouse) below body temperature. This is achieved by regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away from the heat of the body by the cremasteric muscle and the dartos smooth muscle in the scrotum. Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B, E and A), anabolic steroids, metals (cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol, and infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of spermatogenesis.date: September 2011: Hormonal control : Hormonal control of spermatogenesis varies among species. In humans the mechanism are not completely understood, however it is known that initiation of spermatogenesis occurs at puberty due to the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and Leydig cells. If the pituitary gland is removed, spermatogenesis can still be initiated by follicle stimulating hormone and testosterone. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates both the production of androgen binding protein by Sertoli cells, and the formation of the blood-testis barrier. Androgen binding protein is essential to concentrating testosterone in levels high enough to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis, which can be 20-50 times higher than the concentration found in blood. Follicle stimulating hormone may initiate the sequestering of testosterone in the testes, but once developed only testosterone is required to maintain spermatogenesis. However, increasing the levels of follicle stimulating hormone will increase the production of spermatozoa by preventing the apoptosis of type A spermatogonia. The hormone inhibin acts to decrease the levels of follicle stimulating hormone. Studies from rodent models suggest that gonadotropin hormones (both LH and FSH) support the process of spermatogenesis by suppressing the proapoptotic signals and therefore promote spermatogenic cell survival. The Sertoli cells themselves mediate parts of spermatogenesis though hormone production. They are capable of producing the hormones estradiol and inhibin. The Leydig cells are also capable of producing estradiol in addition to their main product testosterone.

Spermatogenèse Embryologie | Anatomie de l'appareil reproducteur masculin spermiogenèse: date8 juillet novembre 2011: La spermatogenèse est le processus de production des spermatozoïdes, qui a lieu dans les tubes séminifères des testicules. Elle englobe les phénomènes qui, des spermatogonies, cellules souches diploïdes (2n chromosomes), aboutissent aux spermatozoïdes, gamètes mâles haploïdes (n chromosomes). La spermiogenèse est quant à elle la différenciation des spermatides en spermatozoïdes. Dès les années 1970, les spécialistes constatent une dégradation de la spermatogenèse dans les pays riches (Europe, États-Unis, Japon). Ils ont d'abord observé des différences significatives de qualité de sperme selon la région étudiée, puis des comparaisons temporelles ont montré que - dans tous les cas étudiés - le nombre moyen de spermatozoïdes par ml de sperme diminue d'année en année. Il a été divisé par deux en environ 50 ans. * Introduction La spermatogenèse débute à la puberté, atteint son maximum vers 20-30 ans, ralentit progressivement vers la quarantaine mais peut se poursuivre jusqu'à un âge avancé. La spermatogenèse est un processus lent et continu demandant 74 jours environ chez l'homme ; elle se déroule par poussées ou vagues successives dans les tubes séminifères. * Schéma général * Tube séminifère Le tube séminifère est limité par une gaine tubulaire mince formée de la lame ou membrane basale, de fibroblastes. Certains de ces fibroblastes contiennent des filaments contractiles et des fibres de collagène et constituent les cellules myoïdes ou myofibroblastes - * La gaine tubulaire est appelée membrane propre du tube séminifère ou membrana propria. * Ces tubes sont entourés de tissu conjonctif (de «remplissage») et aussi de tissu interstitiel formé de cellules de Leydig qui est, bien sûr, parcouru par des artérioles et veinules apportant l'oxygène. (v. testicule) Ces cellules endocrines ou cellules de Leydig sécrètent essentiellement de la testostérone (et de la dihydrotestostérone); elles constituent la glande interstitielle du testicule. * La paroi du tube séminifère est formée d'un épithélium stratifié comprenant deux types de cellules ** Les cellules de la lignée germinale disposées sur 4 à 8 couches ** Les cellules de Sertoli, cellules hautes s'appuyant sur la membrane basale et atteignant la lumière du tube par leur pôle apical; * Dans les tubes séminifères adultes, les différentes couches de cellules germinales représentent les phases de la spermatogenèse qui s'effectuent de façon centripète, depuis la spermatogonie située contre la membrane basale jusqu'au spermatozoïde libéré dans la lumière : Sous le microscope, on observe que ces tubes sont «remplis» de cellules apparemment différentes, organisées en anneaux. À la périphérie, on trouve des cellules souches (spermatogonies, tandis qu'au centre se trouvent les spermatozoïdes. En fait, les cellules non différenciées se développent pour finalement devenir des gamètes mâles : ** Spermatogonie ** Spermatocyte I ** Spermatocyte II ** Spermatide ** Spermatozoïde * Spermatogenèse Tout d'abord, à travers de multiples mitoses, à partir d'une spermatogonie, on en obtient un stock. Puis la spermatogonie grandit et devient spermatocyte I. À ce stade, ce sont toujours des cellules souches avec 2n chromosomes. La méiose des spermatocytes I produit des spermatocytes II qui n'ont plus que n chromosomes (v. méiose). La suite de la méiose conduit à des spermatides qui migrent vers la "lumière" du tube. La différenciation de ceux-ci donne finalement le spermatozoïde, au centre du tube. On dit donc que la spermatogenèse est «centripète». Ce processus est continu, c'est-à-dire que les cellules se transforment successivement et sont remplacés par de nouvelles spermatogonies obtenues par mitose. Dans les tubes séminifères, on remarque aussi la présence de grandes cellules, les cellules de Sertoli, qui soutiennent et nourrissent les spermatogonies et qui sont donc indispensables à la spermatogenèse. Les tubes séminifères conduisent, par un système de drainage, au canal épididymaire qui devient canal déférent en sortant des testicules. Les cellules sont propulsées dans ce canal, et mélangées avec le liquide séminal dans la prostate, pour former le sperme lors de l'éjaculation. * Hormones Trois hormones jouent un rôle important lors de la spermatogenèse : * La testostérone * LH (hormone lutéinisante) * FSH (hormone folliculostimulante) LH et FSH sont produites par l'hypophyse tandis que la testostérone est produite dans les cellules de Leydig. La FSH agit directement sur les spermatogonies et les cellules de Sertoli pour accélérer la spermatogenèse (par assimilation augmentée de testostérone). La LH, quant à elle, augmente la production de testostérone qui agit également sur les spermatogonies (et permet en particulier la différenciation finale) et sur les cellules de Sertoli. Si la production de testostérone atteint un certain seuil, les cellules de Leydig envoient un rétrocontrôle négatif à l'hypophyse qui inhibe la production de LH et de FSH. C'est donc un système autorégulé qui ne permet pas la production excessive de téstosterone, et donc de spermatozoïdes. * Diminution générale du nombre de spermatozoïde produits lors de la spermatogenèse ? Dès les années 1970, des spécialistes s'étonnent de différences significatives de qualité de sperme, selon la région de provenance du patient ou du donneur. 10 ans plus tard, de premiers lanceurs d'alerte confirment ces disparités, et notent que l'analyse des comptages de spermatozoïdes fait de 1935 à 1980 révèlent toutes un déclin du nombre de spermatozoïdes, dans toutes les régions étudiées, y compris chez les jeunes hommes. Plus d'une soixantaine d'études (en Europe, Amérique du nord et japon essentiellement) laissent penser qu'au moins dans les pays occidentaux, les hommes sont confrontés à un problème général de dégradation de leur spermatogenèse. L'ampleur du phénomène, ses causes et sa traduction en termes de fertilité masculine font encore l'objet de controverses; Cecil laisse penser qu'il existe des causes environnementales et qu'il s'agit d'un discret mais important problème de santé publique. Le fait que les jeunes hommes soient également touchés, et la progression de cancers "hormonaux" ainsi que l'avancée des connaissances sur les perturbateurs endocriniens ont invité les scientifiques à chercher des causes possibles dès le stade périnatal du développement testiculaire, et en particulier concernant le nombre ou la qualité des cellules de Sertoli alors affectées de manière probablement irréversibles. D'autres effets, probablement plus réversibles, sont recherchés sur la spermatogenèse chez l'adulte non touché in utero. Certains facteus liés au mode de vie (sédentarité, obésité, tabagisme, alcoolisme, vêtements serrés ou conservant les testicules trop au chaud...) sont jugés potentiellement dommageables pour la fertilité masculine. Des facteurs environnementaux (exposition de l'enfant ou de l'adulte à certains polluants émis avec les gaz d'échappement, aux dioxines, ou à d'autres produits de combustion, certains pesticides...) peuvent négativement affecter les fonctions testiculaires (aux stades périnatal et adulte). . Certains produits chimiques désormais largement présents dans l'environnement (pesticides, additifs alimentaires, hormones contraceptives, polluants persistants comme le DDT, furanes, dioxines ou PCB) ont des effets jugés préoccupants sur la santé reproductive, mais encore mal compris et dont les proportions ou synergis sont mal mesurées . En France : Par exemple, d'après les comptages de spermatozoïdes de 1351 donneurs de spermes du CECOS parisien, il n'y a pas eu de changement dans le volume de sperme moyen produit sur environ 20 ans, de 1973 à 1992, mais la concentration moyenne de spermatozoîde a par contre fortement diminué (- 2,1%/an, chutant de 89 x106 /ml de sperme 1973 à 60x106 par ml en 1992. Dans le même temps, le pourcentage de spermatozoïdes normalement mobile chutait de 0,6 % par an et celui des spermatozoïdes de forme normale diminuait de 0,5 % par an. Après ajustement prenant en compte l'âge et la durée de l'abstinence sexuelle, sur ces 20 ans, chaque nouvelle génération (par année civile de naissance) a perdu 2,6% des spermatozoïdes de la cohorte née l'année précédente, et le taux de spermatozoïdes mobiles a diminué de 0.3% par an, et celui des spermatozoïdes de forme normale a diminué de 0.7 %/an. Délétion de la spermatogenèse:

تبلبالة بلديات الجزائر | بلديات ولاية بشار تبلبالة (بالكورنجي: تساوربيتس) هي واحة ومركز بلدية بولاية بشار تقع بين العبادلة وتندوف في الجنوب الغربي للجزائر. تبلبالة هي المدينة الوحيدة في الجزائر التي لا يتحدث سكانها اللغة العربية أو الأمازيغية بل يتحدثون الكورنجي . أسست دائرة تبلبالة سنة 1991 وتضم أغلب النصف الجنوبي من مساحة ولاية بشار. صلتها الوحيدة بالعالم الخارجي هو طريق بطول 70 كم يربطها بالطريق الوطني بين بشار وتندوف، من الشمال مقر الولاية بشار بمسافة 400 كلم وجنوبًا تندوف بمسافة585 كلم. الجغرافيا: يحد واحة تبلبالة سلسلة جبلية من الجنوب وعرق الراوي من الشمال وهي تنقسم إلى خمس مجمعات سكانية: * زاوية سيدي زكري: وتسمى بالكورنجي كوارة. * مخلوف: وتسمى بالكورنجي يامي * حي الوسط وهو المركز الإداري والتجاري والمعروف "بالكرطي": مجمع سكني نشأ على محيط القلعة الفرنسية أثناء فترة الاستعمار. * حي البناء الذاتي * الشرايع: وتسمى بالكورنجي إفرنيوا. السكان: يبلغ مجموع السكان 6000 نسمة فقط 3000 منهم يتحدثون الكورانجي ، معظم الباقين هم أحفاد المهاجرين الجدد للواحة خلال القرن العشرين. كثير من السكان الناطقين بالكورنجي في إفرنيوا يقولون أن أصلهم من آيت إسفول تحت فرع من آيت عطا؛ هناك أيضا عدد قليل من العائلات الناطقة بالأمازيغية من آيت خباش تحت فرع آخر من آيت عطا. * التاريخ أقدم من سكن تبلبالة هم قبيلة لمتونة والذين هجروا المكان خلال القرن 6 ميلادي لملاحقة المرابطين في تجربتهم بالمغرب . تقول الأسطورة التاريخية أن أول الأولياء قدوماً إلى تبلبالة هو سيدي زكري الشريف من نسل مولاي دريس، خرج من فاس بحثاً عن ناقة ضالة فلم يجدها إلا بعيدا بالمكان المسمى بلبل وأصبح منذ ذلك الوقت يدعى تبلبالت. قد تكون هناك أسباب أخرى غير الناقة دفعت سيدي زكري للذهاب إلى تبلبالة نظراً للتجارة التي كانت تدور بين مكناس وبلاد السودان مروراً بها. بعد سيدي زكري قدم الكثير من الأولياء إلى تبلبالة نذكر منهم سيدي علي أوعثمان من اليمن وسيدي براهيم من الساقية الحمراء. أدى استقرار هذه الشخصيات بتبلبالة إلى جعلها محطة مهمة بطريق القوافل الرابط بين جنوب المغرب (سجلماسة) والساحل (تمبكتو) خلال الفترة الممتدة بين القرنين 13 و19 رغم تعرض الواحة إلى هجمات الرحل مثل الرقيبات، الغنانمة والتوارق. تقاسم المرابطين الحراطين المعانات المشتركة، وسمحوا حتى لبعض الأشخاص من قبائل عريب وتجكانت باللجوء لديهم، حتى تولى الوصاية على الواحة أحد فروع آيت خباش واستمرت هذه الوصاية حتى دخول الاحتلال الفرنسي. وفقا للتقاليد الشفوية في كلا المكانين، مؤسس ملوكة بالقرب من أدرار كان من المهاجرين الذين هربوا من تبلبالة عندما تم تدمير أحد قصورها من قبل البدو الرحل (الرحامنة) وذلك لعدم دفعهم الضريبة . قبيلة إداو علي الموريتانية تقول أيضا أنها استوطنت في تبلبالة خلال فترة قديمة. اللغة: الكورنجي هي اللغة الأكثر عزلة والواقعة إلى الشمال أكثر من بين لغات سونغاي. يتحدث بها نحو 3000 شخص حول واحة تبلبالة. يعني اسمها حرفيا "لغة القرية"، تحافظ اساسا على هيكل سونغاي لكنها تأثرة لحد كبير باللغة العربية أو الأمازيغية. حوالي 20 ٪ من قائمة سواديش لمئة كلمة من المفردات الأساسية يتكون "من اشتقاقات من اللغة العربية أو البربرية. ونسبة المعجم ككل أعلى بكثير. * الأولياء والأضرحة دفن في تبلبالة العديد من الأولياء: * في المقبرة الرئيسية للزاوية (إمامادن) دفن سيدي زكري والذي تحمل القرية اسمه، ; وحفيد حفيده سيدي العربي بن يحي إضافة إلى سيدي براهيم ويقال أنهما أصل العائلات الموجودة اليوم هناك. * سبعتوا رجال: مجموعة من سبعة رجال غير معروفين. * في مخلوف دفن سيدي مخلوف البلبالي عالم إسلامي من القرن السادس عشر. * المياه والزراعة منسوب المياه الجوفية بها مرتفع نسبيا مما يجعل الزراعة المروية ممكنة. استعملت الفقارة تقليدياً بالواحة لكنها في انخفاض منذ مطلع القرن العشرين. * المراجع== ثبت المراجع: بلديات بشار: أسبوع الويكي:

Tabelbala Populated places in Béchar Province | Communes of Algeria | Ksour | Sahara | Oases of Algeria Tabelbala (تبلبالة: , Korandje: tsawərbəts) is an oasis between Béchar and Tindouf in southwestern Algeria, notable for being the only town in Algeria to speak a language neither Arabic nor Berber, Korandje. Tabelbala is divided into four settlements. The administrative and commercial centre, "le Village" or "le Quartier", officially Haï El Wasat (حي الوسط: ), is a relatively recent settlement which first grew up around the French fort in the colonial period. It is flanked by three older villages, or ksars: Cheraïa (الشرايع: , Ifrenyu in Korandje) to the west, Zaouia Sidi Zekri (زاوية سيدي زكري: , Kwara) and the tiny hamlet of Makhlouf (مخلوف: , Yami) to the east. The total population is about 6,000; of these, only about 3,000 speak Korandje, most of the rest being the descendants of twentieth century immigrants to the oasis. Its only significant transport link to the outside world is a paved road connecting it to the main Bechar-Tindouf highway some seventy kilometres away. The oasis occupies a band of land between a stone mountain to the south and a large sand dune field, the Erg Er Raoui, to the north. The water table of the latter is relatively high, making irrigation agriculture possible. The foggara system was traditionally used, but has been in decline since the early twentieth century. From at least the 13th to the 19th century, Tabelbala was a stop on the caravan routes linking southern Morocco (notably Sijilmasa) to the Sahel, in particular Timbuktu. Tabelbala is the capital, and only significant settlement, of the Daïra of that name, embracing most of the southern half of Béchar Province. A number of reputed walis (saints) are buried in Tabelbala. In the main cemetery of Zaouia, imamaden, these include Sidi Zekri (the village's namesake), Sidi Larbi and Sidi Brahim (each said to be the ancestor of a family found there today), and a group of seven unnamed men, the seb`atu rijal (سبعة رجال: ). The sixteenth-century Islamic scholar Sidi Makhluf al-Balbali is buried in the hamlet named after him, Makhlouf. Much of the Korandje-speaking population of Ifrenyu claims descent from the Ait Isfoul sub-branch of Ait Atta; there are also a few Tamazight-speaking families from the Ait Khebbach, another Ait Atta sub-group. According to oral tradition in both places, the founders of Melouka, near Adrar, Algeria, were emigrants who escaped Tabelbala when one of its ksars was destroyed by Arab nomads, the Rehamna, for non-payment of tribute. The Idaw Ali of Mauritania also claim to have lived in Tabelbala at an early period. References: Béchar Province:

Tabelbala Commune de la wilaya de Béchar | Oasis d'Algérie | Sahara commune algérienne: datedécembre 2010: Tabelbala (en arabe: تبلبالة) est une commune de la wilaya de Béchar, située à environ au sud-ouest de Béni-Abbés et à au sud de Béchar. * Géographie * Situation Le territoire de la commune de Tabelbala est situé au sud-ouest de la wilaya de Béchar. * Relief et hydrologie La ville de Tabelbala est une oasis isolée du sud-ouest de la wilaya de Béchar. Elle s'étend dans une palmeraie de plus de 12 kilomètres, située entre l'Erg Er Raoui et le Djebel Lakhal ou k'hal. ...: : Localités de la commune Lors du découpage administratif de 1984, la commune de Tabelbala est constituée des localités suivantes : * Tabelbala * Cherraya * Zaouiet Sidi Zekri * Makhlouf * Zeraïb * Boutbiga * Hassi Kharet * Étymologie et origine Travail inédit: date: décembre 2010: 1283 : Raymond Lulle, intellectuel Majorquin du XIIIe: siècle, écrit : « Le Cardinal (allusion à un chapitre général des Dominicains tenu à Montpellier en 1283), partageant le monde en 12 provinces, envoya dans chacune d'elles un messager pour en connaître l'état. Il advint qu'allant au midi l'on trouva une caravane (allant de Tagaza à Sigelmasse) de chameaux chargés de sel qui partaient d'une ville nommée Tabelbert pour le pays où le fleuve de damiette prend sa source. L'affluence était telle en ce pays-là qu'il vit vendre en 15 jours toutes les charges de sel, les gens y étaient tous nègres idolâtres-joyeux vivants et sévères justiciers-tout leur avoir était mis en commun. » 1491-1550 : « ... pour maintenant (me reservant beaucoup de choses en la seconde partie de l'afrique), je vous décrirai les noms d'une région occidentale qui sont : Tesset, Guaden, Ifren, Hacca, Dare, Tebelbert, Taqsa, Fercale, Segellamesse, ... » « Tebelbert est une contrée au milieu du désert de Numidie, distante d'Atlas, environ deux cents miles, et cent de Segelmesse, du côté de Midy, contenant en son pourpris seulement trois châteaux qui sont bien peuplés, dont le territoire ne produit autres que des dattes ayant grand'faute d'eau et uses les habitants de chair d'autruches et de cerfs qu'ils prennent à la chasse. Ils font grand train de marchandises en la terre des noirs mais d'autant que les arabes les ont rendus tributaires, ils sont réduits à une extrême pauvreté. » 1536 : « Tebelbert est situé au milieu du désert de Numidie à soixante et dix lieuses du grand Atlas et à trente-qutre de sidjilmessa. Les habitants bien que trafiquant au pays des nègres sont fort misérables parce qu'ils sont opprimés par les arabes de la tribu des Ouled Hamroun qui tout l'hiver sont dans le désert et vont pendant l'été dans la province de Garet au royaume de Fès. Cette tribu est la plus puissante de la Numidie. » 1636 : Tebelbert ou Tabelbert : « C'est une habitation au milieu du désert de Numidie à 70 lieues du gran Atlas du côté du midi et à 34 de Segelmesse. Il y a trois petites villes peuplées et de grandes contrées de palmier dont le fruit est excellent. Mais on y a grande faute d'eau et de chair et on chasse aux autruches et aux cerfs que l'on mange. La capitale est située le 23°,10 de longitude et sous 29°,30 minutes de latitude. Encore que les habitants trafiquent au païs des nègres, ils vivent for mal parce qu'ils relèvent des Arabes. » 1822 : Le Chérif Mulay Mohammed et la Caid Ali, centenier de la Garde Noire du Sultan, ont dicté leurs souvenirs en 1822 au représentant de la France à Tanger : « Du Tafilalet, on se rend à Ain el Abbas à travers un désert fréquenté par les gazelles et des autruches. Le quatrième jour, on atteint Tabiltat, localité habitée par des gens qui vivent dans des cabanes de papyrus(?), on y trouve des puits et le pays assez fertile produit de l'orge... » Histoire : Travail inédit: datedécembre 2010: Au , les Lemtoun (Al moulatamoun) seraient les premiers occupants de Tabelbala. Ils étaient nomades entre l'Iguidi et les chaines rocheuses qui s'en détachent vers le nord. Ils occupent le pays et creusent les premiers Foggara. C'est à eux que les indigènes rapportent la plupart des ruines dont ils ne s'expliquent pas l'origine : Mkhadda ga keddayou(oreiller de la petite maison), maniskafen...etc. Les ruines de Qasba Kerroun, Serahna, Tutarsint et Tabakant situés au nord-ouest de la palmeraie ne sont attribuées à aucun fondateur, l'étymologie elle-même n'apporte aucun élément valable. Après le départ des lemtoun, Tabelbala serait déserte quarante années. L'histoire de la population actuelle commence avec Sidi Zekri qui a appartenu à une famille chérifienne du Tafilalet, il a édifié un ksar dont on retrouve les traces auprès du ksar actuel de Zaouia Imden ou Imanden. Il attira à Tabelbala des habitants du Drâa et du Tafilalet qui amenèrent avec eux leurs esclaves et les harratis. Sidi Zekri descend de Fatima Zahra, il est très vénéré au Maroc, à Meknès et à Izaren près de Mogador. D'après les traditions, il aurait abandonné le Drâaà la recherche d'une chamelle qu'il retrouva à Tabelbala. Il a fait venir des colons. Les caravanes qui partait à Araouan fréquentaient régulièrement l'oasis. À la mort de Sidi Zekri, d'autres familles maraboutiques s'instalent. Sidi Brahim, fils Abd er-Rafia, vécut au XII siècle à l'époque prospère de Tabelbala. Son thaleb, Abd al Rahmane(surnommé El Oucer, à cause de ses grandes richesses) posséda d'importants troupeaux et laissa son nom à sa zone favorite de nomadisme, "Dhaiat al Oucer". Au XIIe: siècle, Sidi Makhlouf, originaire d'Ansar, est venu de Figuig et se fixa à Tabelbala. * Conquête française En 1905, après le combat de Noukhila, le Capitaine Regnault est envoyé en reconnaissance à Tabelbala. En 1908, le Capitaine Martin, de passage à Tabelbala, se heurte à l'hostilité de la population, particulièrement marquée chez les Ait Sful, il Bombarde Cheraya. En 1910, le Capitaine Clermont-Gallerande exerce une surveillance directe dans la région du Mahjez et occupe Tabelbala. Un bordj militaire est construit. L'administration militaire française dura 51 années. * Population Belbalia est le nom donné a l'ensemble des habitants de l'oasis de Tabelbala, nom qui devient Belbali en singulier comme pour Sidi Makhluf al-Balbali. * Langue Les habitants de Tabelbala parlent le Korandjé. Les Belbali(s) ou les belbala(s) est une communauté originaire de l'Afrique sud saharienne,et sont les premiers occupant de Tabelbala. Ils parlent une langue autre que l'arabe et le Tamazight, c'est le Korandjé . * Notes et références ==

سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود آل سعود | رواد فضاء سعوديون | مواليد 1956 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة تاريخأغسطس_2010: الأمير سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود (27 يونيو 1956) الإبن الثاني للأمير سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود ووالدته هي الأميرة سلطانة بنت تركي بن أحمد السديري، هو أول رائد فضاء عربي واول رائد فضاء مسلم، ويشغل منصب رئيس الهيئة العامة للسياحة والآثار في المملكة العربية السعودية، مؤسس ورئيس مجلس إدارة نادي الطيران السعودي. مسيرته : من مواليد الرياض - المملكة العربية السعودية، ومن المهتمين بمجال السياسة الدولية. فبالإضافة إلى مؤهلات الطيران التي حاز عليها في بداية مشواره المهني يحمل سلطان بن سلمان درجة الماجستير في العلوم الاجتماعية والسياسية من جامعة سيراكيوز في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية (1420هـ - 1999م) بعنوان "التحول القبلي والبناء الوطني في التجربة السعودية. أول رائد فضاء عربي (ديسكفري مهمة 51 جي في 1405 هـ- 1985م). يمتلك خبرة أصيلة في الطيران المدني والعسكري فهو مؤسس ورئيس مجلس إدارة نادي الطيران السعودي ويمارس الطيران المدني لأكثر من ثلاثة عقود بترخيص من قبل هيئة الطيران الاتحادي الفيدرالي في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية عام 1396هـ (1976م) ومن قبل رئاسة الطيران المدني في ـ المملكة العربية السعودية عام 1398 هـ (1978م) وحاصل على التصديق الفرنسي لرخص الطيران الأجنبية (2009م). وعمل لمدة تجاوزت عشرة سنوات في القوات الجوية الملكية السعودية بدءا من كلية الملك فيصل الجوية في ـ الرياض عام 1405هـ (1985م) وقاعدة الملك عبد العزيز الجوية في الظهران عام1410هـ (1990م)ثم تقاعد برتبة عقيد طيار عام 1416هـ (1996م) * أسرته: * متزوج الأميره هيفاء بنت سعود الفيصل بن عبد العزيز آل سعود * أبنائه: * الأمير سلمان بن سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود * الأميرة سحر بنت سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود * الأميرة هلا بنت سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود سجل التكريم : * "وشاح الملك عبد العزيز" ـ المملكة العربية السعودية 1405هـ (1985م) * "شهادة تقدير" ـ مركز لندون بي جونسون للفضاء ـ إدارة الطيران والفضاء الوطنية "ناسا" ـ الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية 1405هـ (1985م) * "نوط الفضاء" إدارة الطيران والفضاء الوطنية "ناسا" 1405هـ (1985م) * وسام الفارس الفخري ـ جمهورية فرنسا. 1405هـ (1985م) * "قرار مجلس نواب ولاية ماستشيوست الأمريكية " إشادة بالإنجاز التاريخي كأول رائد فضاء عربي 1405هـ (1985م) * "نوط الجمهورية من الدرجة الأولى" ـ الجمهورية التونسية 1405هـ (1985م) * "نوط مملكة البحرين من الدرجة الأولى" ـ مملكة البحرين 1405هـ (1985م) * "وسام الكوكب الأردني من الدرجة الأولي - المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية 1406هـ (1986م) * "نوط الهلال" –1- جمهورية باكستان الإسلامية 1406هـ (1986م) * "وثيقة تقدير " للدور الريادي للعالم العربي في عصر الفضاء"، اللجنة الأمريكية العربية لمناهضة التمييز العنصري ـ الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية 1406هـ (1986م) * "مفتاح مدينة لوس أنجلوس"، كاليفورنيا ـ الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية 1406هـ (1986م) * "مفتاح مدينة دالاس"، تكساس ـ الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية 1406هـ (1986م) * درجة الدكتوراه الفخرية في العلوم من جامعة الملك فهد للبترول والمعادن -المملكة العربية السعودية 1406هـ (1986م) * "نوط النجمة والوشاح العظيم" ـ جمهورية الصين الشعبية 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط الجدارة من الدرجة الأولى" ـ دولة الكويت 1407هـ (1987م) * "النوط الذهبي للعلوم والآداب" ـ جمهورية السودان 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط الاستقلال من الدرجة الأولى" ـ دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط الفنون الوطنية" ـ جمهورية لبنان 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط السلطان قابوس" ـ سلطنة عمان 1407هـ (1987م) * "وشاح الاستقلال" ـ دولة قطر 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط الجدارة من الدرجة الأولى" ـ الجمهورية اليمنية 1407هـ (1987م) * "شارة القوات الجوية العراقية" ـ الجمهورية العراقية 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط العرش" ـ المملكة المغربية 1407هـ (1987م) * "نوط الشرف العسكري" ـ الجهورية العربية السورية 1407هـ (1987م) * وسام القائد العظيم في جيبوتي" ـ جمهورية جيبوتي 1408هـ (1988م) * ميدالية تحرير دولة الكويت" ـ المملكة العربية السعودية 1413هـ (1993م) * وسام تحرير دولة الكويت من الدرجة الثانية" ـ دولة الكويت 1413هـ (1993م) * نوط شرف المشاركة في انتصارات حرب الخليج" ـ دولة الكويت 1413هـ (1993م) * شهادة تقدير وعرفان بمناسبة الذكرى السنوية (العشرون) إقراراً بالدعم المتميز لمعهد الدراسات الفضائية"، برنستون ـ الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية 1417هـ (1997م) * رجل عام 1997م" لإسهاماته في مجال الإعاقة، مجلة المجلة 1418هـ (1998م) * شهادة تقدير" للقيادة الملهمة والمتميزة نحو تحسن معيشة المعوقين" ـ كلية تمبل الجامعية للطب ـ الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية 1419هـ (1999م) * درع"تكريمي" الشخصيات القيادية في القطاع السياحي العربي ـ الملتقى العربي الدولي للسياحة والسفر ـ جمهورية لبنان 1423هـ (2003م) * جائزة رجل عام 2003م في تقنية المعلومات بالمملكة (مجموعة نشر وتقنية المعلومات شركة ITP) 1425هـ (2004م) * وسام الحسين للعطاء المميز من الدرجة الأولى من جلالة الملك عبد الله الثاني ملك المملكة الأردنية نظير الجهود المتميزة في الأعمال الإنسانية لذوي الاحتياجات الخاصة. 1426هـ (2005م) * جائزة الغرفة التجارية الصناعية بالرياض لخدمة المجتمع في مجال الأوقاف الخيرية. 1428هـ (2007م) * جائزة (أفضل تطبيق الكتروني حكومي) في الدول العربية مجلة -ACN Award 1428هـ -(2007م)

Sultan bin Salman bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud 1956 births | Living people | Saudi Arabian astronauts | House of Saud | Saudi Arabian aviators | Royal Saudi Air Force personnel | Saudi Arabian politicians Sultan bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud: dateJune 2011: Sultan bin Salman bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud (سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود: born June 27, 1956) is a former Royal Saudi Air Force pilot who flew aboard the STS-51-G Space Shuttle mission as a Payload Specialist. He is a grandson of King Ibn Saud and is the only Saudi citizen to travel in space. He was also the first Arab, the first Muslim, and the first member of royalty in space. He is the President and Chairman of the Board of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities. * Background Sultan was born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the second son of the Minister of Defence and Aviation, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz. He completed his elementary and secondary education in Riyadh, and earned a master's in Social and Political Science at Syracuse University in the USA. He is a certified civil pilot (FAA, USA-1978, French License-2005) and a fighter pilot, Colonel (retired)- Royal Saudi Air Force. Sultan is one of many nephews of the King of Saudi Arabia, Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud. * Experience In 1982, he was appointed to the position of researcher in the Department of International Communications at the Ministry of Information in Saudi Arabia. In 1984, he served as Deputy Director, Saudi Media Committee for the Saudi athletes at the Olympics in Los Angeles, California. Later that year, when the Department of Advertising was created at the Ministry of Information, he was appointed its Acting Director. In 1985, he flew as a payload specialist on STS-51-G Discovery (June 17–24, 1985). As one of a seven-member international crew, which also included American and French astronauts, he represented the Arab Satellite Communications Organization (ARABSAT) in deploying their satellite, ARABSAT-1B. Sultan also holds the record for being the youngest person to fly on the Space Shuttle, at the age of 28. Upon conclusion of his flight, he helped to found the Association of Space Explorers, an international organization comprising all astronauts and cosmonauts who have been in space, and served on its Board of Directors for several years. In 1985, Sultan recorded a commercial message that was broadcast on MTV during the Live Aid concert event. His message mentioned his recent trip on the Space Shuttle and was one of 33 such by notable individuals including Caesar Chavez, Coretta Scott King, Carl Sagan, Jesse Jackson and Peter Ueberroth. In 1985 he was commissioned as an officer into the Royal Saudi Air Force. He holds the rank of Lieutenant Colonel, and is qualified in several military and civilian aircraft. In 1986, Sultan bought the old Al-'Udhaibat farm in the Wadi Hanifa, west of Riyadh. On the advice of Abdel-Wahed El-Wakil, who introduced him to the works of Hassan Fathy, he began a project of restoring the main farm building built in the traditional way with adobe walls. Under the direction of the Egyptian architect the project grew to a general study of traditional Saudi architecture and its adaption to modern techniques and needs. This spurred Sultan's involvement with the education of architects and civil engineers within the kingdom. In 1988 he was elected to the position of Chairman of the Board of Directors of the . In 1992 he was the Co-Founder and Chairman of the Board of Trustees of , Chairman of the Coordinating Council of Charities for People with Disabilities and Chairman of the Supervisory Committee for Universal Accessibility. In 1993 due to his special interest in architecture he agreed to serve as Honorary President of the al-Umran Saudi Association (a society of specialists in the fields of the built environment). Sultan became the Secretary-General of the Supreme Commission for Tourism & Antiquities (SCTA) in 2000. His term of service was extended for another four years in February 2008., He enjoys and skiing in his spare timedateOctober 2008: . * Current activities== * President & Chairman of the Board, The Saudi Commission for Tourism & Antiquities (SCTA), KSA. * Chairman of the National Built Heritage Center * Member of the Board of Trustees, Saudi National Museum * Honorary President for the Saudi Society for Archeological Studies, King Saud University * Vice-Chairman of the Historic Jeddah Development Committee (proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site) * Founder of the Advisory Committee for the King Saud University College of Tourism & Antiquities * Member of the Board of Directors & Executive Committee, Chairman of the Riyadh/ King Khaled International Airport (KKIA) Development Board - General Authority of Civil Aviation (GACA) * Chairman of the Board of Directors, The Disabled Children Association , KSA. * Co-Founder and Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Prince Salman Center for Disability Research , KSA. * Founder and President, , KSA (an organization dedicated to the preservation and development of Saudi national heritage). * Founder and Chairman of the Board, * Chairman of the Board, (A science center and museum) * Founding Member and Member of the Board, The Graduates Society of Model Institute of the Capital Schools, Riyadh, KSA. * Member of the Supreme Committee for the Development of Al-Dir'iyyah (a UNESCO World Heritage site) , KSA. * Member of the Committee of the Center for the History of Makkah, , KSA. * Chairman of the Executive Committee, Princess Hessa AlSudairy Charitable Foundation

Sultan ben Salmane Al Saoud Naissance à Riyad | Naissance en 1956 | Spationaute saoudien | Membre de l'Association des explorateurs de l'espace | Famille princière Ibn Saoud Sultan ben Salmane ben Abdelaziz Al Saoud (en arabe : سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود ) est le premier spationaute saoudien, né le 27 juin 1956. Il est membre de la famille royale saoudienne, petit-fils de Abdelaziz Al Saoud, fondateur du royaume d'Arabie saoudite. Biographie : Le prince Sultan est le second fils du prince Salmane ben Abdelaziz ben Abderrahmane Al Saoud, demi-frère du roi actuel Abdallah et ministre de la défense. Titulaire d'un Master's en sciences politiques et sociales à l'université de Syracuse (USA) et d'un brevet de pilote, qualifié sur plusieurs types d'avions civils et militaires, il est colonel en retraite de l'armée de l'air saoudienne, et passionné de vol à voile . Vols réalisés : Il réalise un unique vol en tant que spécialiste de charge utile, le 17 juin 1985, lors de la mission Discovery (51-G). Références :

إن أي سي بريدا أندية كرة قدم هولندية إن أي سي (NAC) بريدا أو ناك بريدا هو نادي كرة قدم هولندي تأسس عام 1912 م بعد اتحاد ناديي ناود وآدفيندو ليصبح اسمه(ناود آدفيندو كومبيناتي) عرف بهذا الاسم حتى عام 2003 عندما تعرض النادي لضائقة مالية عندها ساعد مجلس بلدية مدينة بريدا النادي فتم إضافة اسم المدينة لاسم النادي، ملعب الفريق هو ملعب رات فيرليغ الذي افتتح عام 1996 م ويتسع لحوالي 16000 متفرج ويحمل اسم الملعب اسم اللاعب وقائد الفريق الذي حقق لقب دوري الدرجة الأولى عام 1921 م، يعرف الفريق بعدة ألقاب منها لؤلؤة الجنوب والجيش الأصفر. مصادر : # الدوري الهولندي الممتاز 2010-2011: بذرة كرة قدم:

NAC Breda Dutch football clubs | NAC Breda | Association football clubs established in 1912 | Breda | 1912 establishments in the Netherlands NAC Breda (ˈnɑk ˈbreːdɐ: ), simply often known as NAC, is a Dutch professional football club, based in Breda, Netherlands. NAC Breda play in the Rat Verlegh Stadium, named after their most important player, Antoon 'Rat' Verlegh. They play in the Dutch Eredivisie and are known by the fierce and fanatic support of their fans. In their history, NAC won one national title in 1921 and won one Cup in 1973. NAC was founded on September 19, 1912, when the two clubs ADVENDO and NOAD merged to one club. NOAD is a Dutch abbreviation for Nooit Ophouden, Altijd Doorgaan (ˈnoːi̯t ˈɔpˌɦʌu̯də(n) ˈɑɫˌtɛi̯t ˈdʊːrˌɣaːn: , English: never give up, always persevere), while ADVENDO is a Dutch abbreviation for Aangenaam Door Vermaak En Nuttig Door Ontspanning (ˈaːŋɣəˌnaːm ˈdʊːr vərˈmaːk ɛn ˈnʏtəx ˈdʊːr ɔntˈspɑnɪŋ: , English: Pleasant for its entertainment and useful for its relaxation), the C stands for Combinatie (combination). The full name of NAC Breda expands to Nooit opgeven altijd doorgaan, Aangenaam door vermaak en nuttig door ontspanning, Combinatie Breda (ˈnoːi̯t ˈɔpˌɣeːvə(n) ˈɑɫˌtɛi̯t ˈdʊːrˌɣaːn ˈaːŋɣəˌnaːm ˈdʊːr vərˈmaːk ɛn ˈnʏtəx ˈdʊːr ɔntˈspɑnɪŋ kɔmbɪˈnaː(t)si ˈbreːdɐ: ), the longest football club name in the world. Early 2003 NAC added, as a symbol of gratitude, Breda to their club name, after the City of Breda bought NAC’s Rat Verleghstadium to help the club to cope with financial problems. The last 6 years, NAC played 4 semi-finals in the Dutch Cup tournament, which were all lost. In the season 2007/2008 NAC ended 3rd in the Eredivisie. In season 2008/2009 NAC qualified for the 2nd phase in the UEFA Euro League 2009/2010, but was defeated in the 4th round NAC by Villarreal CF. At the end of season 2009/2010 it appeared, despite earlier denials by management and the chairman, that NAC had a debt of 3.2 million Euros. The crisis lead to the resignation of several board members and the installation of a new board and the appointment of Ed Busselaar as interim managing director. In 2011 it appeared that NAC had a debt of 7.1 million Euros. * History * Foundation NAC Breda was founded on September 19, 1912, when the two clubs ADVENDO (Aangenaam Door Vermaak En Nuttig Door Ontspanning (English: Pleasant for its entertainment and useful for its relaxation)) and NOAD (Nooit Opgeven, Altijd Doorzetten (English: never give up, always persevere)) merged to one club. During the new club’s foundation meeting the atmosphere became tense, since NOAD wanted to name the new club NOAD (NOad and ADvendo). This name was for ADVENDO no option. Eventually, Frans Konert proposed to call the club NAC (NOAD ADVENDO Combinatie), which was accepted by the meeting’s attendants. At first, the NVB refused NAC to play associated football, but allowed NAC on October 28, 1912 to play in the 2nd Southern Division. NAC’s golden ages: The first years weren’t that well for NAC, but when NAC moved to a new stadium ‘t Ploegske the results improved. NAC became one of the topteams in the highest Southern Division. In 1919 NAC became champion of this competition and was allowed to play the Dutch Champions’ Competition (a small competition in which the champions from the regional divisions would play for the Dutch title). During this competition NAC finished on the last place. In 1920, NAC was one of the first clubs to play international matches. NAC played a couple of friendly matches, including a match against Real Madrid CF. NAC won this match with 0–4 and the Spanish newspapers called NAC ‘Los muchacos del Breda, maestros del futbol’ (English: The boys from Breda, masters in football). In 1921 NAC celebrated one of its greatest achievements, when they became Dutch football champion. In the Dutch Championship competition, NAC defeated Ajax, Be Quick 1887 and Go Ahead. NAC continued to play soccer on a high level and in the twenties and thirties NAC was considered to be one of the best clubs in Dutch football. During this period NAC won 6 Southern Division titles and the football was deemed technically perfect by press and public. Because of this view, the NAC board decided to hire a professional trainer. Englishman Ben Affleck was hired as a coach and was a couple of months later succeeded by James Moore. When Moore resigned, the NAC board issued a committee, who would select the best 11 NAC players to play a match. In 1931 Antoon Verlegh retired from football. Verlegh, nowadays a club icon for NAC, played for NAC since its foundation. In this year, NAC also had a dispute with the City of Breda. The stadium’s terrain ‘t Ploegske was zoned as a residential area and NAC had to leave these grounds. Because no other option was available in Breda, NAC were forced to move to the town Princenhage. Within two months a complete new stadium, with a capacity of 5,500 people, was built and NAC left Breda. In 1935 NAC was also the first club in the Netherlands to travel by airplane to an away match against GVAV. In 1939 NAC and the City of Breda reopened discussions whether NAC could return to Breda. The city’s council zoned a large piece of land at the Beatrixstraat as stadium area and NAC returned to Breda in 1940. Because of the breakout of the Second World War, NAC decided to play an important social function in Breda’s community. In order to divert the people’s attention from war, NAC organized sport events, theatre, fairs and horsing games. Although NAC remained to play football, several players were employed by the Germans in Germany. During the second World War, youngster Kees Rijvers made his debut for NAC. * Challenging times After the Second World War, NAC played on the highest level. In 1949 Chairman of Honour C.J. Asselbergs died. Asselbergs was one of the people who were present at NAC since NAC got founded. In 1954 professional football was introduced in the Netherlands. The running competitions were postponed and new competitions were created. NAC entered the 1A League and became champions of this league in 1955. In the championship competition NAC finished second place, behind their rivals Willem II Tilburg. On March 14, 1960 Breda was shocked to hear the death of Antoon ‘De Rat’ Verlegh. Verlegh, considered to be one of the important persons in Dutch football, died in a car accident on March 12. From NAC’s foundation in 1912, Verlegh was involved in the club at numerous positions and played an important role with the Royal Dutch Football Association. In November 1961 NAC lost another important person; Chairman Jacques Piederiet died. A year later, in August 1962, chairman Le Fevre died. The beginning of the sixties were not bright for NAC. In 1964–1965 NAC even relegated for the first time in its existence. The relegation meant a total reconstruction of the club’s management. The board resigned and NAC’s intention was to return to the highest level within one year. NAC was successful in this and a season later NAC played on the highest level and a year later qualified for the KNVB Cup’s final, were it lost to AFC Ajax. Although NAC lost, the club was allowed to play UEFA Cup. In the UEFA Cup NAC reached the second round, after defeating Floriana FC. In the second round NAC was knocked out by Cardiff City. Although NAC remained on the highest football level in the Netherlands, NAC were in a heavy struggle not to relegate. May 31, 1973 is another highlight in NAC’s history. In the KNVB Cup’s final, NAC had to play NEC Nijmegen. NAC won the Cup Final, in front of 25,000 people from Breda, with 0–2. Because of this victory, NAC was allowed to play in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. In the first round NAC was knocked out by later winners 1. FC Magdeburg. * The birth of the Avondje NAC In 1975 the NAC board decided to play the home matches on a Saturday evening. In this period a group of fanatic NAC fans merged and located themselves on a stand. Their fierce support lead to an attraction of youngsters, who also fanatically support NAC. This fierce support lasts till now and is known in the Netherlands as an Avondje NAC (English; An Evening NAC). An Avondje NAC is a flamboyant mix of Burgundian fun, beer, fanaticism and love for the club and ensures that during home matches the atmosphere in the stadium is intimidating. On October 6, 1979, a strange situation occurred. During the home match against NAC’s rivals Feyenoord the linesman was hit by an ashtray. The referee postponed the match, riots broke out and the incident in the Netherlands is known as the ‘Ashtray Incident’. In the eighties NAC relegated two times. After the second relegation, it appeared the financial situation of NAC was terrible. NAC was almost bankrupt and had to sell its belongings to survive. For years NAC struggled to survive, but at the end of the eighties NAC’s situation improved and the club began to play in the top of the Eerste Divisie. On June 7, 1989, NAC player Andro Knel died in a plane accident. It was a shock to the club, especially since Knel was one of the popular players. Hundreds of fans of both NAC Breda and Sparta Rotterdam, Knel’s former club, came together in memorial of Knel. A temporary Knel monument was revealed and the numbers of supporters visiting the monument proved his popularity. Due to the sad moments of Knel's death a special relationship between fans of NAC and Sparta was created. After Knel’s death, NAC had to continue to play in de Eerste Divisie and three times NAC was close to promote back to the Eredivisie. In 1992, NAC finally promoted to the Eredivisie. With a team managed by Ronald Spelbos and players like John Lammers, Pierre van Hooijdonk, Ton Lokhoff, Fabian Wilnis and John Karelse, NAC played their promotion match in Den Bosch against FC Den Bosch in front of 9,000 NAC fans. The promotion meant a revival of NAC’s popularity, the stadium was sold out and NAC was supported by thousands of people in away matches. In the away match against their rivals Feyenoord in Rotterdam, NAC was supported by 8,000 people. Due to the popularity, the NAC board announced it would leave the stadium at the Beatrixstraat and it would build a new stadium. Until the movement, NAC continued to play on the highest level, missed qualification for the UEFA Cup several times and reached the semi-finals of the KNVB Cup. * A new stadium and continuing financial problems In 1996 NAC moved to the new stadium, called the FUJIFILM Stadium. With this movement NAC indicated it wanted to play UEFA Cup every year. In 1998 NAC youngster Dominique Diroux died because of an heart attack during the match of the 2nd teams of NAC and AZ. NAC and the new players couldn’t meet the high expectations for a couple of seasons and NAC even relegated in 1999. After this relegation, it appeared that NAC’s financial situation was bad. In 4 seasons, NAC bought 60 players and the costs of the stadium exceeded the budget. In order to save the club, the stadium was bought from NAC by investors and Roelant Oltmans was appointed as the first professional manager at NAC. Also a fans’ council, the first in the Netherlands, was established, in which fans have an advisory role, that protects NAC's culture and defend the fans' interests. NAC also has one position available for a fan in the board of chairmen. NAC professionalized and promoted in 2000 to the Eredivisie. In 2003 NAC qualified for the UEFA Cup, in which NAC played two matches against Newcastle United. An estimated 4,300 NAC fans travelled to Newcastle to support their team. In 2003 it appeared NAC was again nearing bankruptcy and the City of Breda purchased the stadium again from NAC on January 30, 2003. As a gratitude, NAC changed their name to NAC Breda. After this rescue, the management and the Board of Chairmen resigned and was succeeded by Theo Mommers as managing director and a new Board of Chairmen, led by Willem van der Hoeven. In 2006 NAC decided to rename the stadium to Rat Verlegh Stadion. For a long time, NAC’s financial position seemed stable and the club finished third in season 2007–2008. In 2009, NAC qualified for the UEFA Europa League. In the 4th round, NAC was defeated by Villarreal CF with 1–3 (home) and 6–1 (away). Despite earlier denials towards fans and stakeholders by management and the Board of Chairmen, it appeared at the end of season 2009-2010 that NAC’s financial position wasn’t stable. The club lost 3.2 million Euro’s that season, due to rebuilding the stadium and buying too expensive players. Board members Willem van der Hoeven, Jacques Visschers and Bas Koomans resigned and Bas van Bavel became new chairman. Managing director Theo Mommers reported ill in April 2010. Bernard Ouwerkerk was appointed in June 2010 as interim managing director of NAC Breda, while Technical Manager Earnest Stewart signed a contract at AZ and was replaced by Jeffrey van As. During this period, NAC manager Maaskant raised his concerns several via the press. Because of the financial problems, NAC had to cut budget and Maaskant wasn’t able to buy new players. On August 21, 2010 NAC and Maaskant made public that the trainer would leave NAC Breda for Polish football club Wisła Kraków, where Maaskant signed a 2-year deal. His assistant managers John Karelse, Gert Aandewiel and Arno van Zwam became the interim managers for NAC Breda. In January 2011 Bernard Ouwerkerk resigned and was succeeded by Ed Busselaar. In March 2011 it appeared that NAC had a debt of 7.1 million Euros. * Honours * Eredivisie ** Winners (1): 1921 * KNVB Cup ** Winners (1): 1973 * Eerste Divisie ** Winners (1): 2000 * Eerste Klasse ** Winners (9): 1919, 1921, 1922, 1924, 1925, 1927, 1936, 1946, 1955 * Domestic Results Below is a table with NAC Breda's domestic results since the introduction of the Eredivisie in 1956. * Colours and crest * Colours NAC’s official colours are yellow, white and black. During their existence these colours have always been in NAC’s home and/or away kit. Initially, NAC’s home kit was a black shirt -with a diagonal yellow line-, a white short and yellow black socks. In 1916 NAC changed this kit towards a white shirt. This white shirt would remain till the sixties, when NAC decided to replaced the white shirt with a yellow shirt and black shorts Conversely, NAC’s away colours have been very inconsistent. There is no setting in the colour standards. In NAC cultural manifest it has been stated that the home and away kits should have the official NAC colours. Afterwards, NAC announced to play their home matches in a yellow shirt, with a black diagonal line running over it, black shorts and white socks, with some yellow accents in it. The away kit is a white shirt, with a yellow diagonal line marked by a black border running over it. White short and white socks complete the away kit. * Crest During their existence, NAC had 4 different crests. After their foundation in 1912, their crest was a black shield, with a yellow diagonal line running over it and in it the letters N.A.C.. This crest was replaced in 1968 by another crest. The reason for this crest change is unknown. In 1974 the crest was replaced by a crest which contained the letters NAC in a black and yellow combination. The crest was most probably changed due to the dismissal of the NAC board in 1974. In order to state a new beginning, a new board member’s daughter designed NAC’s third crest. The current crest consists of two lions, three crosses, the letters NAC and it contains NAC’s official club colours. The two lions and the three crosses are derived from Breda’s crest. The current crest was developed in 1996, when NAC moved to the Rat Verlegh Stadion. NAC Breda's management: NAC Breda's management consists of the following people. Main squad: As of 1 August 2011 For recent transfers, see List of Dutch football transfers summer 2011 Fs start: (on loan from AZ) (on loan from Ajax) (on loan from Union Berlin) (on loan from Ajax) Fs mid: Fs end: On loan: Fs start: Fs end:

NAC Breda Club néerlandais de football | Club de football fondé en 1912 NAC: Le Noad Advendo Combinatie Breda, plus communément appelé NAC Breda, est un club de football des Pays-Bas, situé à Bréda et évoluant en Première Division néerlandaise. Il fut fondé le . Historique : Le club est né de la fusion entre deux clubs de Breda, qui sont eux-mêmes désignés par des acronymes : le NOAD (Nooit Ophouden Altijd Doorzetten, ne jamais abandonner toujours persévérer), fondé le et l'ADVENDO (Aangenaam Door Vermaak En Nuttig Door Ontspanning, plaisant pour la détente, utile pour la relaxation), créé le . Le nom complet du club est donc Nooit Ophouden Altijd Doorzetten Aangenaam Door Vermaak En Nuttig Door Ontspanning Combinatie Breda, soit le plus long nom au monde pour un club de football. L'une des plus belles pages de l'histoire de NAC fut écrite en 1921. Le club remporta la division Sud du Championnat, constituée des équipes provenant de Zélande, du Brabant-Septentrional et du Limbourg. NAC fut ainsi qualifié pour le tournoi final, aux côtés de Be Quick 1887 (un club de Groningue aujourd'hui amateur), l'Ajax Amsterdam et Go Ahead Eagles. Malgré deux défaites sur ses six matches, NAC remporta la compétition avec un point d'avance et fut sacré champion des Pays-Bas. C'est son seul titre à ce jour. De 1919 à 1927, le NAC réussit à remporter six fois la division Sud du Championnat en neuf ans. En Coupe des Pays-Bas, la décennie est assez prolifique également : bien que pour sa première apparition le , NAC fût battu 3-0 par Feyenoord, il progresse peu à peu, jusqu'à atteindre la demi-finale de la compétition en 1930, battu par l'Excelsior Rotterdam sur le score de cinq buts à deux, après un match épique. Cette période constitua les « années dorées » du club. Le joueur emblématique de cette époque, devenu international, s'appelait Antoon Verlegh et était surnommé « le Rat », pour la malice et l'intelligence de son jeu. Le stade qu'occupe le club depuis 1996 s'appelle aujourd'hui le Rat Verlegh Stadion. La plus récente ligne au palmarès de NAC Breda reste la victoire en Coupe des Pays-Bas de 1973. Lors d'une finale organisée au Kuip de Rotterdam, NAC battit le favori NEC Nimègue sur le score de 2-0, avec des buts de Stanley Bish et Addy Brouwers. Au total, le club atteindra quatre fois la finale pour un seul succès. En 2004, NAC battra à la fois le PSV et l'Ajax, mais échouera en demi-finale face au FC Twente. Dans son histoire, le club avait disputé seulement huit matches sur la scène européenne jusqu'en 2009. En 1967, l'Ajax Amsterdam réalise le doublé Coupe-Championnat, ce qui permet à NAC, en tant que finaliste malheureux de la Coupe, de tout de même prendre part à la Coupe d'Europe des vainqueurs de coupe 1967-1968. Après une victoire contre le modeste club maltais de Floriana (2-1, 1-0), la première aventure européenne de NAC s'achève dès le tour suivant, les huitièmes de finale, face à Cardiff City (1-1, 1-4). Après sa victoire en Coupe des Pays-Bas, le club pris à part à la même compétition en 1974. Dès le premier tour, NAC est éliminé par les futurs vainqueurs de l'épreuve, le FC Magdebourg : après un match nul 0-0 à Bréda, l'équipe s'incline 2-0 au retour, en Allemagne de l'Est. Près de trente ans furent nécessaires pour que NAC puisse de nouveau atteindre une compétition européenne. Grâce à une quatrième place en Championnat en 2003, l'équipe, alors dirigée par Henk ten Cate, subit l'année suivante une cruelle désillusion en Coupe UEFA. L'opposition face à Newcastle United en tour de qualification tourna à la déroute : le match aller à St James' Park se solda sur le score de 5-0, avec notamment un doublé de Craig Bellamy. Le retour fut à peine plus glorieux, avec une défaite 1-0 à domicile. C'est en 2009 qu'ils réalisèrent leur seul parcours glorieux en Europe. Débutant au deuxième des quatre tours de qualification à la Ligue Europa 2009-2010, ils écrasèrent les arméniens du Gandzasar Kapan en gagnant 2-0 à l'extérieur et 6-0 aux Pays-Bas. Ils se retrouvèrent donc qualifiés contre les polonais du KP Polonia Varsovie qui avaient terminés quatrièmes du Championnat de Pologne de football. Ils gagnèrent 3-1 à domicile puis 1-0 à l'extérieur. Ils purent donc accéder à l'ultime tour de qualification mais ils s'y firent étriller par Villareal (1-3 à l'aller, 1-6 au retour) Palmarès : * Championnat des Pays-Bas ** Champion : 1921 * Coupe des Pays-Bas ** Vainqueur : 1973 ** Finaliste : 1961, 1967 Stade : En 1996, NAC quitte son ancien stade Aan de Beatrixstraat, situé au centre de Bréda, pour un tout nouveau stade de 16 400 places, sis juste en dehors, qui aura coûté 29 millions de florins. Il s'appelle alors le Fujifilm Stadion. Entre 2003 et 2005, il est renommé en MyCom Stadion. Cependant, juste après la construction du nouveau stade, le club subit des difficultés sportives et financières. En 1999, le club conclut même le Championnat par une 18e: et dernière place, synonyme de relégation en Deuxième division, dont il est champion l'année suivante. Pour soulager NAC, la ville de Bréda décide le de racheter le MyCom Stadion pour environ 15 millions d'euros. Le club est alors sauvé de la faillite et, depuis cette date, loue le stade pour y organiser ses matches. Il est renommé Rat Verlegh Stadion, en hommage à un des joueurs les plus mythiques de l'histoire du club. En signe de gratitude envers la municipalité, ce dernier devient le NAC Breda. Joueurs et personnalités du club : Equipe actuelle : Fs start: Fs mid: Fs end: En gras figurent les joueurs internationaux. Entraîneurs : Joueurs célèbres : * Australie: Graham Arnold * Belgique: Albert De Roover * Suède: Johan Elmander * Ruud Geels * Pays-Bas: Pierre van Hooijdonk * Pays-Bas: Ton Lokhoff * Pays-Bas: David Mendes da Silva * Pays-Bas: Kees Rijvers * England: Mike Small * États-Unis: NED-d: Earnie Stewart * Pays-Bas: Antoon « Rat » Verlegh * Australie: Tony Vidmar * Suisse: Johan Vonlanthen Références :

محافظة سافاناكيت محافظات لاوس محافظة سافاناكيت (لاو:ສະຫວັນນະເຂດ) و(بالإنجليزية:Savannakhet) هي محافظة تابعة لجمهورية لاوس الديموقراطية الشعبية تقع جنوب لاوس تجاورها من الشمال خامواني ومن الجنوب سالافان وتشترك بالحدود معا فيتنام من الشرق وتجاور مملكة تايلاند من الغرب عبر محافظات ناخون فانوم وموكداهان تعتبر أكبر محافظة في لاوس ويعني اسم سافانخت "مدينة الفردوس" وتعتبر مدينة تجارية هامة لنقل البضائع بين تايلاند وفيتنام. التقسيمات الادارية: * تنقسم المحافظة الي 15 تقسيمة إدارية (بلديات) بذرة لاوس: محافظات لاوس:

Savannakhet Province Savannakhet Province | Provinces of Laos | Populated places on the Mekong River Savannakhét (Lao:ສະຫວັນນະເຂດ) is a province of Laos. The name Savannakhet derives from Savanh Nakhone, which means "city of paradise", the province's original name. Therefore, it bears the same meaning as Nakhon Sawan in Thailand. This province is located in the south of the country. It is bordered by Khammouan to the north, Salavan to the south, Quang Tri and Thua Thien-Hue of Vietnam to the east and Nakhon Phanom and Mukdahan of Thailand to the west. Savannakhet is the largest province in Laos, and with Vientiane constitutes the major urban areas. Its capital Savannakhet or Kaysone Phomvihane is Laos' second city after Vientiane. It forms an important trading post between Thailand and Vietnam. The town was bombed and then occupied by Thai armed forces during the French-Thai War. In 2007, the Second Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge across the Mekong River from Savannakhet to Mukdahan, Thailand was opened. Administrative divisions: The province is made up of the following districts: * Atsaphangthong (13-03) * Atsaphone (13-13) * Champhone (13-09) * Kaysone Phomvihane, former Khanthabouly (13-01) * Nong (13-06) * Outhoumphone (13-02) * Phalanxay (13-15) * Phine (13-04) * Sepone (13-05) * Songkhone (13-08) * Thapangthong (13-07) * Vilabuly (13-12) * Xaybuly (13-11) * Xayphouthong (13-14) * Xonnabouly (13-10) Laos provinces: Laos: Laos-geo-stub:

Province de Savannakhet Province du Laos La province de Savannakhet (Khouèng Savannakhét) est une province du sud du Laos situé entre la province de Khammouane au nord et celle de Saravane au sud. Elle est séparée de la Thaïlande, à l'ouest, par le cours du Mékong, et du Viêt Nam, à l'est, par la cordillère annamitique. Description : La province de Savannakhet se compose de quinze districts et est la plus peuplée du Laos, avec habitants, soit environ 15 % de la population totale. Son chef-lieu est Savannakhet. La population est formée de Lao loum, Thaï dam, de plusieurs groupes mineurs dont les Môn-khmers (Laven, Katangs, Pako, Suay, Bru, Kalèng), de Vietnamiens et Chinois. C'est dans cette province que sont conservés les vestiges les plus intéressants de la piste Hô Chi Minh, principale voie de ravitaillement utilisée par les forces nord-vietnamiennes pendant la guerre d'Indochine. Du fait des bombardements intensifs tout le long de la piste, cette province possède des forêts encore très denses dans laquelle se trouve la zone nationale de conservation de la biodiversité Phou Xang He (un peu plus de km2: ), où une quinzaine d'oiseaux rares et de nombreuses autres espèces animales ont trouvé refuge. Paléontologie : La province possède plusieurs sites fossilifères du Crétacé. Le plus connu est celui de Tang Vay, à 120 km au nord-est de Savannakhet : daté de 110 millions d'années, il a été découvert par le géologue Josué Hoffet en 1936 et à nouveau exploré par des équipes du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle de Paris dirigées par Philippe Taquet à partir des années 1990. Il a livré des arbres fossiles (Araucarioxylon hoffetti), des tortues et surtout un sauropode, Tangvayosaurus hoffetti . L'Aptien de la province de Savannakhet a aussi livré un psittacosaure, un iguanodon de taille moyenne et quelques os incomplets d'un dinosaure carnivore. Enfin on a trouvé à Pha Lane (sur les berges de la Se Sang Hoy), une piste de théropode. Beaucoup de ces découvertes sont exposées au Musée des dinosaures de Savannakhet. Histoire : L'occupation humaine est ancienne : les premiers outils en pierre de la province sont datés entre et ans. Les premiers outils en bronze remontent à 2000 ans avant notre ère. La culture Dong Son est représentée par plusieurs tambours de bronze. Le musée de Savannakhet expose notamment 3 petits tambours (ø de 50 cm) et 2 très grands (ø d'un mètre ou +), très endommagés et très décorés, découverts en 2001 dans le district de Sépon et en 2008 le long des berges du Mékong. Leurs poignées imitent la vannerie. La région a été ensuite été le centre de la principauté (ou royaume) de Sikottaboum (ou Sikhottabong : on lui devrait le premier stûpa du Vat Sikhottabong de Thakhek). Ce royaume avait sa capitale au nord-ouest de la province, dans le village actuel de Nong Huathong, sur les berges orientales de la Se Bangfay (rivière Bangfay), à une dizaine de kilomètres à l'est du Mékong . En avril 2008, on y a découvert par hasard un trésor comprenant 8,5 kg d'objets d'or et 18,7 kg d'objets d'argent. On a également découvert le pilier de fondation de la ville et des traces de ses remparts de brique. Il existe également des ruines khmères pré-angkoriennes remontant aux VIe: -VIIe: siècles dans le district de Xaypouthong, au sud de Savannakhet, et d'autres artefacts, yoni et lingam principalement, ont été découverts dans la province. Au , la province de Savannakhet a été un des sièges de la lutte pour l'indépendance. Kaysone Phomvihane et de nombreux leaders révolutionnaires en sont originaires. Durant la guerre du Vietnam, l'Est de la province, traversé par la piste Hô Chi Minh a été intensivement bombardé par les forces loyalistes et américaines. Certaines zones sont encore sous la menace des munitions non-explosées. Économie : L'agriculture est encore pauvre, surtout dans l'Est de la province, en raison du grand nombre de munitions non-explosées (la province compte pour environ 25% des victimes laotiennes de ces armes ). Les autres ressources comportent notamment : * mine d'or et de cuivre de Sepon (40 km au nord de la ville de Sepon) ; la production d'or a commencé en décembre 2002, celle de cuivre début 2005 ; * carrière de gypse (exporté vers le Viêt Nam) ; * casino Savan Vegas à Savannakhet (destiné aux Thaïlandais : les jeux d'argent sont interdits en Thaïlande) ; * plusieurs zones économiques spéciales en cours de constitution. Divisions administratives : * District de Kaysone Phomvihane (ເມືອງໄກສອນ ພົມວິຫານ) depuis le 13 décembre 2005, anciennement district de Khanthabouly * District de Outhoomphone * District d'Atsaphangthong * District de Phine * District de Sepone * District de Nong * District de Thapangthong * District de Songkhone * District de Champhone * District de Xonbuly * District de Xaybuly * District de Vilabuly * District d'Atsaphone * District de Xayphoothong * District de Thaphalanxay Notes et références : Références: Palette Subdivisions du Laos: Laos:

محافظة سايذيبولي محافظات لاوس محافظة سايذيبولي (لاو:ໄຊຍະບູລີ) و(بالإنجليزية:Sainyabuli) هي محافظة تابعة لجمهورية لاوس الديموقراطية الشعبية تقع شمال غرب لاوس ويغطي المنطقة من جهة الغرب نهر مكيونغ الذي يعتبر حدود جغرافية طبيعة للمحافظة، تجاور سايذيبولي محافظة أودومكساي من الشمال وتجاورها من الجنوب مقاطعة فيينتيان ومن الشرق تجاور سايذيبولي مملكة تايلاند وتشترك بالحدود معا محافظات نان وفيتسانولوك وأوتاراديت وفاياو ,المحافظة جبيلة وتفتقر لطرق السيارات وترتبط بطريق أقليمي يربط المحافظة بالحدود التايلاندية، تتميز المحافظة بوفرة الاخشاب وزراغة الارز. التقسيمات الادارية: * تنقسم المحافظة الي 11 منطقة إدارية كمقاطعات (بلديات) بذرة لاوس: محافظات لاوس:

Sainyabuli Province Sainyabuli Province | Provinces of Laos dateSeptember 2010: LaoText: Sainyabuli (Lao ໄຊຍະບູລີ) is a province of Laos, located in the northwest of the country. * Geography The province is located in the northwest of the country, and covers all the area west of the Mekong river. It is bordered by Oudomxai Province to the north, Louangphabang and Vientiane Province to the east, and (from the south clockwise) the Thai provinces Loei, Phitsanulok, Uttaradit, Nan and Phayao. The province is quite mountainous and devoid of vehicle roads expect for one north-south route extending from the provincial capital to the Thai border opposite Thailand's Loie Province. The province is rich in timber and lignite, and is considered the rice basket of norther Laos, since most other northern provinces are too mountainous to grow enough rice. Other important crops include maize, oranges, cotton, peanuts and sesame. * History In 1904 the area of the province was ceded from Siam to the French Indochina colony. In 1941 it was annexed by Thailand again under the name Lan Chang Province, but returned to the pre-war status in 1946. The area is allegedly a heartland for military involvement in illegal timber trade. Asian elephants in Sainyabuli: The Sainyabuli province is home to Laos’ majority of domesticated Asian elephants. Approximately 75% of the nation’s 560 domesticated elephants work in Sainyabuli. Their main work duties are within the logging industry, which causes a loss in both wild and domestic elephant habitat. The Sainyabuli province is also home to the annual , organised in partnership by the Lao PDR National Tourism Authority, Elefantasia, provincial and district authorities. Geography: Sainyabuli is the only Laotian province that is west of the Mekong River. Because the Mekong isolated Sainuyabuli from other Laotian provinces with Hmong villages, the warfare during the Quiet War that affected other Hmong villages largely did not affect Sainyabuli. Most Hmong villages in Sainyabuli did not see any fighting. * Administrative divisions The province is made up of the following districts: * Boten (8-09) * Hongsa (8-03) * Kenthao (8-08) * Khop (8-02) * Ngeun (8-04) * Paklai (8-07) * Phiang (8-06) * Thongmixai (8-10) * Sainyabuli (8-01) * Xianghon (8-05) * Other locations * Houaysouy was a Hmong village in Sainyabuli. It had no fighting during the Quiet War, and Vang Pao did not recruit any of its men. After the war, Anne Fadiman, author of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, said that the village was "tossed into the political melee along with the rest of the country." The occupying Vietnamese soldiers regarded the residents of the village as traitors because they were Hmong. Because of this, the Vietnamese soldiers persecuted the Hmong. In 1979 around 400 members of the Lee, Vang, Xiong, and Yang clans attempted to escape from the village. ** The family of Lia Lee, the subject of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, originated from Houaysouy.

Province de Sayaboury Province du Laos Laos: La province de Sayaboury est une province du Laos limitrophe de la Thaïlande (à l'ouest). Elle est séparée du reste du Laos par le Mékong et de la Thaïlande par la ligne de partage des eaux entre le bassin du Mékong et celui de la Nan. Histoire : Située sur la rive droite (occidentale) du Mékong, la province a été longtemps disputée entre le Laos et le Siam (Thaïlande après 1939). Elle fait d'abord partie du royaume de Luang Prabang, vassal du Siam, mais n'est pas comprise dans les provinces attribuées au Protectorat français du Laos au moment de sa constitution par le traité franco-thaïlandais de 1893, car celui-ci fixe la frontière sur le Mékong. Elle reste donc sous suzeraineté thaïlandaise, jusqu'à un nouveau traité, conclu en 1904. La Thaïlande met à profit la défaite française en Europe en 1940 pour récupérer la province : la guerre franco-thaïlandaise, dont c'est un des objectifs, se conclut par le traité de paix du 9 mai 1941, qui la lui attribue. Le Royaume du Laos la récupère bien après la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, en novembre 1947. Entre décembre 1987 et le cessez-le-feu du 19 février 1988, elle a été le cadre de la « guerre des collines » un conflit entre la Thaïlande et le Laos qui aurait fait environ un millier de morts de part et d'autre. Économie : La province possède du lignite, qui sera utilisée par la centrale thermique de Hongsa, qui doit entrer en fonction en 2015. Le projet a été lancé en 2007 et les travaux doivent commencer à la fin de l'année 2010, pour un coût prévisionnel d'environ 3,5 milliards de dollars américains. La centrale de Hongsa sera la plus grosse centrale thermique du Laos, avec une production de 1800 MW . Notes et références : Références: Palette Subdivisions du Laos: Laos:

آغا خان الرابع أئمة إسماعيليون | مواليد 1936 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة أغا خان الرابع أو كريم أغا خان ( -) إمام الشيعة الإسماعيلية النزارية يقيم بفرنسا. حياتة ونشأته : في ولد كريم اغا خان لعلي خان وتاج الدولة على خان في جنيف، وقضى معظم طفولتة في نيروبي بكينيا. وقد ولد لأسرة شديدة الثراء ولديه أخت غير شقيقة وهي ياسمين ابنة ريتا هيوارث. و تولى مقاليد الإمامة عام م خلفا لجده السير سلطان محمد شاه أغا خان قبل تخرجه من جامعة هارفارد في عام ...... صفته الروحية : الزعيم الروحي للإسماعيليين في العالم ويزعم أن نسبه يعود إلى النبي محمد عليه الصلاة والسلام عبر صهره الإمام علي بن أبي طالب زوج فاطمة رضي الله عنها. وهو الإمام التاسع والأربعون للمسلمين الشيعة الإماميين الإسماعيليين بالوراثة،... تخرّج من جامعة هارفارد عام 1959 وحصل على شهادة "البكالوريوس في التاريخ و يتقن اللغة العربية والإنكليزية والفرنسية. توفى والد كريم علي والذي لم يتولى الإمامة في حادث سيارة مفاجئ ودفن في مدينة السلمية في سورية. لدى كريم أربعة أبناء هم زهراء ورحيم والحسين ومحمد علي وتعمل زهراء على التنسيق بين مؤسسات الأمامة للتنمية الاجتماعية، أما رحيم فيضطلع بنفس المسؤوليات ولكن من ناحية التنمية الاقتصادية. شبكة الأغا خان للتنمية : شبكة الأغا خان للتنمية: انظر أيضاً : * آغا خان الأول * آغا خان الثاني * آغا خان الثالث بداية صندوق: نهاية صندوق:

Aga Khan IV British philanthropists | British racehorse owners and breeders | French racehorse owners and breeders | Aga Khan Development Network | Roseens | Harvard University alumni | Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire | Companions of the Order of Canada | Owners of Epsom Derby winners | British Ismailis | Swiss Ismailis | Nizari imams | British imams | Swiss imams | Swiss people of English descent | Swiss people of Iranian descent | Swiss people of Italian descent | Swiss people of Pakistani descent | Qajar dynasty | 20th-century imams | 21st-century imams | People from Geneva | 1936 births | Living people | Alpine skiers at the 1960 Winter Olympics | Alpine skiers at the 1964 Winter Olympics | Olympic alpine skiers of Iran | Olympic alpine skiers of Turkey | Iranian alpine skiers | Turkish alpine skiers | Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences | Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit dateDecember 2011: date: September 2011: Prince Karim, Aga Khan IV, NPk, NI, KBE, CC, GCC, GCIH, GCM (سمو الأمیر شاہ کریم الحسیني آقا خان الرابع: ; born 13 December 1936) is the 49th and current Imam of the Shia Imami Nizari Ismaili Muslims. He has held this position under the title of Aga Khan since July 11, 1957, when, at the age of 20, he succeeded his grandfather, Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan. The Aga Khan is responsible for the interpretation of the faith for his followers and as part of the office of the Imamate,date: December 2011: endeavors to improve the quality of their lives and the communities where they live. Aga Khan claims to be a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad through his cousin and son-in-law, Ali,dateDecember 2011: considered the first Imam in Shia Islam, and his wife Fatima az-Zahra, the Prophet’s daughter from his first marriage with Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, the Prophet's first of either 11 or 13 wives. The Aga Khan owns hundreds of racehorses, valuable stud farms, an exclusive yacht club on Sardinia, a private island in the Bahamas, two Bombardier jets, a 12 seater helicopter, a £100 million high speed yacht named after his prize racehorse, and several estates around the world including an estate at Aiglemont, north of Paris. G. Pascal Zachary, of the The New York Times, writes, "Part of the Aga Khan's personal wealth, which his advisers say exceeds $1 billion, comes from a ... system of tithes [called dasond] that some of the world's 15 million Ismaili Muslims pay him each year—an amount that ... may reach hundreds of millions of dollars annually." Since his ascension to the Imamate, the Aga Khan has been involved in complex political and economic changes which have affected his followers, including the independence of African countries from colonial rule, expulsion of Asians from Uganda, the independence of Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan from the former Soviet Union and the continuous turmoil in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Aga Khan is particularly interested in the elimination of global poverty; the advancement of women; the promotion of Islamic culture, art, and architecture; and promoting pluralistic values in society. He is the founder and chairman of the Aga Khan Development Network, one of the largest private development networks in the world, which toils towards environment, health, education, architecture, culture, microfinance, rural development, disaster reduction, the promotion of private-sector enterprise and the revitalisation of historic cities. During his visit to India in 1983, the Aga Khan said: Early life: Born Prince Karim Aga Khan, the Aga Khan IV is the eldest son of Prince Aly Khān, (1911–1960) and his first wife, Princess Tajuddawlah Aly Khan, formerly the Hon. Joan Barbara Yarde-Buller (1908–1997), the eldest daughter of the 3rd Baron Churston. Born in Geneva, Switzerland, on December 13, 1936, Prince Karim was declared healthy despite being born prematurely. The Aga Khan's brother, Prince Amyn, was born less than a year later. Their parents divorced in 1949 and Prince Aly Khān later married Rita Hayworth, with whom he had a daughter, Princess Yasmin Aga Khan, half-sister of the Aga Khan. He also had a half-brother, Patrick Benjamin Guinness (1931–1965), from his mother's first marriage, as Joan Yarde-Buller was previously married to Loci Guinness, of the banking Guinnesses. The Aga Khan spent his childhood in Nairobi, Kenya, where his early education was done by private tutoring. His grandfather, Aga Khan III, engaged Mustafa Kamil, a scholar from Aligarh Muslim University, for both Prince Karim and Prince Amyn. The Aga Khan later attended the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland for nine years. He graduated from Harvard University in 1959 with a BA honors degree in Islamic history. The young Aga Khan was a competitive downhill skier, and he skied for Iran in 1964 Olympic Games where he ranked 30th in the slalom event. As a youngster the Aga Khan would have preferred to attend MIT and study science, but his grandfather Aga Khan III vetoed the decision and Prince Karim attended Harvard where he studied Islamic studies. When his grand father passed away he was thrust into the position of the Aga Khan, and he went from being a student at Harvard to replacing his grandfather as the Ismaili Imam and the head of his family's enterprises. Overnight, my whole life changed completely. I woke up with serious responsibilities toward millions of other human beings. I knew I would have to abandon my hopes of studying for a doctorate in history. Paul Ress, of Sports Illustrated, writes that the young the young prince turned Aga Khan, having responsibility to go with his wealth, did not live the playboy lifestyle of his father. He did, however, increase the speed of his family yacht, and he drove his Italian car at more than 100 miles per hour. Ress writes about traveling to Chantilly in one of the young prince's Maseratis. The chaffer, Lucien Lemouss, slowed to 80 miles per hour as they fell in behind a slower moving Ferrari, and the young prince had the chaffer pull over, took over the driver's seat, and swiftly passed the Ferrari. * Marriages and children The Aga Khan married his first wife, famous model Sarah "Sally" Frances Croker-Poole, who assumed the name and style Begum Salima Aga Khan, on October 22, 1969 (civil) and October 28, 1969 (religious), at his home in Paris, France. The couple were married for 25 years, during which they had three children. Their marriage ended by divorce in 1995. The Aga Khan paid £20 million in divorce settlements, and Sarah sold jewels she received as gifts, including the Begum Blue diamond, for millions of dollars. The Aga Khan and Begum Salima have three children, one daughter and two sons: * Princess Zahra Aga Khan (born September 18, 1970) * Prince Rahim Aga Khan (born October 12, 1971) * Prince Hussain Aga Khan (born April 10, 1974) The Aga Khan married for the second time with Princess Gabriele zu Leiningen, who assumed the name Begum Inaara Aga Khan, "Inaara" (derived from Arabic noor, meaning "light") at his vast walled compound and chateau near Chantilly, France : Aiglemont estate on May 30, 1998. On October 8, 2004, an announcement was made that the Aga Khan and the Begum Aga Khan were to seek a divorce. According to the Daily Mail, Gabriele claimed her husband was involved with someone else during their marriage. They divorced on 3 October 2011, and Gabriele received a settlement of $80 million USD after a French court of appeals decided that the Aga Khan was exclusively at fault. By her, the Aga Khan has a son: * Prince Aly Muhammad Aga Khan (born March 7, 2000) Ismaili Imamat: Following the death of his grandfather, Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah Aga Khan, Prince Karim, at the age of 20, became the 49th Imām of the Ismailis, bypassing his father, Prince Aly Khān, and his uncle, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, who were in direct line of succession. In his will, the Aga Khan III explained the rationale for choosing his eldest grandson as his successor: In view of the fundamentally altered conditions in the world has provoked many changes, including the discoveries of atomic science, I am convinced that it is in the best interests of the Ismaili community that I should be succeeded by a young man who has been brought up and developed during recent years and in the midst of the new age, and who brings a new outlook on life to his office. : In light of the request expressed in his grandfather's will, the Aga Khan has sometimes been referred to by Ismailis as the Imam of the Atomic Age. Upon taking the position of Imam, the Aga Khan stated that he intended to continue the work his grandfather had pursued in building modern institutions to improve the quality of life of the Ismaili community. Takht nashini (installation) ceremonies occurred at several locations over 1957 and 1958. During this time, the Aga Khan emphasized to his followers the importance of fostering positive relations among different ethnicities; this message was highly appropriate considering the racially tense atmosphere in East Africa. During the installation ceremonies in the Indian subcontinent, he stressed his commitment to improving the quality of life of Ismailis and encouraged cooperation with individuals of other religions and ethics. The main themes that the Aga Khan emphasized during these first few months of his Imamat were development, education, interracial harmony, and confidence in religion. In Africa, Asia and the Middle East, a major objective of the Community's social welfare and economic programs, until the mid-fifties, had been to create a broad base of businessmen, agriculturists, and professionals. The educational facilities of the community tended to emphasize secondary-level education. With the coming of independence, each nation's economic aspirations took on new dimensions, focusing on industrialization and modernization of agriculture. The community's educational priorities had to be reassessed in the context of new national goals, and new institutions had to be created to respond to the growing complexity of the development process. In 1972, under the regime of the then President Idi Amin of Uganda, Ismā'īlīs and other Asians were expelled despite being citizens of the country and having lived there for generations. The Imam undertook urgent steps to facilitate the resettlement of Ismāʿīlīs displaced from Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and also from Burma. Owing to his personal effortsdate: December 2011: most found homes, not only in Asia, but also in Europe and North America. Most of the basic resettlement problems were overcome remarkably rapidly. This was due to the adaptability of the Ismāʿīlīs themselves and in particular to their educational background and their linguistic abilities, as well as the efforts of the host countries and the moral and material support from Ismāʿīlī community programs. In view of the importance that Islām places on maintaining a balance between the spiritual well-being of the individual and the quality of his life, the Imām's guidance deals with both aspects of the life of his followers. The Aga Khan has encouraged Ismā'īlī Muslims, settled in the industrialized world, to contribute towards the progress of communities in the developing world through various development programs. Indeed the Economist noted: that Isma'ili immigrant communities, integrated seamlessly as an immigrant community, and did better at attaining graduate and post graduate degrees, "far surpassing their native, Hindu, Sikh, fellow Muslims, and Chinese communities".dateDecember 2011: The Aga Khan has described his role as Imam as being a guide to Ismailis in the daily practice of Shia Islam, a duty which requires an understanding of Ismailis and their relationship with their geographic location and their time. }} This engagement is not limited to the Ismaili community but also extends to the people with whom the Ismailis share their lives, locally and internationally. During the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy, he said: "I have two reactions to the pope's lecture: There is my concern about the degradation of relations and, at the same time, I see an opportunity. A chance to talk about a serious, important issue: the relationship between religion and logic" * Divine Nature of the Aga Khan During the time when Prince Karim's grandfather was the Aga Khan, the western media wrote that his followers considered him as divine. In 1952, Norman Lewis wrote, "The Aga Khan is the spiritual and temporal head of the sect and possesses attributes of divinity." In a 1958 paper discussing the theology of East African followers of the Aga Khan, H.S Morris quotes an Ismaili, living in East Africa, educated in England, and who had never visited India: Our Imam, His Highness the Aga Khan, is like your Jesus Christ. Even Hindus believe that God will never leave the world deserted, we believe that God, that is Vishnu, descended to earth in Ali and has never left us. When the Imam dies the Light moves on to his son: it follows like the sacred blood—like the King. The King never dies. In 1967, Thomas Thompson, of Life wrote, "His [Karim Aga Khan] authority is roughly analogous to that of the Pope in Roman Catholicism, and he is considered the only mediator between his people and God. The Aga Khan is not considered divine." A report issued at the 1975 Ismailia Association Conference addressed the question of the divinity of the Aga Khan with the following statement: The Imam to be explained as 'mazhar' of God, and the relationship between God and the Imam to be related to varying levels of inspiration and communication from God to man. In 1982, former Ismaili A. Meherally wrote that the Imam is considered as the: 'Noor of Allah manifested in a human body' and 'Mazhar of Allah' ... modified versions of the 'Incarnations of God' (Avatars)—a Hindu philosophy In response to a December 1983 Life magazine article, the Aga Khan's spokespeople responded stating that it was incorrect for Life magazine to interpret him, the Imam, as either "a living god", or as a "spokesman for Allah." The same response stated that the unity of Allah, Tawheed, is a fundamental principle of Islam. In 1987, Ali S. Asani wrote that Ismalili "Khojahs' [have] strong belief and trust in the guidance offered by their "divinely-appointed" Imams." The Encyclopedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddin (retrieved on Ismaili.net) states that the Imam is considered the "mazhar" (manifestation) of god. * Silver Jubilee Year From July 1982 to July 1983, to celebrate the present Aga Khan's Silver Jubilee, marking the 25th anniversary of his accession to the Imāmat, many new social and economic development projects were launched. These range from the establishment of the US$450 million international Aga Khan University with its Faculty of Health Sciences and teaching hospital based in Karachi, the expansion of schools for girls and medical centers in the Hunza region, one of the remote parts of Northern Pakistan bordering on China and Afghanistan, to the establishment of the Aga Khan Rural Support Program in Gujarat, India, and the extension of existing urban hospitals and primary health care centers in Tanzania and Kenya. These initiatives form part of an international network of institutions involved in fields that range from education, health and rural development, to architecture and the promotion of private sector enterprise and together make up the Aga Khan Development Network. It is this commitment to man's dignity and relief of humanity that inspires the Ismā'īlī Imāmat's philanthropic institutions. Giving of one's competence, sharing one's time, material or intellectual ability with those among whom one lives, for the relief of hardship, pain or ignorance is a deeply ingrained tradition which shapes the social conscience of the Ismā'īlī Muslim community. * Golden Jubilee Year July 11, 2007 marked the 50th Anniversary of the Aga Khan's reign of Imamat. On this occasion, leaders representing the Ismaili Community from all over the world gathered at the Aga Khan's residence to pay homage to the Imam on behalf of the global Jamat. During his Golden Jubilee from 2007–2008 marking 50 years of Imamate, the Aga Khan commissioned a number of projects. As part of the Jubilee Year, Aga Khan made official visits to various countries, using these occasions to recognise the friendship and longstanding support of leaders of state, government and other partners in the work of the Ismaili Imamat, and to set the direction for the future, including the launching and laying of foundations for major initiatives and programmes. The countries visited include: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique, Madagascar, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, the United States of America, Mali, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Senegal, India, Bangladesh, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Syria, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyz Republic, Canada, Singapore and France. A number of International Programmes were launched as part of the commemoration of Aga Khan's Golden Jubilee. The programmes addressed themes such as heritage, culture, devotional music and physical well-being, while promoting Community unitydate: February 2011: and worldwide collaboration. Aga Khan also organised a sports meet in Kenya, and teams from all over the world came to play this event. Tradition of international service: In recent generations, the Aga Khan’s family has followed a tradition of service in international affairs. The Aga Khan’s grandfather was President of the League of Nations and his father, Prince Aly Khan, was Pakistan’s Ambassador to the United Nations. His uncle, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, was the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations’ Coordinator for assistance to Afghanistan and United Nations Executive Delegate of Iraq-Turkey border areas. The Aga Khan’s brother, Prince Amyn Aga Khan, joined the United Nations Secretariat, Department of Economic and Social Affairs following his graduation from Harvard in 1965. Since 1968, Prince Amyn has been closely involved with the governance of the principal development institutions of the Imamat. He is Director of the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) and a member of the Board of the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED) and Chairman of its Executive Committee. Prince Amyn was also deeply involved in the establishment and the development of the Tourism Promotion Services (TPS). He is also a Director of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC). The Aga Khan’s eldest child and daughter, Princess Zahra Aga Khan, graduated from Harvard in 1994 with a BA (Honours) Degree in Development Studies, and is the Head of the Social Welfare Department (SWD) located within the Secretariat of the Aga Khan in France. She has policy and management responsibility for the health, education, and planning and building service companies of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN). She also plays a key policy role with respect to the other social development institutions of the Network. Prince Rahim Aga Khan was born on October 12, 1971, in Geneva, Switzerland, and is the second of His Highness the Aga Khan’s four children. Based at the Secretariat of His Highness the Aga Khan at Aiglemont, north of Paris, France, Prince Rahim is an executive Director of the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED) – the economic development arm of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN). He also serves as an Executive Director at the Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance (AKAM). A graduate of Brown University, Rhode Island, USA with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Comparative Literature awarded in 1996, Prince Rahim received his secondary education at Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts. In 2006, Prince Rahim completed an executive development programme in Management and Administration at the University of Navarra IESE Business School in Barcelona, Spain. Prince Rahim travels regularly to Asia and Africa to oversee the industrial plants, hotel properties and financial institutions, including microfinance programmes, of the Aga Khan Development Network. The Aga Khan’s second son, Prince Hussain Aga Khan, graduated from Williams College (USA) with a Bachelor of Arts degree and has a Master of International Affairs degree from Columbia’s School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA) where his main area of study was Economic and Political Development with a regional focus on the Middle East and North Africa. His youngest son Prince Aly Muhammad was born in 2000. In consonance with this vision of Islam and a long-standing tradition of service to humanity, the Ismailis have elaborated a well-defined institutional framework to build capacity and improve the quality of life within the communities in which they live. Under the Aga Khan’s leadership, this framework expanded and evolved into the Aga Khan Development Network, a group of institutions working to improve living conditions and opportunities in specific regions of the developing world. In every country, these institutions work for the common good of all citizens regardless of their origin or religion. Their individual mandates range from architecture, education and health to the promotion of private sector enterprise, the enhancement of non-government organisations and rural development. The Aga Khan has been a familiar figure on the World Stage & holds a protocol of Head of the State in every country.dateDecember 2011: He frequently visits several countries to review the activities of AKDN and to discuss matters with High Government Officials. * Promotion of Islamic architecture In 1977, the Aga Khan established the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, an award recognizing excellence in architecture that encompasses contemporary design and social, historical, and environmental considerations. It is the largest architectural award in the world and is granted triennially.date: December 2011: The award grew out of the Aga Khan’s desire to revitalize creativity in Islamic societies and acknowledge creative solutions for buildings facilities and public spaces. The prize winner is selected by an independent master jury convened for each cycle. In 1979, Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) respectively, established the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture (AKPIA), which is supported by an endowment from Aga Khan. These programs provide degree courses, public lectures, and conferences for the study of Islamic architecture and urbanism. Understanding contemporary conditions and developmental issues are key components of the academic program. The program engages in research at both institutions and students can graduate with a Master of Science of Architectural Studies specializing in the Aga Khan program from MIT's Department of Architecture. * Aga Khan Development Network The Aga Khan is founder and chairman of the Aga Khan Development Network , one of the largest private development networks in the world,date: December 2011: which coordinates the activities of over 200 agencies and institutions, employing approximately 80,000 paid staff, the majority of whom are based in developing countries. Its partners include numerous governments and several international organizations. AKDN agencies operate in the fields of health, education, culture, rural development, institution-building and the promotion of economic development, with special focus on countries of the Third World. It is dedicated to improving living conditions and opportunities for the poor, without regard to their faith, origin or gender. Half a billion dollars are given out in charity and development every year through this huge network. The AKDN’s annual budget for non-profit development activities in 2010 was approximately US$ 625 million. The network operates in more than 35 of the poorest countries in the world and is statutorily secular. The network includes the Aga Khan University , the University of Central Asia , the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development , the Aga Khan Trust for Culture , the Aga Khan Foundation , the Aga Khan Health Services , the Aga Khan Education Services , the Aga Khan Planning and Building Services , and the Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance . The Aga Khan Award for Architecture is the largest architectural award in the world. Focus Humanitarian Assistance , an affiliate of the AKDN, is responsible for emergency response in the face of disaster. Recent examples include the massive earthquake in Pakistan and the South Asian Tsunami. Aga Khan is also the chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of Ismaili Studies, which he founded in 1977. He is also a Vice-President of the Royal Commonwealth Society. Significant recent or current projects led by the Aga Khan include the Delegation of the Ismaili Imamat and the Global Centre for Pluralism in Ottawa, the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, the Al-Azhar Park in Cairo, the Bagh-e Babur restoration in Kabul, and a network of full IB residential schools known as the Aga Khan Academies . See Since 2001, the Aga Khan has mobilized over $750 million in Afghanistan. His personal contribution has been larger than any single donor and more than most countries. The Aga Khan has expressed concern about the work of the AKDN being described as philanthropy. In his address to the Tutzing Evangelical Academy in Germany, he described this concern: Reflecting a certain historical tendency of the West to separate the secular from the religious, they often describe [the work of the AKDN] either as philanthropy or entrepreneurship. What is not understood is that this work is for us a part of our institutional responsibility – it flows from the mandate of the office of Imam to improve the quality of worldly life for the concerned communities.: : Thoroughbred horse racing At his Aiglemont estate, at Gouvieux in the Picardie region of France, about 4 kilometres west of the Chantilly Racecourse, he operates the largest horse racing and breeding operation in the country. In 1977, he paid £1.3 million for the bloodstock owned by Anna Dupré and in 1978, £4.7 million for the bloodstock of the late Marcel Boussac. The Aga Khan owns Gilltown Stud near Kilcullen, Ireland, and Haras de Bonneval breeding farm at Le Mesnil-Mauger in France. In March 2005, he purchased the famous Calvados stud farms, the Haras d'Ouilly in Pont-d'Ouilly and the Haras de Val-Henry in Livarot. Haras d'Ouilly had been owned by such famous horsemen as the Duc Decazes, François Dupré and Jean-Luc Lagardère. In 2006, the Aga Khan became the majority shareholder of Arqana, a French horse auction house.date: August 2008: On October 27, 2009 it was announced that Sea The Stars winner of the Epsom Derby (Eng-G1), Coral Eclipse Stakes (Eng-G1), Juddmonte International Stakes (Eng-G1), Tattersalls Millions Irish Champion Stakes (Ire-G1), and $5.8 million Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe will stand stud at the Aga Khan's Gilltown Stud in Ireland. Personal finance: The Aga Khan IV owns estates in several countries, jets, helicopters, hundreds of racehorses, yachts, a private island, and fancy cars. His two divorces have cost him over US$ 100 million personally in settlements. G. Pascal Zachary, of the The New York Times, states that part of the Aga Khan's income comes from donations from his many followers. While the actual amount is not disclosed, he may receive as much as hundreds of millions of dollars a year from a system of tithes, which is called dasond. According to former Ismaili, Akbarally Meherally, the Aga Khan's followers donate 12.5% of their personal income to the Imam and charity. The entire 12.5% is presented to the Imam, often in cash and without receipts, through the many Ismaili Jamatkhanas—places of worship. Additionally, the Aga Khan owns and operates the biggest horse racing and breeding operation in France, and this operation is considered one of his main sources of income. There is a discrepancy in the two references above with regards to to how the 12.5% dasond is divided up. A. Meherally writes that 10% goes to the poor and 2.5% goes to the Imam, after which he comments that zakat is traditionally [not more than] 2.5%, and he labels dasond as inflated zakat. In the Encyclopaedia of Ismailism, (retrieved from Ismaili.net) Mumtaz Ali Tajddin states that in the times of the Indian Ismaili Pirs, 10% went to the Imam and 2.5% to the poor: The tenth part of the income is separated along with 2½ zakat, making the deduction of 12½ from the income. The tenth part solely belongs to the Imam, while 2½ part being zakat for the welfare purpose. Both parts (10 & 2½) are presented to the Imam. Yacht Alamshar: The Aga Khan has purchased 49.99 meter yacht, Alamshar, with a price tag of £100 million. The yacht is named after a prized racehorse of his, and it was suppose to have a top speed of 60 knots in hopes of setting a new transatlantic speed record. The yacht reached a top speed of 30 knots at its initial trials. * Bahamas environmental impact controversy The Aga Khan was involved in a controversy with politicians and environmentalists over a permit to dredge a channel for his yacht for a private island in the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park in the Bahamas. The controversy involved the environment minister Earl Deveaux, "Helicopter Earl," using the Aga Khan's 12 seat luxury helicopter to survey the area prior to granting the permit. A lawsuit was filed by an environmental group known as Save the Exuma Park (STEP) in attempt to prevent or reduce the dredging. Bahamas senator Jerome Fitzgerald claims that the dredging, on behalf of the Aga Khan, in the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park has violated environmental impact requirements and caused considerable environmental degradation, potentially effecting the many Bahamian entrepreneurs rely on the park for their income. Titles, styles and honours: Titles and styles: * 1936-1957: Prince Karim Aga Khan * 1957–present: His Highness The Aga Khan IV The title 'Prince' is used by the Aga Khans and their children by virtue of their ancestry from Shah Fath Ali Shah of the Persian Qajar dynasty. The title was officially recognized by the British government in 1938. The hereditary title of 'Aga Khan' was first granted to Aga Hasan Ali Shah, the 46th Ismaili Imam, by Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar, the Shah of Persia in the 1830s. The style of 'His Highness' was formally granted by Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom in 1957 upon the death of his grandfather Aga Khan III. This has been a traditional gesture by British sovereigns since the first Aga Khan allied himself with Britain against Afghanistan. The style of 'His Royal Highness' was granted to the Aga Khan IV by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran in 1959. However, the Aga Khan does not use this style and is internationally only named with the style 'His Highness'. Over the years, the Aga Khan has received numerous decorations, honorary degrees, and awards in recognition of the various dimensions of his work, and for his service to humanity. * Honours * Bahrain: : Order of Bahrain, 1st Class (2003) * Canada: : Honorary Companion of the Order of Canada (2005) * Comoros: : Grand Cross of the Order of the Green Crescent (1966) * France: : Commander of the Legion of Honour (1990) * France: : Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters (2010) * Iran: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown (1967) * Italy: : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic. The Aga Khan is the first Muslim to receive the honour (1977) * Italy: : Knight of the Order of Merit for Labour (1988) * Ivory Coast: : Grand Cross of the National Order (1965) * Kenya: : Chief of the Order of the Golden Heart (2007) * Madagascar: : Grand Cross of the National Order of Malagasy Republic (1966) * Mali: : Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali (2008) * Mauritania: : Commander of the National Order of Merit of Mauritania (1960) * Morocco: : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne (1986) * Pakistan: : Nishan-i-Imtiaz (1970) * Pakistan: : Nishan-e-Pakistan (1983) * Portugal: : Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry (1960) * Portugal: : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (1998) * Portugal: : Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (2005) * Senegal: : Grand Officer of the Order of the National Lion (1982) * Spain: : Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit (1991) * Tajikistan: : Recipient of the Order of Friendship (1998) * United Kingdom: : Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (2004) * Upper Volta: Grand Cross of the National Order of Upper Volta (1965) * Zanzibar: Grand Cross of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar (1957) Honorary degrees: * Canada: : Honorary LL.D. degree, McGill University (1983) * Canada: : Honorary LL.D. degree, McMaster University (1987) * Canada: : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Toronto (2004) * Canada: : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Alberta (2009) * Egypt: : Honorary D.H.L. degree, American University in Cairo (2006) * Ireland: : Honorary LL.D. degree, National University of Ireland (2008) * Kyrgyzstan: : Honorary Professorship of the Osh State University (2002) * Lebanon: : Honorary D.H.L. degree, American University of Beirut (2005) * Mali: : Honorary Doctorate, University of Sankore (2008) * Pakistan: : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Peshawar (1967) * Pakistan: : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Sindh (1970) * Portugal: : Honorary Doctorate, University of Évora (2006) * Tajikistan: : Honorary LL.D. degree, Khorugh State University (1995) * United Kingdom: : Honorary D.Litt. degree University of London (1989) * United Kingdom: : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Wales (1993) * United Kingdom: : Honorary D.D. degree, University of Cambridge (2009) The Aga Khan is the first Muslim in the World to be conferred with this degree in the university's 800 year history. * United States: : Honorary LL.D. degree, Brown University (1996) * United States: : Honorary LL.D. degree, Harvard University (2008) Awards: * Canada: : Key to the City of Ottawa (2005) * Canada: : Honorary Canadian citizenship, The Aga Khan is the fifth person and first Muslim in the World who has been honored with this citizenship, Ottawa (2009) * France: : Silver Medal of the Académie d'Architecture (1991) * France: : Insignia of Honour, International Union of Architects (2001) * France: : Associate Foreign Member, Académie des Beaux-Arts (2008) * France: : Philanthropic Entrepreneur of the Year, by Le Nouvel Economiste, Paris (2009) * France: : Receives the titles Grand Mécène (Grand Patron) and Grand Donateur (Grand Donor), Paris (2009) * Germany: : Die Quadriga Award, the United We Care Award (2005) * Germany: : Tolerance Prize of the Evangelical Academy of Tutzing (2006) * Italy: : Honorary Citizen of the Town of Arzachena (Sardinia) (1962) * Italy: : Gold Mercury Ad Personam Award, Non-State Organization (1982) * Ivory Coast: : Freeman of Abidjan, and presented with a Key to the City of Abidjan (1960) * Jordan: : One of The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the world, by Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre, Amman (2009) * Jordan: : One of The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the world, by Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre, Amman (2010) * Kazakhstan: : State Award for Peace and Progress (2002) * Kazakhstan: : Honoured Educator of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2008) * Kenya: : Honorary Citizen of the Town of Kisumu (1981) * Kyrgyzstan: : Named Personality of the Year by the International Association for Spiritual Renewal ("Ruhaniat") (2009) * Madagascar: : Key to the city of Majunga (1966) * Mali: : Honorary Citizen of the Islamic Ummah of Timbuktu (2003) * Mali: : Citizen of Honour of the Municipality of Timbuktu (2008) * Norway: : Addresses the Nobel Institute at the invitation of the Government of Norway (2005) * Pakistan: : Honorary Colonel of the 6th Lancers by the Pakistani Army (1970) * Pakistan: : Honorary Citizen of Lahore, and presented with a key to the city of Lahore (1980) * Pakistan: : Honorary Membership, Pakistan Medical Association, Sindh (1981) * Pakistan: : Key to the city of Karachi (1981) * Pakistan: : Honorary Fellowship of the College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan (CPSP) (1985) * Portugal: : Key to the City of Lisbon (1996) * Portugal : : Foreign Member, Class of Humanities, by Lisbon Academy of Sciences (2009) * Scotland: : Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy (2005) * Spain: : Gold Medal of the Consejo Superior de los Colegios de Arquitectos de España. The Aga Khan is the first recipient outside Spain to receive this honour (1987) * Spain: : Guest of Honour of Granada (1991) * Spain: : Honorary Citizen of Granada (1991) * Spain: : Gold Medal of the City of Granada (1998) * Spain: : Royal Toledo Foundation (Real Fundación de Toledo) Award (2006) * Sweden: : Archon Award, International Nursing Honour Society, Sigma Theta Tau International (2001) * Tanzania: : Honorary Citizen of Dar es Salaam (2005) * United Kingdom: : Honorary Fellowship, Royal Institute of British Architects (1991) * United Kingdom: : Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy (2005) * United Kingdom: : Winner of the 10th annual Peter O'Sullivan Award at the Savoy in London (2006) * United Kingdom: : Named Personality of the Year by Apollo, the international magazine for collectors (2007) * United States: : Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation Medal in Architecture, University of Virginia (1984) * United States: : Institute Honor of the American Institute of Architects (1984) * United States: : Honorary Member of the American Institute of Architects (1992) * United States: : The Aga Khan delivers the commencement address at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge), the first Muslim to do so in its 130 year history (1994) * United States: : Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1996) * United States: : The Aga Khan delivers the Baccalaureate (address) at Brown University, the first Muslim to do so in its 232 year history (1996) * United States: : Hadrian Award, World Monuments Fund (1996) * United States: : Panellist at the White House Conference on Culture and Diplomacy (2000) * United States: : Vincent Scully Prize, National Building Museum (2005) * United States: : Key to the City of Austin (2008) * United States: : UCSF Medal, University's Highest Honour, San Francisco (2011) * United States: : ULI J.C. Nichols Prize for Visionaries in Urban Development, Los Angeles (2011) * Uzbekistan: : Honorary Citizen of the City of Samarkand and presented with a key to the city of Samarkand (1992) * Ancestry width: 100%: ahnentafel bottom:

Karim Aga Khan IV Personnalité ismaélienne | Chef religieux | Propriétaire et éleveur de sport hippique | Naissance en 1936 | Naissance à Genève | Chevalier grand-croix de l'ordre du Mérite de la République italienne | Chevalier commandeur de l'ordre de l'Empire britannique | Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur | Compagnon de l'ordre du Canada | Skieur alpin aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1960 | Skieur alpin aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1964 Son Altesse Royale Le prince Sayyid Karim Al-Husayni Karim Aga Khan IV (né le à Genève) est le chef spirituel des ismaéliens nizârites. Il est le fils du prince Ali Khan. Après la mort de son grand-père, l'Aga Khan III, le 11 juillet 1957, le prince Karim, alors âgé de 20 ans et étudiant à Harvard, lui succède à la tête de 10 millions d'Ismaéliens, 49e: imam de cette communauté ismaélienne. Il est un descendant de la famille du prophète de l'islam, Mahomet, par le biais de son cousin et gendre Ali et de sa fille Fâtima. Biographie : Après avoir étudié au collège Le Rosey en Suisse, il fut diplômé de Harvard en histoire islamique. Il épousa Sarah Croker Poole en 1969, avec qui il eut deux fils et une fille. Ils divorcèrent en 1995. En 1998, il épousa la juriste et ex-chanteuse allemande Gabriele Thyssen (Bégum Aga Khan), avec qui il eut un fils né en 2000. Le 8 octobre 2004, ils annoncèrent leur volonté de divorcer et vivent actuellement séparément. Karim Aga Khan a créé en 1977 le Prix Aga Khan d'architecture pour récompenser l'excellence en architecture dans les sociétés musulmanes. L'architecte français Jean Nouvel obtint ce prix en 1987 pour la réalisation de l'Institut du monde arabe à Paris. L'Aga Khan a créé et dirige AKDN (Aga Khan Development Network), l'un des plus importants réseaux de développement privés au monde dont la mission est d'améliorer les conditions de vie et contribuer au développement économique des pays les plus pauvres. Ces institutions couvrent divers domaines comme l'agriculture, l'industrie, l'architecture, l'éducation et la santé. En 2007, tous les ismaéliens du monde fêtèrent les 50 années d'imamat (Golden Jubilee) du prince Karim Aga Khan. Poursuivant le travail accompli par son grand-père et son père, il dirige le haras familial à la casaque verte / épaulettes rouges. Ses chevaux figurent parmi les plus célèbres du monde et se distinguent régulièrement dans les plus grandes courses de plat. Il fut propriétaire du fameux champion Shergar (enlevé et peut-être assassiné par l'IRA en 1983) et a remporté notamment le Prix de l'Arc de triomphe à quatre reprises (Akiyda en 1982, Sinndar en 2000, Dalakhani en 2003 et Zarkava en 2008). Depuis 2007, Karim Aga Khan est membre associé étranger de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts ; il a été élu au fauteuil de l'architecte Kenzo Tange, décédé en 2005 . Il est en 2005 à l'initiative de la Fondation pour la sauvegarde et le développement du domaine de Chantilly. Il est président de l'Académie diplomatique internationale. Distinctions : * Chevalier grand-croix de l'Ordre du Mérite de la République italienne (1977) ; * Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur (1990) ; * Chevalier commandeur de l'Ordre de l'Empire britannique (2004) ; * Compagnon honoraire de l'Ordre du Canada (2005) et citoyen d'honneur du Canada (2009) ; Liens internes : * Aga Khan

تبرع بالدم طب النقل | علم الدم | منتجات الدم التبرع بالدم Blood donation: ، عمليه طبيه تحدث عندما ينقل شخص سليم معافى طوعاً الدم. يستخدم ذلك الدم في عمليات نقل الدم أو تصنيع الأدوية؛ وذلك عن طريق عملية تسمى التجزيء. في بلدان العالم المتقدم، معظم المتبرعين هم من المتطوعين الذين يتبرعون مجاناً إما لأغراض إنسانية أو اجتماعية أو دينية أو حتى صحية. أما بالنسبة للبدان الأكثر فقراً، تشح المؤسسات المتخصصة بنقل الدم، ويتبرع المتبرعون عند حاجة أفراد الأسرة الواحدة والأصدقاء فقط. فيما عدا ذلك، يكون التبرع في كثير من الحالات في مقابل مادي، أو حافز آخر مثلاً كإجازة مدفوعة الأجر من العمل. ويمكن أيضاً أن يتبرع الشخص لنفسه للاستخدام في البنك عن طريق حفظ دمه. عملية التبرع هي عمليه آمنة نسبياً، ولكن قد يحدث لدى بعض المانحين بعض الكدمات أو التورم في مكان إدخال الإبرة، أو الشعور بالدوخة والإغماء. تهتم جهات التبرع بالدم بأي سبب قد يجعل من دم المتبرع غير صالح أو غير آمن على الشخص المتبرع له. يتم فحص الدم عن طريق فحص الأمراض التي يمكن أن تنتقل عن طريق نقل الدم، بما في ذلك فيروس نقص المناعة البشرية والتهاب الكبد الوبائي. ويتم أيضاً سؤال المتبرع عن تاريخه الطبي، وإخضاعه لاختبارات فحص قصيره للتأكد من أن التبرع لا يشكل أي خطر على صحته. وتختلف مدة الانتظار بين التبرع والأخر للفرد بين أيام وأشهر، وذلك على حسب نوع التبرع (إن كان كلي أو جزئي) وتختلف أيضاً على حسب قوانين البلد التي يتبرع فيها المتبرع. فعلى سبيل المثال، يجب على المتبرع في الولايات المتحدة الانتظار لمدة 8 أسابيع (56 يوم) بين التبرع الكامل بالدم، وثلاثة أيام إن كان التبرع بالصفائح الدموية فقط. وتختلف كميات وأساليب سحب الدم، ولكن يعتبر التبرع ب 500 مل (نصف لتر) هو الأكثر شيوعاً لعمليات التبرع بالدم الكامل. وتشترط جميع جهات التبرع مواصفات طبيه عالية للمحافظة على نظافة وتعقيم الأدوات المستعملة في العملية، التي تكون أغلبها ذات أجل قصير، مما يسبب ذلك مشكلة في إيصال التجهيزات في الأماكن البعيدة. * أنواع التبرع تقسم علمية التبرع بالدم للعديد من المجموعات على أساس من هو الشخص المتلقي للدم. التبرع الوراثي (أو المتشاكل)؛ هو التبرع عندما يتبرع المتبرع بالدم لتخزينة في بنك الدم لاحقاً لشخص غالباً ما يكون مجهول. التبرع المباشر؛ ويتبرع المتبرع -غالباً من الأسرة- إلى شخصٍ معين. ويشكل التبرع المباشر نسبة ضئيلة من تبرعات الدم في العالم. وعادةً ما يتناوب التبرع المباشر على فردين أو أكثر، وتنتشر هذه الظاهر في دول كثيرة مثل غانا. ويتم التبرع المباشر عن طريق تبرع وقتي بتحويل الدم من المتبرع للمريض، ويستغنى عن الدم المخزن، وذلك لوجود إمداد دم وقتي وتوفير الدم المخزن لمريض آخر. وهناك أيضاً التبرع الذاتي (الهبة الذاتية) وتكون عندما يخزن المتبرع لنفسه دماً قبل إجرائه عملية جراحية مثلاً، لنلقها له في وقتٍ لاحق أثناء الجراحه أو بعدها. أما الأدوية التي تصنع من الدم، فيلجأ مصنعو الأدوية غالباً إلى التبرع الوراثي أو في بعض الأحيان توظف الشركات أشخاصاً لغرض استخدام دمائهم. تختلف عملية نقل الدم الفعلية وفقاً لقوانين البلد، وتتفاوت التوصيات المقدمة إلى المتبرع وفقاً للمنظمة نفسها. وقد أصدرت منظمة الصحة العالمية توصيات لوضع سياسيات لعمليات التبرع بالدم في جمع أنحاء العالم، ولكن الكثير من البلدان النامية لم تتبع تلك التوصيات نظراً لتكلفتها العالية. فعلى سبيل المثال، أوصت المنظمة بمختبرات مجهزة طبياً، فريق مدرب وكواشف خاصة للدم، والتي تكون غير متوفرة أو مكلفة جداً لتلك الدول النامية. تنظم المؤسسات المعنية بالتبرع بالدم حملات تبرع تقوم على أساس التبرع الوراثي، وتسمى مواسم التبرع بالدم. في أغلب البلدان، تنظم بنوك الدم تجمعات في أماكن العبادة والجامعات والشركات والأسواق التجارية حملات تبرع. الفحص الكشفي : عادةً ما يطلب من المانحون إعطاء موافقة خطية قبل القيام بعملية التبرع، لذلك، لا يمكن للقاصر التبرع بالدم من دون موافقة الوالدين. مراعاةً للسرية، تقوم بعض البلدان بربط معلومات عملية التبرع بنوع الدم وبدون اسم الشخص. وفي دول أخرى مثل الولايات المتحدة تستخدم السلطات الأسماء لعمل قوائم للمتبرعين الغير مؤهلين للتبرع. يطلق على المتبرع الذي لا يطابق شروط ومعايير التبرع لقب.متبرع مؤجل يطلق ذلك اللقب حيث يكون غالباً سبب المنع من التبرع مؤقت وعرضة للزوال في وقتٍ لاحق. يعتبر جنسَ المتبرع أو خلفيته العرقية مهمة أحياناً حيث أن فصائل الدم وخاصة الفصائل النادرة تكون شائعة لدى كثير من أبناء العرق الواحد. وتاريخياً، سبق وأن تم عزل أو اثتسناء المتبرعون على أساس الجنسِ، الدين، أَو الانتماء العرقي، لكن هذا لَمْ يَعُدْ يشكل ممارسة قياسية أو معتادة. سلامة المستلم : يتم الكشف طبياً على المخاطر الصحية التي يمكن أن تجعل عملية التبرع غير آمنة للمستلم. بعض هذه القيود مثيرة للجدل ويعتبرها البعض عنصرية، مثل تقييد التبرعات من الرجال الذين يمارسون الجنس مع الرجال لخطر فيروس نقص المناعة البشرية. أما في عملية الهبة الذاتية، فلا تفرض قيود مشددة على سلامة الدم حيث أن المتبرع هو الذي سيحصل على دمه لاحقاً ولا شخص سواه. يسئل أيضاً المتبرع عن ما إذا كان يتعاطى أي نوع من الأدوية؛ حيث أن بعض الأدوية قد تضر أو تشكل خطراً على المستلمة إذا كانت حامل. ويتم فحص المتبرعون للإشاراتِ وأعراضِ الأمراضِ التي يُمْكِنُ أَنْ تنتقل بنقل الدَمّ، مثل فيروس نقص المناعة البشرية، والملاريا، والتهاب الكبد الفيروسي. وقد يمتد الفحص إلى الأسئلة يسئلها الأخصائي حول عوامل الخطر للعديد من الأمراض، مثل السفر إلى البلدان المعرضة للملاريا أو مرض كروتزفيلد جاكوب (اللانموذجي). وتختلف هذه الأسئلة من بلد إلى آخر. فعلى سبيل المثال، قد ترجئ منظمة أنكيبيك Héma-Québec: بمقاطعة كيبك الكندية المتبرعون الذين كانوا يعيشون في المملكة المتحدة لخطر مرض جاكوب، بينما في المملكة المتحدة نفسها لا يتم أخذ المرض بعين الاعتبار إلا في حالة أن يكون المتبرع قد تعرض لعملية نقل دم داخل الممكلة المتحدة نفسها. * سلامة المتبرع يخضع المتبرعَ أيضاً لُفْحَصُ ويَسْألُ أسئلةَ معيّنةَ حول تأريخِه الطبي للتَأْكد من أن عملية التَبَرُّع بالدمِّ لن تشكل أي خطر على صحة المتبرع. ويختبر مستوى الهيماتوكريت hematocrit: وخضاب الدم hemoglobin: في دم المتبرع للتأكد من أن عملية التبرع لن تسبب حالة فقر دم للمريض. وتعتبر نتائج هذا الاختبار هي الأكثر شيوعاً لجعل المتبرع غير مؤهل للتبرع. ويتم أخذ النبض وضغط الدم وحرارة الجسم في عين الاعتبار أثناء التقيم. وأحياناً يتم رفض المتبرعون المسنون لمخاوف صحية. ولم يتم حتى الآن دراسة مدى سلامة التبرع أثناء فترة الحمل بشكل واف، لذلك عادةً ما يؤجل النساء الحوامل أثناء الحمل. * اختبار الدم يجب تحديد فصيلة دم المتبرع إذا كان الدم سيستخدم في عملية نقل دم. وتقوم الجهات المختصة بجمع التبرعات بتحديد ما إذا كانت فصيلة الدم A ،B ،AB، أو O وتعريض أكياس الدم للمتبرعون ذوي النوع RH D كثيرة الأجسام المضادة لعملية تقليل المستضدات. تعمل هذه الفحوصات بالإضافة إلى فحص المطابقة عادةً قبل نقل الدم. ويشار دائماً للمتبرع ذو فصيلة الدم O بالمتبرع العالمي. ويستخدم هذا عند الحديث عن نقل خلايا الدم الحمراء فقط. بينما في عملية نقل البلازما يشار للفصيلة AB بالمانح العالمي. يتم إخضاع الدم في أغلب الأحيان لفحوصات الأمراض، بما في ذلك بعض الأمراض المنقولة بالاتصال الجنسي. ولا يتم عمل أي تشخيص فعلي، حيث تستخدم اختبارات ذات حساسية ودقة عالية. وبعمل بعض الاختبارات الأكثر تحديداً، يمكن اكتشاف أن بعض النتائج التي ظهرت ايجابية هي نتائج كاذبة. أما في حالات النتائج السلبية، فاحتمال كذب الفحص هو احتمال شديد الندرة. لكن بشكل عام، أشارت إحصائية أن أغلب المتبرعين فقدو الثقة من استعمال تبرع الدم لغرض فحص الأمراض المنتقلة جنسياً؛ حيث أن وحدات الدم ذات النتائج الإيجابية الكاذبة تعتبرها جهات التبرع وحدات دم ملوثة. في حالة إيجابية النتائج، يتم التخلص من عينيات الدم وتدميرها فوراً، إلا في حالة الهبة الذاتي حيث يكتفى فقط بإعلام المريض بالنتيجة. يتم اختبار دم المتبرع من أمراض عديدة، ولكن الاختبارات الأساسية التي أوصت بها منظمة الصحة العالمية هي الأربعة التالية: * المستضد السطحي لالتهاب الكبد الوبائى ب. * الأجسام المضادة لالتهاب الكبد الفيروسي ج. * الأجسام المضادة لفيروس نقص المناعة البشرية، وعادةً النوع الفرعي 1 و 2. * اختبار مصل الدم للزهري. وأفادت منظمة الصحة العالمية في عام 2006 أن 56 دولة من أصل 124 شملها الاستطلاع لم تستخدم هذه الاختبارات الأساسية على جميع عمليات التبرع بالدم. توجد مجموعة من الاختبارات تستخدم على أسس الاحتياجات المحلية تكون لمنع نقل العدوى القابلة للانتقال. وهناك بعض الاختبارات الإضافية تكون باهظة الثمن، وفي أكثر الحالات لا يتم اللجوء إليها بسبب تكلفتها. وتشتمل هذه الاختبارات الإضافية على فحوصات ضد أمراض معدية أخرى مثل فيروس غرب النيل. في بعض الحالات، يتم استخدام أكثر من اختبار لفحص مرض واحد؛ وذلك لتغطية أوجه القصور التي ببعض الاختبارات. وعلى سبيل المثال، لا يكشف اختبار الأجسام المضادة لفيروس نقص المناعة البشرية المتبرعون المصابون حديثاً، لذا تستخدم بعض بنوك الدم مستضدات p24 أو اختبار الحمض النووي للفيروس بالإضافة بالطبع للاختبار الأجسام المضادة الأساسي. وتعتبر الفيروسات المضخمة للخلايا حالة خاصة حيث أن أكثر المتبرعون يظهرون نتيجة إيجابية في فحصها. بشكل عام، تلك الفيروسات لا تشكل خطراً على صحة المستفيد المعافى، ولكنها يمكن ان تضر الأطفال الرضع، والمستفيدون ذوي أجهزة المناعة الضعيفة. انظر أيضاً : * نقل الدم. * مركز تبرع بالدم متنقل. المراجع : ثبت المراجع وإطار:

Blood donation Transfusion medicine | Hematology | Blood donation Give blood: A blood donation occurs when a person voluntarily has blood drawn and used for transfusions or made into medications by a process called fractionation. In the developed world, most blood donors are unpaid volunteers who give blood for a community supply. In poorer countries, established supplies are limited and donors usually give blood when family or friends need a transfusion. Many donors donate as an act of charity, but some are paid and in some cases there are incentives other than money such as paid time off from work. A donor can also have blood drawn for their own future use. Donating is relatively safe, but some donors have bruising where the needle is inserted or may feel faint. Potential donors are evaluated for anything that might make their blood unsafe to use. The screening includes testing for diseases that can be transmitted by a blood transfusion, including HIV and viral hepatitis. The donor is also asked about medical history and given a short physical examination to make sure that the donation is not hazardous to his or her health. How often a donor can give varies from days to months based on what he or she donates and the laws of the country where the donation takes place. For example, in the United States donors must wait 8 weeks (56 days) between whole blood donations but only three days between plateletpheresis donations. The amount of blood drawn and the methods vary. The collection can be done manually or with automated equipment that only takes specific portions of the blood. Most of the components of blood used for transfusions have a short shelf life, and maintaining a constant supply is a persistent problem. Types of donation : Blood donations are divided into groups based on who will receive the collected blood. An allogeneic (also called homologous) donation is when a donor gives blood for storage at a blood bank for transfusion to an unknown recipient. A directed donation is when a person, often a family member, donates blood for transfusion to a specific individual. Directed donations are relatively rare when an established supply exists. A replacement donor donation is a hybrid of the two and is common in developing countries such as Ghana. In this case, a friend or family member of the recipient donates blood to replace the stored blood used in a transfusion, ensuring a consistent supply. When a person has blood stored that will be transfused back to the donor at a later date, usually after surgery, that is called an autologous donation. Blood that is used to make medications can be made from allogeneic donations or from donations exclusively used for manufacturing. Blood is sometimes collected using similar methods for therapeutic phlebotomy, similar to the ancient practice of bloodletting, which is used to treat conditions such as hereditary hemochromatosis or polycythemia vera. This blood is sometimes treated as a blood donation, but may be immediately discarded if it cannot be used for transfusion or further manufacturing. The actual process varies according to the laws of the country, and recommendations to donors vary according to the collecting organization. The World Health Organization gives recommendations for blood donation policies, but in developing countries many of these are not followed. For example, the recommended testing requires laboratory facilities, trained staff, and specialized reagents, all of which may not be available or too expensive in developing countries. An event where donors come to give allogeneic blood is sometimes called a or a blood donor session. These can occur at a blood bank but they are often set up at a location in the community such as a shopping center, workplace, school, or house of worship. * Screening Donors are typically required to give consent for the process and this requirement means that minors cannot donate without permission from a parent or guardian. In some countries, answers are associated with the donor's blood, but not name, to provide anonymity; in others, such as the United States, names are kept to create lists of ineligible donors. If a potential donor does not meet these criteria, they are deferred. This term is used because many donors who are ineligible may be allowed to donate later. Blood banks in the United States may be required to label the blood if it is from a therapeutic donor, so some do not accept donations from donors with any blood disease. Others, such as the Australian Red Cross Blood Service, accept blood from donors with hemochromatosis. It is a genetic disorder that does not affect the safety of the blood. The donor's race or ethnic background is sometimes important since certain blood types, especially rare ones, are more common in certain ethnic groups. Historically, donors were segregated or excluded on race, religion, or ethnicity, but this is no longer a standard practice. Recipient safety: Donors are screened for health risks that might make the donation unsafe for the recipient. Some of these restrictions are controversial, such as restricting donations from men who have sex with men for HIV risk. Autologous donors are not always screened for recipient safety problems since the donor is the only person who will receive the blood. Donors are also asked about medications such as dutasteride since they can be dangerous to a pregnant woman receiving the blood. Donors are examined for signs and symptoms of diseases that can be transmitted in a blood transfusion, such as HIV, malaria, and viral hepatitis. Screening may extend to questions about risk factors for various diseases, such as travel to countries at risk for malaria or variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD). These questions vary from country to country. For example, while blood centers in Québec, Poland, and many other places defer donors who lived in the United Kingdom for risk of vCJD, donors in the United Kingdom are only restricted for vCJD risk if they have had a blood transfusion in the United Kingdom. * Donor safety The donor is also examined and asked specific questions about their medical history to make sure that donating blood is not hazardous to their health. The donor's hematocrit or hemoglobin level is tested to make sure that the loss of blood will not make them anemic, and this check is the most common reason that a donor is ineligible. Pulse, blood pressure, and body temperature are also evaluated. Elderly donors are sometimes also deferred on age alone because of health concerns. The safety of donating blood during pregnancy has not been studied thoroughly and pregnant women are usually deferred. * Blood testing The donor's blood type must be determined if the blood will be used for transfusions. The collecting agency usually identifies whether the blood is type A, B, AB, or O and the donor's Rh (D) type and will screen for antibodies to less common antigens. More testing, including a crossmatch, is usually done before a transfusion. Group O is often cited as the "universal donor" but this only refers to red cell transfusions. For plasma transfusions the system is reversed and AB is the universal donor type. Most blood is tested for diseases, including some STDs. The tests used are high-sensitivity screening tests and no actual diagnosis is made. Some of the test results are later found to be false positives using more specific testing. False negatives are rare, but donors are discouraged from using blood donation for the purpose of anonymous STD screening because a false negative could mean a contaminated unit. The blood is usually discarded if these tests are positive, but there are some exceptions, such as autologous donations. The donor is generally notified of the test result. Donated blood is tested by many methods, but the core tests recommended by the World Health Organization are these four: * Hepatitis B Surface Antigen * Antibody to Hepatitis C * Antibody to HIV, usually subtypes 1 and 2 * Serologic test for Syphilis The WHO reported in 2006 that 56 out of 124 countries surveyed did not use these basic tests on all blood donations. A variety of other tests for transfusion transmitted infections are often used based on local requirements. Additional testing is expensive, and in some cases the tests are not implemented because of the cost. These additional tests include other infectious diseases such as West Nile Virus. Sometimes multiple tests are used for a single disease to cover the limitations of each test. For example, the HIV antibody test will not detect a recently infected donor, so some blood banks use a p24 antigen or HIV nucleic acid test in addition to the basic antibody test to detect infected donors during that period. Cytomegalovirus is a special case in donor testing in that many donors will test positive for it. The virus is not a hazard to a healthy recipient, but it can harm infants and other recipients with weak immune systems. Obtaining the blood: There are two main methods of obtaining blood from a donor. The most frequent is simply to take the blood from a vein as whole blood. This blood is typically separated into parts, usually red blood cells and plasma, since most recipients need only a specific component for transfusions. A typical donation is 450 milliliters (or approximately one US pint) of whole blood, though 500 milliliter donations are also common. Historically, blood donors in India would donate only 250 or 350 milliliters and donors in the People's Republic of China would donate only 200 milliliters, though larger 300 and 400 milliliter donations have become more common. The other method is to draw blood from the donor, separate it using a centrifuge or a filter, store the desired part, and return the rest to the donor. This process is called apheresis, and it is often done with a machine specifically designed for this purpose. This process is especially common for plasma and platelets. For direct transfusions a vein can be used but the blood may be taken from an artery instead. In this case, the blood is not stored, but is pumped directly from the donor into the recipient. This was an early method for blood transfusion and is rarely used in modern practice. It was phased out during World War II because of problems with logistics, and doctors returning from treating wounded soldiers set up banks for stored blood when they returned to civilian life. Site preparation and drawing blood: The blood is drawn from a large arm vein close to the skin, usually the median cubital vein on the inside of the elbow. The skin over the blood vessel is cleaned with an antiseptic such as iodine or chlorhexidine to prevent skin bacteria from contaminating the collected blood and also to prevent infections where the needle pierced the donor's skin. A large needle (16 to 17 gauge) is used to minimize shearing forces that may physically damage red blood cells as they flow through the needle. A tourniquet is sometimes wrapped around the upper arm to increase the pressure of the blood in the arm veins and speed up the process. The donor may also be prompted to hold an object and squeeze it repeatedly to increase the blood flow through the vein. Whole blood: The most common method is collecting the blood from the donor's vein into a container. The amount of blood drawn varies from 200 milliliters to 550 milliliters depending on the country, but 450-500 milliliters is typical. The blood is usually stored in a flexible plastic bag that also contains sodium citrate, phosphate, dextrose, and sometimes adenine. This combination keeps the blood from clotting and preserves it during storage. Other chemicals are sometimes added during processing. The plasma from whole blood can be used to make plasma for transfusions or it can also be processed into other medications using a process called fractionation. This was a development of the dried plasma used to treat the wounded during World War II and variants on the process are still used to make a variety of other medications. * Apheresis Apheresis is a blood donation method where the blood is passed through an apparatus that separates out one particular constituent and returns the remainder to the donor. Usually the component returned is the red blood cells, the portion of the blood that takes the longest to replace. Using this method an individual can donate plasma or platelets much more frequently than they can safely donate whole blood. These can be combined, with a donor giving both plasma and platelets in the same donation. Platelets can also be separated from whole blood, but they must be pooled from multiple donations. From three to ten units of whole blood are required for a therapeutic dose. Plateletpheresis provides at least one full dose from each donation. Plasmapheresis is frequently used to collect source plasma that is used for manufacturing into medications much like the plasma from whole blood. Plasma collected at the same time as plateletpheresis is sometimes called concurrent plasma. Apheresis is also used to collect more red blood cells than usual in a single donation (commonly known as "double reds") and to collect white blood cells for transfusion. * Recovery and time between donations Donors are usually kept at the donation site for 10–15 minutes after donating since most adverse reactions take place during or immediately after the donation. Blood centers typically provide light refreshments or a lunch allowance to help the donor recover. The needle site is covered with a bandage and the donor is directed to keep the bandage on for several hours. Donated plasma is replaced after 2–3 days. Red blood cells are replaced by bone marrow into the circulatory system at a slower rate, on average 36 days in healthy adult males. In one study, the range was 20 to 59 days for recovery. These replacement rates are the basis of how frequently a donor can give blood. Plasmapheresis and plateletpheresis donors can give much more frequently because they do not lose significant amounts of red cells. The exact rate of how often a donor can donate differs from country to country. For example, plasmapheresis donors in the United States are allowed to donate large volumes twice a week and could nominally give 83 liters (about 22 gallons) in a year, whereas the same donor in Japan may only donate every other week and could only donate about 16 liters (about 4 gallons) in a year. Red blood cells are the limiting step for whole blood donations, and the frequency of donation varies widely depending on the type of donor and local policies. For example, adult men in Hong Kong can donate once every three months, women every four months, and youth aged sixteen or seventeen only every six months. In Canada and the United States it is 56 days for any type of donor. Complications: Donors are screened for health problems that would put them at risk for serious complications from donating. First-time donors, teenagers, and women are at a higher risk of a reaction. One study showed that 2% of donors had an adverse reaction to donation. Most of these reactions are minor. A study of 194,000 donations found only one donor with long-term complications. In the United States, a blood bank is required to report any death that might possibly be linked to a blood donation. An analysis of all reports from October 2008 to September 2009 evaluated six events and found that five of the deaths were clearly unrelated to donation, and in the remaining case they found no evidence that the donation was the cause of death. Hypovolemic reactions can occur because of a rapid change in blood pressure. Fainting is generally the worst problem encountered. The process has similar risks to other forms of phlebotomy. Bruising of the arm from the needle insertion is the most common concern. One study found that less than 1% of donors had this problem. A number of less common complications of blood donation are known to occur. These include arterial puncture, delayed bleeding, nerve irritation, nerve injury, tendon injury, thrombophlebitis, and allergic reactions. Donors sometimes have adverse reactions to the sodium citrate used in apheresis collection procedures to keep the blood from clotting. Since the anticoagulant is returned to the donor along with blood components that are not being collected, it can bind the calcium in the donor's blood and cause hypocalcemia. These reactions tend to cause tingling in the lips, but may cause convulsions, seizure, hypertension, or more serious problems. Donors are sometimes given calcium supplements during the donation to prevent these side effects. In apheresis procedures, the red blood cells are often returned. If this is done manually and the donor receives the blood from a different person, a transfusion reaction can take place. Manual apheresis is extremely rare in the developed world because of this risk and automated procedures are as safe as whole blood donations. The final risk to blood donors is from equipment that has not been properly sterilized. In most cases, the equipment that comes in direct contact with blood is discarded after use. Re-used equipment was a significant problem in China in the 1990s, and up to 250,000 blood plasma donors may have been exposed to HIV from shared equipment. Storage, supply and demand: The collected blood is usually stored as separate components, and some of these have short shelf lives. There are no storage solutions to keep platelets for extended periods of time, though some are being studied as of 2008. The longest shelf life used for platelets is seven days. Red blood cells, the most frequently used component, have a shelf life of 35–42 days at refrigerated temperatures. This can be extended by freezing the blood with a mixture of glycerol but this process is expensive, rarely done, and requires an extremely cold freezer for storage. Plasma can be stored frozen for an extended period of time and is typically given an expiration date of one year and maintaining a supply is less of a problem. The limited storage time means that it is difficult to have a stockpile of blood to prepare for a disaster. The subject was discussed at length after the September 11th attacks in the United States, and the consensus was that collecting during a disaster was impractical and that efforts should be focused on maintaining an adequate supply at all times. Blood centers in the U.S. often have difficulty maintaining even a three day supply for routine transfusion demands. The World Health Organization recognizes World Blood Donor Day on 14th June each year to promote blood donation. This is the birthday of Karl Landsteiner, the scientist who discovered the ABO blood group system. As of 2008, the WHO estimated that more than 81 million units of blood were being collected annually. * Benefits and Incentives The World Health Organization set a goal in 1997 for all blood donations to come from unpaid volunteer donors, but as of 2006, only 49 of 124 countries surveyed had established this as a standard. Some countries, such as Tanzania, have made great strides in moving towards this standard, with 20 percent of donors in 2005 being unpaid volunteers and 80 percent in 2007, but 68 of 124 countries surveyed by WHO had made little or no progress. Some plasmapheresis donors in the United States are still paid for donations. A few countries rely on paid donors to maintain an adequate supply. In some countries, for example Brazil, Argentina and Australia, it is illegal to receive any compensation, monetary or otherwise, for the donation of blood or other human tissues. . In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems. Regular donors are often given some sort of non-monetary recognition. Time off from work is a common benefit. For example, in Italy, blood donors receive the donation day as a paid holiday from work. Blood centers will also sometimes add incentives such as assurances that donors would have priority during shortages, free T-shirts, first aid kits, windshield scrapers, pens, and similar trinkets. There are also incentives for the people who recruit potential donors, such as prize drawings for donors and rewards for organizers of successful drives. Recognition of dedicated donors is common. For example, the Singapore Red Cross Society presents awards for voluntary donors who have made a certain number of donations under the Blood Donor Recruitment Programe starting with a "bronze award" for 25 donations. Most allogeneic blood donors donate as an act of charity and do not expect to receive any direct benefit from the donation. The sociologist Richard Titmuss, in his 1970 book The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy, compared the merits of the commercial and non-commercial blood donation systems of the USA and the UK. The book became a bestseller in the USA, resulting in legislation to regulate the private market in blood. The book is still referenced in modern debates about turning blood into a commodity. The book was republished in 1997 and the same ideas and principles are applied to analogous donation programs, such as organ donation and sperm donation.

Don de sang Médecine transfusionnelle Un don de sang est un processus par lequel un donneur de sang est volontaire pour se voir prélever du sang qui sera stocké dans une banque du sang avant de transfuser un malade lors d'une transfusion sanguine. En France, en Belgique, en Suisse et au Canada, le don de sang est bénévole : autrement dit, les donneurs ne sont pas rémunérés, contrairement à d'autres pays. Conditions préalables au don : Lorsqu'un donneur arrive sur une collecte de sang, il répond à un questionnaire médical sur son état de santé. Les questions peuvent impliquer son âge, son poids, son dernier don de sang, son état actuel de santé, et divers facteurs de risque comme les tatouages, l'usage de stupéfiants (usage récréatif ou dopant), les derniers voyages internationaux, et l'anamnèse sexuelle. Les réponses sont associées au sang donné, mais l'anonymat reste garanti. Il est à noter que les conditions varient selon les pays : si la contamination par une maladie sexuellement transmissible (MST), l'appartenance à une population à risque, un état évident d'ébriété ou un long séjour en Afrique noire interdisent un don du sang quel que soit le pays, les États-Unis interdisent également le don du sang aux personnes ayant résidé plus de cinq ans en Europe depuis 1980 du fait du risque de maladie de Creutzfeldt-Jakob, suite à l'épidémie de vache folle. En France, avant un don de sang, le médecin de collecte de l'Établissement français du sang (EFS) mène un entretien médical avec chaque candidat au don. Cela lui permet d'évaluer l'état de santé du candidat et de déterminer s'il est apte, ou non, par souci de sécurité tant pour lui que pour le receveur, à donner son sang. Depuis 2008, sauf pour les donneurs réguliers, un contrôle du taux d'hémoglobine est effectué avant le don. Il est fortement conseillé de bien manger et d'être bien en forme avant de réaliser un don de sang. En France, au Canada ... : à internationaliser: Depuis 1995, en France, après l'Affaire du sang contaminé, fin des années 1980, suite à la contamination des hémophiles et de transfusés au début des années 1980 (1980- septembre 1985), les différents établissements civils de transfusion (au nombre d'environ 170 à l'époque), qui étaient dans la plupart des cas associatifs, ont été regroupés en une Agence Française du Sang (AFS), devenue Établissement français du sang, E.F.S. en 2000. L'EFS et le Centre de transfusion sanguine des armées, CTSA, à Clamart, sont les seuls établissements habilités à collecter le sang en France. Au Canada, la société canadienne du sang et Héma-Québec (pour la province du Québec) sont les seuls opérateurs à qui l'on peut donner du sang. Dans d'autres pays, Etats-Unis, Allemagne, Autriche... coexistent des prélèvements bénévoles (Croix Rouge souvent) et des prélèvements rémunérés (concernant surtout le plasma) effectués par des firmes commerciales. Le plasma de nos anti-D thérapeutiques (Rhophylac®) est prélevé au Mexique chez des donneurs immunisés et rémunérés, par exemple. L'âge : En vertu de l'article L. 1221-5 du Code de la santé publique, aucun prélèvement de sang ne peut avoir lieu sur une personne mineure, hormis à titre exceptionnel, en cas d'urgence thérapeutique et avec le consentement des parents. L'âge minimum pour pouvoir faire don de son sang est donc l'âge légal de la majorité, à savoir 18 ans en France. En France, le donneur doit être âgé : * de 18 à 70 ans pour un don de sang total (les dons de personnes de plus de 65 ans sont soumis à l'appréciation d'un médecin d'établissement pour chaque don) * de 18 à 65 ans (66e: année exclu) pour un don de plasma, * de 18 à 65 ans (66e: année exclu) pour un don de plaquettes, * de 18 à 50 ans pour un don de globules blancs. Concernant la limite haute, le don de sang est possible jusqu'à la veille du 71e: anniversaire, et ce malgré l'allongement de l'espérance de vie de personnes en excellente santé. On a donc d'un côté une limitation juridique, résultant de la nécessité d'un consentement libre et éclairé à l'acte de prélèvement (on considère que le mineur n'est pas suffisamment éclairé par principe), et d'un autre, une limitation d'ordre médicale. La masse : Le donneur doit avoir une masse minimale de pour un don de sang total et pour un don de plasma ou de plaquettes. Les populations à risque contre-indiquées : Le questionnaire et l'entretien médical permettent de savoir si des personnes appartiennent à des populations à risque. Ces personnes sont donc contre-indiquées au don de sang afin de prévenir tout risque transfusionnel pour le malade qui doit recevoir, et pour les populations pouvant donner leur sang. Sont ainsi contre-indiqués : * les hommes ayant eu ou ayant des rapports sexuels avec d'autres hommes, quelle que soit l'ancienneté du rapport, * les personnes pratiquant le multi-partenariat sexuel au cours des 4 mois précédant le don (6 mois en Suisse), * les personnes dont le partenaire sexuel est atteint d'une maladie sexuellement transmissible, * les personnes prenant certains traitements, * les personnes ayant consommé de la drogue par voie intraveineuse, * les personnes ayant subi une opération, un tatouage ou un piercing dans les quatre mois précédant le don du sang, * les personnes ayant subi, même depuis longtemps, une ou plusieurs transfusions ou une greffe d'organe, * les personnes revenant depuis moins de quatre mois de certaines zones où sévissent des maladies transmissibles par le sang : la définition de ces zones est régulièrement actualisée (zones où sévit le paludisme, la maladie de Chagas, le Virus du Nil occidental...), * les personnes ayant séjourné au moins un an dans les îles britanniques entre 1980 et 1996 (maladie de Creutzfeldt-Jakob, dite de la vache folle: , due à des protéines de type Prion) (aux États-Unis, ce critère est élargi à toute personne ayant résidé 5 ans en Europe depuis 1980), * les femmes enceintes ou ayant accouché depuis moins de 6 mois. * Remise en cause de l'exclusion systématique des homosexuels Plusieurs pays ont ouvert le don du sang aux gays et bisexuels, tandis que d'autres pays excluent non seulement les gays et bisexuels, mais également les lesbiennes et bisexuelles. L'association SOS homophobie dénonce une discrimination injustifiée . En France, l'interdiction à vie des gays et bisexuels est actuellement remise en cause suite aux interventions médiatiques d'Alexandre Marcel, un militant homosexuel qui a sensibilisé l'opinion publique. Il a également saisi le Tribunal correctionnel d'Alès, mais la plainte a été classée sans suite ,: ,: . Par ailleurs, le Ministère de la Santé français fait actuellement l'objet d'un procès administratif : Geoffrey Léger, le plaignant, a saisi le Tribunal administratif de Strasbourg. La requête est défendue par l'avocate Caroline Mécary. Le but de ce procès est d'ouvrir le don du sang aux gays et bisexuels par décision de justice. En plus de la justice française, Geoffrey Léger a également saisi la justice européenne en déposant plainte auprès de la Commission européenne, pour non-respect du droit communautaire . Une seule relation sexuelle entre hommes exclut à vie le candidat, même si la relation a eu lieu 50 ans auparavant. Selon SOS Homophobie, des lesbiennes sont également exclues de don du sang, bien qu'officiellement elles ne soient plus rejetées des Établissements français du sang depuis 2002 . Dès que leur homosexualité est détectée, les gays et bisexuels sont alors fichés à vie en tant que "homme ayant eu une relation sexuelle entre hommes" grâce à un code spécifique Toutefois, la Commission Nationale de l'Informatique et des Libertés (CNIL) approuve ce fichage et justifie ce choix en reprenant les argument de l’Établissement français du sang . Deux épidémiologistes de l'INVS (Institut national de veille sanitaire) , un organisme public rattaché au Ministère de la Santé à Paris, suggèrent que l’interdiction faite aux gays de donner leur sang est inefficace et pourrait même être contreproductive . En juin 2009, 76% des Français trouvent injustifiée cette interdiction . Des politiques tels que François Hollande , Martine Aubry ou Jean-Luc Roméro ont affirmés vouloir ouvrir le don du sang aux gays. Des parlementaires tels que Jean-Louis Idiart , Catherine Lemorton , Alain Vidalies , Jean-Claude Fruteau , Éric Diard , Jean-Yves Le Déaut , Marie-Line Reynaud , ou encore Béatrice Pavy se sont interrogés quant à la crédibilité d'une telle interdiction. Des associations politiques telles que HES , les Jeunes Écologistes et GayLib souhaitent que les homosexuels ne soient plus exclus du don du sang. Par ailleurs, les associations Homodonneur et Pourquoi sang priver militent activement pour supprimer cette injustice. En 2011, le Défenseur des droits, Dominique Baudis, a recommandé à l’État d'ouvrir le don du sang aux homosexuels. En 2006, la HALDE, dans l'une de ses délibération, a recommandé à l'Établissement français du sang de "mener une réflexion" , et a recommandé la modification du questionnaire rempli par les candidats afin de substituer à la question relative aux rapports sexuels entre hommes, celle relative aux pratiques sexuelles à risque. Le Comité consultatif national d'éthique a été saisi par l’Établissement français du sang. Le Comité a répondu par une lettre datée du 24 janvier 2002 . Extraits : "Il convient de ne pas transformer ce principe de légitime sécurité en stigmatisation ou en mesure qui peut être considérée comme discriminatoire". "Le futur questionnaire proposé par l'EFS devrait permettre d'évaluer un risque pour un individu en prenant en compte ses conduites plutôt que de porter sur des groupes à risques." "Il n'appartient pas non plus à un établissement de transfusion de porter un jugement qui peut être considéré comme stigmatisant" . En juillet 2006, Xavier Bertrand a promis de mettre un terme a cette injustice . En 2007, l'ancienne ministre de la Santé, Roselyne Bachelot-Narquin, a promis d'ouvrir le don du sang aux gays et bisexuels. Mais elle ne l'a pas fait . En juillet 2011, Xavier Bertrand, 5 ans plus tard, a promis à nouveau la même chose. Mais il n'a pas tenu sa promesse . Et en décembre 2011, Xavier Bertrand a réaffirmé sa position : officiellement, il ambitionne d'ouvrir le don du sang aux gays et bisexuels . Aucune contre-indication en raison de l'orientation sexuelle n'est appliquée ni en Espagne ni en Italie. Toutefois, certains hôpitaux italiens discriminent quand même les homosexuels alors que la législation ne le prévoit pas . Des pays tels que l'Australie, , le Royaume-Uni et la Suède acceptent les gays et bisexuels, mais uniquement ceux qui n'ont eu aucune relation homosexuelle pendant au moins 1 an. D'autres pays tels que la Suisse et le Canada appliquent, lorsqu'il s'agit de gays et bisexuels, une contre-indication permanente, même si des médecins canadiens veulent supprimer cette discrimination . En 2010, la Croix-Rouge suisse a affirmé qu'un assouplissement de l'interdiction et de nouveaux critères devraient être édictés. Mais ça n'a pas été fait . Fréquence de dons : Le rythme des dons dépend de la volonté du donneur et du type du don. Une certaine période de temps minimale est fixée entre les dons. Cette période diffère de pays en pays selon la réglementation en vigueur. En France, il faut attendre 8 semaines entre deux dons de sang total avec un maximum de 6 dons par an pour un homme et 4 pour une femme ; pour les dons de plaquettes, le délai est de 4 semaines avec un maximum de 12 dons par an. Pour les dons de plasma, il est possible d'effectuer jusqu'à 24 dons dans l'année, à deux semaines d'intervalle minimum. Pour les hommes de plus de 60 ans, un intervalle de 8 semaines minimum est exigé entre les dons, quel que soit le type. Au Québec, il n'y a pas de distinction, hommes et femmes peuvent donner leur sang 6 fois par an, tous les 56 jours. Un délai de 6 jours est requis entre chaque don de plasma. Il faut attendre 14 jours entre deux dons de plaquettes soit 24 fois par an. Cependant, pour les donneurs ayant déjà donné des plaquettes par aphérèse, il est possible de faire des dons doubles de plaquettes, lorsque les analyses l'autorise, permettant ainsi de faire l'équivalent de 48 dons par an. L'ensemble des pays européens applique en matière de délais entre chaque don une directive européenne. Si tous appliquent les mêmes délais en ce qui concerne les dons de sang, il n'en est pas de même en ce qui concerne les dons de plaquettes. Sans en arriver à ce qui se passe au Canada, certains pays européens, comme la Suisse, l'Allemagne, la Belgique, l'Italie, appliquent depuis plusieurs années la directive européenne qui prévoit que l'on doit respecter un délai de 4 semaines entre deux dons de plaquettes, avec un maximum de dons par an. En France le nombre de dons tout type confondu doit être inférieur ou égal à 24 par an. Le don : En 2009, l’Établissement Français du Sang a recueilli plus de 3 millions de dons de sang (dons de sang total, de plaquettes et de plasma). Les besoins en produits sanguins sont en augmentation constante. Après une longue période de diminution des besoins en produits sanguins labiles, la situation s’est inversée depuis 2001. Les besoins augmentent de manière forte, sur un rythme de 1 à 3 % par an. Les raisons d'une augmentation des besoins : Plusieurs facteurs expliquent ce revirement de situation observé depuis 2001 : * l’allongement de l’espérance de vie entraîne une augmentation du nombre de maladies nécessitant l’utilisation d’une thérapeutique transfusionnelle. Aujourd’hui, on transfuse de plus en plus à des âges avancés de la vie (2/3 des personnes transfusées ont plus de 60 ans). Cette tendance risque de s'accentuer encore à l'avenir compte tenu du vieillissement de la population ; * les progrès de la médecine permettent le traitement de patients par chimiothérapie lourde pour leucémie et/ou cancer à des âges de plus en plus avancés. Ces traitements nécessitent une grande quantité de produits sanguins ; * les professionnels de la santé ont repris confiance dans les produits sanguins puisque les risques liés aux transfusions ne cessent de diminuer (ils ont été divisés par deux en cinq ans). Une stabilisation des dons : Parallèlement à cette augmentation de la demande, les prélèvements de sang, tout comme le nombre de donneurs, ont tendance à se stabiliser (autour de 1,7 million de donneurs en 2009). L’approvisionnement des établissements de santé a néanmoins pu être maintenu grâce à une gestion rigoureuse des produits prélevés. Le taux de péremption des produits ou de non-utilisation est ainsi passé de 1,49 % en 2003 à 0,63 % fin 2006 : la gestion du processus de fabrication est donc totalement maîtrisée et optimisée. Des stocks entre diminution, stagnation et hausse : Pendant les vacances, durant les épidémies de gastroentérite ou de grippe, les donneurs sont en effet moins nombreux, ce qui entraîne une diminution du nombre de produits sanguins dans le stock, alors que les besoins des malades restent constants. Les périodes de tension sur le stock existent, mais l'Établissement Français du Sang a toujours réalisé sa mission qui est d'assurer l'autosuffisance nationale des produits sanguins, sur l'ensemble du territoire. Des objectifs accessibles : Pour assurer un parfait approvisionnement des hôpitaux et des cliniques en produits sanguins, il faudrait être en permanence à 14 jours de stock. Les globules rouges ne se conservent que 42 jours : d’où l’importance de donner régulièrement son sang. Pour cela, il faut donc conquérir de nouveaux donneurs et également augmenter le nombre de dons par donneur. Les différents types de don : Le donneur peut choisir, en l'absence de contre-indication spécifique, le type du don qu'il souhaite faire : don de sang total, don de plaquettes (thrombocytaphérèse) ou don de plasma (plasmaphérèse). Les équipes de l'EFS peuvent toutefois l'orienter vers un don en particulier en fonction de son groupe sanguin, de son taux d'hémoglobine, de son taux de plaquettes, de la qualité de ses veines, etc. Le don de sang total : Une poche de sang est prélevée à partir du sang du donneur. Elle est ensuite traitée afin de séparer le sang en ses différents composants. La durée du prélèvement est habituellement entre 5 et 15 minutes. Une poche de à environ est prélevée ainsi que des tubes échantillons sur lesquels seront effectués les contrôles et tests. La quantité de sang prélevée est prescrite par le médecin-préleveur et est adaptée aux poids, sexe et âge du donneur. Mais la quantité de sang prélevée doit être au moins égale à environ . En effet, cela ne permettrait pas non plus d'avoir un produit fini qui corresponde à une unité thérapeutique, l'intérêt du malade étant au centre des préoccupations avant tout. Si jamais le donneur ne peut fournir suffisamment de sang (veines trop fines, par exemple), le don peut être interrompu. Néanmoins, le sang donné n'est pas perdu et peut servir à la recherche et tout autre application non thérapeutique. Le don non thérapeutique est très important car il permet de produire notamment des réactifs indispensables pour réaliser les tests sur les tubes échantillon. Don par aphérèse : à recycler: On appelle don par aphérèse le don d'une partie seule du sang, celui-ci étant partiellement traité durant le don par centrifugation. cela permet de séparer le plasma ou les plaquettes puis de restituer au donneur le reste du sang. Ce type de don ne se fait que sur rendez-vous. Il nécessite une mise en œuvre plus importante due au fait qu'une partie du sang prélevé est traitée immédiatement. Le don de plasma : plasmaphérèse: La plasmaphérèse est le prélèvement du plasma sanguin. Le procédé est similaire au don de plaquettes mais dure moins longtemps (35 à 45 minutes). On prélève en aphérèse jusqu’à 875 ml de plasma au donneur, puis on lui restitue ses autres composants (globules rouges et plaquettes). Il est possible de donner son plasma toutes les deux semaines, dans une limite de 24 fois par an. Le plasma ainsi prélevé peut avoir plusieurs orientations : * subissant un traitement d'atténuation virale et bactérienne par le bleu de méthylène ou l'amotosalen et réparti en unités thérapeutiques de 200 ml conservées congelées à - 25°C au plus, il sera perfusé à un malade qui présente des troubles globaux de coagulation, l'une des indications. * subissant un traitement d'atténuation virale et bactérienne par solvant-détergent, il s'agit là d'un traitement industriel sur lots de 100 dons et réparti en unités de 200 ml également conservées congelées, il sera également perfusé au patient pour les mêmes indications, échange plasmatique dans le PTT, par exemple. * adressé au LFB il permettra de préparer les médicaments dérivés du sang (MDS) que sont l'albumine, les immunoglobulines, les Facteurs VIII, IX, von Willebrand, le Fibrinogène et autres dérivés. À noter que le plasma issu des dons de sang total est systématiquement adressé au LFB. Pour plus d’informations sur les différents types de don, consultez la rubrique « les dons de sang » du site internet de l’EFS . Le don de plaquettes : Le sang prélevé est séparé en ses différents composants. Ce processus de séparation est appelé aphérèse. Les plaquettes sont alors collectées dans une poche pouvant contenir de 2 à 8 1011 plaquettes dans un volume de plasma de 300ml environ, soit environ six à douze fois plus de plaquettes que lors d’un don de sang total. Ce don dure 90 minutes environ. Les plaquettes ne se conservent que cinq jours : pour faire face aux besoins, des dons réguliers et quotidiens sont donc indispensables. On peut donner ses plaquettes jusqu’à douze fois par an, en respectant un intervalle d’au moins quatre semaines entre chaque don. Lorsqu’une maladie (leucémie, aplasie médullaire) ou des traitements lourds (chimiothérapie, radiothérapie) empêchent la fabrication de cellules sanguines par la moelle osseuse, la personne atteinte de cette maladie est dite en aplasie. La transfusion régulière de plaquettes permet alors d’éviter les risques d’hémorragies qui mettraient sa vie en péril . Selon l'association « don de soi - don de vie », il est important de ne pas prendre d'ibuprofène ou d'aspirine dans les jours précédent le don de plaquettes car ces médicaments sont des antiagrégant plaquettaires et rendent les plaquettes inefficaces . Déroulement du don : Une première prise de sang est faite sur le bras opposé au don complet. L'éprouvette de sang ainsi récoltée est ensuite analysée sur le champ afin de déterminer la teneur en plaquettes du sang du donneur (pour un don de plaquettes, pas pour un don de plasma). Ce dernier a ensuite le choix de faire un don simple ou double (le double n'est pas offert dans tous les centres de dons). Pour un don simple, la durée de prélèvement varie de 4 à 10 minutes. Lors d'un don double, le donneur peut s'attendre à passer un minimum de 7 minutes sur la chaise de prélèvement. Il est possible que, la teneur en plaquettes du sang du donneur étant trop faible, celui-ci n'ait que la possibilité de faire un don simple. Lorsque le donneur a fait son choix, le sang est prélevé et partiellement traité immédiatement par une machine qui va le centrifuger afin de séparer le plasma ou les plaquettes. Lors du processus, un anticoagulant est ajouté au sang afin que celui-ci ne coagule pasRéférence nécessaire: . Inévitablement, une petite partie de cet anticoagulant est repassée au donneur lors du retour des composantes du sang non-utilisées. Il est possible de faire une réaction allergique à cet anticoagulant : elle consiste généralement en de légers picotements et en une sensation de froid. Dans le cas où le donneur présente ces symptômes, le don s'arrête et ce dernier ne peut plus donner de plaquettes. Le don autologue ou autotransfusion : Il ne s'agit pas à proprement parler d'un don mais d'une méthode de prélèvement du sang avant que celui-ci ne soit rendu au patient, généralement en prévision d'une intervention chirurgicale.On parle aussi de don de sang autologue programmé (DSAP). La transfusion autologue programmée est une intervention qui consiste à transfuser au patient le sang qu’on lui a prélevé auparavant lorsqu’il doit subir une chirurgie élective. On évite ainsi les risques d’infections transmissibles pouvant être associés au sang provenant d’autres donneurs. Cette méthode de transfusion sanguine avait été encouragée à la suite du scandale du sang contaminé au début des années 1990. Toutefois, l’amélioration importante de la qualité des services de prise en charge des dons de sang en général a grandement contribué à accroître et à assurer leur sécurité. En conséquence, le recours au don de sang autologue programmé (DSAP) a fortement diminué. Aujourd'hui, le don de sang autologue est parfois pratiqué par les sportifs, pour augmenter leur taux d'hémoglobine et donc leurs performances. Il est considéré comme une pratique dopante et interdit. Statistiques : Dans le monde, plus de 80 millions d'unités sont collectés annuellement, dont seulement 45% dans les pays en voie de développement . En moyenne, en France, personnes reçoivent chaque année une transfusion sanguine. L'Établissement Français du Sang prélève et distribue 3 millions de poches par an et accueille 1,7 million de donneurs soit 4 % de la population en âge de donner. Le nombre moyen de dons par an et par donneur est de 1,8. * Suites du don * Recommandations après le don * Pour éviter tout hématome, il est impératif d’appuyer à l’endroit de la piqûre environ 5 minutes car la coagulation sanguine demande entre 5 et 10 minutes. En effet si le caillot n’est pas bien formé, un hématome plus ou moins important risque de se produire en cours de journée. À ce titre un bandage légèrement compressif est fait sur le point de ponction. Il est préférable de le garder au moins deux heures après le don pour éviter la formation d’un hématome. * Collation et boissons sont offertes après le don pour prévenir un éventuel malaise. Appelé malaise vagal, ce malaise sans gravité est lié à une baisse passagère de la tension artérielle. Bien boire après un don permet également de remplacer plus rapidement le volume sanguin prélevé. * Éviter de pratiquer un sport de façon intense après le don (délai 72 heures après le don pour la plongée sous-marine, l’escalade et toute compétition). * S'abstenir de fumer deux heures au moins après le don. * Après le don Une fois les produits sanguins recueillis, ceux-ci sont préparés (filtrés et séparés en différents composants sanguins). Les tubes échantillons sont analysés afin de vérifier qu'il n'y a aucun risque, notamment par le dépistage d'infections transmissibles, hépatites, sida, paludisme si besoin. Si les tests ne révèlent aucun problème les produits sanguins (globules rouges, plasma et plaquettes) sont prêts à être distribués aux hôpitaux et cliniques qui les délivreront aux malades. Particularité du plasma, celui-ci sert aussi à fabriquer des médicaments dont les malades ont besoin. Ce plasma est cédé sous sa forme "matière première" par l'Établissement Français du Sang (EFS) au Laboratoire français du fractionnement et des biotechnologies (LFB). Ces médicaments (immunoglobulines, albumines... etc.) sont indispensables à de nombreux malades souffrant par exemple de désorde immunitaire plus ou moins sérieux, agammaglobulinémie ou pathologies auto-immunes pour les immunoglobulines polyvalentes, ou déficit de la coagulation pour les divers facteurs I, II, VIII, IX, vW...par exemple. * L'information subséquente du donneur Le donneur est averti des éventuels problèmes que le dépistage aurait relevés, que le problème soit en apparence mineur (petite anémie...) ou plus sérieux (signe d'hépatite, VIH...). Cependant les réactifs utilisés sont très sensibles et peuvent parfois réagir avec certains composants du sang, sans même qu'il y ait maladie (on parle alors de faux positifs). Il convient de contacter le centre de transfusion qui a signalé le problème pour effectuer un contrôle. * Tarif de la poche de sang Chaque année le tarif de la poche de sang est fixé par l'État en fonction des besoins des hôpitaux : en 2009, le tarif de la poche de CGR - Concentré de globules rouges - a été fixé à 179,07 € HT. Un chiffre qui tend à augmenter chaque année du fait de l’augmentation de la demande de produits sanguins par les malades. * Aspects culturels ...: Certaines croyances interdisent le don du sang ; c'est le cas chez les Témoins de Jéhovah . Une Journée mondiale du don du sang: est organisée le 14 juin chaque année depuis 2005 sous l'égide de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé . * Notes et références

دوشيرمة كلمات وجمل تركية | الدولة العثمانية الدِّوشيرمة أو الدِّڤشيرمة (بالتركية: devşirme) هي الممارسة الذي بموجبها كانت الإمبراطورية العثمانية تجنّد أولادا من عائلات مسيحية، يتم تحويلهم بعد ذلك إلى الإسلام ويدربون كجنود إنكشارية. تنبع هذه الممارسة من الرغبة بإنشاء طبقة عليا من المحاربين تكون موالية فقط للسلطان، لا للنبلاء العثمانيين. قسم من الشبان درّبوا للعمل في الوظائف الإدارية للإمبراطورية. كون الشريعة الإسلامية تمنع الدولة الإسلامية من استعباد أهل الذمة، فإن العائلات المستهدفة كانت بالأساس من الشعوب السلافية أو تلك التي لم يكن أسلافها مسيحيين أيام النبي محمد. هذه الشعوب اعتبرت عبيدا شرعيين للسلطان، لا أهل ذمة. مصادر خارجية : (to be further exploited) * Papoulia, B.D., Ursprung und Wesen der “knabenlese” im Osmanischen Reich. München, 1963 (in German, title means 'origin and nature of the 'boy harvest' in the Ottoman Empire)

Devşirme Military of the Ottoman Empire | Words of Turkish origin | Ottoman slaves | Christianity and Islam | Christianity in the Ottoman Empire | Devşirme Social structure in the Ottoman Empire sidebar: Devshirme (Ottoman دوشيرمه, Greek παιδομάζωμα, Paedomazoma - collection of children; Մանկահավաք: , Mankahavak' - child-gathering; Romanian: tribut de sânge; Croatian: Danak u krvi, Slovene: Krvni davek, Serbian: Данак у крви / Danak u krvi, Macedonian: Данок во крв / Danok vo krv, and Bulgarian: Кръвен данък/ Kraven Danak - blood tax) was the practice by which the Ottoman Empire recruited boys, forcibly, from Christian families, who were selected by skilled scouts to be trained and enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military. Although the primary objective of the devshirmeh system was to select and train the ablest children for leadership positions, either as military leaders or as high administrators to serve the Empire converting to Islam was mandatory to stay in the system. The devshirme candidates were not supposed to be orphans, or the only child in their family (to ensure the candidates had strong family values); they must not have already learned to speak Turkish or a craft/trade. The ideal age of a recruit was between 10 and 20 years of age. Although they recuited much younger boys. As the devshirmah were recruited to rise up to the grand vizier status, a few Christian parents were known to bribe scouts to take their children in Bosnia. Nevertheless, the devşirme system was locally resented and was resisted, even to the point of disfiguring their sons. This system as explained by Kara Khalil Chendereli, founder of the Janissaries, "The conquered are slaves of the conquerors, to whom their goods, their women, and their children belong as lawful possession..", indicates the clear opinion of an Ottoman official regarding devsirme. * History The Ottoman Empire, beginning with Murad I, felt a need to "counteract the power of (Turkic) nobles by developing Christian vassal soldiers and converted kapıkulları as his personal troops, independent of the regular army." The elite forces, which served the Ottoman Sultan directly, were divided into two main groups: cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was commonly known as the Kapıkulu Süvari (The Cavalry of the Servants of the Porte) and the infantry were the popular Yeni Çeri (transliterated in English as Janissary), meaning "the New Corps". At first, the soldiers to serve in these corps were selected from the slaves captured during warfare. However, the system commonly known as "devşirme" was soon adopted: in this system children of the rural Christian populations of the Balkans were conscripted before adolescence and were brought up as Muslims. Upon reaching adolescence, these children were enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military. Those enrolled in the Military would become either part of the Janissary corps, or part of any other corps. The brightest were sent to the Palace institution (Enderun), and were destined for a career within the palace itself where the most able could aspire to attain the very highest office of state, that of Grand Vizier, the Sultan's immensely powerful chief minister and military deputy. * The life of the devşirme Although the influence of Turkic nobility continued in the Ottoman court until Mehmet II (see Çandarlı Halil), the Ottoman ruling class slowly came to be ruled exclusively by the Devşirme, creating a separate social class. This class of rulers was chosen from the brightest of Devşirme and hand-picked to serve in the Palace institution, known as the Enderun. They had to accompany the Sultan on campaigns, but exceptional service would be rewarded by assignments outside the palace. Those chosen for the Scribe institution, known as Kalemiyye were also granted prestigious positions. The Religious institution, İlmiyye, was where all Orthodox clergy of the Ottoman Empire were educated and sent to provinces or served in the capital. Tavernier noted in 1678 that the Janissaries looked more like a religious order than a military corps. The members of the organization were not banned from marriage, as Tavernier further noted, but it was very uncommon for them. He goes on to write that their numbers had increased to a hundred thousand, but this was because of a degeneration of regulations and many of these were in fact "fake" Janissaries, posing as such for tax exemptions and other social privileges. He notes that the actual number of Janissaries was in fact much lower (Shaw writes that their number was 30,000 under Suleiman the Magnificent ). Recruits were sometimes gained through voluntarily accessions, as some parents were often eager to have their children enroll in the Janissary service that ensured them a successful career and comfort. Albertus Bobovius wrote in 1686 that diseases were common among the devşirme and strict discipline was enforced. The BBC notes the following regarding the devsirme system: "Although members of the devshirme class were technically slaves, they were of great importance to the Sultan because they owed him their absolute loyalty and became vital to his power. This status enabled some of the 'slaves' to become both powerful and wealthy." According to Cleveland, the devşirme system offered "limitless opportunities to the young men who became a part of it." However, according to Dr. Basilike Papoulia, "...the devsirme was the 'forcible removal', in the form of a tribute, of children of the Christian subjects from their ethnic, religious and cultural environment and their transportation into the Turkish-Islamic environment with the aim of employing them in the service of the Palace, the army, and the state, whereby they were on the one hand to serve the Sultan as slaves and freedmen and on the other to form the ruling class of the State." Accordingly, Papoulia agrees with Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb and Harold Bowen, authors of Islamic society and the West, that the devsirme was a penalization imposed on the Balkan peoples since their ancestors resisted the Ottoman invasion. Minorsky states, "The most striking manifestation of this fact is the unprecedented system of devshirme, ie. the periodic conscription of 'tribute boys', by which Christian children were wrung from their families, churches, and communities to be molded into Ottoman praetorians owing their allegiance to the Sultan and the official faith of Islam." * Ethnicity of the devşirme, and exemptions The devşirme were collected once in every four or five years from rural provinces in Balkans, and only from non-Muslims. The devşirme levy was not applied to the major cities of the empire, and children of local craftsman in rural towns were also exempt, as it was considered that conscripting them would harm the economy. In early days all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately; later those from Albania and Bosnia were preferred. Bernard Lewis points that the core of the "Ottoman Janissaries were Slavic and Balkanic origin, mostly Albanian." Jews were exempt from this service and until recently Armenians were thought to have been exempt also. However, Armenian colophons from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries and foreign travelers of the time indicate that Armenians were indeed not spared from the devşirme. What is certain is that Devşirme were primarily recruited from Christians in the Balkans. However, Bosnian Muslims were also recruited and sent directly to serve in the Palace, under groups called "potor". * Decline of the devşirme class The devshirme declined in the 16th and 17th Century due to a number of factors, including the inclusion of free Muslims in the system. After 1568 the 'boy harvest' was only occasionally made. In 1632 the Janissaries attempted an unsuccessful coup against Murad IV, who then imposed a loyalty oath on them. In 1648 the devşirme-based recruiting system of the Janissary corps formally came to an end; attempts to reintroduce the old system failed due to the resistance of the new Turkish members of the Janissary corps in 1703, who wanted the coveted posts exclusively for their own families. The Janissary corps was officially abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 with the Auspicious Incident. The response of society: The practice as to Janissary soldiers was motivated by the desire to create an elite class of warriors loyal only to the Sultan, rather than to individual Ottoman nobles. There are accounts of Muslim families attempting to smuggle their offspring into the levy, which was strictly forbidden. Although the devshirme made boys the Sultans' state slaves it led to a highly privileged position in Ottoman society, but inevitably led to their conversion to Islam. The system also had specific limits on who and how many could be taken. The seizure of sons whose absence would cause hardship and difficulties was not permitted. Another aspect is that recruiting personnel for the military and administration counterbalanced the grip of the old Turkish nobility, which was largely channeled into education, law, Muslim religion and the provincial cavalry, in the spirit of division of tasks and rights of the millet system which increased the cohesion of the multi-ethnic and multi-cultural empire.

Devchirmé Empire ottoman | Histoire de la Turquie | Institution de l'Empire ottoman | Esclavage Le devchirmé (turc devşirme (دوشيرمه‎), le ramassage, la récolte; du verbe devşirmek, ramasser ou récolter ), également connu dans les Balkans, principale région d'Europe touchée par cette pratique comme lImpôt du sang, était, dans l'Empire ottoman, le système de recrutement consistant à réquisitionner de force des adolescents mais aussi des enfants dans les populations chrétiennes des territoires contrôlés par les Turcs. Les jeunes ainsi recrutés étaient destinés à faire partie de l'élite ottomane : ils étaient formés pour occuper des hautes responsabilités au sein de l'appareil d'État. Entre les , plus de enfants chrétiens (serbes, grecs, bulgares, croates et hongrois) furent pris par les Turcs comme impôt du sang . Certains appartenaient aux troupes d'élite ottomanes : les janissaires (du turc Yeni Ceri : « nouvelle troupe ») qui comptaient hommes à l'époque de Soliman le Magnifique, sous Murad III et au . Il s'agissait en fait au départ de ne pas donner de hautes responsabilités aux enfants issus des familles rivales de la dynastie ottomane. C'est pour cela que ces jeunes étaient prélevés principalement parmi les familles chrétiennes. Chaque année pendant plus de trois siècles, des enfants étaient ainsi retirés à leurs familles pour être formés à la cour du sultan. Les adolescents ne devaient pas être trop jeunes, pour pouvoir supporter les longs déplacements, et pas trop âgés, pour qu'ils puissent être convertis à l'islam et être replacés dans des familles turques. Il était interdit de recruter un garçon s'il était l'unique fils de sa famille. Cependant, certaines familles y envoyaient volontairement leurs enfants car c'était l'assurance d'une ascension sociale rapide. C'est ainsi que Skanderbeg, héros national albanais, sera envoyé par sa famille à la cour du sultan. Il convient aussi de souligner qu'une fois promus au sein de l'appareil d'État, les enfants ainsi enlevés n'oubliaient pas leurs origines, ni leur culture : on peut citer l'exemple de Sokullu Mehmed pacha qui était d'origine serbe et qui recréa le patriarcat orthodoxe serbe à Peć, au Kosovo, en 1557. Plusieurs d'entre eux marquèrent leur époque : Sokullu Mehmed pacha fut, par exemple, le grand vizir de trois sultans successifs. Ainsi, sur les vingt-six grands vizirs dont nous connaissons l'origine, onze étaient albanais, six grecs, d'autres encore circassiens, géorgiens, arméniens, serbes, ou même italiens et cinq turcs. Le devchirmé, tombé en désuétude au siècle, est officiellement supprimé en 1826 après la mutinerie contre le sultan Mahmud II, en même temps qu'est dissout le corps des janissaires. Sept mille janissaires sont alors massacrés à cette occasion. Notes :

الكلب الذئب كلبيات date=أبريل 2010: الكلب الذئب هو حيوان هجين من كلب وذئب ذكر ذئب وانثى كلب ويتيمز هذا النوع بشكلة الذي يميل كثيراً إلى شكل الذئب من ناحية القوة والضخامة بالإضافة لفراءة الرمادي اللون ويأتي أحياناً في لو الأبيض أو الاسود مع العيون الداكنة والبراقة. ومن صفاتة الجيدة هي الطاعة العمياء للاوامر والاستجابة للمدرب أو المربي ومراقبة ويستطيع الجري لمسافة 62 ميل في 100 كيلومتر بكل سهولة ولديه حواس قوية ترشده وتعينة على معرفة الطرق المناسبة لسلوكها وبإمكان هذه الكلاب تحمل جميع الطقوس الباردة والمثلجة سواء في الليل اوا لنهار دون صعوبة ولها اسنان حادة وقوية ويبلغ عدد الاسنان حوالي 42 بإمكانها طحن الاشياء القاسية ويبلغ عمرها 16 سنة على الأكثر.

Wolfdog Canid hybrids | Wolf-dog hybrids | Dog law | Dog breeding Wolfhound: A wolfdog (also called a wolf–dog hybrid or wolf hybrid) is a canid hybrid resulting from the mating of a wolf (various Canis lupus subspecies) and a dog (Canis lupus familiaris). The term "wolfdog" is preferred by most of the animals' proponents and breeders because the domestic dog recently was taxonomically recategorized as a subspecies of wolf. The American Veterinary Medical Association and the United States Department of Agriculture refer to the animals as wolf–dog hybrids. Rescue organizations consider any dog with wolf heritage within the last five generations to be a wolfdog, including some established wolfdog breeds. In 1998, the USDA estimated an approximate population of 300,000 wolfdogs in the United States (the highest of any country world-wide), with some other sources giving a population possibly as high as 500,000. In first generation hybrids, gray wolves are most often crossed with wolf-like dogs (such as German Shepherds, Siberian Huskies, and Alaskan Malamutes) for an appearance most appealing to owners desiring to own an exotic pet. Because wolfdogs are genetic mixtures of wolves and dogs, their physical and behavioral characteristics cannot be predicted with any certainty. History: North American mammoth hunting wolfdogs: Evidence for prehistoric domesticated wolfdogs in the Americas dates back at least 10,000 years while fossil evidence in Europe points to their use in hunting mammoths. Teotihuacan wolfdogs: In 2010, experts announced that they had found the remains of many wolf-dogs that had been kept by the warrior class of the Teotihuacan civilization in Mexico's central valley about two thousands years ago, and that, in light of this evidence, the animal commonly found depicted in the art of that culture and which had been thought to be a strange dog or coyote were likely instead wolf-dogs. British wolfdogs: The first record of wolfdog breeding in Great Britain comes from the year 1766 when what is thought was a male wolf had mated with a Pomeranian, which resulted in a litter of nine pups. Wolfdogs were occasionally purchased by English noblemen, who viewed them as a scientific curiosity. Wolfdogs were popular exhibits in British menageries and zoos. * Documented Breeding The first documented intentionally-bred wolfdog, the Saarlooswolfhond, did not begin until the 1920s. Later efforts include hybrids were used as experimental attack dogs in South Africa under apartheid. These wolfdogs were bred from German Shepherds and wolves from the Urals. The first of these hybrids was a male born in 1978 named Jungle, who remained in service until 1989. * New World Black Wolves Genetic research from the Stanford University School of Medicine and the University of California, Los Angeles revealed that wolves with black pelts owe their distinctive coloration to a mutation that first arose in domestic dogs. * Random-bred Wolfdogs Cases of accidental breeding of wolfdogs are known (though this is very rare), where a domestic dog female on oestrus strays and is mated by a male wild wolf. * Breed-specific legislation The wolfdog hybrid has been the center of much controversy for much of its history, and most breed-specific legislation is either the result of the animal's perceived danger or a categorization as protected native wildlife. The Humane Society of the United States, the RSPCA, Ottawa Humane Society, the Dogs Trust and the Wolf Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission consider wolfdogs to be wild animals and therefore unsuitable as pets, and support an international ban on the private possession, breeding and sales of wolfdogs. According to the National Wolfdog Alliance, 40 U.S. states effectively forbid the ownership, breeding and importation of wolfdogs, while others impose some form of regulation upon ownership. In Canada, Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island prohibit wolfdogs as pets. Most European nations either outlaw the animal entirely or put restrictions on ownership. Wolfdogs were among the breeds banned from the U.S. Marine Corps base at Camp Pendleton and elsewhere after a fatal dog attack by a pit bull on a child. * Wolfdogs in the wild Hybridization in the wild usually occurs near human habitations where wolf density is low and dogs are common. However, there were several reported cases of wolfdogs in areas with normal wolf densities in the former Soviet Union. Wild wolfdogs were occasionally hunted by European aristocracy, and were termed lycisca to distinguish them from common wolves. Noted historic cases (such as the Beast of Gévaudan) of large wolves that were abnormally aggressive toward humans, may be attributable to wolf-dog mating. In Europe, unintentional matings of dogs and wild wolves have been confirmed in some populations through genetic testing. As the survival of some Continental European wolf packs is severely threatened, scientists fear that the creation of wolfdog populations in the wild is a threat to the continued existence of European wolf populations. However, extensive wolf–dog hybridization is not supported by morphological evidence, and analyses of mtDNA sequences have revealed that such matings are rare. However, since mtDNA is mainly maternally inherited and most cases of hybridization in the wild seem to occur between a female wolf and a male domestic dog,dateJanuary 2009: these results may not be reliable. In 1997, during the Mexican Wolf Arizona Reintroduction, controversy arose when a captive pack at Carlsbad designated for release was found to be largely composed of wolfdogs by Roy McBride, who had captured many wolves for the recovery programme in the 1970s. Though staff initially argued that the animals' odd appearance was due to captivity and diet, it was later decided to euthanise them. * Description The physical characteristics of an animal created by breeding a wolf to a dog are not predictable, similar to that of mixed-breed dogs. Genetic research shows that wolf and dog populations initially diverged approximately 14,000 years ago and have interbred only occasionally since; thus imbuing the dissimilarity between dogs and wolves in behavior and appearance. In many cases the resulting adult wolfdog may be larger than either of its parents due to the genetic phenomenon of heterosis (commonly known as hybrid vigor). Breeding experiments in Germany with poodles and wolves, and later on with the resulting wolfdogs showed unrestricted fertility, mating via free choice and no significant problems of communication (even after a few generations). The offspring of poodles with either coyotes and jackals however all showed a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems as well as an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding between the hybrids. The researchers therefore concluded that domestic dogs and wolves are the same species. Hybrids display a wide variety of appearances, ranging from a resemblance to dogs without wolf blood to animals that are often mistaken for full-blooded wolves. A lengthy study by DEFRA and the RSPCA found several examples of misrepresentation by breeders and indeterminate levels of actual wolf pedigree in many animals sold as wolfdogs. The report noted that uneducated citizens misidentify dogs with wolf-like appearance as wolfdogs. Wolfdogs tend to have somewhat smaller heads than pure wolves, with larger, pointier ears which lack the dense fur commonly seen in those of wolves. Fur markings also tend to be very distinctive and not well blended. Black coloured hybrids tend to retain black pigment longer as they age, compared to black wolves. In some cases, the presence of dewclaws on the hind feet is considered a useful, but not absolute indicator of dog gene contamination in wild wolves. Dewclaws are the vestigial first toes, which are common on the hind legs of domestic dogs but thought absent from pure wolves, which only have four hind toes. Observations on wild wolf hybrids in the former Soviet Union indicate that wolf hybrids in a wild state may form larger packs than pure wolves, and have greater endurance when chasing prey. High content hybrids typically have longer canine teeth than dogs of comparable size, with some officers in the South African Defence Force commenting that the animals are capable of biting through the toughest padding "like a knife through butter". Their sense of smell apparently rivals that of most established scenthounds. Tests undertaken in the Perm Institute of Interior Forces in Russia demonstrated that high content hybrids took 15–20 seconds to track down a target in training sessions, whereas ordinary police dogs took 3–4 minutes. Health : Wolf-dog hybrids are generally said to be naturally healthy animals, and are affected by fewer inherited diseases than most breeds of dog. Wolfdogs are usually healthier than either parent due to heterosis. Some of the established breeds of wolfdog that exist today were bred specifically to improve the health and vigor of working dogs. There is some controversy over the effectiveness of the standard dog/cat rabies vaccine on a wolfdog. The USDA has not to date approved any rabies vaccine for use in wolf-dog hybrids, though they do recommend an extra-label use of the vaccine. Wolfdog owners and breeders purport that the lack of official approval is a political move to prevent condoning wolfdog ownership. * Temperament and behavior Wolf-dog hybrids are a mixture of genetic traits, which results in less predictable behavior patterns compared to either the wolf or dog. This is not to say that the behavior of any specific hybrid is erratic. It would, however, be unlikely that someone unfamiliar with an individual animal would be able to predict that animal's behavior with reasonable certainty. The adult behavior of hybrid pups also cannot be predicted with comparable certainty to dog pups, even in third-generation pups produced by wolfdog matings with dogs or from the behavior of the parent animals. Thus, though the behavior of a single individual wolf hybrid may be predictable, the behavior of the type as a whole is not. The majority of high wolf-content hybrids are very curious and are generally more destructive than dogs. * Aggression According to the CDC and the Humane Society of the United States, the wolfdog ranks sixth in the number of dog attack fatalities in the U.S., with 14 hybrid-related fatalities between 1979 and 1998 in the United States. In 2000, DEFRA and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals released a lengthy study that attributed much of the reported aggressiveness of wolfdogs to the characteristics of the breeds of dogs with which the wolves are bred. With both wolves' and dogs' social habits revolving around a pack structure, some wolfdogs may not show the dog's natural acceptance of humans as the dominant pack members, possibly resulting in physical confrontations. Some purport that attacks may not even be caused by typical behavior patterns of aggression and dominance present in either parent species, but instead may be related to predatory instincts, as the majority of attacks involve small children. Between 1981 and 1999, there were 38 severe attacks and 13 fatalities caused by wolf hybrids in North America, with all victims being children. Although not all wolfdogs will be aggressive, as some have shown to be gentler and easier to handle than others, the probability of aggressive behavior from a hybrid varies from animal to animal, depending on whether or not the animal has a high prey drive, and peaks at the onset of sexual maturity, when the animal attempts to achieve dominance over other pack members. This aggression tends to peak during the winter months when hormones run high. Attacks may also be spurred by people becoming suddenly and conspicuously vulnerable due to either injury, disease or fear. Some half-hearted test attacks may be misinterpreted as play, and result in the owner failing to discourage such behavior. An officer in the South African Defence Force once commented that it was very difficult to dissuade wolf hybrids from pressing an assault once an attack was initiated. * Trainability Most wolf and wolfdog rescue organizations maintain that wolfdogs retain many of the traits and requirements of their wild relatives and therefore may be inappropriate as domestic pets. The view that aggressive characteristics are inherently a part of wolfdog temperament has been contested in recent years by wolfdog breeders and other advocates of wolfdogs as pets. Proponents of wolfdogs as pets say that the animals are naturally timid and fearful of humans, but that with proper training and responsible ownership wolfdogs can become good companions. Even in cases of wolfdogs displaying consistently dog-like behavior, they still often retain some wolf-like behavior such as howling, digging, chewing up household items such as furniture, fences and, to varying degrees, display considerable difficulty in housebreaking. Feral: It is not uncommon for wolfdog hybrids to become feral and return to the wild. This can lead to major problemsdateDecember 2011: as the wolfdog is a cross between a wolf with their traits and a domestic dog. This has led to problems for the feral wolfdog and society. * Breeds Today, at least seven breeds of dog exist which acknowledge a significant amount of recent wolf-dog hybridization in their creation. Four breeds were the result of intentional crosses with German Shepherd Dogs, and have distinguishing characteristics of appearance that may reflect the varying subspecies of wolf that contributed to their foundation stock. Other, more unusual crosses have occurred; recent experiments in Germany were conducted in the crossing of wolves and poodles. Another breed is the Wolamute, a cross between an Alaskan Malamute and a Timber Wolf. The intention in creating the breeds was manifold; ranging from the desire for a recognizable companion wolfdog, to military working dogs. * The eldest breed, the Saarlooswolfhond, traces its origins to the efforts of a Dutch breeder in 1921. This first attempt at sustained wolf-dog crossing was to improve Shepherd breeding stock and prevent canine distemper. Though this effort failed, today the FCI and the Dutch Kennel Club both recognize the breed. * In the 1950s the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog was also created to work on border patrol in the countries now known as Slovakia and the Czech Republic. It is recognized by the Foundation Stock Service of the American Kennel Club AKC, the United Kennel Club UKC, and the FCI, and today is used in agility, obedience, search and rescue, police work, therapy work, and herding in Europe and the United States. * The Lupo Italiano has also been accepted into the Italian Kennel Club.dateAugust 2009: * The Kunming Wolfdog is a Chinese wolf-dog hybrid bred for military purpose. * Popular culture * In the 1995 movie Balto, Balto (voiced by Kevin Bacon), the main character, is a half-breed wolfdog. His mother was presumably a wolf, and his father a purebred Husky. However, the real Balto which the film is based on was not a wolf-dog hybrid but a pure Siberian Husky. His daughter in the sequel was also a half-breed wolfdog and shared his characteristics. * In the book White Fang by Jack London, White Fang is a wolfdog. His father was a wolf, and his mother was a half-dog half-wolf, resulting in White Fang. White Fang was three quarters wolf, one quarter dog. * In the popular TV show True Blood, wolves and wolfdogs are used to portray the werewolves date: August 2010: . * Dog trainer Cesar Millan had two wolf hybrids (Hyde & Vada) on his show Dog Whisperer . * Actress Kristen Stewart, owns two wolf dog hybrids, named Jack and Lily.dateMay 2011: * In the TV police comedy-drama Due South Constable Benton Fraser's companion is a deaf (but can read lips), white wolfdog called Diefenbaker.date: May 2011: * Wolfdogs acted as enemies in the game Metal Gear Solid as well as its remake: .dateMay 2011: * Kate Shugak, the main character of Dana Stabenow's Kate Shugak Mystery series owns a wolfdog, Mutt, who serves as her companion and guarddog.date: May 2011: * The character Blue in the anime Wolf's Rain is a female dog who is part wolf. Further reading: * Living with Wolfdogs by Nicole Wilde * Wolfdogs A-Z: Behavior, Training & More by Nicole Wilde * The Wolf Hybrid by Dorothy Prendergast * Above Reproach: A Guide for Wolf Hybrid Owners by Dorothy Prendergast

Chien-loup Canidé | Hybride animal | Mammifère (nom vernaculaire) | Race de chien lupoïde Taxobox fin: Un chien-loup (canis lupus lupus x canis lupus familiaris) est un canidé issu de l'accouplement entre un chien et une louve ou entre un loup et une chienne (auquel cas il est aussi appelé crocotte ). On appelle également chien-loups les membres des lignées résultant de la reproduction de chien-loups entre eux. Cette descendance, une fois stabilisée peut former une race de chien-loup. Objectifs des croisements volontaires : Le chien domestique et le loup sont deux sous-espèces de l'espèce canis lupus, il n'y a donc pas de barrière de l'espèce et l'interfécondité est naturelle. Lorsqu'il est réalisé intentionnellement, le but de ces croisements est d'augmenter la résistance des chiens et ses performances physiques. Les chiens actuels souffrent de nombreux problèmes consécutifs à l'absence de sélection naturelle depuis plusieurs millénaires. Caractéristiques : Le cri du chien-loup est appelé choulement. Il consiste en un long hurlement semblable à aucun autre chien ou loup. Deux seules races de chiens-loups sont actuellement reconnues par la Fédération cynologique internationale : * le Chien-loup tchécoslovaque issu d'un programme militaire réussi par l'armée de l'ancienne Tchécoslovaquie. Les croisements sont effectués strictement à partir de bergers allemands et de loups des Carpates. Créé dans les années 1950, il fut reconnu par la FCI en 1999, après la chute du rideau de fer. * le Chien-loup de Saarloos créé par Lendeert Saarloos initialement à partir d'un berger allemand et d'une louve sibérienne. Les hybrides ainsi conçus ont été par la suite accouplés avec d'autres hybrides obtenus grâce à des chiens et des loups d'origine inconnue. Cette nouvelle race créée dans les années 1930, n'a été reconnue par la FCI qu'en 1981. Ces deux races sont les seules à être pour l'instant considérées comme génétiquement stables. Il existe également deux autres races qui ne sont pas reconnues par la FCI, le Cane Lupo Italiano ou Chien-loup italien et lAmerican Tundra Shepherd Dog. Aux États-Unis et au Canada, de nombreux élevages de chiens-loups se développent, il s'agit davantage de créer des individus hybrides ressemblant le plus possible à des loups plutôt que de définir une nouvelle race avec des critères Jeune chien-loup italien (Cane Lupo Italiano) Crocotte : Un chien-loup issu du croisement d'un loup et d'une chienne se nomme également crocotte. Les crocottes sont très prisés comme chien de garde en Alaska où ils sont appelés « chien-loup ». Législation : En France, les hybrides non-stables (non reconnus par la FCI) tombent sur le coup de larrêté du 19 mai 2000 soumettant à autorisation la détention de loups. Notes et références : références:

فرانسيس هودسون برنيت روائيون أمريكيون | مسرحيون أمريكيون | مواليد 1849 | وفيات 1924 | كتاب ومؤلفون أمريكيون فرانسيس هودسون برنيت Frances Hodgson Burnett: هي كاتبة إنجليزية ولدت في مانشستر في نوفمبر 1849 من عائلة فقيرة جداً انتقلت برفقة عائلتها إلى العالم الجديد أمريكا. كانت تنشر بعض أعمالها في الصحف لتقيم أود ((أي : تعيل)) عائلتها. عرفت فيما بعد بأهتمامها بأدب الأطفال فهي أديبة ومؤلفة مسرحية. سيرتها الذاتية : ابصرت فرانسيس اليزا هودسون النور في مدينة شتهام هل,في مانشستر في إنجلترا.توفي أبوها في عام 1854 تاركا أمها في تيار الحياة الهادر تجدف لوحدها تعيل خمسة أطفال.كان من قدرهم أن يتجشموا الفاقة والمعاناة في الأحياء الفكتورية القديمة القذرة في مانشستر. في عام 1865 هاجرت فرنسيس هي وعائلتها إلى مدينة نوكسفيل (تينيسي) بولايات المتحدة الأمريكية بناء على طلب عمها، لم تخف حدة فقرهم، غير أنهم عاشوا حياة أفضل من ذي قبل. و حالما بلغت فرانسيس هدجسون 18 سنة لاقت أمها حتفها وأصبحت تعيل شقيقها الصغيرين دخلت عالم الكتابة حتى توفر لقمة العيش لهذين الصغيرين، نشرت في بدايتها في (كتاب السيدة جودي)وهو عبارة عن مجلة أدبية تنشر بين ثناياها الأعمال النسائية وكان ذلك في القرن 19 وكان أول نشر لها في عام 1886.أصبحت فيما بعد تنشر بأنتظام في مجلة (جودي),(سكريبنر الشهرية),و مجلة (بترسون ليدز), ومجلة (هاربر بازار).أمتازت موهبتها في المزج بين تفاصيل الحياة الواقعية ولمسة رومنسية أتسمت برقة ناعمة. عقدت قرانها بدكتور سوان برنيت في واشنطن في عام 1873. وفي عام 1877 نشرت أول روايتها (هذه لس أو لوري) وكانت عن حياة لانكشير بعد أنتقلها بمعية زوجها إلى واشنطن كتبت روايات عديدة ومنها: رواية (هاورثز) (1879) رواية (لوزينا) (1880) رواية (الهمجي الجميل) (1881) رواية (في أثناء الإدارة) (1883). وبأضافة إلى ذلك كتبت مسرحية بعنوان (ازمرالادا) (1881 كتبتها بمساعدة الممثل وليام هوكر جليت. وفي عام 1886 نشرت رواية اللورد فونتلوري الصغير فلقد بيع من الرواية فيما يتجاوز نصف المليون نسخة. في عام 1898 حصلت على طلاقها من السيد برنيت, وتروجت مرة أخرى من السيد ستيفن تاونسند وكان في عام(1900) كان زوجها الثاني رجل اعمال لم يدم زواجهم أمد طويل دام عامين فقط وحصل طلاقهما في عام 1902. ومن اعمالها (ساره كريو)في عام (1888),ثم أعادة صيغتها في عام 1905 بعنوان الأميرة الصغيرة وكما لاقت مسيرحتها سيدة استقراطية استحسان وصدى كبير لدى القراء انذاك واعتبرت من أفضل مسرحيتها على الإطلاق، وأيضا رواية الحديقة السرية 1911 هي الرواية التي خلدت في قلوب الاطفال ولا تزال محبوبة لدى الأطفال، وفي عام 1915 نشرت رواية الامير التائة نشرت في كندا في عام 1922 رواية رئيس بيت كومب. (عمل الماركيزة) نشرت هذه الرواية في عام 1911 و ذكرته الاديبة الإنكليزية نانسي متفورد بأنه من أفضل الكتب التي قرأتها وكما ذكرته في روايتها حب في طقس قارص. في عام 1893 نشرت مذكرات شبابها تحت عنوان الامر الذي عرفت من قبل الجميع,ومن منتصف عام 1890 عاشت بشكل رئيسي في إنجلترا، ولاسيما في قاعة مايثام العظيمة. عاشت فيها من عام (1897 إلى 1907) حيث اكتشفت الحديقة السرية، بيد أنها غادرت إنجلترا إلى الولايات المتحدة بعد أن حصلت على الجنسية الأمريكية في عام 1905. و بعد وفاة أبنها الأول ليونيل بمرض السل في عام 1890 انصدمت بفقدان ابنها ودخلت في العوالم الروحانية وجدت من خلالها السرور العظيم في التعامل مع حزنها عملت بتصوف وصاغت بعض أفكارها في روايتها الحديقة السرية حيث تروي فيها قصة الولد الذي كان طول الوقت عاجزا عن شفاء نفسه ويحاول التشافي بواسطة التفكير الايجابي)). في أثناء الحرب العالمية الأولى كتبت السيدة برنيت ارائها فيما حدث في الحرب في رواية قصيرة باسم العرق الأبيض. عاشت فرانسيس هودجسون برنيت حياة دامت 17 عام في بلاندوم في نيويورك ,وفي النهاية دفنت في مقبرة روسلين، بالقرب من أبنها الوحيد. رسوم متحركة ولدت من بنات افكار فرانسيس هودسون برنيت : * رواية الأميرة الصغيرة التي حولت إلى مسلسل تلفزيوني بعنوان سالي * رواية "اللورد الصغير فونتلروي" التي حولت إلى مسلسل تلفزيوني بعنوان الفتى النبيل

Frances Hodgson Burnett 1849 births | 1924 deaths | English children's writers | English novelists | English dramatists and playwrights | People from Knoxville, Tennessee | People from Nassau County, New York | People from Cheetham Hill | Writers from Manchester | People from Rolvenden Frances Eliza Hodgson Burnett (24 November 1849 – 29 October 1924) was an English playwright and author. She is best known for her children's stories, in particular The Secret Garden (winner of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1959), A Little Princess, and Little Lord Fauntleroy. Born Frances Eliza Hodgson, she lived in Cheetham Hill, Manchester. When her father died, the family was forced to sell their home and move to Salford. When she was sixteen, the family emigrated to Knoxville, Tennessee. There she began writing to help earn money for the family, publishing stories in magazines at the age of nineteen. In 1872 she married Swan Burnett. They lived in Paris for two years, where their two sons were born, before returning to the United States to live in Washington D.C. There she began to write novels, the first of which That Lass o' Lowries, was published to good reviews. The publication of Little Lord Fauntleroy in 1886 made her a popular writer of children's fiction, although her romantic adult novels written in the 1890s were also popular. She wrote and helped to produce stage versions of Little Lord Fauntleroy and A Little Princess. Burnett enjoyed socializing and lived a lavish lifestyle. Beginning in the 1880s, she began to travel to England frequently and bought a home there in the 1890s. Her oldest son, Lionel, died of tuberculosis in 1892, which caused a relapse of the depression she struggled with for much of her life. She divorced Swan Burnett in 1898 and remarried in 1900, although her second marriage only lasted for a year. At the end of her life she settled in Long Island, where she died in 1924. Biography : Childhood in Manchester: Frances Eliza Hodgson was born in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, England to Eliza Boond and Edwin Hodgson. Her mother's family had a long history, and were socially prominent, in the Lancashire area. Her father owned a business in Deansgate, selling brass goods to upper-class homes. The family lived comfortably, employing a maid and a nurse-maid. Frances was the middle of five children, with two older brothers and two younger sisters. In 1852 the family moved to a more spacious home with greater access to outdoor space. Barely a year later, with his wife pregnant for a fifth time, Hodgson died of a stroke, leaving the family without income. Frances was cared for by her grandmother while her mother took over running the family business. From her grandmother, who bought her books, Frances learned to love reading, in particular her first book The Flower Book which had coloured illustrations and poems. Because of their reduced income, Eliza had to give up their house and moved with her children to Seedley Grove, near Pendleton; there they lived with relatives in a home that included a large enclosed garden, in which Frances enjoyed playing. For a year Frances went to a small school run by two women, where she first saw a book about fairies. When her mother moved the family to Salford, Frances mourned the lack of flowers and gardens. Their home was located in Islington Square, adjacent to an area with severe overcrowding and poverty, that "defied description", as described by Friedrich Engels who lived in Manchester at the time. Frances had an active imagination, writing stories she made up in old notebooks. One of her favorite books was Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin, and she spent many hours acting out scenes from that book. Frances and her siblings were sent to be educated at The Select Seminary for Young Ladies and Gentleman, where she was described as "precocious" and "romantic". She had an active social life and enjoyed telling stories to her friends and cousins; in her mother she found a good audience, although her brothers had a tendency to tease her about her stories. Manchester was almost entirely dependent on a cotton economy which was ruined by the American Civil War. In 1863 Eliza Hodgson was forced to sell their business and move the family again to a smaller home; at that time Frances' limited education came to an end. Eliza's brother asked the family to join him in America in Knoxville where he had a thriving dry goods store. Within the year Eliza decided to move the family from Manchester, sold their possessions, and told Frances to burn her early writings in the fire. * Move to Tennessee After the end of the war and the trade it brought to the area, Eliza's brother lost much of his business and was unable to provide for the newly arrived family. The family went to live in a log cabin during their first winter in New Market, outside of Knoxville, later moving to a home Frances called "Noah's Ark, Mt. Ararat". Living across from them was the Burnett family, and Frances became friendly with Swan Burnett whom she introduced to books and authors such as Charles Dickens, Sir Walter Scott and William Makepeace Thackeray she had read in England. She may have befriended him because of a childhood injury that left him lame and unable to participate in physical activities. Not long after they met, he left for Ohio to college. Frances turned to writing to earn money, with her first story published in Godey's Lady's Book in 1868. Soon after, she was being published regularly in Godey's Lady's Book, Scribner's Monthly, Peterson's Ladies' Magazine and Harper's Bazaar. She wanted to escape from the family's poverty, and tended to overwork herself, later calling herself "a pen driving machine" during her early years of writing. For five years she wrote constantly, often not worrying about the quality of her work. Once her first story was published, before she was 18, she spent the rest of her life as a working writer. By 1869 she had earned enough to move the family into a better home in Knoxville. Her mother died in 1870, and within two years two of her sisters and a brother were married. Although she remained friends with Swan, neither was in a hurry to be married. Marriage : With the income from her writing she returned to England for an extended visit in 1872, and then went to Paris where she had a couture dress made to be shipped to Tennessee, having agreed to marry Swan. She returned home before the dress arrived and attempted to postpone the wedding, but Swan insisted they marry as soon as possible. The two were married in September, 1873. Writing about the dress disappointment to a Manchester friend, she said of her new husband: "Men are so shallow ... he does not know the vital importance of the difference between white satin and tulle, and cream coloured brocade". Within the year she gave birth to her first child, Lionel, in September 1874. Also during that year she began work on her first full length novel, That Lass o' Lowries, set in Lancashire. The couple wanted to leave Knoxville, and her writing income was enough for them to travel to Paris where Swan continued his medical training as an eye and ear specialist. The birth of their second child Vivian forced them to return to the United States. She had wanted her second child to be a girl, and having chosen the name Vivien, changed to the masculine spelling for her new son. The family continued to rely on her writing income and to economize she made clothing for her boys, often including many frills. Later, Burnett continued to make clothing, designing velvet suits with lace collars for her boys, and frilly dresses for herself. She allowed her sons' hair to grow long, which she then shaped into long curls. Washington D.C. : After two years in Paris, the family intended to move to Washington D.C. where Swan wanted to start his medical practice. However they were in debt, so Frances was forced to live with Swan's parents in New Market while he established himself in Washington D.C. Early in 1877 she was offered a contract to have That Lass o' Lowries published, which was doing well in its serialization, and at that point she made her husband her business manager. That Lass o' Lowries was published to good reviews, and the rights were sold for a British edition. Shortly after the publication of the book, she joined her husband in Washington, D.C., where she established a household and friends. She continued to write, becoming known as a rising young novelist. Despite the difficulties of raising a family and settling in to a new city, Burnett began work on Haworth's which was published in 1879, as well as writing a dramatic interpretation of That Lass o' Lowrie in response to a pirated stage version presented in London. After a visit to Boston in 1879 where she met Louisa May Alcott, and Mary Mapes Dodge, editor of children's magazine St. Nicholas, Burnett began to write children's fiction. For the next five years she had published several short works in St. Nicholas. Burnett continued to write adult fiction as well: Louisiana was published in 1880; A Fair Barbarian in 1881; and Through One Administration in 1883. However, as had happened earlier in Knoxville, she felt the pressure of maintaining a household, caring for children and a husband, and keeping to her writing schedule, which caused exhaustion and depression. Within a few years Burnett became well-known in Washington society and hosted a literary salon on Tuesday evenings, often attended by politicians, as well as local literati. Swan's practice grew and had a good reputation, but his income lagged behind hers, forcing her to believe she had to continue writing. Unfortunately she was often ill and suffered from the heat of Washington D.C., which she escaped whenever possible. In the early 1880s she became interested in Christian Science as well as Spiritualism and Theosophy. These beliefs would have an effect on her later life as well as being incorporated into her later fiction. She was a devoted mother and took great joy in her two sons. She doted on their appearance, continuing the practice of curling their long hair each day, which became the inspiration for Little Lord Fauntleroy. In 1884 she began work on Little Lord Fauntleroy with the serialization beginning in 1885 in St. Nicholas, and the publication in book form in 1886. Little Lord Fauntleroy received good reviews, became a best-seller in the United States and England, was translated into 12 languages, and secured Burnett's reputation as a writer. The story features a boy who dresses in elaborate velvet suits and wears his long hair in curls. The central character, Cedric, was modeled on Burnett's younger son Vivian, and the autobiographical aspects of Little Lord Fauntleroy occasionally led to disparaging remarks from the press. After the publication of Little Lord Fauntleroy, Burnett's reputation as a writer of children's books was fully established. In 1888 she won a lawsuit in England over the dramatic rights to Little Lord Fauntleroy, establishing a precedent that was incorporated into British copyright law in 1911. In response to a second incident of pirating her material into a dramatic piece, she wrote The Real Little Lord Fountleroy which was produced on stage in London and on Broadway. The play went on to make her as much money as the book. Return to England : In 1887 Burnett traveled to England for Queen Victoria's Jubilee, which became the first of yearly transatlantic trips from the United States to England. Accompanied by her sons, she visited tourist attractions such as Madame Tussaud's Wax Museum in London. In her rented rooms she continued the Tuesday evening salon and soon attracted visitors, meeting Stephen Townsend for the first time. Despite her busy schedule, she felt ill from the heat and the crowds of tourists, spending protracted periods in bed. With her sons, she moved on to spend the winter in Florence where she wrote The Fortunes of Philippa Fairfax, the only book to be published in England but not in the United States. That winter Sara Crewe or What Happened at Miss Minchin's was published in the United States. She would go on to make Sara Crewe into a stage play, and later rewrite the story into A Little Princess. In 1888, Burnett returned to Manchester where she leased a large home off Cromwell Road, had it decorated, and then turned it over to cousins to run as a boarding house, after which she moved to London where she again took rooms, enjoyed the London season, and prepared Phyllisfor production, a stage adaptation of The Fortunes of Philippa Fairfax. When the play ran she was disappointed by the bad reviews, and turned to socializing. During this period she began to see more of Stephen Townsend, whom she had met during the Jubilee year. In 1890 Burnett's oldest son Lionel died from consumption in Paris, which greatly affected her life and her writing. Before his death, she sought a cure from physicians and took him to Germany to visit spas. After his death before she sank into a deep depression, she wrote in a letter to a friend the her writing was insignificant in comparison to having been the mother of two boys, one of whom died. At this time she turned away from her traditional faith in the Church of England and embraced Spiritualism and Christian Science. She returned to London where she sought the distraction of charity work and formed the Drury Lane Boys' Club, hosting an opening in February 1892. Also during this period she wrote a play with a starring role for Stephen Townsend in an attempt to begin his acting career. After a two year absence from her Washington, D.C. home, her husband, and her younger son, Burnett returned there in March 1892, where she continued charity work and began writing again. In 1893, Burnett published an autobiography, devoted to her eldest son, titled The One I Knew Best of All. Also in that year, she had a set of her books displayed at the Chicago World Fair. * Divorce and move to Great Maytham Hall Burnett returned to London in 1894; there she heard news that her younger son Vivian was ill, so she quickly went back to the US. Vivian recovered from his illness, but missed his first term at Harvard University. Burnett stayed with him until he was well, then returned to London. At this time she began to worry about her finances: she was paying for Vivian's education; keeping a house in Washington D.C. (Swan had moved out of the house to his own apartment); and keeping a home in London. As she had in the past, she turned to writing as a source of income and began to write A Lady of Quality. A Lady of Quality, published in 1896, was to become the first of a series of successful adult historical novels, which was followed in 1899 with In Connection with the De Willoughby Claim; and in 1901 she had published The Making of a Marchioness and The Methods of Lady Walderhurst. In 1898, when Vivian graduated from Harvard, she divorced Swan Burnett. Officially the cause for the divorce was given to be desertion, but actually Burnett and Swan had orchestrated the dissolution of their marriage some years earlier. Swan took his own apartment and ceased to live with Burnett, so that after a period of two years she could plead desertion as a reason for the divorce. The press was critical, calling her a New Woman, with the Washington Post writing the divorce resulted from Burnett's "advanced ideas regarding the duties of a wife and the rights of women". From the mid-1890s she lived in England at Great Maytham Hall—which had a large garden where she indulged her love for flowers—where she made her home for the next decade, although she continued annual transatlantic trips to the United States. Maytham Hall resembled a feudal manor house which enchanted Burnett. She socialized in the local villages, and enjoyed the country life. She filled the house with guests, and had Stephen Townsend move in with her, causing the local vicar to become scandalized with her lifestyle. In February 1900 she married Stephen Townsend. Remarriage and later life : The marriage took place in Genoa, Italy, and couple went to Pegli for their honeymoon, where they endured two weeks of steady rain. Burnett's biographer, Gretchen Gerzina writes of the marriage, "it was the biggest mistake of her life". The press stressed the age difference—Townsend was ten years younger than she—and referred to him as her secretary. Biographer Ann Thwaite doubts he loved her. She claims at that time the 50-year-old Burnett was "stout, rouged and unhealthy". Thwaite believes Townsend needed her to help with his acting career and support him financially. Within months, in a letter to her sister, she admitted the marriage was in trouble. She described Townsend as scarcely sane and hysterical. Thwaite argues Townsend blackmailed her into the marriage: he wanted money from her and he wanted to control her as a husband. Unable to bear the thought of continuing to live with Townsend at Maytham, Burnett rented a house in London for the winter of 1900-1901. There she socialized with friends and wrote. She worked on two books simultaneously: The Shuttle, a longer and more complicated book; and The Making of a Marchioness, which she wrote in a few weeks and published to good reviews. In the spring of 1901, when she returned to the country, Townsend tried to replace her long-time publisher Scribner's with a publishing house offering a larger advance. In 1902, after a summer of socializing and filling Maytham with house-guests, she suffered a physical collapse that autumn. She returned to America, and in the winter of 1902 entered a sanatorium. There she told Townsend she would no longer live with him, and the marriage ended. She returned to Maytham two years later in June 1904. Maytham Hall had a series of walled gardens and in the rose garden she wrote several books; it was there she had the idea for The Secret Garden. In 1905 A Little Princess was published, after she had reworked the play into a novel. Once again Burnett turned to writing to increase her income. She lived an extravagant lifestyle, spending money on expensive clothing. In 1907, she returned permanently to the United States, having become a citizen in 1905, and in the Plandome Park section of Plandome Manor, Long Island she built a home, completed in 1908. Her son Vivian was employed in the publishing business and at his request she agreed to be editor for Children's Magazine. Over the next several years she had published in Children's Magazine a number of shorter works. In 1911 she had The Secret Garden published. In her later years she maintained the summer home on Long Island, and a winter home in Bermuda. The Lost Prince was published in 1915, and The Head of the House of Coombe was published in 1922. Burnett lived for the last 17 years of her life in Plandome Manor, New York, where she died on 29 October 1924, aged 74. She is buried in Roslyn Cemetery nearby, next to her son Vivian. * Reception During the serialization of Little Lord Fauntloroy in St. Nicholas magazine, readers looked forward to new installments. The fashions in the book became popular with velvet Lord Fauntleroy suits being sold, as well as other Fauntleroy merchandise such as velvet collars, playing cards, and chocolates. During a period when sentimental fiction was the norm, and in the United States the "rags to riches" story popular, Little Lord Fauntleroy was a hit; although over the years The Secret Garden has retained the popularity Little Lord Fauntleroy has lost. Selected works : * That Lass o' Lowrie's (1877) * Lindsay's Luck (1878) * Haworth's (1879) * Louisiana (1880) * A Fair Barbarian (1881) * Through One Administration (1883) * Little Lord Fauntleroy (1886) * Sara Crewe or What Happened at Miss Minchin's (1888) * The Fortunes of Philippa Fairfax (1888) * The Pretty Sister of José (1889) * The Drury Lane Boys' Club (1892) * The One I Knew the Best of All: A Memory of the Mind of a Child (1893) * Two little pilgrims' progress. A story of the City Beautiful (1895) * A Lady of Quality (1896) * In Connection with the De Willoughby Claim (1899) * The Making of a Marchioness (1901) * The Land of the Blue Flower (1904) * A Little Princess:Being the Whole Story of Sara Crewe Now Told for the First Time (1905) * Queen Silver-Bell (1906) * The Shuttle (1907) Reprinted by Persephone Books * The Secret Garden (1911) * The Lost Prince (1915) * The Little Hunchback Zia (1916) * The Head of the House of Coombe (1922) References: 2: Sources :

Frances Hodgson Burnett Naissance en 1849 | Décès en 1924 | Femme de lettres britannique | Auteur britannique de littérature d'enfance et de jeunesse Burnett: Frances Eliza Hodgson Burnett, de son nom de jeune fille Frances Eliza Hodgson, née le à Manchester et décédée le à Plandome dans l'État de New York, est une romancière britannique, connue pour être l'une des pionnières du roman d'apprentissage pour enfants. Biographie: Son père meurt en 1853, laissant sa famille dans une misère extrême. Cette période de sa vie eut un grand impact sur les motifs de son existence et sa conscience : dans plusieurs de ses romans, elle parle de la pauvreté et des différences entre les classes sociales. En 1865, elle émigre avec sa famille aux États-Unis, dans le Tennessee. Elle écrit des romans ayant pour thème l'enfance, qui la rendirent vraiment connue dès 1886, à la parution de son tout premier livre, Le Petit Lord Fauntleroy (Little Lord Fauntleroy). Par la suite, nombre de ses romans pour enfants et pour adultes devinrent connus et reconnus. Romans: Sur une quarantaine de romans publiés, trois ont eu une renommée mondiale : * Le Petit Lord Fauntleroy (Little Lord Fauntleroy) paru en 1886. * La Petite Princesse (A Little Princess) paru en 1905 et adapté plusieurs fois au cinéma ainsi que pour une série télévisée d'animation japonaise, Princesse Sarah. * Le Jardin secret (The Secret Garden) paru en 1911 et adapté au cinéma et à la télévision à plusieurs reprises. littérature:

تقطيع الصورة no categories تقطيع الصور هي مرحلة هامة من مراحل معالجة الصور الرقمية، وهي عبارة عن عملية تجزئة للصورة إلى مناطق مترابطة ومتجانسة وفقا لمعيار محدد كاللون مثلا، اتحاد هذه المناطق يجب أن ينتج عنه إعادة تكوين الصورة الأصلية. التقطيع مرحلة مهمة تسمح باستخراج معلومات نوعية عن الصورة إذ توفر وصفا عالي المستوى حيث أن كل منطقة مرتبطة بالمناطق المجاورة لها ضمن شبكة من العقد تمثل فيها كل عقدة منطقة في الصورة و تحمل هذه العقدة بطاقة تحوي معلومات نوعية عن المنطقة كحجمها و لونها و شكلها و توجهها ، أما الأقواس التي تربط العقد فيمكن أن توسم بمعلومات عن العلاقة بين المناطق المتجاورة كأن تكون مثلا منطقة ما محتواة في أخرى أو تكون تحتها أو فوقها إلى غير ذلك. مستوى التعقيد في تكوين الشبكة يختلف تبعا للتقنية المستخدمة في التقطيع. طرق تقسيم الصور : تقسم خوارزميات تقطيع الصور إلى ثلاثة مجموعات: * التقطيع المبني على أساس الأعمدة البيانية للألوان * التقطيع المبني على أساس المناطق * التقطيع المبني على أساس المحيطات التقطيع المبني على أساس الأعمدة البيانية للألوان : هذا النوع من الخوارزميات يرتكز في عمله على الأعمدة البيانية للألوان حيث يقوم بتحديدها و تقسيمها إلى فئات لونية (clusters) تضم الألوان المتقاربة والخلايا (البيكسلات) الحاملة لها بعد ذلك تتم عملية إسقاط هذه الفئات على الصورة لتقطيعها فالتقطيع في هذه الحالة ضمني إذ تحتويه عملية تقسيم الأعمدة البيانية كما أن هذا النوع من الخوارزميات يفترض أن كل فئة لونية تمثل جسما مستقلا في الصورة و لكن عمليا وفي كثير من الحالات يجب فصل مناطق تنتمي إلى نفس الفئة اللونية لأنها تمثل أجساما مستقلة بألوان متقاربة. التقطيع المبني على أساس المناطق : يتعامل هذا النوع من الخوارزميات مع الصورة مباشرة (الخلايا) ويتبع واحدة من ثلاث طرق لإنجاز عملية التقطيع: نمو المناطق : و هي طريقة تصاعدية (Bottom-up) حيث وانطلاقا من مناطق صغيرة متآلفة (مكونة من خلية واحدة أو بعض الخلايا) نقوم قدر المستطاع بتجميع المناطق المتجاورة منها والمتحدة في اللون. تجزئة المناطق : و هي طريقة تنازلية (top-down) ننطلق فيها من الصورة ككل والتي نقوم بتقطيعها إلى أجزاء صغيرة وهذه الأخيرة تجزأ بدورها إلى أجزاء أصغر و نستمر في هذا العمل بطريقة تتابعية مادامت هناك أجزاء غير متجانسة لونيا بالشكل الكافي. طريقة التقطيع و الدمج : تعتمد طريقة التقطيع والدمج Split and Merge: على خليط من الطريقتين السابقتين. ومن بين خوارزميات هذا النوع طريقة رمز البنية اللونية Color Structure Code أو CSC: . التقطيع المبني على أساس المحيطات : يهتم هذا النوع بتحديد محيطات مختلف الأجسام والأشكال الموجودة في الصورة حيث تطبق خوارزميات تدعى المرشحات المستكشفة للمحيطات والتي تقوم برصد نقاط التغيرات الحادة في مستويات الألوان لتحديد محيطات الأجسام غير أن الصعوبة في استعمال هذا النوع تكمن في ندرة الحصول على محيطات مغلقة وهو ما يتطلب استخدام خوارزميات أخرى تعمل على إغلاق المحيطات عن طريق إكمال رسم الأجزاء المبتورة منها. من أمثلة هذا النوع من الخوارزميات مرشح كاني. برمجيات : من أمثلة البرمجيات التي تقوم بعملية تقطيع الصور: برمجيات مفتوحة المصدر : * جمب * - طقم برامج لعرض وتحويل وتحرير رسوميات الرستر * - برمجية لتحليل الصور والنمذجة العلمية * - برنامج مفتوح المصدر لمعالجة الصور، مبني على * - برنامج حر متخصص في نظام المعلومات الجغرافي * - مكتبة برمجية متعدد المنصات * - برنامج متخصص في تقطيع الصور الطبية ثلاثية الأبعاد * - مكتبة رؤية حاسوبية طورتها إنتل * - مكتبة برمجية بلغة سي++ * - مكتبة برمجية بلغة سي شارب انظر أيضاً : * مرشح كاني * عمود بياني * رؤية حاسوبية * نظرية المخططات * ترشيح (رسوميات حاسوب) * معالجة الصور الرقمية مراجع : *

Segmentation (image processing) Image processing In computer vision, segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple segments (sets of pixels, also known as superpixels). The goal of segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves, etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the process of assigning a label to every pixel in an image such that pixels with the same label share certain visual characteristics. The result of image segmentation is a set of segments that collectively cover the entire image, or a set of contours extracted from the image (see edge detection). Each of the pixels in a region are similar with respect to some characteristic or computed property, such as color, intensity, or texture. Adjacent regions are significantly different with respect to the same characteristic(s). When applied to a stack of images, typical in Medical imaging, the resulting contours after image segmentation can be used to create 3D reconstructions with the help of interpolation algorithms like Marching cubes. Applications : Some of the practical applications of image segmentation are: * Medical imaging ** Locate tumors and other pathologies ** Measure tissue volumes ** Computer-guided surgery ** Diagnosis ** Treatment planning ** Study of anatomical structure * Locate objects in satellite images (roads, forests, etc.) * Face recognition * Iris recognition * Fingerprint recognition * Traffic control systems * Brake light detection * Machine vision * Agricultural imaging – crop disease detection Several general-purpose algorithms and techniques have been developed for image segmentation. Since there is no general solution to the image segmentation problem, these techniques often have to be combined with domain knowledge in order to effectively solve an image segmentation problem for a problem domain. Thresholding: The simplest method of image segmentation is called the thresholding method. This method is based on a clip-level (or a threshold value) to turn a gray-scale image into a binary image. The key of this method is to select the threshold value (or values when multiple-levels are selected). Several popular methods are used in industry including the maximum entropy method, Otsu's method (maximum variance), and et al. k-means clustering can also be used. Clustering methods : The K-means algorithm is an iterative technique that is used to partition an image into K clusters. The basic algorithm is: * Pick K cluster centers, either randomly or based on some heuristic * Assign each pixel in the image to the cluster that minimizes the distance between the pixel and the cluster center * Re-compute the cluster centers by averaging all of the pixels in the cluster * Repeat steps 2 and 3 until convergence is attained (e.g. no pixels change clusters) In this case, distance is the squared or absolute difference between a pixel and a cluster center. The difference is typically based on pixel color, intensity, texture, and location, or a weighted combination of these factors. K can be selected manually, randomly, or by a heuristic. This algorithm is guaranteed to converge, but it may not return the optimal solution. The quality of the solution depends on the initial set of clusters and the value of K. In statistics and machine learning, the k-means algorithm is a clustering algorithm to partition n objects into k clusters, where k Color or intensity can be used as the measure. A refinement of this technique is to recursively apply the histogram-seeking method to clusters in the image in order to divide them into smaller clusters. This is repeated with smaller and smaller clusters until no more clusters are formed. One disadvantage of the histogram-seeking method is that it may be difficult to identify significant peaks and valleys in the image. In this technique of image classification distance metric and integrated region matching are familiar. Histogram-based approaches can also be quickly adapted to occur over multiple frames, while maintaining their single pass efficiency. The histogram can be done in multiple fashions when multiple frames are considered. The same approach that is taken with one frame can be applied to multiple, and after the results are merged, peaks and valleys that were previously difficult to identify are more likely to be distinguishable. The histogram can also be applied on a per pixel basis where the information result are used to determine the most frequent color for the pixel location. This approach segments based on active objects and a static environment, resulting in a different type of segmentation useful in Video tracking. Edge detection: Edge detection is a well-developed field on its own within image processing. Region boundaries and edges are closely related, since there is often a sharp adjustment in intensity at the region boundaries. Edge detection techniques have therefore been used as the base of another segmentation technique. The edges identified by edge detection are often disconnected. To segment an object from an image however, one needs closed region boundaries. The desired edges are the boundaries between such objects. Segmentation methods can also be applied to edges obtained from edge detectors. Lindeberg and Li developed an integrated method that segments edges into straight and curved edge segments for parts-based object recognition, based on a minimum description length (MDL) criterion that was optimized by a split-and-merge-like method with candidate breakpoints obtained from complementary junction cues to obtain more likely points at which to consider partitions into different segments. Region-growing methods : The first region-growing method was the seeded region growing method. This method takes a set of seeds as input along with the image. The seeds mark each of the objects to be segmented. The regions are iteratively grown by comparing all unallocated neighbouring pixels to the regions. The difference between a pixel's intensity value and the region's mean, \delta, is used as a measure of similarity. The pixel with the smallest difference measured this way is allocated to the respective region. This process continues until all pixels are allocated to a region. Seeded region growing requires seeds as additional input. The segmentation results are dependent on the choice of seeds. Noise in the image can cause the seeds to be poorly placed. Unseeded region growing is a modified algorithm that doesn't require explicit seeds. It starts off with a single region A_1 – the pixel chosen here does not significantly influence final segmentation. At each iteration it considers the neighbouring pixels in the same way as seeded region growing. It differs from seeded region growing in that if the minimum \delta is less than a predefined threshold T then it is added to the respective region A_j. If not, then the pixel is considered significantly different from all current regions A_i and a new region A_{n+1} is created with this pixel. One variant of this technique, proposed by Haralick and Shapiro (1985), is based on pixel intensities. The mean and scatter of the region and the intensity of the candidate pixel is used to compute a test statistic. If the test statistic is sufficiently small, the pixel is added to the region, and the region’s mean and scatter are recomputed. Otherwise, the pixel is rejected, and is used to form a new region. A special region-growing method is called \lambda-connected segmentation (see also lambda-connectedness). It is based on pixel intensities and neighborhood-linking paths. A degree of connectivity (connectedness) will be calculated based on a path that is formed by pixels. For a certain value of \lambda, two pixels are called \lambda-connected if there is a path linking those two pixels and the connectedness of this path is at least \lambda. \lambda-connectedness is an equivalence relation. Split-and-merge methods: Split-and-merge segmentation is based on a quadtree partition of an image. It is sometimes called quadtree segmentation. This method starts at the root of the tree that represents the whole image. If it is found non-uniform (not homogeneous), then it is split into four son-squares (the splitting process), and so on so forth. Conversely, if four son-squares are homogeneous, they can be merged as several connected components (the merging process). The node in the tree is a segmented node. This process continues recursively until no further splits or merges are possible. When a special data structure is involved in the implementation of the algorithm of the method, its time complexity can reach O(n\log n), an optimal algorithm of the method. * Partial differential equation-based methods Using a partial differential equation (PDE)-based method and solving the PDE equation by a numerical scheme, one can segment the image. Curve propagation is a popular technique in this category, with numerous applications to object extraction, object tracking, stereo reconstruction, etc. The central idea is to evolve an initial curve towards the lowest potential of a cost function, where its definition reflects the task to be addressed. As for most inverse problems, the minimization of the cost functional is non-trivial and imposes certain smoothness constraints on the solution, which in the present case can be expressed as geometrical constraints on the evolving curve. * Parametric methods Lagrangian techniques are based on parameterizing the contour according to some sampling strategy and then evolve each element according to image and internal terms. Such techniques are fast and efficient, however the original "purely parametric" formulation (due to Kass and Terzopoulos in 1987 and known as "snakes"), is generally criticized for its limitations regarding the choice of sampling strategy, the internal geometric properties of the curve, topology changes (curve splitting and merging), addressing problems in higher dimensions, etc.. Nowadays, efficient "discretized" formulations have been developed to address these limitations while maintaining high efficiency. In both cases, energy minimization is generally conducted using a steepest-gradient descent, whereby derivatives are computed using, e.g., finite differences. * Level set methods The level set method was initially proposed to track moving interfaces by Osher and Sethian in 1988 and has spread across various imaging domains in the late nineties. It can be used to efficiently address the problem of curve/surface/etc. propagation in an implicit manner. The central idea is to represent the evolving contour using a signed function, where its zero level corresponds to the actual contour. Then, according to the motion equation of the contour, one can easily derive a similar flow for the implicit surface that when applied to the zero-level will reflect the propagation of the contour. The level set method encodes numerous advantages: it is implicit, parameter free, provides a direct way to estimate the geometric properties of the evolving structure, can change the topology and is intrinsic. Furthermore, they can be used to define an optimization framework as proposed by Zhao, Merriman and Osher in 1996. Therefore, one can conclude that it is a very convenient framework to address numerous applications of computer vision and medical image analysis. Furthermore, research into various level set data structures has led to very efficient implementations of this method. * Graph partitioning methods Graph partitioning methods can effectively be used for image segmentation. In these methods, the image is modeled as a weighted, undirected graph. Usually a pixel or a group of pixels are associated with nodes and edge weights define the (dis)similarity between the neighborhood pixels. The graph (image) is then partitioned according to a criterion designed to model "good" clusters. Each partition of the nodes (pixels) output from these algorithms are considered an object segment in the image. Some popular algorithms of this category are normalized cuts, random walker, minimum cut, isoperimetric partitioning and minimum spanning tree-based segmentation. * Watershed transformation The watershed transformation considers the gradient magnitude of an image as a topographic surface. Pixels having the highest gradient magnitude intensities (GMIs) correspond to watershed lines, which represent the region boundaries. Water placed on any pixel enclosed by a common watershed line flows downhill to a common local intensity minimum (LIM). Pixels draining to a common minimum form a catch basin, which represents a segment. * Model based segmentation The central assumption of such an approach is that structures of interest/organs have a repetitive form of geometry. Therefore, one can seek for a probabilistic model towards explaining the variation of the shape of the organ and then when segmenting an image impose constraints using this model as prior. Such a task involves (i) registration of the training examples to a common pose, (ii) probabilistic representation of the variation of the registered samples, and (iii) statistical inference between the model and the image. State of the art methods in the literature for knowledge-based segmentation involve active shape and appearance models, active contours and deformable templates and level-set based methods. * Multi-scale segmentation Image segmentations are computed at multiple scales in scale-space and sometimes propagated from coarse to fine scales; see scale-space segmentation. Segmentation criteria can be arbitrarily complex and may take into account global as well as local criteria. A common requirement is that each region must be connected in some sense. * One-dimensional hierarchical signal segmentation Witkin's seminal work in scale space included the notion that a one-dimensional signal could be unambiguously segmented into regions, with one scale parameter controlling the scale of segmentation. A key observation is that the zero-crossings of the second derivatives (minima and maxima of the first derivative or slope) of multi-scale-smoothed versions of a signal form a nesting tree, which defines hierarchical relations between segments at different scales. Specifically, slope extrema at coarse scales can be traced back to corresponding features at fine scales. When a slope maximum and slope minimum annihilate each other at a larger scale, the three segments that they separated merge into one segment, thus defining the hierarchy of segments. * Image segmentation and primal sketch There have been numerous research works in this area, out of which a few have now reached a state where they can be applied either with interactive manual intervention (usually with application to medical imaging) or fully automatically. The following is a brief overview of some of the main research ideas that current approaches are based upon. The nesting structure that Witkin described is, however, specific for one-dimensional signals and does not trivially transfer to higher-dimensional images. Nevertheless, this general idea has inspired several other authors to investigate coarse-to-fine schemes for image segmentation. Koenderink proposed to study how iso-intensity contours evolve over scales and this approach was investigated in more detail by Lifshitz and Pizer. Unfortunately, however, the intensity of image features changes over scales, which implies that it is hard to trace coarse-scale image features to finer scales using iso-intensity information. Lindeberg studied the problem of linking local extrema and saddle points over scales, and proposed an image representation called the scale-space primal sketch which makes explicit the relations between structures at different scales, and also makes explicit which image features are stable over large ranges of scale including locally appropriate scales for those. Bergholm proposed to detect edges at coarse scales in scale-space and then trace them back to finer scales with manual choice of both the coarse detection scale and the fine localization scale. Gauch and Pizer studied the complementary problem of ridges and valleys at multiple scales and developed a tool for interactive image segmentation based on multi-scale watersheds. The use of multi-scale watershed with application to the gradient map has also been investigated by Olsen and Nielsen and been carried over to clinical use by Dam Vincken et al. proposed a hyperstack for defining probabilistic relations between image structures at different scales. The use of stable image structures over scales has been furthered by Ahuja and his co-workers into a fully automated system. A fully automatic brain segmentation algorithm based on closely related ideas of multi-scale watersheds has been presented by Undeman and Lindeberg and been extensively tested in brain databases. These ideas for multi-scale image segmentation by linking image structures over scales have also been picked up by Florack and Kuijper. Bijaoui and Rué associate structures detected in scale-space above a minimum noise threshold into an object tree which spans multiple scales and corresponds to a kind of feature in the original signal. Extracted features are accurately reconstructed using an iterative conjugate gradient matrix method. Semi-automatic segmentation : In this kind of segmentation, the user outlines the region of interest with the mouse clicks and algorithms are applied so that the path that best fits the edge of the image is shown. Techniques like SIOX, Livewire, Intelligent Scissors or IT-SNAPS are used in this kind of segmentation. Neural networks segmentation : Neural Network segmentation relies on processing small areas of an image using an artificial neural network or a set of neural networks. After such processing the decision-making mechanism marks the areas of an image accordingly to the category recognized by the neural network. A type of network designed especially for this is the Kohonen map. Pulse-coupled neural networks (PCNNs) are neural models proposed by modeling a cat’s visual cortex and developed for high-performance biomimetic image processing. In 1989, Eckhorn introduced a neural model to emulate the mechanism of cat’s visual cortex. The Eckhorn model provided a simple and effective tool for studying small mammal’s visual cortex, and was soon recognized as having significant application potential in image processing. In 1994, the Eckhorn model was adapted to be an image processing algorithm by Johnson, who termed this algorithm Pulse-Coupled Neural Network. Over the past decade, PCNNs have been utilized for a variety of image processing applications, including: image segmentation, feature generation, face extraction, motion detection, region growing, noise reduction, and so on. A PCNN is a two-dimensional neural network. Each neuron in the network corresponds to one pixel in an input image, receiving its corresponding pixel’s color information (e.g. intensity) as an external stimulus. Each neuron also connects with its neighboring neurons, receiving local stimuli from them. The external and local stimuli are combined in an internal activation system, which accumulates the stimuli until it exceeds a dynamic threshold, resulting in a pulse output. Through iterative computation, PCNN neurons produce temporal series of pulse outputs. The temporal series of pulse outputs contain information of input images and can be utilized for various image processing applications, such as image segmentation and feature generation. Compared with conventional image processing means, PCNNs have several significant merits, including robustness against noise, independence of geometric variations in input patterns, capability of bridging minor intensity variations in input patterns, etc. * Proprietary software Several proprietary software packages are available for performing image segmentation * has a proprietary software that color segments over 16 million colors at photographic quality. Manual available at http://www.accelerated-io.com/usr_man.htm * is a free interactive 3D image segmentation tool. It supports many common medical image file formats and allows the user to export their segmentation as a binary mask or a 3D surface. Several proprietary software packages are available for comparing the performance of segmentation methods with the state-of-the-art segmentation methods on standardized sets * Software == Image Processing Software: Several open source software packages are available for performing image segmentation * GIMP which includes among other tools SIOX (see Simple Interactive Object Extraction). * ImageMagick segments using the Fuzzy C-Means algorithm. * has a program module for manual segmentation of gray-scale images. * GRASS GIS has the program module for image segmentation. * AForge.NET – an open source C# framework. * open-source image processing library in C++ * is an open-source image analysis software with several segmentation algorithms including an automatic "active contours" tool. There are also software packages available free of charge for academic purposes:

Segmentation d'image Traitement d'image Segmentation: La segmentation d'image est une opération de traitement d'images qui a pour but de rassembler des pixels entre eux suivant des critères pré-définis. Les pixels sont ainsi regroupés en régions, qui constituent un pavage ou une partition de l'image. Il peut s'agir par exemple de séparer les objets du fond. Si le nombre de classes est égal à deux, elle est appelée aussi binarisation. Si l'homme sait naturellement séparer des objets dans une image c'est grâce à des connaissances de haut niveau (compréhension des objets et de la scène). Mettre au point des algorithmes de segmentation de haut niveau (chaque région est un objet sémantique) est encore un des thèmes de recherche les plus courants en traitement d'images. La segmentation est une étape primordiale en traitement d'image. À ce jour, il existe de nombreuses méthodes de segmentation, que l'on peut regrouper en quatre principales classes : * Segmentation fondée sur les régions (en anglais : region-based segmentation). On y trouve par exemple : la croissance de région (en anglais : region-growing), décomposition/fusion (en anglais : split and merge) * Segmentation fondée sur les contours (en anglais : edge-based segmentation) * Segmentation fondée sur classification ou le seuillage des pixels en fonction de leur intensité (en anglais : classification ou thresholding) * Segmentation fondée sur la coopération entre les trois premières segmentations Segmentation par approche « région » : Les méthodes appartenant à cette famille manipulent directement des régions. Soit elles partent d'une première partition de l'image, qui est ensuite modifiée en divisant ou regroupant des régions, et on parle alors de méthodes de type décomposition/fusion (ou split and merge en Anglais) ; soit elles partent de quelques régions, qui sont amenées à croître par incorporation de pixels jusqu'à ce que toute l'image soit couverte, et on parle alors de méthodes par croissance de régions. Des méthodes fondées sur la modélisation statistique conjointe de la régularité des régions et des niveaux de gris de chaque région existent également. Les algorithmes de type décomposition/fusion exploitent les caractéristiques propres de chaque région (surface, intensité lumineuse, colorimétrie, texture, etc.). On cherche des couples de régions candidates à une fusion et on les note en fonction de l'impact que cette fusion aurait sur l'apparence générale de l'image. On fusionne alors les couples de régions les mieux notés, et on réitère jusqu’à ce que les caractéristiques de l'image remplissent une condition prédéfinie : nombre de régions, luminosité, contraste ou texture générale donnée, ou alors jusqu’à ce que les meilleures notes attribuées aux couples de régions n'atteignent plus un certain seuil (dans ce dernier cas, on parle d'un algorithme avec minimisation de fonctionnelle). Les algorithmes par croissance de régions partent d'un premier ensemble de régions, qui peuvent être calculées automatiquement (par exemple, les minima de l'image), ou fournies par un utilisateur de manière interactive. Les régions grandissent ensuite par incorporation des pixels les plus similaires suivant un critère donné, tel que la différence entre le niveau de gris du pixel considéré et le niveau de gris moyen de la région. Les algorithmes de segmentation par ligne de partage des eaux, développés dans le cadre de la morphologie mathématique, appartiennent à cette catégorie. Les algorithmes fondés sur une modélisation statistique conjointe des régions et des niveaux de gris, notamment ceux s'appuyant sur les Champs de Markov Cachés, reposent sur la minimisation d'une fonction de vraisemblance (ou énergie). Cette fonction prend simultanément en compte la vraisemblance de l'appartenance du pixel à une région considérant son niveau de gris, et les régions auxquelles appartiennent les pixels voisins. Cette fonction effectue un compromis entre la fidélité à l’image initiale et la régularité des régions segmentées. Segmentation par approche « frontière » : Cette approche cherche à exploiter le fait qu'il existe une transition détectable entre deux régions connexes. Les méthodes les plus anciennes utilisent des opérateurs de traitement d'images, tels que le filtre de Canny, pour mettre en évidence les pixels qui semblent appartenir à un contour. La construction d'une partition est alors souvent difficile. On peut aussi faire intervenir des modèles déformables à l'aide de courbes paramétriques (courbe de Bézier, spline...) ou de polygones (par exemple algorithme à bulle). Pour initier le processus, on recherche des points remarquables de l'image, tels que des points à l'intersection de trois segments au moins. De tels points sont appelés des graines (seeds en anglais). L'intérêt principal des méthodes de segmentation selon l'approche frontières est de minimiser le nombre d'opérations nécessaires en cas d'itération du processus sur des séries d'images peu différentes les unes des autres (cas des images vidéo notamment). En effet, une fois que les contours des régions ont été trouvés dans la première image, l'application du modèle déformable à l'image suivante est plus efficace que de tout recalculer, si la différence entre les images est peu importante. Segmentation par classification ou seuillage : On part ici d'un rapport qu'entretient chaque pixel individuellement avec des informations calculées sur toute l'image, comme par exemple la moyenne des niveaux de gris de l'ensemble des pixels, ou la médiane, permettant de construire n classes d'intensité. Lorsque les classes sont déterminées par le choix d'un seuil, on parle de seuillage. Les pixels appartenant à une même classe et étant connexes forment des régions de l'image. Imagerie numérique:

تحوتمس الثاني الأسرة الثامنة عشر | فراعنة تحتمس الثانى هو ابن تحتمس الأول وزوجته موت نفر وهو الفرعون الرابع من الأسرة الثامنة عشر في عصر الدولة الحديثة التي حكمت مصر. حكمه : أعتلى العرش بعد موت والده وتزوج من أخته الغير شقيقة حتشبسوت وحدث أن تحتمس الثانى مرض بمجرد اعتلائه للعرش، ولما لم يكن له أبناً في ذلك الوقت فقد قامت زوجته وأخته حتشبسوت بالحكم من وراء الستار. قام تحتمس الثانى بعد توليه الحكم بالقضاء على العصيان والتمرد في كوش بالنوبة، وقد عمد إلى تأمين حدود مصر الشرقية ومناجم النحاس في سيناء، كما قام بحملة إلى سوريا على البدو (شاسو) الذين يعيشون على الحدود السورية. عائلته : أنجب تحتمس الثانى من حتشبسوت أبنتيه نفرو رع ومريت حتشبسوت، وانجب من زوجات آخريات العديد من الأبناء منهم تحتمس الثالث من زوجة ثانوية تدعى إيزيس، وقد أعلنه تحتمس الثانى خليقة له وزوجه من أخته نفرو رع. آثاره : حكم تحتمس الثانى لفترة قصيرة وعلى الرغم من قصر مدة حكمة، إلا أنه عُثر على لوحتين بجوار الشلال الثالث كانت نتيجة للحملة الحربية التي شنها ضد النوبيين.، وهم بمثابة تأكيد لوصول نفوذه إلى نفس المكان الذى وصل إليه نفوذ من سبقوه من الملوك. ولكنه توفى بعد فترة وجيزة من وضع اللوحات. كما ساهم تحتمس الثانى في البناء لمعبد الكرنك حيث أقام البوابة الثامنة ونحت تمثالين له أمام هذه البوابة، واقام معبد في شمال مدينة هابو بالأقصر أكمله ابنه تحتمس الثالث، كما توجد له آثار في معبد قمة وفى سمنه بالنوبه، كما وجد له تمثال في الفنتين. مومياؤه : وقد عُثر على مومياء تحتمس الثانى في خبيئة بالدير البحري بعد أن عبث ناهبوا القبور بمومياء هذا الملك حيث أعيد لفها وترميمها. وكغيره من الفراعنه، فلقد انعقدت يدا الملك فوق صدره في الوضع الذى أتبع لأجيال عديده. ولقد أوضحت الأشعة السينية التي أجريت على المومياء أنها لرجل في الثلاثينيات من العمر، ويغطى جلده طبقة داكنه، لا يظن أنها مرض، ربما كانت ناتجة عن عملية التحنيط. كما عثر على الرجل اليمنى مفصوله تماماً عن الجسد. وعلى غير العادة في مومياوات الفراعنة، فإن أظافر الأيدى والأرجل كانت مقلمة ونظيفة. الأبعاد الارتفاع ١6٨.4 سم

Thutmose II 1479 BC deaths | Pharaohs of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt | Ancient Egyptian mummies | Ancient child rulers Thutmose II (sometimes read as Thutmosis, or Tuthmosis II and meaning Born of Thoth, probably pronounced during his lifetime as Djhutymose) was the fourth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. He built some minor monuments and initiated at least two minor campaigns but did little else during his rule and was probably strongly influenced by his wife, Hatshepsut. His reign is generally dated from 1493 to 1479 BC. Thutmose II's body was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and can be viewed today in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Family: Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a minor wife, Mutnofret. He was, therefore, a lesser son of Thutmose I and chose to marry his fully royal half-sister, Hatshepsut, in order to secure his kingship. While he successfully put down rebellions in Nubia and the Levant and defeated a group of nomadic Bedouins, these campaigns were specifically carried out by the king's Generals, and not by Thutmose II himself. This is often interpreted as evidence that Thutmose II was still a minor at his accession. Thutmose II fathered Neferure with Hatshepsut, but also managed to father a male heir, the famous Thutmose III, by a lesser wife named Iset before his death. Some archaeologists believe that Hatshepsut was the real power behind the throne during Thutmose II’s rule because of the similar domestic and foreign policies which were later pursued under her reign and because of her claim that she was her father’s intended heir. She is depicted in several raised relief scenes from a Karnak gateway dating to Thutmose II's reign both together with her husband and alone. She later had herself crowned Pharaoh several years into the rule of her husband's young successor Thutmose III; this is confirmed by the fact that "the queen's agents actually replaced the boy king's name in a few places with her own cartouches" on the gateway. Manetho's Epitome refers to Thutmose II as "Chebron" (which is a reference to his prenomen, Aakheperenre) and gives him a reign of 13 years, but this figure is highly disputed among scholars. Some Egyptologists prefer to shorten his reign by a full decade to only 3 years because his highest Year Date is only a Year 1 II Akhet day 8 stela. The reign length of Thutmose II has been controversial and much debated. * Dates and length of reign Manetho's Epitome has been a debated topic among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign, but a 13-year reign is preferred by older scholars while newer scholars prefer a shorter 3-4 year reign for this king due to the minimal amount of scarabs and monuments attested under Thutmose II. It is still possible to estimate when Thutmose II's reign would have begun by means of a heliacal rise of Sothis in Amenhotep I's reign, which would give him a reign from 1493 BC to 1479 BC, although uncertainty about how to interpret the rise also permits a date from 1513 BC to 1499 BC, and uncertainty about how long Thutmose I ruled could also potentially place his reign several years earlier still. Nonetheless, scholars generally assign him a reign from 1493 or 1492 to 1479. * Argument for a short reign Ineni, who was already aged by the start of Thutmose II's reign, lived through this ruler's entire reign into that of Hatshepsut. In addition, Thutmose II is poorly attested in the monumental record and in the contemporary tomb autobiographies of New Kingdom officials. A clear count of monuments from his rule, which is the principal tool for estimating a king's reign when dated documents are not available, is nearly impossible because Hatshepsut usurped most of his monuments, and Thutmose III in turn reinscribed Thutmose II's name indiscriminately over other monuments. However, apart from several surviving blocks of buildings erected by the king at Semna, Kumma and Elephantine, Thutmose II's only major monument consists of a limestone gateway at Karnak that once lay at the front of the Fourth Pylon's forecourt. Even this monument was not completed in Thutmose II's reign but in the reign of his son Thutmose III which hints at "the nearly ephemeral nature of Thutmose II's reign." The gateway was later dismantled and its building blocks incorporated into the foundation of the Third Pylon by Amenhotep III. In 1987, Luc Gabolde published an important study which statistically compared the number of surviving scarabs found under Thutmose I, Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. While monuments can be usurped, scarabs are so small and comparatively insignificant that altering their names would be impractical and without profit; hence, they provide a far better insight into this period. Hatshepsut's reign is believed to have been for 21 years and 9 months. Gabolde highlighted, in his analysis, the consistently small number of surviving scarabs known for Thutmose II compared to Thutmose I and Hatshepsut respectively; for instance, Flinders Petrie's older study of scarab seals noted 86 seals for Thutmose I, 19 seals for Thutmose II and 149 seals for Hatshepsut while more recent studies by Jaeger estimate a total of 241 seals for Thutmose I, 463 seals for Hatshepsut and only 65 seals for Thutmose II. Hence, unless there was an abnormally low number of scarabs produced under Thutmose II, this would indicate that the king's reign was rather short-lived. On this basis, Gabolde estimated Thutmose I and II's reigns to be approximately 11 and 3 full years, respectively. Consequently, the reign length of Thutmose II has been a much debated subject among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign. * Argument for a long reign Thutmose's reign is still traditionally given as 13 or 14 years. Although Ineni's autobiography can be interpreted to say that Thutmose reigned only a short time, it also calls Thutmose a "hawk in the nest," indicating that he was perhaps a child when he assumed the throne. Since he lived long enough to father two children--Neferure and Thutmose III--this suggests that he may have had a longer reign of 13 years in order to reach adulthood and start a family. The German Egyptologist, J. Von Beckerath, uses this line of argument to support the case of a 13-year reign for Thutmose II. Alan Gardiner noted that at one point, a monument had been identified by Georges Daressy in 1900 which was dated to Thutmose's 18th year, although its precise location has not been identified. This inscription is now usually attributed to Hatshepsut, who certainly did have an 18th year. von Beckerath observes that a Year 18 date appears in a fragmentary inscription of an Egyptian official and notes that the date likely refers to Hatshepsut's prenomen Maatkare, which had been altered from Aakheperenre Thutmose II, with the reference to the deceased Thutmose II being removed. There is also the curious fact that Hatshepsut celebrated her Sed Jubilee in her Year 16 which von Beckerath believes occurred 30 years after the death of Thutmose I, her father, who was the main source of her claim to power. This would create a gap of 13 to 14 years where Thutmose II's reign would fit in between Hatshepsut and Thutmose I's rule. * Campaigns Upon Thutmose's coronation, Kush rebelled, as it had the habit of doing upon the transition of Egyptian kingship. The Nubian state had been completely subjugated by Thutmose I, but some rebels from Khenthennofer rose up, and the Egyptian colonists retreated into a fortress built by Thutmose I. On account of his relative youth at the time, Thutmose II dispatched an army into Nubia rather than leading it himself, but he seems to have easily crushed this revolt with the aid of his father's military generals. Thutmose also seems to have fought against the Shasu Bedouin in the Sinai, in a campaign mentioned by Ahmose Pen-Nekhbet. Although this campaign has been called a minor raid, there is a fragment which was recorded by Kurt Sethe which records a campaign in Upper Retenu, or Syria, which appears to have reached as far as a place called Niy where Thutmose I hunted elephants after returning from crossing the Euphrates. This quite possibly indicates that the raid against the Shasu was only fought en route to Syria. Mummy: Thutmose II's mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with other 18th and 19th dynasty leaders including Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX. The mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on July 1, 1886. There is a strong familial resemblance to the mummy of Thutmose I, his likely father, as the mummy face and shape of the head are very similar. The body of Thutmose II suffered greatly at the hands of ancient tomb robbers, with his left arm broken off at the shoulder-joint, the forearm separated at the elbow joint, and his right arm chopped off below the elbow. His anterior abdominal wall and much of his chest had been hacked at, possibly by an axe. In addition, his right leg had been severed from his body. All of these injuries were sustained post-mortem, though the body also showed signs that Thutmose II did not have an easy life, as the following quote by Gaston Maspero attests: * He had scarcely reached the age of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches, and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour and muscular power.

Thoutmôsis II Index égyptologique | Pharaon | XVIIIe dynastie égyptienne | Momie égyptienne identifiée Pharaon: Thoutmôsis II: ou Djéhoutymès II: était le quatrième pharaon de la XVIIIe dynastie égyptienne: égyptienne. On situe son règne aux alentours de -1492 / -1491 à -1479 (Malek, Arnold, von Beckerath, Shaw, Kitchen, Dodson). Autres avis de spécialistes : -1518 à -1503 (Wente), -1516 à -1504 (Redford), -1497 à -1489 (Parker), -1494 à -1490 (Hornung), -1493 à -1479 (Grimal), -1503 à -1491 (Dodson), -1482 à -1479 (Krauss, Murnane, Aldred), -1470 à -1467 (Helck). Généalogie : Arbre généalogique de la XVIIIe dynastie égyptienne: Il est le fils de Thoutmôsis Ier: et d'une épouse secondaire, Moutnofret. Il épouse sa demi-sœur Hatchepsout, et monte sur le trône de son père après la mort de ses deux frères Amenmès et Ouadjmès. De son union avec Hatchepsout naît une fille, Néférourê, alors qu’une épouse secondaire, Iset, lui donne le futur Thoutmôsis III: . Titulature : Nom d'Horus : Nom de Nebty : Nom d'Horus d'or : Nom de Nesout-bity : Nom de Sa-Rê : Nom hellénisé : Règne : Il étouffe avec succès une rébellion en Haute-Nubie, au pays de Koush, d’après une inscription rupestre à Sehel, au sud d’Assouan. Cette expédition punitive, à laquelle il ne participait apparemment pas, est peut-être la seule qu’il eût menée . À Karnak, il contribue à l’embellissement du temple dynastique en y érigeant en particulier deux obélisques. Il construit aussi à Semna et à Kumma , de même qu’à Éléphantine. Sépulture : Il meurt entre vingt-cinq et trente ans, après un règne qui, d'après P. Vernus et J. Yoyotte, ne dépassa pas trois ans . Son temple funéraire, qu’il n’avait pas eu le temps d’achever, est terminé par Thoutmôsis III: . Sa momie est découverte en 1881 dans la « cachette royale » de Deir el-Bahari, où les rois-prêtres de la XXIe dynastie égyptienne: l'avaient mise à l'abri des pillards. Notes : Références:

كسر قذفي طب القلب الكسر القذفي Ejection fraction: هو مصطلح طبي في طب القلب ويشير إلى نسبة كمية الدم المضخوخ من البطين إلى كمية الدم التي يمكن أن يحويها البطين في الانقباضة الواحدة، ويعتبر مقياساً لقوة ضخ القلب. في العادة فإن هذا المصطلح يُقصد به قوة ضخ البطين الأيسر، وذلك أن البطين الأيسر هو المحرك للدورة الدموية. حساب الكسر القذفي : يتم حساب الكسر القذفي عن طريق حساب كمية الدم المقذوفة في الانقباضة الواحدة وقسمته على السعة الكلية للبطين في حالة الانبساط systole: ، وتتم حساب كمية الدم المقذوفة عن طريق طرح كمية الدم المتبقة عند انتهاء الانقباضة end-systolic: من كمية الدم في بداية الانقباض، وهو مايسمى أيضاً آخر الانبساط end-diastolic: وذلك بحسب المعادلة التالية: E_f \frac{SV}{EDV} : \frac{EDV - ESV}{EDV} حيث Ef هي الكسر القذفي، SV هو كمية القذف، EDV هو الحجم آخر الانبساط، ESV هو الحجم آخر الانقباض. قياس الكسر القذفي : صدى القلب : يتم قياس الكسر القذفي بعدة طرق أكثرها شيوعاً صدى القلب Echocardiography: أو التخطيط بالأمواج فوق الصوتية وذلك لأن هذه الطريقة هي الأسهل تطبيقاً، فهي فحص غير باضع ورخيص نسبياً. وتتمثل هذه الطريقة بقياس أبعاد ثنائية للبطين * إما عن طريق قياس المساحة في الانبساطة وتقدير حجم المحتوى، ثم المساحة في الانقباضة ومن ثم تقدير الحجم المتبقي في البطين، وثم ملء المعادلة أعلاه (طريقة Simpson). * وهناك طريقة أخرى وهي أحادية الأبعاد وتقيس المسافة بين جداري البطين في الانبساطة وفي الانقباضة لتقدير الكسر القذفي وتدعى طريقة Teicholz. قسطرة القلب : تمييل: وهي إحدى أقدم الطرق في قياس قوة صخ العضلة القلبية، تتم هذه العملية من خلال إدخال القسطار إلى البطين الأيسر، ومن ثم ضخ كمية من المادة المظللة إلى البطين بشكل يملأ البطين، ومراقبة عملية انقباض العضلة القلبية من خلال الأشعة السينية، ثم يتم تحليل الصور المتولدة بتقدير سعة البطين الأيسر آخر الانبساط وآخر الانقباض، لإدخالهما في المعادلة السابقة. استخدام القسطرة (التمييل) لقياس الكسر القذفي له حدود، حيث أن إظهار حجرة القلب يحتاج إلى كمية أكبر من المادة المظللة، الأمر الذي قد يؤدي إلى زيادة العبء على الكليتين وبالتالي فإن كثيراً من الأطباء يستغني عن إظهار البطين أثناء التمييل، إذ يمكن الاستعاضة عنها باستخدام طرق أقل باضعية وبالتالي أقل ضرراً للجسم، مثل صدى القلب أو التصوير بالرنين المغناطيسي. الرنين المغناطيسي : من الطرق الحديثة في فحص القلب التصوير الطبقي باستخدام الرنين المغناطيسي، وهي ما زالت قيد التطوير، وتمكننا من فحص الوظيفة القلبية وفحص التروية الدموية للقلب بنفس الوقت، كما تعطي معلومات قيمة أخرى حول التركيب النسيجي للعضلة القلبية. ما زالت هذه الطريقة قيد البحث، إذ أن أجهزة الرنين المغناطيسي نفسها يتم تطويرها بسرعة كبيرة، إلا أنها تعاني من ارتفاع السعر، وكون الفحص بالرنين المغناطيسي يحتاج تجهيزات أعقد بكثير من الطريقة المثلى وهي صدى القلب. تقييم الكسر القذفي : تكمن أهمية الكسر القذفي في تحديد قوة ضخ القلب للدم. القلب السليم قادر على ضخ ما يقارب من 60% مما يدخله من دم، أما النسبة الباقية فهي لأن القلب لايمكن حتى في فترة الانقباض أن يخلو من الدم. تتراوح نسب الكسر القذفي بحسب العمر وقوة عضلة القلب، فبينما يمكن أن تكون في الشباب >60% فإنها قد تقل في الشيخوخة إلى 55% دون أن يدل ذلك على قصور في القلب، أما في الكثير من اعتلالات العضلة القلبية فإن الكسر القذفي يعبر عن مدى نقص القدرة القلبية، فهو إلى جانب قياس مدى توسع القلب يعطينا وصفاً رقمياً لمقدار تفشي مرض قصور القلب. * انظر أيضاً * قصور القلب. * اعتلال عضلة القلب. * صدى القلب. * تخطيط فوق صوتي (طب) * المراجع * . وصلة إنجليزية: * . بوابة طب:

Ejection fraction Cardiovascular physiology In cardiovascular physiology, ejection fraction (Ef) is the fraction of blood pumped out (forward) from the right ventricle of the heart to the pulmonary circulation (lungs) and left ventricle of the heart to the systemic circulation (brain and body) with each heart beat or cardiac cycle. The term ejection fraction thus applies to forward performance work of both the right and left ventricles. Imaging of the physiology of the four chambered mammalian heart is the art that allowed meaningful mathematical terms that define Ef. Cardiac imaging has applied a means to study cardiac performance noninvasively, reproducibly and inexpensively. Simplified, Ejection fraction is a mathematical product allowed by cardiac imaging. As a mathematical term, Ejection Fraction is an intuitive extension of the work of Adolph Fick in cardiac output. Technology such as echocardiography and MUGA scanning have definitively allowed clinically relevant mathematics regarding heart failure. RVEF and LVEF may vary widely from one another incumbent upon physiologic state. Ventricular dyssynchrony represents theoretical pathology in which the LVEF and RVEF combined may be less than 100%. Without a qualifier, the term ejection fraction refers specifically to that of the left ventricle. Overview: By definition, the volume of blood within a ventricle immediately before a contraction is known as the end-diastolic volume. Similarly, the volume of blood left in a ventricle at the end of contraction is end-systolic volume. The difference between end-diastolic volume (EDV) and end-systolic volumes (ESV) is the stroke volume, the volume of blood ejected with each beat. Ejection fraction (Ef) is the fraction of the end-diastolic volume that is ejected with each beat; that is, it is stroke volume (SV) divided by end-diastolic volume (EDV): * E_f \frac{SV}{EDV} : \frac{EDV - ESV}{EDV} Normal values: In a healthy 70-kg (154-lb) man, the SV is approximately 70 ml and the left ventricular EDV is 120 ml, giving an ejection fraction of 70/120, or 0.58 (58%). Right ventricular volumes being roughly equal to those of the left ventricle, the ejection fraction of the right ventricle is normally equal to that of the left ventricle within narrow limits. Healthy individuals typically have ejection fractions between 50% and 65%. However, normal values depend upon the modality being used to calculate the ejection fraction, and some sources consider an ejection fraction of 55-75% to be normal. Damage to the muscle of the heart (myocardium), such as that sustained during myocardial infarction or in cardiomyopathy, impairs the heart's ability to eject blood and therefore reduces ejection fraction. This reduction in the ejection fraction can manifest itself clinically as heart failure. The ejection fraction is one of the most important predictors of prognosis; those with significantly reduced ejection fractions typically have poorer prognoses. However, recent studies have indicated that a preserved ejection fraction does not mean freedom from risk. The QT interval as recorded on a standard electrocardiogram is generally agreed to be an exemplary display of depolarization of the ventricles. Widening of the QT interval is a reliable and inexpensive method in determination of mismatched flow states between the RV and LV. Measurement: Ejection fraction is commonly measured by echocardiography, in which the volumes of the heart's chambers are measured during the cardiac cycle. Ejection fraction can then be obtained by dividing stroke volume by end-diastolic volume as described above. Accurate volumetric measurement of performance of the right and left ventricles of the heart is inexpensively and routinely echocardiographically interpreted worldwide as a ratio of dimension between the ventricles in systole and diastole. For example, a ventricle in greatest dimension could measure 6cm while in least dimension 4cm. Measured and easily reproduced beat to beat for ten or more cycles, this ratio may represent a physiologically normal EF of 60%. Mathematical expression of this ratio can then be interpreted as the greater half as cardiac output and the lesser half as cardiac input. Other methods of measuring ejection fraction include cardiac MRI, fast scan cardiac computed axial tomography (CT) imaging, ventriculography, Gated SPECT, and the MUGA scan. A MUGA scan involves the injection of a radioisotope into the blood and detecting its flow through the left ventricle. The historical gold standard for the measurement of ejection fraction is ventriculography.

Fraction d'éjection Physiologie du système cardio-vasculaire La fraction d’éjection est une mesure de la capacité du cœur à se contracter efficacement. Elle se calcule en divisant le volume d'éjection systolique (différence entre le volume diastolique (ventricule plein) et le volume systolique (volume du ventricule une fois vidée par la contraction de son muscle)) par le volume diastolique. Lorsque le contexte ne précise pas de quel ventricule il s’agit, il faut comprendre « fraction d’éjection du ventricule gauche » (abrégé FEVG, en anglais LVEF, ). Elle est de l'ordre de 60 % chez l’individu normal et diminuée en cas d’anomalie de la contractilité, pouvant descendre jusqu’à 20 % en cas de dysfonction majeure (insuffisance cardiaque). En cas d'insuffisance cardiaque, sa valeur permet de distinguer les insuffisances cardiaques systoliques (fraction d'éjection basse) et diastoliques (sites à fonction systolique conservée: Lorsque la fraction d’éjection est diminuée, l’organisme peut maintenir le débit cardiaque de deux manières : en augmentant la fréquence cardiaque, (tachycardie), et en maintenant un volume d’éjection systolique constant en augmentant le volume diastolique. L’augmentation du volume diastolique a pour conséquence visible une augmentation de la taille du cœur. Elle entraîne par ailleurs un étirement des fibres musculaires cardiaques, qui, en raison de ses propriétés élastiques, permet d’améliorer transitoirement sa contraction (mécanisme de Franck-Starling). Lorsque ces mécanismes de compensation sont dépassés, le débit cardiaque diminue et devient insuffisant pour les besoins de l’organisme. Un tableau d’insuffisance cardiaque s’installe. La contractilité peut être atteinte dans les cardiomyopathies dilatées, les myocardites, les cardiopathies ischémiques, et de façon générale dans presque toutes les maladies cardiaques à un stade très avancé. Médecine:

لاكويلا بلديات مقاطعة لاكويلا | مدن وبلدات أبروتسو | مدن تعرضت للزلازل لاكويلا L'Aquila: مدينة وسط إيطاليا، عاصمة لإقليم أبروتسو ومقاطعة لاكويلا. محاطة بأسوار قروسطية على منحدر تلة، يسار نهر أتيرنو وفي إطلالة متميزة على صخرة الغران ساسو الضخمة. يقطنها 72.948 ساكن، ويرتفع هذا الرقم نهاراً ليتجاوز المئة ألف بإضافة من يأتي لأغراض الدراسة والأنشطة الخدمية والعمل والسياحة. تضم المدينة جامعة والعديد من المؤسسات والجمعيات التي تنشط في مجال الثقافة. لاكويلا تقع في مناطق أبروتسو الداخلية، ونطاقها البلدي كبير هو الخامس على مستوى إيطاليا يغطي مساحة قدرها 467 كيلومتراً مربعاً. ولأن هذه المساحة تمتد على مناطق جبلية داخلية، فلاكويلا مجهزة بشبكة بنية تحتية وخدمية ذات إدارة مضنية ومعقدة. بالعاصمة المحلية أكثر من عشر مقابر، وعدة محطات لمعالجة المياه الآسنة، وعشرات المباني المدرسية، ما يقرب من 3000 كم من الشوارع وآلاف الكيلومترات من الشبكات. لاكويلا أيضاً مقسمة إلى 59 حي. في السادس من أبريل من عام 2009 تعرضت المدينة لزلزال بقوة 6.3 درجة على مقياس ريختر، راح ضحيته أكثر من مئة قتيل ودمرت العديد من المباني، وتضرر جزء كبير من المدينة القديمة. * الجغرافيا قريبة من صخرة الغران ساسو أعلى قمم الأبينيني، ترتفع لاكويلا 721 متراً في وادي من أتيرنو بين ما لا يقل عن أربع قمم جبال يتجاوز ارتفاعها 2000 متر. تقي الجبال المدينة من تيارات الهواء الدافئة الرطبة الهابة من البحر الأبيض المتوسط، وتؤدي إلى مناخ بارد وجاف. وقد قيل عنها بأنها مدينة تتمتع في كل سنة بأحد عشر شهرا بارداً وشهر واحد متعدل البرودة. تبعد لاكويلا حوالي 100 كم (63 ميلا) إلى الشمال الشرقي من روما، والتي هي الآن تتصل بها بطريق سريع عبر الجبال. * التاريخ == بدء بناء المدينة فريدريك الثاني رأس الإمبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة وملك صقلية من أصل العديد من القرى الموجودة بالفعل (عددها تسع وتسعين، طبقاً للرواية المحلية) كحصن ضد سلطة البابوية. اختير اسم أكويلا (و تعني "نسر" باللغة الإيطالية) لها بعد إعطاءها نسر هوهنشتاوفن على شعارها. اكتمل البناء في عام 1254 في عهد كونراد الرابع ابن فريدريك. تحول الاسم إلى أكويلا ديلي أبروتسي عام 1861، ولاكويلا في سنة 1939. بعد وفاة كونراد، دمر أخوه مانفريدي المدينة في عام 1259، لكن سرعان ما أعاد كارلو الأول أنجو خليفته على عرش صقلية بناءها. استكمل بناء الأسوار في عام 1316. بسرعة صارت المدينة الثانية في مملكة نابولي، كانت مدينة ذات حكم ذاتي، تحكمها حكومة ثنائية تتألف من مجلس المدينة (الذي تغيرت أسماءه وتكوينه عبر القرون) وقائد الملك. سقطت في البداية تحت حكم نيكولو ديليزولا بتعيينه من قبل الشعب فارساً للشعب، ثم قتل بعدما أصبح طاغية. وفي وقت لاحق اتنضوت تحت حكم بييترو "لالي" كامبونيسكي كونت مونتوريو، الذي أصبح الجانب الثالث في حكومة ثلاثية مع المجلس وقائد الملك. أصبح كامبونيسكي وهو أيضا مستشار كبير في مملكة نابولي قوياً جداً، فقتل بأمر من الأمير لويجي تارانتو. وتقاتلت ذريته مع عائلة بريتاتي على السلطة لعدة أجيال، ولكنهم لم يبلغوا أبدا ما كانت عليها سلطة جدهم. آخر حكام لاكويلا وحاكمها الحقيقي كان لودوفيكو فرانكي الذي تحدى سلطة البابا بإعطاءه ملجأً لألفونسو الأول ديستي دوق فيرارا السابق ولأولاد جامباولو باليوني حاكم بيرودجا المخلوع. ولكن الأكويلانيين عزلوه في النهاية وسـَجـَنـَه ملك نابولي. قوة لاكويلا تقوم على الارتباط الوثيق بين المدينة والقرى الأم، التي وضعت المدينة في شكل إتحادي، ولكل منها حي فيها اعتبر انه جزء من القرية الأم. وهو ما جعل العدد 99 مهم جدا في عمارة لاكويلا، من خلال نافورة النصب التذكاري للتسع وتسعين أبوب (Fontana delle 99 Cannelle) والتي منحت اسمها لمهرجان المدينة العريق الأصيل. كان مجلس المدينة يتألف من رؤساء بلديات القرى، ولم يكن للمدينة أي وجود قانوني حتى أنشأ الملك كارلو الثاني من نابولي من عنده منصب كاميرلينغو وهو المسئول عن ضريبة المدينة (سابقا تدفع منفصلة من كل القرى الأم). وفي وقت لاحق أخذ الكاميرلينغو السلطة السياسية وصار رئيسا لمجلس المدينة. منذ نشأتها شكلت المدينة سوقا مهمة للأرياف المجاورة، ووفرت لها الإمدادات الغذائية العاديه : من الوديان الخصيبة جاء الزعفران الثمين ؛ ووفرت المراعي الجبلية المحيطة الرعي الصيفي لقطعان الأغنام المترحلة العديدة، مما أدى بدوره إلى وفرة المواد الخام المصدرة، وإلى حد أقل الصناعات الصغيرة المحلية والتي أحضرها الحرفيين والتجار من خارج المنطقة. في غضون بضعة عقود أصبحت لاكويلا في مفترق الطرق في علاقاتها بين المدن داخل وخارج المملكة، وذلك بفضل ما يسمى "via degli Abruzzi" "طريق عبر الأبروتسي"، والذي امتدت من فلورنسا إلى نابولي عن طريق بيرودجا، رييتي، لاكويلا، سولمونا، إزيرنيا، فينافرو، تيانو، وكابوا. مفاوضات خلافة إدموند ابن هنري الثالث ملك انكلترا على عرش مملكة صقلية ضمت لاكويلا في شبكة مصالح الرابطة بين الإدارة البابوية والحكم الإنكليزي. في 23 ديسمبر 1256 رقى البابا إسكندر الرابع كنيستي القديسين ماسيمو وجورجو إلى صفة كاتدرائيات بمثابة مكافاة لمواطني لاكويلا لمعارضتهم الملك مانفريد ،و الذي أقدم في تموز يوليو من عام 1259 على تسوية المدينة بالأرض في محاولة لتدمير المفاوضات. وقام بإصلاحها كارلو الأول أنجو، ولكن في الحقيقة باتت المدينة معروفة خارج حدود المملكة نتيجة للحدث الاستثنائي المهم الذي وقع في 29 أغسطس آب 1294، عندما أصبح الناسك بييترو دل موروني البابا سيلستين الخامس في كنيسة سانتا ماريا دي كوليمادجو. بابوية سيلستين أعطت قوة دفع جديدة لتطوير البناء، كما يتبين من قوانين المدينة. بالإضافة إلى منح الملك روبيرتو أنجو في عام 1311 امتيازات والتي كان لها تأثير حاسم في تنمية التجارة. هذه الامتيازات حمت جميع الأنشطة المتعلقة بتربية الأغنام، مع الإعفاء من الرسوم الجمركية على الواردات والصادرات. وفي هذه الفترة اشترى تجار من توسكانا (سكالي، بوناكورسي) ومن رييتي منازل في المدينة. لذلك فإن الظروف السياسية شهدت تجديدا جذريا : عام 1355 جيئ بالنقابات التجارية لعمال الجلود وعمال المعادن والتجار والمتعلمين إلى حكومة المدينة، وشاركوا في المجلس الجديد. وقبل أحد عشر عاما، في عام 1344 منح الملك المدينة دار سك عملة خاصة بها. في منتصف القرن الرابع عشر مرت فترة بلاكويلا أزمة كبيرة كما هو الحال لأوروبا بأسرها. وعانت المدينة من وباء الطاعون عامي 1348 و1363 ومن الزلازل عام 1349 وأعطاها هذا مظهر المدينة الهجورة. ولكن سرعان ما بدأ التعمير. وزادت أهمية لاكويلا وتطورت خلال القرنين الرابع عشر والخامس عشر. و انتهت هذه الفترة في القرن السادس عشر، عندما دمر الوالي الإسباني فيليبيرت فان أورانخي لاكويلا وأسس إقطاعية إسبانية في ريفها، وفصلت المدينة من جذورها ولم تطور بعد مرة أخرى أبدا. وقد دمرت للمرة الثالثة (و كانت الأولى في عام 1258 عل يد مانفريدي ملك صقلية) من جراء زلزال وقع في 1703. أعقبه الزلازل متتالية على المدينة دمرت الكاتدرائية. و احتلت القوات الفرنسية المدينة أيضا مرتين في عام 1799. و في القرن العشرين، أصبحت لاكويلا واحدة من أكثر المدن المحافظة في إيطاليا، ثارت ضجة في إيطاليا في السبعينات كل من إيطاليا عندما صُدِرت رواية لألبرتو مورافيا باعتبارها فاحشة، فيما احتج أسقف كاثوليكي محلي على تعري تمثال لشاب الذي ظل على النافورة أمام الكاتدرائية على مدى قرون، وأكثر الجماعات المحافظة في المدينة طلبت وقف التعامل بقطعة النقود ذات 50 ليرة لظهور رجل عاري عليها. ثبت المراجع: بوابة إيطاليا1: مقاطعة لاكويلا: بوابة إيطاليا:

L'Aquila L'Aquila | Cities and towns in Abruzzo L'Aquila (, meaning "The Eagle") is a city and comune in central Italy, both the capital city of the Abruzzo region and of the Province of L'Aquila. 2009: , it has a population of 73,150 inhabitants, but has a daily presence in the territory of 100,000 people for study, tertiary activities, jobs and tourism. Laid out within medieval walls on a hill in the wide valley of the Aterno river, it is surrounded by the Apennine Mountains, with the Gran Sasso d'Italia to the north-east. L'Aquila sits upon a hillside in the middle of a narrow valley; tall snow-capped mountains of the Gran Sasso massif flank the town. A maze of narrow streets, lined with Baroque and Renaissance buildings and churches, open onto elegant piazzas. Home to the University of L'Aquila, it is a lively college town and, as such, has many cultural institutions: a repertory theater, a symphony orchestra, a fine-arts academy, a state conservatory,a film institute.The city presents a tradition in the winter sports with 4 ski resorts which lies around the city. * Geography Close to the highest of the Apennine summits, L’Aquila is positioned at an altitude of 721 meters in the Valley of the Aterno-Pescara, wedged between no fewer than four mountain peaks above 2,000 meters. The mountains block the city off from warm humid air currents from the Mediterranean, and give rise to a climate that is cool in comparison to most of central Italy, and dry. It has been said that the city enjoys each year eleven cold months and one cool one. L’Aquila is approximately to the east-north-east of Rome, with which it is now connected by an autostrada through the mountains. * History The city's construction was begun by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily out of several already existing villages (ninety-nine, according to local tradition; see Amiternum), as a bulwark against the power of the papacy. The name of Aquila means "Eagle" in Italian. Construction was completed in 1254 under Frederick's son, Conrad IV of Germany. The name was switched to Aquila degli Abruzzi in 1861, and L'Aquila in 1939. After the death of Conrad, the city was destroyed by his brother Manfred in 1259, but soon rebuilt by Charles I of Anjou, its successor as king of Sicily. The walls were completed in 1316. It quickly became the second city of the Kingdom of Naples. It was an autonomous city, ruled by a diarchy composed of the City Council (which had varying names and composition over the centuries) and the King's Captain. It fell initially under the lordship of Niccolò dell'Isola, appointed by the people as the People's Knight, but he was then killed when he became a tyrant. Later, it fell under Pietro "Lalle" Camponeschi, Count of Montorio, who became the third side of a new triarchy, with the Council and the King's Captain. Camponeschi, who was also Great Chancellor of the kingdom of Naples, became too powerful, and was killed by order of Prince Louis of Taranto. His descendants fought with the Pretatti family for power for several generations, but never again attained the power of their ancestor. The last, and the one true "lord" of L'Aquila, was Ludovico Franchi, who challenged the power of the pope by giving refuge to Alfonso I d'Este, former duke of Ferrara, and the children of Giampaolo Baglioni, deposed lord of Perugia. In the end, however, the Aquilans had him deposed and imprisoned by the king of Naples. The power of L'Aquila was based on the close connection between the city and its mother-villages, which had established the city as a federation, each of them building a borough and considering it as a part of the mother-village. That is also why number 99 is so important in the architecture of L'Aquila, and a very peculiar monument, the Fountain of the 99 Spouts (Fontana delle 99 Cannelle), was given its name to celebrate the ancient origin of the town. The City Council was originally composed of the Mayors of the villages, and the city had no legal existence until King Charles II of Naples appointed a "Camerlengo", responsible for city tributes (previously paid separately by each of its mother-villages). Later, the Camerlengo also took political power, as President of the City Council. From its beginnings the city constituted an important market for the surrounding countryside, which provided it with a regular supply of food: from the fertile valleys came the precious saffron; the surrounding mountain pastures provided summer grazing for numerous transhumant flocks of sheep, which in turn supplied abundant raw materials for export and, to a lesser extent, small local industries, which in time brought craftsmen and merchants from outside the area. Within a few decades L'Aquila became a crossroads in communications between cities within and beyond the Kingdom, thanks to the so-called "via degli Abruzzi", which ran from Florence to Naples by way of Perugia, Rieti, L'Aquila, Sulmona, Isernia, Venafro, Teano and Capua. Negotiations for the succession of Edmund, son of Henry III of England, to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily involved L'Aquila in the web of interests linking the Papal Curia to the English court. On 23 December 1256, Pope Alexander IV elevated the churches of Saints Massimo and Giorgio to the status of cathedrals as a reward to the citizens of L'Aquila for their opposition to King Manfred who, in July 1259, had the city razed to the ground in an attempt to destroy the negotiations. On August 29, 1294, the hermit Pietro del Morrone was consecrated as pope Celestine V in the church of Santa Maria di Collemaggio, in commemoration of which the new pope decreed the annual religious rite of the Pardon (Perdonanza Celestiniana), still observed today in the city on August 28 and 29: it is the immediate ancestor of the Jubilee Year. The pontificate of Celestine V gave a new impulse to building development, as can be seen from the city statutes. In 1311, moreover, King Robert of Anjou granted privileges which had a decisive influence on the development of trade. These privileges protected all activities related to sheep-farming, exempting them from customs duties on imports and exports. This was the period in which merchants from Tuscany (Scale, Bonaccorsi) and Rieti purchased houses in the city. Hence the conditions for radical political renewal: in 1355 the trade guilds of leather-workers, metal-workers, merchants and learned men were brought into the government of the city, and these together with the Camerario and the Cinque constituted the new Camera Aquilana. Eleven years earlier, in 1344, the King had granted the city its own mint. In the middle of the 14th century the city was struck by plague epidemics (1348, 1363) and earthquakes (1349). Reconstruction began soon, however. In the 14th-15th century Jewish families came to live in the city, while the generals of the Franciscan Order chose the city as the seat of the Order's general chapters (1376, 1408, 1411, 1450, 1452, 1495). Bernardino of Siena, of the Franciscan order of the Observance, visited L'Aquila twice, the first time to preach in the presence of King René of Naples, and in 1444, on his second visit, he died in the city. In 1481 Adam of Rottweil, a pupil and collaborator of Johann Gutenberg, obtained permission to establish a printing press in L'Aquila. The Osservanti branch of the Franciscan order had a decisive influence on L'Aquila. As a result of initiatives by Friar Giovanni da Capistrano and Friar Giacomo della Marca, Lombard masters undertook, in the relatively underdeveloped north-east of the city, an imposing series of buildings centring on the hospital of Saint Salvatore (1446) and the convent and the basilica of Saint Bernardino. The construction work was long and difficult, mainly because of the earthquake of 1461, which caused the buildings to collapse, and the translation of the body of S. Bernardino did not take place until May 14, 1472. The whole city suffered serious damage on the occasion of the earthquake, and two years went by before repairs on the churches and convents began. In a strategy finalized to increasing their political and economic autonomy, the Aquilani took a series of political gambles, siding sometimes with the Roman Papacy, sometimes with the Kingdom of Naples. When the Pope excommunicated Joanna II, Queen of Naples, appointing Louis III of Anjou as heir to the crown in her stead, L'Aquila sided with the Angevines. Joanna called to fight for her Braccio da Montone, lord of Perugia, Todi, Assisi, Spello and Jesi, one of the greatest Italian condottieri of the time. In exchange for his services, Braccio obtained the lordship of Teramo, as well as the fiefdoms of Capua and Foggia, and he started a 13-year-long siege of L'Aquila, that resisted bravely. Facing Braccio at the head of the Angevine army was Muzio Attendolo Sforza and his son Francesco. The final clash between the two contenders was just below the walls of Aquila, near the hamlet today called Bazzano. On 2 June 1424 the battle was fought between the most celebrated condottieri of the time; Braccio, mortally wounded in the neck, was made prisoner and transported to Aquila, where he died three days later, on June 5, 1424. The Pope had him buried in deconsecrated earth. The citizens of L'Aquila honoured the bravery of their enemy Braccio by dedicating one of the main streets of the city to his name. This period of freedom and prosperity ended in the 16th century, when Spanish viceroy Philibert van Oranje partially destroyed L'Aquila and established Spanish feudalism in its countryside. The city, separated from its roots, never developed again. Ancient privileges were revoked. L'Aquila was again destroyed by an earthquake in 1703. Successive earthquakes have repeatedly damaged the city's large Duomo, and destroyed the original dome of the basilica of San Bernardino, designed along the lines of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. The city was also sacked two times by French troops in 1799. L'Aquila, like so much of Italy, is a city of political contrasts. In the 1970s a novel by Alberto Moravia was seized because considered obscene and a local Catholic Archbishop protested the nudity of a centuries-old statue of a young man, and a group of local reactionaries even asked for the seizure of the £50 coin, because it showed a naked man. However, in October 2003 a liberal judge in l'Aquila ordered the small town of Ofena to remove a crucifix from its elementary school so as to not to offend the religious sensibilities of two young Muslim students. After a national outcry, the judge's decision was overturned. In May 2007 Massimo Cialente, a physician and medical researcher, was elected mayor of L'Aquila with a center-left coalition. * Earthquakes 2009 L'Aquila earthquake: Earthquakes mark the history of L'Aquila, as the city is situated partially on an ancient lake-bed that amplifies seismic activity. On December 3, 1315, the city was struck by an earthquake which seriously damaged the San Francesco Church. Another earthquake struck on January 22, 1349, killing about 800 people. Other earthquakes struck in 1452, then on November 26, 1461, and again in 1501 and 1646. On February 3, 1703 a major earthquake struck the town. More than 3.000 people died and almost all the churches collapsed; Rocca Calascio, the highest fortress in Europe was also ruined by this event, yet the town survived. L'Aquila was then repopulated by decision of Pope Clement XI. The town was rocked by earthquake again in 1706. The most serious earthquake in the history of the town struck on July 31, 1786, when more than 6.000 people died. On June 26, 1958 an earthquake of 5.0 magnitude struck the town. On April 6, 2009, at 01:32 GMT (03:32 CEST) an earthquake of 6.3 magnitude struck central Italy with its epicentre near L'Aquila, at . The earthquake caused damage to between 3,000 and 11,000 buildings in the medieval city of L'Aquila. Several buildings also collapsed. 308 people were killed by the earthquake, and approximately 1,500 people were injured. Twenty of the victims were children. Around 65,000 people were made homeless. There were many students trapped in a partially collapsed dormitory. The April 6 earthquake was felt throughout Abruzzo; as far away as Rome, other parts of Lazio, Marche, Molise, Umbria, and Campania. * G8 summit 35th G8 summit: Because of the 2009 earthquake, the Berlusconi government decided to move that year's G8 summit from its scheduled Sardinian host of La Maddalena to L'Aquila, so that disaster funds would be distributed to the affected region and to show solidarity with the city's inhabitants. World leaders converged on L'Aquila on July 8 and many of them were given tours of the devastated city by the host Prime Minister. A Washington Post newspaper article on April 11, 2010, reported that in February 2010, residents of L'Aquila, frustrated that cleanup efforts of the destroyed downtown had not begun after ten months of waiting, had organized daily volunteer crews to haul away rubble themselves. Many of these displaced residents have been re-housed in new housing on the fringe of town, and missed the vibrant life, shops and cafes downtown that were damaged and shuttered (reportedly some 2,000 businesses have closed). As of Dec 2011 the old city center is still in ruins, many buildings are held in place by external support systems of various kinds. There is an eerie sense to the deserted center, street after a street, some of it accessible by foot, while a large part of the old city is sealed up by the Military who are also present with a few patrol cars. The main churches and other buildings of special interest are closed up but plans are underway to preserve at least the most notables of them. With the heavy cost of rebuilding, and the current national and European economical situation, the future of the majority of the buildings is in the balance and with no immediate plans to restore them, time and weather will surely help their deterioration over time. * Climate Main sights : Although less than an hour-and-a-half drive from Rome, and a popular summer and winter resort with Romans hiking and skiing in the surrounding mountains, the city has not yet been heavily affected by foreign tourism. In the highest part of the town is the massive Spanish fort (Forte Spagnolo), erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro de Toledo in 1534. It is currently home to the National Museum of Abruzzo. The Cathedral of San Massimo (Duomo) was built in the 13th century, but crumbled down during the 1703 earthquake. The most recent façade is from the 19th century, but after the earthquake of 2009 and subsequent aftershocks the transept and possibly more of the Cathedral has collapsed. The church of Saint Bernardino of Siena (1472) has a fine Renaissance façade by Nicolò Filotesio (commonly called Cola dell'Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb of the saint, decorated with beautiful sculptures, and executed by Silvestro Ariscola in 1480. The church of Santa Maria di Collemaggio, just outside the town, has a very fine Romanesque façade of simple design (1270–1280) in red and white marble, with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains the mausoleum of Pope Celestine V erected in 1517. Many smaller churches in the town have similar façades (S. Giusta, S. Silvestro and others). The town also contains some fine palaces: the municipality has a museum, with a collection of Roman inscriptions and some illuminated service books. The Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private collections of pictures. Outside the town is the Fontana delle novantanove cannelle, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed along three walls, constructed in 1272. The source of the fountain is still unknown. A well-known city landmark is the Fontana Luminosa ("Luminous Fountain"), a sculpture of two women bearing large jars, built in the 1930s. The local cemetery includes the grave of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, a 19th‑century German gay rights pioneer, who lived and died at L'Aquila: every year, gay people from all over the world meet at the cemetery to honour his memory. The surrounding area boasts Roman ruins (the important Roman city of Amiternum), ancient monasteries, and numerous castles. The best-known of these is Rocca Calascio (used in the 1980s as the location for the movie Ladyhawke), which is the highest castle in Italy and one of the highest in Europe. Also nearby are several ski resorts like Gran Sasso d'Italia, the highest of the Apennines where in its valley the movie The Name of the Rose was filmed in the end of the 1980s. Culture: Cinematographic activities: The first step of L'Aquila in the cinematographic activities was the Cineforum Primo Piano founded by Gabriele Lucci in the middle of 1970s. As a work of Lucci, in 1981 saw the establishment of l'Istituto Cinematografico dell'Aquila, an institute for the production and diffusion of the cinematographic culture in Italia and abroad. The Teatro Stabile d'Abruzzo is based in the city and was formed in 2000. Sport: The city is the home of five-time Italian champions L'Aquila Rugby. The football squad, L'Aquila Calcio, played 3 times in serie B. Frazioni: There are some frazioni, villages around principal towns, surrounding L'Aquila. The following is a list of surrounding frazioni: Aquilio, Aragno, Aringo, Arischia, Assergi, Bagno, Bazzano, Camarda, Cansatessa, Casaline, Cermone, Cese, Civita di Bagno, Colle di Preturo, Colle di Sassa, Colle Roio - Poggio di Roio, Collebrincioni, Collefracido, Coppito, Filetto, Foce, Forcelle, Genzano, Gignano, Monticchio, Onna, Paganica, Pagliare di Sassa, Pescomaggiore, Palombaia, Pettino, Pianola, Pile, Pizzutillo, Poggio Roio, Poggio Santa Maria, Pozza di Preturo, Pratelle, Preturo, Ripa, Roio Piano - Poggio di Roio, San Giacomo alto, San Giuliano, San Gregorio, San Leonardo, San Marco Di Preturo, San Martino di Sassa, Santa Rufina, Sant'Angelo, Sant'Elia, Santi, San Vittorino, Sassa, Tempera, Torretta, Valle Pretara, Vallesindola, Vasche. International relations: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy: Twin towns — Sister cities: L'Aquila is twinned with: Notable residents: * Mariangelo Accursio, (Aquila, 1489 - Aquila, 1546), Humanist * Amico Agnifili, (Rocca di Mezzo, 1398 - Aquila, 1476), Cardinal * Anton Ludovico Antinori, (Aquila, 1704 - Aquila, 1778), historian * Corrado Bafile (1903–2005), Cardinal * Giulio Cesare Benedetti Guelfaglione, (Aquila, ? - Rome, 1656), Physician * Bernardino da Siena, (Massa Marittima, 1380 – Aquila, 1444), saint. * Braccio da Montone, (Perugia, 1368 - Aquila, 1424), condottiero * Giovanbattista Branconio dell'Aquila, (Aquila, 1473 - 1522), papal protonotary, friend of Raphael * Buccio di Ranallo, (Aquila 1294 - Aquila 1363), epic poet. * Raffaele Cappelli (1848–1921) * John of Capistrano, (Capestrano, 1386 - Ilok, 1456), saint * Cesare Campana, (Aquila, 1532 - Vicenza, 1606), Historian and Poet * Celestine V, (?, 1215 - Fumone, 1296), saint * Pompeo Cesura, (Aquila, ? - Rome, 1571), painter * Filipe Lorenzo Cianfarani (Phil Farren) 1874-1952, bandmaster Indiana * Appius Claudius Caecus, (Amiternum, 350 a.C. - ?, 271 a.C.), Roman Politician * Nazzareno De Angelis (1881–1962), opera singer * Serafino De' Ciminelli, (Aquila, 1466 - Rome, 1500), poet * Carlo Franchi (1698–1769), racing driver * Mario Magnotta (1942–2009), janitor and internet phenomena * Lorenzo Natali, (Florence,1922 – Rome,1989), vice-president of the European Commission. * Paul Piccone (1940–2004), founder and editor of TELOS. * Cesare Rivera, (Aquila, 1539 - Napoli, 1602), humanist * Roberto Ruscitti (b. 1941), composer * Sallustius (4th century), historian * Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (1825–1895), writer * Trebisonda Valla, (Bologna 1916 – L'Aquila 2006), Olympic gold medal * Amleto Vespa (1888–1940), spy for Japan * Bruno Vespa (b. 1944), journalist

L'Aquila L'Aquila L'Aquila est une ville d'environ habitants, chef-lieu de la province homonyme et capitale de la région des Abruzzes en Italie. Étymologie : En italien, le terme aquila signifie aigle, une espèce effectivement présente dans les Apennins environnants, et dont la ville a fait son emblème. Toutefois, le toponyme ne renvoie pas au rapace mais au terme latin aqua, l'eau ; le sous-sol de la ville est en effet particulièrement riche en ressources hydriques, et a favorisé depuis le , la construction du premier centre habité, nommé Acculae . Géographie : Proche du plus haut sommet des Apennins, le Gran Sasso, L'Aquila est située à d'altitude, dans la vallée de l'Aterno-Pescara, coincée entre 4 montagnes supérieures à . Celles-ci bloquent l'arrivée des courants d'air maritime doux et humide et bénéficient d'un climat sec et froid. Selon un dicton, L'Aquila connaît « 11 mois froids et 1 mois frais ». La ville est également réputée pour être la ville la plus froide d’Italie. Elle est distante de Rome de , dont elle est reliée par l'autoroute ; en revanche, aucun chemin de fer ne relie directement la ville à la capitale italienne. Pour aller par train de Rome à L'Aquila il faut changer à Terni, comptant au moins trois heures de voyage. Histoire : Époque médiévale : Fondée en 1254 sous le nom d'Aquila, elle porte son nom actuel depuis 1939. On raconte qu'elle fut fondée par la réunion de 99 paroisses. Une fontaine perpétue cette légende . L'Aquila a vu le couronnement de Pietro di Morrone, devenu pape sous le nom de Célestin V: , le . Il a fondé un ordre monastique qui porte son nom qui eut plus de 20 implantations en France. Son corps repose depuis 1517 dans un somptueux tombeau de la basilique Santa Maria di Collemaggio, qu'il avait fait construire en 1286. Mariano d'Abbattegio fut gouverneur de la ville en 1317. Époque contemporaine : L'Aquila fut endommagée par les tremblements de terre de 1703 et 1706. Elle fut prise par les Français en 1798 et par les Autrichiens en 1815. Le , à 3 h 32: du matin, la ville connut un violent refnec: qui fit 295 morts (selon un bilan du 15 avril 2009 refnec: ). L'ASI (Agence spatiale italienne) a comparé les images de L'Aquila prises par les satellites avant (23 mars 2009) et après (8 avril 2009) le tremblement de terre, montrant ainsi que le centre de la ville s'était déplacé de . Le président du Conseil Silvio Berlusconi a décidé d'y organiser le 35e: sommet du G8 du 8 au 10 juillet 2009. Économie : L'Aquila abrite un des plus grands laboratoires de recherche de physique des particules. La ville est aussi le siège d'une université. Lieux et monuments : Bien que située à moins d'une heure et demie de Rome, la ville n'a pas encore été fortement touchée par le tourisme étranger. Dans la partie haute de la ville se trouve le fort espagnol (Forte Spagnolo), érigé par le vice-roi espagnol Don Pedro de Tolède en 1534. Il abrite actuellement le Musée National des Abruzzes. La cathédrale Saint-Georges et Saint-Maxime (Duomo) a été construite au XIII: , mais elle s'est écroulée lors du séisme de 1703. La façade la plus récente est du , mais après le tremblement de terre de 2009 et les répliques suivantes, le transept s'est effondré. La basilique Saint-Bernardin de Sienne (1472) possède une belle façade Renaissance de Nicolò Filotesio (communément appelé dell'Amatrice Cola), et contient le tombeau monumental du saint, orné de belles sculptures, et exécuté par Silvestro Ariscola en 1480. La basilique Sainte-Marie de Collemaggio, juste à l'extérieur de la ville, a une très belle façade romane de conception simple (1270-1280) en marbre rouge et blanc, avec trois portails finement décorés et une rosace au dessus de chacun. Les deux portes latérales sont tout aussi remarquables. L'intérieur contient le mausolée du pape Célestin V érigé en 1517. Beaucoup de petites églises de la ville ont une façade semblable (S. Giusta, S. Silvestro et autres). La ville abrite aussi quelques beaux palais : la municipalité a un musée avec une collection d'inscriptions romaines. Les palais Dragonetti et Persichetti contiennent des collections privées d'enluminures. En dehors de la ville, se trouve la Fontaine des 99 jets (les jets sont répartis le long de trois murs), construite en 1272. Un monument de la ville bien connu est la fontaine lumineuse, une sculpture de deux femmes portant de grandes jarres, construite dans les années 1930. Le cimetière local recèle la tombe de Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, un pionnier des droits des homosexuels qui a vécu et est mort à L'Aquila : chaque année, des homosexuels venus du monde entier se réunissent au cimetière pour honorer sa mémoire. Les environs regorgent de ruines romaines (de la ville romaine d'Amiternum), d'anciens monastères, et de nombreux châteaux. Le plus connu d'entre eux est le Château de Rocca Calascio (utilisé dans les années 1980 pour le tournage du film Ladyhawke, la femme de la nuit), qui est le plus grand château d'Italie et l'un des plus élevés d'Europe. Également à proximité, plusieurs stations de ski du Gran Sasso d'Italia, le plus élevé des sommets des Apennins, où a été tourné le film Le Nom de la Rose à la fin des années 1980. Personnalités : Personnalités nées à L'Aquila : * Salluste (86-35 av. J.-C.), homme politique, militaire et historien romain, né à Amiternum (aujourd'hui sur le territoire de la frazione de San Vittorino) * Mariangelo Accursio (1489-1546), écrivain. * Corrado Bafile (1903-2005), cardinal. * Giovanni Battista Branconio dell'Aquila (1473-1522), protonotaire apostolique. * Frères d'Alessandri, (1818-1893 et 1824-1889), photographes. * Nazzareno De Angelis, (1881-1962), chanteur d'opéra. * Andrea Masi (1981-), rugbyman. * Maurizio Zaffiri (1978-), rugbyman. Autres : * Célestin V: (1209 -1296), élu pape en 1294 et consacré à Sainte-Marie de Collemaggio. Administration : MaireIni: MaireEnd: Hameaux : Aragno, Arischia, Assergi, Bagno, Bazzano, Camarda, Cese, Civita di Bagno, Casaline, Collebrincioni, Colle di Preturo, Colle di Roio, Colle di Sassa, Collefracido, Coppito, Filetto di Camarda, Foce, Genzano, Monticchio, Onna, Paganica, Pagliare di Sassa, Palombara, Pescomaggiore, Pianola, Poggio di Roio, Preturo, Ripa, Roio Piano, San Benedetto, San Giuliano, San Gregorio, Sant'angelo, Sant'Elia, San Vittorino, Santi, Sassa, Tempera, Vallesindola. Communes limitrophes : Antrodoco (RI), Barete, Barisciano, Borgorose (RI), Cagnano Amiterno, Campotosto, Capitignano, Crognaleto (TE), Fano Adriano (TE), Fossa, Isola del Gran Sasso d'Italia (TE), Lucoli, Magliano de' Marsi, Ocre, Pietracamela (TE), Pizzoli, Rocca di Cambio, Rocca di Mezzo, Santo Stefano di Sessanio, Scoppito, Tornimparte Évolution démographique : Démographie commune d'Italie/L'Aquila: Sports : L'Aquila possède un club de rugby nommé L'Aquila Rugby. Jumelages : L'Aquila est jumelée avec les villes suivantes : *

تصغير (لغة) صرف التصغير تغيير في بناء الاسم للدلالة على معان شتى منها التصغير والتحقير والتقليل والتقريب. تصغير الأسماء مطرد وتصغير الأفعال والحروف شاذ. عربية: يكون التصغير في العربية بأحد ثلاثة أوزان هي فعيل وفعيعل وفعيعيل بضم الفاء وفتح العين الأولى وكسر الثانية، والياء في هذه الأوزان تسمى ياء التصغير. ويأني التصغير أحيانا بزيادة علامة التصغير — كياء التصغير في الأوزان الثلاثة المذكورة وأحوالا بزيادة ألف التصغير كالتي في تيا تصغير تا وهي اسم إشارة إلى المؤنث بمنزلة ذا للمذكر […] مصغرة تصغيرا لأمرها والأَلف في آخرها علامة التصغير وليست التي في مكبرها.: — لسان العرب

Diminutive Linguistic morphology | Suffixes In language structure, a diminutive, or diminutive form (abbreviated dim: ), is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment. It is the opposite of an augmentative. While many languages apply the grammatical diminutive to nouns, a few also use it for adjectives and even other parts of speech (see Dutch, Italian, Latin, Romanian, Portuguese, Russian, Slovene, and Yiddish examples below). Diminutives are often used for the purpose of expressing affection (see nickname and hypocoristic). In many languages, the meaning of diminution can be translated "tiny" or "wee", and diminutives are used frequently when speaking to small children; adult people sometimes use diminutives when they express extreme tenderness and intimacy by behaving and talking like children. (See Apocopation). In some languages, diminutives are formed in a regular way by adding affixes to nouns and proper names; in English the alteration of meaning is often conveyed through clipping, either alone or combined with an affix. English diminutives tend to be shorter and more colloquial than the basic form of the word; diminutives formed by adding affixes in other languages are often longer and not necessarily colloquial. In many languages, formation of diminutives by adding suffixes is a productive part of the language. All nouns, not just proper nouns can be diminuted. The word "diminutive" is used in a narrower and less vague sense here than when referring to English. The basic meaning of diminution in these languages is "smallness of the object named"; endearment, intimacy, etc. is secondary and dependent on context. For example, the name of one the last Roman emperors of the western part of the Roman Empire—Romulus Augustus—was diminuted to Romulus Augustulus (little Augustus) to emphasise the contrast between the grandness of the name and political insignificance of its bearer; in this case the connotation of diminution is derogatory, not endearing. A double diminutive is a diminutive form with two diminutive suffixes rather than one. 4: Indo-European languages: Germanic languages: English: Productive diminutives are not common in Standard English in comparison with many other languages. Nevertheless, most dialects of English feature a fair lot of sidling and diminutives. Terms such as "movie" for "moving picture" are oft-heard in English. Sometimes a diminutive lengthens the original word: e.g., "hottie" to denote a sexually appealing (or "hot") young man or woman. (Note that analogous expressions in languages in which diminution is a regular part of the grammar would not be called diminutives.) Diminutives of first names are often encountered, e.g., Maggie (from Margaret), Sally (from Sarah), or Suzie (from Suzanne); however, they also function as nicknames. English has also borrowed liberally from other languages when producing new diminutives: e.g., -ette is from French. However, some of those are lexicalized and, in many contexts, do not function as proper diminutives in modern English. English diminutives: * -k//-uck: bollock, bullock, buttock, fetlock, hillock, mattock (OE mattuc), , pillock, stalk, whelk, yolk * -n//-on (accusative or feminine): chicken, kitten, maiden * (defrequentative -l): puddle, sparkle * (disparative): , , , * (degenitive): Becks, Betts, Wills * -sie/-sies/-sy (babytalk assimilative or from patrici- of Patsy): , footsie (1930), halfsies, , (1860), , tootsie (1854), , Betsy, Patsy, Robsy * (American devocative, later Commonwealth): bucko, , garbo, , smoko, , , Ricko, * / (agentive, intensive, hypocoristic, also elided rhotic -a): bonkers (1948), (1940), (1905), Becker[s], Lizzers, Hankster, Patster * (Geordie assimilative -er): Gazza, Macca * (geordie degenitive -s): Bez, Chaz, Gaz Loanwords: * (Norse defrequentative-patrinominative): darling, duckling, fingerling, gosling, * (Francish-Latin comparative, pejorative -(t)eriale): cockerel (1450s), coistrel (1570s), doggerel (1249), (15th century), (14th century), , (15th century), (1300ish), (1180), mongrel (1540s), pickerel (1388), puckerel, (1589), suckerel, (18th century, N for E tearstrel: tear+-ster+-rel), tumbrel (1223), titterel/whimbrel (1520s), (1847) * -el///-l/-le (Norman-Francish lenite -c-/-g- or metathetic -i- dim. -iol-): (14th century; F brusle), (15th century; VL brodicula), griddle (1300ish, ME gridel, F gredil, VL graticula; cognate with E hurdle), grille (1661), (1250s; F jaiole, nF gaiole, VL gabiola, L caveola), mail (1320; L macula), (1400), (1300ish; ML quaccula), (1320; L regula), (1460; VL rasculum), (1450s; VL ragula), roll (1300ish), squirrel (1327), (1300ish; VL tudicula), (1300ish; VL tragula) * /////// (F-S-I-L defrequentative -itat-): amaretto, burrito, cigarette, clarinet, courgette, diskette, fajita, falsetto, faucet (1400ish), gambit (1656), kitchenette, marionette, minuet, oubliette, palette, pallet (1350s), parquet, poppet (1300ish), puppet (16th century), rabbit (1380), Sagitta, , spaghetti, suffragette, (1660ish), taquito, towelette, wallet (1350s) * / (F ablaut or assimilative dim.-defreq. -ultat-): culottes, harlot (13th century), Charlotte, Diderot, Lancelot (1180), , Peugeot, Pierrot * / (F dim.-defreq.): aglet (15th century), applet (1995), (1859), chicklet (1886), eyelet (1400), gauntlet, goblet, hamlet (15th century), leaflet (1787), (1350s), omelette (1611), piglet (1883), roulette (1734), tablet (1300ish) * // (Scottish-Dutch dim., 15th century-on): cookie (1703), daddy (1500ish), , doggy (1820), (1942), kitty (16th century), laddie (1546), mammy (1520), mommy (1902), (1820), sissy (1846), whitey (1820), Debbie, Frankie, (1820), Johnny (1670), Marty, Morty, Nancy * (Dutch dim.-acc. /, 15th century-on): bodkin, , catkin, , manikin, napkin, , ramekin, welkin (OE wolcen) * (hýpocoristic dim.-degen.): Laurakins, Sallykins * ////-ola////// (Francish-Spanish-Italian-Latin , mainly 17th century-on): alveolus, areola, areole, , cannoli, casserole, cerulean, , curriculum, Equuleus, ferrule, formula, granule, homunculus, insula, malleolus, majuscule, minuscule, nodule, nucleus, nucleolus, particle, pergola, pendulum, pianola, piccolo, ravioli, , , , , spatula, tarantula, vacuole, vinculum, vocable * /////-il//-ille//-le (F-S-I-L bidim.; E -kin): armadillo, , bureau, castle (OE castel, Händl, Man(fred) > Mändl (both with epenthetic d and umlaut), (Gott)fried > Friedl, and so on. * Swabian In Swabian German this is done by adding a -le suffix (the e being distinctly pronounced, but not stressed). For example, a small house would be a "Häusle" or a little girl a "Mädle". A unique feature of Swabian is that not only nouns may be suffixed with -le, which has no counterpart in other German dialects, High German, or other languages: wasele (diminutive of was, what) or jetzetle (diminutive of jetzt, now) or kommele (diminutive of kommen, come). (In both Spanish and Italian, these may be formed similarly, e.g. igualito – diminutive of igual, same and pochino or pochettino - diminutive of poco, a little/a few). Many variants of Swabian also have a plural diminutive suffix: -la. E.g.: "oi Mädle, zwoi Mädla." * High Alemannic In High Alemannic the standard suffix -li is added to the root word. A little would be äs bitzli (literally a little bite) as to "ein bisschen" in Standard German. The diminutive form of bitzli is birebitzli. Vowels of proper names often turn into an umlaut in Highest Alemannic, whereas in High Alemannic it remains the same. Proper names: Christian becomes Chrigi, in Highest Alemannic: Chrigu. Sebastien becomes Sebi resp. Sebu. Sabrina becomes Sabsi resp. Säbe. Corinne becomes Cogi resp. Cogä. Barbara becomes Babsi resp. Babsä, Robert becomes Röbi resp. Röbu. Jakob becomes Köbi resp. Köbu. Gabriel becomes Gäbu in Highest Alemannic. * Low German In East Frisian Low Saxon, -je, -tje, and -pje are used as a diminutive suffix (e.g. huis becomes huisje (little house); boom becomes boompje (little tree)). Compare this with the High German suffix -chen (see above). Some words have a slightly different suffix, even though the diminutive always ends with -je. For example, man becomes mannetje (little man). All these suffixes East Frisian Low Saxon shares with Dutch (detailed above). In other varieties of West Low German, spoken in the east of the Netherlands, diminutives occasionally use the umlaut in combination with the suffixes -gie(n): * man → mānnegie (EN: man → little man) * kom → kōmmegie (EN: bowl → little bowl) In Northern Low Saxon, the -je diminutive is rarely used, except maybe Gronings, such as in Buscherumpje, a fisherman's shirt. It is usually substituted with lütte, meaning "little", as in dat lütte Huus- the small house. The same goes for the North Germanic languages. Historically, some common Low German surnames were derived from (clipped) first names using the -ke(n) suffix; for example, Ludwig > Lüdeke, Wilhelm > Wilke(n), Wernher > Werneke, and so on. Some of these name bases are difficult to recognize in comparison to standard German; for example, Dumke, Domke frumușel (beautiful ; pretty) Adverbs repede > repejor (fast ; quite fast) Pronouns dumneata (you, polite form) > mata > mătăluță (used to address children respectfully in a non-familial context) nimic ( nothing)> nimicuța nițel (a little something) * Spanish Spanish naming customs: Spanish is a language rich in diminutives, and uses suffixes to create them: * -ito/-ita, words ending in -o or -a (rata, "rat" → ratita. Ojo, "eye" → ojito. Cebolla, "onion" → cebollita), * -cito/-cita, words ending in -e or consonant (león, "lion" → leoncito. Café, "coffee" → cafecito), * -illo/-illa (flota; "fleet" → flotilla. Guerra, "war" → guerrilla. Cámara, "chamber" → camarilla), * -ico/-ica, words ending in -to and -tro (plato, "plate" → platico), * -ín/-ina (pequeño/a, "little" → pequeñín(a). Muchacho/a, "boy" → muchachín(a)) * -ete/-eta (Pandero, "tambourine" → pandereta). Other less common suffixes are * -uelo/-uela (pollo, "chicken" → polluelo), * -zuelo/-zuela [pejorative] (ladrón, "thief" → landronzuelo), * -uco/-uca (nene, "children" → nenuco), * -ucho/-ucha [pejorative] (médico, "doctor" → medicucho), * -ijo/-ija (lagarto, "lizard" → lagartija), * -izno/-izna (lluvia, "rain" → llovizna), * -ajo/-aja (miga, "crumb" → migaja), * -ino/-ina (niebla, "fog" → neblina). Some speakers use a suffix in a word twice, which gives a more affectionate sense to the word. * chico, "boy" → chiquito → chiquitito/a, chiquitico/a, chiquitín(a). * pie, "foot" → piecito → piececito, piececillo. Sometimes alternating different suffixes can change the meaning. * (La) mano, "hand" → manita (or manito), "little hand", or manilla or manecilla, "hand (clock)". * Baltic languages * Lithuanian Lithuanian is known for its array of diminutive forms. Diminutives are generally constructed with suffixes applied to the noun stem. By far, the most common are those with -elis/-elė or -ėlis/-ėlė. Others include: -ukis/-ukė, -ulis/-ulė, -užis/-užė, -utis/-utė, -ytis/-ytė, etc. Suffixes may also be compounded, e.g.: -užis + -ėlis → -užėlis. In addition to denoting small size and/or endearment, they may also function as amplificatives (augmentatives), pejoratives (deterioratives), and to give special meanings, depending on context. Lithuanian diminutives are especially prevalent in poetic language, such as folk songs. Examples: * ąžuolas (oak) → ąžuolėlis, ąžuoliukas * brolis (brother) → brolelis, broliukas, brolytis, brolužis, brolužėlis, brolutytis, broliukėlis, etc. * klevas (maple) → klevelis, klevukas, klevutis * pakalnė (slope) → pakalnutė (Lily-of-the-valley, Convallaria) * saulė (sun) → saulelė, saulytė, saulutė, saulužė, saulužėlė, etc. * svogūnas (onion) → svogūnėlis (bulb) * vadovas (leader) → vadovėlis (textbook, manual) * Latvian In Latvian diminutives are widely used and are generally constructed with suffixes applied to the noun stem. The most common are those with -iņš/-iņa or -ītis/-īte. Others include: -ēns, -elis/-ele. Examples: * laiva → laiviņa (boat) * brālis → brālītis (brother) * cālis → cālēns (chicken) * Slavic languages * Slovene Slovene typically forms diminutives of nouns (e.g., čajček * Grzegorz (Gregory) → Grześ, Grzesiek, Grzesio, Grzesiu * Michał (Michael) → Michałek, Michaś, Misiek, Michasiek, Michaszek, Misiu * Piotr (Peter) → Piotrek, Piotruś, Piotrusiek, * Tomasz (Thomas) → Tomek, Tomuś, Tomcio, Tomeczek, Tomaszek * ptak (bird) → ptaszek, ptaszeczek, ptaś, ptasiątko Neuter * pióro (feather) → piórko, pióreczko * serce (heart) → serduszko, serdeńko * mleko (milk) → mleczko * światło (light) → światełko * słońce (sun) → słoneczko, słonko Plural * kwiaty (flowers) → kwiatki, kwiatuszki, kwiateczki Adjectives * mały (small) (masculine) → maleńki, malusi, malutki, maluśki, malusieńki * mała (small) (feminine) → maleńka, malusia, malutka, maluśka, malusieńka * zielony (green) (masculine) → zieloniutki * zielonkawy (greenish) (masculine) → zieloniutkawy * miękkie (soft) (neuter) → mięciutkie Adverbs * prędko (fast) → prędziutko, prędziuteńko, prędziuśko, prędziusieńko * prędzej (faster) → prędziusiej * fajnie → fajniusio * super → supcio Verbs * płakać (to weep) → płakuniać, płakuńciać, płakusiać * Russian Russian has a wide variety of diminutive forms for names, to the point that for non-Russian speakers it can be difficult to connect a nickname to the original. Diminutive forms for nouns are usually distinguished with -ик, -ок, -ёк (-ik, -ok, -iok, masculine gender), -чк-, -шк-, -oньк- or -еньк- (-chk-, -shk-, -on'k-, -en'k-) infixes and suffixes. For example, вода (voda, water) becomes водичка (vodichka, affectionate name of water), кот (kot, male cat) becomes котик (kotik, affectionate name), кошка (koshka, female cat) becomes кошечка (koshechka, affectionate name), солнце (solntse, sun) becomes солнышко (solnyshko). Often there are many diminutive forms for one word: мама (mama, mom) becomes мамочка (mamochka, affectionate sense), мамуля (mamulia, affectionate and playful sense), маменька (mamen'ka, affectionate and old-fashioned), маманя (mamania, affectionate but disdainful), - all of them have different hues of meaning, which are hard to understand for a foreigner, but are very perceptible for a native speaker. Sometimes you can combine several diminutive suffixes to make several degrees of diminution: пирог (pirog, a pie) becomes пирожок (pirozhok, a small pie, or an affectionate name) which then may become пирожочек (pirozhochek, a very small pie, or an affectionate name). The same with сыр (syr, cheese), сырок (syrok, an affectionate name or a name of a small packed piece of cheese, see the third paragraph), сырочек (syrochek, an affectionate name). In both cases the first suffix -ок changes к to ч, when the suffix -ек is added. Often formative infixes and suffixes look like diminutive ones. The well known word водка (vodka) has the suffix -ka, which is not a diminutive, but formative, the word has a different meaning (not water, but a drink) and has its own diminutive suffix -ochka: водочка (vodochka) is an affectionate name of vodka (compare voda - vodichka). There are may examples of this kind: сота (sota, a honeycomb) and сотка (sotka, one hundred sqr. meter), труба (truba, a tube) and трубка (trubka, a special kind of a tube: telephone receiver, TV tube, tobacco pipe - in all these cases there is no diminutive sense). However, трубка also means a small tube (depending on context). But most of the time you can tell diminutive particle from formative by simply omitting the suffix. If the meaning of a word remains, the suffix is diminutive. For example: кучка (kuchka, a small pile) -> куча (kucha, a pile) - the general meaning remains, it is a diminutive form, but тачка (tachka, wheelbarrow) -> тача (tacha, no such word) - the general meaning changes, it is not a diminutive form, потолок (potolok, ceiling) -> потол (potol, no such word) - the same with masculine gender. There is one more peculiarity. For example, the word конь (kon', a male horse) has a diminutive form конёк (koniok). But конёк (koniok) also means a skate (ice-skating, no diminutive sense in this case), and has another diminutive form конёчек (koniochek, a small skate). The word конёк also means a gable with no diminutive sense. Adjectives and adverbs can also have diminutive forms with infix -еньк- (-en'k-): синий (siniy, blue) becomes синенький (sinen'kiy), быстро (bystro, quickly) becomes быстренько (bystren'ko). In case of adjectives the use of diminutive form is aimed to intensify the effect of diminutive form of a noun. Diminutive forms of adverbs are used to express either benevolence in the speech or on the contrary to express superciliousness, depending on the inflection of a whole phrase. Some diminutives of proper names, among many others: Feminine * Anastasia → Nastia (as in Nastia Liukin), Nasten'ka * Anna → Anya, An'ka, Anka, Anechka, Annushka, Aniuta * Irina → Ira, Irka, Irochka * Natalya → Natasha, Natashka, Natashen'ka * Tatyana → Tania, Tan'ka, Tanechka, Taniusha * Yelizaveta → Liza, Lizochka, Lizka, Lizon'ka * Yekaterina → Katia, Katiusha, Katen'ka, Kat'ka, Katechka * Yevgeniya → Zhenia, Zhen'ka, Zhenechka Masculine * Aleksander → Sasha, Sashka, Sashen'ka, Sashechka * Aleksey → Aliosha (as in Alyosha Popovich), Alioshka, Alioshen'ka, Lyosha, Lyoshka, Lyoshen'ka * Andrei → Andriusha, Andriushka, Andriushechka * Dmitriy → Dima, Mitia, Dimka, Dimushka, Dimochka, Miten'ka * Ivan → Vanya, Van'ka, Vanechka, Vaniusha, Vaniushka, Ivanushka * Mikhail → Misha, Mishka, Mishen'ka, Mishechka * Pyotr → Petia, Pet'ka, Peten'ka, Petiunia * Sergey → Seriozha, Seriozhka, Seriozhen'ka * Vladimir → Volodya, Voloden'ka, Vova, Vovka, Vovochka * Celtic languages * Irish In the Irish language diminutives are formed by adding -ín, and sometimes, -án. Rós (Rose) > Róisín (Rosalie, Rosaleen) Seán > Seáinín (Johnny) Séamas > Séamaisín, Jimín Pádraig > Páidín (Paddy) bóthar (road) > bóithrín (country lane) cailleach (old woman, hag, witch) > cailín (girl) [origin of the name Colleen] firín, also feairín, (little man) teach, also tigh, (house) > tigín, also teaichín cloch (stone) > cloichín (pebble) sráid (street) > sráidín (lane, alleyway) séipéal (chapel) > séipéilín (small chapel) This suffix is also used to create the female equivalent of some male names: Pádraig > Pádraigín (Patricia) Gearóid (Gerald/Gerard) > Gearóidín (Geraldine) Pól (Paul) > Póilín (Paula) -án as a diminutive suffix is much less frequent nowadays (though it was used extensively as such in Old Irish): leabhar (book) > leabhrán (booklet, manual, handbook) cnoc (hill) > cnócán (hillock) Scottish Gaelic: Scottish Gaelic has two inherited diminutive suffixes of which only one (-(e)ag) is considered productive. * -(e)ag, feminine: Mòr ("Sarah") → Mòrag, Loch Nis (Loch Ness) → Niseag ("Nessie") * -(e)an, masculine: loch → lochan, bodach (old man) → bodachan (mannikin) Greek: Ancient Greek: Several diminutive derivational suffixes existed in Ancient Greek. The most common ones were -ιο-, -ισκο-/-ισκᾱ-, -ιδ-ιο-, -αρ-ιο-: . Modern Greek: Diminutives are very common in Modern Greek. Literally every noun has its own diminutive. They express either small size or affection: size -aki (σπίτι/spiti "house", σπιτάκι/spitaci "little house"; λάθος/lathos "mistake", λαθάκι/lathaci "negligible mistake") or affection -ula (μάνα/mana "mother", μανούλα/manula "mommy"). The most common suffixes are -άκης/-acis and -ούλης/-ulis for the male gender, -ίτσα/-itsa and -ούλα/-ula for the female gender, and -άκι/-aci for the neutral gender. Several of them are common as suffixes of surnames, originally meaning the offspring of a certain person, e.g. Παπάς/Papas "priest" with Παπαδάκης/Papadacis as the surname. Indic languages: Haryanvi: In Haryanvi, proper nouns are made diminutive with 'u' (unisex), 'da' (masculine), 'do' (masculine) and 'di' (feminine). This is of course most often applied to children's names, though lifelong nicknames can result: * Bharat → Bhartu → demonstrates the use of 'u' for a male * Vaishali → Vishu → demonstrates the use of 'u' for a female * Amit → Amitada → demonstrates the use of 'da' for a male * Vishal → Vishaldo → demonstrates the use of 'da' for a male * Sunita → Sunitadi → demonstrates the use of 'u' for a male Hindi: In Hindi, proper nouns are made diminutive with -u. This is of course most often applied to children's names, though lifelong nicknames can result: * Rajiv → Raju * Anita → Neetu * Anjali → Anju Magahi: In Magahi, proper nouns are made diminutive with -a or -wa. This is of course most often applied to children's names, though lifelong nicknames can result: * Raushan → Raushna * Vikash → Vikashwa * Anjali → Anjalia Marathi: In Marathi, masculine proper nouns are made diminutive with -ya or -u, while feminine proper nouns use -u and sometimes -ee. This is of course most often applied to children's names, though lifelong nicknames can result. Masculine : * Abhijit (अभिजित) → Abhya (अभ्या) * Rajendra (राजेंद्र) → Rajya (राज्या), Raju (राजू) Feminine : * Ashwini (अश्विनी) → Ashu (अशू) * Namrata (नम्रता) → Namee (नमी), Namu (नमू) Sinhala: In Sinhala, proper nouns are made diminutive with -a after usually doubling the last pure consonant, or adding -ya. * Rajitha → Rajja * Romesh → Romma * Sashika → Sashsha * Ramith → Ramiya Iranian languages: Persian: The most frequently used Persian diminutives are -cheh (چه-) and -ak (ک-). * Bâgh باغ (garden), bâghcheh باغچه (small garden) * Mard مرد (man), mardak مردک (this fellow) Other less used ones are -izeh and -zheh. * Rang رنگ (colour), rangizeh رنگیزه (pigment) * Nây نای (pipe), nâyzheh نایژه (small pipe, bronchus) Armenian: Armenian diminutive suffixes are , and . Dravidian languages: Tamil: * Ramanathan, Ramalingam, Ramasamy: Ramu * Adhiseshan: Seshu * Somanathan, Somaskanthan: Somu * Balakrishnan: Bala, Balki * SuryaNarayanan: Surya * Sivalingam: Siva * Nanthakumar, Nandikesan: Nandhu * Padmini: Padi * Alamelu: Alamu Telugu: * Srinivas శ్రీనివాస్: Seenu శీను Semitic languages: Arabic: In Modern Standard Arabic the usual diminutive pattern is Fu`ayL (CuCayC), with or without the feminine -ah added: * kūt كوت"fort" → kuwayt كويت "little fort" * hirra هِرّة "cat" → hurayrah هُرَيرة "kitten" In certain varieties of Arabic, reduplication of the last syllable is also used (similarly to Hebrew), as in: * Batta بطة "duck" → Batbota بطبوطة "small-duck" Hebrew: Modern Hebrew employs a reduplication pattern of its last syllable to mark diminutive forms. * kélev כלב (dog) : klavláv כלבלב (doggie) * khatúl חתול (cat) : khataltúl חתלתול (kitty) * batsál בצל (onion) : b'tsaltsál בצלצל (shallot) * adóm אדום (red) : adamdám אדמדם (reddish) * dag דג (fish) : dagíg דגיג (small fish) * sak שק (sack) : sakík שקיק (sachet; e.g. 'sakík te', a tea bag) Also, the suffixes -on and -it sometimes mark diminutive forms; the former is masculine and the latter is feminine. * kóva כובע (hat) : kovaʾón כובעון (small cap, also means condom) * yéled ילד (child) : yaldón ילדון ("kid") * sak שק (sack) : sakít שקית (bag; e.g. 'sakít plástik', a plastic bag) * kaf כף (spoon) : kapít כפית (teaspoon) Names can be made diminutive by substituting the last syllable for suffixes such as "-ik", "-i" or "-le", sometimes slightly altering the name for pronunciation purposes. At times, a syllable can be omitted to create an independent diminutive name, to which any of the suffixes mentioned earlier can be applied. In some cases, reduplication works as well. * Aryé אריה : Ári ארי * Ariél אריאל : Árik אריק * Mikhaél מיכאל : Míkha מיכה * Aharón אהרון : Á(ha)rale אהר'לה or Rón רון, which in turn can produce Róni רוני * Davíd דוד : Dúdu דודו, which in turn can produce Dúdi דודי Sino-Tibetan languages: Chinese: Personal names in Chinese, excluding the family name, are usually two characters in length. Often, the first of the two characters is omitted and replaced with the prefix character 小 xiǎo-, literally meaning "little", or 阿 ā- (more prevalent in Southern China) to produce an affectionate, diminutive name. For example, famous Cantopop singer 劉德華 Lau Tak-Wah (Andy Lau; Liú Déhuá) could use the nicknames 小華 Xiăohuá or 阿華 Āhuá. Sometimes, "-zǐ" is also used as a diminutive suffix. In the Cantonese dialect, the suffix 仔 (jzai2: ) is used after the second character in the individual's given name. Again using the name of famous Cantopop singer 劉德華 Lau Tak-Wah (Andy Lau; Liú Déhuá), the nickname he could (and does in fact) use in Hong Kong is 華仔 (j: waa4 zai2: ). A very distinctive characteristic of the Beijing dialect is the usage of "er"(儿) suffix to a word, or commonly known as erhua(儿化). The "er" suffix indicates a phonological process that adds r-coloring or the "ér" (儿) sound, as it demunitize the associated word. For example, 小孩 (xiǎohái) (small child) will be pronounced as 小孩儿 (xiǎoháir) in Beijing dialect. Turkic language: Turkish: :See also Turkish grammar Turkish diminutive suffixes are -cik and -ceğiz, and variants thereof as dictated by the vowel harmony rules of Turkish grammar. -cik is applied in cases of endearment and affection, in particular toward infants and young children by exaggerating qualities such as smallness and youth, whereas -ceğiz is used in situations of compassion and empathy, especially when expressing sympathy toward another person in times of difficulty. Note the effects of vowel harmony in the following examples: * köy (village) → köyceğiz (dear little village), kadın (woman) → kadıncağız (poor dear woman), çocuk (child) → çocukcağız (poor dear child) * kedi (cat) → kedicik (cute little cat), gül (laugh) → gülücük (giggles/cute little laugh), Mehmet (a common male name) → Mehmetçik (literally little/young Mehmet but also used as an affectionate term for Turkey's soldiers, see also Mehmetçik) Uralic languages: Estonian: The diminutive suffixes of Estonian "-kene" in its long form, but can be shortened to "-ke". In all grammatical cases except for the nominative and partitive singular, the "-ne" ending becomes "-se". It is fully productive and can be used with every word. Some Words, such as "päike(ne)" (sun), "väike(ne)" (little) or "pisike(ne)" (tiny), are diminutive in their basic form, the diminutive suffix cannot be removed from these words. The Estonian diminutive suffix can be used recursively - it can be attached to a word more than once. Forms such as "pisikesekesekene", having three diminutive suffixes, are grammatically legitimate. As is demonstrated by the example, in recursive usage all but the last diminutive "-ne" suffix become "-se" as in forms inflected by case. Finnish: The diminutive suffixes of Finnish "-ke", "-kka", and "-nen" are not universal, and cannot be used on every noun. The feature is common in Finnish surnames, f.e. 'Jokinen' could translate 'Streamling', but since this form is not used in speaking about streams, the surname could also mean 'lands by the stream' or 'lives by the stream'. Double diminutives also occur in certain words f.e. lapsukainen (child, not a baby anymore), lapsonen (small child), lapsi (child). Examples: ** -ke: haara (branch) → haarake (little branch), nimi (name) → nimike (label, tag) ** -kka: peni (dog (archaic)) → penikka (whelp, pup), nenä (nose) → nenukka (little nose) ** -nen: lintu (bird) → lintunen (little bird), poika (boy, son) → poikanen (little boy, animal offspring) Hungarian: Hungarian uses the suffixes -ka/ke and -cska/cske to form diminutive nouns. The suffixes -i and -csi may also be used with names. However, you traditionally cannot have the diminutive form of your name registered officially in Hungary (although a few of the most common diminutive forms have been registered as possible legal first names in the past years). Nouns formed this way are considered separate words (as all words that are formed using képző type suffixes). They may not even be grammatically related to the base word, only historically, whereas the relation has been long forgotten. Some examples: * Animals ** -us: kutya → kutyus (dog), cica → cicus (cat) ** -ci: medve → maci (bear), borjú → boci (calf) * Names ** -i: János (John) → Jani, Júlia → Juli, Kata → Kati, Mária → Mari, Sára → Sári ** -csi: János → Jancsi ** -ika/ike: Júlia → Julika, Mária → Marika ** -iska/iske: Júlia → Juliska, Mária → Mariska ** -us: Béla → Bélus ** -ci: Béla → Béci, László → Laci, Júlia → Juci ** -có: Ferenc → Fecó, József → Jocó ** -tya: Péter → Petya, Zoltán → Zotya ** -nyi: Sándor (Alexander) → Sanyi Note that these are all special diminutive suffixes. The universal -ka/ke and -cska/cske can be used to create further diminutive forms, e.g. kutyuska (little doggy), cicuska (little kitty). Theoretically, more and more diminutive forms can be created this way, e.g. kutyuskácskácska (little doggy-woggy-snoggy). Of course, this is not a common practice; the preferred translations are kutyulimutyuli (doggy-woggy) and cicamica (kitty-witty). In some cases, the diminutive suffix has become part of the basic form. These are no longer regarded as diminutive forms: * Animals: cinke (tit), róka (fox), csóka (jackdaw), szarka (magpie), pulyka (turkey), csirke (chicken) You can use the adjectives kicsi or kis (little) to create diminutive forms of these nouns, e.g. kicsi macska or kismacska (kitten). International auxiliary languages: Esperanto: : See also Esperanto word formation. For generic use (for living beings and inanimate objects), Esperanto has a single diminutive suffix, -et. * domo (house) → dometo (cottage) * varma (warm) → varmeta (lukewarm) * knabo (boy) → knabeto (little boy) For personal names and familial forms of address, the affixes -nj- and -ĉj- are used, for females and males respectively. Unusually for Esperanto, the "root" is often shortened, in an unpredictable manner, before being added to. * Patrino (Mother) → Panjo (Mum, Mom) * Mario/Maria (Mary, Maria) → Manjo, Marinjo * Sofio/Sofia (Sophie, Sophia) → Sonjo, Sofinjo * Patro (Father) → Paĉjo (Dad, Daddy) * Johano (John, Johann) → Johanĉjo, Joĉjo (Jack, Johnny) * Vilhelmo (William, Wilhelm) → Vilhelĉjo, Vilheĉjo, Vilĉjo, Viĉjo (Willy, Bill, Billy) Whereas languages such as Spanish may use the diminutive to denote offspring, as in "perrito" (pup), Esperanto has a dedicated and regular suffix, "-id" used for this purpose. Thus "hundeto" means "little dog" (such as a dog of a small breed), while "hundido" means a dog who is not yet fully grown. Interlingua: :See also Free word-building in Interlingua. Interlingua has a single diminutive suffix, -ett, for diminutives of all sorts. * Johannes (John) → Johannetto (Johnny) * camera (chamber, room) → cameretta (little room) * pullo (chicken) → pulletto (chick) Use of this suffix is flexible, and diminutives such as mama and papa may also be used. To denote a small person or object, many Interlingua speakers simply use the word parve, or small: * parve can → small dog * parve arbore → small tree Notes and references: reflist:

Diminutif Dérivation lexicale | Nom | Trait grammatical | Suffixe Un diminutif est un procédé de dérivation lexicale qui ajoute à un mot l'idée de petitesse ou de fragilité ; c'est l'opposé d'un augmentatif. Les diminutifs sont fréquemment utilisés comme hypocoristiques, c'est-à-dire pour ajouter une nuance affective, caressante au mot considéré. Ils sont ainsi fréquemment formés sur les noms propres, où ils correspondent à une forme de surnom. Les diminutifs sont d'un emploi assez restreint et figé en français, mais de nombreuses langues ont des procédés très productifs de formation des diminutifs, souvent par amuïssement ou suffixation. Langues construites : Espéranto : L'espéranto utilise trois suffixes différents pour former des diminutifs. * -ĉj- (diminutif affectueux masculin) (appliqué à la première ou aux deux premières syllabes du mot) : onklo (oncle) → oĉjo (tonton) ; patro (père) → paĉjo (papa) * -et- (diminutif renvoyant à un être vivant de sexe indéterminé ou une chose) : domo (maison) → dometo (maisonnette) * -nj- (diminutif affectueux féminin) (appliqué à la première ou aux deux premières syllabes du mot) : onklino (tante) → onjo (tantine, tata, tatie) ; patrino (mère) → panjo (maman) Langues germaniques : Allemand : L'allemand a deux diminutifs standard : * -chen : Mädchen (fille, de Magd resp. Maid : servante resp. jeune fille, fille non mariée), Veilchen (violette, de Veil : voile) ; * -lein : Röslein (de Rose : "rose"), Fräulein ("mademoiselle" de Frau (madame)) Dans les dialectes allemands, cette dernière forme donne des variantes -el (Mädel), -le (Mädle), -li (Maitli). Diminutif autrichien/bavarois: * -erl: Schwammerl (champignon, de Schwamm éponge; en bavarois et autrichien: champignon) * -dl: Dirndl (fille, de 'Dirne' archaïque: fille rurale grossière; sens actuel: prostitute) Anglais : Les diminutifs sont courants dans tous les dialectes de l'anglais. Des termes tels que undies ou movie sont souvent utilisés à la place de underwear ou de moving picture. Cependant, le diminutif est parfois plus long que le terme original. L'anglais a également emprunté à d'autres langues des procédés servant à créer des diminutifs : -ette, par exemple, provient du français. Les diminutifs les plus courants sont : * -ey/-y/-ie : dearie, foxie, doggy, kitty * -ette : diskette, cigarette, kitchenette, suffragette * -let : piglet, eyelet, gauntlet, tablet * -ling : duckling, gosling * -s(y) : Wills (Williams), Becks (Beckham) * -a : * -o : smoko Les diminutifs de prénoms sont très courants dans le monde anglophone : Bill pour William, Ted pour Edward, Molly pour Mary, Sally pour Sarah, etc. Néerlandais : Le néerlandais emploie le diminutif -je (plus rarement -tje, -mpje, -pje ou -etje; Bartje, Bart), et les dialectes flamand et brabançon (brusseleer) utilisent plutôt le diminutif -ke ou -eke (plus rarement -kje, -ske ou -ie; Bartke, Bart). Langues romanes : Français : En français, un diminutif est plutôt utilisé dans un cadre familier et affectif, tandis que son usage est beaucoup plus large dans d'autres langues. Plusieurs suffixes sont employés en français pour former des diminutifs : * -ette : camion → camionnette * -on : cabane → cabanon * -ule (qui vient du latin) : homme → homoncule, animal → animalcule Des diminutifs peuvent être formés par redoublement d'une syllabe : * mère → maman * père → papa * oncle → tonton * tante → tantine, tata, tatie Langues slaves : Russe : En russe, l'usage des diminutifs est très courant. Le suffixe -k (-ek, -ok) au masculin, -ka au féminin, -ko au neutre est fréquent pour les substantifs ; la vodka est une petite eau (voda : eau). Un même prénom peut avoir plusieurs diminutifs différents. Par exemple, le prénom « Aleksandr » donne : « Sacha », « Sachen’ka », « Sachoulia », « Choura » etc. Langues chamito-sémitiques : Arabe : La formation de diminutifs est très productive en arabe. En arabe standard moderne, un mot tel que fi`l : "action" ou fâ`il : "actif" a pour diminutif fu`ayl. Autres exemples : * qaSr : château (issu du latin), diminutif quSayr (cf. Qusair Amra) ; * kût : forteresse (issu des langues dravidiennes), diminutif kuwayt, d'où Koweït. * Hasan : beau, bon, Hassan, diminutif Husayn : Hussein. En arabe dialectal, on trouve quelques variantes de ce procédé ; ainsi le prénom Furtuna (Fortunée) donne Fritna et non Furaytuna. Hébreu : En hébreu, le diminutif est souvent formé par ajout de la forme féminine -ît, comme Ron : chant, Ronit : petit chant. Il y a aussi de nombreux diminutifs de prénoms en -î, masculins ou féminins : * Tzipi (cf. Tzipi Livni), de Tsippora (ou Séphora, épouse de Moïse) ; * Yossi (cf. Yossi Beilin), de Yôsef (Joseph) ; * Yaeli (cf. Yaeli Ronen), de Yael. Kabyle : En kabyle, le diminutif s'obtient souvent par féminisation (ajout d'un t en début et en fin de mot) : agemmun : mamelon de terrain, diminutif tagemmunt (tous les deux employés en toponymie). Plusieurs prénoms forment des diminutifs en -uc, -ic, -ac (-ouche, -iche, -ache en français) : * Briruc (Brirouche) de Yebrahim (cf. arabe Ibrahim : Abraham) ; * Werduc (Werdouche) de Werdeyya (cf. arabe Warda : "rose"). linguistique:

أغستاوستلاند AW101 مروحيات | مروحيات عسكرية | مروحيات البحث و الإنقاذ | مروحيات الجيش الجزائري مروحيات أغستاوستلاند AW101 أو ميرلين EH101 صممت هته المروحية في عز أيام الحرب الباردة و كان الهدف من تصنيعها هي أن تكون مضادة للغواصات. تصنف مروحيات أغستاوستلاند AW101 ضمن طائرة هليكوبتر متوسطة الرفع للتطبيقات العسكرية ولكن يتم تسويقها أيضا للاستخدام المدني. وقد وضعت هذه المروحية ، وهي مشروع مشترك بين المروحيات يستلاند في المملكة المتحدة و أجوستا (التي اندمجت الآن في أغستاوستلاند) في إيطاليا . البلدان التى تستعملها: يتم تصنيع الطائرات في المصانع أغستاوستلاند في يوفيل وانكلترا وفي فريغاتي بإيطاليا. ويستخدم اسم ميرلين AW101s في عدة جيوش * -الجزائر: : تستخدمها القوات البحرية الجزائرية * -المملكة المتحدة: : تستخدمها البحرية الملكية و سلاح الجو الملكي * -اليابان: : تستخدمها قسم شرطة العاصمة طوكيو * -البرتغال: :تستخدمها القوات الجوية البرتغالية * -الدنمارك: :تستخدمها القوات الجوية الدنماركية * -كندا: :تستخدمها في عمليات البحث و الإنقاذ * -الهند: :تستخدمها القوات الجوية الهندية * - إيطاليا: : تستخدمها البحرية الإيطالية الصفات العامة: * -الطاقم : 2 * -سرعة الطيران 278 كم / ساعة * -السرعة القصوى 309 كم / ساعة * -السقف 4575 متر * -مسافة العبور 1400 كم * -سنة دخول الخدمة: 2000 * -الطول : 22.81 مترا * -قطر الدواران: 18.59 مترا * - الطول : 6.65 متر * - الوزن فارغ : 10500 كجم * -المحركات : رولز رويس من نوع توبوميكا RTM332 - 08/02 * -عدد المحركات : 3 * -قدرة المحرك : 2100 حصان * -عدد الريشات:5v

AgustaWestland AW101 Military helicopters | AgustaWestland aircraft | International anti-submarine aircraft 1980–1989 | International civil utility aircraft 1980–1989 | International military transport aircraft 1980–1989 | Kawasaki aerospace | International helicopters 1980–1989 The AgustaWestland AW101, marketed as the EH101 prior to June 2007, is a medium-lift helicopter for military applications but also marketed for civil use. The helicopter was developed as a joint venture between Westland Helicopters in the UK and Agusta in Italy (now merged as AgustaWestland), primarily to replace the older Sikorsky Sea King in roles such as the medium-sized transport and anti-submarine warfare. The aircraft is manufactured at the AgustaWestland factories in Yeovil, England and Vergiate, Italy. The AW-101 first flew in 9 October 1987, and entered service in 2000. It is currently in operation with various nations, such as Denmark, Italy, Japan, Portugal and the United Kingdom. Significant derivatives so far have been the Canadian AgustaWestland CH-149 Cormorant and the now-cancelled American Lockheed Martin VH-71 Kestrel. The name Merlin is used for aircraft in service with the British, Danish and Portuguese militaries. Development: Origins: In Spring 1977, the UK Ministry of Defence issued a requirement for an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopter to replace the Royal Navy's Westland Sea Kings, which was becoming increasing inadequate in the face of Soviet submarine advances. In response to the launch of the Navy's Sea King Replacement iniative, Westland Helicopters put together a proposal, designated WG.34, for a three-engined helicopter of broadly similiar dimensions to the Sea King; the WG.34 was to feature a greater autonomy and range than its predercessor. At the same time, Itay's navy, the Marina Militare, was also considering the replacement of its fleet of Sea Kings built by the Italian company Agusta; Westland and Agusta soon began talks regarding joint development of a successor helicopter. Agust and Westland finalised an agreement to work on the project together, and formed a jointly-owned new company, EH Industries Limited (EHI), to persue the development and marketing of the new helicopter to potential operators. On 12 June 1981, the UK government confirmed its participation in the project, allocated an initial budget of £20 million to develop nine pre-series examples. A major agreement, which secured funding for the majority of the EH101's development program, was signed by both the British and Italian governments in 1984. At the 1985 Paris Air Show at Le Bourget, Agusta showed a mock-up of a utility version of the new helicopter, leading to a more generalised design that could be customised to meet the needs of various civilian or military customers. On 9 October 1987, the first prototype helicopter took flight for the first time. Canadian interest: AgustaWestland CH-149 Cormorant: In 1987, at a time where the EH101's future was not yet certain, as neither Britain or Italy had placed orders for production aircraft yet, but the fledgling helicopter was to find itself at the center of a major political battle overseas. In Canada, the Conservative-led government was planning to acquire up to 43 EH101s to replace their current fleet of aging search and rescue and anti-submarine warfare helicopters. The EH101's third engine and increased independence from naval platforms compared favourably to helicopters such as the Sikorsky Seahawk, and its additional range and de-icing capability were seen as vital for North Atlantic operations. With the end of the Cold War in 1991, Canada faced a reduced threat to its security, in light of which extensive military procurements such as the EH101 appeared excessive and unnecessary. The issue began a topic of heated political debate over alledged costs of the procurement verses life extensions of existing Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King and Boeing Vertol CH-113 Labrador helicopters - such estimates widely fluctated in favour of either option. Ultimately, the proposed acquisition was aborted by the new Liberal government in 1993. The political arguements over the EH101 has been viewed as one of the major factors in the landslide 1993 electoral defeat of the Canadian government. In 1997, in light of the declining condition of its helicopter fleet, Canada launched the Canadian Search and Rescue Helicopter competition, which was won by the EH101, designated CH-149 Cormorant in Canadian service. In 2004, the EH101 was entered into another Canadian competition to replace the Sea King fleet, however the Sikorsky CH-148 Cyclone was selected instead. Into production: Flight testing came to a halt following the crash of the second preproduction aircraft on 21 January 1993, testing resumed six months later. On 6 June 1993, the first EH101 outfitted with the Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322 turboshaft engine flew. Also in 1993, it was revealed that the United States Marine Corps had conducted a study into the EH101 as a fallback option to the ambitious tiltrotor Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey. In February 1995, Britain made its first order for the production EH101, ordering a total of 22 helicopters; Italy also placed an order for 16 EH101s in October 1995. In 1997, deliveries to the RAF of production EH101s began. Westland and Agusta merged together to form AgustaWestland International Limited in July 2000. Consiquently, the need for EHI to exist as a separate entity evaporated; in June 2007, the EH101 was re-branded as the AW101. In 2002, Westland made an unsolicited and unsuccessful offer to the MoD, proposing an enhanced variant of the Merlin intended to satify the UK's demand for additional lift capacity. In 2005, a team of AgustaWestland and Lockheed Martin were selected as the winners of the US VXX competition to provide a replacement fleet to serve the President's Marine One helicopter. The US presidential helicopter was designated VH-71 Kestrel, but the contract was eventually cancelled in June 2009 as opposition grew over signficant cost overruns. As of April 2009, more than 180 AW101s have been sold, which have accumulated a combined total of 170,000 flying hours. Design: Overview: The AW101 Merlin follows a conventional design layout, but makes use of advanced technologies such as the design of the rotor blades, avionics systems, and the extensive use of composite materials. The fuselage structure is modular and comprises of a aluminium-lithium alloy, designed to be both light and damage-resistant. The active vibration control of structural response (ACSR) system employs vibration-canceling equipment with the intention to reduce stress on the airframe. The AW101 is rated to operate in temperatures ranging from −40 to +50 °C, and its tyres permit operating from soft or rough terrain. The cockpit is fitted with armoured seats for the crew, and can withstand an impact velocity of over 10 m/s. Dual flight controls are provided, though the AW101 can be flown by a single person. The pilot's instrument displays include six full colour high-definition screens and an optional mission display; a digital map or forward-looking infrared (FLIR) display can also be installed. Propulsion: The military version of the AW101 is powered by either three Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322 turboshafts used by the UK, Japan, Denmark and Portugal; or three 1,491 kW General Electric CT7-6 turboshafts in Italy, Canada, and Japan. The Rolls-Royce RTM322 engine was specifically designed for the AW101, and was later used in other helicopters such as the WAH-64 Apache. Each engine is supplied by a separate 1,074 litre (276 US Gallon, 230 Imperial Gallon) self-sealing fuel tank using dual booster pumps. Optional fourth and fifth tank can be added to act as a reservoir supply, topping up the main tanks during flight, increasing range or endurance, as can airborne refuelling. The engines power an 18.59 metre diameter five-bladed main rotor. The rotor blades are constructed from carbon/glass with nomex honeycomb and rohacell foam, edged with titanium alloy. The shaping of the main rotor blades is derived from the BERP rotor blades first used on the Westland Lynx, improving aerodynamic efficiency at the blade tips and reducing the noise signature. Improved BERP IV rotors have since been developed, increasing maximum takeoff weight. Computer control of the engines via the aircraft EECU's (electronic engine control unit) allows the AW101 to hover reliably in winds of over 80 km/h. Engine inlet particle separator systems provide protection when operating in sandy environments; a small apparent-secondary exhaust pipe on each engine is actually the exhaust for a rotary separator removing grit from the air intake. * Avionics and armaments The AW101's navigation system includes a GPS receiver and inertial navigation system, VHF omnidirectional radio range (VOR) instrument landing system (ILS), TACAN, and automatic direction finding. The Mk 1 and Mk 3 are equipped with a Doppler velocity system (DVS) for when the exclusive use of the conventional pitot pressure instruments might be unreliable for gauging accurate airspeed. The AW101 is equipped with helicopter management, avionics and mission systems linked by two MIL-STD-1553B multiplex and ARINC 429 databuses. A Smiths Industries OMI 20 SEP automatic flight control system provides dual redundant digital control, giving autostabilisation and four-axis autopilot operation. Most variants of the AW101 are equipped with self-defence systems, such as chaff and flare dispensers, directed infrared countermeasures (infrared jammers), ESM (electronic support measures, in the form of RF heads), and a laser detection and warning system. A chin-mounted forward looking infrared (FLIR) imaging sensor has been fitted to some variants. Two hardpoints are present on the underside of the airframe, on which the HM Mk1 model can carry four Sting Ray torpedoes or Mk 11 Mod 3 depth charges. The UK is considering equipping the Royal Navy's Merlins with the Future Anti-Surface Guided Weapon. The Mk1, Mk3 and 3a variants can mount general purpose machine guns (GPMGs) in up to 5 locations in the main cabin pointing out of door and window apertures. AgustaWestland has been examining the intergration of additional ground-attack weapons, including rockets. Cargo systems: The AW101's fuselage has a volume of and the cargo compartment is in length, wide and high. The military version of the AW101 can accommodate up to 24 seated or 45 standing combat troops and their equipment. Alternative loads include a medical team and 16 stretchers, and cargo pallets. The cabin floor and rear ramp are fitted with flush tie-down points, a semi-automatic cargo release unit (SACRU). The ramp, , can take a load, allowing it to carry vehicles such as Land Rovers. A cargo hook under the fuselage can carry external loads of via the use of a SACRU. A rescue hoist and a hover trim controller are fitted at the cargo door. -: Operational history: Royal Navy: The RN's final order was for 44 ASW machines, originally designated Merlin HAS.1 but soon changed to Merlin HM1. The first fully operational Merlin was delivered on 17 May 1997, entering service on 2 June 2000. All aircraft were delivered by the end of 2002, and are operated by four Fleet Air Arm squadrons, all based at RNAS Culdrose in Cornwall: 814 NAS, 820 NAS, 824 NAS and 829 NAS. 700 NAS was the Merlin Operational Evaluation Unit from 2000 to 2008. In March 2004, RN Merlins were grounded following an incident at RNAS Culdrose when the tail rotor failed on one of them. Investigations revealed that this was due to tail rotor hub manufacturing defects. Flights resumed the following year. The Merlin HM1 has been cleared to operate from the Royal Navy's aircraft carriers, amphibious assault ships, Type 23 frigates and a number of RFA vessels including the Fort Victoria class. It is to equip the Type 45 destroyers. A Capability Sustainment Programme is currently in place to upgrade 30 aircraft to the Merlin HM2 standard. This will include a new mission system and digital cockpit. It had been planned to include the remaining 8 airframes but this has now been dropped for financial reasons while alternative roles were sought for these aircraft. The UK had long considered the Merlin as a replacement for the Sea King ASaC7 in the airborne early warning (AEW) role. On 15 December 2009, the UK announced plans to move RAF Merlin HC3s and HC3As to the Commando Helicopter Force. The Merlins would replace 'junglie' Sea King HC4 helicopters. The Sea King is also to be replaced in the SAR role, resulting in its retirement by 2016. Then the Navy will operate the Lynx Wildcat and Merlin, the RAF operating Puma and Chinook, and Army operating Lynx Wildcat and Apache. The Lynx helicopter has been seen as a useful complement to the newer Merlins. However in 1995 it was decided to phase out Lynx for an all-Merlin fleet in maritime use. It is intended that 846 NAS reforms with ex-RAF Merlin HC3s in 2015. They would be followed by 845 NAS operating the fully navalised Merlin HC4 in 2017. Royal Navy Merlins have seen action in the Caribbean, on counter-narcotics and hurricane support duties. They have also been active in Iraq, providing support to British and coalition troops on the ground, as well as maritime security duties in the North Persian Gulf. * Royal Air Force RAF ordered 22 transport helicopters designated Merlin HC3, the first of which entered service with No. 28 Squadron RAF, based at RAF Benson, in January 2001. The type is equipped with extended-range fuel tanks and is capable of air-to-air refueling; however, due to the lack of a suitable UK tanker aircraft, this capability has not been cleared for use. It also differs from the Royal Navy version by having double-wheel main landing gear, whereas the RN version only has a single wheel on each of the main gears. Depth maintenance of Merlin HC3 is carried out at the Merlin Depth Maintenance Facility at RNAS Culdrose. The first operational deployment was to the Balkans in early 2003. They were deployed to southern Iraq as part of Operation Telic until July 2009 when British Forces withdrew from Iraq. To alleviate a shortfall in operational helicopters and to allow Merlins to be deployed in Afghanistan, the British Ministry of Defence acquired six DMRH AW101s from Denmark in 2007, which were assigned to the RAF with the designation Merlin HC3A. As part of the deal, the Ministry of Defence ordered six new-build replacements for the Royal Danish Air Force. In December 2007, a second Merlin squadron, No. 78 Squadron was formed at Benson. Five Merlin Mk3s are operating in Afghanistan in 2010; their initial deployment was criticised as they allegedly lack Kevlar armour, the aircraft are now fully fitted with ballistic protection armour supplied by Permali Gloucester Limited. * Italian Navy In 1997, the Italian government ordered 20 EH101 helicopters with four options for the Italian Navy. These EH101s included 10 anti-surface and anti-submarine (ASW) versions, 4 early-warning (AEW) versions, 4 utility versions, and 4 Amphibious Support Helicopter (ASH) versions. The first Italian Navy production helicopter (MM81480) was first flown on 4 October 1999 and was officially presented to the press on 6 December 1999 at the Agusta factory. Deliveries started in 2001 and were completed by 2006. Italian EH101s operate from a variety of ships, including aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships. The 9th ASW helicopter was delivered on August 2009.date: January 2012: The AW101 was also chosen for CSAR program; the Aeronautica Militare (Air Force) has a requirement for up to 12 AW101s to replace HH-3F helicopters with delivery from 2014. The Italian navy deployed three AW101s to Afghanistan in 2010, flying them in transport and utility roles. Royal Danish Air Force: In 2001, the Royal Danish Air Force announced the purchase of eight EH101s for SAR duties and six tactical troop transports. The last of the 14 EH101s was delivered 1 March 2007 and the first SAR EH101s became operational in late April 2007. The Danish Mk 512s have a MTOW of 15,600 kg. In 2007, the British Ministry of Defence acquired the six troop transport AW101s from Denmark to alleviate a shortfall in British operational helicopters. In exchange, the British government ordered six new-build helicopters from AgustaWestland as replacements for the Royal Danish Air Force. On 28 January 2008, one Danish AW101 broke the drive shaft from one engine to the gear box and made an emergency landing at Billund Airport. Following this incident the Danish fleet was grounded as a safety precaution. The incident provoked national debate about the future of the EH101 in Danish service and whether it made sense to acquire different helicopters, since the EH101 had very low availability of roughly 30% due to mechanical issues. AgustaWestland in turn blamed the Danes for ordering spare parts very late and not keeping enough staff to properly service the helicopters. In April 2008, RDAF reported considerable improvements in operational availability of over 50%, citing improved service from AW (speedy delivery of spare parts) and increased proficiency of ground crews as responsible.dateMarch 2009: Number 6 replacement for the helicopters taken over by British RAF was delivered January 20th 2010. * Portuguese Air Force The Portuguese Air Force has operated Merlins since 24 February 2005 to conduct transport, search and rescue, and maritime surveillance missions. The 12 aircraft began to gradually replace the Aérospatiale Puma that previously conducted these missions. The aircraft were purchased at a cost of €446. The main role of the Portuguese AW101 is search and rescue in Portugal's maritime zone. AW101s are on constant alert at three bases: Montijo (near Lisbon), Lajes Field, Azores and Porto Santo Island. * Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force ordered 14 aircraft in 2003 to use in both the airborne mine countermeasures (AMCM) and transport roles. The AW101 was modified by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and the Japan Defense Agency designated the model MCH-101. Characteristics of this model were automated folding of the rotor and tail, and an active anti-vibration system. AgustaWestland, Kawasaki and Marubeni entered a general agreement in 2002. Kawasaki began assembly of the CH-101 and the MCH-101 in 2003. The MEXT uses the CH-101 on its Antarctic transportation missions. Kawasaki began licensed production of the Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322 turboshaft engines in 2005. The first MCH-101 was delivered to the Self-Defense Force on March 3, 2006. The MCH-101 and CH-101 will replace the MH-53E (S-80-M-1) for AMCM, and the Sikorsky S-61 in a support role for Japanese Antarctic observation missions. AgustaWestland received an order for 14 MCH-101 and CH-101, and another 12 aircraft will be assembled by Kawasaki in Japan. Under agreement between Marubeni and AgustaWestland, a spare parts depot was established in Japan to provide support for its MCH-101 and CH-101 fleet. * Other military customers There has been a considerable demand for the AW101; which has kept a continuous queue of customers for over five years. Norway has expressed an interest in the AW101 as a candidate for the Norwegian All Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH) programme, that is planned to replace the Westland Sea King Mk.43B of the Royal Norwegian Air Force in 2015. The other candidates for the NAWSARH contract of 10-12 helicopters are Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, Eurocopter EC225, NHIndustries NH-90 and Sikorsky S-92. Iceland also cooperates with Norway in this programme and is interested in 3-4 helicopters to replace its fleet of Super Puma helicopters. South Korea has recognised the need to modernise their airborne mine countermeasures (AMCM) maritime helicopter fleet, and the AW101 is one of the helicopters being studied for the role. In November 2007, Algeria signed a contract for six AW101 helicopters. This is one of several deals that may potentially follow according to the MOD. VIP and other usage: AgustaWestland has developed a luxury variant of the AW101, the AW101 VVIP (Very Very Important Person, i.e. a head of state), targeted at business and VIP customers. As of April 2009, 15% of all AW101s sold have been for VIP purposes. The United States Marine Corps began acquiring the AW101 as the intended replacement of its fleet of Marine One helicopters, used by the President and other key political figures, under the VXX program; designated VH-71, this aircraft was heavily customised with specialised equipment and defensive systems. However, on 6 April 2009, the VH-71 was abruptly terminated when funding was withdrawn. AgustaWestland teamed up with Boeing in 2010 to enter the AW101 in the restarted VXX. Other customers have emerged for the VIP variant; a Saudi Arabian order was placed in 2009. In April 2009, India ordered 12 AW101 to serve as executive transport helicopters for the Indian President and Prime Minister. The AW101 was selected after competing against the Sikorsky S-92 in field trials in 2008. One particular requirement was that the helicopter have a high tail boom, to allow most ground vehicles to come close to the helicopter's rear exit, for reduced threat exposure. Variants: ;Pre-production * PP1 - Westland-built basic air vehicle prototype, first flown 9 October 1987. * PP2 - Augusta-built Italian basic air vehicle prototype first flown on 26 November 1987 and used for deck trials but was destroyed on 21 January 1993 following a rotor brake malfunction. * PP3 - Westland-built and the first civil configured Heliliner, used for engine vibration tests and icing trials in Canada. * PP4 - Westland-built British naval prototype, lost in an accident on 7 April 1995 after a drive train control rod failure. * PP5 - Westland-built Merlin development aircraft eventually equipped with Merlin avionics. * PP6 - Agusta-built development aircraft for Italian Navy variant first flown 26 April 1989. * PP7 - Agusta-built military utility aircraft with rear-loading ramp. * PP8 - Westland-built civil prototype. * PP9 - Agusta-built military utility prototype with rear-loading ramp. ;Model 110 * Italian Navy ASW/ASuW variant, eight built. Powered by T-700-GE-T6A1 engines. Fitted with Eliradar APS-784 radar and Honeywell HELRAS dipping sonar. Armed with torpedoes or Marte anti-ship missiles. ;Model 111 * Royal Navy ASW/ASuW variant, designated Merlin HM1 by customer. Powered by RTM322 engines and fitted with Blue Kestrel radar, Thomson Marconi FLASH dipping sonar and Orange Reaper ESM. 44 built. ;Model 112 * Italian Navy Early Warning variant with same airframe as Model 110 but with Eliradar HEW-784 radar in large underfuselage radome. Four built. ;Series 200 * Proposed military utility version with no rear-loading ranp. ;Series 300 Heliliner * Proposed civil transport with no ramp. Powered by CT&-6 engines. No production. ;Series 310 * Proposed version of Heliliner with full airline avionics for operation from oil platforms. No production. ;Model 410 * Italian Navy transport variant with folding rotors and tail boom. Four built. ;Model 411 * Royal Air Force transport variant, designated Merlin HC3 by customer, 22 built. ;Model 413 * Italian Navy special forces and amphibious assault transport with more advanced avionics. ;Model 500 * Prototype utility variant with rear-ramp, two built. ;Model 510 * Civil transport variant, two built. ;Model 511 * Canadian Forces search and rescue variant, designated CH-149 Cormorant by customer, 15 built. ;Model 512 * Royal Danish Air Force variant for search and rescue and transport, 20 built. ;Model 514 * Portuguese Air Force search and rescue variant, six built. ;Model 515 * Portuguese Air Force fisheries protection variant, two built. ;Model 516 * Portuguese Air Force combat search and rescue, four built. ;Model 518 * Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force mine countermeasures and transport, two built. ;Model 519 * Transport variant for the United States Marine Corps as the VH-71 Kestrel, five built. ;Merlin HM1 * Royal Navy designation for the Model 111. ;Merlin HM2 * Avionics retrofitting for 30 RN HM1s to be performed by Lockheed Martin for the Royal Navy. First flight October 2010. ;Merlin HC3 * Royal Air Force designation for the Model 411. ;Merlin HC3A * Royal Air Force designation for six former Royal Danish Air Force Model 512s modified to UK standards. ;Merlin HC4/4A * Planned conversion of Ex RAF HC3/3A for RN use. Tail and blade folding plus (possible) avionics upgrade. ;Merlin ASaC 5 * Planned conversion of 8 RN HM1 for use in Carrier Based Airborne Early Warning role. Presumed use of Searchwater 2000 AEW radar taken from Sea King ASaC7 ;CH-148 Petrel * Ship-based anti-submarine helicopter for Canada. 35 originally ordered by the Canadian Forces, reduced to 28 and cancelled in 1993. ;CH-149 Chimo * Search and Rescue helicopter for Canada. 15 ordered by the Canadian forces and later cancelled. ;Lockheed Martin VH-71 Kestrel * USMC variant intended to serve as the US Presidential helicopter. Two used in testing. Operators: Military operators: ;DZA: * Algerian Navy has 6 on order. ;CAN: * See CH-149 Cormorant ;DNK: * Royal Danish Air Force ** Eskadrille 722 (Squadron 722) ;ITA: * Italian Navy ** 1°Gruppo Elicotteri ** 3°Gruppo Elicotteri ;JPN: * Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force ;PRT: * Portuguese Air Force ** Squadron 751 "Pumas" ;GBR: * Royal Navy ** 700M Naval Air Squadron (Operational Evaluation Unit) (2000–2008) ** 814 Naval Air Squadron ** 820 Naval Air Squadron ** 824 Naval Air Squadron ** 829 Naval Air Squadron * Royal Air Force ** No. 28 Squadron RAF, RAF Benson ** No. 78 Squadron RAF, RAF Benson * Law enforcement operators ;JPN: : * Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department became the first civil customer for the type when they purchased a single example in 1998. * Notable accidents and incidents * 21 January 1993 - Italian development Merlin PP2 crashed near Novara-Cameri airfield in Italy after an uncommanded application of the rotor brake in flight. Four people were killed. * 17 April 1995 - British development Merlin PP4 (ZF644) crashed near Yarcombe in Dorset, England.dateNovember 2009: * 20 August 1996 - Italian development Merlin PP7 (I-HIOI) was damaged in an accident when it turned over after the tail rotor drive failed on landing. The helicopter was repaired. * 27 October 2000 - British Royal Navy Merlin (ZH844) ditched near the Isle of Skye, Scotland after a hydraulic fire caused by the rotor brake being partially engaged. * 30 March 2004 - British Royal Navy Merlin (ZH859) crashed on take-off from RNAS Culdrose due to tail rotor hub cracking. * 15 November 2007 - During a medical evacuation on São Jorge Island, Azores, Portugal, a Portuguese Air Force Merlin caused injuries to five people when it unexpectedly climbed by one metre during the embarking process, before the pilot recovered control. An Air Force spokesperson later stated that this kind of incident is unheard of. * Specifications (Merlin HM1) , 863 mi

AgustaWestland EH101 Hélicoptère italien | Hélicoptère britannique | Hélicoptère de transport militaire | Hélicoptère de transport LEH-101 est un hélicoptère produit par le constructeur italien Agusta Westland. Origine : À la fin des années 1970 la Royal Navy britannique émit un cahier des charges pour un hélicoptère de lutte anti-sous-marine destiné à remplacer le Westland Sea King. Le futur appareil devait être plus compact que le Westland Sea King avec une capacité d’emport supérieure et des performances supérieures. Alors que le programme SKR (Sea King Replacement) prenait forme (l’appareil devait recevoir la désignation WG.34), il apparut que la Marina militare italienne avait un besoin similaire, et après négociations entre Westland et Agusta, une co-entreprise fut constituée en juin 1980. European Helicopter (EH) Industries avait son siège à Londres, mais la charge de travail était partagée à égalité entre les industriels anglais et italiens, et le futur appareil prenait la désignation « EH101 ». Ce programme a donné naissance à un appareil tri-turbine conventionnel dans sa forme mais assez fin d’allure pour une machine de ce type. Le fuselage est réalisé avec une structure en nid d’abeille à base d’un alliage aluminium-lithium habillée de panneaux composites, la poutre porte-empennages venant se replier le long du fuselage, sauf pour les versions possédant une rampe de chargement arrière. Le rotor principal est composé de 5 pales en matériaux composites, le rotor anti-couple est quadripale et le train d’atterrissage escamotable. Parmi les améliorations par rapport au Westland Sea King on note des prises d’air de turbines situées latéralement, pour faciliter leur dégivrage, un système de flottaison d’urgence utilisant des flotteurs gonflés à l’hélium et une alimentation en carburant sous pression pour optimiser les temps de ravitaillement. Au cours du Salon du Bourget de 1985 EH Industries présenta une maquette grandeur et annonça un certain nombre de versions : * Series 100 : Version navale de base, destinée à la lutte ASM. * Series 200 : Version navale utilitaire, sans rampe de chargement arrière. * Series 300 Heliliner : Transport civil tout-temps destiné aux opérations offshore. * Series 400 : Version de transport militaire. * Series 500 : Version utilitaire civile, avec rampe de chargement arrière. Développement : Le programme EH101 devait subir de nombreux retards, la fin de la guerre froide ayant entraîné une évolution des besoins en matière de défense. Le développement de l’avionique de lutte ASM a posé également quelques problèmes et en 1986 la faillite de Westland n’arrangea pas les choses. Enfin plusieurs accidents émaillèrent le programme des essais en vol. Les premiers exemplaires entrèrent donc en service dans la Royal Navy avec cinq ans de retard. Dix prototypes furent réalisés, curieusement désignés « Prototypes de présérie » (PP) : * PP0 : Cellule d’essais statiques, souvent désigné Iron Bird. * PP1 : Premier prototype à prendre l’air, en Grande-Bretagne, le 9 octobre 1987. * PP2 : Premier prototype construit en Italie, utilisé pour les essais embarqués sur les navires italiens. Cet appareil fut détruit sur accident début 1993, entraînant la suspension des essais en vol durant cinq mois. * PP3 : Prototype de la version civile, qui prit l’air le 30 septembre 1988. Cette machine fut utilisée pour les essais par temps froid au Canada, mais participa aussi à des essais d’armement. * PP4 : Prototype de la version navale, perdu sur accident en 1995 (Rupture d’un câble de commande) * PP5 : Prototype de la version ASM destinée à la Royal Navy. * PP6 : Prototype de la version destinée à la Marine italienne, construit par Agusta en Italie. * PP7 : Prototype d’une version navale utilitaire à rampe arrière. Gravement endommagé durant un atterrissage d’urgence en Italie en 1996, il fut cependant réparé. * PP8 : Prototype civil, premier vol en 1990. * PP9 : Prototype civil et dernier à voler, il prit l’air en 1991. Les premières commandes furent confirmées en 1991 avec obtention des certifications anglaise et italienne. La certification américaine fut obtenue seulement en 1994. Le 26 juillet 2000 fut finalisé l’accord devant aboutir à la fusion d’Agusta et Westland. AgustaWestland est né le 12 février 2001, entraînant de fait la disparition d’EH Industries. Les versions : * Merlin HM.1 : Hélicoptère de lutte ASM pour la Royal Navy, motorisé avec 3 turbines Rolls-Royce-Turboméca RTM322-01/8 ou RTM332-02/8 de 2 100 ch au décollage. Compte tenu des retards enregistrés et des difficultés de mise au point, le prix unitaire de l’appareil avait sérieusement dérapé, mais cet hélicoptère fit rapidement l’unanimité auprès des équipages pour sa facilité de pilotage grâce à un pilote automatique très performant. Très maniable, l’EH101 est aussi d’entretien très facile. Aménagé pour 2 pilotes et deux opérateurs électroniques, il dispose d’une suite informatique particulièrement performante conçue par Lockheed Martin UK et d’un sonar immergé de grande puissance. Diverses bouées optiques sont également stockées dans deux soutes rotatives situées à l’arrière de la cabine. Un radar Blue Kestrel 5000 situé sous le fuselage assure lui une couverture à 360° pour le guidage de missiles anti navires de surface. * Merlin HC.3 : Hélicoptère de transport d’assaut pour la Royal Air Force. Capable de transporter 30 hommes ou 16 blessés en civières, il se distingue du Merlin HM.1 par une avionique beaucoup plus simple, mais est équipé d’équipements de contre-mesures électroniques, le cockpit est conçu pour permettre l’utilisation de lunettes infrarouges et d’un système FLIR. Il se distingue aussi par la présence d’une rampe de chargement arrière, la possibilité d’installer une perche de ravitaillement en vol et des armes en sabord. ** Merlin HC.3A : 6 appareils commandés par le Danemark (Mk 512) et reconditionnés par AgustaWestland pour les besoins de la RAF. * EH101 Mk 110 : Hélicoptère de lutte ASM pour la Marine italienne. Sensiblement identique au Merlin HM.1, il se distingue par une avionique essentiellement italienne fournie par Alenia, l’utilisation de torpilles Whitehead Moto Fides A244/S, mais aussi de missiles antinavires Marte Mk 2. * EH101 Mk 112 : Appareil de contre-mesures électroniques et de guet aérien pour la Marine italienne. 4 exemplaires équipés d’un radar de contre-mesures Eliradar HEW-784 ont été commandés en 1997, mais leur livraison n’est pas prévue avant février 2009. * EH101 Mk 410 : Appareil de transport pour la Marine italienne. * EH101 Mk 510 : Le premier EH101 civil, équipé de turbines General Electric CT7-6 de 1 920 ch et aménagé pour le transport de 30 passagers, a été livré à la Tokyo Metropolitan Police Agency et mis en service en mars 1999. * EH101 Mk 512 : Appareil de transport et de sauvetage destiné à la marine danoise. * MCH101 : Hélicoptère polyvalent destiné à la marine japonaise. Une tête de série a été produite à Yeovil, les exemplaires suivant étant construits au Japon par Kawasaki à Gifu. * AW520 Cormorant : Appareil de sauvetage maritime développé spécifiquement pour le Canada à partir de la version civile de l’EH101. Disposant d’une rampe de chargement et d’un treuil, le prototype a effectué son premier vol en Italie le 31 mai 2000. Il a été livré en vol au Canada début AgustaWestland AW-101 Rescue 09 danois Utilisateurs militaires : * Algérie: : 6 EH101 destinés aux missions SAR ont été commandés en juillet 2007 pour livraison sous 24 mois. * Canada: : Les forces armées canadiennes devaient initialement acheter 43 CH-148 Petrel de lutte anti sous marine et CH-149 Chimo de recherche et sauvetage. Dès son arrivée au pouvoir en 1993 le Parti Libéral du Canada a fait annuler la commande. Cependant un appareil de recherches et de sauvetage était impérieusement nécessaire en Atlantique Nord pour remplacer les CH-113 Labrador, et 15 AW520 Cormorant ont finalement été commandés en 1998. Désignés localement CH-149 Cormorant, les premiers ont été livrés le 8 octobre 2001 au No 442 Transport and Rescue Squadron à CFB Comox (Colombie-Britannique), la formation des équipages ayant été assurée par la Medium Support Helicopter Aircrew Training Facility (MSHATF) installée à RAF Benson, Grande-Bretagne, où étaient basés les Merlin HC.3 de la RAF. Le MSHATF fut ensuite transformé en Operational Training Unit à CFB Gander, où a été constitué en juillet 2002 le No 103 Sqdn. Furent enfin équipés les No 413 Sqdn à CFM Greenwood, Nouvelle-Écosse, et en juillet 2004 le No 424 Sqdn à CFB Trenton. Le 13 juillet 2006 un EH-101 (cormoran) s'est abîmé près de la Nouvelle-Écosse lors d'un exercice de sauvetage. Trois membres de l'équipage sont morts et quatre blessés. La cause serait des fissures dans la queue. * Danemark: : 14 EH101 Mk 512 de transport logistique et sauvetage ont été commandés en décembre 2001 pour remplacer les Sikorsky S-61 Sea King, devant être livrés entre 2004 et 2005. Si le premier exemplaire [ZJ990/M-501] effectua son premier vol le 12 décembre 2003, le premier exemplaire livré [ZJ991/M-502] n'arriva à Karup que le 10 janvier 2006. L’escadrille 722 fut déclarée opérationnelle en juin 2006 avec 8 appareils. En juin 2006 un accord passé entre le Ministère de la Défense britannique et le Danemark, les 6 appareils de transport tactique destinés à la marine danoise [M-501 et M-510/514] étant transférés à la RAF en échange d'appareils neufs commandés par le MoD. * Royaume-Uni: : ** La Royal Navy a commandé 44 Merlin HM.1, destinés à être embarqués sur les frégates de la classe Duke (Type 23), les porte-avions de la classe Invincible et différents navires de combat ou de soutien logistique. Le premier appareil de série a volé le 6 décembre 1995 et le premier Merlin HM.1 doté de son avionique de combat le 14 janvier 1997. Le premier appareil a été livré à la Navy le 17 mai 1997, et une section d’évaluation opérationnelle (No 700M Squadron) constituée le 1er: décembre 1998. Le dernier appareil a été livré fin 2002. Le No 824 Naval Air Squadron a été activé en juin 2000 pour la formation des équipages, et la première unité opérationnelle, le No 814 Sqdn, a été commissionné fin 2001, suivi des No 820 et N0 829 Sqdn. Toutes ces unités sont stationnées à RNAS Culdrose, en Cornouailles, et ont été interdites de vol en mars 2004 après qu’un Merlin HM.1 eut été victime d’une panne d’anti-couple. L’enquête ayant révélé un défaut de fabrication de la tête de rotor, les vols ont repris début 2005. Début 2007 huit frégates Type 23 avaient été modifiées pour recevoir cet appareil bien que le No 829 Sqdn, chargé d’alimenter ces navires, ne dispose que de 6 sections. ** La Royal Air Force a commandé 22 Merlin HC.3, qui ont été mis en service le 11 décembre 2000 au sein des No 28 Sqdn. Ces appareils ont été utilisés dans les Balkan début 2003, puis dans le sud de l’Irak à partir de 2005 dans le cadre de l’Operation Telic. Craignant de manquer d’appareils, le Ministère de la Défense britannique a acheté 6 appareils au Danemark en 2007, commandant en échange 6 appareils supplémentaires qui seront livrés à la Royal Danish Air Force. Après reconditionnement par AgustaWestland à Yeovil, les hélicoptères achetés au Danemark, désignés Merlin HC.3A, doivent permettre de constituer le No 78 Sqdn. * Italie: : Alors qu’elle avait annoncé un besoin pour 36 appareils, la Marine italienne a finalement commandé 16 hélicoptères en 1997, répondant à trois versions différentes mais tous équipés de turbines General Electric T700-GE-T6A de 2 040 ch : 8 EH101 Mk 110 [MM.81480/87] de lutte ASM, 4 E101 Mk 112 [MM81488/91] de lutte électronique et 4 EH101 Mk 410 de transport utilitaire. Le premier appareil destiné à la MMI a pris l’air le 6 décembre 1999. Les 8 Mk 110 ont été livrés en septembre 2000 au Nucleo Valutazione Operative de Luni/La Spezia, transformé l’année suivante en 1° Grupelicot. Le 4° Grupelicot de Tarente a ensuite été constitué, tandis que les Mk 410 ont permis de créer un Nucleo Lotta Anifibia, également à Tarente. * Japon: : 14 MCH101 ont été commandés la Japanese Marine Self-Defense Force début 2002. Le premier exemplaire [8651] a été livré par AgustaWestland le 3 mars 2006, tandis que le premier exemplaire produit au Japon [8652] a été livré le 23 mars 2007 à l’usine Kawasaki de Gifu. Trois exemplaires doivent remplacer les Sikorsky S-61A-1 basés en Antarctique, les autres remplacer les Sikorsky MH-53E utilisés pour les missions de déminage au sein du 51 Kokutai d’Atsugi. * Portugal: : Le 29 novembre 2001 le gouvernement portugais a confirmé le choix de l’EH101 pour assurer le remplacement des Aérospatiale SA 330S-1 Puma. 12 appareils équipés de Rolls-Royce Turboméca RTM 322 (6 destinés aux opérations SAR [19601/06], 2 réservés à la surveillance des zones de pêche [19607/08] et 4 affectés aux missions de reconnaissance armée et de sauvetage en milieu hostile [19609/12]) ont été commandés de préférence aux Sikorsky S-92 et Eurocopter Cougar Mk 2. Le premier a été livré le 22 décembre 2004 à Vergiate, Italie, les deux suivants sont arrivés à la base aérienne 6 de Montijo le 11 février 2005 et le dernier a été livré en juillet 2006. L’escadron 751 Puma (8 appareils) a été déclaré opérationnel le 3 février 2006 à Montijo, avec un détachement permanent à Porto Santo, Madère, l’escadron 751 Albatrozes a été activé le 30 novembre suivant à la base aérienne de Lajes, aux Açores. Utilisateurs civils : * Japon: : Un unique EH101 Mk 510 a été mis en service par la police de Tōkyō en 1999. Notes et références : Bibliographie : * Jane's all the world's aircraft, édition 1998/1999 * Robert Hewson, EH Industries EH101, World Air Power Journal, volume 21, été 1995 Annexes : Article connexe : * Liste des hélicoptères civils et militaires Lien externe : * en: Aéronefs Forces canadiennes:

مدام بوفاري روايات فرنسية | شخصيات خيالية فرنسية رواية مدام بوفاري للروائي الفرنسي جوستاف فلوبير وتعتبر أول رواية واقعية تعتبر رواية فلوبير من اروع الاعمال الادبية إذ انها تعتبر انتصار حقيقي للواقعية على الحركة الرومانطيقية.عند كتابة فلوبير لهذة الرواية قامت النيابة الفرنسية باتهام فلوبير بان روايتة غير اخلاقية لكن سرعان ما اثبت محامي فلوبير عكس ذللك. ملخص الرواية : تبدأ الرواية بدخول الفتى شارل بوفاري، إلى مدرسته، روان الداخلية، وهو في سن أكبر من طلبة صفه، ويقود منظره الريفي وكبر سنه المعلم والطلبة للاستهزاء به. ثم ينقل إلى دراسة الطب، ويتخرج بعد عثرات، ويفتتح عيادة في (توست) وتزوجه أمه من أرملة ثرية متقدمة في السن ومريضة في الخامسة والأربعين من عمرها. يستدعى شارل لعلاج قسيس في بروتو، كسرت ساقه وكان ثريا، وهناك يرى ابنة القسيس واسمها إيما، والتي قادته إلى حيث يرقد والدها. وقد بدت أنها تكره الريف والعيش فيه، وكانت تلقت دراسة في رعاية راهبات الأورسلين حيث تعلمت دروساً في الرقص والرسم وعزف البيانو والجغرافيا. تموت زوجة شارل الأولى، فيطلب يد إيما من الأب روو والذي كان يود أن يكون صهره أكثر غنى من شارل، وبعد استشارة الأب لابنته توافق ويوافق الأب كذلك. ويتزوج شارك وإيما في عرس باذخ ثم يعودان إلى توست، وقد بدت عقدة إيما النفسية، التي ربما نشأت من اعتقادها بأنها قبل الزواج قد دفعت إلى الحب لكنها لم تحصل على السعادة المترتبة على حبها، حتى أنها توهمت أنها على خطأ، فتساءلت: ماذا تعني عبارات النشوة والعاطفة والهيام التي قرأت عنها في الكتب! وبدلا من أن تنصرف إلى العناية بالزوج والبيت، صارت تسترجع ذكرياتها في سنين طفولتها 13 سنة. عندما دخلت الدير واقبلت على العبادة والإجابة عن الأسئلة الدينية الصعبة لكن مع اقترابها من السادسة عشرة فقد حدث انقلاب في نظرتها إلى الأشياء، فنفرت من المناظر الريفية الهادئة، واتجهت إلى نقيضها – المثيرة – وصارت تبحث عن العاطفة أكثر من بحثها عن المنظر ! وصارت تعجب بأبطال وبطلات الكتاب الكلاسيكيين ولاحظت الراهبات أنها أخذت تفلت من رعايتهن، بعد أن كن قد بالغن في مواعظهن لها وأسرفن في تلقينها الاحترام للقديسيين، وفي ازجاء النصح في اخضاع الجسد ولم تأسف الراهبات على خروجها من الدير عندما جاء أبوها وأخرجها منه. وتجد إيما لذة عند عودتها إلى مزرعة أبيها، في إصدار الأوامر للخدم، ولكنها حنت إلى الدير ثانية، وحتى وهي في أيام شهر العسل الأولى كانت تتمنى أن تكون تلك الأيام في أماكن أخرى مثل اسكتلندا أو سويسرا، ومع رجل من النبلاء لا مع شارل! ورغم قبولها بالزواج به، تتمنى لو التقت مرة واحدة نظراته بخواطرها ورؤاها. فالأمور بينهما كانت تسير على النقيض، حيث كلما ازدادت الألفة بينهما ازداد شعورها بالانطواء الروحي وزادت الهوة بينهما. إذ ترى أن حديثه سطحي ولا يعرف المسرح أو الموسيقا ولا يعرف شيئاً ، ولا يطمع في شيء. ورأت إيما أن زواجها من شارل لم يتح لها تحقيق ما تتطلع إليه من آمال لأن حياته تسير على نمط واحد، دون إثارة أو تغيير. كما أنها لم تجد أنها حرة في مصروف البيت، إذ اتهمتها حماتها بأنها – إيما – ميالة إلى تبذير دخل ابنها. حاولت إيما أن تقنع شارل بأنها تحبه، فكانت تغني له بعض الأناشيد العاطفية التي حفظتها، لكن انفعاله لم يختلف قبل الانشاد أو بعده ! كان يقبلها في مواعيد محددة، وكأنه يمارس عادة من العادات ! ويصل بها الانفعال إلى أن تقول يا إلهي لماذا تزوجت ! ولعل دعوة شارل وإيما إلى فوبيسار لزيارة مركيز أورفيليه، والذي أجرى له شارل عملية صغيرة كانت ذات أثر كبير في تلبية رغبة إيما إلى توقها لرؤية ما هو جديد وعظيم ! وبخاصة في هذا القصر الفاخر، الذي رأت فيه ما يروقها من البذخ سواء بالأثاث الفاخر أو الوجوه المترفة أو في المائدة العامرة، التي عرفت فيها للمرة الأولى أصنافاً من الطعام والفاكهة. وأسعدها أن استقبلها الماركيز وزوجته، ورقصت خلال الحفلة مع (الفايكونت). وقد ظلت تؤرخ لذكرى الحفلة بانقضاء الأسابيع التي تلتها. بدأت جذوة الحب تخمد من جانب إيما لزوجها، وصارت تتوق إلى الأجواء المخملية، حلمّا منها بأن تكون واحدة من بنات تلك الطبقة. كانت إيما من النوع الذي يزهو في الحصول على الأشياء القريبة وتطمح إلى ما بعدها. كانت تبحث عن عالم اللذات والانفعالات العنيفة، وتتمنى الحصول على الشيء وضده! بينما كان شارل ماضيا في خدمة مرضاه والارتحال يوميا لزيارتهم. لذا ملت إيما الحياة الرتيبة في روان، ومرضت، وعندما أخذها إلى طبيب آخر نصحه أن يغير مكان إقامته وبالفعل رحلت الأسرة إلى مكان آخر (أيونفيل) وإيما حامل بابنتها. وصل شارل وإيما إلى القرية الصغيرة واستقبلهما فيها الصيدلي هوميه وأقام احتفالاً لهما في الفندق الوحيد (الأسد الذهبي)، وأعدت لهم حفلة عشاء، وعلى مائدة العشاء جلس أربعة أشخاص، شارل، إيما والداعي هوميه، وفتى من المدينة شاب جميل يعمل كاتبا عند كاتب العدل أعزب يدرس القانون في باريس. هو (ليون)، الذي وافق على رأي إيما عندما طرحت مسألة السأم التي يصاب بها الإنسان نتيجة وجوده في مكان واحد. والذي أعجبه قبل ذلك جمالها ومظهرها الأنيق وعندما انشغل شارل وهوميه بتناول الطعام، بدأ ليون يتبادل الأحاديث العامة مع إيما، التي بدا لها أنه شغوف بالخيال ويحب المناظر الطبيعية، وبخاصة تلك التي حدثه عنها ابن عمه الذي سافر إلى سويسرا، ووجد كل من إيما وليون أشياء مشتركة بينهما على مدى ساعتين من الحديث أثناء العشاء ! كان ليون يسكن في البيت نفسه الذي يسكن فيه الصيدلي وأسرته، وقد كان مكان سكن إيما وزوجها في نفس الموقع في بيت آخر للصيدلي. وبعد مدة وضعت إيما حملها وكان بنتا اسمتها (بيرت) أقامت الأسرة حفلا دعي إليه معظم أهل البلدة ومن ضمنهم ليون. وفي إحدى زيارات إيما لابنتها عند المرضعة صادفت – ليون – ودعته إلى صحبتها في الزيارة، وذهبا معا إلى بيت المرضعة. وقد شعرا بشيء من الخدر العجيب يسري فيهما. وكان من عادة الجيران أن يجتمعوا في بعض الأمسيات حيث يلعب الصيدلي والطبيب لعبة الورق والدومينو، وكان يروق لإيما أن تجلس إلى جانب ليون، ليقرأ لها بعض الأشعار العاطفية، وبخاصة عندما كان النعاس يغلب على الصيدلي والطبيب. وقد صار ليون يهدي الطبيب وزوجته بعض التحف والكتب الطبية. وصار يرافق شارل في بعض رحلاته، لزيارة مرضاه. وقد بدا في نفس ليون أنه يحب إيما ولكنه لم يستطع أن يصرح لها بذلك. وانتظر حتى تحين الفرصة المناسبة. ومع بداية تفكير إيما وليون بحرارة اللذة التي سيحصل عليها كل منهما إذا تحابا. حاول تاجر – ليريه – أن يتسلل إلى جيوب إيما ليعرض عليها خدماته ، في جلب الملابس وأدوات الزينة لها من أشهر الماركات في باريس ! ويلاحظ ليون في إحدى المرات – وبعد أن كانت إيما تشعر بيمل نحو حب ليون – شيئاً غريبا من إيما التي تحدثه عن طيبة زوجها، وأن ربة البيت الصالحة لابد أن ترعى زوجها وبيتها وتهتم بهما، وعندما تسترجع بنتها من عند المرضعة، وعندما يلاحظ ذلك يقول في نفسه: يا له من جنون، كيف السبيل إليها! ولكن إيما في الحقيقة كانت تتخفى في هذا الزهد والرقة ما يحرق ذاتها من شهوات وغيظ وكراهية. كانت تهوى ليون وتنشد العزلة لتسعد بطيفه. العفة التي اتصفت بها، كانت بسبب كونها زوجة للطبيب، وأن هذه العفة وقفت حائلا دونها ودون تحقيق شهواتها، وأن زوجها لا يستحق كل ذلك! وأنه من واجبها أن تواجه هذا النفاق – العفة – التي تتظاهر بها. لابد أن تنتهي بالهرب مع ليون من الجحيم الذي تعيش فيه. وفي الوقت نفسه تسأل نفسها ماذا لو لم يستمر ليون في حبي ؟ وتخلص إلى أن مرضها – تعاستها – بدأ بعد الزواج. وتخال أن ما يساعدها في أزمتها هو اللجوء إلى الكنيسة، من أجل الاعتراف، ولكنها لم تكن قد أخطأت حتى تعترف؟ وتذهب بالفعل إلى الكنيسة. وعندما تعود إلى البيت تكون أشد عصبية وثورة. وعندما تحاول ابنتها الصغيرة الاقتراب منها تدفعها بشدة. وتتسبب في إحداث جرح في خدها وعندما يراها زوجها في توترها يتجه صوب ليون، الذي يتوجس خوفاً من شارل، ولكنه يتنفس الصعداء عندما يعرف أنه يريد رأي ليون في تقديم هدية لزوجته هي صورة الزوج، والتي سيساعده ليون في عملها في المدينة! وفي هذه الأثناء ظهر ليون في عيون من يعرفونه على أنه غريب الأطوار، شارد الذهن. يشعر بالملل من رتابة حياته في القرية، وأبدى رغبة في الرحيل إلى باريس ليكمل دراسته في القانون، فيتغير بذلك مجرى حياته، وعندما تسلم موافقة أمه، على سفره، ذهب إلى إيما وودعها ومضى! وقد مرضت إيما بعد تلك الحادثة! ولكن حبا آخر يهبط على قلب إيما بعد ذلك. عندما يحضر إلى بيت الطبيب الثري – الفني – رودلف بولانجيه الأعزب، ذو المغامرات ابن الرابعة والثلاثين، قاصداً الاستشفاء لغلام يشتغل عنده. والذي يفتن بجمال إيما عندما وقفت تساعد الطبيب أثناء علاج الفني، ويأخذ بالتردد على الطبيب لرؤية إيما، وتكون الفرصة ملائمة للقاء أثناء اقامة المعرض الزراعي في (أونفيل). وقد صاحبها إلى ذلك المرض. وتحدثا عن السعادة، وصرح لها بأنها لن تجدها ما دامت في عصمة ذلك الطبيب. وانها ستجد السعادة معه وهو صاحب القصر والمزرعة والخيول! ومع انتهاء الحفل يرافقها إلى منزلها. وحدث أن تمرض إيما، ويحضر رودلف. فيسأله شارل الطبيب: إذا كانت رياضة الخيل ستفيدها ! ويهيئ لها شارل ملابس ركوب الخيل ويكتب شارل إلى رودلف: إن زوجته تحت تصرف رودلف وأنه يعلق الأمل على لطفه! ومع عودتها من قصر رودلف – صاحب الخبرات النسائية – أخذت إيما تصيح: إن لي عشيقاً. حيث عاش معها – رودلف كزوج! رأت إيما في عشقها لرودلف نوعا من الانتقام من زوجها، ولكن رودلف لا يلبث أن يملها. ويعلن لها أن زيارتها له قد تسبب بعض الأقاويل حوله. كانت تجربة إيما مع ليون ورودلف تجربة فاشلة، أما تجربتها المادية مع ليريه التاجر فكانت سبباً في دمار الأسرة المادي فقد أغراها بالاستدانة ومن ثم انقض عليها في اللحظة المناسبة، إذ كان يعرف بعلاقتها مع ليون ورودلف وكانت تخشى من أن يفشي أسرارها وأغراها بتدوير الكمبيالات وبالحصول على توكيل مالي عام من زوجها بالتصرف في أمواله. وتسوء حالة إيما الصحية والمالية وذلك عندما يعلن الحجز على أملاك زوجها فتلجأ إلى ليون الذي تلتقيه مرة أخرى في إحدى المناسبات وتعاشره معاشرة الأزواج وتطلب منه المال لكنه يعتذر وكذا الأمر مع رودلف فتعود خائبة لتتناول السم ولا يلبث زوجها أن يكتشف رسائل عاشقيها فيموت وحيداً وتتشرد ابنتهم الصغيرة لتعمل عاملة في مصنع عند خالتها الفقيرة. شخصيات الرواية : * إيمـا (مدام بوفاري) * شارل بوفاري (زوج إيما ) * ليون ( عشيق أيما ) * رودولف ( عشيق إيما ) * بيرت ( ابنة ايما )

Madame Bovary 1857 novels | Adultery in fiction | Novels by Gustave Flaubert | Novels first published in serial form | France in fiction | Debut novels | French novels | Works originally published in Revue de Paris | Novels set in 19th-century France dateDecember 2009: date: November 2010: Madame Bovary (1856) is Gustave Flaubert's first published novel and is considered his masterpiece. The story focuses on a doctor's wife, Emma Bovary, who has adulterous affairs and lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life. Though the basic plot is rather simple, even archetypal, the novel's true art lies in its details and hidden patterns. Flaubert was a notorious perfectionist and claimed always to be searching for le mot juste ("the right word"). The novel was attacked for obscenity by public prosecutors when it was first serialized in La Revue de Paris between 1 October 1856 and 15 December 1856, resulting in a trial in January 1857 that made the story notorious. After the acquittal on 7 February 1857, it became a bestseller when it was published as a book in April 1857, and now stands virtually unchallenged not only as a seminal work of Realism, but as one of the most influential novels ever written.dateSeptember 2011: : Plot summary Madame Bovary takes place in provincial northern France, near the town of Rouen in Normandy. The story begins and ends with Charles Bovary, a stolid, kindhearted man without much ability or ambition. As the novel opens, Charles is a shy, oddly-dressed teenager arriving at a new school amidst the ridicule of his new classmates. Later, Charles struggles his way to a second-rate medical degree and becomes an officier de santé in the Public Health Service. His mother chooses a wife for him, an unpleasant but supposedly rich widow, and Charles sets out to build a practice in the village of Tostes (now Tôtes). One day, Charles visits a local farm to set the owner's broken leg, and meets his client's daughter, Emma Rouault. Emma is a beautiful, daintily-dressed young woman who has received a "good education" in a convent and who has a latent but powerful yearning for luxury and romance imbibed from the popular novels she has read. Charles is immediately attracted to her, and begins checking on his patient far more often than necessary until his wife's jealousy puts a stop to the visits. When his wife dies, Charles waits a decent interval, then begins courting Emma in earnest. Her father gives his consent, and Emma and Charles are married. At this point, the novel begins to focus on Emma. Charles means well, but is boring and clumsy, and after he and Emma attend a ball given by the Marquis d'Andervilliers, Emma grows disillusioned with married life and becomes dull and listless. Charles consequently decides that his wife needs a change of scenery, and moves from the village of Tostes into a larger, but equally stultifying market town, Yonville (traditionally based on the town of Ry). Here, Emma gives birth to a daughter, Berthe; however, motherhood, too, proves to be a disappointment to Emma. She then becomes infatuated with one of the first intelligent young men she meets in Yonville, a young law student, Léon Dupuis, who seems to share her appreciation for "the finer things in life", and who returns her admiration. Out of fear and shame, however, Emma hides her love for Léon and her contempt for Charles, and plays the role of the devoted wife and mother, all the while consoling herself with thoughts and self-congratulations of her own virtue. Finally, in despair of ever gaining Emma's affection, Léon departs to study in Paris. One day, a rich and rakish landowner, Rodolphe Boulanger, brings a servant to the doctor's office to be bled. He casts his eye over Emma and decides she is ripe for seduction. To this end, he invites Emma to go riding with him for the sake of her health; solicitous only for Emma's health, Charles embraces the plan, suspecting nothing. A four-year affair follows. Swept away by romantic fantasy, Emma risks compromising herself with indiscreet letters and visits to her lover, and finally insists on making a plan to run away with him. Rodolphe, however, has no intention of carrying Emma off, and ends the relationship on the eve of the great elopement with an apologetic, self-excusing letter delivered at the bottom of a basket of apricots. The shock is so great that Emma falls deathly ill, and briefly turns to religion. When Emma is nearly fully recovered, she and Charles attend the opera, on Charles' insistence, in nearby Rouen. The opera reawakens Emma's passions, and she re-encounters Léon who, now educated and working in Rouen, is also attending the opera. They begin an affair. While Charles believes that she is taking piano lessons, Emma travels to the city each week to meet Léon, always in the same room of the same hotel, which the two come to view as their "home." The love affair is, at first, ecstatic; then, by degrees, Léon grows bored with Emma's emotional excesses, and Emma grows ambivalent about Léon, who becoming himself more like the mistress in the relationship, compares poorly, at least implicitly, to the rakish and domineering Rodolphe. Meanwhile, Emma, given over to vanity, purchases increasing amounts of luxury items on credit from the crafty merchant, Lheureux, who arranges for her to obtain power of attorney over Charles’ estate, and crushing levels of debts mount quickly. When Lheureux calls in Bovary's debt, Emma pleads for money from several people, including Léon and Rodolphe, only to be turned down. In despair, she swallows arsenic and dies an agonizing death; even the romance of suicide fails her. Charles, heartbroken, abandons himself to grief, preserves Emma's room as if it is a shrine, and in an attempt to keep her memory alive, adopts several of her attitudes and tastes. In his last months, he stops working and lives off the sale of his possessions. When he by chance discovers Rodolphe and Léon's love letters, he still tries to understand and forgive. Soon after, he becomes reclusive; what has not already been sold of his possessions is seized to pay off Lheureux, and he dies, leaving his young daughter Berthe to live with distant relatives and she is eventually sent to work at a cotton mill. * Characters date: November 2010: Emma Bovary: Emma is the novel's protagonist and is the main source of the novel's title (Charles's mother and his former wife are also referred to as Madame Bovary). She has a highly romanticized view of the world and craves beauty, wealth, passion, and high society. It is the disparity between these romantic ideals and the realities of her country life that drive most of the novel, most notably leading her into two extramarital love affairs as well as causing her to accrue an insurmountable amount of debt that eventually leads to her suicide. Emma is quite intelligent, but she never has a chance to develop her mind. As an adult, Emma's capacity for imagination is far greater than her capacity for analysis. She is observant about surface details, such as how people are dressed. As a result, Emma not only believes in the false fronts other people present to her, but she despises the very few people (Charles's mother, Madame Homais, and Monsieur Binet) who are exactly as they appear to be. Convinced that the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence, Emma does not realize that extreme joy, even for the wealthy and powerful, comes rarely. Emma is surprised to see that aristocrats do not serve fancy food and drink at their everyday breakfasts: she prefers to believe that for the nobility, life is really an excitement-filled drama. Later, she fails to see that Rodolphe's wealth has not made him happy, despite obvious evidence of this fact. Since Emma lives chiefly in her own fantasy world, other people's opinions or perceptions of her are not important except to the extent that they serve some aspect of whatever drama she's trying to act out. At the ball, she's convinced that her aristocratic hosts have fully accepted her as one of their own, so much so that she expects an invitation the following year. In reality, the hosts condescended to invite Charles and Emma to the ball as reward for a favor, intending for it to be a once-in-a-lifetime treat. Indeed, Emma waltzes so badly that she tangles her dress up with her dance partner, and she uses the gaffe as an excuse to rest her head on his chest. She does not attempt to establish new social contacts at the party, nor does she write a thank-you note afterwards. She does not attempt to return the cigar-case she and Charles find later, which may have been a reasonable pretext to resume correspondence with their host. She fails to do the things that could, under the right circumstances, lead to real social connections in high places. Emma seldom makes an effort to cultivate friendships with other people, unless doing so serves the image she has of herself. She wants desperately to be an aristocrat, particularly after the d'Andervilliers ball, but although she is very good at aping the superficial behaviors (such as clothing and figures of speech), she lacks the manners and savoir-faire to actually operate in their culture. No matter what social group she decides she belongs to (aristocrats, the people of Yonville, people with "noble souls", adulteresses, religious martyrs, dramatic heroines, etc.), every time her role requires interaction with someone who actually is in that group, Emma fails in her professed role. She does not go out of her way to ingratiate herself with others. This indifference causes her to be rejected by most people in Tostes and Yonville, and to be very careless of her reputation and actions once she starts having extramarital affairs. Binet, Homais, Charles's mother, and Lheureux all catch her in compromising situations, and though she initially panics, she blatantly continues her affairs. Not only does she want the excitement of taking the risk, but possibly the drama that would result from being caught. Emma seeks out the extremes in life, both positive and negative. Unless she's experiencing the peak of ecstasy, she is convinced that she is miserable. She also re-writes her own history and memory, telling herself that she has "never" been happy every time it appears to her that, by indulging some whim, she can achieve the emotional experiences to which she feels entitled. Her appetite for stimulation grows to the point where she becomes jaded enough not to appreciate the small pleasures in life, simply because they are small pleasures. The more she experiences, the less she is satisfied with more normal activities. For instance, her taste in literature starts out with romances and bourgeois women's magazines targeted to her real social and economic position. From there she graduates to high-fashion women's magazines that advocate conspicuous consumption, then commences to overwrought romantic poetry, followed by tragic opera, and culminates in the violent pornography which she reads between assignations with Léon. As Vladimir Nabokov observes, Emma "reads books emotionally, in a shallow juvenile manner, putting herself in this or that female character's place." Moreover, as a girl, Emma is rewarded for an overblown, somewhat fake display of grief after her mother's death. Her father caters to her whims, as does Charles, who responds to Emma's ennui and psychosomatic illnesses by ignoring his patients and concentrating solely on his wife. Emma's fleeting but intense fascination with religion is much the same: people reward her pious conduct with extra attention and treat her as though she's superior, which reinforces her feelings of entitlement. Over the course of the book, Emma finds different ways to rationalize her feeling of entitlement at different times of her life. Before her marriage, she craves excitement because she is bored. In Tostes, particularly after the ball, she believes she was unjustly born into the wrong socioeconomic class and that everything would be better if only she was rich. Later, after being introduced to poetry, she believes she suffers because she has a noble soul. Ultimately she casts herself as a tragic heroine. Emma's sense of superiority and entitlement makes her vulnerable to people who seek to use and manipulate her. Anyone who plays along with Emma's pretentiousness is assured of her good graces. Lheureux, the predatory money-lender who fleeces Emma and Charles, is obsequious to Emma in order to get her to spend more money on unnecessary purchases. He takes advantage of her sense of entitlement by treating her like a grand lady and by indicating that she deserves all the impractical luxuries he persuades her to buy. By giving Emma credit for business sense and experience she doesn't actually possess, Lheureux takes advantage of Emma's financial inexperience. He skims ridiculous sums off the top of every promissory note he has Emma sign, and bluffs her into believing that large commissions are somehow customary in business. Unwilling to admit her ignorance, Emma lets herself be conned instead. Throughout her life, Emma selects dramatic, exaggerated depictions of human existence and adopts them as a romantic or personal ideal; moreover, she convinces herself that her ideal is somehow the norm, and that the reality she experiences is the exception to the rule. As a teenager, she seeks to emulate the romantic novels she read while at the convent. After the ball, she seeks to emulate the nobility and the wealthy and creates a new romantic ideal based on a man she met at the ball. After being introduced to poetry, she adopts a romantic martyr-like facade. After being exposed to the melodramatic opera "Lucia di Lammermoor", Emma adopts the insane fictional character Lucy Ashton as her role model and becomes convinced that the correct way to respond to adversity is to lose her mind and commit suicide, which she eventually does. Certain patterns which Emma exhibits - such as her reckless expenditures and her long period of "illness" when she is bedridden, seem to be descriptive of a person with a manic depressive syndrome, sometime known as a bipolar disorder. Flaubert's inclusion of her early overexposure to the Catholic religion and to Romantic novels cannot be ignored. Flaubert in his quest for realism and with his family background in frivolous medical matters of the mind was likely describing the social institutions of power and ideological violence that cultivate in the mind such a desire to escape reality at any cost. Charles Bovary: Emma's husband, Charles Bovary, is a very simple and common man. He is a country doctor by profession, but is, as in everything else, not very good at it. He is in fact not qualified enough to be termed a doctor, but is instead an officier de santé, or "health officer". When he is persuaded by Homais, the local pharmacist, to attempt a difficult operation on a patient's clubfoot, the effort is an enormous failure, and his patient's leg must be amputated by a better doctor. Charles adores his wife and finds her faultless, despite obvious evidence to the contrary. He never suspects her affairs and gives her complete control over his finances, thereby securing his own ruin. Despite Charles's complete devotion to Emma, she despises him as he is the epitome of all that is dull and common. When Charles discovers Emma's deceptions after her death he is devastated and dies soon after, but not before frittering away the very last of the assets remaining after his bankruptcy by living the way he believed Emma would have wanted him to live. Charles is presented from the start as a likeable and well-meaning fool who happens to have a good memory and a way with people. Although it annoys Emma that Charles doesn't deduce her attitude toward him based on her very subtle hints and cues, she would need a far more blunt approach to get her message across. Charles's lack of insight regarding Emma is not unique. He fails to realize that Homais is not his friend but his enemy and lets the pharmacist isolate him from the other people in town. He fails to realize that Rodolphe has designs on Emma. He trusts Léon implicitly even though he's aware Emma is emotionally attached to the young clerk. He fails to realize that Emma's expenditures have put the household in debt, and he doesn't realize that Lheureux is a financial predator. He also ignores potential allies in the town who might have pointed out what everybody else thought was obvious. Charles is no genius, but at the time he meets Emma he's doing well financially. He's married, he's got a thriving practice that has grown in response to his popularity with his patients, and he's got a good reputation in the community. After he moves to a new town, he never regains his former position, and Emma is part of the reason why. He knows he is in financial trouble, but continues to enable Emma's spendthrift ways. He takes on more than his share of his responsibility for the success of the marriage, and he tries to cover for Emma's lapses. Meanwhile, he gives up control over the financial aspects of his practice, which allows Emma to start embezzling. In fact, he borrows from a moneylender and does not tell Emma. During Emma's first mysterious collapse, which is in response to her realization that she's not getting a second ball invitation, Charles abandons his patients and acts as her full-time nurse even though her life is not obviously in danger. The more he hovers, the worse Emma's "health problem" becomes. He gives up a thriving practice and moves to an area where he knows nobody. He nurses her through two more collapses, and allows her to talk him into attempting an operation he is not qualified to perform. Monsieur Homais: Monsieur Homais is the town pharmacist. In one incident, he convinces Charles to perform corrective surgery on a young stable boy, afflicted with a club foot. During this era, correcting or eliminating a disability was a daring option and he may have considered this an opportunity to garner personal attention and praise. The operation is a disaster, and the stable boy is left with his leg amputated at the thigh. Despite having been convicted of practicing medicine without a license, he continues to give "consultations" in his pharmacy. This means that the presence of a licensed health officer in town is a threat to him. Not only are he and Charles in competition for patients, but if Charles were to report Homais for practicing medicine without a license, the courts would deal strictly with Homais given that it would be a second conviction. So, to keep the clueless Charles from turning him in to the authorities should Charles ever find out about the "consultations", Homais becomes Charles's best friend, at least on the surface. Meanwhile he undermines Charles at every opportunity. Convincing him to attempt the risky club foot operation may have been part of an ongoing strategy to discredit Charles so as to run him out of town. At the end of the book, after Charles's death, Homais uses similar strategies to get rid of subsequent doctors and is left in sole control of the medical profession in Yonville. He is also vehemently anti-clerical and an atheist. He is the one who insists that Emma should go riding with Rodolphe, that Charles take her to see the opera in Rouen, and that she be allowed to take expensive music lessons in Rouen. Flaubert's bete noire, the universal little man, Homais always has his ear to the ground for gossip. He appears to be completely unaware of Emma's adultery but subtly goes out of his way to make it easier for her. He also directly enables her ultimate act of self-destruction by detailing in her presence the means by which his supply of arsenic might be accessed. Madame Homais: The wife of Monsieur Homais, Madame Homais is a simple woman whose life revolves around her husband and children, of which she has four. Caring for four children is no trivial task, especially without electricity, hot running water, or any form of public schooling beyond occasional classes offered by the parish priest. Furthermore, in addition to her own four children Madame Homais cares for Justin, a teenage relative who lives with the Homais family and who helps Monsieur Homais out in the pharmacy. She also takes care of a boarder: a young male student by the name of Léon Dupuis. With that many people in the household, Madame Homais can be excused for having a live-in maid to help with at least some of the cooking, cleaning, and mending. Even with the maid's help, Madame Homais works very hard. Since the pharmacy is quite successful, she could perhaps get away with having her own horse or dressing in the latest fashions, but she does not. Instead, she takes in a boarder to earn extra money. Madame Homais serves chiefly as a foil for Emma. Whereas Madame Homais, or even Charles's infirm first wife, has a legitimate reason for wanting a maid, Emma is able-bodied aside from her drama-induced fainting fits and collapses. She simply chooses to do no housework, and to refrain from any of the activities bourgeois women generally did in order to earn money on the side. She does not sub-let an upstairs bedroom to a tenant the way Madame Homais rents to Léon, she leaves all the housekeeping to the maid, and does no work herself unless it suits whatever religious or social fantasy she has about herself at the time. Madame Homais does not dress fashionably or even well, whereas Emma is always dressed in the latest expensive fashions that are more lavish than what anyone else in Yonville seems able to afford. Madame Homais dotes on her children, while Emma ignores and despises her daughter unless she's acting out a maternal fantasy. Emma despises Madame Homais for her simplicity, unless she's in the mood to pretend to idealize good mothers. Madame Homais, however, seems unaware that Emma dislikes her. Even when other people gossip about Emma, Madame Homais defends her. That naive loyalty is rewarded with nothing but contempt most of the time. Léon Dupuis: First befriending Emma when she moves to Yonville, Léon seems a perfect match for her. He shares her romantic ideals as well as her disdain for common life. He worships Emma from afar before leaving to study law in Paris. A chance encounter brings the two together several years later and this time they begin an affair. Though the relationship is passionate at first, after a time the mystique wears off. Financially, Léon cannot afford to carry on the affair, so Emma pays more and more of the bills. Eventually she assumes the whole financial burden. She also takes the lead in planning meetings and setting up communication, which is a reversal of the role she had with Rodolphe. Léon does not seem to find Emma's financial aggression disturbing or inappropriate, although when Emma asks him to pawn some spoons she'd received as a wedding gift from her father, Léon does become uncomfortable. He objects to the heavy spending, but does not press too hard when Emma overrules him. He's content to be the recipient of Emma's largesse, and to not think too much about where the money is coming from. He also does not feel particularly obligated to reciprocate later, when Emma asks him for help in her hour of financial need. Over time, Léon becomes disenchanted with Emma, particularly after her attentions start to affect his work. The first time she arrives at his office, he's charmed and leaves work quickly. After a while, the interruptions have an effect on his work and his attitude to the other clerks. Eventually someone sends word to Léon's mother that her son is "ruining himself with a married woman", and Léon's mother and employer insist that he break off the affair. Léon does, briefly, but cannot stay away from Emma. His reluctance is tempered with relief because Emma's pursuit of him has become increasingly disturbing. When Emma's debts finally come due, she attempts to seduce Léon into stealing money from his employer to cover her debts. At this point, he becomes genuinely afraid. He fobs her off with an excuse and disappears from her life. Rodolphe Boulanger: Rodolphe is a wealthy local man who seduces Emma as one more addition to a long string of mistresses. Though occasionally charmed by Emma, Rodolphe feels little true emotion towards her. As Emma becomes more and more desperate, Rodolphe loses interest and worries about her lack of caution. He eventually ends their relationship, but not before going through a collection of letters and tokens from previous mistresses, all of whom ended up wanting either love or money. Rodolphe's deteriorating feelings for Emma do not keep him from accepting the valuable gifts she showers on him throughout their relationship, even though he realizes at some level that she can't afford to be so generous. The gifts she gives him are of the same value and quality as she imagines an aristocrat such as the Vicount might receive from a similarly aristocratic mistress. Rodolphe's gifts to Emma are nowhere near as valuable even though he is by far the wealthier of the two. He does not feel particularly obligated by having accepted the gifts, even though they create a large part of Emma's debt to Lheureux. When Emma asks Rodolphe for help at the peak of her financial crisis, after refusing the sex-for-money exchange offered by the wealthy Monsieur Guillaumin, she essentially attempts to initiate a sex-for-money exchange with Rodolphe. She pretends at first to have returned out of love, then when the timing feels right she asks him for money, using an obvious lie about why she needs a loan. She therefore comes across as among the most mercenary of Rodolphe's past mistresses. Rodolphe therefore sees no need to help her, though he could perhaps not afford to lend her enough money to keep her creditors at bay even if he desired to. Monsieur Lheureux: A manipulative and sly merchant who continually convinces Emma to buy goods on credit and borrow money from him. Lheureux plays Emma masterfully and eventually leads her so far into debt as to cause her financial ruin and subsequent suicide. Lheureux's reputation as an aggressive money lender is well known in Yonville. Had Emma or Charles had the wit to make inquiries about him or even to listen to the gossip, they would have realized that Lheureux had ruined at least one other person in town through his stratagems. Yet the only "friend" they trust, Homais, is fully aware of Lheureux's treachery but disinclined to warn Emma or Charles. So both Emma and Charles end up borrowing money from Lheureux without each other's knowledge. Setting: The setting of Madame Bovary is crucial to the novel for several reasons. First, it is important as it applies to Flaubert's realist style and social commentary. Secondly, the setting is important in how it relates to the protagonist Emma. It has been calculated that the novel begins in October 1827 and ends in August 1846 (Francis Steegmuller). This is around the era known as the “July Monarchy”, or the rule of King Louis-Philippe. This was a period in which there was a great up-surge in the power of the bourgeois middle class. Flaubert detested the bourgeoisie. Much of the time and effort, therefore, that he spends detailing the customs of the rural French people can be interpreted as social criticism. Flaubert put much effort into making sure his depictions of common life were accurate. This was aided by the fact that he chose a subject that was very familiar to him. He chose to set the story in and around the city of Rouen in Normandy, the setting of his own birth and childhood. This care and detail that Flaubert gives to his setting is important in looking at the style of the novel. It is this faithfulness to the mundane elements of country life that has garnered the book its reputation as the beginning of the literary movement known as “literary realism”. Flaubert also deliberately used his setting to contrast with his protagonist. Emma's romantic fantasies are strikingly foiled by the practicalities of the common life around her. Flaubert uses this juxtaposition to reflect on both subjects. Emma becomes more capricious and ludicrous in the harsh light of everyday reality. By the same token, however, the self-important banality of the local people is magnified in comparison to Emma, who, though impractical, still reflects an appreciation of beauty and greatness that seems entirely absent in the bourgeois class. Style: The book, loosely based on the life story of a schoolfriend who had become a doctor, was written at the urging of friends, who were trying (unsuccessfully) to "cure" Flaubert of his deep-dyed Romanticism by assigning him the dreariest subject they could think of, and challenging him to make it interesting without allowing anything out-of-the-way to occur. Although Flaubert had little liking for the styles of Balzac or Zola, the novel is now seen as a prime example of Realism, a fact which contributed to the trial for obscenity (which was a politically-motivated attack by the government on the liberal newspaper in which it was being serialized, La Revue de Paris). Flaubert, as the author of the story, does not comment directly on the moral character of Emma Bovary and abstains from explicitly condemning her adultery. This decision caused some to accuse Flaubert of glorifying adultery and creating a scandal. The Realist movement used verisimilitude through a focus on character development. Realism was a reaction against Romanticism. Emma may be said to be the embodiment of a romantic; in her mental and emotional process, she has no relation to the realities of her world. She inevitably becomes dissatisfied since her larger-than-life fantasies are impossible to realize. Flaubert declared that much of what is in the novel is in his own life by saying, "Madame Bovary, c'est moi" ("Madame Bovary is me"). Madame Bovary, on the whole, is a commentary on the entire self-satisfied, deluded, bourgeois culture of Flaubert's time period. His contempt for the bourgeoisie is expressed through his characters: Emma and Charles Bovary lost in romantic delusions; absurd and harmful scientific characters, a self-serving money lender, lovers seeking excitement finding only the banality of marriage in their adulterous affairs. All are seeking escape in empty church rituals, unrealistic romantic novels, or delusions of one sort or another. Literary significance and reception: Long established as one of the greatest novels ever written, the book has often been described as a "perfect" work of fiction. Henry James writes: "Madame Bovary has a perfection that not only stamps it, but that makes it stand almost alone; it holds itself with such a supreme unapproachable assurance as both excites and defies judgment." Adaptations: Madame Bovary has been made into several films, beginning with Albert Ray's 1932 version. It has also been the subject of multiple television miniseries and made-for-TV movies. The most notable of these adaptations was the 1949 film produced by MGM. Directed by Vincente Minnelli, it starred Jennifer Jones in the title role, co-starring James Mason, Van Heflin, Louis Jourdan, and Gene Lockhart. It was adapted by Giles Cooper for the BBC in 1964, with the same script being used for a new production in 1975. A 2000 miniseries adaptation by Heidi Thomas was made for the BBC, starring Frances O'Connor and Hugh Bonneville. David Lean's film Ryan's Daughter (1970) was a loose adaptation of the story, relocating it to Ireland during the time of the Easter Rebellion. The script had begun life as a straight adaptation of Bovary, but Lean convinced writer Robert Bolt to re-work it into another setting. Claude Chabrol made his version starring Isabelle Huppert in 1991. In Chabrol's remake, critics claimed the direction was sumptuous, that the period piece was a "pertinent tragic drama." Indian director Ketan Mehta adapted the novel into a 1992 Hindi film Maya Memsaab. Madame Blueberry is an 1998 film in the Veggietales animated series. It is a loose parody of Madame Bovary, in which Madame Blueberry, an anthropomorphic blueberry, gathers material possessions in a vain attempt to find happiness. Academy Award nominated film Little Children features the novel as part of a book club discussion, and shares a few elements of the main idea. loosely based her 2007 novel The Saturday Wife on Madame Bovary. Madame Bovary has been adapted into a piece of musical theatre, entitled The Bovary Tale. Composer: Anne Freier. Librettist: Laura Steel. The first performance was at the Gatehouse Theatre in Highgate Village in September 2009. Posy Simmonds graphic novel Gemma Bovery reworked the story into a satirical tale of English expatriates in France. Vale Abraão (1993) (Abraham's Vale) by Manoel de Oliveira is a close interpretation set in Portugal, even referencing and discussing Flaubert's novel several times. Madame Bovary has been adapted into a piece of musical theatre, entitled The Bovary Tale. Composer: Anne Freier. Librettist: Laura Steel. The first performance was at the Gatehouse Theatre in Highgate Village in September 2009. "Madame Ovary" is the name of a character in DC Comics' The Adventures of the Outsiders #33-35. Madame Ovary's name was really Dr. Ovarin, and she was created by Mike W. Barr and Alan Davis.

Madame Bovary Roman français du XIXe siècle | Roman paru en 1857 | Roman-feuilleton | Œuvre de Gustave Flaubert | Personnage de fiction féminin | Opéra et littérature voir homonymes: Madame Bovary est un roman de Gustave Flaubert paru en 1857 dont le titre original est Madame Bovary, mœurs de province. La genèse : Flaubert commence le roman en 1851 et y travaille pendant cinq ans, jusqu’en 1856. À partir d’octobre, le texte est publié dans la Revue de Paris sous la forme de feuilleton jusqu’au 15 décembre suivant. En février 1857, le gérant de la revue, Léon Laurent-Pichat, l’imprimeur et Gustave Flaubert sont jugés pour « outrage à la morale publique et religieuse et aux bonnes mœurs ». Défendu par l’avocat Antoine Jules Sénard , malgré le réquisitoire du procureur Ernest Pinard, Gustave Flaubert est blâmé pour le réalisme vulgaire et souvent choquant de la peinture des caractères: mais est acquitté ,: . Le roman connaîtra un important succès en librairie. Honoré de Balzac avait déjà abordé le même sujet dans La Femme de trente ans en 1831 sous forme de nouvelle-roman qui parut en 1842 dans l’édition Furne de la Comédie humaine, sans toutefois faire scandale. C'est en sa mémoire que Flaubert a sous-titré l'œuvre mœurs de province, faisant référence à la nomenclature de la Comédie humaine. Au début, Flaubert ne voulait pas qu'on illustre son roman avec un portrait de femme pour laisser libre cours à l'imagination du lecteur. Résumé : Charles Bovary s'établit à Tostes comme officier de santé, élève médiocre il n'a pas obtenu le doctorat. Il se marie ensuite avec une veuve de 45 ans qu'il exècre. Après la mort de sa femme (dont il hérite de la fortune), Charles, lors d'une banale visite, fait la rencontre d'une jeune femme, Emma Rouault, élevée dans un couvent et s'ennuyant à la ferme avec son père. Emma épouse Charles, après avoir été convaincue par son père. Marquée au fer rouge par ses lectures romantiques de jeunesse, et nourrissant une vision passionnément lyrique de l'existence, elle se prend à rêver d'une vie en adéquation avec ses aspirations naïves de jeune fille grâce à son mariage. Mais sa vie en couple dégénère rapidement pour devenir insipide et monotone. Charles, privé d'ambition, ne répond pas à ses attentes d'une vie exaltante. Arrive le bal donné au château de la Vaubyessard, qui marque une étape déterminante dans la vie d'Emma, lui laissant entrevoir les charmes tentateurs d'une vie privilégiée dont elle rêve depuis sa plus prime jeunesse. Cette soirée continuera longtemps d'hanter son esprit. Emma s'ennuie et sombre dans la dépression et Charles, à contre-cœur décide de partir à Yonville, alors que Madame Bovary est enceinte. Elle fait la connaissance du pharmacien Homais, archétype du notable de province bouffi d'orgueil et de Léon, un clerc de notaire dont elle éprouve le charme, mais qui part pour Rouen. Si elle se rétablit, Emma n'en reste pas moins écœurée par son mari, qui semble ne pas comprendre ses préoccupations. Elle va se laisser séduire, lors des comices agricoles, par Rodolphe, riche propriétaire terrien mais coureur de jupons impénitent. Il se lassera vite du romantisme hyperbolique de la jeune femme. C'est après être tombée malade, à la suite du brusque départ de Rodolphe, qu'elle revoit Léon à un spectacle. Cette deuxième liaison l'entraînera fréquemment à Rouen et l'obligera à des dépenses excessives. Elle contractera des dettes auprès d'un usurier, Lheureux. Menacée par une saisie de ses biens et plus seule que jamais, Emma se suicide en absorbant de l’arsenic. Charles découvrira plus tard les lettres échangées avec ses amants. Il finit par mourir de chagrin après lui avoir toutefois pardonné. Analyse: Madame Bovary recèle des aspects réalistes et des aspects romantiques, comme l’œuvre de Flaubert, qui oscille elle-même sans cesse de la grisaille à la couleur, de la terne réalité aux fastes de l’imagination. Il y a loin de l’Éducation sentimentale à Salammbô, de Bouvard et Pécuchet à la Tentation de saint Antoine. Mais même lorsque Flaubert entend écrire sur un sujet trivial, il renonce au réalisme pur. Flaubert pouvait affirmer : « Ma pauvre Bovary souffre et pleure dans vingt villages de France ! », preuve qu’il ne s’agissait plus de la simple transcription réaliste de l’affaire Delamare. L’auteur des Trois Contes se situe exactement à la charnière de son siècle, héritant du mal du siècle romantique, cette difficulté à vivre dans un monde borné, il annonce le spleen baudelairien et l’incapacité à s’accommoder d’une existence qui brime l’idéal. Épurant le romantisme de ses excès, il fonde une certaine impartialité dans le récit, ouvrant la voie au roman moderne fait de critique et d’échecref sou: . Madame Bovary a été profondément influencé par Don Quichote, de Cervantes. Flaubert, pendant qu'il écrivait le roman, s'exclama : « Je retrouve toutes mes origines dans le livre que je savais par cœur avant de savoir lire, Don Quichotte ». Alonso Quijano et Emma Bovary désirent ardemment imposer les conventions du roman de chevalerie et des œuvres romantiques, respectivement, à la vie, ce qui mène « le héros et l'héroïne à la destruction, la désillusion et finalement à la mort ». Soledad Fox relève que « les emprunts et les transpositions sont substantiels », dans ce roman comme dans l'Éducation Sentimentale et Bouvard et Pécuchet, ultérieurement. Le roman de Flaubert est donc un regard littéraire sur la lecture. Adaptations cinématographiques : Plusieurs adaptations ont eu lieu au cinéma : * 1932 : Unholy Love de Albert John Ray, avec Lila Le. * 1933 : Madame Bovary par Jean Renoir. * 1937 : Madame Bovary de Gerhard Lamprecht, avec Pola Negri. * 1947 : Madame Bovary de Carlos Schlieper, avec Mecha Ortiz. * 1949 : Madame Bovary par Vincente Minnelli, avec Jennifer Jones, James Mason... (cette adaptation est intéressante car elle montre l’intrigue du roman ainsi que le procès qui eut lieu en 1857 autour de l’œuvre.) * 1969 : La Bovary nue (Die Nackte Bovary) de Hans Schott-Schöbinger, avec Edwige Fenech. * 1974 : Madame Bovary de Pierre Cardinal * 1977 : Madame Bovary, c’est moi de Zbigniew Kaminski avec Jadwiga Jankowska-Cieslak. * 1989 : Sauve et protège d’Alexandre Sokourov avec Cécile Zervudacki. * 1991 : Madame Bovary par Claude Chabrol, avec Isabelle Huppert. * 1993 : Val Abraham par Manoel de Oliveira, transposition dans le Portugal contemporain, avec Leonor Silveira. * 2000 : Madame Bovary par Tim Fywell, pour la BBC, avec Frances O'Connor dans le rôle principal. (Cette adaptation illustre un point de vue anglais.) * 2001 : Gregoire Moulin contre l'Humanité par Artus de Penguern. (La trame de Madame Bovary est reprise dans quelques scènes du film.) Postérité : * En 1954, le roman Madame Bovary est cité par William Somerset Maugham dans son essai : Ten Novels and Their Authors parmi les dix plus grands romans . Maugham a d'autre part préfacé le roman en 1949, dans une édition traduite par Joan Charles . * En 1992, Daniel Pennac, dans son essai sur la lecture Comme un roman, qualifie le bovarysme avec humour de « maladie textuellement transmissible » pour désigner l'attitude spontanée des lecteurs recherchant dans les romans « la satisfaction immédiate et exclusive de [leurs] sensations », par le plaisir de l'imagination, l'identification aux personnages et les émotions provoquées par l'intrigue . Il inclut le « droit au bovarysme » parmi les dix droits imprescriptibles du lecteur qui forment la seconde partie de l'essai. Notes et références : colonnes 2: : Bibliographie * Romans * fr: Philippe Doumenc, Contre-enquête sur la mort d'Emma Bovary, Actes Sud, 2007 978-2742768202: . * Essais * fr: Michèle Breut, Le Haut et le bas : essai sur le grotesque dans Madame Bovary de Gustave Flaubert, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1994. * en: Ion K. Collas, Madame Bovary, a Psychoanalytic Study, Genève, Droz, 1986. * fr: André Dubuc,L’âme de Rouen dans Madame Bovary, Yvetot, Imprimeries Bretteville, 1958. * fr: René Dumesnil, Madame Bovary de Gustave Flaubert : étude et analyse, Paris, Mellottée, 1958. * fr: Claudine Gothot-Mersch, La Genèse de Madame Bovary, Paris, Corti, 1966. * fr: Claudine Gothot-Mersch, Madame Bovary, Paris, Garnier, 1971. * en: Edward J. Gallagher, Textual Hauntings: Studies in Flaubert's Madame Bovary and Mauriac's Thérèse Desqueyroux, University Press of America, 2005. * fr: René Herval, Les véritables origines de Madame Bovary, Paris, France, Nizet, 1958. * fr: Jean-Claude Lafay, Le Réel et la critique dans Madame Bovary de Flaubert, Paris, Minard, 1987. * fr: Alain de Lattre, La Bêtise d’Emma Bovary, Paris, Corti, 1981. * fr: Mario Vargas Llosa, L’Orgie perpétuelle : Flaubert et Madame Bovary, Paris, Gallimard, 1978. * en: Margaret Lowe, Toward the Real Flaubert: A Study of Madame Bovary, Oxford, Clarendon, 1984. * fr: Matthew MacNamara, La Textualisation de Madame Bovary, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 2003. * fr: Henri Raczymow, Madame Bovary, la Moïra et les moires, Les Temps modernes n°629, novembre 2004/février 2005. * fr: Patricia Reynaud, Fiction et Faillite : économie et métaphores dans Madame Bovary, New York, Peter Lang, 1994. * fr: Géraud Venzac, Au pays de Madame Bovary, Paris, Genève, La Palatine, 1957. * fr: André Vial, Le Dictionnaire de Flaubert : le Rire d’Emma Bovary, Paris, Nizet, 1974.

هيل بوى شخصيات خيالية هيل بوي (Hellboy) هو كتاب فكاهي.وانشأت الشخصيه بواسطة الكاتب الفنان مايك ميجنولا. وقد ظهرت في عدد من سلسلة محدودةمسميات مينيس والطلقات الواحده، وكذلك بعض. عمليات الانتقال. الشخصيه هو الشيطان الذي يحارب لحكومة الولايات المتحدة وهو نفسه ضد قوى الظلام بما في ذلك النازيون وبابا ياجا، في سلسلة من الحكايات التي لها جذورها في التراث الشعبي، ومجلة بالب ،ومغامرة فينتاج، والخيال المرعب. تم تكييف الكتاب الفكاهي في عرض عام 2004 بطولة رون بيرلمان ،وتكملة الفيلم عام 2008، ، وهما على التوالي دي في دي أفلام الرسوم المتحركة، هيل بوي : سيف من العواصف وهيل بوي : الدم والحديد. هيل بوي خيال كوني : Hellboy fictional timeline: الشيطان الذي اسمه الحقيقي هو اننج اون راما (وحش في سفر الرؤيا)، أحضر هيل بوي إلى الأرض وهو رضيع من النازي اكيولوتيستفقد اكتشف من قبل قوات الحلفاء، من بينها، الأستاذ تريفور بريوتنهولم، الذين شكلوا مكتب الولايات المتحدة مكتب بحوث الخوارق والدفاع (بي بي ار دي). في وقت نمت هيل بوي لتكون كبيرة، بشره حمراء شيطانيه مع الذيل، وأبواق (التي كانت من الملفات، مخلفين وراءهم توقيع مستدير جزوعها على جبهته، لجعل مظهره أكثر "طبيعية")، وتضخم اليد اليمنى مصنوع من الحجر. فقد وصف يانه رائحة جفاف الفول السوداني المحمص. وإن كان قليلا خشن، فانه لا يظهر أي من الخبث يعتقد أن يكون ملازم للشيطان، ويعمل مع مخلوقات غريبة أخرى في بي بي ار دي. هذا قيل ليكون بسبب تربيته تحت اشراف الاستاذ بريتينهولم، الذي انشأه صبي عادي وعلمه كيف يتصرف بشكل طبيعي. هذا هو إشارة إلى طبيعة مقابل إنشاء المناقشة. هيل بوي قد يطلق عليه اسم "اعظم محقق خارق في العالم". السيرة الذاتية : هيل بوي هو مخلوق استدعى، أو ربما صنع، في الأشهر الأخيرة من الحرب العالمية الثانية بواسطة غريغوري راسبوتين على جزيرة ترماجانت، قبالة سواحل اسكتلندا، بعد أن كلف من النازيين لتغيير مجرى الحرب ("مشروع رجنا روك"). وهو ظهر في كرة من اللهب في الكنيسة المهدمة في شرق بروميتش، انكلترا، في 23 ديسمبر، 1944. لا تثبت أن يكون شيطان، بالمعنى التقليدي للكلمة، ولكن شيطان، مثل مخلوق من ذوي البشرة الحمراء والقرون، والذيل، بشكل غير طبيعي وغير متناسب اليد اليمنى مصنوع من الحجر الأحمر، اطلق عليه اسم "هيل بوي " بواسطة البروفسور تريفور بريوتينهولم التي اتخذتها الولايات المتحدة للقوات المسلحة لسلاح الجو في قاعدة نيو مكسيكو، هيل بوي اثيرت بواسطة جيش الولايات المتحدة وأيضا بواسطة مكتب بحوث الخوارق والدفاع (بي بي ار دي)، وهي وكالة فيدرالية المكرسة لمكافحة التهديدات الغامضه. كشخص بالغ، هيل بوي يصبح العميل الرئيسي لبي بي ار دي، جنبا إلى جنب مع أشباه الإنسان وغيرها من العوامل البشرية التي تشمل كيت كوريغان ، أستاذ الفولكلور في جامعة نيويورك ؛ ابي سابين، وهو الروبوت البرمائي (سابين) ؛ ليز شيرمان، وهو الشاب البيروكنيتك ؛ روجر، وهو قزم كبيرة بشكل غير عادي ؛ جوهان كراوس، الروح المتوسطة أبقى في دعوى الاحتواء ؛ [[بن Daimio ونوعا من نشوء صراع أخروي يستتبعه، والذي قال إن يده اليمنى هو المفتاح لفتح المنجم. مرة أخرى ترفض هيل بوي، وهذه المرة قطع له حديثا إعادة نمو القرون. * الصندوق المليئ بالشر هيل بوي: الصندوق المليئ بالشر (قضيتين ،أغسطس-سبتمبر، 1999) بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، ارتفع مؤشر داو ماثيو سميث ورايان سوك كان يكتب لوضع حد نهائي لوحش قصة قوس نهاية العالم.. في القصة ،ايغور برومهيد قوي زياده عن الشيطان، يالاك، من خلال استخدام هذا الاسم الشيطاني. هيل بوي أيضا ربط اسمه، "انيونج اون راما"، التاج في نهاية العالم، والذي يرتدي ولكن غير مرئي له، قد اخذ. مع أخذ التاج، تم تغيير يالاك إلى شيطان أقوى بكثير. هيل بوي اكتشف ان "انينج اون راما" هو الترجمة الحرفية لي"... وعلى جبينه تم وضع تاج من النار..." -- وكما قد استولى يالاك على التاج، هذا لم يعد هو نفسه. كما أن هذا لم يعد اسمه، انه لم يعد مقيد، وبالتالي قادرة على هزيمة يالاك. التاج تم الاحتفاظ به لهيل بوي بواسطة استاروث، في بانديمونيوم، عاصمة جهنم ؛ ومقعد محجوز للمكون في بيت الذبابة. * المجموعات أكثر الكتب الهزليه لهيل بوي تم جمعها في مجلدات ككتاب تجاري ورقي الغلاف. * هيل بوي تجارة الأغلفة الورقية * (الفن بواسطة مايك مايجنولا، والكتابة عن طريق جون بيرن، أكتوبر 1994) * (بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، والألوان بقلم جيمس سنكلير، وفصل بواسطة ديف ستيوارت، أدب بواسطة بات بروسو، مايو 1997) * (بواسطةمايك مايجنولا، والألوان ديف ستيوارت، وادب بواسطة بات بروسو ،أغسطس 1998) * (بواسطةمايك مايجنولا، والألوان ديف ستيوارت، وادب بواسطة بات بروسو ،أبريل 2000) * (بواسطةمايك مايجنولا، والألوان ديف ستيوارت، أدب بواسطة بات بروسو ،فبراير 2002) * (بواسطة مايك مايجنولا ،أبريل 2006) * (بواسطة مايك مايجنولا، نوفمبر 2007) * (قصة وتغطية بواسطة مايك مايجنولا، والفن من قبل دنكان فيجريدو، مايو 2008) * (قصة وتغطية بواسطة مايك مايجنولا، والفن من قبل دنكان فيجريدو ،مارس 2010) * اصدرات ضخمه * هيل بوي: اصدار مكتبه المجلد 1—جمع بذور التدمير وايقاظ الشيطان. * هيل بوي : اصدار مكتبه المجلد 2 -- يجمع سلاسل التابوت وآخرون، اليد اليمنى للموت. * هيل بوي: اصدار مكتبه المجلد 3—تجمع الفاتح دودة "و" الأماكن الغريبه ". * الاغلفه الورقيه التجارية الأخرى * المجلد. 1 & 2 (تغطية بواسطة مايجنولا) * هيل بوي عضو بواسطة مايك مايجنولا، بيل وراي، وغيرها * شبح / هيل بوي الخاص بواسطة مايك مايجنولا * وحشية التنين / هيل بوي (يجمع سافاج التنين # 34-35، وتغطية بواسطة مايك مايجنولا) * فن هيل بوي مايك مايجنولا(مارس 2003) الحصان الاسوداي اس بي ان 1-56971-910-1 * هيل بوي : الرفيق بواسطة ستيف وينر وجايسون هول (21 مايو، 2008)كتب الحصان الاسود اي اس بي ان 978-1-59307-655-9 * في وسائل الإعلام الأخرى * الأفلام الروائية * هيل بوي Hellboy (film): غييرمو ديل تورو شارك في كتابة وإخراج فيلم التكيف تحت عنوان هيل بوي في عام 2004، وتقاسم الدين الأصلي مع كاتب السيناريو بيتر بريغز. ديل تورو ،من معجبين اعمال مايك مايجنولا، سبق أن كتب في مقدمة هيل بوي : الفاتح دودة. هذا الفيلم تألق رون بيرلمان كهيل بوي (والمفضل لدى كل من ديل تورو ومايجنولا للدور)، سلمى بلير وليز شيرمان، روبرت إيفانز كعميل فدرالي خاص جون مايرز (شخصيه خلقت للفيلم)، جون هورت كأستاذ تريفور بريوتنهولم، دوغ جونز وابي سابين (التي عبر عنها في نكروديتيد ديفيد هايد بيرس)، كاريل رودن وغريغوري راسبوتين، وجيفري تمبر كمحقق خاص كبير للاف بي اي توم مانينغ. الفيلم تلقى مشاهده عموميه إيجابية، وأداء عادل في شباك التذاكر. ومع ذلك، فإن الفيلم لاول مرة في دور العرض حيث ان آلام المسيح كان لا يزال يعرض، وفقا لديل تورو في دي في دي للتعليق، أن بعض المسارح إعادة عنوان الفيلم على لافتتها، أو صراحة أنه يرفض أن يعرض لتجنب تشغيل الشيطان " "الفيلم ضد العاطفة. * هيل بوي 2 : الجيش الذهبي ملحمة، ، قتل بالرصاص في بودابست عن طريق ديل تورو، وميزات المواهب العائده من بيرلمان وبلير. جونز عاد أيضا ليس فقط في دور ابي سابين(غير ملقب هذه المرة)، ولكن في اثنين من الأدوار الأخرى : ملك الموت ووتشامبرلين. استديوهات ريفليوشن قد خططت لصنع الفيلم (الذي كان كولومبيا بيكتشرز ستوزعه)، ولكن الاستوديو خرجت من قطاع الأعمال قبل التصوير. يونيفرسال بيكتشرزالتقطته. المؤامرة هو التحول إلى مزيد من الفولكلور بدلا من الحركه، مع الايحاءات الاوربيه الثقيله. شخصيةيوهان كراوس اضيفت إلى الفريق، والتي عبر عنها سيث ماكفارلين. شخصيةروجرالقزم لم تكن، لكنه كتبها في المؤامرة باعتباره شخصية بارزة جدا في المسودات الأولى للنص. (روجر ويمكن ان يري كتمثال كئيب في خلفية بي بي ار دي الرواق تالف في كل من الافلام الأولى والثانية.) شخصية العميل مايرز من أول فيلم لم تعود، غيابه فسر بواسطة ليز لاحظ ان هيل بوي قد نقله إلى القارة القطبية الجنوبية بدافع الغيرة. في 11 نوفمبر، 2008، هيل بوي 2: الجيش الذهبي اصدره في دي في دي. * هيل بوي 3 والفيلم الثالث هو في مراحل الحمل، عمل ليركز على المكافحة بين هيل بوي وغشيل الدماغ الملاك التي تم اسره من قبل النازيين منذ الحرب العالمية الثانية. سيكون هناك أيضا عودة راسبوتين كروينين، ولاول مرة رودريك زينكو. بي بي ار دي الجديدة تشمل وكلاء الكركند جونسون وربما روجر والقزم. نبوءة هيل بوي ليصبح وحش القيامة سوف تتحقق، وبالإضافة إلى ذلك ،هيل بوي سوف يتعلم أن يكون أبا لتوأمين. التزامات ديل تورو لأفلام الهوبيت ستؤجل أي تورط محتمل في المشروع تاريخ: يوليو 2009: أفلام الرسوم المتحركة : Hellboy Animated: يوم 9 نوفمبر 2005، أصدر صندوق التنمية الاستئماني المستقل للترفيه بيان صحفى معلنا أن الشركة لديها ترخيص من حقوق تطوير "محتوى الرسوم المتحركة في التلفزيون والترفيه المنزلي" على أساس هيل بوي الهزلية. رون بيرلمان (هيل بوي)، سلمى بلير (ليز شيرمان)، دوغ جونز (ابي سابين)، وجون هيرت (الأستاذ تريفور 'بروم' بروتينهولم) قد اعربوا عن جميع الشخصيات المعنية. الممثلة بيري غيلبين انضمت الي فرق العمل كأستاذه كيت كوريغان. أول اثنين 75 -دقيقة من أفلام الرسوم المتحركة ،سيف من العواصف والدم والحديد، تم بثه على شبكة الكرتون قبل أن يطلق سراحه على دي في دي. أول واحده بثت 28 أكتوبر 2006، والثانية بثت 17 مارس 2007. كل القصتين لديهما الكثير من القواسم المشتركة مع الكتاب الهزلي هيل بوي بدلا من الفيلم -- ابي سابين ليست نفسية، على سبيل المثال، هيل بوي وليز هم مجرد أصدقاء، والأعمال الفنية ولوحة الألوان مستمده بشكل وثيق جدا من مايجنولا والأعمال الفنية الأصلية. دي في دي من اصدر في 6 فبراير، 2007 ؛ أنه يحتوي على مادة وثائقية التعليق وهيل بوي الكتاب الهزلي، فانتوم ليمبز. بعد اصدار انتيتيال بعض المحلات شملت هبات حصريه مع نسخ من الرسوم المتحركه لهيل بوي : الدم والحديد دي في دي: * أفضل شراء : أ 7 "شكل هيل بوي. * وول مارت : 80 صفحة بعنوان دايجست جرس الحكم * ترانسوورد: 64 صفحة هيل بوي دايجست * اللانهاية -- جراد البحر جونسونلوبستر جونسون ماجنيت * حلبة المدينه -- هيل بوي"تمثال نصفي". وقال "هيل بوي 2 باك" طبعة محدودة واصدرت دي في دي في 1 يوليو 2008 والتي تحتوي علي الفيلمين و 7 ّرموز. ثالث فيلم رسوم متحركة لهيل بوي، مخلب الشبح، وقد وضعت على الانتظار. صبي الأحجار مخرج وكاتب افلام دي تي في ،يقول الفيلم سوف نجمة الكركند جونسون وسيكون لها بعض الشخصيات المألوفة، ولكن ابي وليز لن يكون في فيلم (على الأقل ليس على نحو الشخصيات الرئيسية). * روايات ومقتطفات كريستوفر الذهبي قد كتب روايات عديديه حول الشخصيه، واول اثنان منها هم، الجيش الضائع والعظام من العمالقة، هي جزء من القصة الرسمية هيل بوي. الأحداث التي وقعت في كل من هذه الروايات المذكورة واردة في الجدول الزمني الرسمي للكتب الهزليه رفيق هيل بوي} على وجه الخصوص، الشخصيه الذهبيه لاناستازيا برانسفيلد كما هو موضح في الرفيق، رغم أنه لم يظهر فعلا في كتب هزليه. * هيل بوي: الجيش المفقود (الذي كتبه كريستوفر جولدن، وتغطية رسوم أخرى عن طريق مايك ميجنولا، 1997) * هيل بوي: عظام العمالقه (الذي كتبه كريستوفر جولدن، وتغطية رسوم أخرى بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، 2001) * هيل بوي: على الأرض كما هو الحال في الجحيم (كتبه بريان هودج، وتغطية بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، سبتمبر 2005) * هيل بوي: اختيار الغير طبيعي (الذي كتبه تيم ليبون، وتغطية بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، مارس 2006) * هيل بوي: آلة الله (الذي كتبه توماس اي. سنيوجوسكي، وتغطية بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، يوليو 2006) * هيل بوي: بركة التنين (كتبه كريستوفر جولدن، وتغطية بواسطة مايك ميجنولا، مارس 2007) * هيل بوي : زمرد الجحيم (كتبه توم بيتشيريلى، وتغطية بواسطة مايك ميجنولا.فبراير 2008) * هيل بوي: جميع رؤي العين (كتبه مارك موريس، وتغطية بواسطة مايك مايجنولا، أكتوبر 2008) * هيل بوي: الذئاب الناريه (الذي كتبه تيم ليبون، وتغطية من جانب مايك مايجنولا، أبريل 2009) * هيل بوي : الذئاب الجليديه (الذي كتبه مارك شادبورن، تغطي بواسطة دنكان فيجريدو، سبتمبر 2009) * هيل بوي: وظائفه غريبه (من قبل المحرر كريستوفر الذهبي، والكتاب يتضمن ستيفن أر بايسيتي، جريج روكا، نانسي ألف كولينزنانسي ايه. كولينز وبوبي زيد/5}، مع مقدمة بقلم مايك ميجنولا. ميلواوكي : الحصان الاسود كتاب هزلي، اي ان سي، اي اس بي ان 1-56971-440-1، ديسمبر 1999) * هيل بوي: وظائف غريبه (من قبل المحرر كريستوفر جولدن، والكتاب يتضمن فرانك دارابونت، غييرمو ديل تورو، تشارلز دي لينت، غراهام جويس، شارين ماكرمب وريتشارد دين ستار، أكتوبر 2004) * هيل بوي: وظائف غريبه (من قبل المحرر كريستوفر جولدن، والكتاب يتضمن جو R. لانسدال، اتشينا مايجيلي، باربرا هامبلي، كين بريين، أمبير بنسون وتاد وليامز، في يوليو 2008) * ألعاب الفيديو لعبة الفيديو لهيل بوي سميت هيل بوي : كلاب ليلة هيل بوي : طالب لجوء سياسي اصدري لي الكمبيوتر والبلاي ستيشن، بواسطة كريو انتراكتف / دريم كاتشر انتراكتف اي ان سي، وليس له علاقة بسلسلة الفيلم. يوم 6 أبريل من عام 2005، أعلن مخرج فيلم هيل بوي غييرمو ديل تورو على موقعه الرسمي أنه قد توصل إلى اتفاق مع كونامي لإنشاء لعبة فيديو جيم لهيل بوي جديده تعتمد علي نسخة الفيلم من الشخصيه وعالمه، ويضم حوش جديدة، اوغاد جديدة، وقصة جديدة. هيرمان فون كليمبت وحرب القرود كريجاف #10 من المقرر ظهروه. يوم 9 مايو، 2006، كشف النقاب عن أن لعبة هيل بوي ستظهر في صيف عام 2007، على بلاي ستيشن 3، إكس بوكس 360 وبلاي ستيشن المحمولة. العبة صدرت في أمريكا الشمالية في 24 يونيو، 2008[اسم هيل بوي: علم الشر. فقد طورت بواسطة كرومي استديوز، والتي نشرتها كونامي للترفيه الرقمي اي ان سي. فضلا عن ان حملة لاعب واحد بينما الاعبين يحصلوا علي اللعب مثل هيل بوي اللعبه أيضا تمتاز بالعل الجماعي، وشارك فيها شخصيات ابي سابين، ليز شيرمان ولوبستر جونسون. لعبة هيل بوي للفيديو جيم سميت هيل بوي 2 : الجيش الذهبي—جنية الاسنان المرعيه اصدرت لي أي فون بواسطة تيوسداي كرياتيف في 14 يناير، 2009. * نظام- لعب اللعبه مرجع هيل بوي ونظام لعب اللعبه ،استند إلى نظام اللعب جي يو ار بي اس، وقد نشرت بواسطة العاب استيفي جاكسون في أغسطس 2002. * هيرمكولكس هيل بوي صمم في ويز كيدز ايندي هيروكليس لاين مع بوسترات مختلفة الخلفيه. كام انه لديه حقوق جمع هيروكليس/هيروكلس كروس لاين سميت هيل بوي والبي. بي.ار. دي. * بطاقة المباراة هيل بوي كانت أيضا جزء من ابار ديكز ضد نظام بطاقة اللعبه كأول كتب هزليه لنون-مارفيل ودي سي للخصيات الهزليه. * الظهور في الثقافة الشعبية * هيل بوي ظهر كأنه 'شخصيه مقترضه' من كاتب كيم نيومانز انو حلقات دراكولا، تحديدا في المجموعة القصصية دراكولا اندي وارهول (2004)، حيث ينضم إلى صفوف بليد، شافت، ترافيس بيكل، والمعاقب، بول كيرسي، سكوبي دو وشاجي في مطاردة جوني بوب ؛ مصاص دماء وتاجر مخدرات. * هيل بوي يجعل لوحة كاميو تظهر خلال هلوسه متتابعه في فرانك ميلرز سين سيتي : الجحيم والعودة. * هيل بوي يجعل كاميو مكيده أو مفاوض في الصفحه الأخيره لي السام & قصة ماكس "بطن الوحش". * هيل بوي يظهر أيضا في اصدرات جائزةاريك باول آيزنر سلسلة" الأبله ". * هيل بوي جعل لوحة كاميو تظهر، جنبا إلى جنب مع عدة شخصيات أخرى اقترضت من شي/سيبلاد كروسوفر "معركة الاستقلال" من صور القصص الهزليه. * هيل بوي أول ظهور له كان في جون بيرنقضية الرجل الثاني 21 (الجزء3 من 4). * هيل بوي ظهر في قضية رجل مجنون 5. * ابي سابين، شخصية شعبية من هيل بوي يظهر في جون بيرن بابي 2 القضية رقم 2. * في فيلم كيفن سميثالعقيدة (1999)، واحدة من ثلاثة توائم جهنميه شوهد يرتدي تي شيرت هيل بوي. * في واحدة من المواضيع المنتهية لي سايونارا زيتسيبوي سينسي، والرسوم المتحركة وأسلوب الرسم هو نفسه المستخدم في كتب هيل بوي الهزلية. * جوائز سلسلة هيل بوي المصغره : دودة الفاتح فاز عام 2002 جائزة ايسنر لأفضل سلسلة محدودة، في حين الفن في هيل بوي فاز إيسنر في عام 2004 لأفضل كتاب هزلي متعلق بالكتاب، ميجنولا فاز في عام 2000 جائزة هارفي لأفضل فنان تستند لهيل بوي: صندوق مليئ بالشر. هيل بوي : نداء الظلام حصل على جائزة النسر 2007 عن "أفضل كتاب هزلي ملون -- أمريكي". شخصية هيل بوي رشحت لي"أفضل شخصيه هزليه" في عامي 2004 و 2005 جوائز النسر. ترشيحات أخرى تشمل * رشح ل"أفضل قصه هزليه نشرت خلال عام 2007" جائزة النسر، هيل بوي: نداء الظلام * رشح لي"أفضل بطل هزلي" جائزة النسر صرح الكاتب الهزلي آلان مور (في فور فنديتا، واتشمين) صنف هيل بوي على صفحة ترشيحاته، ولا سيما ايقاظ الشيطان (الجزء 2)، واصفا اياه بانه "حصاد مهارته وقاعدة الحجر باننا يمكن ان نرى ميجنولا حاد الاحاسيس المعاصرة في العمل ". مارس 2009، شخصية الحصان الاسود الهزلي، هيل بوي فاز فئتين في مشروع تصويت المعجبين جوائز فان بوي لعام 2008. * حصل على "أفضل بطل اندي" في مشروع تصويت المعجبين جوائز فان بوي لعام 2008. * حصل على "أفضل شخصيه اندي" في مشروع تصويت المعجبين جوائز فان بوي لعام 2008.

Hellboy 1994 comic debuts | Characters created by Mike Mignola | Comics adapted into films | Comics characters introduced in 1993 | Cthulhu Mythos comics | Dark Horse Comics superheroes | Fantasy comics | Fictional adoptees | Fictional British people | Fictional demons | Fictional half-demons | Fictional characters with accelerated healing | Fictional characters with superhuman strength | Fictional detectives | Fictional gunfighters | Fictional secret agents and spies | Fictional sword fighters | Film characters | Hellboy | Hellboy characters | Horror comics | Occult detective fiction | Science fantasy comics the fictional comic book character: Hellboy is a comic book superhero created by writer-artist Mike Mignola. The character first appeared in San Diego Comic-Con Comics #2 (Aug.1993), and has since appeared in various eponymous miniseries, one-shots and intercompany crossovers. The character has been adapted into two live-action feature films in 2004 and that starred Ron Perlman in the title role, and two straight-to-DVD animated films. A well-meaning demon whose true name is Anung Un Rama (Meaning "...and upon his brow is set a crown of fire..."), Hellboy was summoned from Hell to Earth as an infant on December 23, 1944 (given as his birth date by Mike Mignola) by Nazi occultists (spawning his hatred for them). He was discovered by the Allied Forces; amongst them, Professor Trevor Bruttenholm, who formed the United States Bureau for Paranormal Research and Defense (BPRD). In time Hellboy grew to be a large, red-skinned demon with a tail, horns (which he files off, leaving behind the signature circular stumps on his forehead), cloven hooves for feet, and an oversized right hand made of stone. He has been described as smelling of dry-roasted peanuts. Although a bit gruff, he shows none of the malevolence thought to be intrinsic to demons, and works with other strange creatures in the BPRD. This is said to be because of his upbringing under Professor Bruttenholm, who raised him as a normal boy. Hellboy works for the BPRD, an international non-governmental agency, and himself against dark forces including Nazis and Baba Yaga, in a series of tales that have their roots in folklore, pulp magazines, vintage adventure, lovecraftian horror and horror fiction. In earlier stories, he is identified as the "World's Greatest Paranormal Investigator." Fictional character biography: Hellboy is a creature, summoned in the final months of World War II by Grigori Rasputin on Tarmagant Island, off the coast of Scotland, having been commissioned by the Nazis to change the tide of war ("Project Ragna Rok"). He appears in a fireball in a ruined church in East Bromwich, England, on December 23, 1944. Proving not to be a devil, in the traditional sense, but a devil-like creature with red skin, horns, a tail, and a disproportionately large right hand made of red stone, he is dubbed "Hellboy" by Professor Trevor "Broom" Bruttenholm. Taken by the United States armed forces to an Air Force base in New Mexico, Hellboy is raised by the United States Army and by the Bureau for Paranormal Research and Defense (BPRD), a private organization dedicated to combating occult threats. As an adult, Hellboy becomes the primary agent for the BPRD, alongside other human and quasi-human agents that include Kate Corrigan, a professor of folklore at New York University; Abe Sapien, an amphibian humanoid (Ichthyo sapien); Liz Sherman, a young pyrokinetic; Roger, an unusually large homunculus; Johann Kraus, the spirit of a medium kept in a containment suit; and Captain Ben Daimio, a special operations man with occult experiences. The latter two have not met Hellboy due to Hellboy's resignation from the Bureau. During a visit to Bromwich Church (the place of his "birth"), Hellboy learns he had been conceived 300 years ago by a witch, Sarah Hughes, and a demon Prince of Sheol. At this time, Hellboy had not existed as a baby in the "real" world; the prince's "favorite son" was considered to be "a power waiting to be born." Hellboy's "mother" also had children: a nun and a priest who would later haunt the church, dying in an attempt to stop the demon from claiming Hughes in her coffin. This origin indicates that Hellboy is, in fact, half-human. A later, but possibly unreliable account gives the name of the demon as Azzael, and of the witch as Sarah Hughes. The spirit of Morgana le Fay claims that Hughes was her descendant; if this is true, it means that Hellboy is the last living heir to Arthur Pendragon and the rightful king of England. Hellboy has since drawn the sword Excalibur, claiming his position, albeit without much conviction. Hellboy was granted "honorary human" status by the United Nations in 1952, and is known as the "world's greatest paranormal investigator". As such, he interacts regularly with humans, primarily law enforcement officials, the military, and various "scholars of the weird", most of whom are not presented as overtly reacting to his strange appearance. Much like other comic book superheroes such as Batman, Wolverine, Daredevil, and Spawn, Hellboy is constantly tormented by the knowledge of his past. In one issue, he says of his past, "I like not knowing. I've gotten by for fifty-two years without knowing. I sleep good not knowing." Powers and abilities: Hellboy's most obvious powers are his great strength, healing factor, and endurance. * Endurance and Healing Factor: Hellboy has a high degree of resilience to injury. He can withstand powerful blows that would severely injure or kill a human. He survived being shot many times in the chest with an MG 42 machine gun before destroying the gun. He has survived being impaled through the chest with a sword, drowning, severe werewolf mauling, being beaten unconscious with heavy iron tongs, falling from extreme heights, being crushed by boulders, and more. In the film version it is stated that Hellboy is immune to all forms of fire and burns, including Liz Sherman's flames, and electrocution. * Weaknesses: Despite his ability to quickly recover from seemingly mortal wounds, he is far from invulnerable, and can be easily injured or bloodied by conventional weapons. It is revealed to the Baba Yaga by the dead Russian nobility that Hellboy may not be slain even through supernatural means and that he appears to be as deathless as her warrior, Koshchei the Deathless. * Longevity: Hellboy ages very differently from humans. In the story Pancakes he is two years old but appears to be somewhere between 6 and 10 human years old. In Nature of the Beast, set in 1954, the ten-year-old Hellboy appears fully grown. His rapid physical maturation is in contrast to his actual rate of aging however, which seems to be much slower than humans. Throughout the sixty-year span of the comics he does not age beyond the plateau of physical maturity. This mystical aging process is similar to the other demons and supernatural beings that populate Hellboy's world. The lifespan of a Demon or Half-demon (Hellboy's mother was a supposedly a human witch) are left undefined within the comics, and seem to range from decades old to many thousands of years old. Talismans: * Equipment and weapons: In addition to his natural physical abilities, Hellboy carries a variety of items in his utility belt and jacket that can be used against various supernatural forces. He has been known to carry holy relics, horseshoes, various herbs, and hand grenade. Though he commonly carries an oversized revolver, Hellboy freely admits to being a lousy shot and often fights hand-to-hand, preferring to use short-ranged physical weapons like swords, spears, and his massive stone fist over mechanized weapons. Hellboy's ultimate power lies dormant within his giant, stone hand. (See below) Right Hand of Doom: Hellboy's right hand, referred to as the "Right Hand of Doom", consists of a large forearm and hand that seems to be made from red stone. The Hand is dexterous enough to catch a fly, but its large size causes Hellboy to prefer his normal-sized left hand to operate weapons and devices. The Hand is effectively invulnerable and feels no pain, serving much like a sledgehammer when used to punch an enemy. As revealed in the graphic novel collection Strange Places, the Right Hand of Doom was formerly the right hand of Vril, one of the "greater spirits" that watched over the burgeoning Earth, and the hand the spirit used to create the dragon Ogdru Jahad. With that same hand, he bound the dragon, but then his fellow spirits turned upon him for his deeds, and destroyed him utterly – save for his right hand, which was kept and preserved by many races throughout history, including the first race of man. As the hand which created and bound the Ogdru Jahad, it is also the key which will "loose and command" them; in other words, it is a catalyst that will bring about Ragnarok. The comic books themselves never mention how the Right Hand of Doom would actually perform these tasks; it is only ever announced that this is the case and that someone or something intends to do it with or without Hellboy's consent. The film shows it working like a key; being turned twice in a special obelisk secured by Rasputin would release the Ogdru Jahad. It is made clear that it is not even necessary for the arm to be attached to Hellboy at all; even on its own it would perform its tasks. It has been suggested that if Hellboy dies while the Hand is attached to him, it would become useless. He has thus come to the conclusion that the only way to prevent it falling into the wrong hands is to keep and protect it. Publication history: List of Hellboy comics: Before Hellboy was published independently at Dark Horse Comics, the concept was initially pitched to a board of directors for DC Comics, who loved it, but did not like the idea of it involving "hell". The early stories were conceived and drawn by Mignola with a script written by John Byrne and some later stories have been crafted by creators other than Mignola, including Christopher Golden, Guy Davis, Ryan Sook, and Duncan Fegredo. The increasing commitments from the Hellboy franchise meant that the 2008 one-shot In the Chapel of Moloch was the first Hellboy comic Mignola had provided the script and art for since The Island in 2005. Great Salt Lake Comic-Con Pamphlet: The character name "Hellboy" was included in a drawing by Mike Mignola of a demon character in a black and white illustration. It is shown wearing a belt buckle bearing the name "Hellboy," but that is as close as it comes to having any relation to the final character design. This image appeared in the pamphlet in 1991, therefore making it the first published mention of the Hellboy name. Dime Press: A prototype incarnation of Hellboy appeared on the cover of Dime Press #4 (1993), an obscure Italian fanzine, with "Hellboy" written at the bottom of the cover. The character shown was still in a draft stage, and although close to the final design of Hellboy, it had gray skin and an outfit not common to the character. San Diego Comic-Con Comics: Mike Mignola's Hellboy by Mike Mignola and John Byrne featured the character's first full appearance, and was a four-page black-and-white story that had an approximately 1,500 book print run. It was published by Dark Horse Comics in San Diego Comic-Con Comics #2 (August 1993) for distribution at the San Diego Comic-Con fan convention held in San Diego, California. Hellboy travels to an American ghost town, where he encounters a mangy mutt that transforms into Anubis, the Ancient Egyptian god of mummification. The story was collected in the trade paperback . Nextmen: Hellboy makes a guest appearance in John Byrne's Nextmen #21; this is the first American appearance in a full color cameo. Seed of Destruction: Hellboy: Seed of Destruction (four issues, March–June 1994) by Mike Mignola and John Byrne was the first comic book mini-series dedicated to the character Hellboy. In the story, Hellboy is confronted by Grigori Rasputin and begins to find out what he is doing on Earth and who summoned him there. His purpose will be to command the powers that Rasputin is about to unleash upon the world. Hellboy denies this version of his destiny and refuses to be controlled. Attempting to release the Ogdru Jahad, Rasputin is killed, harpooned through the chest by Abe Sapien under the control of the ghost of Elihu Cavendish. The trade paperback collection was awarded two Eisner Awards and was, in part, the basis for the first Hellboy motion picture. Comics Buyer's Guide: Mike Mignola's Hellboy: World's Greatest Paranormal Investigator by Mike Mignola and John Byrne featured the character's next solo appearance. It was published by Dark Horse Comics in a special four-page mini-comic for distribution in Comics Buyer's Guide #1,070 (May 20, 1994). In the story Hellboy battles with the disembodied head of Nazi scientist Herman von Klempt and his puppet henchman Brutus the Gorilla to rescue a captive girl from the doctor's transference of nutrient fluids process. The story was collected in the trade paperback . Celebrate Diversity: Hi, My Name is Hellboy by Mike Mignola was a one-page panel ad that related the characters fictional origins. It was published by Diamond Comic Distributors in catalog supplement Celebrate Diversity collector's edition (October 1994). The ad was collected in the trade paperback The Art of Hellboy. Wake the Devil: Hellboy: Wake the Devil (five issues, June–October 1996) by Mike Mignola was the second comic book miniseries to feature the character Hellboy. In the story, Hellboy meets the goddess Hecate. Addressed as "Anung Un Rama", he is told that his arrival on Earth signals its end. At the climax of the story, Hellboy is swallowed by Hecate in the form of an iron maiden and some kind of otherworldly conflict ensues, in which he is told that his right hand is a key to open the pit. Again Hellboy refuses, this time breaking off his newly re-grown horns causing the eclipse of the moon to disappear. Box Full of Evil: Hellboy: Box Full of Evil (two issues, August–September, 1999) by Mike Mignola, Matthew Dow Smith, and Ryan Sook was written to bring a final end to the "Beast of the Apocalypse" story-arc. In the story, Igor Bromhead gains power over a demon, Ualac, by using that demon's name. Hellboy is also bound by his name, "Anung Un Rama", and the Crown of the Apocalypse, which he wears but is invisible to him, is taken. In taking the crown, Ualac is changed into a much more powerful demon. Hellboy finds out that "Anung Un Rama" is a literal translation of "...and upon his brow is set a crown of fire..." — and as Ualac has seized the crown, this is no longer who he is. As this is no longer his name, he is no longer bound, and thus able to defeat Ualac. The crown is kept for Hellboy by Astaroth, in Pandemonium, the capital city of Hell; and a seat is reserved for the former in the House of the Fly. Collected editions: Most of the Hellboy comics have been collected as trade paperback volumes. * (October 1994) – Art by Mike Mignola. Script by John Byrne. Collects Hellboy: Seed of Destruction #1-4; the Mike Mignola's Hellboy promo (from San Diego Comic-Con Comics #2); the Mike Mignola's Hellboy: World's Greatest Paranormal Investigator promo (from Comics Buyer's Guide #1,070); sketchbook and art gallery. ISBN 1-56971-316-2. * (May 1997) – Written by Mike Mignola. Colors by James Sinclair. Separations by Dave Stewart. Letters by Pat Brosseau. Collects Hellboy: Wake the Devil #1-5. ISBN 1-56971-226-3. * (August 1998) – Written by Mike Mignola. Colors by Dave Stewart. Letters by Pat Brosseau. Collects The Chained Coffin (from Dark Horse Presents #100-2)'; Hellboy Christmas Special; Hellboy: Almost Colossus #1-2; Hellboy: The Corpse and the Iron Shoes; Hellboy: The Wolves of Saint August (from Dark Horse Presents #88-91). ISBN 978-1-59307-091-5. * (April 2000) – Written by Mike Mignola. Colors by Dave Stewart. Letters by Pat Brosseau. Collects Pancakes (from Dark Horse Presents Annual 1999); The Nature of the Beast (from Dark Horse Presents #151); King Vold; Heads (from Abe Sapien: Drums of the Dead); Goodbye, Mr. Tod (from Gary Gianni's The MonsterMen); The Vârcolac, The Right Hand of Doom (from Dark Horse Presents Annual 1998); Hellboy: Box Full of Evil #1-2. ISBN 978-1-59307-093-9. * (February 2002) – Written by Mike Mignola. Colors by Dave Stewart. Letters by Pat Brosseau. Collects Hellboy: Conqueror Worm #1-4. ISBN 1-56971-699-4. * (April 2006) – Written by Mike Mignola. Collects Hellboy: The Island #1-2; Hellboy: The Third Wish #1-2. ISBN 978-1-59307-475-3. * (November 2007) – Written by Mike Mignola. Collects The Penanggalan (from Hellboy Premiere Edition); The Hydra and The Lion (from The Dark Horse Book of Monsters); The Troll Witch (from The Dark Horse Book of Witchcraft); Dr. Carps Experiment (from The Dark Horse Book of Hauntings); The Ghoul (from The Dark Horse Book of The Dead); The Vampire of Prague; Hellboy: Makoma #1-2. ISBN 978-1-59307-860-7. * (May 2008) – Story and cover by Mike Mignola. Art by Duncan Fegredo. Collects Hellboy: Darkness Calls #1-6. ISBN 978-1-59307-896-6. * (March 2010) – Story and cover by Mike Mignola. Art by Duncan Fegredo. Colors by Dave Stewart. Collects Hellboy: The Wild Hunt #1-8. ISBN 978-1-59582-431-8. * (June 2010) – Story and cover by Mike Mignola, Joshua Dysart. Art by Richard Corben, Jason Shawn Alexander, Duncan Fegredo. Colors by Dave Stewart. Collects Hellboy: The Crooked Man #1-3; Hellboy: They That Go Down to the Sea in Ships; The Mole (from Free Comic Book Day 2008); Hellboy: In the Chapel of Moloch. ISBN 978-1-59582-477-6. * (October 2011) – Story and cover by Mike Mignola. Art by Mignola, Richard Corben, Kevin Nowlan, Scott Hampton. Colors by Nowlan, Dave Stewart. Collects Hellboy in Mexico; Hellboy: Double Feature of Evil; Hellboy: The Sleeping and the Dead #1-#2; Hellboy: The Bride of Hell; Hellboy: The Whittier Legacy; Hellboy: Buster Oakley Gets His Wish. ISBN 978-1595827401. Library editions: * Hellboy: Library Edition Volume I (May 2008) – Collects Seed of Destruction and Wake the Devil. ISBN 978-1593079109. * Hellboy: Library Edition Volume II (October 2008) – Collects The Chained Coffin and Others and The Right Hand of Doom. ISBN 978-1593079895. * Hellboy: Library Edition Volume III (September 2009) – Collects Conqueror Worm and Strange Places. ISBN 978-1595823526. * Hellboy: Library Edition Volume IV (July 2011) – Collects The Troll Witch and Others and The Crooked Man and Others. (Note: this volume does not contain the story "The Mole" from The Crooked Man and Others tpb.) ISBN 978-1595826589. * Hellboy: Library Edition Volume V (no release date) – Expected to collect Darkness Calls and The Wild Hunt. * Hellboy: Library Edition Volume VI (no release date) – Expected to collect The Storm & The Fury. Other trade paperbacks: * , Volume 1 (February 2003) – Cover by Mike Mignola. Collects Hellboy: Weird Tales #1-4. ISBN 978-1-56971-622-9. * , Volume 2 (October 2004) – Cover by Mike Mignola. Collects Hellboy: Weird Tales #5-8. ISBN 978-1-56971-953-4. * Hellboy Junior (January 2004) – Written by Mike Mignola, Bill Wray, et al. Collects Hellboy Junior Halloween Special, Hellboy Junior #1-2, plus original material. ISBN 978-1-56971-862-9. * Ghost/Hellboy Special (June 1997) – Written by Mike Mignola. Collects Ghost/Hellboy #1-2. ISBN 978-1-56971-273-3. * Savage Dragon/Hellboy (2002) – Cover by Mike Mignola. Collects Savage Dragon #34-35. * The Art of Hellboy (March 2003) – Written by Mike Mignola. Dark Horse Books. ISBN 1-56971-910-1. * Hellboy: The Companion (May 2008) – Written by Steve Weiner, Jason Hall. Dark Horse Books. ISBN 978-1-59307-655-9. * Hellboy: Mask and Monsters (October 2010) – Written by Mike Mignola, James Robinson, Scott Benefiel, Jasen Rodriguez. Collects Batman/Hellboy/Starman #1-2, Ghost/Hellboy #1-2. Dark Horse Books. ISBN 1-59582-567-3. In other media: Film: Hellboy: Hellboy (film): Guillermo del Toro co-wrote and directed a Hellboy feature film in 2004, sharing the credit with the original screenwriter Peter Briggs following Writers Guild of America arbitration. Del Toro, a fan of Mike Mignola's work, had previously written the preface to Hellboy: Conqueror Worm. The film starred Ron Perlman as Hellboy (the favorite of both del Toro and Mignola for the role), Selma Blair as Liz Sherman, Rupert Evans as FBI Special Agent John Myers (a character created for the film), John Hurt as Professor Trevor Bruttenholm, Doug Jones as Abe Sapien (voiced by an uncredited David Hyde Pierce), Karel Roden as Grigori Rasputin, and Jeffrey Tambor as FBI Senior Special Agent Tom Manning. The film depicts Hellboy as living at the BPRD with a dozen cats and limited access to the outside world, and considered an urban legend by the general populace. The film received generally positive reviews, and a fair performance at the box office. However, the film debuted in theaters while The Passion of the Christ was still playing, and, according to del Toro's DVD commentary, some theaters would re-title the film on their signs, or outright refuse to play it to avoid running a "devil" movie against Passion. Hellboy II: The Golden Army: A sequel, , was shot in Budapest by Guillermo del Toro, and features the returning talents of Perlman and Blair. Jones also returned not only in the role as Abe Sapien (undubbed this time), but in two other roles: The Angel of Death and The Chamberlain. Revolution Studios had planned on making the film (which Columbia Pictures was to distribute), but the studio went out of business before filming. Universal Studios then picked it up. The plot is a shift to more folklore rather than action, with heavy European overtones. The character of Johann Krauss was added to the team, voiced by Seth MacFarlane. The character Roger the Homunculus was not, but he was written into the plot as a very prominent character in early drafts of the script (Roger can be seen as a lifeless statue in the background BPRD hallway shot in both the first and second films). The character of Agent Myers from the first film does not return, his absence being explained by Liz remarking that Hellboy had him transferred to Antarctica out of jealousy. Hellboy also reveals himself to the outside world in this film, and Liz is revealed to be pregnant with his child. On November 11, 2008, Hellboy II: The Golden Army was released on DVD. * Hellboy III A third movie is in the conception stages, set to focus on the combat between Hellboy and a brainwashed Archangel that had been held captive by Nazis since World War II.date: May 2011: There will also be the return of Rasputin and Kroenen, and the debut of Roderick Zinco.dateMay 2011: New B.P.R.D Agents include Lobster Johnson and possibly Roger the Homunculus. The prophecy of Hellboy becoming the Beast of the Apocalypse will be fulfilled, and additionally, Hellboy will have to learn to be a father of twins.date: May 2011: Guillermo del Toro has reported that it is highly unlikely he will be making Hellboy III: "By the time I get to it and by the time we got Ron [Perlman] back, he'll be a HellMAN and in a wheelchair," del Toro joked to a reporter. At a recent Comic-Con, Both del Toro and Perlman voiced their interest in doing another movie. Del Toro stated that it would only be possible if he can make this one big. Animation: Hellboy Animated: On November 9, 2005, IDT Entertainment issued a press release announcing that the company had licensed the rights to develop "animated content for television and home entertainment" based on the Hellboy comic. Ron Perlman (Hellboy), Selma Blair (Liz Sherman), Doug Jones (Abe Sapien), and John Hurt (Professor Trevor 'Broom' Bruttenholm) have all voiced their respective characters. Actress Peri Gilpin joined the cast as Professor Kate Corrigan. The first two 75-minute animated movies, and , were aired on Cartoon Network before being released on DVD. The first one aired October 28, 2006, and the second aired March 17, 2007. Both stories have much more in common with the comic book Hellboy rather than the film - Abe Sapien is not psychic, for example, Hellboy and Liz are just friends, and the artwork and color palette is derived very closely from Mignola's original artwork. The DVD of was released on February 6, 2007; it contains documentary material commentary and a Hellboy comic, Phantom Limbs. After the initial release, some stores included exclusive giveaways with copies of the Hellboy Animated: Blood and Iron DVD: * Best Buy: A 7" Hellboy figure. * Walmart: An 80-page digest titled The Judgment Bell. * Transworld: A 64-page Hellboy Digest. * Infinity: A Lobster Johnson magnet. * Circuit City - A Hellboy "Bust Up". A "Hellboy 2 Pak" limited edition DVD set was released July 1, 2008, that contained both films and a 7" figure. A third animated Hellboy film, The Phantom Claw, has been put on hold. Tad Stones, director and writer of the direct-to-video movies, says the film will star Lobster Johnson and will have some familiar characters, but Abe and Liz will not be in the film (at least not as main characters). Novels and anthologies: Christopher Golden has written several novels about the character, the first two of which, The Lost Army and The Bones of Giants, are part of the official Hellboy story canon. The events of both these novels are listed in the comic's official timeline featured in Hellboy: The Companion. In particular, the Golden-penned character of Anastasia Bransfield was also described in the companion, despite having never actually appeared in a comic. * Hellboy: The Lost Army (written by Christopher Golden, cover and other illustrations by Mike Mignola, 1997) * Hellboy: Odd Jobs (by editor Christopher Golden, writers include Stephen R. Bissette, Greg Rucka, Nancy A. Collins, and Poppy Z. Brite; with an introduction by Mike Mignola. Milwaukie: Dark Horse Comics, Inc., ISBN 1-56971-440-1, December 1999) * Hellboy: The Bones of Giants (written by Christopher Golden, cover and other illustrations by Mike Mignola, 2001) * Hellboy: Odder Jobs (by editor Christopher Golden, writers include Frank Darabont, Guillermo del Toro, Charles de Lint, Graham Joyce, Sharyn McCrumb, James Cambias, and Richard Dean Starr, October 2004) * Hellboy: On Earth As It Is In Hell (written by Brian Hodge, cover by Mike Mignola, September 2005) * Hellboy: Unnatural Selection (written by Tim Lebbon, cover by Mike Mignola, March 2006) * Hellboy: The God Machine (written by Thomas E. Sniegoski, cover by Mike Mignola, July 2006) * Hellboy: The Dragon Pool (written by Christopher Golden, cover by Mike Mignola, March 2007) * Hellboy: Emerald Hell (written by Tom Piccirilli, cover by Mike Mignola, February 2008) * Hellboy: The All-Seeing Eye (written by Mark Morris, cover by Mike Mignola, October 2008) * Hellboy: Oddest Jobs (by editor Christopher Golden, writers include Joe R. Lansdale, China Miéville, Barbara Hambly, Ken Bruen, Amber Benson, and Tad Williams, July 2008) * Hellboy: The Fire Wolves (written by Tim Lebbon, cover by Mike Mignola, April 2009) * Hellboy: The Ice Wolves (written by Mark Chadbourn, cover by Duncan Fegredo, September 2009) Video games: A Hellboy video game called Hellboy: Dogs of the Night, was released for the PC and the PlayStation, by Cryo Interactive/DreamCatcher Interactive Inc. It has no relation to the movie series. On April 6, 2005, Hellboy movie director Guillermo del Toro announced on his official site that he had made a deal with developer Konami to create a new Hellboy videogame based on the movie version of the character and his world, featuring new monsters, new villains, and a new storyline. Herman von Klempt and his war ape Kriegaffe #10 are slated to make appearances. On May 9, 2006, it was revealed that the Hellboy game would appear in the summer of 2007, on PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and PlayStation Portable. The game was released in North America on June 24, 2008 with the name . It is developed by Krome Studios, and published by Konami Digital Entertainment, Inc. As well as single player campaign where the player gets to play as Hellboy the game also features co-op play, featuring the characters Abe Sapien , Liz Sherman, and Lobster Johnson. A Hellboy video game called Hellboy II: The Golden Army - Tooth Fairy Terror was released for the iPhone by on January 14, 2009. Role-playing game RPG: : The Hellboy Sourcebook and Role Playing Game, based on the GURPS role-playing game system, was published by Steve Jackson Games in August 2002. HeroClix: Hellboy is featured in WizKids' Indy HeroClix line with several different booster packs. He also has his own HeroClix/HorrorClix cross-line collector's set called Hellboy and the B.P.R.D. Card game: Hellboy was also part of Upper Deck's VS System card game as the first non-Marvel Comics or DC Comics character. Video slot game: Hellboy has also been adapted to be a Video Slot and released on the Microgaming online casino platform. Appearances in popular culture: * Hellboy appears as a "borrowed character" in author Kim Newman’s Anno Dracula series, specifically in the novella Andy Warhol's Dracula (2004) where he joins the ranks of Blade, Shaft, Travis Bickle, the Punisher, Paul Kersey, Scooby-Doo, and Shaggy in hunting down Johnny Pop, a vampire drug dealer. * In Frank Miller's Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, a tourist is wearing a Hellboy t-shirt. A hooker in Old Town is seen with a Hellboy tattoo. * Hellboy makes a one-panel cameo appearance during a hallucination sequence in Frank Miller's Sin City: Hell and Back. * Hellboy made a cameo as a trick or treater in the last page of the Sam & Max story "Belly of the Beast". * Hellboy also appears in an issue of Eric Powell's Eisner Award-winning series The Goon. * Hellboy made a one-panel cameo appearance, along with several other borrowed characters, in the Shi/Cyblade crossover The Battle for Independents from Image Comics. * Hellboy appeared in Madman Comics #5 (January 1995). * Abe Sapien, a popular character from Hellboy, appears in John Byrne's Babe 2 #2. * In Kevin Smith's film Dogma (1999), one of the Stygian Triplets is seen wearing a Hellboy t-shirt. * In one of the ending themes for Sayonara, Zetsubou-Sensei, the animation and graphic style is the same one used in the Hellboy comic books. * A large poster of Hellboy appears in a comic shop in the 2010 movie Kick-Ass. * Hellboy makes somewhat of a cameo in the fifth volume of Requiem Chevalier Vampire, as a number of servants bear a striking resemblance to him. Awards: The miniseries Hellboy: Conqueror Worm won a 2002 Eisner Award for "Best Limited Series", while The Art of Hellboy won an Eisner in 2004 for "Best Comics-Related Book". Mignola won a 2000 Harvey Award for "Best Artist", based on Hellboy: Box Full of Evil. Hellboy: Darkness Calls won a 2007 Eagle Award for "Favourite Colour Comicbook — American". The character Hellboy was nominated for "Favourite Comics Character" at the 2004 and 2005 Eagle Awards. Other Eagle Award nominations include "Favourite Comics Story published during 2007" for Hellboy: Darkness Calls, and "Favourite Comics Hero". Acclaimed comics writer Alan Moore (V for Vendetta, Watchmen) listed Hellboy on his recommendations page, particularly Wake the Devil (Vol. 2), calling it "the skillful cutting and the setting of the stone that we can see Mignola's sharp contemporary sensibilities at work". In March 2009, the Dark Horse Comics character, Hellboy, won two categories in the fan voted Project Fanboy Awards for 2008: "Best Indy Hero" and "Best Indy Character".

Hellboy (comics) Hellboy | Bande dessinée d'espionnage | Série de comics Dark Horse Hellboy: Hellboy est une série de comics mettant en scène le personnage éponyme, écrite et dessinée par Mike Mignola. Elle a donné lieu à plusieurs mini-séries publiées d'abord par Image Comics puis par Dark Horse aux États-Unis et traduites par Delcourt (qui succède à Dark Horse France) en France. Histoire : Anung Un Rama est né de l'union d'un démon et d'une humaine et a vécu en enfer pendant sa jeunesse, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit invoqué en 1944 par Raspoutine. Le moine, ayant survécu à son assassinat de 1916, avait été engagé par Heinrich Himmler et travaillait donc pour le compte des nazis. Ces derniers comptaient utiliser la créature pour changer l'issue de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, mais l'invocation ne se déroula pas comme prévu et Anung Un Rama fut finalement recueilli et élevé par l'armée américaine et le professeur Trevor Bruttenholm, qui lui donna son nom : Hellboy (littéralement : « garçon de l'enfer »). Devenu adulte, il a intégré une agence spécialisée dans la lutte contre les menaces paranormales, le Bureau for Paranormal Research and Defense. Il est aidé dans ses enquêtes par Liz Sherman, qui possède des talents de pyrokinésiste, et Abraham « Abe » Sapien, une créature amphibienne. Au fur et à mesure des épisodes, la distribution s'étoffera avec de nouveaux alliés comme Roger l'homoncule ou Lobster Johnson. Cependant, Hellboy apprend un jour que le B.P.R.D. avait placé une bombe dans Roger, pour parer à toute éventualité. Particulièrement remonté contre son employeur, il décide de démissionner. L'équipe restante, constituée d'Abe Sapiens, Liz Sherman et Roger, continuera ses missions avec un nouveau membre, Johann Kraus. Les personnages : * Hellboy * Liz Sherman : née à Kansas City le 15 avril 1962, Liz était une enfant parfaitement normale… jusqu’à ses 11 ans, âge auquel ses capacités pyrokinétiques ont commencé à se manifester. Sa famille – ses parents et son frère – a péri dans l’incendie causé par ses pouvoirs, qui a également détruit une partie de la ville. 32 victimes au total, dont 3 pompiers. Son dossier mentionne que sa dernière manifestation non contrôlée remonte au 4 juillet 1984. Elle a été recrutée par le B.P.R.D. où elle a appris à contrôler – jusqu’à un certain point – sa puissance de feu. Elle a souvent fait équipe avec Hellboy et Abraham Sapiens. Son trauma d’enfance l’a laissée amère et déprimée. Elle a plusieurs fois quitté le B.P.R.D. mais l'a toujours réintégré, probablement parce que c’est ce qui se rapproche le plus d'une famille. Détestant le don qui a causé la mort de sa famille, elle a essayé de s’en débarrasser en le « transférant » dans l’enveloppe vide de Roger l’homoncule qui, du coup, revient à la vie. Mais le don de Liz fait partie intégrante d’elle-même. Transportée d’urgence au centre Wauer (Roumanie), elle y décède peu après. Quand Roger, ramené par Hellboy et Kate, lui restitue son pouvoir, elle recouvre la vie. Quelque temps plus tard, elle se rend au Temple d’Agartha dans les montagnes de l'Oural, où elle passe deux ans dans une communauté de moines. Grâce à leurs enseignements, elle a maintenant le contrôle presque total de sa pyrokinésie ; elle essaye à présent de surmonter le traumatisme dont le souvenir provoque toujours un déchainement de puissance. Les cénobites furent massacrés et « l’esprit » de Liz dérobé par les esclaves du Roi de la Peur, lequel voulait maîtriser son pouvoir. Elle fut sauvée par l’équipe envoyée par le B.P.R.D. composée d’Abraham Sapien, Roger et Johann Kraus (nouvellement arrivé au sein du Bureau). Après cet épisode, elle décida de retourner au B.P.R.D. Elle y est actuellement agent de terrain et essaye de s’accommoder des changements effectués dans l’équipe – notamment la nomination de Capitaine Daimio comme leader. Récemment, son pouvoir a été considérablement accru par un artéfact mystérieux, lui permettant de vaincre Katha-Hem. * Abraham « Abe » Sapien : il a été découvert dans une chambre scellée, sous l'hôpital Saint Trinian de Washington. Tout indique qu'il aurait eu une existence antérieure qui remonte à la guerre de Sécession avant de devenir l'humanoïde amphibien que nous connaissons. Il a été surnommé de la sorte à cause d'un papier épinglé sur le caisson où il a été trouvé, disant « Ichtyo Sapien April 14 1865 » (cette date correspond au jour de la mort du président Lincoln). * Roger l'homoncule : c'est un homoncule, c'est-à-dire un être fait d'herbes et de sang humain. Découvert dans le laboratoire d'un alchimiste en Roumanie, Roger est ramené à la vie grâce au pouvoir pyrokinétique de Liz Sherman (voir Au nom du diable). * Lobster Johnson : apparu pour la première fois dans Hellboy: Conqueror Worm, Lobster Johnson se fit connaître pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, dans des pulps le mettant en scène combattant des nazis ou des monstres surnaturels. Il fit l'objet de films de série B mais, bien que considéré comme un personnage fictif, il rencontra effectivement Hellboy dans le château de Hunte, qu'il gardait depuis des années. Laissant tout d'abord planer le doute sur son existence, oubliant délibérément une carte arborant son logo (une pince de homard) sur laquelle était écrit « Fiction ? », Johnson, pourtant nihiliste, apporta son aide au B.P.R.D. en se sacrifiant pour sauver Roger l'homoncule. En secourant celui-ci alors qu'il était dévoré de l’intérieur par un ver géant, il mourut électrocuté, immortalisant sa légende. * Kate Corrigan : Kate Corrigan travaille pour le Bureau pour la Recherche Paranormale et la Défense. Elle était professeur d'histoire à l'université de New York (spécialée dans le folklore) avant de rejoindre le Bureau en 1984 en tant que conseillère. Elle a écrit seize livres sur le folklore et l'histoire occulte, y compris les confessions d'Isobel Gowdie. Kate préfère l'étude sur le terrain, bien qu'elle reste habituellement en dehors de l'action. Sa première mission a eu lieu en mai 1994. Hellboy et elle étudiaient les massacres de masse dans le petit village européen de Griart ; Kate pensait que le village était probablement St. Auguste et que les massacres étaient imputables aux loups-garous. Elle vit le premier fantôme de son existence au cours de cette mission. En 1995, Kate est promue directeur des enquêtes in situ, un poste précédemment occupé par le professeur Trevor Bruttenholm et le Dr: Tom Manning. C'est l'un des personnages principaux de la série dérivée BPRD. * Johann Kraus : Johann Kraus était un médium allemand. Alors que son esprit s'était détaché de son corps au cours d'une transe, une catastrophe paranormale détruisit, entre autres, son corps inerte. Quand l'esprit de Johann revint, son enveloppe charnelle était détruite. Il réussit cependant à échapper à la désintégration et le B.P.R.D. lui fabriqua une enveloppe artificielle. Johann Kraus fait désormais équipe avec Liz Sherman, Abe Sapien et Roger l'homoncule. Il peut redonner vie aux esprits d'êtres morts pour qu'ils lui racontent ce qu'ils ont vu. * Dr: Tom Manning : c'est le directeur du B.P.R.D. Dans le film, il déteste Hellboy (ce qui n'est pas le cas dans les livres) jusqu'à ce que celui-ci lui sauve la vie. Il est interprété par l'acteur Jeffrey Tambor. * Professeur Trevor « Broom » Bruttenholm : c'est un professeur britannique spécialisé dans le surnaturel. Avec l'armée américaine, il a recueilli Hellboy et l'a élevé comme un fils. Il a été directeur du BPRD avant Manning. Analyse : ...: Parmi les influences évidentes de Mike Mignola pour Hellboy, on peut citer Howard Phillips Lovecraft, Jack Kirby ou Edgar Allan Poe. Parutions : Version originale : ;Sous le label Dark Horse Legend col-begin: col-2: Liste des mini-séries * Seeds of Destruction #1-4 (1994) * Wake The Devil #1-5 (1995-1996) * Almost Colossus #1-2 (1997) * Hellboy Junior Halloween special (1997), Hellboy Junior #1-2 (1999) * Hellboy: Box Full of Evil #1-2 (1999) * Conqueror Worm #1-4 (2001) * The Third Wish #1-2 (2002) * Hellboy – Weird Tales #1-8 (2003-2004) * The Island #1-2 (2005) * Makoma #1-2 (2006) * Darkness calls #1-6 (2007) * The Crooked Man #1-3 (2008) * The Wild Hunt #1-8 (2008-2009) * The Storm #1-3 (2010) * The Sleeping and the Dead #1-2 (2010-2011) col-2: Liste des one shots * The Corpse and the Iron Shoes (1996) * Hellboy Christmas Special (1997) * The Corpse (2004) * They That Go Down to the Sea in Ships (2007) * The Mole and Other Stories (2008) * In the Chapel of Moloch (2008) * The Bride of Hell (2009) * Hellboy in Mexico (2010) * Beasts of Burden (2010) * Double Feature of Evil (2010) col-end: ;Cross-over avec d'autres éditeurs * Ghost / Hellboy #1-2 (1996) * Painkiller Jane / Hellboy #1 (1998) * Batman / Hellboy / Starman #1-2 (1999) Dark Horse France : |}} Delcourt : Tous les albums font partie de la collection « Contrebande ». Série Hellboy : Delcourt publie en alternance inédits et rééditions des albums Dark Horse France, ce qui explique que la numérotation des albums ne correspond pas à la chronologie de la parution. |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} |}} Série Histoires bizarres : |}} |}} |}} Série Hellboy Aventures : Histoires indépendantes destinées à un jeune public. |}} |}} Semic : Cet album contient la mini-série Batman/Hellboy/Starman, qui avait déjà été éditée en 1999 dans Batman hors-série 9: , la deuxième partie de cet album ne concernant que Batman et Starman. Semic a également publié en kiosque : * Ghost 5: (2000), reprenant les épisodes Ghost/Hellboy #1-2 * Collection Image 18: (2004), reprenant les épisodes Savage Dragon #34-35 (cross-over avec Hellboy) Adaptations dans d'autres médias : ;Romans Hellboy a fait également l'objet d'une série de romans et d'anthologies par Christopher Golden ;Cinéma * Hellboy, un film de Guillermo Del Toro sorti en 2004, avec Ron Perlman, Karel Roden et John Hurt. * , la suite du premier film, réalisée également par Guillermo Del Toro, sorti en 2008. L'œuvre cinématographique est complétée par deux films d'animation, Le Sabre des Tempêtes (Sword of Storms) et De Sang et de Fer (Blood and Iron) de Tad Stone, avec la collaboration de Mike Mignola. Les acteurs du film prêtent leur voix aux personnages. Notes et références : Palette Hellboy: Comics:

جرعة مكافئة فيزياء | طب جرعة مكافئة في الفيزياء وفيزياء الإشعاع (بالإنجليزية: Equivalent dose) هي كمية الطاقة التي يحصل عليها الجسم (البشري) من الأشعة المؤينة مضروبة في معامل موازنة الإشعاع ، الذي يحدد التأثير الحيوي النسبي لنوع الأشعة على الأنسجة الحية . وتعرف وحدة الجرعة المكافئة ب جول / كيلوجرام من الجسم ، حسث أن معامل موازنة الإشعاع كمية مطلقة ، ليس لها وحدات . ولغرض التمييز بينها وبين جرعة الطاقة تعرف الجرعة المكافئة بالوحدة زيفرت، واختصارها بالإنجليزية ( Sievert (Sv. وضعت هذا التعريف الهيئة الدولية للوقاية من الإشعاع ICRP عام 1990 . وبالنسبة إلى معامل موازنة الأشعاع - ويرمز له بالرمز Q - فيعطيه التقرير 51 عام 1993 للهيئة الدولية لوحدات الإشعاع والقياس (ICRU) . حسابها : ::H \mathrm{w_R} \cdot D حيث: * H: جرعة مكافئة * wR: معامل موازنة الإشعاع ( Q) * D: جرعة الطاقة * تأثير التعرض للإشعاع يؤدي التعرض للمصادر الطبيعية من الإشعاع (أشعة كونية ، أشعة أرضية ، من الطعام ، واستنشاق غاز الرادون-222 الطبيعي) للشخص العادي إلى جرعة مكافئة مقدارها 1و2 مللي زيفرت سنويا (في المتوسط في أوروبا ونحو 5و4 مللي زيفرت في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية). ويضاف إليها كمية معادلة تقريبا ناتجة عن الاستخدامات الطبية للإشعاع ، في المتوسط لكل شخص ، بحيثفيكون مجموع الجرعات من المصادر الطبيعية ومن الاستخدامات الطبية للشخص في وسط أوروبا نحو 4 مللي زيفرت سنويا. وقد يصل التشخيص بالإشعاع في الطب كما في التصوير المقطعي المحوسب مثلا للبدن إلى جرعة مقدارها 10 مللي زيفرت في جلسة واحدة . وتحدد هيئة دولية للوقاية من الإشعاع في وصاياها حدودا للجرعات تعتبر سليمة للعاملين في المجالات المختلفة للإشعاع والتقنية النووية ، وهذا لحد هو 20 مللي زيفرت في السنة . وتؤدي جرعة مكافئة واحدة مقدارها 6000 مللي زيفرت (6 زيفرت) إلى الموت خلال أيام إذا لم تعالج. * تأريخ كانت الجرعة المكافئة تقاس في الماضي بوحدة Rem وهي اختصار للتعبير roentgen equivalent man أي مكافئ رونتجن للشخص . * 1 زيفرت : 100 رم وكان حسابه باستخدام معامل موازنة الإشعاع Q و المعامل N بواسطة العلاقة : * :H q \cdot D : Q \cdot N \cdot D حيث: * H: الجرعة المكافئة * q: معامل تقييم * D: جرعة الطاقة * Q: معامل موازنة الإشعاع wR) * N: معامل تعديلي وكان المعامل N 1 إذا كان الإشعاع من خارج الجسم . وإذا كان الإشعاع داخلي فتختلف القيمة Nبالنسبة لعضو الجسم الذي تركزت فيه المادة المشعة ، ومعدل خروجها من الجسم ، ونوع الإشعاع . وعلى سبيل المثال أشعة ألفا خارج الجسم لا تسبب ضررا حيث أن مسارها قصير جدا وتمتص من البشرة الخارجية . ولكن إذا كانت أشعة ألفا داخل الجسم فهي تكون ضارة جدا بسبب قدرتها الهائلة على تأين الأنسجة الحيوية المحيطة. * معامل موازنة الإشعاع يعتمد معامل الموازنة على نوع الأشعة مثل أشعة جاما أو نيوترونات ، وكذلك على طاقة الأشعة وهي تقاس بالإلكترون فولت أو كيلو إلكترون فولت keV أو مليون إلكترون فولت MeV . * اقرأ أيضا * جراي (وحدة) * راد (وحدة) * اشعة سينية * كرة بونار * عداد نيوترونات * عداد جسيمات * عداد جايجر * مقياس الجرعة * هيئة دولية للوقاية من الإشعاع * الوكالة الدولية للطاقة الذرية * المراجع == ثبت_المراجع: تصفح النظام الدولي للوحدات:

Equivalent dose Physical quantities | Units of radiation dose | Radiobiology The equivalent absorbed radiation dose, usually shortened to equivalent dose, is a computed average measure of the radiation absorbed by a fixed mass of biological tissue, that attempts to account for the different biological damage potential of different types of ionizing radiation. It is therefore a less fundamental quantity than the total radiation energy absorbed per mass (the absorbed dose), but is a more significant quantity for assessing the health risk of radiation exposure. For a further estimate of damage on different types of tissue (which vary in sensitivity to radiation) a further quantity called effective dose can be calculated (see article for more). However, the latter requires additional input information about various organs, and also fractionation of radiation to different parts of the body, if any. Equivalent dose is dimensionally a quantity of energy per unit of mass, and is usually measured in sieverts or rems. Computation: The equivalent dose cannot be measured directly. The dose for each tissue T and each type of radiation R (often denoted by HT,R) is calculated by the formula * H_{T,R} : Q \times D_{T,R} \, where DT,R is the total energy of radiation R absorbed in a unit mass of tissue T, and Q is a radiation quality factor that depends on the type and energy of that radiation. The quality factor is also known as the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation. It connects the simple deposited energy of the radiation (a physics quantity easy to measure with a sensor) to the equivalent dose, which is —to the extent that the estimation of the Q or RBE is accurate— the biological reaction or damage from this particular amount and type of radiation. The value of Q or RBE is 1 for x-rays, gamma rays and beta particles, but higher for protons, neutrons, alpha particles etc. To obtain the equivalent dose HT for a given mix of radiation types and energies, one simply adds the individual equivalent doses HT,R over all types of radiation energy dose R in the mix. To obtain the average equivalent dose HR for a given combination of tissues (such as a whole organism), one may compute a weighted average of the doses HT,R over all T, with the weight of each dose being proportional to the mass of tissue T present in the combination. In order to obtain an effective dose (also known as effective dose equivalent) for radiation given to only part of the body, the equivalent doses of radiation must be further weighted by a "weighting fraction" Wf specific to each tissue, which attempts to quantify the fraction of health risk for a human (or other mammal) attributable to this type of tissue. The weighting fractions for all the tissues add to 1.0. See the article on effective dose for this calculation. Units: The SI unit of measure for equivalent dose is the sievert, defined as the dose of absorbed radiation that has the same biological effect as a dose of one joule of gamma rays absorbed in one kilogram of tissue. In the United States the roentgen equivalent man (rem), equal to 0.01 sievert, is still in common use, although regulatory and advisory bodies are encouraging transition to sieverts. * Related quantities To quantify the radiation risk of a particular environment or activity, one may use the equivalent dose received per unit of time spent in it, usually measured in sievert per year or sievert per hour. * References * International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60: 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Elsevier Science Pub Co (April 1, 1991). ISBN 0-08-041144-4. reflist:

Dose équivalente Physique médicale | Radioactivité | Radiobiologie physique nucléaire: En physique nucléaire, et plus généralement en radioprotection, la dose équivalente (notée H) est une grandeur physique mesurant l'impact sur les tissus biologiques d'une exposition à un rayonnement ionisant, par exemple à une source de radioactivité. Elle se définit comme la dose absorbée, à savoir l'énergie reçue par unité de masse, corrigée d'un facteur de pondération du rayonnement sans dimension, qui prend en compte la dangerosité relative du rayonnement considéré. L'unité de dose équivalente est le sievert (Sv), en l'honneur du physicien Rolf Sievert, qui équivaut à une joule par kilogramme (J/kg). L'ancienne unité, le rem, vaut ( ). * Calcul * Dose équivalente Connaissant les doses DR délivrées par différents types de rayonnements, la dose équivalente H est * H : \sum_\mathrm{R} w_\mathrm{R} D_\mathrm{R}\,. où les wR sont les facteurs de pondération des rayonnements, anciennement appelés efficacités biologiques relatives (EBR) puis facteurs de qualité (Q). Facteur de pondération du rayonnement: Pour prendre en compte de manière précise la dangerosité d'une dose d'un type de rayonnement, un facteur d'efficacité biologique devrait prendre en compte plusieurs paramètres : * le type de radiations ; * leur énergie ; * l'effet biologique étudié. Afin de simplifier, la Commission internationale de protection radiologique a émis des recommandations (les publications 60: en 1991 puis 103: en 2007) sur le calcul d'un facteur de qualité ou facteur de pondération des rayonnements, estimant l'efficacité d'un rayonnement . Les valeurs sont listées ci-dessous : (CIPR 103) Remarque : Ces coefficients de pondération n'ont de signification qu'aux faibles doses de rayonnement, conduisant à des effets stochastiques. La dose équivalente, pondérée par un facteur de sensibilité des tissus, permet d'obtenir la dose efficace.

ابن ربن الطبري علماء مسلمون | مسيحيون تحولوا إلى الإسلام | مواليد 153 هـ | مواليد 164 هـ | مواليد 770 | مواليد 780 هو العالم المسلم أبو الحسن علي بن سهل ربَّن الطبري. ولد في مرو من أعمال طبرستان سنة 780م 164 هـ أو سنة 770م ـ 153 هـ وهو ينحدر من أسرة فارسية مسيحية حسب كل من ألدو مييلي وابن خلكان؛ لكنه اعتنق الإسلام على يد المعتصم. ويقول محمد زبير الصديقي محقق كتاب "فردوس الحكمة" : إن المتوكل هو الذي دعاه إلى الإسلام فلباه واعتنقه، فلقبه بلقب مولى أمير المؤمنين، ولشرف فضله جعله من ندمائه. أما لقب ربَّن فيعني الأستاذ الجليل حسب ألدو مييلى الذي يقول: >إن اللقب السرياني، ربان، كان مستعملاً عند المسيحيين مطابقاً للفظ أستاذ عندنا. كان والده سهل عالماً بارعاً في الطب والهندسة، والتنجيم، والرياضيات، والفلسفة ويقال إنه أول من ترجم إلى العربية كتاب المجسطي لبطليموس. وقد تلقى أبو الحسن دراسته الأولى على والده الذي علمه الطب والهندسة، والفلسفة، إلى جانب اللغتين العربية والسريانية. وبعد وفاة والده تعمق في دراسة الطب وأصبح طبيباً مشهوراً. وقد مارس الطب في مدينة الري، ثم ذهب إلى العراق واستقر بمدينة "سر من رأى (سامراء)، حيث صار كاتباً للخلفاء المعتصم والواثق والمتوكل. اسهاماته في الطب : تتجلى الاسهامات العلمية لعلي بن ربَّن في تصنيفه في عدد من المواضيع الطبية التي تطرق لها بتفصيل في كتابه فردوس الحكمة، ومنها: وضع المبادئ العامة للطب، وقواعد الحفاظ على الصحة الجيدة، وذكر بعض الأمراض التي تصيب العضلات، ووصف الحمية للحفاظ على الصحة الجيدة، والوقاية من الأمراض ؛ إضافةً إلى مناقشة جميع الأمراض من الرأس إلى القدم، وأمراض الرأس والدماغ، وأمراض العين، والأنف، والأذن، والفم، والأسنان، وأمراض العضلات، وأمراض الصدر والرئة، وأمراض البطن والكبد والأمعاء، وأنواع الحمى. كما وصف النكهة والطعم واللون، وتعرض للعقاقير والسموم. في الكتاب ناقش ابن سهل طب الأطفال ونمو الطفل وعلم النفس والعلاج النفسي بالتفصيل. في العلاج النفسي, ركز على العلاقة بين الإرشاد والعلاج. قائلاً أن المرضى يشعرون بالمرض في المقام الأول بسبب أوهام أو خيالات. مثل هذه الحالات يمكن علاجها باستخدام "المشورة الحكيمة". وهو نظام يؤسس علاقة مع المرضى, ويكسب تقتهم ويؤدي في النهاية إلى نتائج إيجابية. ربما لم يكن ابن ربن مشهوراً بقدر تلميذه النجيب, الرازي. لكن كلماته ما زالت خالدة حيث يقول: " عندما كنت مسيحياً, كنت أقول كما كان يقول أحد أعمامي المتعلمين البليغين: " أن البلاغة ليست إحدى علامات النبوءة لأنها عامة لكل الناس. لكن عندما تخلصت من التقليد الأعمى والعادات القديمة وتركت الالتزام بالعادات وتأملت معاني القرآن, عرفت أن ما يدعيه أتباع القران صحيح. الحقيقة أنني لم أجد أي كتاب سواء كان عربياً أو فارسياُ أو هندياً أو حتى يونانياُ منذ بداية العالم إلى الآن يتضمن حمداً لله، إيماناً بالأنبياء والرسل, وحثاً على عمل الخير الدائم, ويأمر بالخير وينهى عن الشر ويلهم الرغبة بالجنة وتجنب النار مثل القرآن. لذلك, عندما يجلب شخص ما لنا كتاباً بمثل هذه الصفات يلهم خشوعاً وحلاوة في القلب محققاً نجاحاً خالداً, وهو –أي الشخص هذا- في نفس الوقت أمي, لم يتعلم فن الكتابة أو الخطابة. فإن هذا الكتاب, وبلا أي شك, أحد أدلة نبوءته". مؤلفاته : لعلي بن ربن عدد من الكتب الطبية وأشهرها كتاب فردوس الحكمة (850م) 236هـ وهو عبارة عن موسوعة طبية، تطرق فيه لجميع فروع الطب ؛ إضافةً إلى بحوث في الفلسفة وعلم النفس والحيوان، والفلك، والظواهر الجوية. وقد كتبه بالعربية وترجمه في الوقت نفسه إلى اللغة السريانية. ونشرت منه عدة نسخ في بلدان مختلفة. وقام الدكتور محمد زبير الصديقي بتحقيق هذا الكتاب، وقد طبع في الهند عام 1928. وفي سنة 1996 تم طبع الكتاب ونشره من طرف معهد تاريخ العلوم العربية والإسلامية في إطار جامعة فرانكفورت الألمانية. له أيضا كتاب تحفة الملوك، وحفظ الصحة، وكتاب في ترتيب الأغذية، ومنافع الأطعمة والأشربة والعقاقير ,و كتاب الرقى وكتاب في الحجامة. أضاف الزركلي إلى مؤلفاته كتاب "الدين والدولة" الذي يدافع فيه عن الإسلام. وله أيضا "الرد على أصناف النصارى" مراجع : 1- بُناة الفكر العلمي في الحضارة الإسلامية ملامح من سِيَر علماء مسلمين من عصور مختلفة ل حليمة الغراري 2- ^ http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Miracle/ijaz1.html#Rab أسبوع الويكي: بذرة عالم مسلم: ويكي مصدر: نص غليظ

Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari 838 births | 870 deaths | Jewish scientists | Medieval Jewish physicians of Persia | Medieval Persian physicians | Converts to Islam from Judaism | 9th-century physicians | Physicians of medieval Islam | People from Amol | Physicians | Persian philosophers For other persons named Tabari, see Tabari (name).: Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (علی ابن سهل ربان طبری آملی: ) (c. 838 – c. 870 CE) also given as 810-855 and 783-858 was a Persian Muslim hakim, Islamic scholar, physician and psychologist of Zoroastrian descent, who produced one of the first encyclopedia of medicine. He was a pioneer of pediatrics and the field of child development.date: May 2011: His stature, however, was eclipsed by his more famous pupil, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes"). Ali came from a well-known Syriac family of Merv but moved to Tabaristan (hence al-Tabari – "from Tabaristan") but became an Islamic convert under the Abbassid caliph Al-Mu'tasim (833–842), who took him into the service of the court, in which he continued under Al-Mutawakkil (847–861). His father Sahl ibn Bishr was a state official, highly educated and well respected member of the Syriac community. Ali ibn Sahl was fluent in Syriac and Greek, the two sources for the medical tradition of antiquity, and versed in fine calligraphy. * His works * His Firdous al-Hikmah ("Paradise of Wisdom"), which he wrote in Arabic called also Al-Kunnash was a system of medicine in seven parts. He also translated it into Syriac, to give it wider usefulness.date: May 2011: The information in Firdous al-Hikmah has never entered common circulation in the West because it was not edited until the 20th century, when Mohammed Zubair Siddiqui assembled an edition using the five surviving partial manuscripts. There is still no English translation. * Tuhfat al-Muluk ("The King's Present") * a work on the proper use of food, drink, and medicines. * Hafzh al-Sihhah ("The Proper Care of Health"), following Greek and Indian authorities. * Kitab al-Ruqa ("Book of Magic or Amulets") * Kitab fi al-hijamah ("Treatise on Cupping") * Kitab fi Tartib al-'Ardhiyah ("Treatise on the Preparation of Food") Firdous al-Hikmah : Firdous al-Hikmah was one of the oldest encyclopedia of medicine, Based on Syriac translations of Greek sources (Hippocrates, Galen Dioscorides, and others). It is divided into 7 sections and 30 parts, with 360 chapters in total. The appendix contains a review of Indian medicine based on Persian and Arabic translations of Indian medical works. It deals with pediatrics and child development in depth, as well as psychology and psychotherapy.dateMay 2011: Unlike earlier physicians, however, al-Tabari emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine, and the need of psychotherapy and counseling in the therapeutic treatment of patients.date: May 2011: He wrote that patients frequently feel sick due to delusions or imagination, and that these can be treated through "wise counselling" by smart and witty physicians who could win the rapport and confidence of their patients, leading to a positive therapeutic outcome. date: May 2011: Quotes : On the Quran he said: "When I was a Christian I used to say, as did an uncle of mine who was one of the learned and eloquent men, that eloquence is not one of the signs of prophethood because it is common to all the peoples; but when I discarded (blind) imitation and (old) customs and gave up adhering to (mere) habit and training and reflected upon the meanings of the Qur'an I came to know that what the followers of the Qur'an claimed for it was true. The fact is that I have not found any book, be it by an Arab or a Persian, an Indian or a Greek, right from the beginning of the world up to now, which contains at the same time praises of God, belief in the prophets and apostles, exhortations to good, everlasting deeds, command to do good and prohibition against doing evil, inspiration to the desire of paradise and to avoidance of hell-fire as this Qur'an does. So when a person brings to us a book of such qualities, which inspires such reverence and sweetness in the hearts and which has achieved such an overlasting success and he is (at the same time) an illiterate person who did never learnt the art of writing or rhetoric, that book is without any doubt one of the signs of his Prophethood."

Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari Scientifique arabo-musulman | Médecin du Moyen Âge | Médecin arabo-musulman | Histoire des Juifs en Iran | Décès en 870 | Naissance en 838 Tabari: Abou al-Hassan Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (en Persan: علی ابن سهل ربان طبری) born Amol (c. 838 -c. 870 CE) était un Hakim: Musulman, un érudit islamique (Ouléma), un médecin et un précurseur de la sociologie et de la psychologie issu de la communauté Juive persanne et de la communauté zoroastrienne qui a rédigé la première Encyclopédie de médecine. Il a été un pionnier de la Pédiatrie et de l’étude du développement de l'enfant. Sa stature, a cependant, été éclipsée par son élève le plus célèbre, Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi ( "Rhazes"). Ali est un descendant d'une famille juive bien connue de Merv au Tabaristan (d'où al-Tabari- "originaire du Tabaristan") mais il s’est converti à l’Islam sous le règne du calife abbasside Al-Mu'tasim (833-842) qui l’a pris au service de la cour, fonctions qu’il a conservés sous Al-Mutawakkil (847-861 ). Son père Sahl ibn Bishr était un astrologue célèbre. Ali ibn Sahl parlait le Syriaque et le Grec, les deux sources de la tradition médicale de l’Antiquité qui avait été perdues par l’Europe médiévale, et transcrites en calligraphie minutieuse. * Ses œuvres * Son Firdous al-Hikmah ("Paradise de la sagesse ") qu’il a écrit en Arabe, connu aussi sous le nom d’Al-Kunnash est un traité de médecine en sept parties. Il l’a également traduit en syriaque, pour lui assurer une plus large diffusion. Les informations contenues dans le Firdous al-Hikmah n'ont jamais circulé en occident parce qu'il n'a pas été publié avant le , lorsque Mohammed Zubair Siddiqui a rassemblé une édition en utilisant les cinq manuscrits contenant les fragments encore disponibles. Il n'existe pas encore de traduction en anglais. * Tuhfat al-Muluk ("Le roi actuel") * Un travail sur le bon usage des aliments, des boissons et des médicaments. * Hafzh al-Sihhah ("les meilleurs soins de santé"), suivant les auteurs grecs et indiens. * Kitab al-Ruqa ("Livre de la magie et des Amulettes") * Kitab fi al-hijamah ( "Traité de l’usage des ventouses") * Kitab fi Tartib al-'Ardhiyah ("Traité sur la préparation des aliments") * Le Firdous al-Hikmah Le Firdous al-Hikmah a été la première Encyclopédie de médecine dans la civilisation islamique. Il était divisé en 7 sections et 30 parties, avec 360 chapitres au total. Il traite de la Pédiatrie et du développement de l'enfant d’une manière approfondie, ainsi que de la Psychologie et de la Psychothérapie. Dans les domaines de la médecine et de la psychothérapie, son travail a été influencé principalement par la pensée islamique et les anciens médecins Indiens Ayurvédiques tels que Sushruta et Charaka. Contrairement aux médecins précédents, toutefois, Al-Tabari a souligné les liens étroits existant entre la psychologie et la médecine et la nécessité de la psychothérapie et du soutien psychologique dans la prise en charge thérapeutique des patients. Il a écrit que les patients se sentent souvent malades en raison d’un Délire ou de maux imaginaires et qu’ils peuvent être traités par le biais de "sages conseils" délivrés par des médecins spirituels et intelligents capables d’établir un rapport de confiance avec leurs patients, qui aboutit à un résultat thérapeutique positif . Références : reflist: Sources : * H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (l0, 1900) * M. Steinschneider: Die arabische Literatur der Juden (23-34, Frankfurt, 1902). * Edward G. Browne, Islamic Medicine, 2002, p. 37-38, ISBN 81-87570-19-9

أجورا أثينا إغريق تاريخمارس 2009: أجورا أثينا هي أكثر مثل للأجورات معرفةً, وتقع في مدينة أثينا, اليونان. * التاريخ كان لدى الأجورا في أثينا سكن خاص إلى وقت أقام بيسيستراتوس بإعادة تنظيمها في القرن السادس ق.م. رغم وجود احتمال إقامته في الموقع إلا إنه أزاح المبان الأخرى وأغلقى الآبار المائية وحولها إلى مركز الحكومة الأثينية. قام أيضا ببناء نظام للتصريف السكني ونافورات ومعبد للآلهة الأولمبيين. بنى سيمون لاحقا أبنية جديدة وزرع الأشجار. في القرن الخامس ق.م. أصبح هنالك معابد لكل من الآلهة هفستس وزوس وأبولو. الأريوباغوس وتجمع سكان المدينة كانوا يلتقون في مكان آخر في المدينة, إلا في حالات خاصة من التجمع العام حيث كانت تقام داخل الأجورا. في بداية عهد الديمقراطية المتشددة (بعد سنة 509 ق.م.) كان مجلس المدينة ورؤسائها يقيمون اجتماعاتهم في الموقع. المحاكم القضائية كان موقعها في الأجورا حيث كان بعض قوى الشرطة الجوالة (معظمهم من المرتزقة) يقوم بانتقاء عدد من السكان عشوائيا لكي ينضموا إلى هيئة المحلفين داخل القاعة. الأجورا أعيد تحويلها إلى منطقة سكنية في زمن الحكم الروماني والبيزنطي. * الأبنية والهياكل في الأجورا الكلاسيكية * الباحة البرستيلية * مركز تصنيع العملات المعدنية * إنياكرونوس * الستوا الجنوبية * هيليا (المحكمة العليا) * الستراتيغيون * كولونوس أجوريوس * ثولوس (مركز المحررين والإداريين) * صخرة الأجورا * معلم الأبطال-الإبونيموس * مجلس المدينة القديم * مجلس المدينة الجديد * معبد هيفيستوس * معبد أبولو باتروس * ستوا زوس * مذبح الآلهة الإثني عشر * الستوا الملكية * معبد أفروديت أورانيا * ستوا هرمس * ستوا بيكيلي * أبنية أضيفت إلى الموقع لاحقا أبنية من القرن الثاني م. * الستوا المتوسطة أمام الهيليا * معبد روماني صغير أضيف أمام الستوا المتوسطة * مذبح زوس الأجوري * معبد آرس * مسرح أغريبا * ستوا أتالوس * مجموعة من الأبنية أضيفت إلى الزاوية الجنوبية الشرقية: الستوا الشرقية, مكتبة بنتينوس, النمفيوم ومعبد. * الفورم الروماني في أثينا الفورم الروماني في أثينا يقع شمال الأكروبوليس وشرق الأجورا اليونانية الكلاسيكية. * أبنية وهياكل * برج الرياح * بوابة أثينا أرخيجيتيس * البروبيلون الشرقي * فيثيي دجامي * أجورانوميون * فسباسياني Ancient Agora of Athens:

Ancient Agora of Athens 6th-century BC architecture | Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens | American School of Classical Studies at Athens The Ancient Agora of Athens (aka Forum of Athens in older texts) is the best-known example of an ancient Greek agora, located to the northwest of the Acropolis and is bounded on the south by the hill of the Areopagus and on the west by the hill known as the Colonus Agoraeus. * History The agora in Athens had private housing, until it was reorganized by Peisistratus in the 6th century BC. Although he may have lived on the agora himself, he removed the other houses, closed wells, and made it the centre of Athenian government. He also built a drainage system, fountains and a temple to the Olympian gods. Cimon later improved the agora by constructing new buildings and planting trees. In the 5th century BC there were temples constructed to Hephaestus, Zeus and Apollo. The Areopagus and the assembly of all citizens met elsewhere in Athens, but some public meetings, such as those to discuss ostracism, were held in the agora. Beginning in the period of the radical democracy (after 509 BC), the Boule, or city council, the Prytaneis, or presidents of the council, and the Archons, or magistrates, all met in the agora. The law courts were located there, and anyone who happened to be in the agora when a case was being heard would probably have been able to view the spectacle, though only those adult male citizens appointed by lot would have been able to serve as jurors. * Buildings and structures of the classical agora * Peristyle Court * Mint * Enneakrounos * South Stoa I and South Stoa II * Heliaia * Strategeion * Colonos Agoraios * Tholos * Agora stone * Monument of the Eponymous Heroes * Metroon (Old Bouleuterion) * New Bouleuterion * Temple of Hephaestus (Hephaestion) * Temple of Apollo Patroos * Stoa of Zeus * Altar of the Twelve Gods * Stoa Basileios (Royal stoa) * Temple of Aphrodite Urania * Stoa of Hermes * Stoa Poikile * Later buildings added to the site A number of buildings were added to the agora. Those in place by the 2nd century included: * The Middle stoa which sat across the sanctuary, in front of the Heliaea. * A small Roman temple was added in front of the Middle stoa. * An Altar of Zeus Agoraios was added just to the east of the Monument to the Eponymous Heroes. * The Temple of Ares, dedicated to Ares, the god of war, was added in the north half agora, just south of the Altar of the Twelve Gods. * The Odeon of Agrippa and accompanying gymnasium were added in the centre of the agora. * The substantial Stoa of Attalos was built along the eastern edge of the agora. * A collection of buildings were added to the south-east corner: the East stoa, the Library of Pantainos, the Nymphaeum and a temple. * There is evidence of a Synagogue in the Agora of Athens in the third century. * Excavations The ancient Athenian agora has been excavated by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens since 1931 under the direction of T. Leslie Shear, Sr. They continue to the present day, now under the direction of John McK Camp. After the initial phase of excavation, in the 1950s, the Hellenistic Stoa of Attalos was reconstructed on the east side of the agora, and today it serves as a museum and as storage and office space for the excavation team. * The Roman Forum of Athens The Roman Forum of Athens is located to the north of the acropolis and to the east of the original classical Greek agora. * Buildings and structures * Tower of the Winds * Gate of Athena Archegetis * East Propylon * Fethiye Mosque * Agoranomion * Vespasianae (latrines) * Museum of the Ancient Agora== The museum is housed in the Stoa of Attalos, and its exhibits are connected with the Athenian democracy. The collection of the museum includes clay, bronze and glass objects, sculptures, coins and inscriptions from the 7th to the 5th century BC, as well as pottery of the Byzantine period and the Turkish occupation.

Agora d'Athènes Athènes antique LAgora d'Athènes était, durant l'Antiquité, la place principale de la ville. Elle servait au commerce, aux rencontres et, jusqu'aux réformes de Clisthène, elle était le lieu de rassemblement de l'Ecclésia. L'Agora est aujourd'hui un très important site archéologique, situé en plein cœur de la ville moderne, au pied de l'Acropole. Site de l'agora d'Athènes : Située à l'origine au nord-est de l'Acropole, l'Agora fut déplacée au pied du sous l'archontat de Solon. On dut vider l'emplacement des tombes et des maisons qui s'y trouvaient. Les pouvoirs implantés dans le palais sur l'Acropole à l'époque archaïque se sont peu à peu transportés sur l'agora. C'est au cours de cette migration de la ville haute vers la ville basse que les pouvoirs se sont séparés en plusieurs bâtiments distincts. Elle se trouvait au point le plus bas de l'astu et formait le carrefour des axes de communication dans la cité d'Athènes. Ainsi, lautel des Douze Dieux était le point à partir duquel on calculait toutes les distances. L'Agora était également un lieu sacré, dont témoignent de nombreux sanctuaires. Les fouilles : Les premières fouilles sur le site de l’Agora antique furent exécutées par la Dystocie Archéologique Grecque au cours des années 1859-1912 et ont surtout mis au jour le Portique des Géants et une partie du côté ouest de l’Agora, où l’Institut Archéologique Allemand avait fouillé en 1896-1897. En 1890-1891, dans la partie nord de l’Agora une tranchée profonde a été ouverte pour le passage de la voie ferrée (train express régional) Athènes-Le Pirée. On y a trouvé beaucoup de vestiges et de bâtiments anciens qui furent détruits, ainsi que des fragments de sculptures, gardées au Musée National. Les fouilles systématiques de l’École américaine d’études classiques ont commencé en 1931 et ont continué jusqu’en 1940. Elles ont recommencé après la Seconde Guerre mondiale de 1946 à 1960. Pour fouiller le site entier, il fallut démolir plus de 360 maisons modernes. De 1953-1956, grâce au financement par JD. Rockefeller, le portique ou stoa d'Attale a été reconstruit en vue d'une utilisation comme musée, réserves, laboratoires et bureau de fouilles du site de l’Agora. Le site réaménagé a été confié à la Société Archéologique Grecque. Description : L'Agora archaïque : L'Agora est située au nord-est de l'Acropole. On a très peu d'informations sur ses édifices, encore moins sur leur fonction. De manière générale, l'agora était un espace ouvert à tous les habitants. Elle est citée dans l'Iliade et l'Odyssée. L'Agora classique : # Bâtiment à péristyle * Monnaie * Fontaine sud-est ou Ennéacrounos * Stoa sud * Héliée * Stratègéion Tholos * Borne de l'Agora * Monument des héros éponymes * Métrôon (ancien Bouleutérion) * Bouleutérion * Héphaïstéion (Théséion) * Temple d'Apollon Patroos * Stoa de Zeus * Autel des Douze dieux * Stoa royale * Temple d'Aphrodite Ourania * Stoa d'Hermès * Stoa Poikilè La construction de la nouvelle agora dure longtemps, puisque les bâtiments les plus anciens datent du L’Agora trouve sa place au centre de la cité, avec de nombreuses fonctions. Elle est entourée des grands axes de communications, vers Le Pirée, le port d’Athènes, la Porte sacrée et la porte du Dipylon et la voie des Panathénées vers l’Acropole. Édifices à vocation religieuse : * Temple d'Apollon Patroos * Autel des Douze Dieux, les douze dieux principaux du Panthéon athénien, dont Athéna, Zeus, Poséidon… * Métrôon, ancien bouleuterion, y accueille les archives et le culte de Rhéa, mère des dieux de l'Olympe. * Autel d'Aphrodite Ourania * Stoa de Zeus * Héphaïsteion, aussi appelé à tort Théséion, le bâtiment les plus impressionnant de l'agora, puisque le seul encore debout. * Monument des héros éponymes, symbole du synœcisme athénien et représentant les 10 tribus d'Athènes. Édifices à fonction politique : * Bouleutérion, où siègent les Bouleutes * Tholos : on y conserve les étalons de monnaie, poids et volume. * Stoa du roi, aussi nommée Stoa Basileos, siège de l'archonte roi * Monnaie * Stratègeion, habitation des stratèges * Arsenal * Stoa Sud : y sont entreposés comme dans la Tholos les étalons. Constructions à destination juridique : * Héliée Commodités : * Fontaine sud-est ; * Boutiques : L'agora est un lieu de marché intense, à tel point que les réunions de l'Ecclésia ne seront plus possibles au . Les boutiques sont en bois, tissus, adossées aux stoas, le long des voies de circulations. L'agora est un lieu hautement social, où ont lieu de nombreuses rencontres de toutes sortes ; * Théâtre en bois amovible, utilisé pendant les réunions de l'Ecclésia (qui se déplace plus tard sur la Pnyx), les Grandes Dionysies et autres occasions. Un théâtre en pierre sera construit près de l'Acropole au , suite notamment à un effondrement accidentel de la structure. La frontière entre les différentes catégories de bâtiments n'est pas toujours évidente. L'Agora reste un espace ouvert pendant toute l'époque classique et ne deviendra qu'un espace fermé à l'époque hellénistique. Le résultat des différentes fouilles sont parfois vagues. On ne sait à quoi correspond le bâtiment nommé Arsenal, et la découverte du Stratégeion est sujette à caution. Toutefois les fouilles ont révélé un important témoignage de la démocratie athénienne, les ostracons, tessons de poterie faisant office de bulletin dans la procédure d'ostracisme. L'Agora hellénistique : À cette époque vient s'ajouter la Stoa d'Attale, don du roi de Pergame, qui faisait de l'agora un espace fermé. Aujourd'hui reconstruit, ce portique de style éclectique est conforme aux caractéristiques de l'art de l'époque hellénistique. L'Agora romaine : Agora romaine: Elle se situe à l'est de la stoa d'Attale. * Bibliothèque d'Hadrien * Tour des Vents (horloge d'Andronicos) Sources :

مبنى كوند ناست ناطحات سحاب | تصميم بيئي | مدينة نيويورك مبنى كوند ناست رسميا 4 تايمز سكوير Condé Nast Building: ناطحة سحاب تقع في تايمز سكوير في وسط مدينة نيويورك بين شارعي 42 و 43. البناء تم افتتاحه في عام 2000 كواحد من أكبر مشاريع إعادة تطوير شارع 42. يرتفع المبنى قرابة 48 طابق (247م) جاعلا اياه يحتل المرتبة 12 في أطول ابراج مدينة نيويورك، والمرتبة 41 في الولايات المتحدة. وتشكل مساحة الطابق الواحد في المبنى 149,000 م². أحدث حجم المبنى ضجه وقلق حول تأثيره على تايمز سكوير مستقبلا. معظم مساحة المكاتب داخل البرج تابعة لشركة (Condé Nast) للنشر. صمم المبنى المعماري (Fox & Fowel). ويعتبر التصميم من التصاميم الرائدة في مجال العمارة المستدامة وتخفيض استهلاك الطاقة. الإستدامه بالتصميم : يعد المبنى أحد الأمثلة المبتكرة التي طبقت مبادئ العمارة المستدامة الخضراء في مبنى حضري كبير، وقد استعملت فيه تقريباً جميع التقنيات التي يمكن تخيلها لتوفير الطاقة. فقد استخدم المبنى نوعية خاصة من الزجاج تسمح بدخول ضوء الشمس الطبيعي وتبقي الحرارة والأشعة فوق البنفسجية خارج المبنى، وتقلل من فقدان الحرارة الداخلية أثناء الشتاء. وهناك أيضاً خليتان تعملان على وقود الغاز الطبيعي تزودان المبنى بـ (400 كيلو واط) من الطاقة، وهو ما يكفي لتغذية المبنى بكل كمية الكهرباء التي يحتاجها ليلاً، بالإضافة إلى (5%) من كمية الكهرباء التي يحتاجها نهاراً. أما عادم الماء الحار فقد أنتج بواسطة خلايا الوقود المستخدمة للمساعدة على تسخين المبنى وتزويده بالماء الحار. بينما وضعت أنظمة التبريد والتكييف على السقف كمولد غاز أكثر من كونها مولد كهربائي، وهذا يخفض من فقدان الطاقة المرتبط بنقل الطاقة الكهربائية. كما أن لوحات (Photovoltaic Panels) الموجودة على المبنى من الخارج تزود المبنى بطاقة إضافية تصل إلى (15 كيلو واط). وداخل المبنى تتحكم حساسات الحركة بالمراوح وتطفئ الإضاءة في المناطق قليلة الإشغال مثل السلالم. أما إشارات الخروج فهي مضاءة بثنائيات خفيفة مخفضة لاستهلاك الطاقة. والنتيجة النهائية هي أن المبنى يستهلك طاقة أقل بنسبة (35-40%) مقارنة بأي مبنى تقليدي مماثل. أنظر أيضا : * برج سويس ري * برج الحرية مراجع : ثبت_المراجع: بذرة عمارة:

Condé Nast Building Times Square | Skyscrapers in New York City | Skyscrapers between 200 and 249 meters | Buildings and structures completed in 2000 | Modernist architecture in New York | Condé Nast Publications The Condé Nast Building, officially 4 Times Square, is a modern skyscraper in Times Square in Midtown Manhattan. Located on Broadway between 42nd Street and 43rd, the structure was finished in January 2000 as part of a larger project to redevelop 42nd Street. The building stretches 48 stories to 809 ft (247 m) making it the 12th tallest building in New York City and the 41st tallest in the United States. The size of the tower raised concerns from the city about what impact this sized tower would have on Times Square. The major office space tenants are magazine publishing company Condé Nast and Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom, a prominent U.S. law firm. Duane Reade is a major retail tenant. 4 Times Square is owned by The Durst Organization. The architects were Fox & Fowle who also designed the Reuters Building as part of the larger project. The building contains of floor space. In 1995, 4 Times Square was the first speculative office building to be developed in New York City in almost a decade, but it was fully leased and occupied almost immediately after completion. The City Hall chose Fox & Fowle architectural firm to design the building because they were known as the designers of ecologically sustainable buildings. NASDAQ's MarketSite is located at the northwest corner of the building. It is a seven-story cylindrical tower with a high-tech electronic display, providing market quotes, financial news and advertisements. The ground floor of the MarketSite contains a television studio with a wall of monitors and an arc of windows looking out onto Times Square. Including the antenna, its height is 1,143 ft (348 m), making it the third tallest structure in New York City, behind the Empire State Building and the Bank of America Tower. * Green design 4 Times Square is one of the most important examples of green design in skyscrapers in the United States. Environmentally friendly gas-fired absorption chillers, along with a high-performing insulating and shading curtain wall, ensure that the building does not need to be heated or cooled for the majority of the year. The air-delivery system provides 50% more fresh air than is required by New York City Building Code, and a number of recycling chutes serve the entire building. The building uses solar and fuel cell technology. Being the first project of its size to undertake these features in construction, the building has received an award from the American Institute of Architects, as well as AIA New York State. * Antenna mast Between 2002 and 2003, the existing radio antenna, built primarily for Clear Channel Communications as a backup transmitter site for its four FM stations, was removed and replaced with a 300-foot (91 m) mast to support television and radio broadcasters as a backup transmission site. This was done so that work could be completed to relocate those which were displaced by the destruction of the World Trade Center to the Empire State Building, without disruption to the existing FM tenants at the Empire State Building. The mast has three tiers: one for VHF, one for UHF, and one for FM. Currently, eight FM stations use the site as a backup, and one FM station (WNYE) uses it as a primary site. Three TV stations are using the mast for auxiliary use, and one for primary. The antenna systems and mast were constructed by Dielectric Communications of Raymond, Maine, Shively labs of Bridgton, Maine, and Electronics Research Inc., of Chandler, Indiana. * Condé Nast Building in popular culture== An almost exact replica of the Condé Nast Building is featured in the Battlestar Galactica universe, as a prominent building in the Caprica City skyline. It can be seen during scene of the city in the series finale . It can also be seen briefly in the pilot for the Caprica television series. The building is also featured in Grand Theft Auto IV, as part of Liberty City and the recent documentary about Anna Wintour, "The September Issue." It is a central location in The Accidental Husband. It is also featured in True Crime New York City, a police-career simulation game, including a realistic version of Times Square, where the building is located and in Prototype as part of the skyline. The building was the basis for the fictional Elias-Clark building in Lauren Weisberger's novel The Devil Wears Prada, where the head office for fictional Runway magazine is located. Weisberger based the plot on her own experiences as assistant to Vogue editor-in-chief Anna Wintour, whose offices are located in the Condé Nast building.

Condé Nast Building Condé Nast Publications | Gratte-ciel de New York | Gratte-ciel mesurant entre 200 et 249 mètres | Gratte-ciel construit en 1999 Le Condé Nast Building est un gratte-ciel de Times Square à Manhattan dont la construction a été terminée en 1999. La majeure partie des bureaux est occupée par Condé Nast, une maison d'édition de magazines, et par Skadden Arps, le plus gros cabinet d'avocats américains. Parmi les autres locataires importants on peut citer ESPN Zone et Duane Reade. Il compte 48 étages pour 247 mètres (809 pieds) de hauteur. C'est en 2010 le 12e: immeuble le plus haut de New York et le 41e: des États-Unis. Le NASDAQ MarketSite est placé au coin du bâtiment. C'est une tour cylindrique de sept étages portant un affichage électronique de haute technologie, indiquant les cours du marché, des nouvelles financières et de la publicité. Le rez-de-chaussée du MarketSite contient un studio de télévision avec un mur de moniteurs et un arc de fenêtres trouvant sur Time Square. Sa hauteur est de 348 m, le faisant la troisième structure la plus grande à New York, derrière l'Empire State Building et la Bank of America Tower. Tour Verte : Le Condé Nast Building a été construit par Fox & Fowle et enregistré comme la première « tour verte » de New York. Il a précédé la mise en place du système de mesure LEED (Leadership in energy and environmental design : l’avancement en matière de design en énergie et environnement). Condé Nast Building dans la culture : Une réplique presque exacte du Condé Nast est représentée dans l'univers Battlestar Galactica comme une construction importante dans Caprica City (on peut le voir pendant la scène de la ville dans Daybreak : part 2, et brièvement dans le pilote pour Caprica). L'immeuble est aussi visible dans Grand Theft Auto IV, à Liberty City et dans le documentaire récent sur Anna Wintour, "The September Issue." Le bâtiment sert de modèle pour le fictif Elias-Clark dans le roman Le Diable s'habille en Prada de Lauren Weisberger, où se trouve le siège social du magazine fictif RUNWAY. Weisberger s'est basé sur sa propre expérience d'aide à la rédactrice en chef de Vogue, Anna Wintour, dont les bureaux sont situés dans le Condé Nast Building.

خطمي وردي صيني خبازية الخطمي الوردي الصيني (الاسم العلمي: Hibiscus rosa- sinensis) نبات من فصيلة الخبازية Malvaceae .شجيرة مستديمة الخضرة يتراوح ارتفاعها بين 2-4 م كثيرة التفرع من القاعدة ، والأوراق كبيرة متبادلة ذات حافة مسننة ، والأزهار بوقية كبيرة حمراء اللون تظهر معظم أيام السنة ، والثمار غير ظاهرة ، والجذور منتشرة ، ومعدل النمو للشجيرة سريع . تنمو الشجيرة بشكل جيد تحت الظروف البيئية المحلية ، وتتحمل العوامل البيئية القاسية بشكل متوسط من حيث ارتفاع درجة الحرارة إلى 42 درجة مئوية ولا تتحمل الصقيع ، كما تتحمل بشكل متوسط الجفاف والرياح ، إلا أنها قليلة التحمل للملوحة. بذرة نبات:

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus | Flowers | Invasive plant species | National symbols of Malaysia | Flora of India Italic title: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, known colloquially as the Chinese hibiscus, China rose and shoe flower, is an evergreen flowering shrub native to East Asia. It is widely grown as an ornamental plant throughout the tropics and subtropics. The flowers are large, generally red in the original varieties, and firm, but generally lack any scent. Numerous varieties, cultivars, and hybrids are available, with flower colors ranging from white through yellow and orange to scarlet and shades of pink, with both single and double sets of petals. Despite their size and red hues attractive to nectar-feeding birds, they are not visited regularly by hummingbirds when grown in the Neotropics. Generalists, like the Sapphire-spangled Emerald, Amazilia lactea, or long-billed species, like the Stripe-breasted Starthroat, Heliomaster squamosus, are occasionally seen to visit it, however. In the subtropical and temperate Americas, hummingbirds are attracted to them on a regular basis. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis was named by Carolus Linnaeus. It has many names in Chinese: chijin 赤槿、riji 日及、fusang 扶桑、fosang 佛桑、hongfusang 红扶桑、hongmujin 红木槿、sangjin 桑槿、huohonghua 火红花、zhaodianhong 照殿红、songjin 宋槿、erhonghua 二红花、huashanghua 花上花、tuhonghua 土红花、jiamudan 假牡丹 and zhongguoqiangwei 中国蔷薇. Each of these many names is from a different state in China, each state having its own name for the plant. It also has prominent presence in the various part of Indian subcontinent. It has several names in different languages,Jaswand in Marathi, জবা: (Jaba), Sembaruthi-செம்பருத்தி in Tamil, गुड़हल: , Chemparathy - ചെമ്പരത്തി in Malayalam, Mondaro in Oriya,Wada Mal in Sinhala, Mamdaram (మందారం) in Telugu, Kembang Sepatu in Indonesia and Gumamela in Filipino. National symbol : Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is the national flower of Malaysia, called Bunga Raya in Malay. Introduced into the Malay Peninsula in the 12th century, it was nominated as the national flower in the year 1958 by the Ministry of Agriculture amongst a few other flowers, namely ylang ylang, jasmine, lotus, rose, magnolia, and bunga tanjung. On 28 July 1960, it was declared by the government of Malaysia that the hibiscus would be the national flower. The word bunga in Malay means "flower", whilst raya in Malay means "big" or "grand". The hibiscus is literally known as the "big flower" in Malay. The red of the petals symbolizes the courage, life, and rapid growth of the Malaysian, and the five petals represent the five Rukun Negara of Malaysia. The flower can be found imprinted on the notes and coins of the Malaysian ringgit. Uses : Hibiscus flower preparations are used for hair care. The flowers themselves are edible and are used in salads in the Pacific Islands. The flowers are used to shine shoes in parts of India.It is also a pH indicator.China rose indicator turns acidic solutions to magenta/dark pink and basic solutions to green. It is also used for the worship of Devi and especially the red variety takes an important part in tantra. In Indonesia, these flowers are called "kembang sepatu", which literally means "shoe flower". Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is considered to have a number of medical uses in Chinese herbology. Genetics : Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is one of many plant genera with a genetic characteristic known as polyploidy, in which there are more than two complete sets of chromosomes, unlike most other species including human. Polyploidy is a condition where the phenotype of the offspring may be quite different from the parent, or indeed any ancestor, essentially allowing possibly random expression of all (or any) of the characteristics of all the generations that have gone before. Because of this characteristic, H. rosa-sinensis has become popular with hobbyists who cross and recross varieties, creating new named varieties and holding competitions to exhibit and judge the many resulting new seedlings and often strikingly unique flowers. To add to the genetic opportunities, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has been successfully hybridized with the cold-hardy Hibiscus moscheutos and several other North American Hibiscus species, producing cold-hardy hybrids (see cold-hardy Hibiscus cultivars). Often the progeny of these crosses are sterile, but some are fertile, further increasing the complexity of variability and the possibility of a virtually unlimited number of eventual Hibiscus rosa-sinensis varieties. This further attracts the hobbyists, who have created local and international associations, societies, publications, and manuals to further this hobby, which is practiced with these tropical plants worldwide, including indoors in cold climates. It is used to cure hepatitis CdateDecember 2011: : Cultural references== * In March 1987 DPR Korea issued a postage stamp depicting Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.

Hibiscus Rose de Chine Malvaceae | Plante ornementale Rosa chinensis: végétal : Taxobox fin: L'hibiscus Rose de Chine (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) est une espèce de la famille des Malvaceae. C'est l'hibiscus le plus connu et il a été utilisé dans de nombreuses hybridations. Il est souvent utilisé comme symbole des îles Hawaii. Les premières variétés (doubles) ont été ramenées de Chine. Son nom latin y trouve son origine. Cependant, s'il est probable que la "rose de Chine", soit originaire des zones tropicales d'Asie du Sud-Est, ce n'est pas sûr. En effet, cette plante est présente, suite aux échanges commerciaux, depuis des temps immémoriaux dans l'ensemble de la ceinture tropicale et, par ailleurs, aucun peuplement sauvage n'est connu. Ses origines restent donc incertaines. Quelques variétés horticoles : variété à fleurs rouges simples

نينجا غايدن سلاسل ألعاب الفيديو | نينجا غايدن * نينجا غايدن أو محاربو الظل أو نينجا ريونكندن Ninja Gaiden: ، حيث تتبع التسمية بلد الإصدار. وهي سلسلة ألعاب حركة تتمحور حول شخصية رئيسية هي مقاتل نينجا يدعى ريو هايابوسا. بدأت كلعبة ثنائية الأبعاد (2D) ثم تطورت بعد ذلك إلى نظام ثلاثي الأبعاد (3D). أولى إصدارت اللعبة كانت في اليابان عام (1988 مـ) من قبل شركة تيكمو على جهاز نينتندو Nintendo: حيث حظيت بشهرة واسعة. ألحقت بعد ذلك بإصدارات على أجهزة أخرى مثل سيجا Sega: ، نظام لينوكس ودوس. التسمية والحبكة : اسم نينجا غايدن ظهر فقط في الإصدارات الموجهة لأمريكا الشمالية حيث أن كلمة غايدن مأخوذة من اللغة اليابانية وتعني أقصوصة، واشتهرت اللعبة بهذا الاسم بعد ذلك في جميع أنحاء العالم. أما في اليابان فقد نشرت باسم نينجا ريونكندن. * الحبكة تتحدث اللعبة في أول إصدار ثنائي الأبعاد عن مقاتل نينجا اسمه ريو هايابوسا، يسافر إلى أميركا للبحث عن قاتل والده، حيث يعثر على قاتل والده بمساعدة من صديق والده. أما في الاصدارت اللاحقة، فالحبكة عبارة عن الصراع بين الخير الذي يمثله ريو وأصدقاؤه والشر الذي يمثله عدة أشخاص مثل عشتار. الاسم ريو يرافق النينجا في جميع الاصدار حيث تأخذ اللعبة نمط مغامرات الحركة Action-Adventure: . الأسلحة : يستخدم اللعب الرئيسي عدة أنواع من الأسلح منها: * اليدين * الأرجل * السيف * نجمة النينجا الشهيرة shuriken: * الأسحار الاصدارات الرئيسية : * نينجا غايدن، Ninja Gaiden: * نينجا غايدن الظل، * نينجا غايدن سيف الخراب المظلم، * نينجا غايدن سفينة الدمار الأثرية، * نينجا غايدن الثلاثية، Ninja Gaiden Trilogy: نسخة تشمل الأجزاء الثلاثة الأولى. * نينجا غايدن الأسود، Ninja Gaiden Black: * نينجا غايدن سيغما، Ninja Gaiden Sigma: * نينجا غايدن سيف التنين، * نينجا غايدن اثنان، Ninja Gaiden II: * الجوائز : * نينجا غايدن رشحت كأفضل لعبة في جميع الأزمنة. مراجع : ثبت_المراجع: *

Ninja Gaiden Video game franchises | Ninja Gaiden other uses: is a series of video games by Tecmo featuring the ninja Ryu Hayabusa as its protagonist. The series was originally known as in Japan. The word "gaiden" in the North American Ninja Gaiden title means "side-story" in Japanese, even though the Ninja Gaiden series is not a spinoff of a previous series. The original arcade version and first two NES games were released as Shadow Warriors in PAL regions. The series gained popularity on the 8-bit Nintendo Entertainment System for its tight action-platform gameplay, catchy music and, according to G4's X-Play, for being the first console game to have the story presented in cinematic cutscenes. The 8-bit trilogy was enhanced for the 16-bit Super NES in 1995. Sega also released two Ninja Gaiden games for the Game Gear and Master System, the latter only for PAL regions. A new game, titled Ninja Gaiden, was released in 2004 as a 3D action game on the Xbox, developed by Team Ninja, the makers of Dead or Alive. The Ninja Gaiden franchise is well-known for its high degree of difficulty, particularly the original NES version and the Xbox revival. Arcade game: Ninja Gaiden (arcade): The arcade version of Ninja Gaiden (released in 1988, in Japan, North America, and Europe) was a Double Dragon-style beat 'em up, in which the player controls a nameless blue ninja as he travels to various regions of the United States (such as San Francisco, New Jersey and Las Vegas) to defeat an evil cult led by a fictional descendant of Nostradamus, who is trying to personally fulfill his ancestor's prophecy of the rise of an evil king in 1999. The player has a variety of techniques, such as a flying neck throw and a back-flip. The player can obtain power-ups by throwing enemies into background objects, such as street lights and dumpsters. The player fights primarily with his bare hands, although a sword can also be used for a limited time as a power-up; he can also use environmental objects as a prop from which he can deliver more powerful kicking attacks. Although the game takes place in different environments, there are primarily only five kinds of enemies, all of which appear in every level (although some levels have extra enemy types). The game is mostly remembered for its infamous continue screen (where the player character is tied to the ground underneath a descending circular saw). While the game itself bears little or no connection to the later NES trilogy or Xbox revival (although the Xbox version does feature the same flying neck throw from the arcade game), certain aspects of it were carried over to the first NES title. The first stage in the NES game is a loose adaptation of the first stage in the arcade game and the opening cutscene in the NES game vaguely resembles the intro in the arcade version. Both games also feature Jason Voorhees look-alikes and the final boss in the arcade game vaguely resembles Bloody Malth from the NES game. An emulated version of the arcade game exists in the Xbox version's update, Ninja Gaiden Black, as a bonus feature, and it is also available through Nintendo's Wii Virtual Console download service. * NES trilogy * Ninja Gaiden (NES) Ninja Gaiden (Nintendo Entertainment System): The first Ninja Gaiden for Famicom/NES was released in Japan on December 9, 1988, in the United States in March 1989, and in Europe on August 15, 1991. A ninja named Ryu Hayabusa finds a letter by his recently missing father, Ken, telling him to go to America and meet with an archaeologist Dr. Smith. Dr. Smith tells Ryu that two statues hidden by Ryu's father and the doctor have the power to end the world - if united. Ryu ends up in South America and battles Jaquio, an evil cult leader bent on reviving the ancient demon called "Jashin" and responsible for the attack on Ken Hayabusa. The game introduced many of the series' staples, including the cinematic cutscenes, the boomerang-like Windmill Shuriken and the magical techniques called Ninja Arts (or Ninpo). Like all games in the series, it is noted for its difficulty, particularly the infamous Stage 6-2. To use the ninja arts, users had to collect power-ups. Each art used up a certain number of power-ups. * Ninja Gaiden II: The Dark Sword of Chaos In the sequel, Ninja Gaiden II: The Dark Sword of Chaos, Ryu learns of a new villain named Ashtar, Emperor of Chaos and master to Jaquio. Ryu must rescue Irene Lew, a former CIA agent, from Ashtar and destroy the Dark Sword, a weapon of great power, forged from a bone of the demon, as the Dragon Sword is forged from a fang of a dragon. In the end, Ryu learns that Jaquio has been reborn to fulfill the destiny of Ashtar and the Dark Sword. This game was the first to feature Spirit Clones, invincible copies of Ryu which would mimic his movements and fight by his side. Also introduced was the ability to scale walls without the need to constantly jump upwards. * Ninja Gaiden III: The Ancient Ship of Doom The third game, titled Ninja Gaiden III: The Ancient Ship of Doom, has what some date: June 2009: considered to be a rather convoluted and, at times, contradictory story featuring rogue secret agents, genetic engineering and the eponymous warship. The gameplay is largely unchanged and more is revealed about Foster, the CIA agent who sent Ryu after Jaquio in the first game and his true intentions towards the ninja. This game is often considered to be the most difficult of the original trilogy, as continues are limited this time. Additionally, most attacks deal 2 damage units to the player (rather than 1 in the previous games), who still has only 16 health units. New innovations in the third installment included a sword extension power-up that increased the range of the player's attack until the end of the level or until death, new types of surfaces from which the player could hang, and automatically scrolling areas. Ninja Gaiden Trilogy: is a 1995 SNES collection featuring all three games. Few improvements were made, but passwords were included and the cinematic sequences were improved. The graphics were retouched and the soundtrack was updated. The third game was also made more playable by reverting the difficulty level to that of the Japanese version, with infinite continues and more reasonable damage from enemy attacks. Unfortunately, the ports suffered from slowdown, unresponsive controls and no closing credits. Some graphical changes were made that removed parallax scrolling from the backgrounds of the levels. Other graphical changes were made to comply with Nintendo's "Family Friendly" censorship policy at the time (i.e. a pool of blood changed from red to green, and the removal of pentagrams). Fans also complained about the omission of some music tracks (including removing two pieces of music from Ninja Gaiden III and replacing the use of the stage 1-1 music in the Ninja Gaiden II pursuit cutscenes with a repeating footstep sound). Conversely, a degree of censorship was actually removed from certain parts of the script (for example, Jaquio's "Argh! He's awake" is replaced with "Damn, he's awake."), though the retooled scripts also featured new typographical errors not found in the original translations.dateAugust 2007: Despite these shortcomings, Ninja Gaiden Trilogy is a bit of a collector's item and sells for nearly $200 if still sealed. Ninja Gaiden Trilogy was included as a bonus unlockable in Ninja Gaiden for Xbox. Ninja Gaiden Shadow: Ninja Gaiden Shadow: Tecmo released a Game Boy version called Ninja Gaiden Shadow. It was actually a licensed edit of a proposed Shadow of the Ninja (Natsume) port. Because of this, it differs slightly from the console versions, but is still fairly faithful. Although it was released following the NES trilogy, the game is actually a prequel to the original game. Sega games: Sega, under license from Tecmo, developed three games but ultimately released only two: one for the Master System and another for the Game Gear, both bearing the Ninja Gaiden title worldwide, marking the first time a game in the series was released with the Ninja Gaiden name in Japan and Europe. Ninja Gaiden (Master System): Ninja Gaiden (Master System): Released in Australia, Brazil, and Europe in 1992 for the Master System, this game has similar gameplay mechanics to the NES games, though it had much better graphics, faster gameplay and a few changes were made such as Ryu bouncing off walls instead of clinging to them, like the later 3D games. The game featured a new storyline, characters and scenarios, not connected to any of the other Ninja Gaiden games. This version is the only 8 bit version to receive a perfect 5 out of 5 on Ottozro's Game Rating scale. Ninja Gaiden (Game Gear): Ninja Gaiden (Game Gear): Released in Japan, North America and Europe in 1991 for the Game Gear, this game was not very close to any of the other Ninja Gaiden games. It featured a smaller screen size, bigger character sprites, slower game speed, and unlike the NES and Master System games which were more oriented to platforming action, this was more a linear side-scrolling game in the likes of the Shinobi series. Ninja Gaiden (Beta) (Mega Drive/Genesis): A Mega Drive/Genesis version of Ninja Gaiden was in development by Sega sometime in 1992. It was planned to be a belt scroll-style beat-'em-up similar to the arcade version of Ninja Gaiden, instead of following the side-scrolling platform game format from the NES trilogy. The plot would have involved Ryu traveling to the United States in order to track down a pair of sibling ninjas named Jin and Rika who have gone rogue by stealing the Secret Scrolls of the Huma (an alternate romanization of the name "Fūma"). The Mega Drive version is not a port of the arcade game, but some of the stages (such as a casino) and enemy characters (like the hockey mask-wearing punks) are similar, though the play mechanics are very different. The game was never released commercially, but a beta build was leaked through the internet as a ROM image. The beta features seven stages, including cut-scenes and bosses, but has several programming bugs such as odd moving controls, unfinished levels, and cut-scenes which are skipped before finishing. Although the opening and stage names are in Japanese, the rest of the cut-scenes were translated into English. The techniques available in the beta consists of a standard punch combo, a jump kick, a rolling move, and a special somersault kick. Other versions: There are also several other versions of the Ninja Gaiden games on other platforms. The original Ninja Gaiden arcade game received several ports for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, Commodore Amiga and ZX Spectrum computers. The Amiga version in particular, retained almost all of the graphics and functionality of the original game, including the two-player cooperative gameplay and the introduction. All these versions, developed by Ocean Software, were only released in Europe as Shadow Warriors. A PC (MS-DOS format) port of the original Ninja Gaiden was also developed by Hi Tech Expressions, this time for its release in North America as Ninja Gaiden, as opposed to the other computer versions. However, it featured stripped down play mechanics and a low 16 colour palette. There is port of the first NES Ninja Gaiden developed by Hudson for the PC Engine and released only in Japan, although the game features an unlockable English mode (with a different translation than the NES game). Other differences include enhanced graphics, reworked music and rebalanced difficulty. received computer ports developed by GameTek for the PC (MS-DOS format) and the Commodore Amiga, both for their release in North America. They featured a 256 colour palette (32 on Amiga) and were translated faithfully (though animation and movement were choppier) and also offered a save-and-load function, where your exact position in the game could be saved at any given moment. Lastly, the arcade game Ninja Gaiden and the NES game , were both ported to the Atari Lynx handheld system. The original title was a solid port of the arcade title and is a more sought-after title for the Lynx. Part III was a very-faithful port of the NES game and is virtually identical from beginning to end, albeit with a more distorted-sounding soundtrack and slightly-jumbled visuals due to the lower in-game video resolution. An LCD handheld version produced by Tiger Electronics was released in 1988, which also had a sequel. Post-2004 series: Ninja Gaiden: The series was revived after several years with the 2004 release of Ninja Gaiden for the Xbox. The title was developed over five years by developer Tomonobu Itagaki and his Team Ninja, and eventually released to high sales and critical acclaim. An upgraded edition with new content, modes and features came out the following year under the name Ninja Gaiden Black. Later, a remake directed by Yosuke Hayashi was made on the PlayStation 3 as Ninja Gaiden Sigma on July 3, 2007. The latter version has its graphics reworked to high definition standards, and Rachel as a playable character. The story along with its sequels Ninja Gaiden: Dragon Sword and Ninja Gaiden 2 have been established as a retcon, taking place before the NES Ninja Gaiden Series. The main story of the game involves Ryu Hayabusa setting out on a quest to retrieve the Dark Dragon Blade from the hands of evil after most of his clan was wiped out. Ninja Gaiden Dragon Sword: Ninja Gaiden Dragon Sword: IGN announced Ninja Gaiden Dragon Sword was released only for the Nintendo DS. The game is played in a diagonal top-down view with 3D graphics, and the player needs to hold the Nintendo DS sideways, like a book, as in and . Ninja Gaiden Dragon Sword is played using full potential of the stylus. This is the reason why Team Ninja chose to make the game for the Nintendo DS, instead of the PSP. The story is set six months after the event of 2004's Ninja Gaiden. There is also a new playable female ninja character, Momiji. Both the Japanese release and the US release dates were March, 2008. Ninja Gaiden II: Ninja Gaiden II was the next game in the post-2004 series and set one year after the events in Ninja Gaiden (2004). It was published by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360. The new features in the game were four difficulty levels, a regenerating health bar, and upgraded graphics and enemy AI. An enhanced version of Ninja Gaiden II was released for the PlayStation 3 and titled Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2. Ninja Gaiden 3D: Nintendo and Tecmo announced the development of Ninja Gaiden 3D for Nintendo 3DS at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 2010. No further details were given at that time. Ninja Gaiden 3: Ninja Gaiden 3: Tecmo Koei announced at the Tokyo Game Show 2010 in a closed-door event in September that they were currently developing Ninja Gaiden 3. Footage was shown at the Nintendo keynote at E3 2011 as an upcoming game for the Wii U console. Other Media: Animation & Anime: ;Ninja Ryūkenden / Ninja Gaiden dateSeptember 2010: Ryu, voiced by Keiichi Nanba, is the main character in the 1991 OVA film Ninja Ryūkenden, released in Japan only. Ryu Hayabusa has a unique look in the animation. * Literature Some of the Ninja Gaiden series has received novelizations, such as the NES version. * Crossovers and Cross-promotion=== ;Cameo appearances Ninja Gaiden's characters, as well as other references to the series, can be found in cameos and additional items in various titles from games by Tecmo, Koei, & Microsoft/Xbox.

Ninja Gaiden (série) Série de jeux vidéo jeu vidéo: est une série de jeux vidéo d'action de la société japonaise Tecmo. Elle est apparue sur borne d'arcade en 1988 et s'est poursuivie sur quatre générations de consoles de jeux. La gameplay de la série tient du beat them all et aussi, suivant les épisodes, du jeu de plates-formes. Le joueur y incarne le ninja Ryu Hayabusa. Les épisodes : * 1988 - Shadow Warriors (Arcade, Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Lynx) * 1988 - Shadow Warriors (NES, PC Engine) * 1990 - (NES, Amiga, DOS) * 1991 - (NES, Lynx) * 1991 - Shadow Warriors (Game Boy) * 1991 - Shadow Warriors (Game Gear) * 1992 - Shadow Warriors (Master System) * 1995 - Ninja Gaiden Trilogy (compilation sur Super Nintendo) * 2004 - Ninja Gaiden (Xbox) ** 2005 - Ninja Gaiden Black (réédition, Xbox) * 2007 - Ninja Gaiden Sigma (PlayStation 3) * 2008 - (Nintendo DS) * 2008 - Ninja Gaiden II (Xbox 360) * 2009 - Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 (Playstation 3) L'histoire : ...: Ninja Gaiden (attention, spoilers) L'histoire commence par un prologue racontant l'histoire de deux sabres liés par le passé : l'épée du Dragon Noir, dans laquelle est enfermée une puissance démoniaque permettant à celui qui en briserait le sceau de devenir l'égal du Diable... et l'épée du Dragon, taillée, d'après la légende, dans un véritable croc de dragon, et dont hérite les chefs du Clan Hayabusa depuis des milliers d'années... Aujourd'hui, cette épée a été confiée au jeune et puissant ninja Ryu Hayabusa. Chapitre 1 : la voie du ninja. Le jeune ninja Ryu Hayabusa s'entraîne dans la montagne avec l'épée du dragon, arme puissante du clan Hayabusa. Sous son apparence anodine, le village Hayabusa cache nombre de secrets, en particulier l'épée du dragon noir, d'une puissance inimaginable, scellée des siècles auparavant à la suite d'une guerre millénaires entre les Démons et le Clan du Dragon, guerriers légendaires humains (le Clan Hayabusa semble faire partie de ses descendants). Pour parachever son entraînement, Ryu défie en duel Murai, ancien ninja du clan qui a formé le sien propre, le Clan de l'ombre. Alors que le duel s'achève pacifique avec une tasse de thé, la kunoichi Ayane se précipite dans le dojo pour prévenir Murai et Ryu : le village Hayabusa est attaqué. Les flammes montent jusqu'au ciel. Chapitre 2 : le village ninja Hayabusa. Ryu redescend vers la vallée, suit le fleuve jusqu'au village en flammes, au sol jonché de cadavres, tout en terrassant des combattants inconnus. Il parvient enfin à la maison du chef du village, là où le chef des assaillants vient de tuer les derniers résistants, y compris l'amie d'enfance de Ryu. C'est un personnage vêtu d'une armure noire de samouraï mais son masque ne semble abriter qu'une flamme démoniaque. Voyant qu'il s'est emparé de l'épée du Dragon Noir, Ryu tente de le combattre, mais l'autre le vainc avec une facilité déconcertante et le laisse pour mort... Cependant, on peut voir dans la cinématique que les éclairs de la blessure de Ryu, causée par l'épée volée, sont comme court-circuités par l'épée du Dragon... La nuit, un faucon veille sur le corps de Ryu. Chapitre 3 : les cieux de la vengeance. Quelque temps plus tard, on retrouve Ryu, bien vivant, qui a récupéré de ses blessures auprès de Murai et revêt sa tenue noire en cuir. On peut supposer que c'est l'esprit animal et protecteur de Ryu, le faucon, qui l'a ressuscité pour permettre sa vengeance... Murai l'informe que l'étrange samouraï qui a attaqué le village Hayabusa serait en réalité un démon du nom de Doku. Il aurait volé l'épée du Dragon Noir pour la rapporter à la capitale de l'empire Vigoor, peut-être pour la donner à l'empereur... Enfin rétabli et disposant d'une information de départ, Ryu peut partir en quête de vengeance... Il embarque dans un dirigeable qui se rend à la capitale mais est très vite repéré et attaqué par des ninjas ennemis qui semblent aussi poursuivre Doku pour s'emparer de l'épée. Pour s'en dépêtrer, Ryu explore le dirigeable et parvient à son sommet, où un ennemi à moitié mécanisé l'attaque. Lorsque Ryu le tue, l'électricité contenue dans la partie mécanique du monstre met le feu au dirigeable qui tombe lentement vers le sol... Chapitre 4 : l'infiltration de la cité impériale. Alors que le dirigeable embrasé se déchire sous son propre poids, Ryu Hayabusa est sain et sauf au sommet d'un pylône électrique. De pylône en pylône, le ninja rejoint la première ville autour du palais impérial : Tairon, où se trouve notamment l'échoppe du légendaire forgeron Muramasa (très utile, ce vieux malin). A la recherche de renseignements sur Doku, Ryu affronte encore des ninjas du Clan de l'Araignée noire et rencontre dans le bar de Han une jeune femme blonde qui décapite un démon : Rachel. Celle-ci lui apprend que des gens très puissants comme lui ou elle ont une malédiction dans leur sang qui peut les changer en démon. Doku, le grand démon, a fait de la sœur de Rachel, Alma, un démon grâce à cela mais Rachel n'a pas réussi à le tuer. Alors que Rachel s'en va pour chasser d'autres démons, Ryu rencontre l'énigmatique Gamov, un inconnu déjà aperçu pendant le voyage en dirigeable et qui suit de près la progression du jeune ninja... Il disparaît mystérieusement. Chapitre 5 : la cité des démons Chapitre 6 : le monastère Chapitre 7 : le souterrain caché Chapitre 8 : Tairon en alerte Chapitre 9 : la base de ravitaillement militaire Chapitre 10 : l'aqueduc Chapitre 11 : les douves de Zarkhan Chapitre 12 : les cavernes Chapitre 13 : le réveil démoniaque Chapitre 14 : esprit vengeur Chapitre 15 : le cœur Chapitre 16 : l'épée du Dragon Noir Compilation : Commercialisé sur Super Nintendo en 1995, Ninja Gaiden Trilogy, propose les trois épisodes NES dans des versions à la qualité graphique légèrement rehaussée. Palette Ninja Gaiden: portail jeu vidéo:

تفجير جربة 2002 إرهاب في تونس | مجازر | تفجيرات هجوم جربة أو تفجير كنيس غريبة اليهودي كان هجوما إرهابيا من قبل منتمين إلى تنظيم القاعدة علي الكنيس اليهودي في جزيرة جربة. في 11 أبريل 2002 م. تم تحميل شاحنة لنقل الغاز الطبيعي بكمية من المتفجرات وتخطت الحواجز الأمنية في كنيس غريبة الأثري في جزيرة جربة التونسية بولاية مدنين والذي يعود تاريخ انشاؤه الي العام 566 ق.م.(قبل الميلاد). انفجرت الشاحنة أمام الكنيس متسببة في مقتل 14 شخصا منهم 6 سياح ألمان و6 تونسيين وفرنسي واحد وجرح مايزيد عن 30 شخصا. ورغم من أنه قيل في البداية أن الأمر هو مجرد حادث، لكن التحقيقات في تونس وألمانيا وفرنسا بينت أن الهجوم كان ارهابيا متعمدا، حيث كان شخص يدعي نزار نوار (24 سنة) هو الارهابي منفذ الهجوم بمساعدة أقارب له حيث عثر علي تسجيل صوتي فيما بعد " يحمل ألمانيا رسالة ". أدانت معظم دول العالم الهجوم الارهابي. في مارس 2003 م. اعتقل 5 أشخاص في إسبانيا للاعتقاد كونهم مولوا الهجوم، وفي أبريل 2003 اعتقل في باريس ألماني يدعي "كريستيان جانزارسكي" لعلاقته بالتفجير حيث اتهم بأن لديه علاقات قوية مع جماعة القاعدة الارهابية، وقد اعتقل نتيجة عملية استخبارية مشتركة من قبل مركز استخبارات مكافحة الارهاب (CTIC)الموجود في باريس. وبدأت في 5 يناير 2009 محاكمة 3 متهمين في التفجير بينهم كريستيان جانزارسكي وهو ألماني بولندي المولد، وآخر وهو خالد شيخ محمد الباكستاني الأصل والذي يعد من المتهمين الأساسيين في هجمات الحادي عشر من سبتمبر في الولايات المتحدة، حيث يعتقد أنه المدبر الرئيسي للهجوم الانتحاري على المعبد اليهودي في جربة والذي أسفر عن مقتل 21 شخصا بينهم تونسيون وفرنسيون. وستتم محاكم شيخ محمد غيابيا حيث تحتجزه السلطات الأمريكية في خليج غوانتانامو، كما يحاكم متهم آخر وهو وليد نوار شقيق نزار نوار الذي قاد الشاحنة المعبئة بوقود الطعام وقام بتفجيرها في الكنيس الذي دمر، والذي يعود تاريخ بنائه لعدة مئات من السنين. ونفى المتهمون ضلوعهم في الهجوم. هذا وقد جاء في وثائق المحكمة أن كلا خالد شيخ محمد وجانزارسكي "تلقيا اتصالا هاتفيا من المفجر الانتحاري نزار نوار قبل الهجوم مباشرة". * مراجع == ثبت_المراجع:

Ghriba synagogue bombing Terrorism in Tunisia | Jews and Judaism in Tunisia | Terrorist incidents in 2002 | Islam and antisemitism | 2002 in Tunisia | 21st-century attacks on synagogues and Jewish communal organizations | Car and truck bombings | Terrorist attacks on places of worship The Ghriba synagogue bombing was a deadly bombing carried out by Niser bin Muhammad Nasar Nawar in Tunisia on the El Ghriba synagogue. On April 11, 2002, a natural gas truck fitted with explosives drove past security barriers at the ancient Ghriba Synagogue on the Tunisian island of Djerba. The truck detonated at the front of the synagogue, killing 14 German tourists, five Tunisians, and two French nationals. More than 30 others were wounded. Although the attack was initially called an accident, as Tunisia, France, and Germany investigated, it became clear the attack was deliberate. A 24-year-old man named Nizar Nawar was the suicide bomber, who carried out the attack with the aid of a relative. Al Qaeda later claimed responsibility for the attack, which was reportedly organized by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. In March 2003, five people were arrested in Spain who were believed to have financed this attack. In April 2003, a German man named Christian Ganczarski was arrested in Paris in connection with the bombing. He was arrested by a joint intelligence operation, in the frame of Alliance Base, which is located in Paris, and transferred to Fresnes prison in Paris. In February 2009, Ganczarski was sentenced to 18 years in prison for the bombing. A Tunisian who had been living in Canada since 1999, Niser bin Muhammad Nasar Nawar, was alleged to have planned the attack. References: Reflist: War on Terrorism: Africa-hist-stub: Tunisia-stub: Jewish-hist-stub:

Attentat de la Ghriba du 11 avril 2002 en Tunisie Attentat islamiste | Attentat antisémite | Attentat-suicide | Attentat à la bombe | 2002 en Tunisie | Histoire contemporaine de la Tunisie | Histoire des Juifs à Djerba | Djerba L’attentat de la Ghriba est un attentat-suicide, effectué par un kamikaze islamiste et survenu le devant la synagogue de la Ghriba à Djerba (Tunisie). Il a fait . * Déroulement Un camion-citerne de gaz naturel bourré d’explosifs saute à devant la synagogue tuant (quatorze touristes allemands, cinq Tunisiens et deux Français ) et faisant trente blessés. Les autorités tunisiennes présentent d’abord l’explosion comme un accident , mais l’enquête menée par la Tunisie, la France et l’Allemagne montre rapidement qu’il s’agissait d’une attaque délibérée, ce que confirme une bande sonore, attribuée au réseau terroriste Al-Qaida d’Oussama Ben Laden, qui revendique la responsabilité de l’attaque et déclare « envoyer un message à l’Allemagne ». Nizar Naouar, un Franco-Tunisien de mort dans l’explosion du camion-citerne , est identifié comme le kamikaze qui a effectué l’attaque avec l’aide de son oncle Belgacem Naouar. L’enquête montre qu’il avait fait croire à ses proches, une famille originaire de Ben Gardane, qu’il poursuivait des études en tourisme au Canada, entre 1999 et 2001, alors qu’il s’entraînait dans des camps d’Al-Qaida en Afghanistan . Dans son testament découvert dans la cache d’un membre d’Al-Qaida à Karachi, en , il y dit sa haine des Juifs, des Américains et des régimes arabes impies qui empêchent leurs ressortissants de participer au djihad contre Israël: et indique avoir agi seul . * Poursuites Les conséquences judiciaires de cet acte ont des ramifications dans divers pays, notamment en France. * Tunisie Belgacem est arrêté au lendemain de l’attaque et incarcéré dans une prison de Tunis. Il est alors interrogé, notamment par le juge anti-terroriste français Jean-Louis Bruguière, les enquêteurs l’accusant d’avoir aidé Nizar à faire monter une citerne remplie de gaz sur le camion. Il confirme alors que son neveu l’avait informé de ses intentions dès le 9 avril, soit deux jours avant l’attentat. Belgacem, qui encourt la peine de mort, est condamné le par la quatrième chambre criminelle du tribunal de première instance de Tunis à vingt ans de prison ferme pour complicité d’assassinat avec préméditation: , participation à une association de malfaiteurs: et complicité pour détention et fabrication de matières explosives: . Il est préalablement interrogé durant une vingtaine de minutes par le juge Tarak Braham en l’absence de ses avocats qui boycottent le procès après avoir demandé en vain de disposer au préalable du contenu de son interrogatoire par des juges allemands. Il nie alors les charges retenues contre lui et affirme tout ignorer des desseins terroristes de son neveu, reconnaissant seulement l’avoir assisté pour l’achat d’un véhicule qu’il devait utiliser dans un commerce. S’agissant de l’argent et des papiers d’identité de Nizar retrouvés en sa possession, il soutient qu’ils y avaient été placés à son insu par son neveu. France : Paul Sauvage et Mohamed Fatmi, deux ressortissants français figurant parmi les morts , le parquet de Paris ouvre une information judiciaire et fait perquisitionner le 17 avril le logement de la famille Naouar à Vénissieux (département du Rhône) ; trois de ses membres sont mis en examen par le juge Bruguière qui instruit l’information judiciaire. Parmi ceux-ci figure Walid Naouar, le frère cadet du kamikaze, soupçonné d’avoir acheté sous un nom d’emprunt, en date du , un téléphone satellitaire Thuraya — avec lequel son frère aurait contacté Khalid Cheikh Mohammed pour obtenir le feu vert pour commettre l’attentat — et de lui avoir fourni un modem et des faux papiers. Niant ce fait dans un premier temps, Walid avoue finalement après la découverte du téléphone en Tunisie et se voit arrêté le 12 novembre ; il est incarcéré à la prison de Fresnes où il passe son baccalauréat et entame des études d’histoire. Considéré par les enquêteurs comme l’un des personnages centraux du dossier, Christian Ganczarski est un ressortissant allemand d’origine polonaise, converti à l’islam en 1986, qui effectua des séjours au Pakistan et en Afghanistan entre 1999 et 2001. Suspecté d’être un membre important d’Al-Qaida, il est soupçonné d’avoir planifié l’opération puis d’avoir donné sa « bénédiction spirituelle » à Nizar Naouar — qui l’avait rencontré à plusieurs reprises à partir de 2000 — lors d’un coup de fil passé au matin du 11 avril, jour de l’attentat,: . Il est interpellé le à l’aéroport Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle après son expulsion d’Arabie saoudite. Au terme de l’enquête, Ganczarski ainsi que Khalid Cheikh Mohammed sont mis en examen pour complicité d’assassinats en relation avec une entreprise terroriste. Ce dernier fait l’objet d’un mandat d’arrêt international car il est considéré comme le commanditaire et le financier de cette opération ; Naouar l’a d’ailleurs appelé au Pakistan avant de contacter Ganczarski. Le s’ouvre le procès des trois hommes, devant la cour d’assises spéciale de Paris, pour « complicité et tentatives d’assassinat en relation avec une entreprise terroriste » . Cheikh Mohammed ne comparaît pas puisqu’il est détenu sur la base américaine de Guantanamo où il est jugé par un tribunal militaire pour son rôle dans les attentats du 11 septembre 2001 ; la cour décide le 28 janvier de disjoindre son cas et de le traiter séparément . Au terme du procès, le 5 février, Ganczarski est condamné à de prison alors que Naouar est condamné à de prison, peines inférieures aux 30 et de réclusion réclamées par l’accusation . Espagne : En , cinq personnes accusées d’avoir financé cette attaque sont arrêtées en Espagne. Deux d’entre eux, l’homme d’affaires Enrique Cerda et le Pakistanais Ahmed Rukhsar, sont condamnés à cinq ans de prison le . Références : Histoire de la Tunisie:

كثافة الهواء كثافة كثافة الهواء (تعطى الرمز اليوناني رو ρ)، هي الكتلة لكل وحدة حجم من الغلاف الجوي. وهي قيمة هامة ومفيدة في علم الطيران ومجالات أخرى. تقل كثافة الهواء بزيادة الارتفاع فوق سطح البحر (كما يقل أيضا الضغط الجوي. كما أنها تقل مع زيادة الحرارة أو الرطوبة. في منسوب سطح البحر ودرجة حرارة 20 مئوية، للهواء كثافة تعادل 1.2 كجم\م³ تقريبا. تأثير الحرارة والضغط : من الممكن حساب كثافة الهواء الجاف باستخدام قانون الغازات المثالية بوضعه كدالة رياضية في الحرارة والضغط: * \rho \frac{p}{R \cdot T} \, حيث: * ρ: كثافة الهواء. * p: الضغط. * R: ثابت الغازات العام للهواء الجاف. * T: الحرارة. يساوي ثابت الغازات العام للهواء الجاف 287.05 جول / كجم * كلفن بنظام الوحدات الدولي (53.35 قدم * رطل قوة بنظام الوحدات الأمريكي. إذن: * بنظام الاتحاد الدولي للكيمياء البحتة والتطبيقية للحرارة والضغط (0 مئوية و100 كيلو بسكال) للهواء الجاف كثافة مقدارها 1.2754 كجم/م³. * عند درجة حرارة 20 مئوية و 101.325 كيلو بسكال/ للهواء الجاف كثافة مقدارها 1.2041 كجم/م³. * عند درجة حرارة 70 فهرنهايت و14.696 رطل/بوصة²، للهواء الجاف كثافة مقدارها 0.074887 رطل/قدم³. * تأثير بخار الماء إضافة بخار الماء إلى العواء (مما يجعل الهواء رطباً) يقلل من كثافة الهواء على العكس مما قد يبدو منطقيا أنها ستزيد لا تقلل من كثافته. يحدث هذا لأن الكتلة الجزيئية للماء (18) أقل من الكتلة الجزيئية للهواء (حوالي 29). لأي غاز في حرارة وضغط محددين، عدد الجزيئات الموجود ثابت لحجم محدد. ولهذا فإن جزيئات الماء (على هيئة بخار) تدخل في الهواء، يجب أن تختزل جزيئات الهواء بنفس العدد في الحجم المعين بدون زيادة الحرارة أو الضغط، وبالتالي فإن الكتلة لكل وحدة حجم (الكثافة) تقل. من الممكن حساب كثافة الهواء الرطب باعتباره مزيجا من الغازات المثالية. في هذه الحالة، تسمى الكثافة الجزئية لبخار الماء بكثافة البخار. باستخدام هذه الطريقة، يكون الخطأ في حساب الكثافة أقل من 0.2% في مدى -10 إلى 50 درجة مئوية. من الممكن إيجاد كثافة الهواء الرطب بالقانون التالي: * \rho_{_{humidair}} : \frac{p_{d}}{R_{d} \cdot T} + \frac{p_{v}}{R_{v} \cdot T} \, حيث: * \rho_{_{humidair}} : كثافة الهواء الرطب (كجم/م³). * p_{d} : الضغط الجزئي لكثافة الهواء (باسكال). * R_{d} : : ثابت الغازات العام للهواء الجاف، 287.05 جول / كجم * كلفن. * math>T : الحرارة (كلفن). * math>p_{v} : : ضغط بخار الماء (باسكال). * R_{d} : ثابت الغازات العام لبخار الماء 461.495 جول / كجم * كلفن. * أهمية الحرارة تأثير الحرارة: : المصادر == ثبت المراجع: أسبوع الويكي:

Density of air Atmospheric thermodynamics | Density The density of air, ρ (Greek: rho) (air density), is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere, and is a useful value in aeronautics and other sciences. Air density decreases with increasing altitude, as does air pressure. It also changes with variances in temperature or humidity. At sea level and at 15°C according to ISA (International Standard Atmosphere), air has a density of approximately 1.225 kg/m3. Relationships: Temperature and pressure : The density of dry air can be calculated using the ideal gas law, expressed as a function of temperature and pressure: * \rho \frac{p}{R_{\rm specific} \cdot T} where ρ is the air density, p is absolute pressure, Rspecific is the specific gas constant for dry air, and T is absolute temperature. The specific gas constant for dry air is 287.058 J/(kg·K) in SI units, and 53.35 (ft·lbf)/(lbm·R) in United States customary and Imperial units. Therefore: * At IUPAC standard temperature and pressure (0 °C and 100 kPa), dry air has a density of 1.2754 kg/m3. * At 20 °C and 101.325 kPa, dry air has a density of 1.2041 kg/m3. * At 70 °F and 14.696 psi, dry air has a density of 0.074887 lbm/ft3. The following table illustrates the air density - temperature relationship at 1 atm or 101.325 kPa: Temperature_effect: : Water vapor The addition of water vapor to air (making the air humid) reduces the density of the air, which may at first appear contrary to logic. This occurs because the molecular mass of water (18 g/mol) is less than the molecular mass of dry air (around 29 g/mol). For any gas, at a given temperature and pressure, the number of molecules present is constant for a particular volume (see Avogadro's Law). So when water molecules (vapor) are added to a given volume of air, the dry air molecules must decrease by the same number, to keep the pressure or temperature from increasing. Hence the mass per unit volume of the gas (its density) decreases. The density of humid air may be calculated as a mixture of ideal gases. In this case, the partial pressure of water vapor is known as the vapor pressure. Using this method, error in the density calculation is less than 0.2% in the range of −10 °C to 50 °C. The density of humid air is found by: * \rho_{\,\mathrm{humidair}} : \frac{p_{d}}{R_{d} \cdot T} + \frac{p_{v}}{R_{v} \cdot T} \, where: * \rho_{\,\mathrm{humidair}} : Density of the humid air (kg/m³) * p_{d} Partial pressure of dry air (Pa) * R_{d} : Specific gas constant for dry air, 287.058 J/(kg·K) * T Temperature (K) * p_{v} : Pressure of water vapor (Pa) * R_{v} Specific gas constant for water vapor, 461.495 J/(kg·K) The vapor pressure of water may be calculated from the saturation vapor pressure and relative humidity. It is found by: * p_{v} : \phi \cdot p_{\mathrm{sat}} \, Where: * p_{v} Vapor pressure of water * \phi : Relative humidity * p_{\mathrm{sat}} Saturation vapor pressure The saturation vapor pressure of water at any given temperature is the vapor pressure when relative humidity is 100%. A simplification of the regression used to find this, can be formulated as: * p(mb)_{\mathrm{sat}} 6.1078 \cdot 10^{\frac{7.5 \cdot T-2048.625}{T-35.85}} Note: * This will give a result in mbar (millibar), 1 mbar : 0.001 bar 0.1 kPa : 100 Pa * p_{d} is found considering partial pressure, resulting in: * p_{d} p-p_{v} \, Where p simply notes the absolute pressure in the observed system. * Altitude To calculate the density of air as a function of altitude, one requires additional parameters. They are listed below, along with their values according to the International Standard Atmosphere, using the universal gas constant instead of the specific one: * sea level standard atmospheric pressure p0 : 101.325 kPa * sea level standard temperature T0 288.15 K * Earth-surface gravitational acceleration g : 9.80665 m/s2. * temperature lapse rate L 0.0065 K/m * universal gas constant R : 8.31447 J/(mol·K) * molar mass of dry air M 0.0289644 kg/mol Temperature at altitude h meters above sea level is given by the following formula (only valid inside the troposphere): * T : T_0 - L \cdot h \, The pressure at altitude h is given by: * p p_0 \cdot \left(1 - \frac{L \cdot h}{T_0} \right)^\frac{g \cdot M}{R \cdot L} Density can then be calculated according to a molar form of the original formula: * \rho : \frac{p \cdot M}{R \cdot T} \, where M is molar mass, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is absolute temperature.

Masse volumique de l'air Thermodynamique La masse volumique de l'air \rho (rho) décrit quelle masse d'air est contenue dans un mètre cube d'air. Elle se mesure en kilogrammes par mètre cube (kg/m3). Au niveau de la mer, l'air subit une pression importante de la part de la masse d'air au-dessus de lui. L'air n'est pas très dense : 1,2 kg/m3 à comparé à l'eau qui est à 1000kg/m3 à . Variation de la masse volumique avec l'altitude et la température : Au sol, l'air a une plus grande masse volumique, une plus grande pression et, sauf en cas d'inversion météorologique, une température plus élevée. Il devient moins dense quand l'altitude augmente. Si la température était constante quelle que soit l'altitude, la pression et la masse volumique de l'air diminueraient de la même manière avec l'altitude, d'après la formule de nivellement barométrique : * p(h_1) p(h_0) e^{-\frac{\Delta h}{h_s}} \quad\mbox{et}\quad \rho(h_1) : \rho(h_0) e^{-\frac{\Delta h}{h_s}} avec h_s \frac{RT}{Mg}. La température varie toutefois de manière importante suivant l'altitude : voir les différentes formules de nivellement barométrique. La diminution théorique de la pression et de la masse volumique de l'air, qui devraient diminuer de moitié tous les 5000 mètres, n'est pas tout à fait exacte, mais constitue une bonne approximation. * 90% de l'atmosphère est située en dessous de 20 km d'altitude, * 75% de l'atmosphère est située en dessous de 10 km d'altitude, * 50% de l'atmosphère est située en dessous de 5 km d'altitude. * Masse volumique de l'air sec D'après la loi des gaz parfaits, la masse volumique de l'air s'écrit : \rho : \frac{p}{RT} en kg/m3, avec p pression de l'air (Pa), R constante spécifique de l'air (J kg-1 K-1) et T température (K). La constante spécifique de l'air sec vaut : R 287,05 J kg-1 K-1 En fixant la pression atmosphérique à p0 : 101325 Pa 1013,25 mbar : 1013,25 hPa : * Pour T0 273,15 K (Conditions normales de température et de pression) : ρ0 : 1,293 kg/m3. * Pour T25 298,15 K (Conditions standard de température et de pression) : ρ25 : 1,184 kg/m3. * On considère aussi souvent T20 293,15 K , où ρ20 : 1,204 kg/m3. Ceci est généralisé en : \rho1,293\cdot\frac{273}{T}\quad avec T en K * Masse volumique de l'air humide Pour déterminer la valeur exacte de la masse volumique de l'air, il faut prendre en compte l'humidité de l'air, car elle modifie la constante spécifique de l'air R_h. La masse volumique de l'air humide s'écrit : \rho : \frac{p}{R_h T}. La constante spécifique de l'air humide s'écrit : R_h\frac{R_s}{1 - ( \varphi \cdot p_{sat}/p)\cdot (1 - R_s/R_v)}, avec * R_s: 287,06 J kg-1 K-1 est la constante spécifique de l'air sec, * R_v 461 J kg-1 K-1 est la constante spécifique de la vapeur d'eau, * \varphi est l'humidité relative (0,76 correspond à 76 %) * et p est la pression de l'air. p_{sat} est la pression de vapeur saturante de l'eau dans l'air, et se détermine par exemple avec la formule de Magnus : * p_{sat} : 611{,}213 \cdot \exp \left( \frac{17{,}5043 \cdot \vartheta}{241{,}2\,^{\circ}\mathrm{C} + \vartheta} \right) où \vartheta est la température en degrés Celsius. Cette formule est valable pour \vartheta entre et + et donne la pression en pascals. On peut également utiliser la formule : * p_{sat} 611,657 \cdot \exp \left( 17,2799 - \left( \frac{4102,99}{(\vartheta+273,15)-35,719} \right) \right) D'où, au final : {287,06(\vartheta+273,15)}\left( p - 230,617\cdot \varphi \cdot \exp\left[ \frac{17{,}5043 \cdot \vartheta}{241{,}2\,^{\circ}\mathrm{C} + \vartheta}\right] \right) |} |} avec * \varphi humidité relative, * \vartheta température en °C, * p pression en Pa. Des données plus précises peuvent être trouvées sur les tables thermodynamiques. Pour minimiser les erreurs de mesure, il est recommandé d'utiliser un psychromètre à aspiration pour déterminer l'humidité de l'air, et un baromètre à mercure pour déterminer la pression ambiante (la mesure donnée par le baromètre doit être corrigée des écarts dus à la capillarité, à la hauteur du ménisque convexe, à la densité du mercure (qui dépend de la température) et à l'accélération de la pesanteur locale). Tables : Table - Masse volumique de l'air sec en fonction de la température à p0 101325 Pa * Articles connexes : * Air * Hygrométrie Lien externe : *

حرب الاستقلال التركية آثار الحرب العالمية الأولى | حروب تركيا | مصطفى كمال أتاتورك | تاريخ أرمينيا | حروب أرمينيا | حروب فرنسا | حروب اليونان | حروب إيطاليا | حروب المملكة المتحدة | حروب العثمانيين | حرب الاستقلال التركية | بذرة تركيا فرنسا أرمينيا المملكة المتحدة حرب الاستقلال التركية (بالتركية: Kurtuluş Savaşı أو حرب الاستقلال) ؛ 19 مايو 1919 - 29 أكتوبر 1923) هي مقاومة عسكرية و سياسية قادها القوميين الأتراك ضد تقسيم قوات الحلفاء للإمبراطورية العثمانية بعد هزيمتها في الحرب العالمية الأولى. بلغت الحركة الوطنية التركية ذروتها في الاناضول بعد تشكيل الجمعية الوطنية الكبرى التي عبأت الموارد بنجاح تحت قيادة مصطفى كمال. بعد القيام بحملات عسكرية لصد الهجمات اليونانية والأرمينية والفرنسية، أجبر الثوار الأتراك الحلفاء على التخلي عن معاهدة سيفر والتفاوض على معاهدة لوزان في تموز / يوليو 1923، و السماح للأتراك بتشكيل جمهورية تركيا في الأناضول وتراقيا الشرقية في أكتوبر 1923. تأسيس الحركة الوطنية التركية أدت إلى نهاية العهد العثماني. بذرة تركيا: الحرب العالمية الأولى: hu: lv:

Turkish War of Independence Turkish War of Independence | Aftermath of World War I | Wars involving Turkey | History of modern Greece | History of Armenia | Wars involving Armenia | Wars involving France | Wars involving Georgia (country) | Wars involving Greece | Wars involving Italy | Wars involving the Ottoman Empire | Wars involving the United Kingdom | 1919 in Turkey | 1920 in Turkey | 1921 in Turkey | 1922 in Turkey | 1923 in Turkey | 20th-century military history of the United Kingdom dateOctober 2010: Turkish National Movement Kuva-yi Milliye Campaignbox France-Turkish War: Campaignbox Greco-Turkish War: Campaignbox Turkish-Armenian War: The Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: İstiklâl Harbi, literally meaning "War of Independence" or Kurtuluş Savaşı, literally meaning "War of Liberation"; May 19, 1919-July 24, 1923) was a war of independence waged by Turkish nationalists against the Allies, after the country was partitioned by the Allies following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I. The Turkish National Movement (Kuva-yi Milliye) in Anatolia culminated in the formation of a new Grand National Assembly (GNA) by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues. The GNA successfully mobilized its resources. After the end of the Turkish-Armenian, Franco-Turkish, Greco-Turkish wars, the Treaty of Sèvres was abandoned and the Treaty of Lausanne was signed in July 1923. The Allies left Anatolia and Eastern Thrace and then the formation of the Republic of Turkey was declared in October 1923. The establishment of the Turkish National Movement led to the end of the Ottoman millet systemdateJune 2011: and with Atatürk's reforms created a modern, secular nation-state on the political front. * October 30, 1918 – May 1919 Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire: On October 30, 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I, bringing hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. The treaty granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus; and the right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory in case of a threat to security. Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe—the British signatory of the Mudros Armistice—stated the Triple Entente′s public position that they had no intention to dismantle the government of the Ottoman Empire or place it under military occupation by "occupying Istanbul". However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective of the Entente since the start of the war. On November 13, 1918, a French brigade entered the city to begin the Occupation of Constantinople and its immediate dependencies, followed by a fleet consisting of British, French, Italian and Greek ships deploying soldiers on the ground the next day. A wave of seizures took place in the following months by the Allies. On 14 November, joint French-Greek troops occupied the town of Uzunköprü in Eastern Thrace as well as the railway axis till the train station of Hadımköy near Çatalca on the outskirts of Istanbul. On December 1, British troops based in Syria occupied Kilis. Beginning in December, French troops began successive seizures of Ottoman territory, including the towns of Antakya, Mersin, Tarsus, Ceyhan, Adana, Osmaniye and Islahiye. "The first bullet" was fired by Mehmet Çavuş in Dörtyol against the French in December 19, 1918. On January 19, 1919, the Paris Peace Conference opened, a meeting of Allied nations that set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers, including the Ottoman Empire. As a special body of the Paris Conference, "The Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey" was established to pursue the secret treaties they had signed between 1915–17. Among the objectives was a new Hellenic Empire based on the Megali Idea. This was promised by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George to Greece. Italy sought control over the southern part of Anatolia under the Agreement of St.-Jean-de-Maurienne. France expected to exercise control over Hatay, Lebanon and Syria, and also wanted control over a portion of southeastern Anatolia based on the Sykes-Picot Agreement. France signed the French-Armenian Agreement and promised the realization of an Armenian state in the Mediterranean region in exchange to the French Armenian Legion. Meanwhile, Allied countries continued to lay claim to portions of the quickly crumbling Ottoman Empire. British forces based in Syria occupied Maraş, Urfa and Birecik, while French forces embarked by gunboats and sent troops to the Black Sea ports of Zonguldak and Karadeniz Ereğli commanding Turkey's coal mining region. At the Paris Peace Conference, competing claims of Western Anatolia by Greek and Italian delegations led Greek to land the flagship of the Greek Navy at Smyrna, resulting in the Italian delegation walking out of the peace talks. On April 30, Italy responded to the possible idea of Greek incorporation of Western Anatolia by also sending a warship to Smyrna (Izmir) as a show of force against the Greek campaign. A large Italian force also landed in Antalya. With the Italian delegation absent from the Paris Peace talks, Britain was able to sway France and the United States in favour of Greece′s claims and ultimately the Conference authorized the landing of Greek troops on Anatolian territory. The Greek campaign of Western Anatolia began on May 15, 1919, as Greek troops began landing in Smyrna. For the city′s Muslim population, the day is marked by the "first bullet" fired by Hasan Tahsin at the Greek standard bearer at the head of the troops, the murder by bayonet coups of Miralay Fethi Bey for refusing to shout "Zito Venizelos" and the killing and wounding of unarmed Turkish soldiers in the city's principal casern, as well as of 300-400 civilians. Greek troops moved from Smyrna outwards, to towns on the Karaburun peninsula, Söke, situated a hundred kilometers south of Smyrna at a key location that commands the fertile Menderes River valley and Menemen and Torbalı, towards the north and the southeast of Smyrna. Initial organization: Fahrî Yâver-i Hazret-i Şehriyâri ("Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan") Mirliva Mustafa Kemal Pasha was assigned as the inspector of the 9th Army Troops Inspectorate to reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security on April 30, 1919. According to Lord Kinross, through manipulation and the help of friends and sympathizers, Mustafa Kemal Pasha became the Inspector of virtually all of the Ottoman forces in Anatolia, tasked with overseeing the disbanding process of the remaining Ottoman forces. He and his carefully selected staff left Istanbul aboard the old steamer for Samsun on the evening of May 16, 1919. Resistance to Allied demands began at the very onset of the Ottoman Empire′s defeat in World War I. Many Ottoman officials organized secret Sentinel Association (Karakol Cemiyeti: ) in reaction to the policies of the Allies. The objective of the Sentinel Association was to thwart Allied demands through passive and active resistance. Many Ottoman officials participated in efforts to conceal from the occupying authorities details of the burgeoning independence movement spreading throughout Anatolia. Munitions initially seized by the Allies were secretly smuggled out of Istanbul into Central Anatolia, along with Ottoman officers keen to resist any division of Ottoman territories. Mirliva Ali Fuad Pasha in the meantime had moved his XX Corps from Ereğli to Ankara and started organizing resistance groups, including People of the Circassian immigrants under Çerkes Ethem. Since the southern rim of AnatoliadateJuly 2011: was effectively controlled by British warships and competing Greek and Italian troops, the Turkish National Movement′s headquarters moved to the rugged terrain of central Anatolia. In the face of nationalist resistance, the sultan and his government bribeddate: November 2010: major Ottoman pashas like Mustafa Kemal Pasha with important positions in the areas remaining under "direct Ottoman authority" territories defined by the Treaty of Sèvres, areas free of Allied control. The reasons for these new assignments is still a matter of debate; one view is that it was an intentional move to support the national movement, another was that the Sultan wanted to keep Constantinople under his control, a goal which was in total agreement with the aims of the occupation armies which can keep the Sultan in control. The most prominent idea given for the Sultan’s decision was by assigning these officers out of the capital, the Sultan was trying to minimize the effectiveness of these soldiers in the capital. The Sultan was cited as saying that without an organized army, the Allies could not be defeated, and the national movement had two army corps in May 1919dateNovember 2010: , one was the XX Corps based in Ankara under the command of Ali Fuat Pasha and the other was XV Corps based in Erzurum under the command of Kâzım Karabekir Pasha. The inspector Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his colleagues stepped ashore on May 19 and set up his quarters in the Mintika Palace Hotel. Mustafa Kemal Pasha made the people of Samsun aware of the Greek and Italian landings, staged mass meetings (whilst remaining discreet) and made, thanks to the excellent telegraph network, fast connections with the army units in Anatolia and began to form links with various nationalist groups. He sent telegrams of protest to foreign embassies and the War Ministry about British reinforcements in the area and about British aid to Greek brigand gangs. After a week in Samsun, Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his staff moved to Havza, about inland. Mustafa Kemal Pasha writes in his memoirdate: November 2010: that he needed nationwide support. The importance of his position, and his status as the "Hero of Anafartalar" after the Gallipoli Campaign, and his title of Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari ("Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan") gave him some credentials. According to Halil Berktay, not having a hand in the Armenian incidents is also important factor to be selected as leader. On the other hand, this was not enough to inspire everyone. While officially occupied with the disarming of the army, he had increased his various contacts in order to build his movement's momentum. He met with Rauf Bey (Orbay), Ali Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy), and Refet Bey (Bele) on June 21, 1919 and declared the Amasya Circular (22 June 1919). Decoding national movement: On June 23, High Commissioner Admiral Calthorpe, realizing the significance of Mustafa Kemal′s discreet activities in Anatolia, sent a report about Mustafa Kemal to the Foreign Office. His remarks were down played by George Kidson of the Eastern Department. Captain Hurst (British army) in Samsun warned Admiral Calthorpe one more time, but Hurst′s units were replaced with a Brigade of Gurkhas. The movement of British units alarmed the population of the region and convinced the population that Mustafa Kemal was rightdateNovember 2010: . Right after this "The Association for Defense of National Rights" (Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti) was founded in Trabzon, and a parallel association in Samsun was also founded, which declared that the Black Sea region was not safe. The same activities that happened in Smyrna were happening in the region. When the British landed in Alexandretta, Admiral Calthorpe resigned on the basis that this was against the Armistice that he had signed and was assigned to another position on August 5, 1919. The Ottoman War Minister Damat Ferid Pasha ordered Refet Bey (Bele) and Mustafa Kemal Pasha to work on reducing the tensions among the Muslim Black Sea population. Ferit Pasha promised that the British would not take any action against themdate: November 2010: . Mustafa Kemal Pasha said to his close friends "Ferit Pasha does not understand the realities of the region; he should resign for the benefit of the Empire"dateNovember 2010: . On 2 July, Mustafa Kemal Pasha received a telegram from the Sultan. The Sultan asked him to cease his activities in Anatolia and return to the capital. Mustafa Kemal was in Erzincan and did not want to return to Istanbul, concerned that the foreign authorities might have designs for him beyond the Sultan's plans. He felt the best course for him was to take a two month leave of absence. Representative committee established at the Sivas Congress (4-11 September 1919). * Representational problem On October 16, 1919, Ali Riza Pasha sent a navy minister Hulusi Salih Pasha to negotiate with the Turkish National Movement. Hulusi Salih Pasha was not part of World War I. Salih Pasha and Mustafa Kemal met in Amasya. Mustafa Kemal put the representational problems of Ottoman Parliament on the agenda. He wanted to have a signed protocol between Ali Riza Pasha and the "representative committee." On the advice of the British, Ali Riza Pasha rejected any form of recognition or legitimacy claims by this unconstitutional political formation in Anatolia. In December 1919, fresh elections were held for the Ottoman parliament. This was an attempt to build a better representative structure. The Ottoman parliament was seen as a way to reassert the central government′s claims of legitimacy in response to the emerging nationalist movement in Anatolia. In the meantime, groups of Ottoman Greeks had formed Greek nationalist militias within Ottoman borders and were acting on their own. Greek members of the Ottoman parliament repeatedly blocked any progress in the parliament, and most Greek subjects of the Sultan boycotted the new elections. The elections were held and a new parliament of the Ottoman State was formed under the occupation. However, Ali Riza Pasha was too hasty in thinking that his parliament could bring him legitimacy. The house of the parliament was under the shadow of the British battalion stationed at Istanbul. Any decisions by the parliament had to have the signatures of both Ali Riza Pasha and the commanding British Officer. The freedom of the new government was limited. It did not take too long for the members of parliament to recognize that any kind of integrity was not possible in this situation. Ali Riza Pasha and his government had become the voice of the Triple Entente. The only laws that passed were those acceptable to, or specifically ordered by the British. * Last Ottoman Parliament On January 12, 1920, the last Ottoman Chamber of Deputies met in the capital. First the sultan’s speech was presented and then a telegram from Mustafa Kemal, manifesting the claim that the rightful government of Turkeydate: November 2010: being in Ankara in the name of the Representative Committee. A group called Felâh-i Vatan among the Ottoman parliament worked to acknowledge the decisions taken at the Erzurum Congress and the Sivas Congress. The British began to sense that something had been flourishing that they did not want. The Ottoman government was not doing what it could to suppress the nationalists. On January 28, the deputies met secretly. Proposals were made to elect Mustafa Kemal president of the Chamber, but this was deferred in the certain knowledge that the British would prorogue the ChamberdateJanuary 2010: before it could do what has been planned all along, namely accept the declaration of the Sivas Congress. On 28 January, the Ottoman parliament developed the National Pact (Misak-i Milli) and published it on 12 February. This pact adapted six principles; which called for self-determination, the security of Constantinople, and the opening of the Straits, also the abolishment of the capitulations. In effect the Misak-i Milli solidified a lot of nationalist notions, which were in conflict with the Allied plansdate: November 2010: . Shift from de facto to de jure occupation: The National Movement—which persuaded the Ottoman parliament to declare "Misak-i Milli"—prompted the British government to take matters into its own hands. To put an end to this situation, the British decided they needed to systematically bring Turkey under its control. The plan was to dismantle every organization beginning from Istanbul to deep into Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal′s National Movement was the main problem. The British Foreign Office was asked to devise a plan on how to deal with it. The Foreign Office developed the same plan they used during the Arab Revolt, but this time the resources were channeled to warlords like Ahmet Anzavur. The political side of this decision was solidified under the Treaty of Sèvres. Anatolia was to be westernized under Christian governments. That was the only way that Christians could be safe said the British government. The Treaty of Sèvres placed most of Anatolia under Christian control. This policy aimed to break down the authority in Anatolia by separating the Sultan, its government, and putting Christians (Greece and Democratic Republic of Armenia, Armenians of Cilicia) against Muslims. The details of these covert operations is summarized under the title Jurisdictional Conflict. On the night of March 15, British troops began to occupy key buildings and arrest Turkish nationalists. It was a very messy operation. At the military music school there was resistance. At least ten students died but the official death toll is unknown even today. The British tried to capture the leadership of the movement. They secured the departments of the Minister of War and of the Chief of the General Staff, Fevzi Çakmak. Çakmak was an able and relatively conservative officer who was known as one of the army’s oldest field commanders. He soon became one of the principal military leaders of the National Movement. Mustafa Kemal was ready for this move. He warned all the nationalist organizations that there would be misleading declarations from the capital. He warned that the only way to stop the British was to organize protests. He said "Today the Turkish nation is called to defend its capacity for civilization, its right to life and independencendash: its entire future". Mustafa Kemal was extensively familiar with the Arab Revolt and British involvement. He managed to stay one step ahead of the British Foreign Office. This—as well as his other abilities—gave Mustafa Kemal considerable authority among the revolutionaries. On March 18, the Ottoman parliament sent a protest to the Allies. The document stated that it was unacceptable to arrest five of its members. But the damage had been done. It was end of the Ottoman political system. This show of force by the British had left the Sultan as sole controller of the Empire. But the Sultan depended on their power to keep what was left of the empire. He was now a puppet for the Allies. Jurisdictional conflict: The new government—hoping to undermine the National Movement—passed a fatwa (legal opinion) from Şeyhülislam. The fatwa stated that true believers should not go along with the nationalist (rebels) movement. Along with this religious decree, the government sentenced Mustafa Kemal and prominent nationalists to death in absentia. At the same time, the müfti of Ankara Rifat Börekçi in defense of the nationalist movement, issued a counteracting fatwa declaring that the capital was under the control of the Entente and the Ferit Pasha government. In this text, the nationalist movement's goal was stated as freeing the sultan and Caliphate from its enemies. Dissolution of the Ottoman parliament: Mustafa Kemal expected the Allies neither to accept the Harbord report nor to respect his parliamentary immunity if he went to the Ottoman capital, hence he remained in Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal moved the Representative Committee′s capital from Erzurum to Ankara so that he could keep in touch with as many deputies as possible as they traveled to Istanbul to attend the parliament. He also started a newspaper, the Hakimiyet-i Milliye (National Sovereignty), to speak for the movement both in Turkey and the outside world (January 10, 1920). Mustafa Kemal declared that the only legal government of Turkey was the Representative Committee in Ankara and that all civilian and military officials were to obey it rather than the government in Istanbul. This argument gained very strong support, as by that time the fact of the Ottoman Parliament being fully under the Allied control had been established. Declaration of the Grand National Assembly: The strong measures taken against the nationalists by the Ottoman government created a distinct new phase. Mustafa Kemal sent a note to the governors and force commanders, asking them to implement election of delegates to join the GNA, which would convene in Ankara. Mustafa Kemal appealed to the Islamic world asking for help to make sure that everyone knew he was still fighting in the name of the sultan who was also the caliph. He stated he wanted to free the Caliph from the Allies. Plans were made to organize a new government and parliament in Ankara, and then ask the sultan to accept its authority. A flood of supporters moved to Ankara just ahead of the Allied dragnets. Included among them were Halide Edip, Adnan (Adıvar), İsmet (İnönü), Mustafa Kemal’s important allies in the Ministry of War, and the Celaleddin Arif the president of the Chamber of Deputies. Yunus Nadi (Abalıoplu), the owner of Yeni Gün newspaper, journalist-author and deputy of Izmir, Halide Edip (Adıvar) met in Geyve on March 31. Two intellectuals discussed the necessity that a news agency should be established to allied military administration′s censure over the news. They chose Anadolu as the name. Mustafa Kemal, which they meet in Ankara, immediately launched initiatives to herald establishment of Anadolu Agency. Mustafa Kemal wanted to transmit news stories to the world. Mustafa Kemal also stressed the importance of making the national struggle be heard inside and outside of the country. Celaleddin Arif's desertion of the capital was of great significance. Celaleddin Arif stated that the Ottoman Parliament had been dissolved illegally. The Armistice did not give Allies power over dissolving the Ottoman Parliament and the Constitution of 1909 which removed the power from Sultan to prevent what Abdulhamid did in 1879. Some 100 members of the Ottoman Parliament were able to escape the Allied roundup and joined 190 deputies elected around the country by the national resistance group. Ismet Inonü joined as a deputy from Edirne. In March 1920, Turkish revolutionaries announced that the Turkish nation was establishing its own Parliament in Ankara under the name Grand National Assembly (GNA). The GNA assumed full governmental powers. On April 23, the new Assembly gathered for the first time, making Mustafa Kemal its first president and Ismet Inonü chief of the General Staff. The new regime’s determination to revolt against the government in the capital and not the Sultan was quickly made evident. Early pressure on nationalist militias: Revolts (Turkish War of Independence): Anatolia had many forces on its soil: British battalions, Ahmet Aznavur forces, and the Sultan′s army. The Sultan gave 4,000 soldiers from his Kuva-i Inzibatiye (Caliphate Army). Then using money from the Allies, he raised another army, a force about 2,000 strong from non-Muslim inhabitants which were initially deployed in Iznik. The sultan's government sent forces under the name of the caliphate army to the revolutionaries and aroused counterrevolutionary outbreaks. The British being skeptical of how formidable these insurgents were, decided to use irregular power to counteract this rebellion. The nationalist forces were distributed all around Turkey, so many small units were dispatched to face them. In Izmit there were two battalions of the British army. Their commanders were living on the Ottoman warship Yavuz. These units were to be used to rout the partisans under the command of Ali Fuat Cebesoy and Refet Bele. On 13 April, the first conflict occurred at Düzce as a direct consequence of the sheik ul-Islam′s fatwa. On 18 April, the Düzce conflict was extended to Bolu; on 20 April, it extended to Gerede. The movement engulfed an important part of northwestern Anatolia for about a month. The Ottoman government had accorded semi-official status to the "Kuva-i Inzibatiye" and Ahmet Anzavur held an important role in the uprising. Both sides faced each other in a pitched battle near Izmit on June 14. Ahmet Aznavur′s forces and British units outnumbered the militias. Yet under heavy attack some of the Kuva-i Inzibatiye deserted and joined the opposing ranks. This revealed the Sultan did not have the unwavering support of his men. Meanwhile, the rest of these forces withdrew behind the British lines which held their position. The clash outside Izmit brought serious consequences. The British forces opened fire on the nationalists and bombed them from the air. This bombing forced a retreat but there was a panic in Istanbul. The British commander—General George Milne—asked for reinforcements. This led to a study to determine what would be required to defeat the Turkish nationalists. The report—signed by Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch—concluded that 27 divisions would be sufficient, but the British army did not have 27 divisions to spare. Also, a deployment of this size could have disastrous political consequences back home. World War I had just ended, and the British public would not support another lengthy and costly expedition. The British accepted the fact that a nationalist movement could not be faced without deployment of consistent and well-trained forces. On June 25, the forces originating from Kuva-i Inzibatiye were dismantled under British supervision. The official stance was that there was no use for them. The British realized that the best option to overcome these Turkish nationalists was to use a force that was battle-tested and fierce enough to fight the Turks on their own soil. The British had to look no further than Turkey′s neighbor: Greece. Establishment of the army: Before the Amasya Circular (22 June 1919), Mustafa Kemal met with a Bolshevik delegation headed by Colonel Semyon BudyonnydateNovember 2010: . The Bolsheviks wanted to annex the parts of the Caucasus, including Democratic Republic of Armenia, which were formerly part of Czarist Russia. They also saw a Turkish Republic as a buffer state or possibly a communist ally. Mustafa Kemal′s official response was "Such questions had to be postponed until Turkish independence was achieved." Having this support was important for the national movement. The first objective was the securing of arms from abroad. They obtained these primarily from the Soviet Union and from Italy and France. These arms—especially the Soviet weapons—allowed the Turks to organize an effective army. The Treaties of Moscow and Kars (1921) arranged the border between Turkey and Russia (itself in a state of civil war at the time) and in particular ceded Nakhchivan and Batumi to Russia. In return the nationalists received support and gold. For the promised resources, the nationalists had to wait until the Battle of Sakarya (August–September, 1921). On August 4, 1920, Ankara′s representative in Moscow—Riza Nur—sent a telegram saying that soon 60 Krupp artillery pieces, 30,000 shells, 700,000 grenades, 10,000 mines, 60,000 Romanian swords, 1.5 million captured Ottoman rifles, 1 million Russian rifles, 1 million Austro-Hungarian Mannlicher rifles, as well as some Martini-Henry rifles and 25,000 bayonets would be in the possession of the Turkish nationalists. Conflicts: East: Democratic Republic of Armenia: The border of the Republic of Armenia (ADR) and Ottoman Empire was defined in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918) after the Bolshevik revolution, and later by the Treaty of Batum (June 4, 1918) with the ADR. It was obvious that after the Armistice of Mudros (October 30, 1918) the eastern border was not going to stay as it was drawn. There were talks going on with the Armenian Diaspora and Triple Entente on reshaping the border. The Fourteen Points was seen as an incentive to ADR, if Armenians could prove that they were the majority of the population and that they had military control over the eastern regions. The Armenian movements on the borders were being used as an argument to redraw the border between Ottoman Empire and ADR. Woodrow Wilson agreed to transfer the territories back to the ADR as given the ideas that they are dominantly controlled by Armenians. The results of these talks were to be reflected on the Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920). There was also a movement of Armenians from southeast with the French support. The French-Armenian Agreement granted the Armenian claims to Cilicia with establishment of French Armenian Legion. The general idea at that time was to integrate ADR to the French supported southeast Armenian movement. This way ADR could gain much sought resources to balance the Bolshevik expansionist movements. One of the most important fights had taken place on this border. The very early onset of national army was the proof of this, even though there was a pressing Greek danger on the west. The stage of the east campaign developed through Kâzim Karabekir's two reports (May 30 and June 4, 1920) outlining the situation in the region. He was detailing the activities of the Armenian Republic and advising on how to shape the sources at the eastern borders, especially in Erzurum. Russian government sent a message to settle not only the Democratic Republic of Armenia but also Iranian border through diplomacy under Russian control. The Soviet support was absolutely vital for the Turkish nationalist movement, as Turkey was underdeveloped and had no domestic armaments industry. Bakir Sami Bey was assigned for the talks. Bolsheviks demanded that Van and Bitlis be transferred to Armenia. This was unacceptable to the Turkish revolutionaries. The revolutionaries were also faced with another dilemma: their hesitation to move forces to prevent the Armenian raids was causing a growing unsettlement among the Turks. The Greek threat and diplomatic connections needed to be balanced. Eastern active stage: Turkish-Armenian War: Before more diplomatic exchanges took place, to show a sign of power on the discussion table, Armenia moved its forces to Oltu, leading to the battle of Oltu. The battle of Oltu ended the discussions with Russian government, and in a couple of days the Treaty of Sèvres was signed by the Ottoman Empire. This was followed by occupation of Artvin by Georgian forces on 25 July. Eastern resolution: The Treaty of Alexandropol (December 2, 1920) was the first treaty signed by the Turkish revolutionaries. It nullified the Armenian activities on the east border which was reflected on the Treaty of Sèvres as succession of regions named as Wilsonian Armenia. The 10th item in the Treaty of Alexandropol stated that Armenia renounced the Treaty of Sèvres, which stipulated the Wilsonian Armenia. After the peace agreement with the Turkish nationalists, in late November, a Soviet-backed Communist uprising took place in Armenia. On November 28, 1920, the 11th Red Army under the command of Anatoliy Hekker crossed over into Armenia from Soviet Azerbaijan. The second Soviet-Armenian war lasted only a week. After their defeat by the Turkish revolutionaries the Armenians were no longer a threat to the Nationalist cause. It is also possible to claim that had the ADR been content with the boundaries as of 1919, she could have shown more resistance to the Bolshevik conquest, both internally and externally, but could not. On March 16, 1921, the Bolsheviks and Turkey signed a more comprehensive agreement, the Treaty of Kars, which involved representatives of Soviet Armenia, Soviet Azerbaijan, and Soviet Georgia. The arms left by the defeated ADR forces were sent to the west for use against the Greeks. West: The war arose because the western Allies—particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George—had promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire if Greece entered the war on the Allied side. These included parts of its ancestral homeland, Eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros (Gökçeada), Tenedos (Bozcaada), and parts of Western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna (Izmir). Greece wanted to incorporate Istanbul to achieve the Megali Idea, but Entente powers did not give permission. It was decided by the Triple Entente that Greece would control a zone around Smyrna (Izmir) and Ayvalik in western Asia Minor. The reason for these landings were prior Italian landings on the southern coast of Turkey, including in the city of Antalya. The Allies worried about further Italian expansion and saw Greek landings as a way to avoid this. On May 28, Greeks landed on Ayvalik. It was no surprise that this small town was chosen as this town was the Greek-speaking stronghold before the Balkan Wars. The Balkan Wars changed the nature of this region. The Muslim inhabitants who were forced out with the extending borders of Greece, mainly from Crete, settled in this area. Under an old Ottoman Lieutenant Colonel Ali Çetinkaya, these people formed a unit. Along Ali Çetinkaya′s units, population in the region gathered around Resit, Tevfik and Çerkes Ethem. These units were very determined to fight against Greece as there was no other place that they could be pushed back. Resit, Tevfik and Ethem were of Circassian origin who were expelled from their ancestral lands in the Caucasus by the Russians and Armenians. They were settled around the Aegean coast. Greek troops first met with these irregulars. Mustafa Kemal asked Admiral Rauf Orbay if he could help in coordinating the units under Ali Çetinkaya, Resit, Tevfik and Çerkez Ethem. Rauf Orbay—also of Circassian origin—managed to link these groups. He asked them to cut the Greek logistic support lines. The Allied decision to allow a Greek landing in Smyrna resulted from earlier Italian landings at Antalya. Faced with Italian annexation of parts of Asia Minor with a significant ethnic Greek population, Venizelos secured Allied permission for Greek troops to land in Smyrna, ostensibly in order to protect the civilian population from turmoil. Turks claim that Venizelos wanted to create a homogeneous Greek settlement to be able to annex it to Greece, and his public statements left little doubt about Greek intentions: "Greece is not making war against Islam, but against the anachronistic Ottoman Government, and its corrupt, ignominious, and bloody administration, with a view to the expelling it from those territories where the majority of the population consists of Greeks." Western active stage: Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922): As soon as Greek forces landed in Smyrna, a Turkish nationalist opened fire prompting brutal reprisals. Greek forces used this as a base for launching attacks deeper into Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal refused to accept even a temporary Greek presence in Smyrna. Greek forces committed numerous atrocities in their attempts to control the region, and frequently targeted defenseless civilians and religious symbols. Eventually, the Turkish nationalists defeated the Greeks and pushed them out of Smyrna and the rest of Anatolia. Western resolution: With the borders secured with treaties and agreements at east and south, Mustafa Kemal was now in a commanding position. The Nationals were then able to insist that unconditionally, the Greeks evacuate east Thrace, Imbros and Tenedos as well as Asia Minor, and the Meriç River to be set as the border at Thrace at its pre-1914 position. France, Italy and Britain called Mustafa Kemal to Venice for cease-fire negotiations. In return, Mustafa Kemal demanded negotiations be started at Mudanya. Negotiations at Mudanya began on October 3, and it was concluded with the Armistice of Mudanya. South: Franco-Turkish War: The French wanted to settle in Syria. With a pressure against French, Cilicia would be easily left to the nationalists. The Taurus Mountains were critical for the Ankara government. The French soldiers were foreign to the region and they were using Armenian militia to acquire their intelligence. Turkish nationals had been in cooperation with Arab tribes in this area. If compared to the Greek threat, they were the second most dangerous for the Ankara government. He proposed that if the Greek threat could be disseminated, the French would not resist. The resistance of the national forces was a big surprise to FrancedateNovember 2010: . They blamed the British forces which did not curb the resistance power of the local sources. The strategic goal of opening a front at the south by moving Armenians against the Turkish National forces was a failure after the defeat of the Greek-British forces on the west. The French Armenian Legion joined with local Armenians in the region was defeated by the Turkish National forces. Most of the Armenians in this region had to migrate alongside the retreating French army. Even though most of the fight was organized alongside the Armenian sources, the loss of French soldiers generated much disapproval in France, which tried to mend the results of the continental wars. France asked for 1,500,000 gold coins from the Turkish National Government (Mustafa Kemal) for their loss, which was denieddate: November 2010: . Conference of London: Conference of London: In salvaging the Treaty of Sèvres, The Triple Entente forced the Turkish Revolutionaries to agree with the terms through a series of conferences in London. The Conference of London, with sharp differences, failed in both the first stage and the second stages. The modified Sèvres of the conference as a peace settlement was incompatible with the National Pact. The conference of London gave the Triple Entente an opportunity to reverse some of their policies. In October, parties of the conference received a report from Admiral Mark Lambert Bristol. He organized commission to analyze the situation, inquire into the bloodshed during the Occupation of Izmir and the following activities in the region. The commission reported that if annexation would not follow, Greece should not be the only occupation force in this area. Admiral Bristol was not so sure how to explain this annexation to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson as he insisted on "respect for nationalities" in the Fourteen Points. He believed that the sentiments of the Turks "will never accept this annexation". Neither the Conference of London nor Admiral Mark Lambert Bristol′s report changed British Prime Minister David Lloyd George′s position. On February 12, 1921, he went with the annexation of the Aegean coast which was followed by the Greek offensive. David Lloyd George acted with his sentiments that were developed during Battle of Gallipoli, opposed to General Milne who was his officer on the ground. Stage for peace: The first communication between the sides were during the failed Conference of London. The stage for peace effectively began after the Triple Entente′s recognition to make an arrangement with the Turkish revolutionaries. Before the talks with Entente, the nationalists partially settled their eastern borders with Democratic Republic of Armenia signing Treaty of Alexandropol, but changes in the Caucasus especially establishment of the Armenian SSR required one more round of talks. The outcome was the Treaty of Kars, a successor treaty to the earlier Treaty of Moscow of March 1921. It was signed in Kars with the Russian SFSR on October 13, 1921 and ratified in Yerevan on September 11, 1922. Armistice of Mudanya: Armistice of Mudanya: The Marmara sea resort town of Mudanya hosted the conference to arrange the armistice on October 3, 1922. İsmet (İnönü)—commander of the western armies—was in front of the Allies. The scene was unlike Mondros as the British and the Greeks were on the defense. Greece was represented by the Allies. The British still expected the GNA to make concessions. From the first speech, the British were startled as Ankara demanded fulfillment of the National Pact. During the conference, the British troops in Istanbul were preparing for a Kemalist attack. There was never any fighting in Thrace, as Greek units withdrew before the Turks crossed the straits from Asia Minor. The only concession that Ismet made to the British was an agreement that his troops would not advance any farther toward the Dardanelles, which gave a safe haven for the British troops as long as the conference continued. The conference dragged on far beyond the original expectations. In the end, it was the British who yielded to Ankara's advances. The Armistice of Mudanya was signed on October 11. By its terms, the Greek army would move west of the Maritsa, clearing Eastern Thrace to the Allies. The famous American author Ernest Hemingway was in Thrace at the time, and he covered the evacuation of Eastern Thrace of its Greek population. He has several short stories written about Thrace and Smyrna, which appear in his book In Our Time. The agreement came into force starting October 15. Allied forces would stay in Eastern Thrace for a month to assure law and order. In return, Ankara would recognize continued British occupation of Istanbul and the Straits zones until the final treaty was signed. Refet Bele was assigned to seize the control of Eastern Thrace from the Allies. He was the first representative to reach the old capital. The British did not allow the hundred gendarmes who came with him. That resistance lasted till the next day. Abolition of the Sultanate: The form of the government in Istanbul—resting on the sovereignty of the Sultan—had already ceased to exist when the British forces occupied the city after World War I. The law for the abolition of the Sultanate was submitted to the GNA for voting. Furthermore, it was argued that although the Caliphate had belonged to the Ottoman Empire, it rested on the Turkish state by its dissolution and the GNA would have right to choose a member of the Ottoman family in the office of Caliph. On 1 November, the GNA voted for the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate. The last Sultan left Turkey on 17 November 1922, in a British battleship on his way to Malta. This was the last act in the end of the Ottoman Empire. Conference of Lausanne: Conference of Lausanne: The 11-week Conference of Lausanne was held in Lausanne, Switzerland, during 1922 and 1923. Its purpose was the negotiation of a treaty to replace the Treaty of Sèvres, which, under the new government of Grand Nasional Assembly, was no longer recognised by Turkey. The conference opened in November 1922, with representatives from the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Turkey. It heard speeches from Benito Mussolini of Italy and Raymond Poincaré of France. At the conclusion, Turkey assented to the political clauses and the "freedom of the straits", which was Britain's main concern. The matter of the status of Mosul was deferred, since Curzon refused to be budged on the British position that the area was part of Iraq. The French delegation, however, did not achieve any of their goals and on 30 January 1923 issued a statement that they did not consider the draft treaty to be any more than a "basis of discussion". The Turks therefore refused to sign the treaty. On 4 February 1923, Curzon made a final appeal to Ismet Pasha to sign, and when he refused the Foreign Secretary broke off negotiations and left that night on the Orient Express. Treaty of Lausanne: Treaty of Lausanne: The Treaty of Lausanne led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the defunct Ottoman Empire. Establishment of the Republic: The Republic was proclaimed on October 29, 1923, in the new capital of Ankara. Mustafa Kemal was elected as the first President. In forming his government, he placed Mustafa Fevzi (Çakmak), Köprülü Kâzım (Özalp) and İsmet (İnönü) in important positions. They helped him to establish the Atatürk's Reforms.

Guerre d'indépendance turque Guerre du XXe siècle | Guerre d'indépendance turque | Histoire de la Turquie | Histoire militaire de l'Italie | Entre-deux-guerres | 1919 en Turquie Turquie: La Guerre d’indépendance turque (en turc : Kurtuluş Savaşı) est un conflit qui se déroula en Turquie du au , date de la signature de l'armistice, et qui oppose la résistance nationaliste turque menée par Mustafa Kemal aux puissances alliées victorieuses de l'empire ottoman à la suite de la Première Guerre mondiale. Avec les guerres franco-turque, arméno-turque et gréco-turque, les armées kémalistes parviennent à forcer les Alliés à renoncer aux clauses du traité de Sèvres et à négocier le traité de Lausanne en juillet 1923. La guerre d'Indépendance aura pour conséquence de provoquer la chute du sultanat turc et du système monarchique ancestral, lequel sera remplacé aussitôt par la République turque actuelle. Ce changement radical de régime sera l'amorce d'un processus révolutionnaire qui se poursuivra dans les années qui suivent sous la houlette du kémalisme. Historique : À l'issue de la première guerre mondiale, l'Empire ottoman qui est considéré comme étant l'un des empires centraux, se retrouve dans le camp des pays vaincus, et subit le même sort que ses alliés : l'Empire d'Allemagne, l'Empire d'Autriche-Hongrie et le Royaume de Bulgarie. Le , le traité de Sèvres, signé entre les alliés et les mandataires du sultan Mehmed VI, scelle le sort de l'empire turc, dont une grande partie du territoire devient : soit indépendant, soit placé sous l'influence et l'occupation des puissances victorieuses. Ainsi, les régions arabophones du Proche orient s'émancipent et sont placées pour certains d'entre elles, sous mandat de la Société des Nations qui les confie à la France (Liban et Syrie) et au Royaume-Uni (Irak et Palestine). Les vilayets de Van, Bitlis, Trébizonde et Erzurum doivent être intégrés à la République indépendante d'Arménie, la détermination de la frontière étant soumise à l'arbitrage du président américain (articles 88 à 94 du traité). Un « territoire autonome des Kurdes » englobant le sud-est de l'Anatolie est également constitué (articles 62 à 64 du traité), placé sous zone d'influence française pour la partie occidentale et britannique pour la partie orientale. De plus, d'autres zones d'influence sont également octroyées : * aux français : la Cilicie, jusqu'au nord, bien au-delà de Sivas ; * aux italiens : la ville d'Adana et toute la région avoisinante, ainsi que le Dodécanèse et une zone d'influence allant de Bursa à Kayseri, en passant par Afyonkarahisar. * aux grecs : la ville de Smyrne et l'ouest de l'Anatolie, la Thrace orientale (qui comprend Andrinople et Gallipoli) jusqu'à la Maritza et les îles. Enfin, Istanbul, les côtes de la mer de Marmara et les Dardanelles sont démilitarisées. Les détroits sont placés sous le contrôle d'une commission internationale. Le nouvel Empire ottoman n'est plus qu'un petit territoire de kilomètres carrés (en comparaison avec son immensité avant la guerre), composé en majeure partie de terres inexploitables, privé de possibilité de développement à cause d'un système de « garanties » qui viennent s'y superposer. Les finances du pays doivent être administrées par des commissions étrangères. Toutes les ressources du pays doivent être affectées par priorité aux frais d'occupation et au remboursement des indemnités dues aux Alliés. Des commissions sont aussi créées afin de dissoudre intégralement l'armée pour la remplacer par une force de gendarmerie. Par ailleurs, la police, le système fiscal, les douanes, les eaux et forêts, les écoles privées et publiques doivent être soumis au contrôle permanent des Alliés. Mehmed VI sent bien que son autorité s'effrite, face à la popularité grandissante de ce jeune officier idéaliste qu'est Mustafa Kemal, catégoriquement opposé au traité et qui souhaite l'abolition du régime monarchique. Le Sultan met donc la tête de ce dernier à prix, tout en n'hésitant pas à signer un accord secret plaçant l'Empire ottoman tout entier sous mandat britannique et stipulant que le sultan, met la puissance morale et spirituelle du Califat au service du Royaume-Uni dans tous les pays musulmans où s'exerce son influence.: . Pendant ce temps, les nouveaux députés élus lors d'un scrutin organisé par Kemal se réunissent à Ankara et le , un nouveau pas vers la création de la république turque est accompli avec la fondation de la Grande assemblée nationale de Turquie (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi). Le 29 avril 1920, un Comité exécutif est élu. Ce comité déclare que le nouveau parlement est le gouvernement légal et provisoire du pays. Celui-ci refuse catégoriquement alors les clauses du traité de Sèvres. Armée du Calife: Le sultan, relayé par les Hodja et les prêtres, exhorte alors les Turcs à prendre les armes contre les nationalistes de Kemal, présentés comme les ennemis de Dieu. L'inévitable guerre civile éclate dans toute sa brutalité. À Konya, les insurgés arrachent les ongles et écartèlent les envoyés de Kemal. En représailles, les notables de la ville sont pendus publiquement par les forces kemalistes. Les nationalistes essuient plusieurs défaites, et l'armée du Sultan se rapproche d'Ankara, siège du nouveau parlement. Des désertions ont lieu chez les troupes les plus fidèles à Mustafa Kemal. Ce dernier se voit contraint de se replier. Références :

عارض فيديو سينما | تجهيزات ووسائل لبيئات التعلم جهاز إسقاط فيديو أو بيمر Video projector: هو جهاز يعرض شرائط الفيديو أو أقراصها المدمـّجة من نوع دي في دي عن طريق إلقاء ضوئها على شاشة عرض مستخدما مجموعة من العدسات . وتستخدم جميع أجهزة إسقاط فيديو مصادرا ضوئية شديدة وتستطيع الأجهزة الحديثة منها تصحيح درجة الميل على الشاشة لتفادي انحناء الصور أوانبعاجها . ويستخدم عارض الفيديو كثيرا في المؤسسات للمحاضرة وفي المنتديات ، كما تستخدم في المدارس وفي البيوت . بذرة سينما:

Video projector Digital technology | Video hardware | Projectors | Office equipment | Television terminology A video projector is an image projector that receives a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a projection screen using a lens system. All video projectors use a very bright light to project the image, and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and other inconsistencies through manual settings. Video projectors are widely used for many applications such as, conference room presentations, classroom training, home theatre and concerts. Projectors are widely used in many schools and other educational settings, sometimes connected to an interactive whiteboard to interactively teach pupils. Overview : A video projector, also known as a digital projector, may project onto a traditional reflective projection screen, or it may be built into a cabinet with a translucent rear-projection screen to form a single unified display device. Common display resolutions for a portable projector include SVGA (800×600 pixels), XGA (1024×768 pixels), 720p (1280×720 pixels), and 1080p (1920×1080 pixels). The cost of a device is determined not only by its resolution but also by its light output. A projector with a higher light output (measured in lumens, “lm”) is required for a larger screen or for a room with a larger amount of ambient light. For example, a light output of approximately 1500 to 2500 ANSI lumens is suitable for small screens viewed in rooms with low ambient light; approximately 2500 to 4000 lm is suitable for medium-sized screens with some ambient light; over 4000 lm is needed for very large screens or for use in rooms with no lighting control such as conference rooms. A few camcorders have a built-in projector suitable to make a small projection; a few more powerful "pico projectors" are pocket-sized, and many projectors are portable. Projection technologies : * CRT projector using cathode ray tubes. This typically involves a blue, a green, and a red tube. This is the oldest system still in regular use, but falling out of favor largely because of the bulky cabinet. However, it does provide the largest screen size for a given cost. This also covers three tube home models, which, while bulky, can be moved (but then usually require complex picture adjustments to get the three images to line up correctly). * LCD projector using LCD light gates. This is the simplest system, making it one of the most common and affordable for home theaters and business use. Its most common problem is a visible “screen door” or pixelation effect, although recent advances have reduced the severity of this effect. * DLP projector using Texas Instruments’ DLP technology. This uses one, two, or three microfabricated light valves called digital micromirror devices (DMDs). The single- and double-DMD versions use rotating color wheels in time with the mirror refreshes to modulate color. The most common problem with the single- or two-DMD varieties is a visible “rainbow” which some people perceive when moving their eyes. More recent projectors with higher speed (2x or 4x) and otherwise optimised color wheels have lessened this artifact. Systems with 3 DMDs never have this problem, as they display each primary color simultaneously. * LCoS projector using Liquid crystal on silicon. ** D-ILA JVC’s Direct-drive Image Light Amplifier based on LCoS technology. ** SXRD Sony’s proprietary variant of LCoS technology. * LED projectors use one of the above mentioned technologies for image creation, with a difference that they use an array of Light Emitting Diodes as the light source, negating the need for lamp replacement. * Hybrid LED and Laser diode system developed by Casio. Uses a combination of Light Emitting Diodes and 445 nm laser diodes as the light source, while image is processed with DLP (DMD) chip. * Laser diode projectors have been developed by Microvision and Aaxa Technologies. Microvision laser projectors use Microvision's patented laser beam-steering technology, whereas Aaxa Technologies uses laser diodes + LCoS. Obsolete technologies : * Eidophor oil-film projectors * LIA (Light Image Amplifier) light valves * Schmidt-CRT, developed by Kloss Video * Talaria oil-film projectors Do-it-yourself video projectors : With a growing do-it-yourself (DIY) community and an increasing interest in low cost devices, some hobbyists have endeavored to build their own projectors from kits, sourced components, or from scratch. Through the internet, the community is now able to obtain plans to construct DIY-video projectors. There is a growing trend toward building them for domestic requirements and classroom use. The DIY-projectors are now being used both in developed countries and in developing countries in the interest of providing education as well as for entertainment purposes.

Vidéoprojecteur Matériel audio-vidéo | Périphérique de sortie | Appareil de projection dateseptembre 2009: Un vidéoprojecteur est un appareil de projection conçu pour reproduire une source vidéo dite vidéogramme ou informatique, sur un écran séparé ou sur une surface murale blanche. On associe parfois le terme vidéoprojection avec la notion « frontale » pour le distinguer de la rétroprojection. Ainsi, le rétroprojecteur est un dispositif d’affichage vidéo ou un téléviseur de grande taille qui exploite un vidéoprojecteur, une optique et un écran semi-opaque. * Caractéristiques * Le contraste Exprimé sous la forme d’un quotient « valeur en lux : 1 », soit la valeur en lux d’un signal blanc à 100 % moins valeur en lux d’un signal blanc à 0 %, le tout divisé par la valeur en lux d’un signal blanc à 0 % (un signal blanc à 0 % correspond à du noir). Le taux de contraste est une des caractéristiques essentielles à prendre en compte dans le choix d’un vidéoprojecteur. Plus le taux de contraste est élevé, plus la qualité de l’image est optimale. Dans le choix d’un projecteur , bien plus que la luminosité, c’est le taux de contraste qui assure la qualité de l’image. Un taux de contraste élevé permettra d’obtenir plus de détails dans les nuances et a priori des noirs plus profonds. Cela donne du relief à l’image et accentue ainsi la sensation de trois dimensions. En , un bon de taux de contraste doit se situer entre :1 et :1 en vidéo (à ). * La luminosité Exprimée en lumen : La puissance lumineuse s’exprime généralement en lumens ANSI, unité de mesure normée par l’. Elle va dépendre du type d’utilisation. Plus la taille de l’image souhaitée est grande et la luminosité ambiante importante, plus le projecteur doit être lumineux. * Utilisation Professionnelle Tout dépend du type d’utilisation et en particulier du type de salle. Pour des présentations dans de petites salles de réunion, un projecteur avec suffira largement. En revanche, dans des grandes salles de conférences très éclairées, avec des écrans de grande taille, le projecteur doit être nettement plus lumineux pour projeter une image claire et lisible (au moins ). * Utilisation Dans le cadre d’une utilisation , la taille de l’écran est généralement comprise entre 1,5 et de base. Comme dans un vrai cinéma, la qualité d’image est la meilleure lorsque l’obscurité est la plus complète possible. Pour obtenir une image d’excellente qualité, le projecteur doit afficher une luminosité comprise entre 600 et . * La définition Exprimée en pixels : Que ce soit en LCD ou DLP, chaque matrice est constituée de pixels, éléments de base de l’image. La définition de l’image va dépendre du nombre de pixels : plus ils sont nombreux plus la précision de l’image est censée être élevée. Il convient néanmoins de choisir la définition de son projecteur en fonction de son besoin d’utilisation. Et les besoins sont très différents selon qu’on projette essentiellement de l’image informatique (présentations type Powerpoint, tableurs, etc.: ) ou de la vidéo . * Image informatique (utilisation professionnelle) Le critère majeur de choix est la définition qu’affiche l’ordinateur qu’on connecte au projecteur. Avec les PC portables notamment, il est plus confortable de disposer sur le projecteur de la même définition que sur l’écran interne. Principales définitions (normes VESA) : * SVGA : 800 × 600 * XGA : × 768 * WXGA : × * SXGA : × * WUXGA : × * QXGA : × * Image vidéo (utilisation ) Le besoin de définition dépend de celle de la source ainsi que de son rapport largeur / hauteur. Définitions des principaux standards vidéos analogiques convertis en numériques : * PAL/SECAM en 4/3 : 768 × 576 * PAL/SECAM en 16/9 et 576i : × 576 * NTSC en 4/3 : 720 × 480 * NTSC en 16/9 et 480p : 848 × 480 Donc, globalement, si on se contente de regarder essentiellement de l’image télé classique en 4/3, un projecteur 4/3 de définition SVGA (800 × 600: ) suffira amplement, une définition plus élevée n’amenant pas un gain de qualité d’image significatif. Si on regarde beaucoup de 16/9, une définition XGA ( × 768}}) sera plus conseillée, surtout en PAL, ou alors un projecteur de matrice spécifique 16/9, dont l’offre s’élargit de plus en plus dans diverses définitions (848 × 480: , 960 × 540: , × 576}}). Si on dispose d’une source TV HD, un projecteur équipé d’une matrice haute définition s’impose. Comme pour l’image data, les signaux TV HD sont des signaux graphiques de très haute définition et toujours de format 16/9, d’une qualité très supérieure au PAL, SECAM et NTSC, avec lesquels ils n’ont rien de commun. Définitions des deux principaux standards TVHD (USA et Japon) : * 720p : × 720 * i : × (entrelacée) * p : × * Le niveau sonore Exprimé en décibels pondérés (dBA) : Le niveau sonore est dû au bruit généré par le ventilateur chargé de refroidir la lampe de l’appareil. Sur la plupart des documentations des constructeurs, le niveau sonore est sous-estimé ou mesuré à l’opposé du ventilateur. Il est donc fortement conseillé d’essayer l’appareil dans les conditions voulues (et non dans un magasin). Il faut retenir qu’une augmentation de double l’intensité sonore. Pour un usage domestique (dans un salon par exemple), une valeur de est parfaite, avec comme maximum. * Applications * Les vidéoprojecteurs LCD Cette technique dérivée des écrans à cristaux liquides (qu’on retrouve dans les montres, les jeux, les écrans, etc.: ) date du début des années 1990 et n’a cessé d’évoluer. La lumière d’une lampe spéciale à vapeur de métal (ou lampe métal halide) traverse ou se reflète sur trois panneaux LCD correspondant chacun aux trois couleurs fondamentales : rouge, vert, bleu. Les trois images sont ensuite recomposées pour n’en faire plus qu’une, laquelle est alors projetée sur l’écran via un objectif. On distingue trois technologies : Le « mono LCD », première technologie accessible pour le grand public (1994), dans laquelle un faisceau lumineux traverse un panneau à cristaux liquides équipé de filtres de couleurs ; sa résolution est divisé par 3 car il faut rouge-vert-bleu du panneau pour afficher à l’écran, cette technique bon marché est abandonnée depuis la fin des années 1990 en raison de ses faibles performances aux profits des « Tri LCD », où la lumière de la lampe est décomposée vers trois miroirs dichroïques rouge-vert-bleu puis renvoyée au travers de trois panneaux à cristaux liquides monochromes, alignés avec précision leurs images se recomposent dans un assemblage de prismes avant de traverser l’objectif. Mono et Tri LCD sont des appareils dit « transmissif », la lumière doit traverser le panneau, par conséquent les circuits de commande sont logés entre les pixels ce qui génère une grille opaque visible à l’écran, résolution et luminosité sont donc limitées ; pour contourner le problème certains constructeurs incorporent au panneau des micro-lentilles qui concentrent la lumière sur chacun des pixels ; d’autres ont fait le choix de la technologie du « Tri LCD réflectif ». Basé sur une architecture proche des classiques tri-lcd, les panneaux LCD réflectifs ou LCOS ont l’aspect de petits miroirs où les circuits de commande de chaque pixel ne se trouvent plus à côté mais derrière chacun d’eux, la grille bien que présente pour isoler chaque pixel reste invisible à l’écran. Résolution et luminosité peuvent être poussées à l’extrême et deviennent applicables pour les salles de cinéma. Leur noms technologiques diffèrent suivant les constructeurs : LCOS, nom générique (utilisé par EPSON), DILA (JVC), SXRD (SONY). Les avantages du tri LCD sont la définition, le prix, la luminosité, l’absence de réglages complexes (convergences calées en usine), l’absence de scintillement et de lignage. Les inconvénients sont le contraste souvent faible (typiquement de 400:1 à :1), parfois compensé par un mécanisme qui réduit la lumière de la lampe automatiquement suivant les images et appelé IRIS, le rendu des teintes sombres, les pertes de lumière sur les appareils trop compacts, la rémanence (taux de rafraîchissement faible), la colorimétrie, la pixelisation. Un quadrillage (l’espace interpixels crée un effet de grille noir) visible de près (sauf sur les LCD réflectifs). Les cristaux liquides ne parviennent pas à bloquer complètement la lumière de la lampe (toujours allumée) sur les parties sombres de l’image, d’où des noirs grisés. Mais ce sont aussi les vidéoprojecteurs les plus répandus. Les LCOS ont l’avantage de corriger tous ces défauts : contraste de :1 a :1, résolution en 2K (HDTV), 4K , 8K (expérimental), niveau du noir très bas, puissance lumineuse très élevée pour les machines professionnelles ; taux de rafraîchissement élevé, couleurs réalistes. Ils ont l’inconvénient d’un tarif élevé. * Les vidéoprojecteurs DLP/DMD Matrice de micro-miroirs: Ils reposent sur la technologie DLP développée par Texas Instruments, où chaque pixel correspond à un micro-miroir actionné par un champ électrique : la partie active peut être intégrée dans une puce DMD . Chacun de ces miroirs renvoie ou non la lumière de la lampe vers l’écran. Le rapport cyclique de cet état donne la luminosité de chaque pixel variable de 0 à 100 %. En outre, un filtre tricolore RVB en rotation, situé entre la matrice DLP et la lampe, permet de projeter successivement les trois composantes de l’image finale. Les avantages sont le contraste, l’absence de rémanence, la luminosité, l’absence de pixelisation, le rendu des teintes foncées, les réglages. Les inconvénients sont la perte lumineuse et la fatigue oculaire dues au disque coloré, et la perception par certaines personnes de petits « flashes » d’arc-en-ciel pendant la projection. C’est le « ». La technologie Tri DLP qui consiste à utiliser trois puces (une pour chaque couleur primaire) permet de supprimer ces problèmes. Les autres inconvénients sont les prix plus élevés que les LCD, la qualité d’image perfectible en référence aux tritubes (sauf tri-DLP × }}), le bruit et la chaleur du système de refroidissement, la durée de vie de la lampe. * Les vidéoprojecteurs Tritubes (CRT) Popularisés par la société Barco, ces appareils se composent de trois tubes cathodiques de petite taille (typiquement 5,5″, 6,5″, 7″, 8″ et 9″) à haute résolution et haut rendement, un tube pour chaque couleur primaire (rouge, vert, bleu). Chacun de ces tubes, au format 4/3, possède son propre objectif et l’image finale est obtenue par superposition des trois images primaires (synthèse additive) que l’on doit faire converger et déformer (correction de trapèze, de ballon) en raison de la position différente de chacun des tubes. Ils ont pour avantages d’être dénués de structures visibles à l’écran (contrairement à la grille des écrans CRT ou des LCD) hormis la structure de l’image même (lignes visibles si elles sont en faible nombre). Les couleurs sont très fidèles si l’appareil est bien réglé et le taux de contraste mesuré sur le tube oscille entre :1 et :1 suivant les modèles (mesure qui chute en fonction de la clarté de la salle). Les plus petites tailles (7″ comme le SD130 ou SD187 et 07ms) d’où leur utilisation sur des machines de petites tailles comme les Barco série 7xx ou 6xx ainsi que sur les rétroprojecteurs de la série rd708 avec des images dune définition pour sur certaines machines à focus électromagnétique pouvant dépasser les 1280×1024 (nec 9pgxtra). Les 8″ sont compatibles et . Tous les 8″ et 9″ sont compatibles avec les fréquences TV, HDTV et (dans la limite de leurs circuits électroniques) et peuvent se voir adjoindre un multiplicateur de ligne ( en anglais voire quadrupleur) pour améliorer les sources vidéo de faible définition (Pal, Secam, NTSC). Plus les tubes sont de grande taille, plus ils sont lumineux et définis. 7″ (}}), 8″ focus électrostatique ( × }}, 1989-1996), 8″ focus électromagnétique ( × }} Barco, 1996-2002) ( × }} Barco, 2002-2007) ( × }} Sony, 1996-2002), 9″ focus électromagnétique ( × }} Sony, 1994-1998) ( × }} Barco-Sony-Electrohome, 1998-2007). Les modèles les plus sophistiqués donnent des images d’un naturel comparable à la pellicule de cinéma. Les inconvénients majeurs de cette technique, qui est la plus ancienne, sont dans son rapport poids/encombrement/luminosité très faible ainsi que dans la complexité des réglages de convergences électroniques et mécaniques pour superposer au mieux ces trois images, réglages qui se compliquent avec l’augmentation de la résolution, entraînant inévitablement un surcoût devenu tel que les constructeurs ont décidé d’abandonner cette technologie. On peut citer également une luminosité non uniforme (réglable sur les 9″ et certains 8″), le contraste qui ne peut s’apprécier que dans une salle noire à cause de la faible luminosité des machines (ce qui limite aussi la taille de l’écran à 2- de base), le scintillement des lignes pour les sources en vidéo entrelacée ou les images en faible cadence (moins de ), un recul important nécessaire avec les sources de qualités moyennes, le marquage du phosphore avec des images fixes intenses au bout de quelques dizaines d’heures. Le prix du neuf en 2002 : le petit Barco 508, 7″ compatible TV, coûtait ; le gros Barco 909, 9″ compatible TV-HDTV-DATA coûtait Les principaux constructeurs : Barco, Electrohome, Mitsubishi, Nec, Panasonic, Seleco (Sim2), Sony. Les fournisseurs de tubes : Matsushita, Toshiba, Sony (VDC en rebuild), Thomson Les vidéoprojecteurs Laser (DLP) : La technique la plus ancienne est celle du balayage à deux axes X-Y d’un faisceau laser sur un ou deux miroirs montés sur galvanomètre, similaire à la méthode de balayage d’un tube cathodique, elle présente l’inconvénient d’offrir une faible définition (moins de ) due à la lenteur des galvanomètres d’où une utilisation limitée aux spectacles et dans les discothèques avec des images très géométriques en « fils de fer ». Mais c’est aussi celle retenue pour des applications nomades (picoprojecteur) comme l’intégration dans des PDA ou des téléphones portables de systèmes de projections monochromes ou couleurs ultra miniaturisés grâce aux technologies MEM. La miniaturisation des éléments permet une grande vitesse de balayage rendant possible l’affichage de signaux HDTV. La société Arasor en fait la démonstration sur un prototype de rétroprojecteur en 2007. Les vidéoprojecteurs LCOS : LCOS pour , est une évolution des vidéoprojecteurs LCD . Le principe est d’utiliser une surface réfléchissante en silicium recouverte d’une couche de cristaux liquides, permettant de réfléchir ou de bloquer les rayons lumineux comme le font déjà les systèmes concurrent DLP. Les avantages sont la qualité d’image plus précise et contrastée, les couleurs souvent mieux rendues. L’inconvénient est le prix plus élevé. Les vidéoprojecteurs LED : Les vidéoprojecteurs LED utilisent une des technologies citées ci-dessus avec comme différence principale d'utiliser une matrice de LED comme source lumineuse. Les principaux avantages sont la durée de vie (10x plus qu'une lampe au mercure) et la chaleur à dissiper par ventilation qui est moindre par rapport à une lampe classique. L'inconvénient de cette technologie est la luminosité qui reste faible *

خشب العزيزي أخشاب | صنوبريات | نجارة تاريخيوليو_2011: تاريخ: يوليو_2011: الخشب العزيزى الخشب العزيزى من فئة الاخشاب الصنوبرية زيه زى الخشب الموسكى والبلوط إلا أن سعره أعلى من الخشب الموسكى بكتير وذلك لما لتشكيلاته من روعه وانه خالى من العقد كالتي يتميز بها الخشب الموسكى ولونه يميل إلى الأبيض أو نقدر نقول انه أبيض مصفر شوية وبعض من أنواعه يميل لونها إلى اللون البيج كما سنرى في الصور وما يميزه أيضا في قشرته ان قشرته إذا وضعت اما م الضوء فإنها تنير إناره ذاتيه قد لا يلاحظها الكثيرين الا انى لاحظتها بنفسى حيث كنت امسك بقشرة وبالصدفة وضعتها اما شباك يدخل منه ضوء الشمس فإذا هي تنير ذاتيا وسبحان الله ويستخدم الخشب العزيزى في صناعة الأبواب والشبابيك غرف السونا حيث انه مقاوم جيد للعوامل الجوية من برد وحر ومطر غير مصنفة: بذرة: تاريخ=يوليو_2011:

Pitch Pine Pinus | Trees of the Eastern United States | Trees of Canada | Flora of Massachusetts | Trees of North Carolina | Trees of humid continental climate | Plants used in bonsai | Ornamental trees | Least concern flora of the United States | Trees of Ontario The Pitch Pine, Pinus rigida, is a small-to-medium sized (6-30 meters or 20-100 feet) pine, native to eastern North America. This species occasionally hybridizes with other pine species such as Loblolly Pine (P. taeda), Shortleaf Pine (P. echinata), and Pond Pine (P. serotina); the last is treated as a subspecies of Pitch Pine by some botanists. The Pitch Pine is found mainly in the northeastern United States, from Maine and Ohio to Kentucky and northern Georgia. A few stands occur in southern Quebec and Ontario. This pine occupies a variety of habitats from dry, acidic sandy uplands to swampy lowlands, and can survive in very poor conditions; it is the primary tree of the New Jersey Pine Barrens. The needles are in fascicles of three, about six-13 cm in length, and are stout (over one mm broad) and often slightly twisted. The cones are four-seven cm long and oval with prickles on the scales. The species is unusual in often having shoots (called epicormic sprouts) that can grow directly from the trunk. This is an adaptation to fire, enabling trees to re-sprout after fire has killed the crown; the thick bark protects the trunk from damage unless the fire is very severe. Burnt trees often form stunted, twisted trees with multiple trunks as a result of the resprouting. This characteristic also makes it a popular species for bonsai. The Pitch Pine is not a major timber tree, due to the frequency of multiple or crooked trunks; nor is it as fast-growing as other eastern American pines. However, it grows well on unfavourable sites. In the past, it was a major source of pitch and timber for ship building, mine timbers, and railroad ties because the wood's high resin content preserves it from decay. Pitch Pine wood was also used for building radio towers in Germany as at Muehlacker and at Ismaning. Nowadays the Pitch Pine is used mainly for rough construction, pulp, crating, and fuel. However, due to its uneven growth, quantities of high quality can be very sought after, and large lengths of pitch pine can be very costly. * References== reflist: * Pinus rigida:

Pin rigide Flore (nom vernaculaire) | Pinus | Arbre des États-Unis | Arbre du Canada | Arbre de climat continental humide végétal : LC : Pinus_rigida: Taxobox fin: conifère: Le pin rigide (Pinus rigida) est un arbre appartenant au genre Pinus et à la famille des Pinacées. On le trouve au nord-est des États-Unis, en Ontario et au Québec. Terme commercial : wiktionary = pitchpin: L'arbre appelé en anglais pitch pine est issu d'une seule espèce (Pinus rigida Mill.) et ne doit pas être confondu avec le terme générique désignant le bois de pitchpin provenant de diverses espèces de pins durs et lourds et très résinifères. Les "pitchpins" forment au moins deux groupes distincts. Le groupe des véritables "pitchpins", c'est-à-dire les pitchpins historiques (ceux qui sont entrés dans la composition des villas balnéaires et urbaines du début du XXe siècle: ) étaient originaires du Sud-est des États-Unis et appartenaient principalement à 4 espèces : * Pinus palustris : « Longleaf pine » ; * Pinus elliottii : « Slash pine » ; * Pinus taeda : « Loblolly pine » * Pinus echinata : « Shortleaf pine ». Ils sont aujourd'hui commercialisés en mélange avec 7 autres espèces sous l'appellation de Southern Yellow Pine (SYP). Ce regroupement d'espèces concerne pour l'essentiel des arbres qui croissent dans les états du sud-est et centre-sud-est des USA et a été étendu au Pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.)qui représente seulement du volume de bois vendu sous cette appellation en raison de sa répartition géographique plus au Nord mais aussi de ses qualités technologiques en retrait par rapport aux espèces citées ci-dessus. Dans le Nord-est, le Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) est vendu parfois en mélange avec du Red pine (Pinus resinosa). L'autre groupe des "Pitchpins" concerne le bois de pins subtropicaux originaires de la Floride, de l'Amérique centrale, des Caraïbes dont l'espèce "phare" est Pinus caribaea : le Pin Caraïbes. Cet arbre naturalisé sur d'autres continents présente des qualités de bois très différentes selon les provenances. Au XXe siècle: , ce bois a la réputation d'être imputrescible, c'est pourquoi il entre dans la composition des villas balnéaires, notamment au Bois de la Chaize à Noirmoutier. Boiseries, lambris, coffres de cheminées et même mobilier en pitchpin ornent les chalets des estivants. Les propriétaires retrouvent pendant les mois d'été leurs intérieurs en bon état après le dur passage de l'hiver.

غزل البنات سكاكر غزل البنات ويسمى أيضاً لحية بابا، وفي بعض الدول العربية يسمى شعر بنات أو حلوة الصّوف ، وهو عبارة عن حلوى تصنع من خليط من الماء والسكر بتركيز عالي وباستخدم الطرد المركزي تتجمع خيوط من السكر على أطراف وعاء خاص, لتجمع فيما بعد مكونة ما يشبه القطن ومن هنا جائت التسمية الاجنبية Cotton Candy أي الحلوى القطنية. يسمى غزل البنات في بعض البلدان العربية مثل الكويت وسوريا والعراق (بشعر البنات), وكان ولايزال يباع بين البيوت في الشوارع والأزقة الشعبية من قبل بعض كبار السن حيث تجمع المادة القطنية للسكر المنفوش على عيدان رفيعة ويثبت هذه العيدان المحملة بقطن السكر المنفوش على حامل خشبي يدور فيها باحثا عن الصبية لشرائها, كان ذلك منذ أوائل القرن الماضي (قرن العشرين), الآن لم يعد اولئك الباعة على تجميع غزل البنات على العيدان الصغيرة بل أخذو يعبؤن مادة غزل البنات في أكياس نايلون صغيرة وبذلك يتحول غزل البنات المنفوش إلى مادة سكرية مكبوسة بدل أن تكون منفوشة. لكنه مضرٌّ بالصحة لتواجد نسبة عالية من السكر.

Cotton candy Confectionery | Amorphous solids | American inventions | 1897 introductions dateFebruary 2008: Cotton candy (US, Canada), candy floss or candyfloss (UK, Ireland, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa), or fairy floss (Australia) is a form of spun sugar. Since cotton candy is mostly air, a small initial quantity of sugar generates a tremendously greater final volume, causing servings to be physically large and voluminous. A typical serving on a stick is approximately one ounce/30 grams and contains roughly 115 dietary calories. It is sometimes sold in bags containing several servings (see accompanying photos). Cotton candy is often served at fairgrounds or circuses. Food coloring is used to change the natural white color. A similar confectionery is the Persian Pashmak, and the Turkish Pişmaniye, although the latter is made with flour in addition to sugar. * History Cotton candy was first recorded around the 1900s. At that time, spun sugar was an expensive, labor-intensive endeavor and was not generally available to the average person. Machine-spun cotton candy was invented in 1897 by the dentist William Morrison and confectioner John C. Wharton and first introduced to a wide audience at the 1904 World's Fair as "Fairy Floss" with great success, selling 68,655 boxes at the then-high price of 25¢, half the cost of admission to the fair. Fairy floss was renamed to "cotton candy" in the 1920s. In the 1970s an automatic cotton candy machine was created which made the product and packaged it. This made it easier to produce and available to sell at carnivals, fairs, and stores in the 1910's. Tootsie Roll of Canada Ltd., the world's largest cotton-candy manufacturer, makes a bagged, fruit-flavored version called Fluffy Stuff. The United States celebrates National Cotton Candy Day on December 7. * Production Typical machines used to make cotton candy include a spinning head enclosing a small "sugar reserve" bowl into which a charge of granulated, colored sugar (or separate sugar and food coloring) is poured. Heaters near the rim of the head melt the sugar, which is squeezed out through tiny holes by centrifugal force. Precolored sugar packaged specially for the process is milled with melting characteristics and a crystal size optimized for the head and heated holes; granulated sugar used in baking contains fine crystals which spin out unmelted, while rock sugar crystals are too large to properly contact the heater, slowing the production of floss. The molten sugar solidifies in the air and is caught in a larger bowl which totally surrounds the spinning head. Left to operate for a period, the cottonlike product builds up on the inside walls of the larger bowl, at which point the machine operator twirls a stick, cone, or their hands around the rim of the large catching bowl, gathering the sugar strands into portions which are served on stick or cone, or in plastic bags. As the sugar reserve bowl empties, the operator recharges it with more feedstock. The product is sensitive to humidity, and in humid summer locales, the process can be messy and sticky. Modern innovations in Cotton Candy equipment include vending machines which automatically produce single-servings of the product, developed in the United Kingdom and in Taiwan, and lighted or glowing sticks. Machines: In 1972 the first automated machine was used for the production of cotton candy. Since then the creations and innovations of this machine have become greater and greater. They range in sizes from counter-top accessible to party and carnival size. In today’s world we can find machines that do so much at once, instead of its traditional use of having one flavor at a time. Today’s machines that are made for commercial use can hold up to 3 pounds of sugar and have compartments for storage of extra flavors. The rotating bowl at the top spins at 3,450 revolutions per minute. That is what creates the threadlike candy from the sugar that is melted. Texture: Sticky and sweet, it dissolves quickly in the mouth (due to its amorphous nature) although it feels like wool to the touch. It does not have much of an aroma although the machine itself has a cooked sugar smell when in operation. When it comes in contact with moisture, it becomes sticky and damp. Because the sugar is hygroscopic, and has a very large surface area, it will become coarser, harder and generally less "flossy" once exposed to the atmosphere. Gallery: Cotton candy making References: reflist: * The complete Confectioners, pastry, Cook And Baker by M. Sanderson (Lippincott: Philadelphia) * Cotton Candy Express, . Cotton Candy Express. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Sep 2011. * Fri, Linda. Cotton Candy. N.p., 11 Aug 2010. Web. 14 Sep 2011.

Barbe à papa Confiserie | Friandise Barbe à papa (homonymie): La barbe à papa est un produit de confiserie confectionné avec du sucre, le plus souvent coloré (en rose par exemple); Ce sucre est transformé en filaments que l'on enroule autour d'un bâtonnet, jusqu'à former une sorte de boule dont l'aspect fait penser à du coton. Histoire : L'histoire de la barbe à papa débute en 1897, lorsque William Morrison et John C. Wharton, confiseurs de Nashville au Tennessee, inventent une machine pour réaliser une sorte de filage de sucre cristallisé qui, enroulée autour d’un bâton, forme la barbe à papa. Ils présentent leur Fairy Floss à l'Exposition universelle de 1904 de Saint-Louis et remporteront ainsi un succès monstre. Malgré un prix de 25 cents l'unité, somme importante pour l'époque (c'était la moitié du prix d'admission à la foire), ils en vendront 68 655. (C’est d'ailleurs à la même foire qu'a été présenté le premier cornet de crème glacée au monde.) Dans les pays anglophones, la barbe à papa est connue sous des noms différents : candy floss (Angleterre), cotton candy (États-Unis), fairy floss (Australie). Réalisation : Les machines modernes travaillent presque de la même façon que l'originale. La partie au centre de la machine consiste en une sorte de cône qui tourne sur lui-même dans lequel on verse du sucre et du colorant alimentaire. Des résistances électriques installées à la périphérie du cône font fondre le sucre. Grâce à la force centrifuge, le sucre s'échappe par de nombreux trous minuscules où il se solidifie au contact de l'air en formant des filaments et est attrapé dans un grand chaudron de métal. L'opérateur tourne alors un bâtonnet ou un cône dans ce chaudron pour prendre la confiserie qui s’enroule autour. Parce que la barbe à papa est constituée de filaments très aérés, les portions sont grandes. Un cône de barbe à papa est un peu plus grand que la tête d'un adulte. Plus la vitesse de rotation est importante plus les filaments sont fins. Aujourd'hui, il est possible de trouver dans le commerce des machines à barbe à papa pour le particulier. Popularité : Beaucoup de personnes considèrent la barbe à papa indissociable d'une visite à un champ de foire, au cirque ou à une fête foraine. Elle est aujourd'hui vendue en pots type pop-corn dans les clubs vidéo et dans les grandes surfaces. Son prix au kilo est extrêmement élevé, en raison de sa faible densitéRéférence nécessaire: . La couleur la plus courante de barbe à papa est le rose, mais on en trouve également en blanc, bleu, vert ou jaune selon le colorant utilisé. Le simple fait de manger de la barbe à papa représente une attraction, et fascine aussi bien les enfants que les adultes. C'est doux et gluant et quoiqu’elle ressemble à de la laine au toucher, elle devient croustillante au contact de la salive et fond presque instantanément dans la bouche. La barbe à papa n'a pas beaucoup d'arôme, sinon celui de sucre, bien que la machine elle-même dégage un goût de sucre cuisiné. Le sucre : Bien que la matière première, le sucre, soit considérée comme mauvaise pour les dents et la santé, comme le sont toutes les friandises sucrées, la barbe à papa n’est pas très calorique parce qu'elle contient une assez petite quantité de sucre. Une barbe à papa classique contient moins de sucre que la plupart des boissons soda en canette . De plus, elle est une confiserie réservée à de rares occasions telle une fête foraine ou une visite au parc d'attraction. Le sucre n'a pas le temps de se cristalliser du fait que la machine à barbes à papa a un système de liquéfaction intégré et ce depuis sa création. Annexes : Notes et références : Références: gastronomie:

زيزفون سوري خلافية الزيزفون السوري أو الزيتون الروسي أو الزيتونية Elaeagnus angustifolia: نوع من الشجيرات أو الأشجار من الفصيلة الخلافية. يعرف في بلاد الشام بالزيزفون، و هذا خطأ شائع لأنه يختلف جذرياً عن الزيزفون. الوصف النباتي : يكون ارتفاع الشجرة من 5-8 أمتار. أوراقها موبّرة رمحية متطاولة طولها من 2 إلى 6 سم سطحها العلوي فضي و السفلي رمادي، و هذا اللون من أهم ما يميز الشجرة. النورات صغيرة متجمعة في إبط الأوراق لها رائحة زكية جداً يفوح عبيرها في نيسان على مسافةٍ بعيدةٍ جداً. الثمرة فضية تشبه ثمرة الزيتون. ينتمي الزيزفون السوري إلى الفصيلة الخلافية. بذرة نبات:

Elaeagnus angustifolia Elaeagnaceae | Flora of Armenia | Invasive plant species | Invasive plant species in Oregon Elaeagnus angustifolia, commonly called silver berry, oleaster, Russian olive, or wild olive, is a species of Elaeagnus, native to western and central Asia, from southern Russia and Kazakhstan to Turkey and Iran. It is now also widely established in North America as an introduced species. Elaeagnus angustifolia is a usually thorny shrub or small tree growing to 5–7 m in height. Its stems, buds, and leaves have a dense covering of silvery to rusty scales. The leaves are alternate, lanceolate, 4–9 cm long and 1-2.5 cm broad, with a smooth margin. The highly aromatic flowers, produced in clusters of 1-3, are 1 cm long with a four-lobed creamy yellow corolla; they appear in early summer and are followed by clusters of fruit, a small cherry-like drupe 1-1.7 cm long, orange-red covered in silvery scales. The fruits are edible and sweet, though with a dryish, mealy texture. Its common name comes from its similarity in appearance to the olive (Olea europaea), in a different botanical family, Oleaceae. The shrub can fix nitrogen in its roots, enabling it to grow on bare mineral substrates. The dried powder of the fruits are used mixed with milk in Iran for rheumatoid arthritis and joint pains. It is also one of the seven items which are used in Haft Sin or the seven 'S's which is a traditional table setting of Nowruz, the traditional Persian spring celebration. Cultivation and invasiveness: Elaeagnus angustifolia was described as Zizyphus cappadocica by John Gerard, was certainly grown by John Parkinson by 1633, and was being grown in Germany in 1736. It is now widely grown across southern and central Europe as a drought-resistant ornamental plant for its scented flowers, edible fruit, attractive silver foliage, and black bark. The species was introduced into North America in the late 19th century, and subsequently escaped cultivation, because its fruits, which seldom ripen in England, are relished by birds which disperse the seeds. Russian-olive is considered to be an invasive species in many places in the United States because it thrives on poor soil, has low seedling mortality rates, matures in a few years, and outcompetes wild native vegetation. It often invades riparian habitats where overstory cottonwoods have died. Propagation: Establishment and reproduction of Elaeagnus angustifolia is primarily by seed, although some spread by vegetative propagation also occurs. The fruit is readily eaten and disseminated by many species of birds. The plants begin to flower and fruit from three years old.

Elaeagnus angustifolia Flore (nom vernaculaire) | Elaeagnaceae | Arbre | Bonsaï | Espèce invasive en Belgique végétal : E. angustifolia: Elaeagnus angustifolia: Taxobox fin: Elaeagnus angustifolia (Olivier de Bohême) est une espèce d'arbuste de la famille des Élaéagnacées, largement répandu en Asie centrale et de l'ouest, au sud de la Russie, au Kazakhstan, en Turquie et en Iran. Description: C'est un arbuste qui atteint 5 à 7 mètres de haut. Ses tiges, ses bourgeons et ses feuilles ont une couleur pouvant aller de l'argentée au rouge-rouilles. Les feuilles mesurent de 4 à 9 cm de long et de 1 à 2,5 cm de large et arborent une surface lisse. Les fleurs, très aromatiques sont produites par les grappes de 1 à 3 bourgeons. Elles mesurent 1 cm de long avec quatre lobes et une corolle jaune crème; elles apparaissent en début d'été et sont ensuite remplacées par des grappes de fruits de la forme d'une petite cerise de 1 à 1,7 cm de long, de couleur orange-rouge, couvertes de squames argentées. Le fruit est comestible et sucré, mais avec une texture farineuse. Son nom commun vient de sa ressemblance avec l'olivier, mais ces derniers sont des arbres d'une famille distincte (Oleaceae). L'arbuste fixe l'azote dans les nodosités de ses racines , ce qui lui permet de grandir sur des supports minéraux nus. Culture: D'abord cultivé en Allemagne en 1736, l'arbuste est maintenant largement cultivé en Europe méridionale et centrale en tant que plante ornementale : pour ses fleurs parfumées, ses fruits comestibles, son feuillage argenté attrayant et son écorce noire. Il a été introduit en Amérique du Nord à la fin du , et il y est considéré comme une espèce invasive (il a un faible taux de mortalité des semis, ce qui induit l'éviction de la végétation indigène américaine). Références: reflist:

دائرة النقاط التسعة دوائر | هندسة مثلثية في الهندسة الرياضية، يطلق اسم دائرة النقاط التسعة على الدائرة التي تنشأ من أجل مثلث ما وتمر من تسع نقاط مميزة، يقع ست منها على المثلث ذاته (ما لم يكن المثلث منفرج) وهذه النقاط هي (ثلاث نقاط من كل نوع): * نقطة منتصف كل ضلع من أضلاع المثلث * نقطة التقاء الارتفاع بالضلع المقام عليه * نقطة منتصف القطعة المستقيمة الواقعة على الارتفاع الواصلة بين رأس المثلث ونقطة التقاء ارتفاعات المثلث. انظر أيضاً : * مبرهنة ليستر بذرة هندسة رياضية: بوابة رياضيات:

Nine-point circle Circles | Triangle geometry In geometry, the nine-point circle is a circle that can be constructed for any given triangle. It is so named because it passes through nine significant points defined from the triangle. These nine points are: * The midpoint of each side of the triangle * The foot of each altitude * The midpoint of the line segment from each vertex of the triangle to the orthocenter (where the three altitudes meet; these line segments lie on their respective altitudes). The nine-point circle is also known as Feuerbach's circle, Euler's circle, Terquem's circle, the six-points circle, the twelve-points circle, the n-point circle, the medioscribed circle, the mid circle or the circum-midcircle. Significant points : The diagram above shows the nine significant points of the nine-point circle. Points D, E, and F are the midpoints of the three sides of the triangle. Points G, H, and I are the feet of the altitudes of the triangle. Points J, K, and L are the midpoints of the line segments between each altitude's vertex intersection (points A, B, and C) and the triangle's orthocenter (point S). For an acute triangle, six of the points (the midpoints and altitude feet) lie on the triangle itself; for an obtuse triangle two of the altitudes have feet outside the triangle, but these feet still belong to the nine-point circle. Discovery: Although he is credited for its discovery, Karl Wilhelm Feuerbach did not entirely discover the nine-point circle, but rather the six point circle, recognizing the significance of the midpoints of the three sides of the triangle and the feet of the altitudes of that triangle. (See Fig. 1, points D, E, F, G, H, and I.) (At a slightly earlier date, Charles Brianchon and Jean-Victor Poncelet had stated and proven the same theorem.) But soon after Feuerbach, mathematician Olry Terquem himself proved the existence of the circle. He was the first to recognize the added significance of the three midpoints between the triangle's vertices and the orthocenter. (See Fig. 1, points J, K, and L.) Thus, Terquem was the first to use the name nine-point circle. Tangent circles: In 1822 Karl Feuerbach discovered that any triangle's nine-point circle is externally tangent to that triangle's three excircles and internally tangent to its incircle; this result is known as Feuerbach's theorem. He postulated that: * ... the circle which passes through the feet of the altitudes of a triangle is tangent to all four circles which in turn are tangent to the three sides of the triangle... The point at which the incircle and the nine-point circle touch is often referred to as the Feuerbach point. Other interesting facts: * The radius of a triangle's circumcircle is twice the radius of that triangle's nine-point circle. Figure 3 * A nine-point circle bisects a line segment going from the corresponding triangle's orthocenter to any point on its circumcircle. Figure 4 * The center of any nine-point circle (the nine-point center) lies on the corresponding triangle's Euler line, at the midpoint between that triangle's orthocenter and circumcenter. * The nine-point center lies at the centroid of four points comprising the triangle's three vertices and its orthocenter. * Of the nine points, the three midpoints of line segments between the vertices and the orthocenter are reflections of the triangle's midpoints about its nine-point center. * The center of all rectangular hyperbolas that pass through the vertices of a triangle lies on its nine-point circle. Examples include the well-known rectangular hyperbolas of Keipert, Jeřábek and Feuerbach. This fact is known as the Feuerbach conic theorem. * If an orthocentric system of four points A, B, C and H is given, then the four triangles formed by any combination of three distinct points of that system all share the same nine-point circle. Consequently, these four triangles have circumcircles with identical radii. Let N represent the common nine-point center and P be an arbitrary point in the plane of the orthocentric system. Then NA2+NB2+NC2+NH2  3R2 where R is the common circumradius and if PA2+PB2+PC2+PH2 :  K2, where K is kept constant, then the locus of P is a circle centered at N with a radius \scriptstyle \frac{1}{2} \sqrt{K^2-3R^2}. As P approaches N the locus of P for the corresponding constant K, collapses onto N the nine-point center. Furthermore the nine-point circle is the locus of P such that PA2+PB2+PC2+PH2  4R2. * The centers of the incircle and excircles of a triangle form an orthocentric system. The nine-point circle created for that orthocentric system is the circumcircle of the original triangle. The feet of the altitudes in the orthocentric system are the vertices of the original triangle. * If four arbitrary points A, B, C, D are given that do not form an orthocentric system, then the nine-point circles of ABC, BCD, CDA and DAB concur at a point. The remaining six intersection points of these nine-point circles each concur with the midpoints of the four triangles. Remarkably, there exists a unique nine-point conic, centered at the centroid of these four arbitrary points, that passes through all seven points of intersection of these nine-point circles. Furthermore because of the Feuerbach conic theorem mentioned above, there exists a unique rectangular circumconic, centered at the common intersection point of the four nine-point circles, that passes through the four original arbitrary points as well as the orthocenters of the four triangles. * If four points A, B, C, D are given that form a cyclic quadrilateral, then the nine-point circles of ABC, BCD, CDA and DAB concur at the anticenter of the cyclic quadrilateral. The nine-point circles are all congruent with a radius of half that of the cyclic quadrilateral's circumcircle. The nine-point circles form a set of four Johnson circles. Consequently the four nine-point centers are cylic and lie on a circle congruent to the four nine-point circles that is centered at the anticenter of the cyclic quadrilateral. Furthermore the cyclic quadrilateral formed from the four nine-pont centers is homothetic to the reference cyclic quadrilateral ABCD by a factor of  −1/2  and its homothetic center (N) lies on the line connecting the circumcenter (O) to the anticenter (M) where ON : 2NM. * The orthopole of lines passing through the circumcenter lie on the nine-point circle. * Trilinear coordinates for the nine-point center are cos (B − C) : cos (C − A) : cos (A − B) * Trilinear coordinates for the Feuerbach point are 1 − cos (B − C) : 1 − cos (C − A) : 1 − cos (A − B) * Trilinear coordinates for the center of the Kiepert hyperbola are (b2 − c2)2/a : (c2 − a2)2/b : (a2 − b2)2/c * Trilinear coordinates for the center of the Jeřábek hyperbola are cos A sin2(B − C) : cos B sin2(C − A) : cos C sin2(A − B) * Letting x : y : z be a variable point in trilinear coordinates, an equation for the nine-point circle is * x2sin 2A + y2sin 2B + z2sin 2C − 2(yz sin A + zx sin B + xy sin C) = 0.

Cercle d'Euler Géométrie du triangle | Cercle et sphère | Leonhard Euler En géométrie, le cercle d'Euler d'un triangle (aussi appelé cercle des neuf points, cercle de Feuerbach, cercle de Terquem, cercle médian) est l'unique cercle passant par les neuf points remarquables suivants : * Les trois milieux des trois côtés du triangle ; * Le pied de chacune des trois hauteurs du triangle ; * Le milieu de chacun des trois segments reliant l'orthocentre à un sommet du triangle. Définition et propriétés élémentaires : C'est le mathématicien Leonhard Euler qui a remarqué le premier que dans un triangle quelconque (ABC) le centre de gravité G, le centre du cercle circonscrit \Omega et l'orthocentre H sont alignés. (Précisément, l'homothétie de centre G et de rapport - \frac12 transforme H en \Omega.) Indications : Le cercle des neuf points d'Euler est l'homothétique du cercle circonscrit au triangle dans les homothéties de centre G et de rapport - \textstyle\frac12 et de centre H et de rapport \textstyle\frac12. L'homothétie de centre G permet de mettre en place la droite et le cercle d'Euler. L'homothétie de centre H permet de trouver les neuf points du cercle d'Euler comme points correspondants du cercle circonscrit. L'homothétie de centre G : Notons I_1 le milieu de [BC], I_2 le milieu de [AC] et I_3 le milieu de [AB]. Il n'est pas difficile de voir que l'homothétie de centre G et de rapport - \frac12 transforme le triangle ABC en le triangle médian I_1 I_2 I_3 et le cercle circonscrit de ABC en cercle circonscrit à I_1 I_2 I_3 : ce dernier cercle est précisément le cercle d'Euler. Cette même homothétie de centre G permet de dire que \overrightarrow {\Omega I_1}-\frac 12 \overrightarrow{HA}: \frac12 \overrightarrow{AH}. Soit A1 le symétrique de A par rapport à Ω. Dans le triangle AHA1, la droite (ΩI1) est donc la droite des milieux du triangle et le point I1 le milieu de [HA1] : A1 est le symétrique de H par rapport à I1. Les symétriques de l'orthocentre par rapport aux milieux des côtés du triangle sont situés sur le cercle circonscrit au triangle. L'homothétie de centre H : L'homothétie de centre H et de rapport \scriptstyle \frac12, transforme A1 en I1, de même les points I2 et I3 sont les images de deux points du cercle circonscrit. Le cercle d'Euler circonscrit au triangle I1I2I3 est l'image du cercle circonscrit à ABC, dans l'homothétie de centre H et de rapport \scriptstyle \frac12. On note K1, le point d'intersection (autre que A) de la hauteur (AH1) avec le cercle circonscrit. Le segment [AA1] étant un diamètre, le triangle AK1A1, inscrit dans un demi-cercle, est rectangle. Les droites (BC) et (K1A1), perpendiculaires à la hauteur (AH1), sont parallèles. La droite (I1H1) passe par le milieu I1 de [HA1], c'est la droite des milieux de HA1K1, H1 est donc milieu de [HK1]. La droite (HK1) étant perpendiculaire à (BC), K1 est le symétrique de H par rapport à (BC). Les symétriques de l'orthocentre par rapport aux côtés du triangle sont situés sur le cercle circonscrit au triangle. Le point H1 est le milieu de [HK1], c'est donc l'image de K1 par l'homothétie de centre H. Comme K1 est situé sur le cercle circonscrit, H1 est sur le cercle d'Euler. Les pieds des hauteurs sont situés sur le cercle d'Euler. L'homothétie de centre H transforme les sommets du triangle en les milieux des segments [AH], [BH] et [CH] qui sont trois derniers points situés sur le cercle d'Euler. Découvertes : En 1821, les mathématiciens français Brianchon et Poncelet démontrent ensemble que les milieux des côtés et les pieds des hauteurs du triangle sont cocycliques : ils mettent ainsi en évidence l'existence d'un cercle passant par ces six points remarquables. L'année suivante, le résultat fut redécouvert par le géomètre allemand Feuerbach. Le cercle d'Euler est aussi appelé cercle de Feuerbach. De plus, toujours en 1822, il démontra que le cercle des neuf points est tangent extérieurement aux cercles exinscrits et tangent intérieurement au cercle inscrit du triangle. Ce résultat s'appelle le théorème de Feuerbach et ajoute quatre nouveaux points remarquables : les points de contact, appelés points de Feuerbach. Par la suite, Terquem mit en évidence que trois autres points appartiennent à ce cercle : les milieux des segments formés par les sommets du triangle et l'orthocentre. En 1842, Terquem apporta une deuxième preuve au théorème de Feuerbach. Une troisième preuve géométrique fut apportée en 1854. Depuis, on lui a ajouté quelques dizaines d'autres points remarquables du triangle. Quelques propriétés : On montre, en utilisant l'homothétie introduite au premier paragraphe, que : * Le rayon du cercle d'Euler est la moitié du rayon du cercle circonscrit. * Son centre, soit E, est sur la droite d'Euler, on a : \overline{GH} -2 \overline{G\Omega}      et      \overline{GE}: -{1\over 2}\overline{G\Omega} ce dont on déduit que dans un triangle, le centre du cercle d'Euler E, est le milieu de [HΩ], segment joignant l'orthocentre H au centre du cercle circonscrit Ω. * On déduit de ces relations que les points (Ω, E, G, H) sont en division harmonique : \frac{\overline{G\Omega}}{\overline{GE}}- \frac{\overline{H\Omega}}{\overline{HE}} * Hexagramme de Pascal == Une propriété projective que n'avait pas vue Euler : * La droite de Pascal de l'hexagramme H_1I_2H_3I_1H_2I_3H_1 est la droite d'Euler du triangle.

الساحل البربري تاريخ أفريقيا الشمالية | تاريخ ليبيا | تاريخ تونس | تاريخ الجزائر | تاريخ المغرب | جغرافيا أفريقيا الساحل البربري كان مصطلحا مستخدما من قبل الأوروبيين من القرن السادس عشر إلى القرن التاسع عشر للإشارة إلى المناطق الساحلية الوسطى والغربية من شمال أفريقيا والتي هي حاليا المغرب، الجزائر، تونس وليبيا حيث تم اشتقاق الاسم من البربر أو الأمازيغ في شمالي أفريقيا. كما أن الاسم اقترن لدى الأوروبيين حسب ماقيل "بتجارة العبيد بين أوروبا وجنوبي الصحراء وأعمال القرصنة في البحر المتوسط وشمالي الأطلسي". ولم تكن الكيانات البربرية كيانات سياسية موحدة دوما، فقد كانت مقسمة إلى أنظمة تقليدية للحكم في كل من المغرب والمناطق التابعة إسميا للعثمانيين في الجزائر وتونس وطرابلس، ففي مدينة الجزائر كان الداي، وفي مدينة تونس كان الباي وطرابلس كان الباشا، وجميعهم كان يريدون الاستقلال عن السلطان العثماني، وان كانوا في واقع الأمر حكاما مستقلين إلا من التبعية الاسمية. قبل أن يتم تقسيم المنطقة بين إفريقية والمغرب حكمت سلالات أمازيغية مثل الموحدون ولفترة وجيزة الحفصيون، ومن وجهة نظر أوروبية كانت "عاصمة المنطقة" أو المدينة الرئيسية مدينة طرابلس في ليبيا الحالية كما اعتبرت مدينة مراكش في المغرب أكبر وأهم مدينة بربرية في ذلك الوقت كما اعتبرت مدن الجزائر وطنجة في المغرب "كعواصم" في بعض الأوقات. كان أول قتال للولايات المتحدة من قبل قوات مشاة البحرية الأمريكية وبحرية الولايات المتحدة هي معركة درنة التابعة لطرابلس (ليبيا الحالية) في العام 1805، وكان هدفها حسب الرؤية الأمريكية تدمير أعمال القرصنة التي استهدفت المراكب الأمريكية وتحرير العبيد الأمريكين من الأسر. ويشير نشيد قوات مشاة البحرية الأمريكية في افتتاحيته إلى ذلك الحدث حيث يقول (من "تلال" مونتيزوما إلى شواطئ طرابلس...) "From the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli.." مصادر : ثبت_المراجع: LAFI (Nora), Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes. Genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie (1795-1911), Paris: L'Harmattan, 2002, 305 p.

Barbary Coast History of North Africa | Maghreb | Geography of Africa | North Africa | Barbary Wars Other uses: The Barbary Coast, or Barbary, was the term used by Europeans from the 16th until the 19th century to refer to much of the collective land of the Berber people. Today, the terms Maghreb and "Tamazgha" correspond roughly to "Barbary". The term "Barbary Coast" emphasizes the Berber coastal regions and cities throughout the middle and western coastal regions of North Africa – what is now Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. The English term "Barbary" (and its European varieties: Barbaria, Berbérie, etc) referred mainly to the entire Berber lands including non-coastal regions, deep into the continent. This is clearly the case in European geographical and political maps published during the 17–20th centuries. The name is clearly derived from the Berber people of north Africa. In the West, the name commonly evoked the Barbary pirates and Barbary Slave Traders based on that coast, who attacked ships and coastal settlements in the Mediterranean and North Atlantic and captured and traded slaves or goods from Europe, America and sub-Saharan Africa. The slaves and goods were being traded and sold throughout the Ottoman Empire or to the Europeans themselves. History : "Barbary" was not always a unified political entity. From the 16th century onwards, it was divided into the familiar political entities of the Regency of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripolitania (Tripoli). Major rulers during the times of the Barbary states' plundering parties were the Pasha or Dey of Algiers, the Bey of Tunis and the Bey of Tripoli, all subjects, who were anxious to get rid of the Ottoman sultan, but who were de facto independent rulers. Before then, the territory was usually divided between Ifriqiya, Morocco, and a west-central Algerian state centered on Tlemcen or Tiaret. Powerful Berber dynasties such as the Almohads, and briefly the Hafsids, occasionally unified it for short periods. From a European perspective its "capital" or chief city was often considered to be Tripoli in modern-day Libya, although Marrakesh in Morocco was the largest and most important Berber city at the time. In addition, Algiers in Algeria and Tangiers in Morocco were also sometimes seen as the "capital". The first United States military action overseas, executed by the U.S. Marines and Navy, was the Battle of Derne, Tripoli, in 1805. It was an effort to destroy all of the Barbary pirates, free the American slaves in captivity, and put an end to piracy acts between these warring tribes on the part of the Barbary states. The opening line of the "Marine's Hymn" refers to this action: "From the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli..."

Côte des Barbaresques Histoire du Maghreb | Géographie de l'Afrique | Afrique du Nord Côte des Barbaresques (homonymie): histoire: Jusqu'au , la Barbarie aussi nommé par le néologisme Tamazgha était la dénomination de l'Afrique du nord, à savoir l'actuel Maroc, l'Algérie, la Tunisie et la Libye. Le nom vient du mot barbare, qui a donné aussi berbères. Son littoral était appelé Côte des Barbaresques. Bien que cette région fût de même langue, le berbère, elle n'a pas connu d'unité politique au cours de l'Antiquité, hormis la Numidie unifiée sous Mass'Nssen . Toutefois, après l'arrivée de l'islam, les Almohades une dynastie berbère et musulmane étendirent leur empire sur toute la région ainsi que sur Al-Andalus. Par le passé, on les connaissait, entre autres, pour les pirates barbaresques qui rendirent peu sûres la mer Méditerranée et certaines parties de l'océan Atlantique, et pour les marchés d'esclaves où furent vendus des esclaves européens et africains. Les Ottomans purent également avoir le contrôle d'une grande partie de la Côte des Barbaresques. Seule la partie occidentale du Maroc actuel ne fut pas soumise aux Ottomans. Barbarie n'était pas une entité politique unifiée. À partir du , elle fut scindée en entités politiques: Maroc, Algérie, Tunisie et Tripolitaine, et, avant cela, il est généralement partagée entre Ifriqiya, Maroc, et un État algérien centré sur Tlemcen ou Tiaret, bien que ces puissantes dynasties comme les almohades, et brièvement les Hafsides, ils ont fait l'unification pour courtes périodes. Toutefois, dans une perspective européenne, Tripoli (dans l'actuelle Libye) est souvent considérée comme sa « capitale », bien que Alger, en Algérie, et Tanger, au Maroc, ont aussi été parfois considéré comme sa « capitale » par les Européens de l'époque. La première action militaire d'outre-mer d'États-Unis, exécuté par les US Marines et la United States Navy, a été la prise d'assaut de Derna, Tripoli, en 1805, dans un effort visant à renforcer les efforts diplomatiques pour assurer à la fois la liberté de leurs ressortissants prisonniers et de mettre fin à la piraterie de la part de l'État de Barbarie. Annexes : Articles connexes : * Barbaresques * Berbères * Régence d'Alger * Régence de Tunis * Régence de Tripoli * Maghreb

طيران أوروبا تحالف سكاي تيم | شركات طيران تأسست سنة 1986 | شركات طيران أسبانية طيران أوروبا Air Europa: هي ثالث أكبر شركة طيران في إسبانيا بعد كل من الخطوط الجوية الأيبيرية و طيران فيولينغ، بدأت طيران أوروبا خدماتها سنة 1986، يقع مقرها الرئيسي في ميورقة . تيسر رحلات تشمل أوروبا الشمالية والغربية والمنتجعات في جزر الكناري و جزر البليار، وتيسر أيضا رحلات طويلة المدى إلى أمريكا الشمالية و أمريكا الجنوبية و منطقة البحر الكاريبي. وتتخذ من مطار بالما دي مايوركا مركزا لها.. تمتلك شركة غلوباليا 100% من حصتها وهي شركة سياحة و سفر يديرها خوان خوسيه هيدالغو . وفي سبتمبر 2007 أصبحت عضوا في تحالف سكاي تيم. حولت عملياتها تدريجيا، خلال السنوات العشر السابقة، وأكثر من أي وقت مضى على التركيز لمزيد من الرحلات المنتظمة. * الأسطول * الأسطول الحالي يتكون الأسطول من الطائرات التالية اعتبارا من مايو 2010 . وفي مايو عام 2010، بلغ متوسط عمر أسطول طيران يوروبا 7 سنوات . الأسطول السابق : * مراجع == ثبت_المراجع:

Air Europa Airlines of Spain | Airlines established in 1986 | IATA members | Llucmajor | SkyTeam Air Europa Líneas Aéreas, S.A.U. is the third largest airline in Spain after Iberia and Vueling. The airline is headquartered in the Centro Empresarial Globalia in Llucmajor, Majorca, Spain. It also operates from Sweden, Stockholm Arlanda Airport (ARN) and Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport and also tour services between northern and western Europe and holiday resorts in the Canary Islands and Balearic Islands. It also operates domestic scheduled services and long-haul scheduled services to North America and South America. Its main base is Palma de Mallorca Airport, Palma de Mallorca. The airline is 100% owned by Globalia, a travel and tourism company managed by Juan Jose Hidalgo. Since September 2007 the airline has been a member of the SkyTeam alliance. During the last ten years its operations have gradually shifted ever more to focusing on scheduled flights. * History date: August 2010: Air Europa started in 1986 (registered in Spain as Air España SA and previously known as such) as part of the British ILG-Air Europe Group and 75% owned by Spanish banks. It originally had a similar livery to Air Europe but with Air Europa titles, aircraft were registered in Spain and flew holiday charters from Mediterranean resorts and European cities using a Boeing 737-300. It was the first Spanish private company to operate national scheduled flights (besides charter flights which used to be its main business). When parent company ILG ceased trading in 1991 Air Europa continued profitably with a larger fleet of Boeing 737s. It signed a franchise agreement with Iberia in January 1998, but this has since been dissolved. It is now owned by Globalia Corporación Empresarial S.A. At the end of the 1990s Boeing 737-800 jets were introduced along with a new livery. In June 2005 it was announced among the four future associate members of SkyTeam alliance, due to join by 2006. However, the joining date was postponed, and became a member on 1 September 2007. Air Europa was the parent company for Air Dominicana, the new flag carrier of the Dominican Republic, until bankruptcy was declared on 21 September 2009. Destinations: Air Europa destinations: Also in the summer season, Air Europa operates for some Thomas Cook charter flights, normally from their main base of Palma de Mallorca. Codeshare agreements: Air Europa has codeshare agreements with its SkyTeam partners. Fleet: Current fleet: As of May 2011, the Air Europa fleet consists of the following aircraft with an average age of 7.3 years: * Historic fleet Air Europa used to operate the following aircraft: Incidents and accidents: * On 27 October 2007, a Boeing 737-800 chartered by the UN destroyed dozens of approach and landing lights whilst making a low approach at Poland's Katowice International Airport. No passengers were reported injured but the aircraft suffered extensive damage to the fuselage and engines. * On 31 October 2008, Air Europa Flight 196 from Glasgow overran the runway at Lanzarote Airport. No injuries were reported amongst the 74 passengers and crew. * On 30 December 2011, Air Europa Flight UX1009 from Valencia, Spain veered off taxiway while vacating runway after landing safely at Paris Charles-de-Gaulles airport.

Air Europa Compagnie aérienne espagnole | SkyTeam | Entreprise fondée en 1986 ou avec la compagnie aérienne italienne Air Europe}} Air Europa Líneas Aéreas, S.A. (code AITA : UX ; code OACI : AEA) est une compagnie aérienne espagnole, fondée en 1986. Précédemment appelée Air España, S.A., ce fut la première compagnie espagnole privée à effectuer des vols réguliers. Depuis le 1er: septembre 2007, Air Europa est membre associé de l'alliance SkyTeam. Le 22 juin 2010, l'alliance ayant supprimé le statut de membre associé, Air Europa en devient donc membre à part entière. Elle appartient à Globalia Corporación Empresarial S.A. Flotte : En février 2010 : * vingt-neuf Boeing 737-800 ; * six Airbus A330-200 ; * deux Boeing 767-300ER ; * quatre Embraer 195. Pour renouveler sa flotte, Air Europa a beaucoup investi en s'équipant de six Airbus A330 en leasing en attendant la livraison de ses Airbus A350. Ceci lui a permis de restructurer sa flotte sur le même type d'appareil et donc de supprimer l'Airbus A340 qu'elle utilisait auparavant. Tous les Airbus de la compagnie sont équipés de systèmes de divertissement en vol et des nouvelles cabines pour A330 du constructeur européen. À terme, les Boeing 767 devraient disparaître de la flotte de la compagnie pour être eux aussi remplacés par des Airbus. Destinations : * Espagne ** Alicante ** Asturias ** Barcelone ** Bilbao ** Fuerteventura ** Gran Canaria ** Grenade ** Ibiza ** Lanzarote ** Las Palmas de Gran Canaria ** Madrid ** Málaga ** Minorque ** Palma de Majorque ** Saint-Jacques-de-Compostelle ** Saragosse ** Séville ** Tenerife ** Valence ** Valladolid ** Vigo * Europe ** Budapest ** Lisbonne ** Milan ** Paris ** Lyon ** Prague ** Rome ** Rodez ** Varsovie ** Zweibruecken * Afrique ** Marrakech ** Tunis ** Dakar * Amérique ** Buenos Aires ** La Havane ** Lima ** Saint-Domingue ** New York ** Miami Notes et références : Lien externe : * en: es: fr: Palette SkyTeam:

إيكر كاسياس حراس مرمى كرة قدم | لاعبو كرة قدم إسبان | لاعبو ريال مدريد | مواليد 1981 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا في كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2010 | قائدو منتخبات فائزة بكأس العالم لكرة القدم إيكر كاسياس فرنانديز، لاعب كرة قدم إسباني وكابتن المنتخب الأسباني، ولد في 20 مايو 1981 في بلدة موستوليس لخوسيه لويس كاسياس، وهو موظف مدني في وزارة التربية والتعليم، وماريا ديل كارمن فيرنانديز غونزاليس، وهي مصففة شعر. وكان كل من والداه هاجر من بلدة وطنهم من أفيلا. عاش عندما كان طفلا، لبضع سنوات في بلاد الباسك، لكنه دائما مدريد مسقط رأسه. كاسياس لديها أيضا الشقيق الاصغر اسمه اوناي. وهو يلعب في مركز حارس مرمى، يلعب حالياً في فريق العاصمة الإسبانية ريال مدريد كان يلعب مع ناشئي ريال مدريد ثم تدرج إلى الفريق الأول، وهو الحارس الأول للمنتخب الإسباني. كاسياس هو نتاج نظام الشباب ريال مدريد الأسباني، وبدأت في تشكيلة جديد خلال موسم 1990-91. وكان أول من دعا وصل إلى الفريق الأول في 27 نوفمبر عام 1997 في سن 16 عاما لمواجهة روزنبورغ في دوري أبطال أوروبا 1997-1998، لكنه لم يكن اساسيا حتى موسم 1998-1999، وأصبح الخيار الأول في 2000، أصبح أصغر حارس مرمى يلعب في نهائي دوري أبطال أوروبا عندما فاز ريال مدريد 3-0 فالنسيا، بعد أربعة أيام فقط من عيد ميلاده التاسع عشر. خسر كاسياس مكانه إلى سانشيز سيزار، ولكن عندما افتدى سانشيز نفيه تعرض لاصابة في الدقائق الأخيرة من مباراة نهائي دوري ابطال أوروبا 2002. وجاء الدور على كاسياس ليحفظ مرماه ولحرمان باير ليفركوزن من لقب دوري أبطال أوروبا وفاز البيض 2-1 وحافظ كاسياس على القميص رقم 1 منذ ذلك الحين. وكان موسم 2007-08 موسم مثمر لكاسياس. وساعد ريال مدريد على استعادة لقب الدوري الأسباني 31 ولم يدخل مرماه سوى 32 هدفا في 36 مباراة مما جعاه أفضل حارس في الدوري. في 14 فبراير 2008 وقع كاسياس وراؤول تمديد عقده الذي سيبقيه في النادي حتى عام 2017، مع تمديد تلقائي في حال مشاركته في 30 مباراة تنافسية خلال الموسم الأخير من العقد والشرط الجزائي 113،000،000 £. في فبراير 2009، بلغ كاسياس سجل باكو ب454 مباراة لعبت لحارس مرمى وتجاوزه ليصبح حارس مرمى ريال مدريد الأكثر لعبا سنة 2007 فقط عي 27 من العمر. وخلال صيف 2009، ذكرت بعض وسائل الاعلام الأسبانية ان نادي مانشستر سيتي قد أطلق رقما قياسيا £ 129،000،000 لحارس المرمى الأسباني لكن النادي نفى الادعاءات قائلا ان لم يتم اتخاذ اي عرض من هذا القبيل. وقد تردد ان مانشستر يونايتد استفسر عنه، لكن لم يعلن عن السعر كما ارتبط اسم كاسياس مع غيرها من اندية الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز ولكن كاسياس نفسه ذكر أنه ليس لديه نية لمغادرة نادي فتوته. خلال موسم 2009-10 في 4 أكتوبر في المباراة ضد اشبيلية، قام كاسياس بتصدي استثنائي ؛ ركض من جانب هدفه إلى الجانب الاخر، وأوقف كرة دييجو بيروتي من مسافة قريبة جدا واحد على واحد. وبعد المباراة، حصل على اشادة من حراس المرمى الأسباني ومواطنه حارس مرمى انكلترا الأسطورة غوردون بانكس، الذي صرح "ردود فعل كاسياس لا تصدق، وإذا استمر في اللعب هكذا سيصبح واحدا من أفضل حراس المرمى في تاريخ اللعبة. مثل كاسياس المنتخب الوطني في مستوى تحت 17 سنة. في سن 16 عاما، وكان اصغر لاعب في التشكيلة الأسبانية التي احرزت المركز الثالث في بطولة العالم لكرة القدم للشباب تحت 17 في مصر. صار في وقت لاحق قائد المنتخب تحت 17 عام. وبعد ذلك بعامين ذهب إلى المنتخب الأول. كاسياس هو الحارس الثاني الأكثر لعبا في تاريخ المنتخب الأسباني، وراء أندوني زوبيزاريتا، الذي ظهر في 126 مباريات. وكان كاسياس بديلا غير مستغل في نهائيات كأس الأمم الأوروبية 2000. وكان جزءا من قائمة لاعبي اسبانيا لنهائيات كأس العالم 2002، في البداية باعتباره البديل الجاهز لسانتياجو كانيزاريس. من قبيل الصدفة أصبح كاسياس الخيار الأول كحارس مرمى عندما انسحب كانيزاريس من البطولة بسبب اصابة من حادث غريب. في سن 21 ،كان واحدا من أصغر حراس المرمى في البطولة. ولعب دورا أساسيا في تقدم الأسبانية عندما تصدى لركلتي جزاء خلال الجولة 16 من المباراة ضد جمهورية ايرلندا، ما اكسبه لقب "القديس". مع استبعاد زميله السابق في ريال مدريد راوول من تشكيلة الفريق لنهائيات كأس الأمم الأوروبية 2008، اعطي كان كاسياس شارة الكابتن. بدأ في أول مباراتين له بالمجموعة ضد روسيا والسويد قبل أن يوضع بديلا لبيبي رينا لإسبانيا. أنقذ كاسياس ركلتي جزاء من انطونيو دي ناتالي ودانييلي دي روسي أمام إيطاليا في الدور ربع النهائي وفازت إسبانيا بركلات الترجيح 4-2 بعد التعادل السلبي في 22 يونيو.فازت إسبانيا باللقب في على حساب ألمانيا 1-0 الفوز على ألمانيا في 29 يونيو ؛ كاسياس حافظ على شباكه نظيفة للمباريات ربع النهائي، نصف النهائي، والنهائي. في 29 يونيو 2008 أصبح أول حارس مرمى كاسياس يرفع كأس بطولة الأمم الأوروبية. واحدة من صداته خلال الدور ربع النهائي مقابل كوريا الجنوبية خلال نهائيات كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2002 كان تصنيفها من الفبفا باعتبارها واحدة من أجمل 10 صدات في التاريخ. اختير كاسياس أفضل حارس مرمى في العالم في 2008 من قبل IFFHS]وجاء في المركز الثالث أيضا في أفضل حراس المرمى في التاريخ متفوقا على أوليفر كان اوليفر كان. في 14 نوفمبر 2009، قدم ظهوره 100 بالنسبة للمنتخب الأسباني في الفوز على الأرجنتين وديا، مما جعله ثالث لاعب فقط في تاريخ كرة القدم الأسبانية يصول إلى هذا دوليا حتى الآن. في 11 يوليو 2010، كان قائدا لإسبانيا نحو لقبها الأول في كأس العالم بفوز 1-0 ضد هولندا. وبذلك أصبح الحارس الثالث الذي يحمل كأس العالم في التاريخ. كان أفضل حارس مرمى في البطولة وحصل على جائزة القفاز الذهبي.وفي نهائيات كأس العالم في جنوب أفريقيا احتفظ بشباكه نظيفة في 5 مباريات، وقبل هدفين فقط، وانقذ ركلة جزاء في ربع النهائي ضد باراغواي. وفي المباراة النهائية، تدخل تدخلين حاسمين على آريين روبن الهولندي بعد أن مر الاعب من جميع المدافعين الأسبان. من صديقاتهالسابقات ملكة جمال إسبانيا السابقة إيفا غونزاليس وآنا إيزابيل، التي تعمل مديرة للتسويق لأحد البنوك في مدريد. منذ 2009، تم صديقته الصحفية الرياضية سارة كاريونيرو. آخر تحديث يوم 26 نوفمبر 2011 إنجازاته : الجوائز الشخصية * كأس برافو لأفضل لاعب في بطولة أوروبا تحت 20 عام * جائزة الزامورا في أسبانيا التي تعطى لأفضل حارس مرمى 2008 * أفضل حارس في العالم لثلاثة اعوام 2008،2009,2010 * أفضل حارس في كأس العالم 2010 * جائزة فقاز اديداس 2010 * أفضل حارس مرمى في تاريخ كرة القدم مع المنتخب * كأس العالم 2010 + أفضل حارس في البطوله * بطولة كاس العالم في جنوب أفريقيا :2010. * بطولة أمم أوروبا : 2008. * بطولة العالم تحت 20 : 1999. * بطولة أوروبا تحت 16 : 1997. * بطولة ميريديان لتحت 17 : 1999. * بطولة كأس العالم بجنوب إفريقيا 2010. مع ريال مدريد * الدوري الأسباني : 2000/2001, 2002/2003، 2006/2007، 2007/2008. * كأس ملك اٍسبانيا : 2010/2011 * بطولة السوبر الأسباني : 2001، 2003، 2008. * بطولة دوري أبطال أوروبا : 1999/2000, 2001/2002. * بطولة السوبر الأوربية : 2002. * كأس العالم للاندية : 2002. * كأس ملك إسبانيا : 2011. ....مع المجتمع * أفضل صديق في العالم معه ايكر كاسيس نشاطاته : كشف ضياء جاد، المسئول الإعلامي للحركة العالمية لمناهضة العولمة والهيمنة الأمريكية والصهيونية، لـ"الشروق"، أن حارس مرمى المنتخب الإسباني الفائز مؤخرا بكأس العالم لكرة القدم، إيكر كاسياس، سيبحر إلى غزة بعد عيد الفطر على متن إحدى السفن التي ستشارك في أسطول (الحرية 2)، والتي تقدر بأكثر من 50 سفينة من مختلف قارات العالم، لكسر الحصار المفروض على القطاع منذ فوز حماس بالانتخابات البرلمانية في 2006. وكانت الحملة الأوروبية لرفع الحصار عن غزة قد وجهت الدعوة لعدد من اللاعبين العالميين من بينهم كاسياس للمشاركة في "أسطول الحرية 2"، لتعزيز موقف الحركة في مواجهة الترسانة العسكرية الإسرائيلية، بعد المجزرة التي تعرض لها الأسطول في نسخته الأولى. كاسياس كان قد أظهر عددا من ردود الأفعال المتتالية التي أظهرت تضامنا غير محدود مع معاناة مليون ونصف المليون فلسطيني في القطاع المحاصر، كان منها إدانته للحرب الإسرائيلية على غزة، ورفضه المشاركة في احتفالات عيد رأس السنة في الميدان الرئيسي بالعاصمة الإسبانية مدريد في يناير 2009 تعاطفا مع ضحايا المجزرة الإسرائيلية، وصرح وقتها أنه يرفض مشاركة المحتفلين ضحكهم، بينما هناك فلسطينيون يتعرضون لمجزرة إسرائيلية بشعة. وأظهر الحارس الأسباني العملاق رد فعل متضامن مع غزة، حين أكد بعد فوزه بلقب أحسن حارس مرمى في العالم، بعدما نجح في قيادة منتخب بلاده للفوز باللقب لأول مرة، أنه لن يحتفل بالكأس ما دام قطاع غزة محاصرا، مضيفا أن فرحة الأسبان ستظل جزئية حتى رفع الحصار عن غزة. المصدر الشروق المصرية حصل كاسيس على أفضل صديق في العالم وهو نزال الهرش روابط إضافية : تشكيلة إسبانيا في كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2002: تشكيلة إسبانيا في كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2006: تشكيلة إسبانيا في كأس الأمم الأوروبية 2008: تشكيلة إسبانيا في كأس العالم للقارات 2009: تشكيلة إسبانيا في كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2010: تشكيلة ريال مدريد: Iker Casillas:

Iker Casillas 1981 births | Living people | People from Móstoles | Spanish footballers | Association football goalkeepers | La Liga footballers | Real Madrid C footballers | Real Madrid Castilla footballers | Real Madrid C.F. players | Spain youth international footballers | Spain under-21 international footballers | Spain international footballers | UEFA Euro 2000 players | 2002 FIFA World Cup players | UEFA Euro 2004 players | 2006 FIFA World Cup players | UEFA Euro 2008 players | 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup players | 2010 FIFA World Cup players | UEFA European Football Championship-winning captains | UEFA European Football Championship-winning players | FIFA Century Club | FIFA World Cup-winning captains | FIFA World Cup-winning players Iker Casillas Fernández (ˈikeɾ kaˈsiʎas feɾˈnandeθ: ; born 20 May 1981) is a Spanish football goalkeeper who plays for the Spanish La Liga club Real Madrid and the Spanish national team, being the captain of both. In 2008 he led the Spanish national team to their first European Championship in 44 years, and in 2010, to win the World Cup, being also named the tournament's best goalkeeper. Since his early professional years as a teenager, Casillas has been recognised as one of the best goalkeepers in Europe, being nominated for the European Footballer of the Year award twice, ranking fourth overall in 2008 and continuing to be the highest-ranked goalkeeper again in 2009. At the end of 2009 he was voted into the UEFA Team of the Year for the third consecutive time. As of 2011 Casillas is one of a very select group of players who have won all major club and national championship titles. In 2010, he was awarded with the Sports Prince of Asturias Award. On 19 October 2010, Casillas became the most capped goalkeeper of all time in the UEFA Champions League and in November 2011, he became the most capped player of all time for the Spanish national team. Early life: Casillas was born on 20 May 1981 in Móstoles, Community of Madrid to José Luis Casillas, a civil servant in the Ministry of Education, and María del Carmen Fernández González, a hairdresser. Both his parents had emigrated from their home town of Navalacruz, Ávila. When Iker was a child, he lived for some years in the Basque Country, but he has always considered Madrid to be his hometown.dateSeptember 2010: Casillas has a brother, seven years younger, named Unai, who currently plays as a central midfielder for CD Móstoles. As a young child, one weekend Casillas forgot to post his father’s football predictions on the weekend his father had correctly predicted all 14 results. The family lost out on an estimated €1m. Real Madrid: Casillas had started in the junior squad of Real Madrid's youth system during the 1990–91 season. On 27 November 1997 at age 16 he was first called up to the first team to face Rosenborg in Champions League, but it wasn't until the 1998–99 season that he debuted in the senior side, substituting Bodo Illgner. By the next season, he relegated Illgner to the bench and became first-choice. In 2000, he became the youngest ever goalkeeper to play in a Champions League final when Real Madrid defeated Valencia 3–0, just four days after his nineteenth birthday. Casillas lost his place in the side to backup César Sánchez after a patch of bad form during the 2001–02 campaign, but redeemed himself when Sánchez suffered an injury in the last minutes of 2002 Champions League final match. Casillas came on and pulled off several brilliant saves to deny a rampant Bayer Leverkusen the Champions League crown. Real Madrid won 2–1 and Casillas has maintained the number 1 shirt ever since. The 2007–08 season was a fruitful season for Casillas as he helped Real Madrid reclaim their 31st La Liga title and conceded only 32 goals in 36 matches to claim the Zamora Trophy. On 14 February 2008, he and then club captain Raúl González were awarded a contract for life. Casillas signed a contract extension that will keep him at the club until 2017, with an automatic extension if he plays 30 competitive matches during the final season of the contract and a buy-out clause of £113 million. His performances earned him a spot in the UEFA Team of the Year for the second time. In February 2009, Casillas equalled Paco Buyo's record of 454 matches played (for a goalkeeper) and has since surpassed it to become Real Madrid's most-capped goalkeeper of all time at only twenty-seven years old. During the 2009 summer transfer window, some Spanish media reported that Manchester City had launched a record £129 million bid for the goalkeeper. However the club denied the allegations saying that no such offer had been made. Manchester United had been rumoured to have enquired about him, but no price was announced. He had been linked with other Premier League clubs before but Casillas himself stated that he "had no intention of leaving" his boyhood club. During the 2009–10 season on 4 October in a game against Sevilla, Casillas made an extraordinary save; he ran from one side of his goal to the other and denied Diego Perotti in a one-on-one close range encounter. After the match, he received praise from fellow Spanish goalkeepers and England goalkeeping legend Gordon Banks, who stated "Casillas' reflexes are incredible. If he continues to play this well he will become one of the best goalkeepers in the history of the game." Europa Press reported that Casillas was the 2nd most popular Spanish sportsman on the internet throughout 2010. The study performed by company Vipnet360 examined the web presence on platforms like Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. International career: Casillas debuted for the national team in the U–17 level. At age 16, he was the youngest player in the Spanish squad that placed third at the 1997 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Egypt. He was later made captain of the U-17's. Two years later, he went on to win the FIFA World Youth Championship and the UEFA-CAF Meridian Cup that same year. Initially second-choice, he soon worked his way up to first-choice and eventually earned his first senior cap following some brilliant performances at club level. Casillas is currently the most capped player in the history of the Spanish national team. Following his full international debut at the senior level on 3 June 2000 against Sweden (at 19 years and 14 days), Casillas was an unused substitute at Euro 2000. He was part of the roster for the 2002 World Cup, initially as the understudy to Santiago Cañizares. Coincidentally, Casillas became the first-choice goalkeeper when Cañizares had to withdraw from the tournament due to injury from a freak accident. At 21, he was one of the youngest first-choice goalkeepers in the tournament. He played an instrumental role in Spanish progression when he saved two penalties in the shoot-out during the round of 16 match against the Republic of Ireland, earning him the nickname "The Saint". One of his saves during the quarterfinals versus South Korea during the 2002 FIFA World Cup was rated by FIFA as one of the top 10 saves of all time. Casillas played in all eight Group six fixtures during Euro 2004 qualifying, conceding just four goals. He kept a clean sheet in the second leg victory of the playoff against Norway which ended 3–0 in Oslo, and started all of Spain's Euro 2004 matches. He was the first choice for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, captaining the team twice, but could not prevent La Roja from losing 3–1 to a Zidane-inspired France in the Round of 16. With the exclusion of his Real Madrid teammate Raúl from the squad for Euro 2008, Casillas was given the captain's armband. He started the first two Group D games against Russia and Sweden before being rested in place of second-choice goalkeeper Pepe Reina for Spain's group stage elimination of Greece. Casillas saved two penalties from Antonio Di Natale and Daniele De Rossi as Spain eliminated Italy in the quarterfinals with a 4–2 shootout win following a goalless draw on 22 June. Spain later went on to win the competition with a 1–0 win over Germany in the final on 29 June; Casillas kept clean sheets for the quarterfinal, semifinal, and final matches, with Sweden's first round goal by Zlatan Ibrahimović being the last one scored against him. On 29 June 2008 Casillas became the first goalkeeper-captain to lift the UEFA European Championship trophy when Spain beat Germany 1–0 in the final. In October 2008, Casillas and deputy in goal Pepe Reina broke the national record for the longest time spent without conceding a goal. The pair went unbeaten for 710 minutes, longer than Spain's longest-serving goalkeeper Andoni Zubizarreta and Paco Buyo. Wesley Sonck of Belgium ended their goalless streak when he scored against them a 2010 World Cup qualifying match. Casillas was the highest ranked goalkeeper (4th place) in the 2008 Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi and national teammate Fernando Torres. Also in 2008 Casillas was named the world's best goalkeeperby the IFFHS. He also came in third place in the best goalkeepers of all time ranking; beating Oliver Kahn. On 5 September 2009, after a 5–0 win over Belgium in a qualifying match for the World Cup, Casillas equalled Andoni Zubizarreta's national record of 56 clean sheets, and during the Spanish team's next match against Estonia on 9 September 2009, he surpassed Zubizarreta as the record holder for the most Spanish international clean sheets (this being achieved in Casillas' 98th appearance for the national team, while Zubizarreta made 126 before his retirement). Two months later, Casillas made his 100th appearance for the Spanish squad in the friendly win over Argentina, making him only the third player in history of Spanish football to ever reach this far internationally. Only Andoni Zubizarreta, on 126, now stands ahead of him. On 11 July 2010, he captained Spain to their first ever World Cup title with a 1–0 win against the Netherlands. In doing so he became the third ever goalkeeper to captain a World Cup winning side (along with Gianpiero Combi in 1934 and Dino Zoff in 1982). He was voted the tournament's best goalkeeper and awarded the Golden Glove. In the course of the finals in South Africa he kept five clean sheets, conceded two goals, and saved a penalty in the quarter final against Paraguay. In the final, he made two crucial stops from Netherlands' Arjen Robben with the score at 0–0 after the Dutchman had passed all the defenders. On 15 November 2011, Casillas became Spain's most capped player, breaking Andoni Zubizarreta's record after starting for Spain in their 2–2 draw against Costa Rica. * Statistics All-Time Club Performance * Honours Multicol: : Club * La Liga (4): 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08 * Copa del Rey (1): 2010–11 * Supercopa de España (3): 2001, 2003, 2008. * UEFA Champions League (2): 1999–2000, 2001–02 * UEFA Super Cup (1): 2002 * Intercontinental Cup (1): 2002 * Country * FIFA World Cup: 2010 * UEFA European Championship: 2008 * UEFA U-15 Championship: 1995 * UEFA U-16 Championship: 1997 * FIFA World Youth Championship: 1999 * Decorations * Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit: 2009 * Favourite son of Navalacruz: 2010 * Favourite son of Móstoles: 2010 Multicol-break: : Individual * Bravo Award: 2000 * Don Balón Award: Breakthrough Player 2000 * UEFA Team of the Year: 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 * Zamora Trophy: 2007–08 * UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament: 2008 * ESM Team of the Year: 2008 * FIFA World XI: 2008, 2009, 2010 * FIFA/FIFPro World's Best Goalkeeper 2008, 2009, 2010 * IFFHS Best Goalkeeper: 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 * Best European Goalkeeper: 2008, 2010 * FIFA World Cup Golden Glove: 2010 * FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 2010 Multicol-end: : Outside football * Personal life Since 2009, Casillas has been in a relationship with sports journalist Sara Carbonero. Charity: In 2011, Casillas was appointed as a Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Development Programme's Millennium Development Goals. * Notes 2: : References== Refbegin: # HISTORIA DEL FÚTBOL ESPAÑOL, SELECCIONES ESPAÑOLAS es icon: ISBN 978-84-8229-12-3-9 Refend:

Iker Casillas Footballeur sélectionné plus de 100 fois en équipe nationale | Footballeur international espagnol | Naissance en 1981 | Joueur du Real Madrid | Joueur vainqueur de l'Euro de football | Vainqueur de la Coupe du monde de football | Gardien de but au football Iker Casillas Fernández (né le 20 mai 1981 à Móstoles, Espagne) est un joueur de football espagnol. Jouant au poste de gardien de but, il évolue depuis le début de sa carrière sous les couleurs du Real Madrid et également de la sélection espagnole. Il est actuellement le capitaine du Real Madrid et également de la sélection espagnole. Issu du centre de formation du Real Madrid, il est reconnu comme le meilleur gardien du Monde à l'heure actuelle, comme en témoignent ses nombreux trophées. Avec son club, il a notamment remporté la Ligue des champions à deux reprises en 2000 et 2002, la Supercoupe de l'UEFA et la Coupe intercontinentale. En sélection, il fait partie des joueurs qui ont réussi à remporter coup sur coup l'Euro 2008 et la Coupe du monde 2010. Il est le gardien ayant joué le plus de matchs au Real Madrid et également le joueur le plus capés de l'Histoire de la sélection espagnole. Ses débuts : Iker Casillas est né le 20 mai 1981 dans la ville de Móstoles, dans la Communauté de Madrid. Son père, José Luis Casillas, travaillait comme fonctionnaire au ministère de l'Éducation tandis que sa mère, María del Carmen Fernández González, était coiffeuse. Ses deux parents avaient émigré de leur ville d'origine de Navalacruz dans la Province d'Ávila. Quand il était enfant, Casillas a également vécu quelques années au Pays basque mais il a toujours considéré Madrid comme sa ville d'origine. Casillas a également un frère, prénommé Unai, qui joue comme milieu de terrain au CD Móstoles. L'histoire veut également que quand il était petit, Casillas a oublié de jouer le ticket de loterie sportive que son père lui avait confié. Celui-ci avait pourtant correctement prédit les 14 résultats du jour et ce jour là, la famille manqua de gagner 1 million d'euros . Real Madrid : Iker Casillas est un pur produit du centre de formation du Real Madrid et il a joué pour la première fois en équipe de jeunes au cours de la saison 1990-91. Le 27 novembre 1997, à l'âge de 16 ans, il est appelé dans le groupe par Jupp Heynckes pour disputer un match de Ligue des champions face à Rosenborg mais il n'entre cependant pas en jeu. Il lui faudra attendre la saison 1998-99 pour intégrer l'équipe première et devenir la doublure du gardien de l'époque, Bodo Illgner. Au cours de la saison suivante, le 9 septembre 1999, il joue son premier match en équipe première pour le club madrilène à l'âge de 18 ans et 112 jours. Il profite quelque temps plus tard d'une blessure d'Illgner pour reléguer petit à petit celui-ci sur le banc des remplaçants et devenir au même âge, le gardien titulaire du Real Madrid. Le 24 mai 2000, au stade de France à Paris, il devient le plus jeune gardien de but à disputer une finale de Ligue des champions. Ce soir là, le Real Madrid s'impose 3-0 et Casillas remporte sa première Ligue des champions, quatre jours seulement après avoir fêté son dix-neuvième anniversaire. Casillas connaît cependant quelques difficultés lors de la saison 2001-02. On lui reproche son inconstance et il perd peu à peu sa place de titulaire au profit de César Sánchez. Son retour en grâce n'en est que plus beau. En effet, le 15 mai 2002, le Real Madrid dispute une nouvelle finale de Ligue des champions face au Bayer Leverkusen. Alors que le Real mène 2-1 (grâce notamment à une superbe volée de Zinedine Zidane) et qu'il reste 25 minutes à tenir, César Sánchez se blesse et c'est Casillas qui entre en jeu pour le remplacer. Casillas va alors réaliser une excellente prestation et signer une série de quatre arrêts miraculeux pour préserver l'avantage de son club et lui permettre de remporter la 9e: Ligue des champions de son histoire. Depuis lors, Casillas est un titulaire indiscutable au sein de son club et progresse d'année en année. Ses arrêts, sauvant de nombreuses fois le Real Madrid avide de jeu offensif, ont contribué à lui valoir le surnom de San Iker (en français, Saint Iker) ou encore dÁngel de Móstoles (en français, Ange de Móstoles). La saison 2007-08 est très fructueuse pour lui. En encaissant seulement 32 buts en 36 matches, ce qui lui permet d'obtenir le trophée Zamora, il aide son club à décrocher la 31e: Liga de son histoire (un record !). Le 14 février 2008, avec son coéquipier Raúl, il montre son amour pour le club en prolongeant son contrat jusqu'en 2017 avec une extension automatique s'il joue au moins trente matches lors de la dernière saison de son contrat. Ses bonnes performances cette saison-là lui valent de figurer une nouvelle fois dans l'équipe-type de l'année selon l'UEFA. Le 7 février 2009, lors de la 22e: journée de championnat contre le Racing Santander, Casillas joue son 454e: match pour le Real Madrid et égale le record de Paco Buyo. Quelques jours plus tard, il devient le gardien le plus capé de l'histoire du club à seulement 27 ans. Depuis, Casillas a battu plusieurs records de longévité avec son club : le 13 février 2010, il joue son 500e: match avec le Real Madrid et trois jours plus tard, il entre dans le club très fermé des joueurs ayant joué plus de 100 matches de Ligue des champions dans leur carrière. Lors de la saison 2009-10, Casillas prouve une nouvelle fois qu'il est l'un des meilleurs gardiens du monde. Le 4 octobre, contre le FC Séville, il réalise en courant d'un bout à l'autre de son but, s'étendant au maximum et empêchant Diego Perotti de marquer à bout portant. A l'issue de ce match, il est félicité par un grand nombre de joueurs et l'ancien gardien anglais Gordon Banks déclare à son propos : « Les réflexes de Casillas sont incroyables. S'il continue à jouer si bien, il va devenir l'un des meilleurs gardiens de l'histoire du football » . Lors de l'été 2010, à la suite du départ des deux légendes du club Raúl et Guti, il est promu capitaine de l'équipe. Sous les ordres de José Mourinho, il réalise un très bon début de saison. Ainsi, le 13 août 2010 lors d'une rencontre amicale dédiée à Franz Beckenbauer contre le Bayern Munich, il arrête un penalty puis deux tirs aux buts, permettant à son équipe de s'imposer (0-0, 4 tab 2) . Quelques mois plus tard, le 19 octobre 2010, Casillas joue son 527e: match sous les couleurs du Real et entre dans le top 10 des joueurs ayant le plus souvent revêtu la tunique du club madrilène. Sélection espagnole : Casillas débute très tôt en sélection. Très jeune, il a déjà remporté le Championnat d'Europe des moins de 15 ans en 1995 et il s'impose dans le Championnat d'Europe des moins de 16 ans en 1997. Promu en équipe des moins de 17 ans, il est à 16 ans le joueur le plus jeune de l'effectif espagnol qui termine à la troisième place du Coupe du monde des moins de 17 ans, qui se déroule en Égypte. Il sera nommé par la suite capitaine de cette équipe. Deux ans plus tard, en 1999, il remporte la Coupe du monde des moins de 20 ans qui se déroule au Nigeria. Initialement gardien de second choix pour être intégré à l'équipe senior, il gagne peu à peu sa place à la suite de brillantes performances en club. Il fait ses débuts en équipe senior à l'âge de 19 ans et 14 jours contre la Suède. Il participe par la suite à l'Euro 2000 mais n'est jamais utilisé comme remplaçant. Il devait initialement être la doublure de Santiago Cañizares à la Coupe du monde 2002 mais celui-ci se blesse accidentellement au pied en voulant réceptionner une bouteille de parfum qu'il venait de faire tomber. Par conséquent, Casillas est propulsé gardien titulaire de la sélection espagnole à seulement 21 ans. Il réalise de bonnes performances, arrêtant notamment deux tirs aux buts contre l'Irlande en huitième de finale mais ne pouvant rien en quart contre la Corée du sud. L'un de ses arrêts lors de ce dernier match sera sélectionné comme l'un des 10 plus beaux arrêts de l'histoire de la Coupe du monde. Ses performances en sélection à l'occasion de cette compétition ont en partie contribué à son surnom de San Iker. Par la suite, Casillas participe à la campagne de qualification pour l'Euro et produit de bonnes performances en n'encaissant de quatre buts. Il fait ensuite partie de l'effectif pour l'Euro 2004 qui se révèlera désastreux pour l'Espagne, éliminée dès la phase de poule. De la même manière, il dispute la Coupe du monde 2006 avec sa sélection qui sera éliminée dès les huitièmes de finale par la France de son coéquipier Zinedine Zidane (1-3). Son coéquipier Raúl écarté de la sélection par Luis Aragonés, Casillas se voit confier le brassard de capitaine. Il fait donc partie du groupe de 23 joueurs amenés à disputer l'Euro 2008. Après une qualification facile à l'issue de la phase de poules, l'Espagne rencontre l'Italie en quarts de finale. Au cours de la séance de tirs aux buts, après un match fermé (0-0), Casillas arrête les tirs aux buts d'Antonio Di Natale et Daniele De Rossi et permet à sa sélection de se qualifier. Après s'être défait de la Russie en demi-finale, l'Espagne remporte finalement la compétition face à l'Allemagne (1-0). Casillas, qui n'a encaissé aucun but lors des phases à élimination directe, soulève un trophée que sa sélection n'avait plus remporté depuis 1964. En octobre 2008, Casillas et son coéquipier Pepe Reina battent le record d'invincibilité des gardiens de l'équipe nationale. Les deux gardiens restent invaincus pendant 710 minutes (soit près de 8 matches), plus longtemps que Zubizarreta et Buyo en leur temps. C'est finalement le Belge Wesley Sonck qui mettra fin à cette invincibilité lors d'un match de qualification pour la Coupe du monde 2010. Le 9 septembre 2009, lors d'un match contre l'Estonie, il dépasse le record d'invincibilité de Zubizarreta. Celui-ci était resté invaincu lors de 56 de ses 126 sélections tandis que Casillas dépasse ce record en seulement 98 sélections. Il fait partie des 23 joueurs appelés à disputer la Coupe du monde 2010. Après une phase de poules laborieuse où l'Espagne se qualifie difficilement dans un groupe composé du Chili, de la Suisse et du Honduras, l'Espagne poursuit sa route vers la finale de la compétition. Lors de ces trois matches à élimination directe, Casillas se montre une nouvelle fois précieux, notamment contre le Paraguay en quart de finale où il arrête un penalty d'Óscar Cardozo avant de sortir un nouvel arrêt décisif quelques minutes plus tard. Lors de la finale, il produit une nouvelle fois une excellente performance, gagnant deux face-à-face contre le néerlandais Arjen Robben. Comme lors de l'Euro 2008, Casillas garde sa cage inviolée lors de tous les matches à élimination directe de la compétition et l'Espagne remporte pour la première fois de son histoire la Coupe du monde, devenant l'une des rares nations à avoir réalisé le doublé Euro-Coupe du monde coup sur coup. Le , à l'occasion d'un match amical contre le Costa Rica, il devient le joueur comptant le plus de sélections en équipe d'Espagne, dépassant les 126 capes d'Andoni Zubizarreta . Palmarès : En club : ESP-d: Real Madrid : * Coupe Intercontinentale (1) : ** Vainqueur : 2002 ** Finaliste : 2000 * Supercoupe de l'UEFA (1) : ** Vainqueur : 2002 ** Finaliste : 2000 * Ligue des Champions (2) : ** Vainqueur : 2000 et 2002 * Supercoupe d'Espagne (3) : ** Vainqueur : 2001, 2003 et 2008 ** Finaliste : 2007 et 2011 * Championnat d'Espagne (4) : ** Champion : 2001, 2003, 2007 et 2008 ** Vice-Champion : 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010 et 2011 * Copa del Rey : (1) : ** Vainqueur: 2011 ** Finaliste : 2002 et 2004 * Trophée Santiago Bernabéu (8) : ** Vainqueur : 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 et 2011. * World Football Challenge (1) : ** Vainqueur : 2011 En équipe nationale : * Championnat d'Europe ** Vainqueur de l'Euro 2008 ** Vainqueur du championnat d'Europe -17 ans en 1997 ** Vainqueur du championnat d'Europe -15 ans en 1995 * Coupe du Monde ** Vainqueur de la Coupe du monde 2010 ** Vainqueur de la coupe du monde -20 ans en 1999 ** Vainqueur de la Coupe Méridien en 1999 * Coupe des Confédérations ** Troisième de la Coupe des Confédérations 2009. Distinctions personnelles : * Trophée Bravo : 2000 * Prix Don Balón (révélation de l'année) : 2000 * Trophée Zamora : 2008 * Élu Meilleur gardien de football de l'année par l'IFFHS en 2008, 2009 et 2010 * Troisième du Trophée Alfredo Di Stéfano en 2008 * Quatrième du Ballon d'Or 2008 * Gant d'or 2010 (meilleur gardien de la Coupe du monde 2010) * Membre de l'équipe type FIFA en 2007, 2008, 2009 et 2010 * Membre de l'équipe type UEFA en 2007, 2008, 2009 et 2010 * Membre de l'équipe-type de l'Euro 2008 * Membre de l'équipe type de la Coupe du Monde 2010 * Membre de l'équipe type par le Syndicat des joueurs professionnels (FIFPRO) en 2008 * Membre de l'équipe-type européenne de Sports Illustrated pour la saison 2010/2011 * Gardien ayant disputé le plus de matchs officiels au Real Madrid Divers : Iker Casillas fait une courte apparition dans le film espagnol , dans et . Suite à la victoire en Coupe du monde, la statue d'Iker Casillas a fait son apparition au Musée de cire de Barcelone avec celles d'Andrés Iniesta, David Villa et Fernando Torres. Il est en couple, depuis 2010, avec la célèbre journaliste espagnole Sara Carbonero. Alors qu'il se faisait interviewer par Sara, Iker l'embrassa en direct devant des millions de téléspectateurs. Le 24 Novembre 2011 le maire de la ville de Mostoles -Esteban Parro- a inauguré une avenue au nom de "Iker Casillas" en l'honneur du gardien de but du Real Madrid. Le maire de Mostolés justifie son choix dans Marca par "les valeurs humaines, le fait d'avoir enfiler plus de fois que n'importe qui le maillot de la sélection espagnole et par les qualités footballistiques de Casillas. Car c'est le plus grand gardien du monde."

دائرة داخلية ودوائر خارجية لمثلث دوائر | مثلثات في الهندسة الرياضية، الدائرة الداخلية لمثلث هي أكبر دائرة من الممكن أن تحتوي بالكامل داخل المثلث، حيث تمس أضلاع المثلث الثلاثة، مركز هذه الدائرة يدعى مركز الدائرة الداخلية للمثلث. الدائرة الخارجية المماسة لمثلث هي دائرة تقع خارج المثلث وتمس واحد من أضلاعه وتمس مماسات الدائرتين الباقيتين. لكل مثلث ثلاث دوائر خارجية مماسة، تمس كل منها ضلع من أضلاعه. من الممكن إيجاد مراكز الدوائر المماسة الخارجية من تقاطع منصفات زوايا المثلث الثلاثة. إنشاء الدائرة الداخلية : نرسم منصفات زوايا المثلث حيث تلتقي في نقطة هي مركز الدائرة الداخلية, ثم نرسم المسقط العمودي لهذا المركز فيكون الشعاع هو المسافة بين المركز والمسقط العمودي. إنشاء دائرة خارجية : نرسم واسطات أضلاع المثلث حيث تلتقي في نقطة هي مركز الدائرة الخارجية, ويكون الشعاع هو المسافة بين المركز وأحد أضلاع المثلث. انظر أيضاً : * ارتفاع (مثلث) * دائرة خارجية * كرة داخلية بوابة رياضيات:

Incircle and excircles of a triangle Circles | Triangle geometry In geometry, the incircle or inscribed circle of a triangle is the largest circle contained in the triangle; it touches (is tangent to) the three sides. The center of the incircle is called the triangle's incenter. An excircle or escribed circle of the triangle is a circle lying outside the triangle, tangent to one of its sides and tangent to the extensions of the other two. Every triangle has three distinct excircles, each tangent to one of the triangle's sides. The center of the incircle can be found as the intersection of the three internal angle bisectors. The center of an excircle is the intersection of the internal bisector of one angle and the external bisectors of the other two. Because the internal bisector of an angle is perpendicular to its external bisector, it follows that the center of the incircle together with the three excircle centers form an orthocentric system. See also Tangent lines to circles. Relation to area of the triangle : The radii of the in- and excircles are closely related to the area of the triangle. Let K be the triangle's area and let a, b and c, be the lengths of its sides. By Heron's formula, the area of the triangle is * \begin{align} K & {} \frac{1}{4}\sqrt{(P)(a-b+c)(b-c+a)(c-a+b)} \\ & {} : \sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)} \end{align} where s\tfrac{1}{2}(a+b+c) is the semiperimeter and P : 2s is the perimeter. The radius of the incircle (also known as the inradius, r ) is * r \frac{2K}{P} : \sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}{s}}. Thus, the area K of a triangle may be found by multiplying the inradius by the semiperimeter: * \displaystyle Krs. The radii in the excircles are called the exradii. The excircle at side a has radius * r_a : \frac{2K}{c-a+b} \sqrt{\frac{s (s-b)(s-c)}{s-a}}. Similarly the radii of the excircles at sides b and c are respectively * r_b : \frac{2K}{a-b+c} \sqrt{\frac{s (s-a)(s-c)}{s-b}} and * r_c : \frac{2K}{b-c+a} \sqrt{\frac{s (s-a)(s-b)}{s-c}}. From these formulas one can see that the excircles are always larger than the incircle and that the largest excircle is the one tangent to the longest side and the smallest excircle is tangent to the shortest side. Further, combining these formulas with Heron's area formula yields the result that #4: :K: \sqrt{rr_ar_br_c}. Nine-point circle and Feuerbach point : The circle tangent to all three of the excircles as well as the incircle is known as the nine-point circle. The point where the nine-point circle touches the incircle is known as the Feuerbach point. Gergonne triangle and point : The Gergonne triangle of ABC is denoted by the vertices TA, TB and TC that are the three points where the incircle touches the reference triangle ABC and where TA is opposite of A, etc. This triangle TATBTC is also known as the contact triangle or intouch triangle of ABC. The incircle of ABC is the circumcircle of TATBTC. The three lines ATA, BTB and CTC intersect in a single point, the triangle's Gergonne point Ge - X(7). Interestingly, the Gergonne point of a triangle is the symmedian point of its Gergonne triangle. For a full set of properties of the Gergonne point see. The touchpoints of the excircle with segments BC,CA,AB are the vertices of the extouch triangle. The points of intersection of the interior angle bisectors of ABC with the segments BC,CA,AB are the vertices of the incentral triangle. Nagel triangle and point : The Nagel triangle of ABC is denoted by the vertices XA, XB and XC that are the three points where the excircles touches the reference triangle ABC and where XA is opposite of A, etc. This triangle XAXBXC is also known as the extouch triangle of ABC. The circumcircle of the extouch triangle XAXBXC is called the Mandart circle. The three lines AXA, BXB and CXC intersect in a single point, the triangle's Nagel point Na - X(8). Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the intouch triangle are given by * A-\text{vertex}0 : \sec^2 \left(\frac{B}{2}\right) :\sec^2\left(\frac{C}{2}\right) * B-\text{vertex}: \sec^2 \left(\frac{A}{2}\right):0:\sec^2\left(\frac{C}{2}\right) * C-\text{vertex}\sec^2 \left(\frac{A}{2}\right) :\sec^2\left(\frac{B}{2}\right):0 Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the extouch triangle are given by * A-\text{vertex} : 0 : \csc^2\left(\frac{B}{2}\right) : \csc^2\left(\frac{C}{2}\right) * B-\text{vertex} \csc^2\left(\frac{A}{2}\right) : 0 : \csc^2\left(\frac{C}{2}\right) * C-\text{vertex} : \csc^2\left(\frac{A}{2}\right) : \csc^2\left(\frac{B}{2}\right) : 0 Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the incentral triangle are given by * \ A-\text{vertex} 0 : 1 : 1 * \ B-\text{vertex} : 1 : 0 : 1 * \ C-\text{vertex} 1 : 1 : 0 Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the excentral triangle are given by * \ A-\text{vertex}: -1 : 1 : 1 * \ B-\text{vertex}1 : -1 : 1 * \ C-\text{vertex}: 1 : -1 : -1 Trilinear coordinates for the Gergonne point are given by * \sec^2\left(\frac{A}{2}\right) : \sec^2 \left(\frac{B}{2}\right) : \sec^2\left(\frac{C}{2}\right), or, equivalently, by the Law of Sines, * \frac{bc}{b+ c - a} : \frac{ca}{c + a-b} : \frac{ab}{a+b-c}. Trilinear coordinates for the Nagel point are given by * \csc^2\left(\frac{A}{2}\right) : \csc^2 \left(\frac{B}{2}\right) : \csc^2\left(\frac{C}{2}\right), or, equivalently, by the Law of Sines, * \frac{b+ c - a}{a} : \frac{c + a-b}{b} : \frac{a+b-c}{c}. It is the isotomic conjugate of the Gergonne point. Coordinates of the incenter: The Cartesian coordinates of the incenter are a weighted average of the coordinates of the three vertices using the side lengths of the triangle as weights. (The weights are positive so the incenter lies inside the triangle as stated above.) If the three vertices are located at (x_a,y_a), (x_b,y_b), and (x_c,y_c), and the sides opposite these vertices have corresponding lengths a, b, and c, then the incenter is at * \bigg(\frac{a x_a+b x_b+c x_c}{P},\frac{a y_a+b y_b+c y_c}{P}\bigg) \frac{a(x_a,y_a)+b(x_b,y_b)+c(x_c,y_c)}{P} where \ P : a + b + c. Trilinear coordinates for the incenter are given by * :\ 1 : 1 : 1. Barycentric coordinates for the incenter are given by * :\ a : b : c. Equations for four circles: Let x : y : z be a variable point in trilinear coordinates, and let u cos2(A/2), v : cos2(B/2), w cos2(C/2). The four circles described above are given by these equations: Incircle: * :\ u^2x^2+v^2y^2+w^2z^2-2vwyz-2wuzx-2uvxy: 0 A-excircle: * :\ u^2x^2+v^2y^2+w^2z^2-2vwyz+2wuzx+2uvxy0 B-excircle: * :\ u^2x^2+v^2y^2+w^2z^2+2vwyz-2wuzx+2uvxy: 0 C-excircle: * :\ u^2x^2+v^2y^2+w^2z^2+2vwyz+2wuzx-2uvxy0 * Other incircle properties Suppose the tangency points of the incircle divide the sides into lengths of x and y, y and z, and z and x. Then the incircle has the radius * r : \sqrt{\frac{xyz}{x+y+z}}. If the altitudes from sides of lengths a, b, and c are ha, hb, and hc then the inradius r is one-third of the harmonic mean of these altitudes, i.e. * r \frac{1}{h_a^{-1}+h_b^{-1}+h_c^{-1}}. The distance between the circumcenter and the incenter is \sqrt{R(R-2r)}, where r is the incircle radius and R is the circumcircle radius. Thus the incircle radius is no larger than half the circumcircle radius (Euler's triangle inequality). The product of the incircle radius and the circumcircle radius of a triangle with sides a, b, and c is \frac{abc}{2(a+b+c)}. Any line through a triangle that splits both the triangle's area and its perimeter in half goes through the triangle's incenter (the center of its incircle). There are either one, two, or three of these for any given triangle.

Cercles inscrit et exinscrits d'un triangle Cercle et sphère | Géométrie du triangle Étant donnés trois points non alignés A, B et C du plan, il existe quatre cercles tangents aux trois droites (AB), (AC) et (BC). Ce sont le cercle inscrit (pour celui qui est intérieur au triangle) et les cercles exinscrits du triangle ABC. Bissectrices : Un cercle tangent aux trois droites (AB), (BC), (CA) doit posséder un centre équidistant de ces trois droites. Or l'ensemble des points équidistant de deux droites sécantes (d1) et (d2) forme deux droites perpendiculaires, constituées des quatre demi-droites bissectrices chacune d'un des quatre secteurs angulaires construits par les droites (d1) et (d2), et appelées bissectrices des droites (d1) et (d2). Si on considère les trois côtés du triangle en tant que droites, on dispose en tout de 6 bissectrices : 2 bissectrices pour chaque couple de droites. Par chacun des sommets du triangle, passe une bissectrice intérieure (qui rencontre le côté opposé du triangle) et une bissectrice extérieure (qui est l'autre bissectrice). Si une bissectrice issue de A rencontre un bissectrice issue de B alors le point d'intersection, étant équidistant de (AB) et (AC) et équidistant de (BA) et (BC), est à égale distance de (CA) et (CB) et appartient donc à l'une (et une seule) des bissectrices issues de C. Il y a donc 4 points de concours possibles. Cas du cercle inscrit. Les bissectrices intérieures issues de A et B se coupent à l'intérieur des secteurs angulaires (BAC) et (ABC), c'est-à-dire dans le triangle (ABC). Le point d'intersection est donc sur la bissectrice intérieure issue de C et plus exactement sur la demi-droite bissectrice du secteur angulaire (ACB). Le point d'intersection est alors le centre d'un cercle tangent aux trois côtés du triangle. C'est le cercle inscrit. Cas des cercles exinscrits. Les bissectrices extérieures issues de A et de B se coupent dans le secteur angulaire (ACB) et rencontrent donc, eux aussi, la demi-droite bissectrice de l'angle (ACB). Le point d'intersection est alors le centre d'un cercle tangent au segment [AB] et aux demi-droites d'origines A et B, de supports (AC) et (BC) et ne contenant pas C. C'est un cercle exinscrit au triangle. Un raisonnement analogue peut être fait pour les deux autres couples de bissectrices extérieures Notation : dans cet article nous notons A, B et C les trois sommets du triangle, a la longueur du côté BC, b la longueur du côté AC et c la longueur du côté AB. Enfin O désigne le centre du cercle inscrit et O_A, O_B et O_C les trois centres des cercles exinscrits Cercle inscrit : Il existe un et un seul cercle intérieur au triangle et tangent à la fois à ses trois côtés. Ce cercle de centre O \, est appelé « cercle inscrit » dans le triangle. Le cercle inscrit à un triangle est le plus grand cercle que peut contenir ce triangle. Son centre est le barycentre des points (A,a) (B,b) (C,c). Son rayon est égal à r\frac{2S}{a+b+c} où S désigne la surface du triangle. Son centre est le point d'intersection des bissectrices. * Point de Gergonne Notons respectivement T_A, T_B et T_C les points de contact du cercle inscrit avec les côtés [BC], [AC] et [AB]. Alors les droites (AT_A), (BT_B) et (CT_C) sont concourantes : en effet, le produit des rapports * \frac{T_CA}{T_CB}\times \frac{T_AB}{T_AC} \times \frac{T_BC}{T_BA} est égal à 1 grâce aux égalités * T_CA: T_BA, T_BCT_AC, T_AB: T_CB. D'après le théorème de Ceva ces trois céviennes sont concourantes en un point qui s'appelle le point de Gergonne du triangle et le triangle T_AT_BT_C s'appelle le triangle de Gergonne du triangle ABC. Cercles exinscrits : Il y a donc trois cercles exinscrits : chacun est tangent à un unique côté du triangle (considéré comme un segment). Nous nommons C_A le cercle exinscrit touchant le côté [CB], C_B le cercle exinscrit touchant le côté [AC] et C_C le cercle exinscrit touchant le côté [AB]. Les rayons des cercles exinscrits sont respectivement r_A \frac{2S}{-a+b+c}, r_B : \frac{2S}{a-b+c} et r_C \frac{2S}{a+b-c} Leurs centres sont barycentres des points (A,-a) (B,b) (C,c) pour le premier, (A,a) (B,-b) (C,c) pour le second et (A,a) (B,b) (C,-c) pour le troisième. * Point de Nagel Notons U_A le point de contact de C_A avec [CB], U_B le point de contact de C_B avec [AC] et U_C le point de contact de C_C avec [AB]. Alors les droites (AU_A), (BU_B) et (CU_C) sont concourantes : leur point d'intersection s'appelle le point de du triangle. On appelle le triangle U_AU_BU_C triangle de Nagel du triangle ABC. * Point de Bevan Les droites (O_A\,U_A), (O_B\,U_B) et (O_C\,U_C) sont également concourantes : leur point d'intersection s'appelle le point de Bevan du triangle ABC. D'ailleurs, le triangle O_A\,O_B\,O_C s'appelle le triangle de Bevan de ABC. Le point de Bevan est le centre du cercle circonscrit au triangle de Bevan. Le triangle de Bevan et le triangle de Gergonne sont homothétiques. * Point d'Apollonius Il existe un unique cercle tangent simultanément aux trois cercles exinscrits et qui les contient (voir Problème des contacts); c'est le cercle d'Apollonius du triangle. De plus, si on note V_A, V_B et V_C les trois points de tangence alors les droites (AV_A), (BV_B) et (CV_C) sont concourantes : leur point d'intersection s'appelle le point d'Apollonius du triangle. * Théorème de Feuerbach Les trois cercles exinscrits et le cercle inscrit sont tangents au cercle d'Euler du triangle. Les points de contact de ces cercles s'appellent les points de Feuerbach du triangle. Ce résultat constitue le théorème de Feuerbach. Les trois points de tangence des cercles exinscrits forment le triangle de Feuerbach du triangle. * Références Bibliographiques * Sortais Yvonne et René, La géométrie du triangle, Hermann 1997 978-2-7056-1429-4: géométrie:

إلزي سيغار مواليد 1894 | وفيات 1938 | رسامو قصص مصورة إلزي كريسلر سيغار (مواليد 8 ديسمبر 1894 في إلينوي- وفيات 13 أكتوبر 1938 سانتا مونيكا، كاليفورنيا) هو رسام قصص مصورة أمريكي ومبتكر الشخصية الكاريكاتورية المعروفة باسم باباي، التي ظهرت لأول مرة في عام 1929 في صحيفته comic strip Thimble Theatre. ولد سيغار وترعرع في تشيستر، ولاية الينوي، وهي بلدة صغيرة بالقرب من نهر المسيسيبي. ابن رجل بارع، له تجارب العمل المبكر وشملت مساعدة والده في طلاء المنازل ووضع الورق على الجدران. وهو ماهر في العزف على آلة الطبل، وقال إنه قام بمرافقة الفرقة الموسيقية للأفلام وأعمال الاستعراض المسرحي في المسرح المحلي. في سن ال 18، قرر أن يصبح رساما. قام بمراسلة W.L. Evans للرسوم الكاريكاتورية ببعض رسوماته. سيغار انتقل إلى شيكاغو حيث التقى Richard Felton Outcault، الرسام الذي أوجد Yellow Kid و Buster Brown شجعه وقدم له في صحيفة هيرالد شيكاغو. في 12 مارس، 1916، نشرت صحيفة هيرالد لسيغار هزليته الأولى، تشارلي شابلن والكوميديا كيبرز، الذي استمر لفترة تزيد قليلا على العام. في عام 1918، انتقل بعد ذلك إلى هيرست في شيكاغو الاميركية. سيغار تزوج ميرتل جونسون ذلك العام ؛ لديهم طفلان. توفي عن عمر يناهز 43 بعد صراع طويل مع المرض. اعتقد مدير التحرير ويليام كيرلي بأن سيغار لا يمكن أن ينجح في نيويورك، وارسله إلى شركة King Features Syndicate, للطباعة، وهناك عمل سيغار لسنوات عديدة وبدأ بالرسم لمجلة نيويورك، وقدم سلسلته الأولى لأول مرة في 19 ديسمبر عام 1919 وشارك فيها شخصيات ز يتونة Olive Oyl, و Castor Oyl و Horace Hamgravy الذي اختصر اسمه إلى Ham Gravy، واستمر عرضه لحواله عقد من الزمان. في يناير عام 1929 عندما كان Castor Oyl بحاجة لبحار للانتقال إلى جزيرة Dice Island، فظهر باباي في السلسلة، ليسرق باباي الأضواء من الجميع ثم اخترع سيغار شخصيات أخرى في السلسلة مثل J. Wellington Wimpy و Eugene the Jeep. بذرة أعلام الولايات المتحدة:

E. C. Segar 1894 births | 1938 deaths | American comic strip cartoonists | People from Randolph County, Illinois | Popeye | Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees Elzie Crisler Segar (December 8, 1894 – October 13, 1938) was an American cartoonist, best known as the creator of Popeye, a character who first appeared in 1929 in his comic strip Thimble Theatre. Asked how to say his name, he told The Literary Digest it was "SEE-gar". He commonly signed his work simply Segar or E. Segar above a drawing of a cigar. History: Segar was born and raised in Chester, Illinois, a small town near the Mississippi River. The son of a handyman, his earliest work experiences included assisting his father in house painting and paper hanging. Skilled at playing drums, he also provided musical accompaniment to films and vaudeville acts in the local theater, where he was eventually given the job of film projectionist. At age 18, he decided to become a cartoonist. He took a correspondence course in cartooning from W.L. Evans of Cleveland, Ohio. He said that after work he "lit up the oil lamps about midnight and worked on the course until 3 a.m." Segar moved to Chicago where he met Richard F. Outcault, creator of The Yellow Kid and Buster Brown. Outcault encouraged him and introduced him at the Chicago Herald. On March 12, 1916, the Herald published Segar's first comic, Charlie Chaplin's Comedy Capers, which ran for a little over a year. In 1918, he moved on to William Randolph Hearst's Chicago Evening American where he created Looping the Loop. Segar married Myrtle Johnson that year; they had two children. Popeye: Popeye: Evening American Managing editor William Curley thought Segar could succeed in New York, so he sent him to King Features Syndicate, where Segar worked for many years. He began by drawing Thimble Theatre for the New York Journal. The strip made its debut on December 19, 1919, featuring the characters Olive Oyl, Castor Oyl and Horace Hamgravy, whose name was quickly shortened in the strip to simply "Ham Gravy". They were the strip's leads for about a decade. In January 1929, when Castor Oyl needed a mariner to navigate his ship to Dice Island, Castor picked up an old salt down by the docks named Popeye. Popeye's first line in the strip, upon being asked if he was a sailor, was "'Ja think I'm a cowboy?" The character stole the show and became the permanent star. Some of the other notable characters Segar created include J. Wellington Wimpy and Eugene the Jeep. The Five-Fifteen/Sappo: Segar also created The Five-Fifteen for King Features in 1920; it was retitled Sappo in 1926. Sappo ran as a topper to the Thimble Theatre Sunday pages. Legacy and reprints: After prolonged illness, Segar died of leukemia and liver disease at the age of 43. Segar is widely regarded as one of the most influential and talented cartoonists of all time, among the first to combine humor with long-running adventures. A revival of interest in Segar's creations began with Woody Gelman's Nostalgia Press. Robert Altman's live-action film Popeye (1980) is adapted from E. C. Segar's Thimble Theatre comic strip. The screenplay by Jules Feiffer was based directly on Gelman's Thimble Theatre Starring Popeye the Sailor, a hardcover reprint collection of 1936-37 Segar strips published in 1971 by Nostalgia Press. In 2006, Fantagraphics published the first of a planned six-volume book set reprinting all Thimble Theatre daily and Sunday strips from 1928–38, beginning with the adventure that introduced Popeye. In 1971, the National Cartoonists Society created the Elzie Segar Award in his honor. According to the Society's website, the award was "presented to a person who has made a unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning." The NCS board of directors chose the first winners, while King Features selected recipients in later years. Honorees have included Charles Schulz, Bil Keane, Al Capp, Bill Gallo and Mort Walker. The award was discontinued in 1999. Popeye Picnic: In 1977, Segar's hometown of Chester, Illinois honored its native son with a park named in his honor. The park is home to a six-foot-tall bronze statue of Popeye, and since 1980 has been the site of the annual Popeye Picnic, a weekend-long event that celebrates the character with a parade, film festival and other activities. In 2006, Chester launched the ambitious "Popeye & Friends Character Trail," which links a series of statues of Segar's characters located throughout town. Each stands on a base inscribed with the names of donors who contributed to its cost and is unveiled and dedicated during the Popeye Picnic. The 2006 debut sculpture of hamburger-loving Wimpy stands in Gazebo Park. A statue of Olive Oyl, Swee'Pea and the Jeep, located downtown near the Randolph County Courthouse, followed in 2007. In 2008, a Bluto statue was dedicated at the corner of Swanwick and W. Holmes Streets, in front of Buena Vista Bank. The 2009 statue of Castor Oyl and Bernice the Whiffle Hen stands in front of Chester Memorial Hospital. An additional 11 statues will be unveiled at the rate of one per year until 2019, when a bust of Segar at his birthplace will mark the cartoonist's 125th birthday. To keep the slate on schedule, one year will feature two dedications, with the Sea Hag as the "wild card." According to the "Map to the Stars" promo piece released by the town, the schedule continues as follows: A few Chester businesses are named for Popeye characters, including Rough-House Pizza and Sweet Pea's [sic] Restaurant (renamed under new management). On December 8, 2009, Google honored Segar's 115th birthday with a Google Doodle of Popeye. The doodle used Popeye's body as the 'g', had 'oogl' drawn to resemble Segar's drawing style, and a spinach can as the 'e'; and featured Popeye punching the 'oogl' to get the spinach to fly at him through the air. * References== reflist:

Elzie Crisler Segar dessinateur américain de bande dessinée | scénariste américain de bande dessinée | Naissance en 1894 | Décès en 1938 auteur de bande dessinée: Elzie Crisler Segar, né le à Chester, Illinois et décédé le à Santa Monica, Californie est un auteur de bande dessinée américain. Familier des petits boulots, E.C. Segar est entre autres projectionniste dans un cinéma. Les films de Charlie Chaplin lui inspirent des bandes dessinées. Le succès ne vient pas, mais il rencontre Richard Felton Outcault qui l'encourage à persister et l'aide à entrer au Chicago Herald où il publie des histoires mettant en scène Charlie Chaplin. En 1919, son travail est repéré par le King Features Syndicate pour qui il crée The Five Fifteen et The Thimble Theatre. Dans cette série, on peut déjà remarquer la silhouette filliforme d'Olive Oyl. En 1929, il y fait apparaître un simple figurant, le marin Popeye. Enchanté par son personnage, il le fait revenir puis en fait le héros d'une série à part entière qui rencontrera vite un succès international. E.C. Segar vivra très confortablement des revenus de ses bandes dessinées, même au pire de la grande dépression. Il mourra à 43 ans d'une leucémie Son personnage a été repris par de nombreux dessinateurs, jusqu'à aujourd'hui. Popeye : Popeye: ...:

زمرة دائرية جبر تجريدي | نظرية الزمر | زمر طوبولوجية | زمر لي في نظرية الزمر، نقول عن زمرة أنها دائرية إذا كان من الممكن توليدها عن طريق عنصر وحيد، فإذا كانت الزمرة تحوي عنصراً a (يدعى مولد الزمرة) وكانت العملية المعرفة عليها هي الجداء، فإن أي عنصر من هذه الزمرة يمكن كتابته كقوة للعنصر a (إذا كانت العملية المعرفة هي الجمع فإن جميع العناصر يمكن أن تكتب بالشكل na). يرمز للزمرة الدائرية بالرمز T أو \mathbb T وتعرف بأنها زمرة جداء لجميع الأعداد العقدية بقيمة مطلقة تساوي 1. على سبيل المثال فإن دائرة الوحدة للمستوي العقدي تعطى بالشكل: * \mathbb T \{ z \in \mathbb C : . تعريف مبسط : أحد أبسط الطرق للتفكير بالزمرة الدائرية هو عن طريق وصف جمع الزوايا، حيث يجب أن يكون المجموع دائماً ضمن المجال المسموح بين 0° إلى 360° درجة. على سبيل المثال فإن جمع 150° إلى 270° يجب أن يكون 150° + 270° 420° إلا أنه عند التفكير في الزمرة الدائرية يجب أن ننسى عملية الجمع العادية ونعدل قيمة الناتج بالقيمة 360° بحيث يصبح الجواب 420° − 360° : 60°. بذرة رياضيات: بوابة رياضيات:

Circle group Group theory | Topological groups | Lie groups For the jazz group, see Circle (jazz band).: Lie groups: In mathematics, the circle group, denoted by T, is the multiplicative group of all complex numbers with absolute value 1, i.e., the unit circle in the complex plane. * \mathbb T \{ z \in \mathbb C : . The circle group forms a subgroup of C×, the multiplicative group of all nonzero complex numbers. Since C× is abelian, it follows that T is as well. The circle group is also the group U(1) of 1×1 unitary matrices; these act on the complex plane by rotation about the origin. The circle group can be parametrized by the angle θ of rotation by * \theta\mapsto z e^{i\theta} : \cos\theta + i\sin\theta. This is the exponential map for the circle group. The circle group plays a central role in Pontryagin duality, and in the theory of Lie groups. The notation T for the circle group stems from the fact that Tn (the direct product of T with itself n times) is geometrically an n-torus. The circle group is then a 1-torus. Elementary introduction : One way to think about the circle group is that it describes how to add angles, where only angles between 0° and 360° are permitted. For example, the diagram illustrates how to add 150° to 270°. The answer should be 150° + 270° 420°, but when thinking in terms of the circle group, we need to "forget" the fact that we have wrapped once around the circle. Therefore we adjust our answer by 360° which gives 420° : 60° (mod 360°). Another description is in terms of ordinary addition, where only numbers between 0 and 1 are allowed (with 1 corresponding to a full rotation). To achieve this, we might need to throw away digits occurring before the decimal point. For example, when we work out 0.784 + 0.925 + 0.446, the answer should be 2.155, but we throw away the leading 2, so the answer (in the circle group) is just 0.155. Topological and analytic structure: The circle group is more than just an abstract algebraic object. It has a natural topology when regarded as a subspace of the complex plane. Since multiplication and inversion are continuous functions on C×, the circle group has the structure of a topological group. Moreover, since the unit circle is a closed subset of the complex plane, the circle group is a closed subgroup of C× (itself regarded as a topological group). One can say even more. The circle is a 1-dimensional real manifold and multiplication and inversion are real-analytic maps on the circle. This gives the circle group the structure of a one-parameter group, an instance of a Lie group. In fact, up to isomorphism, it is the unique 1-dimensional compact, connected Lie group. Moreover, every n-dimensional compact, connected, abelian Lie group is isomorphic to Tn. Isomorphisms: The circle group shows up in a variety of forms in mathematics. We list some of the more common forms here. Specifically, we show that * \mathbb T \cong \mbox{U}(1) \cong \mathbb R/\mathbb Z \cong \mbox{SO}(2). Note that the slash (/) denotes here quotient group. The set of all 1×1 unitary matrices clearly coincides with the circle group; the unitary condition is equivalent to the condition that its element have absolute value 1. Therefore, the circle group is canonically isomorphic to U(1), the first unitary group. The exponential function gives rise to a group homomorphism exp : R → T from the additive real numbers R to the circle group T via the map * \theta \mapsto e^{i\theta} \cos\theta + i\sin\theta. The last equality is Euler's formula. The real number θ corresponds to the angle on the unit circle as measured from the positive x-axis. That this map is a homomorphism follows from the fact that the multiplication of unit complex numbers corresponds to addition of angles: * e^{i\theta_1}e^{i\theta_2} : e^{i(\theta_1+\theta_2)}.\, This exponential map is clearly a surjective function from R to T. It is not, however, injective. The kernel of this map is the set of all integer multiples of 2π. By the first isomorphism theorem we then have that * \mathbb T \cong \mathbb R/2\pi\mathbb Z.\, After rescaling we can also say that T is isomorphic to R/Z. If complex numbers are realized as 2×2 real matrices (see complex number), the unit complex numbers correspond to 2×2 orthogonal matrices with unit determinant. Specifically, we have * e^{i\theta} \leftrightarrow \begin{bmatrix} \cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \\ \end{bmatrix}. The circle group is therefore isomorphic to the special orthogonal group SO(2). This has the geometric interpretation that multiplication by a unit complex number is a proper rotation in the complex plane, and every such rotation is of this form. Properties: Every compact Lie group G of dimension > 0 has a subgroup isomorphic to the circle group. That means that, thinking in terms of symmetry, a compact symmetry group acting continuously can be expected to have one-parameter circle subgroups acting; the consequences in physical systems are seen for example at rotational invariance, and spontaneous symmetry breaking. The circle group has many subgroups, but its only proper closed subgroups consist of roots of unity: For each integer n > 0, the nth roots of unity form a cyclic group of order n, which is unique up to isomorphism. Representations: The representations of the circle group are easy to describe. It follows from Schur's lemma that the irreducible complex representations of an abelian group are all 1-dimensional. Since the circle group is compact, any representation ρ : T → GL(1, C) ≅ C×, must take values in U(1) ≅ T. Therefore, the irreducible representations of the circle group are just the homomorphisms from the circle group to itself. Every such homomorphism is of the form * \phi_n(e^{i\theta}) e^{in\theta},\qquad n\in\mathbb Z. These representations are all inequivalent. The representation φ−n is conjugate to φn, * \phi_{-n} : \overline{\phi_n}. \, These representations are just the characters of the circle group. The character group of T is clearly an infinite cyclic group generated by φ1: * \mathrm{Hom}(\mathbb T,\mathbb T) \cong \mathbb Z. \, The irreducible real representations of the circle group are the trivial representation (which is 1-dimensional) and the representations * \rho_n(e^{i\theta}) \begin{bmatrix} \cos n\theta & -\sin n\theta \\ \sin n\theta & \cos n\theta \end{bmatrix},\quad n\in\mathbb Z^{+}, taking values in SO(2). Here we only have positive integers n since the representation \rho_{-n} is equivalent to \rho_n. * Group structure== In this section we will forget about the topological structure of the circle group and look only at its structure as an abstract group. The circle group T is a divisible group. Its torsion subgroup is given by the set of all nth roots of unity for all n, and is isomorphic to Q/Z. The structure theorem for divisible groups tells us that T is isomorphic to the direct sum of Q/Z with a number of copies of Q. The number of copies of Q must be c (the cardinality of the continuum) in order for the cardinality of the direct sum to be correct. But the direct sum of c copies of Q is isomorphic to R, as R is a vector space of dimension c over Q. Thus * \mathbb T \cong \mathbb R \oplus (\mathbb Q / \mathbb Z).\, The isomorphism * \mathbb C^\times \cong \mathbb R \oplus (\mathbb Q / \mathbb Z) can be proved in the same way, as C× is also a divisible abelian group whose torsion subgroup is the same as the torsion subgroup of T.

Cercle unité Nombre complexe | Groupe de Lie mathématiques: Le cercle unité est une expression courante pour désigner l'ensemble des nombres complexes de module 1. Si le module est vu comme une norme euclidienne, le cercle est une courbe de longueur 2π, et est le bord d'un disque d'aire π. Le cercle unité est l'image de l'axe des imaginaires purs iR par l'exponentielle complexe. Le cercle unité est stable par produit. C'est un sous-groupe du groupe des inversibles. C'est le sous-groupe compact maximal de C* . Cercle unité et trigonométrie: Éléments d'histoire: D'après le site Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics , l'expression unit circle: est attribuée à George Albert Wentworth vers 1890. L'expression fut utilisée pour décrire le cercle trigonométrique, et introduire les fonctions trigonométriques, tel qu'elles sont enseignées aujourd'hui dans l'enseignement des mathématiques dans le secondaire. Cercle unité comme groupe: Le cercle unité, en général noté U ou T (tore à une dimension), est l'ensemble des nombres complexes z dont le module vaut : 1. Donc, l'inverse de z est son conjugué \overline{z}, lui-même de module 1. De même le produit de deux nombres complexes de module 1 est de module 1. L'ensemble U est donc un groupe pour la multiplication des nombres complexes. Les nombres complexes 1, -1, i et -i appartiennent au cercle unité. Le cercle unité est le plus grand sous-groupe borné de \mathbf C^* . Autrement dit, tout sous-groupe borné de \mathbf C^* est inclus dans le cercle unité U. En particulier, les sous-groupes finis G de \mathbf C^* sont inclus dans U. Si n est le cardinal de G, alors G est le groupe des racines n-ièmes de l'unité, toutes de module 1. L'application exponentielle, supposée connue, est un morphisme du groupe additif (C,+) vers le groupe multiplicatif (C* ,x). Autrement dit, pour tous w et z, * \exp(w+z)\exp(w)\exp(z). Si w est un imaginaire pur, alors \exp(w) est de module 1. L'image de la droite des imaginaires purs iR est exactement le cercle unité U. En particulier, l'exponentielle définit un morphisme surjectif de groupes \exp:i\mathbf{R}\rightarrow \mathbf{U}. Ce morphisme est périodique, et la période est 2\pi. Dans l'enseignement supérieur, cette propriété peut être présentée comme la définition du nombre Pi. Cette définition remonte au début du XXe: siècle . Le noyau de ce morphisme est donc le sous-groupe additif 2iπZ de iR. De plus, tout nombre complexe non nul z s'écrit z: ou, si on préfère, aa'+bb'. La multiplication à gauche par z: re^{i\theta} est la similitude directe d'angle \theta et de rapport r. En particulier, si le nombre complexe w est de module 1, alors la multiplication par w est la rotation d'angle \theta. On note en général SO(2) le groupe des rotations d'un plan euclidien. La description précédente donne * \mathbf{U}SO(2). clr: : Groupe de Lie * La lecture de cette partie nécessite de connaitre les bases de la géométrie différentielle et notamment la définition d'une variété différentielle. L'application z\mapsto {(1-. Cette métrique est conforme à la métrique euclidienne : deux courbes qui s'intersectent transversalement forment le même angle. Mais la distance est modifiée, et en particulier, pour atteindre un complexe de module 1, il faut parcourir une longueur infinie. Le cercle unité U est regardé comme l'ensemble des points à l'infini du plan hyperbolique D. Il est en général noté \partial_{\infty}\mathbf{D}. Le plan hyperbolique est une variété riemmanienne de dimension 2 dont la courbure est constante égale à -1. D'autres présentations sont possibles et sont données dans l'article géométrie hyperbolique. Par définition, les géodésiques de D sont les courbes qui minimisent au moins localement la distance. Ce sont exactement les diamètres de D ou les arcs de cercles orthogonaux au cercle unité. Il est remarquable que ces courbes minimisent globalement la distance. Autrement dit, pour tous complexes z et w de modules \leq 1 (qu'ils soient à l'intérieur du disque unité D ou sur le bord à l'infini \partial_{\infty}\mathbf{D}), alors il existe une unique géodésique C_{z,w} contenant z et w, et qui dépend continument de z et w. Si z est un nombre complexe de module 1, les géodésiques ayant z pour point à l'infini forment un feuilletage de D. Les cercles intérieurs à D et tangents à U en z sont appelés les de centre z. Ils intersectent orthogonalement les géodésiques issues de z. Ces propriétés se généralisent pour les variétés de Hadamard pour lesquelles on définit une sphère à l'infini dont les points paramètrent les géodésiques. Il s'agit d'une compactification géométrique en courbure négative, et on renvoie le lecteur à l'article variété de Hadamard. Références: Mathématiques:

ويستلاند لينكس مروحيات | مروحيات عسكرية | مروحيات البحث و الإنقاذ ويستلاند لينكس Westland Lynx: هي مروحية بريطانية تم تصميمها وصناعتها من قبل ويستلاند هيليكوبترز والتي أصبحت أجوستا ويستلاند. تستخدم المروحية للنقل أو الهجوم منها الأرضي أو البحري. تم تطوير المروحية من أجل تلبية احتياجات الجيش البريطاني وأيضا البحرية الملكية البريطانية في مهام مضادة للسفن والغواصات. تستطيع اللينكس حمل معدات وأسلحة متخصصة حسب متطلبات الدولة المستخدمة والمهام المطلوبة. * مروحيات شبيهة * - سوبر لينكس MK130 وهي تطوير خاص لويستلاند لينكس صنع خصيصا لإحتيجات القوات البحرية الجزائرية * مصادر == ثبت_المراجع:

Westland Lynx British military utility aircraft 1970–1979 | British attack aircraft 1970–1979 | British anti-submarine aircraft 1970–1979 | Military helicopters | Falklands War aircraft | Gulf War aircraft | Military equipment of the Iraq War | British helicopters 1970–1979 | Search and rescue helicopters | Westland aircraft The Westland Lynx is a British multi-purpose military helicopter designed and built by Westland Helicopters at its factory in Yeovil. Originally intended as a utility craft for both civil and naval usage, military interest led to the development of both battlefield and naval variants. The Lynx went into operational usage in 1977 and was later adopted by the armed forces of over a dozen nations, primarily serving in the battlefield utility, anti-armour, search and rescue and anti-submarine warfare roles. The Lynx was the world's first fully aerobatic helicopter. In 1986 a specially modified Lynx set the current Fédération Aéronautique Internationale's official airspeed record for helicopters. The helicopter is now produced and marketed by AgustaWestland. * Development * Origins The initial design (then known as the Westland WG.13) was started in the mid-1960s as a replacement for the Westland Scout and Wasp, and a more advanced alternative to the UH-1 Iroquois. As part of the Anglo-French helicopter agreement signed in February 1967, the French company Aérospatiale were given a work share in the manufacturing programme. Aérospatiale received 30% of production with Westland performing the remainder. It was intended that France would buy Lynxes for its Navy and as an armed reconnaissance helicopter for the French Army, with the United Kingdom in return buying Aérospatiale Gazelles and Pumas for its armed forces. The French Army cancelled its requirement for Lynxes in October 1969. The original Lynx design was powered by two Rolls-Royce Gem 2 turboshaft engines, and used many components derived from the Scout and Wasp. However, the rotor was new, being of a semi-rigid design with honeycomb sandwich blades. The first Lynx prototype took its maiden flight on 21 March 1971. In 1972, a Lynx broke the world speed record over 15 and 25 km by flying at . It also set a new 100 km closed circuit record shortly afterwards, flying at . The British Army ordered over 100 Lynxes, designated the Lynx AH.1 (Army Helicopter Mark 1), for different roles, such as transport, armed escort, anti-tank warfare (with eight TOW missiles), reconnaissance and evacuation. The Army has fitted a Marconi Elliot AFCS system onto the Lynx for automatic stabilisation on three axes. Deliveries of production Lynxes began in 1977. An improved Lynx AH.1 with Gem 41-1 or Gem 42 engines and an uprated transmission was referred to as the Lynx AH.5; only five were built for evaluation purposes. The AH.5 led to the Lynx AH.7, which added a new tail rotor derived from the Westland 30, a reinforced airframe, improved avionics and defensive aids. These later received upgrades such as British Experimental Rotor Programme (BERP) rotor blades. The initial naval variant of the Lynx, known as the Lynx HAS.2 in British service, or Lynx Mk.2(FN) in French service, differed from the Lynx AH.1 in being equipped with a tricycle undercarriage and a deck restraint systems, folding main rotor blades, an emergency flotation system and a nose-mounted radar. An improved Lynx for the Royal Navy, the Lynx HAS.3, had Gem 42-1 Mark 204 engines, an uprated transmission, a new flotation system and an Orange Crop ESM system. The Lynx HAS.3 also received various other updates in service. A similar upgrade to the French Lynx was known as the Lynx Mk.4(FN). Many different export variants based on the Lynx HAS.2 and HAS.3 were sold to other air arms. In 1986, the former company demonstrator Lynx, registered G-LYNX, was specially modified with Gem 60 engines and BERP rotor blades. On 11 August 1986 the helicopter was piloted by Trevor Egginton when it set an absolute speed record for helicopters over a 15 and 25 km course by reaching 400.87 km/h (249.09 mph); an official record it currently holds. * Super Lynx and Battlefield Lynx Announced in 1984, the Lynx-3 was an enhanced Lynx development, with a stretched fuselage, a redesigned tailboom and tail surfaces, Gem 60-3/1 engines and a new wheeled tricycle undercarriage. The Lynx-3 also included BERP rotor blades, and increased fuel capacity. Both Army and Naval variants were proposed. The project was ended in 1987 due to insufficient orders. Only one Army Lynx-3 prototype was built. A development of the Lynx AH.7 with the wheeled undercarriage of the Lynx-3 was marketed by Westland as the Battlefield Lynx in the late 1980s. The prototype first flew in November 1989 and deliveries began in 1991. This variant entered British Army service as the Lynx AH.9. In the early 1990s, Westland incorporated some of the technology from the Naval Lynx-3 design into a less-radical Super Lynx. This featured BERP rotor blades, the Westland 30-derived tail rotor, Gem 42 engines, a new under-nose 360-degree radar installation and an optional nose-mounted electro-optical sensor turret. Royal Navy Lynx HAS.3s upgraded to Super Lynx standard were known in service as the Lynx HMA.8, and several export customers ordered new-build or upgraded Super Lynxes. Later, Westland offered the Super Lynx 200 with LHTEC CTS800 engines and the Super Lynx 300, which also had a new cockpit and avionics derived from the AgustaWestland EH101. Both of these models have achieved several export sales. Future Lynx/Lynx Wildcat: AgustaWestland AW159: The British Army and Royal Navy Lynx fleets are due to be upgraded to a new common advanced Lynx variant based on the Super Lynx 300, with a new tailboom, undercarriage, cockpit, avionics and sensors. Initially referred to as the Future Lynx, this type has since been renamed by AgustaWestland as the AW159 Lynx Wildcat. * Design The Lynx is a multi-purpose helicopter design with a side by side cockpit for pilot and observer. It features a large sliding crew door on each side giving access to the cabin which can be used to accommodate up to nine equipped troops dependent on seating configuration, or alternatively radio equipment when used in the command post role or surplus fuel for long journeys. Its twin Rolls Royce Gem turboshaft engines power a four-blade semi-rigid main rotor system. The Lynx is an agile helicopter, capable of performing loops and rolls. * Operational history The Lynx Mk.2(FN) entered service with the French Navy's Aviation navale in 1979. The Lynx AH.1 entered service with the Army Air Corps (AAC) in 1979, followed by the Lynx HAS.2 with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) in 1981. The FAA Lynx fleet was upgraded to Lynx HAS.3 standard during the 1980s, and again to Lynx HMA.8 standard in the 1990s. Most Army Lynx were later upgraded to Lynx AH.7 standard. 2009: , the AAC operate the Lynx AH.7 and AH.9 as utility helicopters. Army owned Lynx AH.7 and AH.9 are also in service with the FAA where they operate as attack/utility helicopters in support of the Royal Marines. Lynx HAS.3 and HMA.8 operate as anti-submarine warfare and maritime attack helicopters equipped with the Stingray torpedo, Sea Skua anti-ship missile and depth charges from Royal Navy warships. HAS.3 and HMA.8 are also capable of anti-trafficking and anti-piracy roles when carrying boarding parties and when fitted with the FN Herstal M3M pintle mounted heavy machine gun. The HAS.2 naval ASW variant took part in combat operations in British service during the Falklands War in 1982. Although none were shot down, three were lost aboard vessels hit in Argentine air attacks (HMS Coventry, HMS Ardent and MV Atlantic Conveyor). Lynx helicopters used the Sea Skua to devastating effect against the Iraqi Navy during the 1991 Gulf War. The Lynx also saw service with British Army forces during that conflict. In September 2000 the Lynx was used during an operation to rescue British soldiers in Sierra Leone. The Lynx was used during the invasion of Iraq in 2003. It has also seen extensive service during peacekeeping operations and exercises, and it is standard equipment for most Royal Navy surface combatants when they deploy. A British Lynx from 847 Naval Air Squadron was shot down over Basra, Iraq on 6 May 2006. The helicopter was downed by a surface-to-air missile (using a Man Portable Air Defence System) killing all five on board. This was the first British helicopter and only the second British aircraft downed (the first was an RAF Hercules) due to enemy fire in the war. A flight of either AAC or RM Lynx AH.7s are based at Basra Air Station under command of the Joint Helicopter Force (Iraq) on a rotational basis, but are restricted operationally during the summer months due to the very high daytime temperatures which affect lifting capacity and endurance dramatically. The Super Lynx has been used extensively by the Portuguese Navy in Operation Ocean Shield. It operates from NRP Alvares Cabral and has been fitted with a FN M3M 12.7 mm machine gun. On 28 February 2011, one Royal Netherlands Navy Naval Aviation Service Lynx was captured in Libya during an evacuation mission. Three navy personnel were taken prisoner by Libyan troops and two civilians were evacuated by other means. Variants: Land-based variants: ;Westland WG.13 * Prototype, first flight 21 March 1971. Thirteen prototypes built. ;Lynx AH.1 * Initial production version for the British Army Air Corps, powered by 671 kW (900 hp) Gem 2 engines, with first production example flying 11 February 1977, and deliveries continuing until February 1984, with 113 built. Used for a variety of tasks, including tactical transport, armed escort, anti-tank warfare (60 were equipped with eight TOW missiles as Lynx AH.1 (TOW) from 1981), reconnaissance and casualty evacuation. * ;Lynx AH.1GT * :Interim conversion of the AH.1 to partial AH.7 standard for the Army Air Corps with uprated engines and revised tail rotor. ;Lynx HT.1 * Planned training version for Royal Air Force. Cancelled. ;Lynx AH.5 * Upgraded version for the Army Air Corps, with 835 kW (1,120 shp) Gem 41-1 engines and uprated gearbox. Three built as AH.5 (Interim) as Trials aircraft for MoD. Eight ordered as AH.5s for Army Air Corps, of which only two built as AH.5s, with remaining six completed as AH.7s. Four were later upgraded to AH.7 standard and one was retained for trials work as an AH.5X. ;Lynx AH.6 * Proposed version for the Royal Marines with undercarriage, folding tail and deck harpoon of Naval Lynx. Not built. ;Lynx AH.7 * Further upgraded version for the Army Air Corps, with Gem 41-1 engines and uprated gearbox of AH.5 and new, larger, composite tail rotor. Later refitted with BERP type rotor blades. Twelve new build, with 107 Lynx AH.1s converted. A small number also used by the Fleet Air Arm in support of the Royal Marines. Now replaced by the WAH-64 Apache as the main attack helicopter. * ;Lynx AH.7(DAS) * :AH.7 with Defensive Aids Subsystem. ;Lynx AH.9 ("Battlefield Lynx") * Utility version for Army Air Corps, based on AH.7, but with wheeled undercarriage and further upgraded gearbox. Sixteen new-built plus eight converted from AH.7s. * ;Lynx AH.9A * :AH.9 with uprated LHTEC CTS800-4N 1,015 kW (1,362 shp) engines. 22 are to be upgraded. * Naval variants ;Lynx HAS.2 / Mk.2(FN) * Initial production version for the Royal Navy (HAS.2) and the French Navy (Mk.2(FN)), powered by Gem 2 engines and with wheeled undercarriage, folding rotors and tail and deck harpoon. HAS.2 equipped with British Sea Spray radar, with Mk.2(FN) having French radar and dipping sonar. When it is used in the anti-submarine role, it can carry two torpedoes or depth charges. For anti-surface warfare, it is equipped with either four Sea Skua missiles (Royal Navy) or four AS.12 missiles (French Navy). 60 built for Royal Navy, and 26 for France. ;Lynx HAS.3 * Improved version of HAS.2 powered by Gem 42-1 engines and with upgraded gearbox. Thirty built from new, with deliveries starting in March 1982 and all remaining HAS.2s (53 aircraft) converted to HAS.3 standards. * ;Lynx HAS.3S * :Improved version of the HAS.3 for the Royal Navy fitted with secure radio systems. * ;Lynx HAS.3GM * :Modified helicopters for the Royal Navy, for service in the Persian Gulf, with improved electronic warfare equipment, revised IFF and provision for Forward looking infrared (FLIR) under fuselage. Originally deployed for 1990-91 Gulf War. Designated HAS.3S/GM when fitted with secure radios. (GM denotes Gulf Modification). * ;Lynx HAS.3ICE * :HAS.3 modified for Antarctic service aboard ice patrol ship HMS Endurance. Designated HAS.3SICE when fitted with secure radios. * ;Lynx HAS.3CTS * :HAS.3 upgraded with avionics system proposed for HMA.8. Seven converted as test beds. ;Lynx Mk.4(FN) * Upgraded version for the Aéronavale, with Gem 42-1 engines. Fourteen built. ;Lynx HMA.8:Upgraded maritime attack version based on Super Lynx 100. Gem 42-200 engines, BERP type main rotors and larger tail rotor of AH.7. Fitted with FLIR in turret above nose, with radar moved to radome below nose. * ;Lynx HMA.8(DSP) * :Digital Signal Processor. * ;Lynx HMA.8(DAS) * :Defensive Aids Subsystem. DSP aircraft were modified. * ;Lynx HMA.8(SRU) * :SATURN (Second-generation Anti-jam Tactical UHF Radio for NATO) Radio Upgrade. DAS aircraft modified. Incorporates SIFF (Successor to IFF). * ;Lynx HMA.8(CMP) * :Combined Mods Programme. SRU aircraft modified with improved communications and defensive systems. * Note: At the time of writing, all HMA.8 aircraft have been upgraded to CMP standard and as such HMA.8(CMP) aircraft have since been re-designated back to HMA.8(SRU). The Lynx HAS.8 fleet are currently undergoing further modifications, by the Lynx Operational Support Team, to improve self-defense, mission execution and survivability. These modifications will not effect the SRU designation. Export variants: ;Lynx Mk.21 * Export version of the HAS.2 for the Brazilian Navy. Brazilian navy designation SAH-11. Nine delivered. ;Super Lynx Mk.21A * Version of the Super Lynx (based on HAS.8) for the Brazilian navy, with Gem 42 engines and 360° traverse Seaspray 3000 radar under nose. Nine new build helicopters plus upgrades of remaining five original Mk.21s. ;Lynx Mk.22 * Unbuilt export version for the Egyptian Navy. ;Lynx Mk.23 * Export version of the HAS.2 for the Argentine Navy. Two built. Grounded due to British embargo on spares following Falklands War. Single surviving helicopter later sold to Denmark. ;Lynx Mk.24 * Unbuilt export utility version for the Iraqi army. ;Lynx Mk.25 * Export version of the HAS.2 for the Royal Netherlands Navy. Designated UH-14A in Dutch service. Used for utility and SAR roles. Six built. ;Lynx Mk.26 * Unbuilt export armed version for the Iraqi army. ;Lynx Mk.27 * Export version for the Royal Netherlands Navy with 836 kW (1,120 kW) Gem 4 engines. Equipped for ASW missions with dipping sonar. Designated SH-14B in Dutch service. 10 built. ;Lynx Mk.28 * Export version of the AH.1 for the Qatar Police. Three built. ;Lynx Mk.64 * Export version of the Super Lynx for the South African Air Force. ;Lynx Mk.80 * Export version for the Royal Danish Navy based on the HAS.3 but with non-folding tail. Eight built. ;Lynx Mk.81 * Upgraded ASW version for the Royal Netherlands Navy, powered by Gem 41 engines with no sonar but fitted with towed Magnetic anomaly detector. Designated SH-14C in Dutch service, and mainly used for training and utility purposes. Eight built. ;SH-14D * UH-14A/SH-14B/SH-14C Lynx upgraded to a common standard by the Royal Netherlands Navy under the STAMOL programme with Gem 42 engines, provision for dipping sonar and FLIR. 22 upgraded. ;Lynx Mk.82 * Unbuilt export version for the Egyptian army. ;Lynx Mk.83 * Unbuilt export version for the Saudi Arabian army. ;Lynx Mk 84 * Unbuilt export version for the Qatar army. ;Lynx Mk 85 * Unbuilt export version for the United Arab Emirates army. ;Lynx Mk.86 * Export SAR version of the HAS.2 for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. ;Lynx Mk.87 * Embargoed export version for the Argentine navy. Two completed and sold to Denmark as Mk.90 other six not built ;Lynx Mk.88 * Export version for the German Navy with Gem 42 engines, and dipping sonar. Nineteen built. Super Lynx Mk.88A is an upgraded version with Gem 42 engines, under-nose radome with 360° traverse radar and FLIR above nose. Seven new build helicopters plus conversion of Mk.88s. ;Lynx Mk.89 * Export version of HAS.3 for the Nigerian navy. Three built. ;Lynx Mk.90 * Export version for the Royal Danish Navy, modified from embargoed Argentine Mk.87s. Lynx Mk.90A is the upgraded version. The Lynx Mk.90 and Mk.90A were upgraded to Super Lynx standard and designated Mk.90B. ;Lynx Mk.95 * Version of Super Lynx for the Portuguese Navy, with Bendix radar in undernose radome, dipping sonar but no FLIR. Three new build plus two converted ex-Royal Navy HAS.3s. ;Super Lynx Mk.99 * Version of Super Lynx for the South Korean Navy, with Seaspray 3 radar in undernose radome, dipping sonar, and FLIR, for anti-submarine and anti-ship operations. Twelve were built. Super Lynx Mk.99A is the upgraded version with improved rotor, with a further 13 built. Hulls were produced in the United Kingdom while South Korea supplied domestic ISTAR, electro-optical, electronic warfare, and fire-control systems, as well as flight control actuators and undercarriage. ;Super Lynx Mk.100 * Super Lynx for the Royal Malaysian Navy, with 990 kW (1,327 hp) CTS-800-4N engines. Six built. ;Super Lynx Mk.110 * Super Lynx 300 for Thai Navy. Four ordered. ;Super Lynx Mk.120 * Export version for the Royal Air Force of Oman. 16 built. ;Super Lynx Mk.130 * Export version for the Algerian Navy. Four ordered. ;Super Lynx 300 * Advanced Super Lynx with CTS-800-4N engines. * Projects ;Lynx HT.3 * Proposed training version for the Royal Air Force, not built. ;Lynx-3 * Enhanced Lynx variant with Westland 30 tail boom and rotor, Gem 60 engines, new wheeled tricycle undercarriage and MIL-STD-1553 databus. Only one prototype built (serial/registration ZE477 / G-17-24) in 1984. ;Battlefield Lynx * Proposed export version of Lynx AH.9. ;Battlefield Lynx 800 * Proposed export version of Lynx AH.9 with LHTEC T800 engines, the project was suspended in 1992. One demonstrator helicopter was built and flight tested. ;Lynx ACH * Proposed Advanced Compound Helicopter technology demonstrator, partly funded by the Ministry of Defence. Announced in May 1998, the ACH was planned to be powered by RTM322 engines with variable area exhaust nozzles and a gearbox from the Westland 30-200, have wings attached at cabin roof level and BERP rotor blades. It was predicted to fly approximately 50% faster than a standard Lynx. Derivatives: ;Westland 30 * medium helicopter based on the Lynx, using some dynamic systems with a new, enlarged fuselage for up to 22 passengers. ;AgustaWestland AW159 Lynx Wildcat * a development of the Super Lynx with two LHTEC CTS800 engines; previously known as the Future Lynx. NOTES: AH Attack Helicopter, HAS : Helicopter, Anti-Submarine, HMA Helicopter, Maritime Attack, IFF : Identification Friend or Foe, (GM) Gulf Modification, (S) : Secure speech radio, and SIFF Successor to IFF. * Operators * Military operators ;ALG: * Algerian Air Force: Super Lynx 4 Mk.300 (to be delivered in 2010) ;ARG: * Argentine Navy: The Argentine Naval Aviation ordered ten Mk.23s but only two were delivered before the outbreak of the Falklands War and the ensuing arms embargo imposed by the British. To make up for the undelivered aircraft, the Argentines ordered the Eurocopter Fennec. The two delivered helicopters in addition to the undelivered helicopters were later sold to the Danish Navy and Brazilian Navy. ;BRA: * Brazilian Navy: 12 Lynx Mk.21A ;DNK: * Royal Danish Air Force: 8 Super Lynx Mk.90Bs used for various missions. These were originally operated by the Royal Danish Navy until January 2011. ;FRA: * French Navy: - French Naval Aviation: 31 Lynx HAS.4 ;GER: * German Navy: 22 Sea Lynx Mk.88A ;MYS: * Royal Malaysian Navy: 6 Super Lynx Mk.100 ;NLD: * Royal Netherlands Navy: 20 Super Lynx SH-14D. Originally received 6 search and rescue (UH-14A/Mk.25) and 18 anti-submarine warfare models (SH-14B/Mk.27 and SH-14C/Mk.81), which have all been upgraded to SH-14D standard for both SAR and ASW duties. ;NGA: * Nigerian Navy: 3 Lynx Mk.89 (One caught fire and was destroyed) - used for anti-submarine warfare. Retired from service. ;NOR: * Royal Norwegian Air Force: 6 Lynx Mk.86 - operated on behalf of the Norwegian Coast Guard. 337 Skvadron operates from the Nordkapp Class cutters. ;OMN: * Royal Air Force of Oman: 15 Super Lynx Mk.120 ;PAK: * Pakistan Navy - Pakistan Naval Air Arm: 3 Lynx Mk.3 - used for anti-ship / anti-submarine / transport duties. These aircraft have been retired from service since 2003. ;POR: * Portuguese Navy 5 Lynx Mk.95 - operated from the "Vasco da Gama class frigates". ;RSA: * South African Air Force: 4 Super Lynx Mk.64. Operated from the South African Navy Valour class frigates. ;KOR: * Republic of Korea Navy: 12 Super Lynx Mk.99 and 13 Super Lynx Mk.99A. Used for anti-submarine and surface warfare. ;THA: * Royal Thai Navy had 2 Super Lynx 300s in use in January 2010. Operated by 203 Squadron at U-Tapao RTNS, Chonburi Province, Thailand. ;UK: * British Army - Army Air Corps: 120 Lynx AH.1 / AH.5 / AH.7 / AH.9. * Royal Navy - Fleet Air Arm: 80 Lynx HAS.2 / HAS.3 / HMA.8. * Law Enforcement operators ;QAT: * Qatar State Police * Specifications (Super Lynx Series 100)

Lynx (hélicoptère) Arme militaire britannique | Hélicoptère britannique | Hélicoptère français | Aéronef utilisé par l'aviation navale française Lynx (homonymie): Le Lynx est un hélicoptère conçu par Westland Helicopters et produit conjointement avec Aérospatiale. Son premier vol a eu lieu le 21 mars 1971. Prévu à l'origine pour un usage civil et naval, ses caractéristiques ont intéressé les milieux de la défense britannique, et des modèles pour l'armée de terre et de mer ont ainsi été développés. Opérationnel dès 1977, il a été par la suite adopté par plus d'une douzaine d'autres nations. Piloté par Rox Moxam en 1972, le Lynx a battu le record de vitesse sur 15 et 25 kilomètres à . Peu après, il a également réalisé le plus rapide circuit fermé de 100 kilomètres à une vitesse moyenne de . Le Lynx a connu une brillante carrière commerciale. La British Army a commandé, dans les années 1970, 100 Lynx AH (modèle d'attaque) Mk.1 pour plusieurs rôles, dont le transport tactique, l'escorte, la frappe anti-char (armé de 8 missiles TOW), la reconnaissance et l'évacuation. Ils ont adapté un système Marconi Elliot AFCS sur le Lynx afin d'assurer une stabilisation automatique sur 3 axes. En France, le Lynx wg13 MK4 est spécialisé principalement dans la lutte anti sous-marine. Pour cela, il peut être équipé d'un sonar actif DUAV4 à immersion variable : c'est un moyen de détection acoustique redoutable qui fait du Lynx la bête noire des sous-mariniers. Mais le Lynx, de par sa modularité, permet de remplir bien d'autres missions. Entre autres : * la lutte anti-navire : Dans cette version, le Lynx est équipé d'une caméra FLIR ainsi que d'un kit de combat TITUS. * L'action de vive force : Pour cette mission, l'équipage est renforcé par des membres du GIGN ou des commandos de marine suivant la mission et le théâtre des opérations. Un désignateur et un tireur d'élite sont ainsi embarqués. Le Lynx peut aussi être équipé d'une arme automatique de sabord de calibre 7,62 mm : l'AANF-1. De plus, le Lynx est compatible avec les équipements JVN. * La recherche et sauvetage est effectuée avec un plongeur. Les équipements mis en œuvre à bord sont la civière, la billy pugh, la sangle naufragé. * Les différentes missions de servitude et logistique : transport de charges, personnes VIP. Le Lynx est donc un hélicoptère très polyvalent. Il sera progressivement remplacé par le NH90 Eurocopter. 70 exemplaires du « Future Lynx » doivent remplacer les anciens modèles dans les années 2010. * Engagements Dans l'armée britannique, le Lynx figure dans le Army Air Corps (AAC) et le Fleet Air Arm (FAA) avec 119 exemplaires en service en 2006. Les versions du Lynx AH.7 et AH.9 opèrent dans l'AAC en tant qu'hélicoptère d'attaque. Dans le FAA, le Lynx AH.7 fait office d'hélicoptère d'attaque/utilitaire en support des Royal Marines alors que le Lynx HMA.8 est équipé de missiles Sea Skua anti-navires et de torpilles Stingray pour la lutte anti-sous-marine. Le premier engagement du Lynx par le Royaume-Uni a eu lieu durant la guerre des Malouines. Trois appareils furent détruits, mais aucun en combat. Plus important, l'engagement du Lynx HMA.8 durant la guerre du Golfe en 1991 a eu un effet dévastateur sur la marine irakienne. Le Lynx a également servi d'hélicoptère de transport de troupes à l'armée de terre durant ce conflit. Dernièrement, il est intervenu en mission lors de l'invasion de l'Irak en 2003. * Modèles * Westland WG.13 : Prototype ayant volé la première fois le 21 mars 1971. * Lynx AH.1 : Première production pour l'AAC, avec plus de 100 appareils construits. Utilisé pour des fonctions diverses comme le transport tactique, l'escorte, la frappe anti-char (armé de 8 missiles TOW), la reconnaissance et l'évacuation. * Lynx AH.1GT : Adaptation du AH.1 pour l'armée britannique. * Lynx HAS.2 : Première production pour la Navy britannique et l'Aéronautique navale française. Dans sa version anti-sous-marine, il est équipé de 2 torpilles ou charges sous-marines, et d'un sonar. Dans sa version surface, il est armé de 4 missiles Sea Skua (Navy britannique) ou de 4 missiles AS.12 (Aéronautique navale). * Lynx HAS.3 ** HAS.3 GM : 19 hélicoptères modifiés pour leur usage par la Navy dans le golfe persique. ** HAS.3 ICE : 2 hélicoptères pour la Navy pour les interventions en Arctique. ** HAS.3 : Version améliorée pour la Navy. ** HAS.3S : Version améliorée pour la Navy. * Lynx HAS.4 : Version améliorée pour l'aéronavale. * Lynx HAS.2 (FN) : Version française du HAS.2 pour l'aéronavale. * Lynx AH.5 : Version améliorée pour l'AAC. * Lynx AH.7 : Version d'attaque pour l'AAC. * Lynx HMA.8 Super Lynx : Version améliorée pour l'attaque navale. * Lynx AH.9 Battlefield Lynx : Version terrestre du précédent pour l'armée de terre britannique. * Lynx Mk.21 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour le Brésil. * Lynx Mk.22 : Version jamais produite du HAS.2 pour l'Égypte. * Lynx Mk.23 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour l'Argentine. * Lynx Mk.24 : Version jamais produite du HAS.2 pour l'Irak. * Lynx Mk.25 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour les Pays-Bas, aussi nommé UH-14A par l'armée néerlandaise. * Lynx Mk.24 : Version jamais produite du HAS.2 pour l'Irak. * Lynx Mk.27 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour les Pays-Bas, aussi nommé SH-14B par l'armée néerlandaise. * Lynx Mk.28 : Version d'exportation du AH.1 pour la police d'État du Qatar. * Lynx Mk.80 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour le Danemark. * Lynx Mk.81 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour les Pays-Bas, aussi nommé SH-14C par l'armée néerlandaise. * SH-14D : Version améliorée pour les Pays-Bas. * Lynx Mk.82 : Version jamais produite pour l'Égypte. * Lynx Mk.83 : Version jamais produite pour l'Arabie saoudite. * Lynx Mk 84 : Version jamais produite pour le Qatar. * Lynx Mk 85 : Version jamais produite pour les Émirats arabes unis. * Lynx Mk.86 : Version d'exportation du HAS.2 pour la Norvège. * Lynx Mk.87 : Version d'exportation sous embargo du HAS.2 pour l'Argentine. * Lynx Mk.88 : Version d'exportation pour l'Allemagne. * Lynx Mk.89 : Version d'exportation pour le Nigeria. * Lynx Mk.90 : Un hélicoptère exporté au Danemark. * Super Lynx Mk.95 : Version d'exportation du HAS.8 pour le Portugal. * Super Lynx Mk.99 : Version d'exportation du HAS.8 pour la Corée du Sud. * Battlefield 800 : Projet abandonné en 1992. * Super Lynx 300 * Future Lynx (premières livraisons prévu en 2011) Note : * HMA signifie Helicopter, Maritime Attack, soit en français : hélicoptère d'attaque maritime. * HAS signifie Helicopter, Anti-Submarine, soit en français : hélicoptère de lutte anti-sous-marine. * AH signifie Army Helicopter, soit en français : hélicoptère d'attaque * Pays acheteurs * Afrique du Sud: : 4 Super Lynx 300 pour usage sur les corvettes de classe Valour ; * Algérie: : 4 appareils, acquisition prévue pour 2011 ; * Allemagne: : 12 appareils commandés en 1981 pour usage sur des frégates ; * Argentine: * Brésil: * Corée du Sud: * Danemark: * France: * Malaisie: * Nigeria: * Norvège: * Oman: * Pays-Bas: : 6 appareils « Search and Rescue » et 18 modèles de lutte anti-sous-marine ; * Portugal: : Utilisés sur les frégates de classe Vasco da Gama ; * Qatar: * Royaume-Uni: : Appareils similaires * Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk * Kaman SH-2 Sea Sprite * Eurocopter AS.565 Panther * Galerie * Annexes ==

هندسة فراغية رياضيات في الرياضيات، الهندسة الفراغية أو الهندسة الصلبة هي الهندسة الإقليدية مطبقة في فضاء إقليدي ثلاثي الأبعاد مشابه للفضاء الذي نعيش فيه. تهتم الهندسة الفراغية بدراسة الأشكال الهندسية ثلاثية الأبعاد مثل المكعب، المنشور، المخروط، الهرم، الاسطوانة، الكرة، تقاطع المستويات والمستقيمات. وهناك العديد من البرامج المهمة التي تستخدم في شرح الهندسة الفراغية منها برنامج السبورة الذكية. وتهتم الهندسة الفراغية بدراسة أحجام ومساحات أسطح هذه الأجسام وعلاقة بعضها ببعض وفق قوانين ونظريات مبرهنة ثابتة. المقدمة تلعب الهندسة في حياتنا اليومية دوراً فعّالاً حيث استخدمت قديماً في معرفة مواقيت الصلاة والأهلة وفي تصميم القصور والبنايات وشق الأفلاج والقنوات والترع وفي تسيير أمور حياتهم اليومية، ولا زالت حتى يومنا هذا تلعب دوراً بارزاً في كثير من مواقف الحياة المعاصرة. مصطلحات في هندسة الفضاء المستقيمان المتخالفان: هما مستقيمان لا يمكن أن يحتويهما مستوى واحد ولا يتقاطعان. المسقط العمودي(لنقطة على مستوى) : تسمى نقطة تلاقي العمود النازل من نقطة خارج مستوى على هذا المستوى بالمسقط العمودي للنقطة على المستوى. المسلمة : هي عبارة تٌَقبل صحتها دون برهان. المسميات الأولية: هي كلمات غير معرفة مثل النقطة والمستقيم والمستوى وتستخدم لتعريف بعض المفاهيم أو وصف أشياء معينة. المستوى : سطح يمتد إلى ما لا نهايه في جميع الاتجاهات ويمثل هندسياً بشكل رباعي أو أي منحنى مغلق ويرمز له بأحد الأحرف س، ص، ع... أو بثلاث نقاط عليه ليست على استقامة واحدة أ، ب، جـ ويسمى المستوى أ ب جـ، وهو يضم مجموعة غير منتهية من النقاط. الفضاء : هو مجموعة غير منتهية من النقاط ويرمز له بالرمز (ف) وتكون الخطوط والمستقيمات والمستويات والسطوح والأجسام مجموع جزئية منه. النقاط المستقيمة : هي نقاط تقع على مستقيم واحد. النقاط المستوية : هي نقاط على مستوى واحد. الزاوية بين مستقيمين متخالفين : هي الزاوية التي يصنعها أحدهما مع أي مستقيم قاطع له وموازٍ للآخر. الزاوية الزوجية : هي الزاوية الناتجة من اتحاد نصفي مستويين مشتركين في مستقيم. الزاوية المستوية لزاوية زوجيه : هي الزاوية التي تنشأ من تقاطع الزاوية الزوجية مع مستوى عمودي على حرفها. قياس الزاوية الزوجية : هو قياس أي زاوية من زواياها المستوية الناتجة من تقاطع الزاوية الزوجية مع مستوى عمودي على حرفها. الزاوية بين مستقيم ومستوى : هي الزاوية بين المستقيم ومسقطه العمودي على المستوى. إذا كان مستقيم عمودياً على كل مستقيم في المستوى قيل أن : المستقيم عمودي على المستوى أو المستوى عمودي على المستقيم. المستقيم المائل على مستوى : هو المستقيم غير العمودي على مستو معلوم وقاطع له. يقال للمستويين أنهما متعامدان إذا كانت الزاوية الزوجية بينهما قائمة. نظريات ونتائج : نظرية 1 : إذا عامد مستوي أحد مستقيمين متوازيين فهو يعامد الآخر. نتيجة 1 : إذا تعامد مستقيم مع مستقيمين متقاطعين فهو يعامد المستوي الذي يعينانه. سواء مر بنقطة تقاطعهما أو لم يمر. نظرية 2 : أي مستقيمين عموديين على مستوي واحد متوازيان. نظرية 3 : إذا عامد مستقيم أحد مستويين متوازيين فإنه يعامد الآخر. نظرية 4 : أي مستويين عموديين على مستقيم واحد فإنهما متوازيان.

Solid geometry Euclidean solid geometry dateDecember 2009: In mathematics, solid geometry was the traditional name for the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean space — for practical purposes the kind of space we live in. It was developed following the development of plane geometry. Stereometry deals with the measurements of volumes of various solid figures including cylinder, circular cone, truncated cone, sphere, and prisms. The Pythagoreans had dealt with the regular solids, but the pyramid, prism, cone and cylinder were not studied until the Platonists. Eudoxus established their measurement, proving the pyramid and cone to have one-third the volume of a prism and cylinder on the same base and of the same height, and was probably the discoverer of a proof that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the cube of its radius. See also: Archimedes, Johannes Kepler, planimetry, Plato, Timaeus (dialogue) ...paraphrased and taken in part from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica * Basic topics of solid geometry Basic topics are: Other topics: * projective geometry of three dimensions leading to * proof of Desargues' theorem by using an extra dimension * further polyhedra * descriptive geometry. Analytic geometry and vector techniques have a major impact by allowing the systematic use of linear equations and matrix algebra; this becomes more important for higher dimensions. A major reason to study this subject is the application to computer graphics, meaning that algorithms become important.

Géométrie dans l'espace Géométrie dans l'espace | Géodésie La géométrie dans l'espace consiste à étudier les objets définis dans la géométrie plane dans un espace à trois dimensions et à y ajouter des objets qui ne sont pas contenus dans des plans : surfaces (plans et surfaces courbes) et volumes fermés. Il s'agit donc de géométrie dans un espace à trois dimensions. Géométrie euclidienne dans l'espace : On peut adopter, dans l'espace à trois dimensions, les mêmes axiomes que la géométrie euclidienne. Lorsque l'on étudie les objets de la géométrie plane (appris au complémentaire), il suffit en général de se contenter de les imaginer dans un plan. Résoudre un problème revient ainsi à considérer différents plans, et à étudier les propriétés des objets contenus dans ces plans. La solution vient en général du fait qu'un objet appartient à plusieurs plans à la fois. Les objets sont dits « coplanaires » s'ils appartiennent à un même plan. Notons que : * par deux droites sécantes, il passe un plan et un seul. * par deux droites parallèles non confondues, il passe un plan et un seul. * par trois points non alignés, il passe un plan et un seul. * par une droite et un point hors de cette droite, il passe un plan et un seul. donc on peut définir un plan par trois points non alignés – ou – par deux droites sécantes – ou – par deux droites parallèles non confondues – ou – par une droite et un point hors de cette droite. Exemple d'objets non plans : Surfaces courbes ouvertes : * paraboloïdes de révolution * hyperboloïdes de révolution * cônes de révolution Surfaces fermées : * polyèdres ** cônes à base polygonale ** prismes ** parallélépipèdes ** pyramides * surfaces de révolution ** cônes de révolution ** cylindres ** sphères ** ellipsoïdes ** paraboloïdes Adaptation de notions de géométrie plane : * Perpendicularité ** Normale à une surface * Transformations : ** Homothétie ** Projection ** Rotation Notions spécifiques : * Angle solide * Solide géométrique Voir aussi Géométrie analytique > Géométrie analytique dans l'espace. Géométrie non-euclidienne dans l'espace : On peut appliquer les axiomes des géométries non-euclidiennes (géométrie hyperbolique et elliptique) dans l'espace. Le résultat est assez déroutant pour le sens commun, mais a permis le développement de la théorie de la relativité générale, notamment en fournissant un modèle géométrique à la gravité. On ne parle plus de « droite », mais de « géodésique » ; ainsi, la trajectoire d'un satellite dans l'espace est une géodésique, ce qui permet de prédire par exemple le phénomène d'avance du périhélie; de même, la trajectoire d'un rayon lumineux entre deux étoiles correspond à une géodésique de longueur nulle (ce qui ne signifie pas pour autant que les deux points de l'espace-temps soient confondus : rappelons que celui-ci constitue un espace non-euclidien). En utilisant une géométrie dans l'espace euclidien et la théorie de la gravitation de Newton (force reliant les centres des astres), on obtiendrait une trajectoire elliptique sans avance du périhélie, contrairement à ce qui est constaté expérimentalement (abstraction faite de l'avance du périhélie due aux perturbations des autres planètes). On dit parfois, par boutade, que le modèle de gravitation de Newton n'est totalement valable que dans un seul cas : celui où aucun corps massif n'est là pour en perturber le modèle, ce qui a évidemment quelque chose de gênant. Bibliographie : * Le géométricon, bande dessinée de la collection Les Aventures d'Anselme Lanturlu, Jean-Pierre Petit, .

دلس مدن وبلدات وقرى الجزائر دللس أو دلّس مدينة جزائرية على ساحل البحر المتوسط. بين بجاية ومدينة الجزائر. تنقسم المدينة إلى حيين. القصبة أو المدينة الفديمة وتتركز في المرتفعات يمزها الشوارع الضيقة والبيوت المطلية بالأبيض والبساتين الكثيرة. ثم المدينة الأوروبية والممتدة على طول الساحل وفي الطرف امقابل للمدينة العربية. (دلس / تدلس/ دَلِس / تَدلِس) يرجع الفضل للقرطاجيين في إنشاء هذه المدينة. تطورت المدينة بعد قدوم الرومان وأصبت تسمى روسوكوروس، وعرفت عهدا من الرخاء في عهد الإمبراطور كلوديوس 50 م. لا تزال بعض الأسوار القديمة غربي المدينة شاهدت على هذا العهد، كما أن المنابع المعروفة باسم سيدي سوسان ترجع إلى هذا العهد أيضاً. كما أن الحفريات ساعدت على العثور على عدة نماذج لفسيفساء، وبعض الحلي والأواني والتي تم عرض يعضها في متحف الجزائر. عرفت المدينة بعدها عدة غزوات وزلازل دمرت المدينة القديمة. مع مجئ العرب، قام هؤلاء ببناء المدينة من جديد وعلى أنقاض المدينة الفينيقية. خضعت المدينة بعدها لسيطرة الحماديين. كما استقر بها معز الدولة بن صمادح صاحب المرية بعد اكتساح المرابطين للأندلس 1088 م. استولى عليها أبو عبد الله الحفصى وانتزعها من أيدي بني عبد الواد ثم أقر عليها عاملاً من قبله مع حامية من الجند. إلا أن السلطان أبو حمو وبعض حصاره المدينة استطاع أن يستردها مجددا. بعد استيلاء الإسبان على بجاية سنة 1509 م. أصبحت دلس قاعدة للأخوان بربروسة عروج وخير الدين ومنها انطلقت الحملات لأسترداد المدن المحتلة قبل أن ينتقلا إلى مدينة الجزائر. بدأ الفرنسيون في غزو منطقة القبائل منذ عام 1837 م. وقاد الماريشال بيجو الحملة الفرنسية في المنطقة وواجه مقاومة شرسة قادتها قبيلة فليسة، انتهت المقاومة مع اكمال الفرنسيين لسيطرتهم على المنطقة ودخول دلس في شهر مايو من سنة 1837 م. كانت دلس من أوائل المدن التي عمل فيه جيش التحرير الوطني الجزائري عمليات ضد الاستعمار في نوفمبر 1954. روابط مواقع شبكية : * (بالعربية والفرنسية) * (بالفرنسية) * www.s7ab-bourdjefnaar.com باش بغيت ولاية بومرداس:

Dellys Populated places in Boumerdès Province Dellys (دلّس: ) is a small coastal town in northern Algeria, almost due north of Tizi-Ouzou and just east of the river Sebaou. It is notable for an Ottoman-era casbah, two colonial-era lighthouses (marking Cape Bengut), and some beaches; the principal activities of the area are fishing and farming. In Roman times, it was called Rusuccuru; in medieval times, Tedelles. In 1998 it had a population of 19,500 in the municipality. * Bombing 2007 Dellys bombing: On September 8, 2007, at least 30 people were killed and 47 injured in a suicide car bomb attack on an Algerian naval barracks in the Dellys * Demographics * References== Reflist: Boumerdès Province:

Dellys Ville d'Algérie | Commune de la wilaya de Boumerdès commune algérienne: datedécembre 2011: Dellys est une commune algérienne de la wilaya de Boumerdès, en Kabylie. Elle est située à de la ville de Boumerdes, chef-lieu de la wilaya. Elle est également le chef-lieu éponyme de la daïra de Dellys. La ville est surtout connue pour être celle de la grande sainte amazigh Marcienne de Dellys convertie au christianisme et qui a combattu les idoles. * Géographie Dellys est une ville côtière sur le littoral nord algérien dans la grande Kabylie, est un chef-lieu de commune situé à 50 km de la ville de Boumerdes, chef-lieu de wilaya. Sa superficie est de 50,6 km² à travers lesquels est disseminée une population de 29492 habitants (RGPH de 2008). * Situation ...: Relief, géologie, hydrographie : ...: Transports : ...: Lieux-dits, quartiers et hameaux : Outre son chef-lieu Dellys-ville, la commune de Dellys est composée des localités suivantes : Takdampt EL_madjni Ladjena . Bordje fnare •: Beni Azeroual •: Asouaf •: Thouabet •: Boukmach •: Bouafia •: Brarat •: Dar El Melh •: Boumeda •: Ouled Mahdjoub •: Beni Amara •: Tizeghouine •: Dar rabah •: Ouled Sabeur •: Chegga •: Mezoudj •: Houasna •: Azrou Urbanisme : ...: Toponymie : ...: Histoire : section à sourcer: On l'a identifié avec l'antique Rusucurru (Rusuccuro ou Rusucurum, en grec Pουσουκκόρου) en compétition avec Tigzirt. Dellys, ville millénaire, demeure un témoin de plusieurs civilisations qui se sont succédé en Algérie. Dellys a été numide, romaine, arabe, ottomane, française,puis après l’indépendance Algérienne comme toutes les villes du pays, en 1962. Tideles à l’origine, Rusuccurus du temps des carthaginois, Adyma à l’ère romaine et Dellys aujourd’hui. Le quartier de la casbah reflète clairement ce brassage avec ses styles urbanistiques. La casbah de Dellys, fondée en 1068, serait la plus ancienne des villes algériennes. En 1844, lors de l’occupation française, ce quartier, comme toute l’agglomération d’ailleurs, a été coupé en deux par la route nationale 24. beaucoup de traces sont présentes Après le séisme du 21 mai 2003, qui avait dévasté toute la région de Boumerdès et ses périphéries immédiates ou éloignées, Dellys n’est évidemment pas épargnée au point où tout ce site, classé patrimoine mondial, est réduit quasiment en ruines. Ce n’est qu’à la fin de l’année 2007 qu’un décret portant création et définition de la zone protégée de la casbah de Dellys a été émis. Les travaux de restauration du site ont débuté, précisément en janvier 2008. ...: Démographie : ...: Administration et politique : ...: Maires et présidents d'APC de Dellys : |} ÉluDonnées: ÉluFin: Économie : Terres agricoles et port mixte (pêches et commerce). Le port de Dellys, réalisé en 1925, connaît aujourd’hui une saturation quasi-totale en navires accostant à son niveau. Pour remédier à cette situation, les responsables du secteur ont décidé de le réaménager. En effet, outre les travaux de confortement réalisés après le séisme de 2003, une opération de dragage pour corriger son plan d’eau a été lancée. Sa flotte est composée de 11 chalutiers, 32 sardiniers et 150 petits métiers. ...: Vie quotidienne : Patrimoine : ...: Personnalités liées à la commune : * Marcienne de Dellys, sainte et martyre chrétienne, y est née au IVe siècle: . * Fernand Widal, médecin français, connu pour ses travaux sur la fièvre typhoïde, y est né le 9 mars 1862.

مرسيدس بنز الفئة سي إل إس مرسيدس بنز cls 350تاريخ=فبراير_2009: مرسيدس بنز الفئة CLS موديل 2007 تبلغ سرعة السيارة القصوى 250 كم / ساعة .. السيارة مزودة بناقل حركة أوتوماتيكي من 7 سرعات ، كما أنها تبلغ سرعة 100 كم / ساعة في غضون 7 ثوان ، تبلغ سعة المحرك 3500 سي سي كما تبلغ قوته الحصانية 272 حصان .. تحتوى السيارة على نظام فرامل مانع للانغلاق ABS و8 مكبرات صوت وبعض المميزات العديدة مثل الوسائل الهوائية وغيرها .. السيارة تمتاز بالثبات عند المنعطفات القاسية على الرغم من السرعات العالية .. بذرة سيارة:

Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class Mercedes-Benz vehicles | Rear-wheel-drive vehicles | 2000s automobiles | 2010s automobiles | Vehicles introduced in 2004 | Sedans | Coupes V6 (2006-2010) 5.5L V8 (2007-2010) 6.2L V8 (2007-2010) 5.0L V8 (2006) 5.4L supercharged V8 (2006) The Mercedes-Benz CLS is an executive-size sedan originally launched in 2004 and based on the W211 E-Class platform and was internally designated as the C219. The second generation CLS-Class was introduced in September 2010 and production started in the beginning of 2011. Background: The CLS marked Mercedes-Benz's return to the executive-size coupe market since the (W124) E-Class Coupe (a two-door sedan) went out of production in 1995. The (W210) E-Class did not spawn a coupe variant, as Mercedes-Benz choose instead to introduce a smaller coupe based on the compact C-Class, the CLK-Class. However, the CLK-Class was built with a lengthened C-Class wheelbase so it could be slotted as a mid-sized vehicle, and it also featured styling cues, engines, and similar pricing to the (W210) E-Class to give the impression that the (W124) E-Class Coupe had been directly replaced. Marketed as a four door coupe, the CLS recalls the fastback saloon designs of Robert Opron (born 1932) in the 1970s but is actually the work of the influential American automotive designer, Michael Fink (born 1967), who styled the first CLK, the C-Sportcoupe, and is known as the stylist who penned the Maybach 57 and 62. According to a Mercedes-Benz press release, the CLS-class was produced to combine the "strong, emotive charisma" of a coupe with the "comfort and practicality" of a saloon. Save for its four-door design, the CLS's design tends towards a coupe, as its sleek roofline reduces the rear passenger room to a 2+2 arrangement, and it offers a smaller selection of engines tending towards high powered of the range, compared to contemporary sedans such as the E-Class. The CLS name also caused some to confuse it as the four-door version of the CL-Class, the full-sized coupe based on the S-Class.dateMarch 2011: Due to the popularity of the CLS-Class, other manufacturers are offering similar four-door fastback sedans, such as the Volkswagen Passat CC, Citroën C6 and Honda Civic.date: July 2011: CLS W219 (2004-2010): The first generation of the CLS, the Mercedes-Benz C219, was based upon the W219 platform, a W211 E-Class spin-off that is six inches (152 mm) longer. IVM Automotive, a subsidiary of German roof system specialist Edscha, developed the entire vehicle from the Vision concept to the production version. More than 150 IVM engineers were involved, making the CLS the largest vehicle development project in the company's history.dateMarch 2011: The CLS-class was first displayed as the Vision CLS concept at the 2003 Frankfurt International Motor Show. The production version CLS 500 made its debut at the 2004 New York International Auto Show. A new AMG model was introduced at the 2004 Paris Motor Show, the CLS 55 AMG. Only 3,000 CLS 55 AMG cars were to be built each year. On sale in Europe in 2004, the CLS was offered for sale in the United States in January 2005 as the CLS 500 and CLS 55 AMG. In 2006, Mercedes phased out both the 5.0L in the CLS 500 and 5.5L Supercharged V8 in the CLS 55 AMG in favor of two new 5.5L and 6.2L V8s. This resulted in the 2007 model year name change to the CLS 63 AMG (6.2L V8) and CLS 550 (5.5L V8) in the United States. The CLS 500 badge continues to be used in various markets with the 5.5L V8 motor. Mercedes-Benz has planned a yearly production of 30,000 units worldwide, of which about 10,000 will be shipped to the U.S. market. The CLS 550 has a base price of US$65,620, with the CLS 55 starting at US$87,320. CLS63 starts at $92,500 for a base model, and is offered with steering wheel mounted paddles (F1 style), and 19" wheels for the US market. It was assembled by Daimler AG in Sindelfingen, Germany and Mercedes-Benz Mexico in Toluca, Mexico. * Specifications * Features Mercedes-Benz has put all of its latest safety features into the CLS-class. In addition to front airbags, there are side-impact airbags in the front seats and side curtain airbags throughout. The car features a "smart" sensor system for the seatbelts and airbags that can detect and react to accident severity. An optional Pre-Safe system predicts an impending collision; when the system is activated, the seatbelts tighten, the front passenger seat adjusts to crash positioning, and the sunroof closes automatically. Mercedes-Benz engineers describe the feature as a human-like reflex system. The air suspension has three settings. The default setting, "Comfort", is ideal under normal driving conditions, stiffening as the car's speed increases. "Sport 1" and "Sport 2" settings give the car more agility on winding and bumpy roads. The car can also be raised three inches (76 mm), if needed. The CLS-class comes with a choice of four interior colors, three types of leather and two kinds of wood. Leather interior comes standard, with Nappa leather upholstery available on designo models. Burl walnut and dark laurel wood interior trim are available in either a high-gloss or silk matte finish. Leather colors include Black, Basalt Gray, Sunset Red and Cashmere. New scratch-resistant exterior paint is three times as durable as past exterior finishes. There are 33 inches (838 mm) of rear legroom, which is not quite as accommodating as the 35.6 inches (904 mm) available in the E-Class. Elbow room is generous at 57 inches (1448 mm). The trunk can hold 16 cubic feet (453 L) of cargo. The following features are standard in all models: heated auto-dimming mirrors, outside temperature gauge, rain-sensing wipers and projector-beam headlights. Also standard is a Thermatic automatic climate control system; this system assesses and adjusts interior temperature and humidity levels and filters the air in the cabin. There are dual controls in both the front and rear seats. Other available features include: self-cleaning bi-xenon HID headlamps, distronic radar-guided cruise control, power sunroof, keyless go, drive authorization system and Parktronic parking sensors. Available electronics include: COMAND control system, GPS navigation and surround sound audio. The CLS 55 AMG and CLS 63 AMG are modified versions of the CLS produced by Mercedes-AMG. Features exclusive to AMG models include: perforated sport seats, 18 inch (457 mm) light-alloy wheels with wider tires (for the UK), 19 inch five spoke light-alloy wheels (standard in North America, optional for all other markets), large air inlets and quad chromed oval exhaust pipes. * Sales Clear: CLS W218 (2010 - ): AMG: Mercedes-Benz unveiled the second generation CLS-Class in late August 2010 sharing the same concept as the 2004 version, but with the design direction changing with a more aggressive front. The CLS is available in 4-cylinder and V6 diesel variants and 6 and V8 petrol variants. The CLS 63 AMG version was launched at the start of 2011 and featured a new 5.5 L biturbo engine. This marks it the first time the CLS-Class had a manual transmission. * Engines Shooting Brake: Mercedes-Benz presented their new idea of how future second generation CLS-Class should look at the 2010 Beijing Motor Show CLS Shooting Brake concept which is an estate wagon based on CLS platform and will probably become an addition to CLS-class model line. Brabus Rocket: Brabus Rocket: It is a version created by Brabus. The original engine was replaced by a 6.3-litre V12 engine and the suspension, brakes and automatic transmission are optimized. References: reflist: *

Mercedes-Benz Classe CLS Automobile Mercedes-Benz | Automobile des années 2000 | Automobile des années 2010 automobile: La CLS est une berline basse créée par le constructeur automobile Mercedes-Benz dont la première génération a été lancée en 2004. Selon son constructeur, la CLS a créé le concept de coupé 4 portes. Ce qui constitue davantage un argument commercial qu'une vérité. Tout d'abord parce que la CLS, bien que basse de ligne, demeure incontestablement une berline. Ensuite parce que, si l'on admet qu'il s'agit bien d'un coupé 4 portes, il y a d'autres exemples dans l'histoire, et notamment la Rover P5 Coupé lancée en 1962 et qui comptait également 4 portes. La CLS a connu un bon succès, notamment grâce à cette lignée insolite mais aussi par des capacités dynamiques très intéressantes. Aux États-Unis, les ventes sont toutefois toujours restées très loin de celles de la berline Classe E. La CLS était dotée, dès son lancement, du nouveau V6 3.5 essence de 272 ch apparu sur le SLK, et du V8 5.0 de 306 ch connu de nombreuses Mercedes (Classe E, S, G, M, R, CLK, CL, SL). Évolution : L'offre en diesel, qui constitue une bonne partie des ventes sur le marché européen, est assurée par le V6 320 CDI, apparu en 2005 et développant 224 ch. Sur certains marchés d'Europe et notamment la France, il assure à lui seul l'essentiel des ventes de la CLS. S'agissant de la CLS 350, l'inauguration de l'injection directe d'essence a permis de gagner 20 ch, portant la puissance à 292 ch. L'appellation est devenue CLS 350 CGI. Le V8 de la CLS 500 a été remplacé par un bloc plus moderne et plus sobre malgré une augmentation de puissance conséquente (+ 82 ch, + ), passée de 306 ch à 388 ch. Le V8 5,5 litres AMG (équipé d'un compresseur) a été également remplacé par un bloc atmosphérique M156 de 6,2 litres dont la puissance est passée de 476 ch à 514 ch. Caractéristiques techniques : clr: : Mercedes CLS Seconde génération Janvier 2011 marquera l'arrivée de la seconde génération de la CLS . Cette dernière a été présentée pour la première fois dans sa version définitive au Mondial de l'automobile de Paris 2010 et s'inspire grandement du Mercedes Shooting Break Concept dévoilé en avril 2010 au Salon de l'automobile de Pekin. Selon les informations constructeur , les dimensions de la CLS seront quasiment les mêmes avec une longueur de 4,94 mètres (+), une largeur de 1,881 mètre et une hauteur de 1,416 mètre. Au niveau motorisations par contre, les différences seront plus notables avec notamment la nouvelle génération des diesels BlueEfficiency encore plus sobres et performants. clr: : Ventes aux États-Unis * Ventes en Allemagne * Notes ==

ذو اثني عشر ضلعا مضلعات في الهندسة الرياضية، ذو الاثني عشر ضلعا (ج. ذوات الاثني عشر ضلعا، وباليونانية دُودِكَغُونُن δωδεκάγωνον) هو مضلع له اثنا عشر ضلعا واثنتا عشرة زاوية. ذو الاثني عشر ضلعا المنتظم : ذو الاثني عشر ضلعا المنتظم تكون جميع أضلاعه ذات طول متساو، وجميع زواياه ذات قياس يساوي 150°. تعطى مساحته بالعلاقة حيث a طول ضلعه: * A 3 \cot\left( \frac{\pi}{12} \right) a^2 : 3 \left( 2+\sqrt{3} \right) a^2 \simeq 11.19615242 a^2. أو بدلالة R نصف قطر الدائرة المحيطة به: * A 6 \sin\left( \frac{\pi}{6}\right) R^2 : 3 R^2. أو بدلالة r نصف قطر الدائرة المحاطة داخله: * A 12 \tan\left( \frac{\pi}{12}\right) r^2 : 12 \left( 2-\sqrt{3} \right) r^2 \simeq 3.2153903 r^2. مراجع: ثبت_المراجع: مضلعات: بذرة رياضيات: بوابة رياضيات: Dodecagons:

Dodecagon Polygons {{Infobox polygon t{6} In geometry, a dodecagon is any polygon with twelve sides and twelve angles. Regular dodecagon: It usually refers to a regular dodecagon, having all sides of equal length and all angles equal to 150°. Its Schläfli symbol is {12}. The area of a regular dodecagon with side a is given by: * \begin{align} A & 3 \cot\left(\frac{\pi}{12} \right) a^2 : 3 \left(2+\sqrt{3} \right) a^2 \\ & \simeq 11.19615242\,a^2. \end{align} Or, if R is the radius of the circumscribed circle, * A 6 \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{6}\right) R^2 : 3 R^2. And, if r is the radius of the inscribed circle, * \begin{align} A & 12 \tan\left(\frac{\pi}{12}\right) r^2 : 12 \left(2-\sqrt{3} \right) r^2 \\ & \simeq 3.2153903\,r^2. \end{align} A simple formula for area (given the two measurements) is: \scriptstyle A\,\,3ad where d is the distance between parallel sides. Length d is the height of the dodecahedron when it sits on a side as base, and the diameter of the inscribed circle. By simple trigonometry, \scriptstyle d\,: \,a(1\,+\,2cos{30^\circ}\,+\,2cos{60^\circ}). Dodecagon construction: A regular dodecagon is constructible using compass and straightedge: Construction of a regular dodecagon Occurrence: Here are 3 example periodic plane tilings that use dodecagons: Petrie polygons: The regular dodecagon is the Petrie polygon for many higher dimensional polytopes, seen as orthogonal projections in Coxeter planes, including: * Examples in use== In block capitals, the letters E and H (and I in a slab serif font) have dodecagonal outlines. Regular dodecagonal coins include: * British threepenny bit from 1937 to 1971, at which time it ceased to be legal tender. * Australian 50-cent coin * Fijian 50 cents * Tongan 50-seniti, since 1974 * Solomon Islands 50 cents * Croatian 25 kuna * Romanian 5000 lei, 2001–2005 * Canadian penny, 1982–1996 * South Vietnamese 25 đồng, 1968–1975 * Zambian 50 ngwee, 1969–1992 * Malawian 50 tambala, 1986–1995 * Mexican 20 centavos, since 1992

Dodécagone Polygone Un dodécagone est une figure de géométrie plane. C'est un polygone à 12 sommets et côtés. Il possède 54 diagonales et la somme de ses angles est égale à 1800° . Un dodécagone régulier est un dodécagone dont tous les côtés et tous les angles sont égaux. La forme régulière est construite au compas par la dissection de chaque côté d'un hexagone régulier. Le périmètre du dodécagone régulier donne une meilleure approximation de Pi que celle donnée par la mesure du périmètre de l'hexagone. Caractéristiques numériques du dodécagone régulier : La relation entre le côté a du dodécagone et le rayon r de son cercle circonscrit est donnée par * a r \sqrt{2 - \sqrt{ 3}} ce qui fournit comme approximation de π * \pi \approx 6\sqrt{2 - \sqrt 3} L'aire A du dodécagone régulier de côté a est donnée par : * A : 3 a^2 \cot \frac{\pi}{12} 3 a^2 \left( 2+\sqrt{3} \right) \simeq 11,1962\ a^2. Alternativement : * A : 3 r^2 \frac{}{}. où r est le rayon du cercle circonscrit. Construction du dodécagone régulier : Un dodécagone régulier peut être construit à l'aide d'un compas et d'une règle. L'animation ci-dessous montre une manière en 23 étapes pour y parvenir. Le rayon du compas n'est pas modifié entre les étapes 8 à 11. Pavage du plan à l'aide de dodécagone : Découpage : Un découpage astucieux d'un dodécagone régulier en 6 figures géométriques (pentagones ou triangles) permet par réassemblage des pièces, de construire un carré. D'autres découpages en 8, 10 ou 12 pièces permettent de reconstruire un triangle équilatéral, un pentagone, un décagone . La possibilité de tels découpages est une conséquence du théorème de Wallace-Bolyai-Gerwien. Notes :

جروفي (لغة برمجة) لغات برمجة نصية | لغات برمجة كائنية التوجه تاريخمايو_2011: جروفي هي لغة برمجة كائنية التوجه لـ جافا (منصة برمجية). وهي لغة ديناميكية ذات ملامح مشابهة لتلك الخاصة ب بايثون ، روبي ، بيرل و سمولتوك. ويمكن استخدامها ك لغة برمجة نصية لمنصة جافا. تستخدم جروفي قوسا لبناء الجملة مثيلا لجافا، وهي مصنفة ديناميكيا ككود جافا الصالح من حيث التركيب في لغة جروفي. التاريخ : تحدث جيمس ستراكان بداية عن تطوير جروفي في جولة برامجه في أغسطس 2003. وقد تم تحرير العديد من الاصدارات بين 2004 و 2006. بعدما بدأت معايرة وضع المواصفات الفنية القياسية لتكنولوجيا جافا ، تم تغيير رقم الاصدار وتم تحرير إصدار يسمى "0.1 " في الثاني من يناير 2007. بعد العديد من البيتات واصدار المرشحين المرقمين ب 1.1 في 7 ديسمبر 2007، تم اصدار جروفي 1.1 النهائي على الفور بإعادة تسميته ب جروفي 1.5 كانعكاس لكثير من التغييرات التي تم اجراؤها. في يوليو 2009، كتب ستاركان في برمجياته "أستطيع القول بأمانة أنه إذا أراني شخص ما البرمجة في كتاب الاسكالا لعالم الكمبيوتر الألماني مارتن أوديرسكي و ليكس سبون و بيل فينرز في عام يسبق 2003 ربما لم أكن ابتكرت جروفي." ترك ستاركان المشروع في صمت قبل عام من اصدار جروفي 1.0 في 2007 . المميزات : كثير من (ولكن ليس كل) ملفات الجافا الصالحة تعد ملفات جروفي صالحة. بالرغم من تماثل كل من اللغتين يمكن أن يكون كود جروفي أكثر إيجازا لأنه لا يتطلب كل العناصر التي يحتاجها الجافا. هذا يجعل من الممكن لمبرمجي الجافا تعلم جروفي تدريجيا من خلال البدء في بناء جمل مألوفة في الجافا قبل اكتساب المزيد من التعبيرات الاصطلاحية في الجروفي. خصائص الجروفي ليست متاحة في الجافا التي تشتمل على كل من الرموز الثابتة و المتحركة ( بكلمات رئيسية واضحة) ، الإغلاق، التحميل الزائد للمشغل(تعدد عمليات التنفيذ للمشغل)، التركيب الأساسي للقوائم و المصفوفات المتعلقة به(الخرائط) ، الدعم الأصلي للتعبيرات العادية ، التكرار متعدد الأشكال، التعبيرات المضمنة داخل سلاسل إضافية ، أساليب مساعدة إضافية ومشغل الملاحة الآمن"؟". للتحقق تلقائيا من الملغيات( على سبيل المثال "المتغير؟.الطريقة" أو"المتغير؟.المجال) يمكن بناء الجملة في جروفي بطريقة أكثر إيجازا من جافا. على سبيل المثال الجملة في الجافا 5+مثل : for (String it : new String[] {"Rod", "Carlos", "Chris"}) if (it.length يمكن التعبير عنها في جروفي بالشكل الآتي: ["Rod", "Carlos", "Chris"].findAll{it.size يقدم جروفي دعما أساسيا لمختلف لغة الترميز مثل لغة الرقم القابلة للامتداد و لغة رقم النص الفائق ويتم انجازها عن طريق بناء جملة نموذج الوثائق المضمنة. تسمح هذه الميزة بالتعريف ومعالجة أنواع عديدة من أصول البيانات غير المتجانسة مع بناء جملة ومنهجية برمجة موجزة وموحدة.date: November 2008: على عكس الجافا،فإن مصدر كود ملف جروفي يمكن تنفيذه بوصفه لغة برمجة نصية (غير مترجم)، إذا كانت تحوي كود خارج تعريف أي فئة أو إذا كان فئة ذات طريقة أساسية أو إذا كان قابلا للتشغيل أو GroovyTestCase. ولكن خلافا لبعض اللغات النصية مثل بور ن شيل يعرب نص جروفي بالكامل ويترجم وينتج قبل التنفيذ (مثل بيرل وروبي). (يحدث ذلك تحت الغطاء ولا يتم تخزين النسخة المترجمة باعتبارها نتاج اصطناعي للعملية). GroovyBeans هي نسخة جروفي لبرنامج جافا القابل لاعادة الاستخدام. يولد جروفي ضمنا طرقا للاسترجاع وتخفيف الألوان. في الكود التالي setColor(سلسلة اللون)و getColor مولدة ضمنا وآخر سطرين اللذان يظهران للوصول إلى اللون مباشرة هي في الواقع تستدعي الطرق المولة ضمنا. class AGroovyBean { String color } def myGroovyBean : new AGroovyBean myGroovyBean.setColor('baby blue') assert myGroovyBean.getColor 'baby blue' myGroovyBean.color : 'pewter' assert myGroovyBean.color 'pewter' يقدم جروفي تركيبا سهلا ومتوافقا للجملة لمعالجة القوائم والخرائط مذكرا ب بناء جملة مصفوفة جافا. def movieList : ['Dersu Uzala', 'Ran', 'Seven Samurai'] //looks like an array, but is a list assert movieList[2] 'Seven Samurai' movieList[3] : 'Casablanca' //adds an element to the list assert movieList.size 4 def monthMap : [ 'January' : 31, 'February' : 28, 'March' : 31 ] //declares a map assert monthMap['March'] 31 //accesses an entry monthMap['April'] : 30 //adds an entry to the map assert monthMap.size 4 * دعم بيئة التطوير المتكاملة العديد من بيئة تطوير متكاملة تدعم جروفي: * إكليبس من خلال Groovy-Eclipse * إنتيليج إيديا عن طريق Jet Groovy Plugin * نت بينز منذ نسخة 6.5 * جيه ديفيلوبر للاستخدام مع إطار تطبيقات وتطوير أوراكل * Xappworks في المراحل التجريبية الآن ومن المتوقع أن تصبح في السوق في أوائل 2011 * أنظر أيضا Free software: * Comparison of programming languages BeanShell * Clojure * Scala * Grails (framework) * Griffon (framework) * Ruby * JRuby * Jython * Boo * Pnuts * ZK Framework * Project Zero * Tellurium (software) * ملاحظات ثبت المراجع: : المراجع== Refbegin: * Refend:

Groovy (programming language) Scripting languages | Object-oriented programming languages | Java programming language family | Java specification requests | JVM programming languages | Articles with example code Groovy is an object-oriented programming language for the Java platform. It is a dynamic language with features similar to those of Python, Ruby, Perl, and Smalltalk. It can be used as a scripting language for the Java Platform. Groovy uses a Java-like bracket syntax. It is dynamically compiled to Java Virtual Machine (JVM) bytecode and interoperates with other Java code and libraries. Most Java code is also syntactically valid Groovy. Groovy 1.0 was released on January 2, 2007. * History James Strachan first talked about the development of Groovy in his in August 2003. Several versions were released between 2004 and 2006. After the JCP standardization process began, the version numbering was changed and a version called "1.0" was released on January 2, 2007. After various betas and release candidates numbered 1.1, on December 7, 2007, Groovy 1.1 Final was released and immediately rebranded as Groovy 1.5 as a reflection of the many changes that were made. In July 2009, Strachan wrote on his blog that "I can honestly say if someone had shown me the Programming in Scala book by Martin Odersky, Lex Spoon & Bill Venners back in 2003 I'd probably have never created Groovy." Strachan left the project silently a year before the Groovy 1.0 release in 2007. * Features Many (but not all) valid Java files are also valid Groovy files. Although the two languages are similar, Groovy code can be more compact, because it does not require all the elements that Java requires. This makes it possible for Java programmers to gradually learn Groovy by starting with familiar Java syntax before acquiring more Groovy idioms. Groovy features not available in Java include both static and dynamic typing (with the def keyword), closures, operator overloading, native syntax for lists and associative arrays (maps), native support for regular expressions, polymorphic iteration, expressions embedded inside strings, additional helper methods, and the safe navigation operator "?." to automatically check for nulls (for example, "variable?.method", or "variable?.field"). Groovy's syntax can be made far more compact than Java. For example, a declaration in Standard Java 5+ such as: for (String it : new String[] {"Rod", "Carlos", "Chris"}) if (it.length can be expressed in Groovy as: ["Rod", "Carlos", "Chris"].findAll{it.size Groovy provides native support for various markup languages such as XML and HTML, accomplished via an inline DOM syntax. This feature enables the definition and manipulation of many types of heterogeneous data assets with a uniform and concise syntax and programming methodology.dateNovember 2008: Unlike Java, a Groovy source code file can be executed as an (uncompiled) script if it contains code outside any class definition, is a class with a main method, or is a Runnable or GroovyTestCase. But, unlike some script languages such as Bourne Shell, a Groovy script is fully parsed, compiled, and generated before execution (similar to Perl and Ruby). (This occurs under the hood, and the compiled version is not saved as an artifact of the process.) GroovyBeans are Groovy's version of JavaBeans. Groovy implicitly generates accessor and mutator methods. In the following code, setColor(String color) and getColor are implicitly generated; and the last two lines, which appear to access color directly, are actually calling the implicitly generated methods. class AGroovyBean { String color } def myGroovyBean new AGroovyBean myGroovyBean.setColor('baby blue') assert myGroovyBean.getColor : 'baby blue' myGroovyBean.color 'pewter' assert myGroovyBean.color : 'pewter' Groovy offers simple, consistent syntax for handling lists and maps, reminiscent of Java's array syntax. def movieList ['Dersu Uzala', 'Ran', 'Seven Samurai'] //looks like an array, but is a list assert movieList[2] : 'Seven Samurai' movieList[3] 'Casablanca' //adds an element to the list assert movieList.size : 4 def monthMap [ 'January' : 31, 'February' : 28, 'March' : 31 ] //declares a map assert monthMap['March'] : 31 //accesses an entry monthMap['April'] 30 //adds an entry to the map assert monthMap.size : 4 IDE support : Many integrated development environments support Groovy: * Eclipse, through * IntelliJ IDEA, through the * NetBeans, since version 6.5 * TextMate * JDeveloper, for use with Oracle ADF * , a cloud-based IDE currently in beta & scheduled to enter the market early 2011

Groovy (langage) Langage de programmation | Plateforme Java Groovy: Groovy est le nom d'un langage de programmation orienté objet destiné à la plate-forme Java. Il constitue une alternative au langage Java pour cette plate-forme et est inspiré de Python, Ruby et Smalltalk. Il est l'objet de la spécification . Groovy utilise une syntaxe très proche de Java, avec des accolades, et est directement compilé, soit à la volée dynamiquement, soit classiquement avec un compilateur en bytecode. Groovy s'intègre et est entièrement compatible avec la JVM étant donné que le bytecode est le même. Il peut donc * utiliser les bibliothèques Java, * être utilisé dans des classes Java. Groovy peut être comparé à , l'objectif de faire un langage de scripting proche de java est le même, la mise en œuvre étant différente. * Principales caractéristiques du langage Groovy possède certaines caractéristiques qui le différencient du Java standard : * typage statique et typage dynamique, * listes, maps, et expressions régulières nativement supportées, * fermetures ou clôtures, * surcharge des opérateurs. * Comparaison entre Java et Groovy Voici une comparaison de Java et Groovy : Standard Java (Java 5+) class Filter { public static void main(String[] args) { for (String item : Arrays.asList("Rod", "Carlos", "Chris")) if (item.length Groovy list ["Rod", "Carlos", "Chris"] shorts : list.findAll { it.size * Langage de balisage (XML, HTML…) Une des caractéristiques notables de Groovy est sa gestion native des langages de balisage comme XML et HTML. Cette prise en charge permet de définir et manipuler par programmation plusieurs types de structures avec une syntaxe commune. Exemple : ce code Groovy… import groovy.xml.MarkupBuilder def myXMLDoc new MarkupBuilder myXMLDoc.workbook { worksheet(caption:"Employees") { row(fname:"John", lname:"McDoe") row(fname:"Nancy", lname:"Davolio") } worksheet(caption:"Products") { row(name:"Veeblefeetzer", id:"sku34510") row(name:"Prune Unit Zappa", id:"sku3a550") } } println myXMLDoc … produit le contenu XML suivant : Autres exemples : ;Hello World print "hello word" def name: 'World'; println "Hello $name!" ;Afficher une liste ordonnée de noms transformés en majuscule def names : ['Jean', 'John', 'Jill'] println names.collect{ it.toUpperCase }.sort ;Afficher les sept premiers carrés successifs de 2 def num : 2G 7.times { println "$num" num * num } 2 4 16 256 65536 4294967296 18446744073709551616 ;Définir des classes utilisateur class Person { String name String givenname int age String sex } class User extends Person { String userid String email } def titi new User(name: 'titi') titi.userid : 'titi1412' titi.email 'titi@acme.org' titi.age : 40 def rominet = new Person(name: 'rominet', age: 40, sex: 'uhum') println "Hé ${rominet.name} , ici ${titi.name}, un vieux copain de promo. Ecris moi sur ${titi.email} !"

جيك جيلنهال مواليد 1980 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | ممثلون أمريكيون | أمريكيون يهود جيك جيلنهال من مواليد 19 ديسمبر 1980 ممثل أمريكي، رُشح لجائزة الأوسكار عن فيلم جبل بروكباك، وحصل بنفس الدور على جائزة الأكاديمية البريطانية لفنون الفيلم والتلفزيون و قام ببطولة فيلم من إنتاج شركة ديزني. ولد جاك في ولاية كاليفورنيا * الترشيحات لجائزة الأوسكار أفضل ممثل مساعد عام 2006 عن فيلم Brokeback Mountain * الترشيحات لجائزة الغولدن غلوب == أفضل ممثل أستعراضى أو كوميدى عام 2011 عن فيلم Love and Other Drugs بذرة ممثل أمريكي: Jake Gyllenhaal: ru: es: en: th:

Jake Gyllenhaal 1980 births | Actors from Los Angeles, California | American people of Swedish descent | American child actors | American film actors | American Jews | American stage actors | American television actors | BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor | BAFTA winners (people) | California Democrats | Columbia University alumni | Jewish actors | Living people dateJune 2011: Jacob Benjamin "Jake" Gyllenhaal ( ; born December 19, 1980) is an American actor. The son of director Stephen Gyllenhaal and screenwriter Naomi Foner, Gyllenhaal began acting at age ten. He has appeared in diverse roles since his first lead role in 1999's October Sky, followed by the 2001 indie cult hit Donnie Darko, in which he played a psychologically troubled teen and onscreen brother to his real-life sister, actress Maggie Gyllenhaal. In the 2004 science-fiction film The Day After Tomorrow he portrayed a student caught in a cataclysmic global cooling event, alongside Dennis Quaid as his father. He then played against type as a frustrated Marine in Jarhead (2005). The same year, he garnered critical acclaim and an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor as Jack Twist in the film Brokeback Mountain opposite Heath Ledger. Gyllenhaal has promoted various political and social causes. He has appeared in Rock the Vote advertising, campaigned for the Democratic Party in the 2004 U.S. Presidential election, promoted environmental causes, and campaigned on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union. * Early life and education Gyllenhaal was born in Los Angeles, the son of film director Stephen Gyllenhaal and film producer and screenwriter Naomi Foner (née Achs). Maggie Gyllenhaal, his older sister and also an actress, appeared with Jake in the movie Donnie Darko. Gyllenhaal's father was raised in the Swedenborgian religion and is a descendant of the Swedish noble Gyllenhaal family. His last native Swedish ancestor was his great-great-grandfather, Anders Leonard Gyllenhaal. Jake Gyllenhaal's mother is from a Jewish family from New York City, and Gyllenhaal has said that he considers himself "more Jewish than anything else." On his 13th birthday, Gyllenhaal performed a "barmitzvah-like act, without the typical trappings", volunteering at a homeless shelter, because his parents wanted to instill in him a sense of gratitude for his privileged lifestyle. His parents insisted that he have summer jobs to support himself, and he thus worked as a lifeguard and as a busboy at a restaurant operated by a family friend. * Acting career * Early career During childhood, Gyllenhaal had regular exposure to filmmaking due to his family's deep ties to the industry. As an 11-year-old he made his acting debut as Billy Crystal's son in the 1991 comedy film City Slickers. His parents did not allow him to appear in the 1992 film The Mighty Ducks because it would have required him leaving home for two months. In subsequent years, his parents allowed him to audition for parts, but regularly forbade him to take them if he were chosen. He was allowed to appear in his father's films several times. Gyllenhaal appeared in the 1993 film A Dangerous Woman (along with sister Maggie); in "" a 1994 episode of ; and in the 1998 comedy Homegrown. Along with their mother, Jake and Maggie appeared in two episodes of Molto Mario, an Italian cooking show on the Food Network. Prior to his senior year in high school, the only other film not directed by his father in which Gyllenhaal was allowed to perform was the 1993 film Josh and S.A.M., a little-known children's adventure. Gyllenhaal graduated from the Harvard-Westlake School in Los Angeles in 1998, then attended Columbia University, where his sister was a senior and from which his mother had graduated, to study Eastern religions and philosophy. Gyllenhaal dropped out after two years to concentrate on acting, but has expressed intentions to eventually finish his degree. Gyllenhaal's first lead role was in October Sky, Joe Johnston's 1999 adaptation of the Homer Hickam autobiography Rocket Boys, in which he portrayed a young man from West Virginia striving to win a science scholarship to avoid becoming a coal miner. The film earned $32 million and was described in the Sacramento News and Review as Gyllenhaal's "breakout performance." From Donnie Darko to the London stage : Donnie Darko, Gyllenhaal's second major film, was not a box office success upon its initial 2001 release, but eventually became a cult favorite. The film, directed by Richard Kelly, is set in 1988 and stars Gyllenhaal as a troubled teenager who, after narrowly escaping death, experiences visions of a 6 foot (1.8 m) tall rabbit named Frank who tells him that the world is coming to an end. Gyllenhaal's performance was well-received by critics; Gary Mairs of Culture Vulture wrote that "Gyllenhaal manages the difficult trick of seeming both blandly normal and profoundly disturbed, often within the same scene." After the critical success of Donnie Darko, Gyllenhaal's next role was as Pilot Kelston in 2002's Highway alongside Jared Leto. His performance was described by one critic as "silly, cliched and straight to video." Gyllenhaal had more success starring opposite Jennifer Aniston in The Good Girl, which premiered at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival; he also starred in Lovely & Amazing with Catherine Keener. In both films he plays an unstable character who begins a reckless affair with an older woman. Gyllenhaal later described these as "teenager in transition" roles. Gyllenhaal later starred in the Touchstone Pictures romantic comedy Bubble Boy, which was loosely based on the story of David Vetter. The film portrays the title character's adventures as he pursues the love of his life before she marries the wrong man. The film was panned by critics, with one calling it an "empty-headed, chaotic, utterly tasteless atrocity". Following Bubble Boy, Gyllenhaal starred opposite Dustin Hoffman, Susan Sarandon and Ellen Pompeo in Moonlight Mile, as a young man coping with the death of his fiancée and the grief of her parents. The story, which received mixed reviews, is loosely based on writer/director Brad Silberling's personal experiences following the murder of girlfriend Rebecca Schaeffer. Gyllenhaal was almost cast as Spider-Man for Spider-Man 2 due to director Sam Raimi's concerns about original Spider-Man star Tobey Maguire's health. Maguire recovered, however, and the sequel was shot without Gyllenhaal. Instead, Gyllenhaal starred in the blockbuster The Day After Tomorrow in 2004, co-starring Dennis Quaid as his father. In his theatrical debut Gyllenhaal starred on the London stage in Kenneth Lonergan's revival of This is Our Youth. Gyllenhaal said, "Every actor I look up to has done theatre work, so I knew I had to give it a try." The play, which had been a critical sensation on Broadway, ran for eight weeks in London's West End. Gyllenhaal received favorable critical reviews and an Evening Standard Theatre Award in the category "Outstanding Newcomer." * Brokeback Mountain and subsequent roles 2005 was a prolific year for Gyllenhaal, who starred in the critically praised films Proof, Jarhead, and Brokeback Mountain. In Proof, featuring Gwyneth Paltrow and Anthony Hopkins, Gyllenhaal played a graduate student in mathematics who tries to convince Paltrow's character to publish a revolutionary proof to a problem puzzling the mathematicians' community. In Jarhead, Gyllenhaal played against his usual "sensitive yet disturbed" type by displaying an aggressive masculinity as a violent U.S. Marine during the first Gulf War. He also auditioned to be Batman for one of the biggest blockbusters Batman Begins and came close to getting the role but Christian Bale was ultimately chosen for it. In Brokeback Mountain, Gyllenhaal and Heath Ledger play young men who meet as sheep herders and embark upon a sexual relationship that begins in the summer of 1963 and lasts for 20 years. The film was often referred to in the media with the shorthand phrase "the gay cowboy movie," though there was differing opinion on the sexual orientation of the characters. The film won the Golden Lion prize at the Venice Film Festival. The film went on to win four Golden Globe Awards, four British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Awards, and three Academy Awards. Gyllenhaal was nominated for an Academy Award in the category of Best Supporting Actor for his performance, but lost to George Clooney for Syriana. Gyllenhaal also won the Best Supporting Actor BAFTA for the same role and received a Best Supporting Actor nomination and Best Film Ensemble nomination from the Screen Actors Guild. Also for Brokeback Mountain, he and Ledger won an MTV Movie Award for "Best Kiss" in 2006. Shortly after the 2006 Academy Awards, Gyllenhaal was invited to join the Academy in recognition of his acting career. Gyllenhaal was awarded the 2006 Young Artist Award for Artistic Excellence by The Americans for the Arts National Arts Awards for his role. Gyllenhaal expressed mixed feelings about the experience of being directed by Ang Lee in Brokeback Mountain, but generally had more praise than criticism for Lee's directing style. While complaining of the way Lee tended to disconnect from his actors once filming began, Gyllenhaal praised his encouraging direction of the actors and sensitive approach to the material. At the Directors Guild of America Awards on January 28, 2006, Gyllenhaal also praised Lee for "his humbleness and his respect for everyone around him." When asked about his kissing scenes with Heath Ledger in Brokeback Mountain, Gyllenhaal said, "As an actor, I think we need to embrace the times we feel most uncomfortable." When asked about the more intimate scenes with Ledger, Gyllenhaal likened them to "doing a sex scene with a woman I'm not particularly attracted to." }} Gyllenhaal narrated the 2005 short animated film The Man Who Walked Between the Towers, based on Mordicai Gerstein's book of the same name about Philippe Petit's famous stunt. In January 2007, as host of Saturday Night Live, he put on a sparkly evening dress and sang "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" from the musical Dreamgirls for his opening monologue, dedicating the song to his "unique fan base... the fans of Brokeback." In 2007, Gyllenhaal starred in David Fincher's Zodiac, which was based on a true story. He played Robert Graysmith, a San Francisco Chronicle cartoonist and author of two books about the Zodiac serial killer. Gyllenhaal starred opposite Meryl Streep, Alan Arkin, and Reese Witherspoon in the October 2007 release Rendition, a Gavin Hood-directed political thriller about the U.S. policy of extraordinary rendition. In 2009, he appeared with Tobey Maguire in Jim Sheridan's remake of Susanne Bier's 2004 Danish language film Brothers. The following year Gyllenhaal played the lead role in the movie adaptation of the video game , produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and released by Disney on May 28, 2010. His upcoming roles include the comedy Nailed, which he filmed in South Carolina with Jessica Biel, and Doug Liman's as yet untitled film about the race for lunar colonization. * Personal life * Family and relationships * For more on Gyllenhaal's paternal ancestors, see Gyllenhaal family The son of director Stephen Gyllenhaal and screenwriter Naomi Foner, Gyllenhaal's immediate family includes his sister, actress Maggie, who is married to actor Peter Sarsgaard, Gyllenhaal's co-star in Jarhead and Rendition. In December 2006, Jake and his sister escaped a fire that destroyed Manka's, a famed lodge and restaurant in Inverness, California, at which they were vacationing. Gyllenhaal's niece, Ramona Sarsgaard, was born on October 3, 2006. Jamie Lee Curtis is Gyllenhaal's godmother, and he has repeatedly referred to his godfathers being a gay couple. Gyllenhaal himself is the godfather of Matilda Rose Ledger (born October 28, 2005), daughter of Heath Ledger and Michelle Williams, both of whom co-starred with him in Brokeback Mountain. Gyllenhaal dated actress Kirsten Dunst for nearly two years starting in 2002. He later dated his Rendition co-star Reese Witherspoon from about 2007 to 2009. Politics and other interests : Gyllenhaal is politically active. He shot a commercial for Rock the Vote, and along with his sister, visited the University of Southern California to encourage students to vote during the 2004 U.S. Election. He also campaigned for Democratic Presidential candidate John Kerry. He has said, however, that "it frustrates me when actors talk politics; I'm political and I make choices in my movies that I think are political. I try and say things with what I do. Rightly or wrongly, young actors have all the power." In an interview for Rendition, he remarked that "it's a sad time when actors are politicians and politicians are actors." Raised in a family concerned with social issues, in 2003 Gyllenhaal participated in an advertising campaign by the American Civil Liberties Union, an organization his entire family strongly supports. Environmentally conscious, he recycles regularly, and said in an interview that he spends $400 a year to have trees planted in a Mozambique forest, partly to promote the Future Forests program. After filming The Day After Tomorrow, he flew to the Arctic to promote awareness of climate change. In his spare time, Gyllenhaal enjoys woodworking and cooking. - He has said, "I am not a card-carrying Buddhist, but I do try to practice mindfulness" and it is his goal to meditate every day. Gyllenhaal has signed on to help the TV fundraiser Stand Up To Cancer. On December 19, 2011, he was announced as a jury member for the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival to be held in February 2012. Media image : Internationally viewed as a sex symbol, Gyllenhaal was named one of People magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People" in 2006. He was also listed in People's "Hottest Bachelors of 2006". In response to mainstream press lists like these, thousands of gay and bisexual men were polled for the 2007 and 2008 "AfterElton.com Hot 100 List." Gyllenhaal was ranked at No.1 in both consecutive years. He was ranked at No.2 on the Gay Wired Magazine poll of male actors who have played gay characters in movies. * Filmography * Accolades * References == 2:

Jake Gyllenhaal Naissance à Los Angeles | Naissance en 1980 | Acteur américain | Brokeback Mountain Gyllenhaal: À sourcer: Jake Gyllenhaal, né Jacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal le à Los Angeles en Californie aux États-Unis, est un acteur américain. Biographie : Sa famille : Il a grandi dans le cinéma depuis sa plus tendre enfance puisque son père Stephen Gyllenhaal est un réalisateur et sa mère Naomi Foner Gyllenhaal est scénariste (nommée aux Oscars en 1989). Sa sœur Maggie est également une actrice reconnue qui joue à ses côtés dans Une femme dangereuse (1993) et dans Donnie Darko (2002). Sa marraine est Jamie Lee Curtis. Jake descend donc du côté paternel de la famille Gyllenhaal, appartenant à la noblesse suédoise, et du côté maternel, de la famille Achs, des juifs-américains de New York. Il a été élevé dans la religion juive et a passé sa Bar Mitzvah dans un refuge pour SDF selon le souhait de ses parents, afin qu’il prenne conscience de son mode de vie privilégié. Sa carrière : Jake a passé son diplôme de fin d’études secondaires au lycée de Harvard-Westlake en 1998 et a étudié pendant deux ans à l’Université de Columbia, avant de quitter les études pour mieux se consacrer à sa carrière d’acteur. Il a fait ses débuts à l’écran à l’âge d'onze ans, où il jouait le fils de Billy Crystal dans La Vie, l'Amour, les Vaches de Ron Underwood (1991). Mais, c’est en obtenant le rôle-titre, dans le film désormais devenu culte, Donnie Darko de Richard Kelly (2002), qu’il a véritablement été révélé. Cette interprétation — d’un adolescent schizophrène pris d’hallucinations — a été encensée par les critiques, et lui a même rapporté une nomination aux Independent Spirit Awards. Rapidement, il s’est établi comme une des étoiles montantes d’Hollywood, en enchaînant des rôles atypiques dans des longs-métrages tels que Lovely & Amazing de Nicole Holofcener (2001), Bubble Boy de Blair Hayes (2001), et The Good Girl de Miguel Arteta (2003), où il partageait l’affiche avec Jennifer Aniston. Toujours en 2002, il a fait ses débuts au théâtre, dans la pièce londonienne de Kenneth Lonergan, This is Our Youth qui a également enthousiasmé les critiques. En 2004, il est à l’affiche du film Le Jour d’après de Roland Emmerich, aux côtés de Dennis Quaid, qui devint un énorme succès commercial. L’année 2005 s’est avérée chargée pour le jeune acteur, où il a tourné trois films : Proof, avec Anthony Hopkins et Gwyneth Paltrow ; de Sam Mendes (2006) et enfin Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain de Ang Lee (2005) où il interprète le rôle d'un cow-boy bisexuel Jack Twist au côté de Heath Ledger. Le film a connu un succès critique et public retentissant, faisant de Jake un des acteurs les plus prometteurs de sa génération. Sa performance lui a permis de remporter le BAFTA du meilleur second rôle ainsi qu'une nomination aux Oscars dans cette même catégorie. En 2007 dans Zodiac de David Fincher, il incarne Robert Graysmith, auteur du best-seller Zodiac. La même année, il fait partie du casting du thriller américain Détention secrète de Gavin Hood avec Reese Witherspoon, Meryl Streep et Alan Arkin. En 2010, il est à l'affiche du film Brothers de Jim Sheridan avec Tobey Maguire et Natalie Portman. Il est également l'acteur principal de de Mike Newell, l'adaptation cinématographique du célèbre jeu vidéo du . |200px]] En 2011, il s'envole pour Chicago pour tenir le rôle principal dans Source Code, un film de science-fiction réalisé par Duncan Jones. On l'aperçoit dans le clip vidéo Giving Up The Gun du groupe Vampire Weekend. Sa vie privée : Vie privée: Sa vie privée a été intensément médiatisée, en raison de sa relation amoureuse de deux ans avec l’actrice Kirsten Dunst. C’est grâce à sa sœur Maggie qu’il a rencontré la jeune actrice, ils ont entamé une relation en avant de rompre en . Il devait d’ailleurs remplacer Tobey Maguire dans le rôle de Peter Parker pour Spider-Man 2, mais celui-ci est finalement revenu sur sa décision. Jake faisait aussi partie des huit derniers candidats sélectionnés pour interpréter Bruce Wayne dans Batman Begins, mais le rôle a finalement été confié à Christian Bale. Jake est bon ami avec l’acteur Austin Nichols qu'il a rencontré sur le tournage du film Le Jour d’après et avec de nombreuses actrices. Il compte parmi ses amis proches les acteurs et actrices Natalie Portman, Sophia Bush,ainsi que Adam Levine, leader de Maroon 5 (qu’il a connu dès l’école maternelle) et Peter Sarsgaard, le mari de sa sœur et son partenaire dans . Il est le parrain de Mathilda Ledger, la fille de ses partenaires du film Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain (Heath Ledger et Michelle Williams) . Les fans de Jake sont surnommés les « Gyllenhaalics ».: Il est sorti pendant trois ans (2007-2009) avec l'actrice Reese Witherspoon. Ils se sont séparés en décembre 2009.: Il serait sorti avec Taylor Swift depuis le mois d'octobre 2010 et lui aurait offert une guitare à 10 000 $ pour son anniversaire, mais ils se sont séparés au début de l'année 2011.: Jake Gyllenhaal est ami avec les actrices Anna Kendrick, Rashida Jones et Busy Philipps (la marraine de Matilda Ledger) . Filmographie : Cinéma : Films : * 1991 - La Vie, l'Amour, les Vaches, de Ron Underwood : Danny Robbins * 1993 - Une femme dangereuse, de Stephen Gyllenhaal : Edward * 1993 - Josh and S.A.M., de Billy Weber : Leon * 1998 : L'Héritage de Malcolm, de Stephen Gyllenhaal : Jack / Blue Kahan * 1999 - Ciel d'octobre, de Joe Johnston : Homer Hickam * 2001 - Donnie Darko, de Richard Kelly : Donald J. « Donnie » Darko * 2001 - Bubble Boy, de Blair Hayes : Jimmy Livingston * 2001 - Lovely & Amazing, de Nicole Holofcener : Jordanie * 2002 - Highway, de James Cox : Pilot Kelson * 2002 - Moonlight Mile, de Brad Silberling : Joe Nast * 2003 - Good Girl, de Miguel Arteta : Holden Worther * 2004 - Le Jour d'après, de Roland Emmerich : Sam Hall * 2005 - Jiminy Glick in Lalawood : Lui-même * 2005 - Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain, de Ang Lee : Jack Twist * 2005 - Proof, de John Madden : Harold « Hal » Dobbs * 2006 - , de Sam Mendes : Anthony Swofford * 2007 - Zodiac, de David Fincher : Robert Graysmith * 2008 - Détention secrète, de Gavin Hood - Douglas Freeman * 2009 - Brothers, de Jim Sheridan : Tommy Cahill * 2010 - , de Mike Newell : Prince Dastan * 2010 - Love, et autres drogues, de Edward Zwick : Jamie Reidy * 2011 - Source Code, de Duncan Jones : Colter Stevens * Prochainement * 2012 - End of Watch de David Ayer : Officier Taylor * date inconnue - Nailed de David O. Russell : Howard Birdwell Films d'animations : * 2005 - The Man Who Walked Between the Towers : le narrateur Télévision : Séries télévisées : * 1994 - Homicide : Matt Ellison Distinctions : Récompenses et nominations : * 2002 : Nomination aux Independent Spirit Award pour la catégorie du Meilleur acteur dans Donnie Darko. * 2006 : Nomination aux Oscars pour la catégorie du Meilleur second rôle masculin dans Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain. * 2006 : BAFTA du Meilleur second rôle masculin dans Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain. * 2011 : Nomination aux Golden Globes pour la catégorie du Meilleur acteur dans un film de comédie ou musical dans Love, et autres drogues. Voix françaises : En France, Jake Gyllenhall n'a pas de voix française habituelle et régulière. Néanmoins, Rémi Bichet est celui qui a doublé le plus l'acteur, sur 3 films. Au Québec, Martin Watier est la voix française habituelle de Jake Gyllenhaal, il a doublé l'acteur sur 8 films. Il y a aussi eu Guillaume Champoux et Éric Bruneau, chacun sur 1 film. ;France: * Rémi Bichet dans : ** Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain ** Zodiac ** Source Code * Cédric Dumond dans : ** Love, et autres drogues * Patrick Mancini dans : ** Le Jour d'après ** Jiminy Glick in Lalawood * Pascal Grull dans Ciel d'octobre * Emmanuel Curtil dans Donnie Darko * Donald Reignoux dans Bubble Boy * Alexis Tomassian dans Good Girl * Bruno Mullenaerts dans Proof * Alexandre Gillet dans Détention secrète * Adrien Antoine dans Brothers * Alexis Victor dans ;Québec: , * Martin Watier dans : ** Highway ** Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain ** Proof ** Zodiac ** Détention secrète ** Brothers ** Love, et autres drogues ** Source Code * Guillaume Champoux dans * Éric Bruneau dans

مايكروسوفت إكستشانج سيرفر مايكروسوفت ويندوز مايكروسوفت إكستشانج سيرفر أو مايكروسوفت المخدم التبادلي هو منتج يختص في مجال المراسلة والبرامج التعاونية وضعتها مايكروسوفت. وهو جزء من خط منتجات مخدمات مايكروسوفت المخدم يستخدم على نطاق واسع في المشاريع التي تستخدم مايكروسوفت كحلول للبنية التحتية. تبادل السمات الرئيسية للمخدم التبادلي يحتوي علىالبريد الإلكتروني، وإعداد جداول المواعيد، وقائمة الاتصالات والمهام الواجب تطبيقها، ودعم الهواتف النقالة والوصول لشبكة الإنترنت للحصول على المعلومات، فضلا عن دعم وتخزين البيانات. الإصدارات : * المخدم التبادلي التجريبي 1 : تم إطلاقه بتاريخ نيسان / إبريل 1993 * المخدم التبادلي 4.0 : تم إطلاقه بتاريخ 11 حزيران / يونيو 1996 * المخدم التبادلي 5.0 : تم إطلاقه بتاريخ 23 أيار / مايو 1997 * المخدم التبادلي 5.5 : تم إطلاقه بتاريخ تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 1997 * المخدم التبادلي 2000 : تم إطلاقه بتاريخ 29 تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 2000 * المخدم التبادلي 2003 : تم إطلاقه بتاريخ 28 أيلول / سبتمبر 2003، بإصداريه الأساسي والمتقدم. * المخدم التبادلي 2007 : تم إطلاقه في أواخر عام 2006

Microsoft Exchange Server Windows Server System | Groupware | Message transfer agents | Microsoft email software dateMay 2011: Microsoft Exchange Server is the server side of a client–server, collaborative application product developed by Microsoft. It is part of the Microsoft Servers line of server products and is used by enterprises using Microsoft infrastructure products. Exchange's major features consist of electronic mail, calendaring, contacts and tasks; that work with Microsoft Outlook on PC and Mac, wireless synchronization of email, calendar, contacts with major mobile devices and browser-based access to information; and support for data storage. * History Planning the migration from Microsoft's internal "legacy XENIX-based messaging system" to the Exchange Server environment began in April 1993, and by January 1995 some 500 users were running on Exchange Server Beta 1. By April 1996 32,000 users were migrated to that environment. Exchange 1.0: Windows Messaging, initially called Microsoft Exchange, is an e-mail client that was included with Windows 95 (beginning with OSR2), Windows 98, and Windows NT 4.0. (In Windows 98, it is not installed by default, but available as a separate program in the setup CD.) Microsoft Exchange gained wider usage with the release of Windows 95, as this was the only e-mail client that came bundled with it. Exchange was included throughout later releases of Windows up until the initial release of Windows 98, which by then also included Outlook Express 4.0. * The original version lacked support of Internet mail (SMTP and POP3). They are only available with the separate Microsoft Plus! pack. * HTML e-mail was shown in such a way that the message contained an * .ATT or * .htm attachment, which had to be saved and then viewed in a browser, as MS Exchange did not have support for HTML-formatted messages. Similarly, e-mail that did not use traditional message formatting was delivered in the form of text attachments with the * .ATT extension, which could be opened through Notepad. These files were in turn saved in the active Temp directory and some sensitive e-mail could therefore have been made available for other users to see. * International characters were unsupported. Some e-mail that was sent with a non-ASCII or non-7/8-bit character set, was shown in the form of text attachments, which had to be saved and then read in a web browser, with the browser's text encoding set for a specified code page. * Microsoft Fax, also called Microsoft at Work Fax (AWF), was the fax component to provide Send-and-Receive Fax capability; sent and received faxes were stored in the same .pst file as other messages, a first attempt at unified messaging by Microsoft. It also provided the ability to act as a fax server, a capacity not available in later versions of Windows until Windows Vista. In 1996, Microsoft Exchange was renamed to Windows Messaging, because of Microsoft's release of another Exchange product which was meant for servers. Windows Messaging had two branches of successors: * In software bundled with Windows itself, these were Internet Mail and News in Windows 95 (and bundled with Internet Explorer 3), which was succeeded by Outlook Express 4.0 in Windows 98 (bundled with Internet Explorer 4.0 in Windows 95) and throughout newer Windows systems. These did not use the .pst file type.dateFebruary 2011: * Microsoft Outlook became the professional-grade and more direct successor of MS Exchange Client, which still uses the .pst file type. Because Microsoft Outlook used the same basic Windows Messaging profile, account, and e-mail settings (MAPI), Microsoft Exchange users not familiar with it may have thought that Outlook duplicated those settings and made copies of all their mail while they were trying out the new Microsoft Outlook 97. Thus, some MS Exchange users could have unknowingly deleted all their e-mail, thinking it was a copy, as Microsoft Outlook did not have any front-end feature to notify users that it was actually using the same MS Exchange / Windows Messaging account. * Exchange Server 4.0 Exchange Server 4.0, released on June 11, 1996, was the original version of Exchange Server sold to the public, positioned as an upgrade to Microsoft Mail 3.5. The original version of Microsoft Mail (written by Microsoft) had been replaced, several weeks after Lotus acquired , by a package called Network Courier, acquired during the purchase of Consumer Software Inc. in April 1991. Exchange Server was however an entirely new X.400-based client–server mail system with a single database store that also supported X.500 directory services. The directory used by Exchange Server eventually became Microsoft's Active Directory service, an LDAP-compliant directory server. Active Directory was integrated into Windows 2000 as the foundation of Windows Server domains. * Exchange Server 5.0 On May 23, 1997, Exchange Server 5.0 was released, which introduced the new Exchange Administrator console, as well as opening up "integrated" access to SMTP-based networks for the first time. Unlike Microsoft Mail (which required a standalone SMTP relay), Exchange Server 5.0 could, with the help of an add-in called the Internet Mail Connector, communicate directly with servers using SMTP. Version 5.0 also introduced a new Web-based e-mail interface called Exchange Web Access, which was rebranded as Outlook Web Access in a later Service pack. Along with Exchange Server version 5.0, Microsoft released version 8.01 of Microsoft Outlook, version 5.0 of the Microsoft Exchange Client and version 7.5 of Microsoft Schedule+ to support the new features in the new version of Exchange Server. Exchange Server 5.5, introduced November, 1997, was sold in two editions, Standard and Enterprise. They differ in database store size, mail transport connectors and clustering capabilities. The Standard Edition had the same 16 GB database size limitation as earlier versions of Exchange Server, while the Enterprise Edition had an increased limit of 16 TB (although Microsoft's best practices documentation recommends that the message store not exceed 100 GB). The Standard Edition includes the Site Connector, MS Mail Connector, Internet Mail Service (previously "Internet Mail Connector"), and Internet News Service (previously "Internet News Connector"), as well as software to interoperate with , Lotus Notes and Novell GroupWise. The Enterprise Edition adds an X.400 connector, and interoperability software with SNADS and PROFS. The Enterprise Edition also introduced two node clustering capability. Exchange Server 5.5 introduced a number of other new features including a new version of Outlook Web Access with Calendar support, support for IMAP4 and LDAP v3 clients and the Deleted Item Recovery feature. Exchange Server 5.5 was the last version of Exchange Server to have separate directory, SMTP and NNTP services. There was no new version of Exchange Client and Schedule+ for version 5.5, instead version 8.03 of Microsoft Outlook was released to support the new features of Exchange Server 5.5. * Exchange 2000 Server Exchange 2000 Server (v6.0, code name Platinum), released on November 29, 2000, overcame many of the limitations of its predecessors. For example, it raised the maximum sizes of databases and increased the number of servers in a cluster from two to four. However, many customers were deterred from upgrading by the requirement for a full Microsoft Active Directory infrastructure to be in place, as unlike Exchange Server 5.5, Exchange 2000 Server had no built-in Directory Service, and had a dependency upon Active Directory. The migration process from Exchange Server 5.5 did not have any in-place upgrade path, and necessitated having the two systems online at the same time, with user-to-mailbox mapping and a temporary translation process between the two directories. Exchange 2000 Server also added support for instant messaging, capability was later spun off to Microsoft Office Live Communications Server. * Exchange Server 2003 }} Exchange Server 2003 (v6.5, code name Titanium) debuted on September 28, 2003. Exchange Server 2003 (currently at Service Pack 2) can be run on Windows 2000 Server (only if Service Pack 4 is first installed) and 32-bit Windows Server 2003, although some new features only work with the latter. Like Windows Server 2003, Exchange Server 2003 has many compatibility modes to allow users to slowly migrate to the new system. This is useful in large companies with distributed Exchange Server environments who cannot afford the downtime and expense that comes with a complete migration. The June 2, 2003, release of Exchange Server 2003 made the migration from pre-2000 versions of Exchange significantly easier (although still involved the same basic steps), and many users of Exchange Server 5.5 waited for the release of Exchange Server 2003 to upgrade. The upgrade process also required upgrading a company's servers to Windows 2000. Some customers opted to stay on a combination of Exchange Server 5.5 and Windows NT 4.0, both of which are no longer supported by Microsoft. One of the new features in Exchange Server 2003 is enhanced disaster recovery which allows administrators to bring the server online more quickly. This is done by allowing the server to send and receive mail while the message stores are being recovered from backup. Some features previously available in the Microsoft Mobile Information Server 2001/2002 products have been added to the core Exchange Server product, like Outlook Mobile Access and server-side Exchange ActiveSync, while the Mobile Information Server product itself has been dropped. Better anti-virus and anti-spam protection have also been added, both by providing built-in APIs that facilitate filtering software and built-in support for the basic methods of originating IP address, SPF ("Sender ID"), and DNSBL filtering which were standard on other open source and * nix-based mail servers. Also new is the ability to drop inbound e-mail before being fully processed, thus preventing delays in the message routing system. There are also improved message and mailbox management tools, which allow administrators to execute common chores more quickly. Others, such as Instant Messaging and Exchange Conferencing Server have been extracted completely in order to form separate products. Microsoft now appears to be positioning a combination of Microsoft Office, Microsoft Office Live Communications Server, Live Meeting and Sharepoint as its collaboration software of choice. Exchange Server is now to be simply e-mail and calendaring. Exchange Server 2003 added several basic filtering methods to Exchange Server. They are not sophisticated enough to eliminate spam, but they can protect against DoS and mailbox flooding attacks. Exchange Server 2000 supported the ability to block a sender's address, or e-mail domain by adding '* @domain.com', which is still supported in Exchange Server 2003. Added filtering methods in Exchange Server 2003 are: ; Connection filtering : Messages are blocked from DNS RBL lists or from manually specified IP addresses/ranges ; Recipient filtering : Messages blocked when sent to manually specified recipients on the server (for intranet-only addresses) or to any recipients not on the server (stopping spammers from guessing addresses) ; Sender ID filtering : Sender ID, a form of Sender Policy Framework (SPF) ; Intelligent Message Filter : A free Microsoft add-on that uses heuristic message analysis to block messages or direct them to the "Junk E-Mail" folder in Microsoft Outlook clients. Exchange 2003 mainstream support ended on April 14, 2009. * Editions Exchange Server 2003 is available in two versions, Standard Edition and Enterprise Edition. Standard Edition supports up to two storage groups (with one of the storage groups, called the recovery storage group, being reserved for database recovery operations) and a maximum of 2 databases per storage group. Each database is limited to a maximum size of 16GB. Beginning with the release of Service Pack 2, Standard Edition allows a maximum database size of 75 GB, but only supports 18 GB by default; larger sized databases have to be updated-in with a registry change. Enterprise Edition allows a 16 TB maximum database size, and supports up to 4 storage groups with 5 databases per storage group for a total of 20 databases per server. Exchange Server 2003 is included with both Microsoft Small Business Server 2003 Standard and Premium editions and is 32-bit only, and will not install on the various 64-bit versions of Windows Server 2003. * Exchange Server 2007 }} Exchange Server 2007 (currently at Service Pack 3) was released on November 30, 2006, to business customers as part of Microsoft's roll-out wave of new products. It includes new clustering options, 64-bit support for greater scalability, voice mail integration, better search and support for Web services, better filtering options, and a new Outlook Web Access interface. Exchange 2007 also dropped support for Exchange 5.50 migrations, routing groups, admin groups, Outlook Mobile Access, X.400, and some API interfaces, amongst other features. Exchange Server 2007 (v8, code name E12, or with SP1 v8.1) runs only on 64-bit x86-64 versions of Windows Server. This requirement applies to supported production environments only; a 32-bit trial version is available for download and testing. Hence, companies currently running Exchange Server on 32-bit hardware will be required to replace or migrate hardware if they wish to upgrade to the new version. Companies that are currently running Exchange Server on 64-bit capable hardware are still required to migrate from their existing Exchange 2000/2003 servers to a new 2007 server since in-place upgrades are not supported in 2007. The first beta of Exchange Server 2007 (then named "Exchange 12" or E12) was released in December 2005 to a very limited number of beta testers. A wider beta was made available via TechNet Plus and MSDN subscriptions in March 2006 according to the Microsoft Exchange team blog. On April 25, 2006, Microsoft announced that the next version of Exchange Server would be called Exchange Server 2007. Exchange server 2007 comes in two editions, Exchange Server 2007 Standard edition and Exchange Server 2007 Enterprise Edition. Standard edition can have 5 databases in up to 5 storage groups, while in Enterprise edition this is extended to 50 databases in up to 50 storage groups. SCC and CCR is not supported in standard edition but LCR and SCR is supported. While in Exchange 2007 Enterprise Edition SCC, LCR, CCR and SCR is supported. Exchange Server 2007 is an integrated part of the Innovative Communications Alliance products. * New features The principal enhancements, as outlined by Microsoft, are: * Protection: anti-spam, antivirus, compliance, clustering with data replication, improved security and encryption * Improved Information Worker Access: improved calendaring, unified messaging, improved mobility, improved web access * Improved IT Experience: 64-bit performance & scalability, command-line shell & simplified GUI, improved deployment, role separation, simplified routing * Exchange Management Shell: a new command-line shell and scripting language for system administration (based on Windows PowerShell). Shell users can perform every task that can be performed in the Exchange Server graphical user interface plus additional tasks, and can program often-used or complex tasks into scripts that can be saved, shared, and re-used. The Exchange Management Shell has over 375 unique commands to manage features of Microsoft Exchange Server 2007. * "Unified Messaging" that lets users receive voice mail, e-mail, and faxes in their mailboxes, and lets them access their mailboxes from cell phones and other wireless devices. Voice commands can be given to control and listen to e-mail over the phone (and also send some basic messages, like "I'll be late") * Increased the database maximum size limit. Database size is now limited to 16TB per database * Increased the maximum number of storage groups and mail databases per server, to 5 each for Standard Edition (from 1 each in Exchange Server 2003 Standard), and to 50 each for Enterprise Edition (from 4 groups and 20 databases in Exchange Server 2003 Enterprise). * You can configure Outlook Anywhere (formerly known as RPC over HTTP) to provide external access to Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 for your clients. If you want Microsoft Office Outlook 2007 user profiles to be automatically configured to connect to Exchange 2007, configure the Autodiscover service. This also provides external URLs for Exchange services such as the Availability service and offline address book. * Exchange Server 2010 Microsoft reached the RTM (Release To Manufacturing) milestone for Exchange Server 2010 on October 8, 2009, and it was officially launched on November 9, 2009. A 120 day trial is downloadable from Microsoft. Exchange Server 2010 (currently at Service Pack 2) is available in two server editions; Standard edition and Enterprise edition. Major changes from previous versions of Exchange Server include: * The high availability options for Mailbox Databases (SCC: Single Copy Clustering, CCR: Clustered Continuous Replication and LCR: Local Continuous Replication) and site resiliency functionality (SCR: Standby Continuous Replication) have been replaced by Database Availability Groups (DAGs) in Exchange Server 2010. Major DAG benefits include providing database level high availability (as opposed to server level), support for up to sixteen (16) copies of each database, and flexible configuration (databases copies may be added / removed at will without requiring major server reconfiguration). Each server that runs the Enterprise edition of Exchange Server 2010 can host up to 100 database copies. * High availability for the Client Access Server role in Exchange Server 2010 is provided by using Client Access Server (CAS) arrays. A CAS array can contain multiple Client Access Servers in an Active Directory site and provide a single name endpoint for client connections. CAS arrays cannot span multiple Active Directory sites. * In Exchange Server 2007, a clustered mailbox server could not be combined with any other roles. In Exchange Server 2010, the Mailbox Server Role may be combined with the Client Access Server and/or Hub Transport roles, regardless of whether or not the mailbox server participates in a Database Availability Group. (However, since Database Availability Groups use Windows Failover Clustering, and Microsoft does not support the combination of Windows Failover Clustering and Windows Network Load Balancing on the same server, a multi-role deployment will require the use of a 3rd party load balancer to provide load balancing and fault tolerance for the Client Access Server role). * With the introduction of the RPC Client Access service, all Outlook clients access their mailbox database through the Client Access Server role. This abstraction layer allows for improved load balancing and redundancy and minimal client impact in the event of a database level * -over ("switchover" or "failover") event. * Exchange Server 2010 provides cost savings in required hardware. Storage performance requirements (measured in IOPS: Input/Output operations Per Second) have been reduced by approximately 70% over Exchange Server 2007, and by approximately 90% over Exchange Server 2003. According to a case study, Microsoft IT was able to reduce hardware costs by 75% during the migration from Exchange Server 2007 to Exchange Server 2010. * Exchange Server 2010 extends the large mailbox support introduced in Exchange Server 2007, and also introduces a Personal Archive feature to allow messages to be retained longer without the need for a 3rd party archival system. The Personal Archive is implemented as a secondary mailbox for archive-enabled users, and in Exchange Server 2010 Service Pack 1, the Personal Archive may be located on a different database than the primary mailbox, which may reside on a different disk if desired. * The compliance and legal search features have been enhanced. What was formerly known as the "Dumpster" in previous versions of Exchange (a special storage area for messages which have been deleted from the Deleted Items folder or "permanently deleted" from a regular folder, such as the Inbox) has been evolved into the Recoverable Items folder in Exchange Server 2010. If configured appropriately, the Recoverable Items folder allows for a "tamper proof" storage area (users cannot circumvent the Recoverable Items folder to bypass legal discovery), which also provides a revision history of any modified items. * Administration delegation can now be performed at a granular level due to Exchange Server 2010's implementation of Role Based Access Control (RBAC). Users and administrators can be given extremely fine grained abilities for functions provided both within the Exchange Management Console or Exchange Management Shell and in Outlook Web App. For example, a compliance officer may be given the ability to perform cross mailbox discovery searches within Outlook Web App; a help desk technician may be granted the ability to set an Out Of Office message for other employees within the company, or a branch administrator in a remote office may be granted the permission to perform specific Exchange Management Shell commands that pertain only to the Exchange server in their branch office. * Outlook Web App includes improvements (including, for example, the ability for users to track their sent messages and printable calendar views) and the "Premium" experience is now available across multiple browsers (including Safari and Firefox). * Distribution groups can now be "moderated", meaning that distribution groups can now be configured to allow users to join at will or only with a group moderator's permission, and individual messages sent to distribution groups can now be approved or denied by a moderator. * Exchange Server 2010 introduces a transport concept called "Shadow Redundancy" which protects e-mail messages while they are in transit. If a Hub Transport server or an Edge Transport server fails after it has received a message for processing, but before it was able to deliver it to the next "hop" server, the server which sent the message to that transport server is now able to detect the failure and redeliver the message to a different Hub Transport or Edge Transport server for processing. In January 2011, Microsoft Exchange Server 2010 won InfoWorld's 2011 Technology of the Year Award for Best Mail Server. Clustering and high availability: Exchange Server Enterprise Edition supports clustering of up to 4 nodes when using Windows 2000 Server, and up to 8 nodes with Windows Server 2003. Exchange Server 2003 also introduced active-active clustering, but for two-node clusters only. In this setup, both servers in the cluster are allowed to be active simultaneously. This is opposed to Exchange's more common active-passive mode in which the failover servers in any cluster node cannot be used at all while their corresponding home servers are active. They must wait, inactive, for the home servers in the node to fail. Subsequent performance issues with active-active mode have led Microsoft to recommend that it should no longer be used. In fact, support for active-active mode clustering has been discontinued with Exchange Server 2007. Exchange's clustering (active-active or active-passive mode) has been criticized because of its requirement for servers in the cluster nodes to share the same physical data. The clustering in Exchange Server provides redundancy for Exchange Server as an application, but not for Exchange data. In this scenario, the data can be regarded as a single point of failure, despite Microsoft's description of this set up as a "Shared Nothing" model. This void has however been filled by ISV's and storage manufacturers, through "site resilience" solutions, such as geo-clustering and asynchronous data replication. Exchange Server 2007 introduces new cluster terminology and configurations that address the shortcomings of the previous "shared data model". Exchange Server 2007 provides built-in support for asynchronous replication modeled on SQL Server's "Log shipping" in CCR (Cluster Continuous Replication) clusters, which are built on MSCS MNS (Microsoft Cluster Service—Majority Node Set) clusters, which do not require shared storage. This type of cluster can be inexpensive and deployed in one, or "stretched" across two datacenters for protection against site-wide failures such as natural disasters. The limitation of CCR clusters is the ability to have only two nodes and the third node known as "voter node" or file share witness that prevents "split brain" scenarios, generally hosted as a file share on a Hub Transport Server. The second type of cluster is the traditional clustering that was available in previous versions, and is now being referred to as SCC (Single Copy Cluster). In Exchange Server 2007 deployment of both CCR and SCC clusters has been simplified and improved; the entire cluster install process takes place during Exchange Server installation. LCR or Local Continuous Replication has been referred to as the "poor man's cluster". It is designed to allow for data replication to an alternative drive attached to the same system and is intended to provide protection against local storage failures. It does not protect against the case where the server itself fails. In November 2007, Microsoft released SP1 for Exchange Server 2007. This service pack includes an additional high-availability feature called SCR (Standby Continuous Replication). Unlike CCR which requires that both servers belong to a Windows cluster, typically residing in the same datacenter, SCR can replicate data to a non-clustered server, located in a separate datacenter. With Exchange Server 2010, Microsoft introduced the concept of the Database Availability Group (DAG). A DAG contains Mailbox servers that become members of the DAG. Once a Mailbox server is a member of a DAG, the Mailbox Databases on that server can be copied to other members of the DAG. When you add a Mailbox server to a DAG, the Failover Clustering Windows role is installed on the server and all required clustering resources are created. Licensing: Like Windows Server products, Exchange Server requires Client Access Licenses, which are different from Windows CALs. Corporate license agreements, such as the Enterprise Agreement, or EA, include Exchange Server CALs. It also comes as part of the Core CAL. Just like Windows Server and other server products from Microsoft, you can choose to use User or Device CALs. Device CALs are assigned to a device (workstation, laptop or PDA). User CALs, are assigned to a user or employee (not a mailbox). User CALs allow a user to access Exchange e-mail from any device. User and Device CALs are the same price, however cannot be used interchangeably. For Service Providers looking to host Microsoft Exchange, there is an SPLA (Service Provider License Agreement) available whereby Microsoft receives a monthly service fee in the place of the traditional Client Access Licenses. Two types of Exchange CAL are available: Exchange CAL Standard and Exchange CAL Enterprise. The Enterprise CAL is an add-on license to the Standard CAL. Exchange Hosting: Microsoft Exchange Server can also be purchased as a hosted service from a number of providers. Though Exchange Hosting has been around for more than 10 years, it is only recently that many providers have been marketing the service as "Cloud Computing" or Software-as-a-Service. Exchange Hosting allows for Microsoft Exchange Server to be running in the Internet also called the Cloud and managed by a "Hosted Exchange Server provider" instead of building and deploying the system in-house. Exchange Online : Microsoft Exchange Online is an email, calendar and contacts solution delivered as a cloud service, hosted by Microsoft. It is essentially the same service offered by hosted Exchange providers and it is built on the same technologies as Microsoft Exchange Server. Exchange Online provides end users with a familiar email experience across PCs, the Web and mobile devices, while giving IT administrators or small businesses and professionals web-based tools for managing their online deployment. Microsoft Exchange is available both as on-premises software and as a hosted service with Exchange Online. Customers can also choose to combine both on-premises and online options in a hybrid deployment. History : Exchange Online was first provided as a hosted service in dedicated customer environments in 2005 to select pilot customers. Microsoft launched a multi-tenant version of Exchange Online as part of the Business Productivity Online Standard Suite in November 2008. In June 2011, as part of the commercial release of Microsoft Office 365, Exchange Online was updated with the capabilities of Exchange Server 2010. Exchange Server 2010 was developed concurrently as a server product and for the Exchange Online service. Clients: Microsoft Exchange Server uses a proprietary RPC protocol, MAPI/RPC, that was designed to be used by the Microsoft Outlook client. Clients capable of using the proprietary features of Exchange Server include Microsoft Outlook and Novell Evolution. Exchange Web Services (EWS), an alternative to the MAPI protocol, is a documented SOAP based protocol introduced with Exchange Server 2007 which significantly reduces synchronization time between the server vs. WebDAV, which is used by Exchange Server 2003. Exchange Web Services is used by the latest version of Microsoft Entourage for Mac and Microsoft Outlook for Mac. Also, since the release of Mac OS X v10.6 (also known as Mac OS X Snow Leopard), Mac computers running OS X include some support for this technology via Apple's Mail application. Built-in support with Mac OS X 10.6 requires the Exchange organization to be running Exchange Server 2007 SP1/SP2 or Exchange Server 2010. Mac users wishing to access Exchange e-mail running on Exchange Server 2000 or 2003 must use Microsoft's Entourage client versions X, 2004 or 2008. Alternatively a limited version of Outlook Web Access is available to Mac users using a web browser. Entourage X, 2004 and 2008 do not support synchronizing tasks and notes with Exchange Servers 2000, 2003, 2007 or 2010. However Entourage 2008 "Web Services Edition", which is a free download from Microsoft for users of Office 2008, does support synchronizing tasks and notes with Exchange Server 2007 SP1 rollup update 4 or later (including Exchange 2010). Microsoft Outlook for Mac 2011 has replaced Entourage "Web Services Edition" but also requires Exchange Server 2007 or later. E-mail hosted on an Exchange Server can also be accessed using SMTP, POP3 and IMAP4 protocols, using clients such as Outlook Express, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Lotus Notes. (These protocols must be enabled on the server. Recent versions of Exchange Server turn them off by default.) Exchange Server mailboxes can also be accessed through a web browser, using Outlook Web Access (OWA), called Outlook Web App in Exchange Server 2010. Exchange Server 2003 also featured a version of OWA for mobile devices, called Outlook Mobile Access (OMA). allows any email client to connect to a Microsoft Outlook server with Outlook Web Access (OWA). GNOME Evolution project can be used to Connect to MS-Exchange (in OWA mode for Exchange 2000/2003, native mode for Exchange 2007). Evolution is now also available for Windows. ActiveSync: Support for Exchange ActiveSync was added to Microsoft Exchange Server 2003. Exchange ActiveSync, in the context of Exchange Server, allows a compliant device such as a Windows Mobile device to securely synchronize mail, contacts and other data directly with an Exchange server. Since its inception, ActiveSync has become a popular mobile access standard for businesses due to cross-platform support from companies like Nokia and Apple Inc. as well as its advanced device security and compliance features. Support for Push E-mail was added to Exchange Server 2003 with Service Pack 2. Windows Mobile 5.0 requires the "Messaging and Security Feature Pack (MSFP)", later versions of the mobile operating system, such as Windows Phone 7, have the capability built in. Many other devices now support ActiveSync push e-mail, such as the iPhone and Android Phones. Exchange Server 2007 and Exchange Server 2010 support the use of Exchange ActiveSync Policies. By using Exchange ActiveSync Policies, administrators can secure the devices that connect to the organization or remotely deactivate features on the devices. Administrators or users can also remotely wipe a lost mobile device.

Microsoft Exchange Server Logiciel Microsoft | Groupware | Logiciel de courrier électronique | Logiciel pour Windows Microsoft Exchange Server est un Groupware (logiciel de groupe de travail) pour serveur de messagerie électronique créé par Microsoft, pour concurrencer Lotus Domino d'IBM. Microsoft Exchange est très utilisé dans les entreprises. Selon Nicolas Petit (Directeur de la division mobilité de Microsoft France) Microsoft Exchange Server représente 65 % du marché de la messagerie professionnelle en France . C'est un produit de la gamme des serveurs Microsoft, conçu pour la messagerie électronique, mais aussi pour la gestion d'agenda, de contacts et de tâches, qui assure le stockage des informations et permet des accès à partir de clients mobiles (Outlook Mobile Access, Exchange Active Server Sync) et de clients Web (navigateurs tels que Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Safari (Apple)…). Suivant la vague du cloud computing, Microsoft Exchange est, depuis 2009, disponible au travers d'une offre SaaS appelée Microsoft Online Services sous le nom d'Exchange Online. Historique : Exchange 4.0 constitua les fondations du service d'annuaire Active Directory de Microsoft avec l'apparition du moteur ESE sur lequel cet annuaire compatible LDAP s'appuie. Jusqu'à la version 5.5, Exchange avait son propre annuaire. Depuis la version 2000 et l'apparition d'Active Directory (en 1999), Exchange n'a plus son propre moteur d'annuaire et a besoin d'Active Directory. Cette grande différence de fonctionnement entre ces versions explique les complexités que peuvent faire jaillir une migration entre la version 5.5 et les versions supérieures. Versions de MS Exchange : * 1996 - Exchange Server 4.0 * 1997 - Exchange Server 5.0 * 1997 - Exchange Server 5.5 (Standard Edition, Entreprise Edition) * 2000 - Exchange 2000 Server (Standard Edition, Entreprise Edition) * 2003 - Exchange Server 2003 (Standard Edition (limité à une base de données de 16Go), Entreprise Edition) * 2007 - Exchange Server 2007 (32 (non recommandé en production) et 64 bits) * 2009 - Exchange Server 2010 (64 bits) N.B : Exchange 2003 (Standard Edition) est inclus dans Microsoft Small Business Server afin de permettre aux petites et moyennes entreprises (moins de 75 utilisateurs) de s'équiper à moindre frais. Exchange Server 2003 Service Pack 2 (SP2) apporte de nouvelles fonctions et améliorations à Exchange Server 2003 telle que la prise en charge de la mobilité et de l'hygiène des messages (anti spam via IMF Intelligent Message Filter). La technologie Exchange Direct push maintient une connexion ouverte entre l'appareil mobile sous Windows Mobile et le serveur. Les nouveautés d'Exchange 2007 / 2010 : * Exchange 2007 intègre son propre moteur SMTP * Exchange 2007 doit être installé sur un OS 64 bits. Il existe une version 32 bits mais elle n’est pas supportée par Microsoft. * L’installeur analyse l’OS et vérifie la présence de tous les pré-requis. * Prise en charge d’IPV6 (à désactiver si non utilisé). * Dossiers publics facultatifs. * Messagerie unifiée (intégration avec solutions de VOIP). * Mécanismes de Haute Disponibilité (LCR, CCR, SCR, SCC (ancien système Exchange 2003)). * L’auto-discover (configuration automatique d’Outlook 2007). * Les Web Services (availability, oab…) * Nouveaux mécanismes de routage des mails (connecteur d’envoie / réception, domaines acceptés / distants, routage selon sites AD) * 5 rôles Exchange 2007 au lieu de 2 sous Exchange 2003. * Nouveaux outils d’administration Exchange Management Console / Exchange Management Shell (intégration outils de diagnostic, séparation entre les administrateur Windows et Exchange). Les 5 rôles d'Exchange 2007 / 2010 : Mailbox : * Héberge boîtes aux lettres / dossiers publics * Génération OAB / haute disponibilité CCR, SCC, LCR et SCR. * Ne fait pas le transport de messages. (l’envoie / réception de mail échoue si pas de serveur transport HUB) * Serveur membre du domaine Transport Hub : * Catégorisation (résolution des destinataires) / conversion format de mails / routage des messages / règles de transport/ journalisation / taille maximum message envoyé et/ou reçu. * Anti-spam (désactivé par défaut). * Serveur membre du domaine CAS : * Accès boîtes aux lettres via protocole NON MAPI (EAS, OWA, etc.) * Les services WEB (Auto-Discover) / Distribution OAB * Serveur membre du domaine * En Exchange 2010, les clients Outlook se connectent sur le serveur CAS pas sur le serveur MAILBOX Transport EDGE : * Joue le rôle d’une passerelle SMTP * Remise des messages Internet * Antispam * Analyse antivirus (nécessite une solution tiers) * Serveur NON membre du domaine et dans la DMZ Messagerie Unifiée (UM) : * Réponse aux appels * Réception de télécopie * Accès à ces mails à distance via Outlook Voice Access (consulter ses messages et son calendrier via module vocale, accepter ou annuler des demandes de rendez vous). * Machine membre du domaine. * Non supporté en machine virtuelle. * Nécessite IP-BPX / passerelle VOIP. Installation : Les pré-requis AD / Windows : * Un serveur de Catalogue Global par site AD (obligatoire) où est installé un serveur Exchange. * Maître de schéma et serveur de Catalogue Global : Windows 2003 SP1. * Mode de domaine : natif 2000 (pas de BDC NT4). * Si topologie multi-forêt (forêt de ressource), nécessite relation d’approbation inter-forêt. * Windows 2008 Server SP2 (nombreux bugs corrigés dont celui du service DNS). * Nécessite PowerShell, RPC Over HTTP (CAS) et les services IIS pour CAS et MAILBOX. Les pré-requis Exchange : * Organisation Exchange en mode native (pas de serveur Exchange 5.5) / partitions NTFS. * PowerShell version 2.0 (Exchange 2010 ) * Un CAS dans chaque site avec un Mailbox. * Un HUB dans chaque site avec un Mailbox ou UM * Un Edge ne peut pas être installé avec d’autres rôles. Les Best Practice : * Désactiver IPV6 sur Windows 2008 Server : Outlook Anywhere est incompatible avec Exchange 2007 Server ,: ,: . * Désactiver le pare feu / mise à jour automatique /partage de fichier simple et l’UAC. * Activer Windows / voisinage réseau (éventuellement) * Calibrer votre installation d’Exchange 2007 * Exécuter les tâches de l’assistant de POST installation * Remplacer les certificats * Configurer de l’OAB / POSTMASTER / licence / connecteur d’envoie / création des dossiers publics. * Toujours installer le dernier rollup d’Exchange 2007 (après validation sur maquette) * Exclure les répertoires Exchange de l’analyse temps réel de l’antivirus * Installer une solution de sauvegarde prenant en charge Exchange : NTBACKUP a été remplacé par Windows Server Backup qui ne supporte pas Exchange 2007.Le SP2 d’Exchange 2007 intégrera un nouvel outil de sauvegarde qui permettra de sauvegarder uniquement tout un groupe de stockage (sauvegarde VSS, pas de module ESE) ,: . Migration : Il est possible de migrer d'une version d'Exchange vers une version supérieure via la mise à niveau du schéma Active Directory et l'installation de nouveaux serveurs dans l'organisation. Cependant ce type de migration est relativement complexe. On peut rencontrer les problématiques suivants par exemple quand l'on souhaite migrer d'Exchange 2003 vers Exchange 2007 : * URL pour l'accès OWA * Impossible de supprimer l'ancien serveur Exchange 2003 * Erreur lors installation Exchange 2007 SP1 dans un domaine Windows 2008 R2 * Boîtes aux lettres corrompues : plus de prise en charge des espaces et de @ dans le champ alias * Plus de MAPI32.DLL, attention à vos applications métiers * Quelques problèmes d'OAB * Problèmes de doublons dans les calendriers * ... Compatibilité : Windows Mobile integre dès ses debuts exchange via active sync PALM puis HP sous WebOS sont completement compatibles Exchange 2007 En 2008, Nokia intègre la compatibilité de ses mobiles avec ActiveSync . Les mobiles récents de marque Sony Ericsson sont également compatibles avec la technologie ActiveSync . Apple propose une compatibilité avec exchange 2007 pour Mac OS X et iPhone OS. Google propose une application de transfert pour Google Apps . Principaux produits concurrents: * IceWarp * Lotus Domino (IBM) * Mail Server, Address Book Server, iCal Server et iChat Server (Apple) * Novell GroupWise * Oracle Communications Unified Communications Suite * SOGo, qui offre une connectivité native (sans plugin côté client) avec Outlook par l'entremise d'OpenChange * Zimbra (VMware) Notes et références : Références:

كانو نيجيريا كانو هي أكبر مدينة في نيجيريا من حيث السكان .يبلغ عدد سكانهاعشرة ملايين نسما و تقع ولاية كانو في شمال نيجيريا. "ويلي هذا البلد يعني بلاد "آهير" الآنفة الذِّكْر من جهة اليمين وغربي بوتو بلاد هوساوهم سبعة أقاليم، لسانهم واحد، وعلى كل إقليم أمير نظير للآخر قبل هذا الجهاد، وأبركها "كنو" "كانو" وهي بلاد ذات أشجار، وأنهار، ورمال، وجبال، وأودية، وغيال". واشتهرت "كانو" منذ قديم الزمان بأسوارها العظيمة التي تحيط بكل مكان، وببواباتها المتعددة ذات الطراز المغربي المتميز، وكما يذكر بعض المؤرخين أن أول من بنى هذا السور هو الأمير "غجيما سو" (1095-1134م)، ولقد توسعت هذه الأسوار والبوابات بعد ذلك خاصة في القرنين الخامس عشر والسادس عشر الذين شهدا حركة إصلاح إسلامي، وتوسعات اقتصادية، وهجرات متعددة في بلاد مالي. كما شهدت كانو توسعًا كبيرًا في القرن السادس عشر في عهد السلطان محمد نزاكي (1618-1623م)، وبعد قيام حركة الجهاد الإسلامي في القرن التاسع عشر تحولت "كانو" إلى إحدى الإمارات النيِّف والثلاثين التابعة للخلافة الصوكوتية، وأدت دورًا كبيرًا في تقوية الأوضاع المالية، والعسكرية، والسياسية للدولة. ولقد اشتهرت "كانو" بالبضائع المختلفة ـ مثل النسيج وصناعة الصبغة، وكانت وما تزال أغنى الولايات الشمالية الهوسية في حكومة نيجيريا الحديثة. وكما اشتهرت بأراضيها الخصبة، وبأهرامات الفول السوداني، وهي تمثل عصب الاقتصاد النيجيري قبل اكتشاف البترول بكميات تجارية كبيرة. زار "كانو" العديد من الرحَّآلة والعلماء والباحثين الغربيين خاصة في القرن التاسع عشر، وكان أشهرهم الرحالة الألماني الشهير "هزيك بارث" نيابة عن التاج البريطاني في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر، وكتب عن مجتمعها، واقتصادها، ومعمارها، ووضعها العسكري السياسي، وكان ذلك يمثل بداية الاتصال الأوروبي الاستعماري بالداخل. غزاها المستعمرون الإنجليز كغيرها من إمارات خلافة الدولة الصوكوتية عام (1903م) وهزم عسكرها، وهاجر عدد غير قليل من مواطنيها نتيجة لهذا الغزو الاستعماري من دار الكفر إلى دار الإسلام (الحجاز والسودان) وتحمل الولاية التي توجد فيها هذه المدينة هذا الاسم، والمعروف بولاية "كانو" وعاصمتها أيضًا هي "كانو" المحكي عنها، ويبلغ تعداد سكانها حوالي (10) مليون نسمة. بذرة جغرافيا نيجيريا:

Kano Kano | Populated places in Kano State | Nigerian state capitals Other uses: Kano is a city in Nigeria and the capital of Kano State in Northern Nigeria. Its metropolitan population is the second largest in Nigeria after Lagos. The Kano Urban area covers 137 sq.km and comprises six Local Government Area (LGAs) - Kano Municipal, Fagge, Dala, Gwale, Tarauni and Nassarawa - with a population of 9,383,682 at the 2006 Nigerian census. The Metropolitan Area covers 499 sq.km and comprises eight LGAs - the six mentioned above plus Ungogo and Kumbotso - with a population of 2,828,861 at the 2006 Nigerian census. The principal inhabitants of the city are of the Hausa people. As in most parts of Northern Nigeria, the Hausa Language is widely spoken in Kano. The city is the capital of the Kano Emirate, and the current Emir, Ado Bayero, has been on the throne since 1963. The city is home to the Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport, the main airport serving northern Nigeria and was named after Nigerian politician Aminu Kano. History: Kingdom of Kano: In the 7th century, Dala Hill, a residual hill in Kano, was the site of a hunting and gathering community that engaged in iron work; it is unknown whether these were Hausa people or speakers of Niger–Congo languages. Kano was originally known as Dala, after the hill, and was referred to as such as late as the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th by Bornoan sources. The Kano Chronicle identifies Barbushe, a priest of a Dala Hill spirit, as the city's first settler. (Elizabeth Isichei notes that the description of Barbushe is similar to those of Sao people.) While small chiefdoms were previously present in the area, according to the Kano Chronicle, Bagauda, a grandson of the mythical hero Bayajidda, became the first king of Kano in 999, reigning until 1063. His grandson Gijimasu (1095–1134), the third king, began building city walls at the foot of Dalla Hill, and his own son, Tsaraki (1136–1194), the fifth king, completed them during his reign. Muhammad Rumfa ascended to the throne in 1463 and reigned until 1499. During his reign, he reformed the city, expanded the Sahelian Gidan Rumfa (Emir's Palace), and played a role in the further Islamization of the city, as he urged prominent residents to convert. The Kano Chronicle attributes a total of twelve "innovations" to Rumfa. According to the Kano Chronicle, the thirty-seventh Sarkin Kano (King of Kano) was Mohammed Sharef (1703–1731). His successor, Kumbari dan Sharefa (1731–1743), engaged in major battles with Sokoto. * Fulani conquest and rule Kano Emirate: At the beginning of the 19 century, Fulani Islamic leader Usman dan Fodio led a jihad affecting much of northern Nigeria, leading to the emergence of the Sokoto Caliphate. Kano was the largest and most prosperous province of the empire. This was one of the last major slave societies, with high percentages of enslaved population long after the Atlantic slave trade had been cut off. Heinrich Barth, a German scholar who spent several years in northern Nigeria in the 1850s, estimated the percentage of slaves in Kano to be at least 50%, most of whom lived in slave villages. The city suffered famines from 1807–10, in the 1830s, 1847, 1855, 1863, 1873, 1884, and from 1889 until 1890. From 1893 until 1895, two rival claimants for the throne fought a civil war, or Basasa. With the help of royal slaves, Yusufu was victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. British colonization and rule: British forces captured Kano in 1903 and made it the administrative centre of Northern Nigeria. It was replaced as the centre of government by Kaduna, and only regained administrative significance with the creation of Kano State following Nigerian independence. From 1913 to 1914, as the groundnut business was expanding, Kano suffered a major drought, which caused a famine. Other famines during British rule occurred in 1908, 1920, 1927, 1943, 1951, 1956, and 1958. By 1922, groundnut trader Alhassan Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing fellow merchants Umaru Sharubutu Koki and Maikano Agogo. In May 1953, an inter-ethnic riot arose due to southern newspapers misreporting on the nature of a disagreement between northern and southern politicians in the House of Representatives. Thousands of Nigerians of southern origin died as a result of the riot. * Post-independence history Ado Bayero became Emir of Kano in 1963. Kano state was created in 1967 from the then Northern nigeria by the Federal military government. The first military Police commisioner Audu Bako is credited to building a solid foundation for the progress of a modern society. Most of the social amenities in the state are credited to him. The first civilian governor, Alhaji muhammadu Abubakar Rimi brought his dynamism to leadership In December 1980, radical preacher Mohammed Marwa Maitatsine led riots in Kano. He was killed by security forces, but his followers later started uprisings in other northern cities. After the introduction of sharia in Kano State in 2000, many Christians left the city. 100 people were killed in riots over the sharia issue during October 2001. In November 2007, political violence broke out in the city after the People's Democratic Party (PDP) accused the All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) of rigging the November 17, 2007 local government elections. (The ANPP won in 36 of the state's 44 Local Government Areas.) Hundreds of youths took to the streets, over 300 of whom were arrested; at least 25 people were killed. Buildings set on fire include a sharia police station, an Islamic centre, and a council secretariat. 280 federal soldiers were deployed around the city. * Geography Kano is located at 481 meters (or about 1580 feet) above sea level. * Climate The region features savanna vegetation and a hot, semi-arid climate. Kano sees on average about 873 mm of precipitation per year, the bulk of which falls from June through September. Kano is typically very hot throughout the year, though from December through February, the city is noticeably cooler. Nighttime temperatures are cool during the months of December, January and February, with average low temperatures ranging from 11°-14°C. Retrieved on November 24, 2011. * Demographics Kano is largely Muslim. The majority of Kano Muslims are Sunni, though a minority adhere to the Shia branch (see Shia in Nigeria). Christians and followers of other non-Muslim religions form a small part of the population, and traditionally lived in the Sabon Gari, or Foreign Quarter. Transportation/Aviation: Kano is strategically located and owing to its leading position as commercial hub in the sub-Saharan Africa. Kano is linked to many African cities by road. Fleets of trucks and buses and other link Kano with many cities in Niger, Chad, Cameroon and Republic of BeninKabo Air, an airline, has its head office on the grounds of Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport in Kano. . Kano is also linked to Europe, Middle east, and north Africa. Kano Airport is served by Egypt Air, Saudi Arabian Airlines, Middle East Air, KLM ( ). It is also connected to Lagos and Abuja by several domestic airlines (IRS, Dana Air, Bellview, Arik and others) Economy: Kano has long been the economic centre of northern Nigeria, and a centre for the production and export of groundnuts. Kano houses the Bayero University and a railway station with trains to Lagos routed through Kaduna, while Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport lies nearby. Because Kano is north of the rail junction at Kaduna, it has equal access to the seaports at Lagos and Port Harcourt. Formerly walled, most of the gates to the Old City survive. The Old City houses the vast Kurmi Market, known for its crafts, while old dye pits – still in use – lie nearby. Also in the Old City are the Emir's Palace, the Great Mosque, and the Gidan Makama Mosque. Kano has six districts. They are the Old City, Bompai, Fagge, Sabon Gari, Syrian Quarter, and Nassarawa. The city also contains the Gidan Makama Museum Kano, housed in a 15th century building that is a National Monument. As of November 2007, there are plans to establish an information technology park in the city. The city is supplied with water by the nearby Challawa Gorge Dam, which is also being considered as a source of hydro power. The airline Kabo Air has its head office in the city. Durbar Festival: The Emir of Kano hosts a Durbar to mark and celebrate the two annual Muslim festivals and Eid-ul-Fitr (to mark the end of the Holy Month of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (to mark the Hajj Holy Pilgrimage). The Durbar culminates in a procession of highly elaborately dressed horsemen who pass through the city to the Emir's palace. Once assembled near the palace, groups of horsemen, each group representing a nearby village, take it in turns to charge towards the Emir, pulling up just feet in front of the seated dignitaries to offer their respect and allegiance. References: Reflist: Further reading: Kano:

Kano (Nigeria) Ville du Nigeria Kano: Nigeria: Kano est la deuxième plus grande ville du Nigeria. Située dans le nord du pays elle est la capitale de l’État de Kano. Histoire : Située dans une région peuplée depuis le VIe siècle: , la ville a été fondée vers l'an 1000 en tant que cité-état haoussa indépendante. À la croisée de plusieurs routes caravanières trans-sahariennes, Kano prospéra grâce aux échanges de biens : or, cuir, ivoire, sel, esclaves, etc. L'Islam est introduit au XIVe siècle: par les marchands et dès le XVe siècle: , la première grande mosquée est érigée. Au début du XIXe siècle: , le chef islamique peul Usman dan Fodio dirige un jihad contre Kano, prend la ville et met à sa tête Sulaiman qui devient le premier membre de la dynastie des émirs de Kano. Le 7 février 1903, alors que Alu, le septième émir de Kano, est en voyage à Sokoto, une force armée britannique de 800 hommes s'empare de la ville pour l'intégrer au protectorat du nord Nigeria. Kano perd alors son influence politique au profit de Kaduna et ne la retrouve en partie qu'en 1967, quand le gouvernement indépendant crée l’État de Kano. Notes: références:

بورت هاركورت نيجيريا بورت هاركورت (Port Harcourt) هي مدينة نيجيرية تقع في دلتا النيجر. وهي عاصمة ولاية ريفرز. مساحتها 186 كم2: ، وعدد سكانها 1204900 (تقديرات 2005). تأسست المدينة بواسطة البريطانيين عام 1912 الذين أطلقوا عليها هذا الاسم نسبة إلى لويس فيرون هاركورت، أمين سر مستعمرات الدولة البريطاني. يوجد في المدينة صناعة نفطية. كان الهدف الأولي للميناء هو تصدير الفحم الذي يصله بكميات كبيرة من إنوغو شمالاً عبر نهر بوني. بورت هاركورت هي رابع أكبر مدن نيجيريا بعد لاغوس وإيبادان وكانو. الميناء هو منطقة صناعية، تتواجد به عدة شركات متعددة الجنسيات، والصناعات الرئيسية فيه مرتبطة بالنفط. كما تعتبر أهم مدن نيجيريا التي تحتوي على مصاف للنفط لكون النفط أهم موارد البلاد. وتوجد أيضاً بؤرات لصيد السمك، وسوق سمك كبير. هذا بالإضافة إلى وجود جامعتين، وحديقة إسحق بورو، وشاطئ ومنتجع.

Port Harcourt Nigerian state capitals | Port Harcourt | Populated places in Rivers State | Bonny River | Populated coastal places in Nigeria | Populated places established in 1913 | Local Government Areas in Rivers State Port Harcourt capital of Rivers state and port town in southern Nigeria. It lies along the Bonny River (an eastern distributary of the Niger), 41 miles (66 km) upstream from the Gulf of Guinea. Founded in 1912 in an area traditionally inhabited by the Ikwerre people, it serve as a port, named for Lewis Harcourt - the colonial secretary. Port Harcourt has long been an important merchant port and is today the centre of Nigeria’s oil industry. Its exports include petroleum, coal, tin, palm products, cocoa, and groundnuts. Among the industries of the area are timber processing, car manufacturing, food and tobacco processing, and the manufacture of rubber, glass, metal, and paper products, cement, petroleum products, paint, enamelware, bicycles, furniture, and soap. Port Harcourt was a site for World War I military operations against German Kamerun; it was once part of the Republic of Biafra which seceded from Nigeria and was dissolved in 1970. Commercial quantities of crude oil was discovered in Oloibiri in 1956 and Port Harcourt's economy turned to petroleum when the first shipment of Nigerian crude oil was exported through the city in 1958. Through the benefits of the Nigerian petroleum industry Port Harcourt was further developed with aspects of modernisation such as overpasses and city blocks. Oil firms that currently have offices in the city include Royal Dutch Shell and Chevron. Port Harcourt's primary airport is the Port Harcourt International Airport located in the periphery of the city; Nigerian Air Force (NAF) base is the location of the only other airport in the city; used by commercial airlines Aero Contractors and Virgin Nigeria (now Air Nigeria) for domestic flights. The main educational establishment in the city is the University of Port Harcourt. * History Port Harcourt was founded in 1913 by the British colonial administration of Nigeria The purpose of Port Harcourt was to export the coal which geologist Albert Ernest Kitson had discovered in Enugu in 1909. The colonial government caused the people of Diobu to cede their land and by 1913 the building of a port-town was started. Other villages that were later absorbed into the city included Oroworukwo, Mkpogua and Rumuomasi; In the creeks to the south of the original port were the fishing camps and grounds of the Okrika-Ijaw group. During World War I Port Harcourt was used as a point for military operations against Axis forces in German Kamerun. After the discovery of crude oil in Oloibiri in 1956 Port Harcourt exported the first shipload from Nigeria in 1958. Port Harcourt became the centre of the Nigerian oil economy and it subsequently reaped benefits of its associations with the petroleum industry by undergoing modernisation and urbanisation. Port Harcourt's growth is further due to its position as the commercial centre and foremost industrial city of the former Eastern Region; its position in the Niger Delta; and its importance as the centre of social and economic life in Rivers State. A 1973 social survey found that migrants made up 72 percent of Port Harcourt's population. From an area of 15.54 km2 in 1914, Port Harcourt grew uncontrolled to an area of 360 km2 in the 1980s. Geography and climate: The main city of Port Harcourt is the Port Harcourt city in the Port Harcourt Local Government Area, consisting of the former European quarters now called old Government reservation area (GRA) and New layout areas. The Port Harcourt Urban Area (Port Harcourt metropolis) is made up of the city itself and parts of Obio/Akpor Local Government Area. Port Harcourt City, which the capital of Rivers State, is highly congested as it is the only major city of the state. A law has recently passed by the state house and governor Amaechi's administration to spread development to the surrounding communities as part of the effort to decongest the Port Harcourt metropolis. The Greater Port Harcourt urban area, spans eight local government areas that include Port-Harcourt local government, Okrika, Obio/Akpor, Ikwerre, Oyigbo, Ogu/Bolo, Tai and Eleme local governments respectively. Port Harcourt features a tropical monsoon climate with lengthy and heavy rainy seasons and very short dry seasons. Only the months of December and January truly qualifies as dry season months in the city. The harmattan, which climatically influences many cities in West Africa, is less pronounced in Port Harcourt. Port Harcourt's heaviest precipitation occurs during September with an average of 370 mm of rain. December on average is the driest month of the year, with an average rainfall of 20 mm. Temperatures throughout the year in the city are relatively constant, showing little variation throughout the course of the year. Average temperatures are typically between 25°C-28°C in the city. * Economy and infrastructure The city is a major industrial centre as it has a large number of multinational firms as well as other industrial concerns, particularly business related to the petroleum industry. It is the chief oil-refining city in Nigeria. Rivers State is one of the wealthiest states in Nigeria in terms of gross domestic product and foreign exchange revenue from the oil industry, crude oil being its main export earner. Some of Port Harcourt's more popular and well-known residential areas are Port Harcourt Township (or just 'Town'), GRA (Government Reserved Area) phases 1—5, Rumuomasi, Ogbunabali, Rumuola, Diobu, Amadi Flats, and Borokiri. The main industrial area is located in Trans Amadi. Face-me-I-face-you architecture is quite common to Port Harcourt. The Podium Block of Rivers State Secretariat is an icon of the city. An eighteen storey building, it has the tallest building in the South/South and South/East Geopolitical zones combined. The city has an international airport, Port Harcourt International Airport, two seaports (FOT Onne, Port Harcourt Wharf), two stadiums (Sharks Stadium which is the civic center) and Liberation Stadium located in Elekahia and two refineries. The city plays host to the Rivers State University of Science and Technology; there is also a University of Port Harcourt, which is Located in Obio/Akpor which was carved out of Port Harcourt Local Government Area for ease of administration. The city is sprawling in nature as building codes and zoning regulations are poorly enforced. Land is cleared and 'lean to' buildings constructed sometimes overnight. This adds to flooding and sanitation problems since with no proper drainage or sewer system, parts of the city flood during the very heavy monsoon-type rains that fall for half the year. * Greater Port-Harcourt City development (GPHCDA) In early 2009 the State Government under the leadership of Governor Chibuike Amaechi announced plans for the creation of a new city to be called the Greater Port-Harcourt City. The new city is to be located close to the Port-Harcourt International Airport. The total coverage area for the Greater Port Harcourt city Development is 1900 sq kms spanning 8 local governments in Rivers State including all of PH Local Govt, Ogu Bolo, Eleme, Ikwere, Etche, Obio Akpor,Okrika, Eleme local government areas. The Authority (GPHCDA) was established by law in April 2009 with a mandate to facilitate the implementation of the Greater Port Harcourt master plan and build the new city. The Authority is led by an administrator, Dame Aleruchi Cookey Gam, supported by a management team comprising the Secretary to the authority and Board, Dr Silva Opusunju, Director Finance Aaron Obelly, Director Administration (Permanent Secretary) MI Tella, Director Public Affairs Kenneth Anga, Director Legal Dr. Justice Nwobike, Director Projects Edmund Altraide, Director Development Control Sir Ngozi Worgu. The Greater Port Harcourt city hosted several of the events at the 17th national sports festival tagged 'Garden City games'. The games in 2011 have been confirmeddate: August 2011: to be the best festival so far hosted by any city. The Greater Port Harcourt City has several features and advantages making it attractive to investors seeking investment opportunities in Nigeria. For more information interested parties may contact the GPHCDA Public Affairs department at 38 Ordinance Road Trans Amadi, Port Harcourt www.gphcity.com. Attention of the Director. Militancy: In recent times, the activities of several armed militant gangs has cast a huge shadow on life and commerce in Port Harcourt. These gangs that for the most part claim to fight for the interest of the indigenous people of Rivers State and the Niger Delta region of Nigeria by asking for a share Nigeria's oil wealth, are however better noted and feared for violent conduct that include random and targeted killings, arson, kidnappings of both foreign workers and indigenous people and bombings. After a spate of violence in 2007, a curfew was imposed on the town, this was however lifted by the Governor of Rivers State in the last days of 2007. On New Year's Eve 2007, Port Harcourt was once again rocked by violence which left at least sixteen people dead. Ateke Tom, the leader of one of the more prominent militias claimed responsibility for most of the fatalities. But now, Port Harcourt has seemingly had some reduction in militancy due to the introduction of the amnesty by the federal Government for the militants. Notes: groupNote: * References== Reflist:

Port Harcourt Ville du Nigeria | Ville portuaire | Maison d'Harcourt | Zone de gouvernement local du Nigeria Nigeria: Port Harcourt est la capitale et principale ville de l'État de Rivers au sud du Nigeria. Située sur le delta du Niger elle est nommée d'après Lewis Vernon Harcourt, secrétaire d'État aux colonies de 1910 à 1915. Histoire : La ville a été fondée en 1912 sur un territoire originellement peuplée par l'ethnie Idjo par les colons britanniques. Elle a d'abord servi de port d'exportation du charbon venant des mines d'Enugu. Depuis les années 1990 la ville est le théâtre de nombreux heurts liés au contrôle de la manne pétrolière. En 1995 notamment l'écrivain et activiste Ken Saro-Wiwa a été pendu par le gouvernement militaire. Économie : Port Harcourt est la principale ville du Nigeria pour le raffinage du pétrole, et l'industrie du pétrole y tient donc une place prépondérante. La pêche étant l'autre activité importante. À Port Harcourt se trouve l'usine française de pneumatiques Michelin et le siège de TEPNG, filiale du groupe TOTAL. L'usine Michelin a fermé ses portes il y a peu. Une école française se trouve aussi à Port Harcourt. Cette école se nomme Elf-Michelin. * Port Harcourt est reliée par chemin de fer à Maiduguri. * La ville est desservie par l'aéroport international de Port Harcourt

ثيوفين ثيوفينات | حلقات عطرية بسيطة الثيوفين مركب عضوي له الصيغة C4H4S ، وهو من المركبات العطرية الحلقية غير المتجانسة. بنية الثيوفين عبارة عن حلقة خماسية غير مشبعة تحوي عنصر الكبريت. الخصائص : * الثيوفين سائل في درجة حرارة الغرفة، لا يمتزج مع الماء، له رائحة تشبه رائحة البنزين، ودرجة غليانه تبلغ 84°س. * لمركب الثيوفين خصائص عطرية حيث أنه يحقق قاعدة هوكل، أربعة إلكترونات من النمط π (باي) من الرابطتين المضاعفتين، بالإضافة إلى الزوج الإلكتروني على ذرة الكبريت. بسبب هذه الخاصية العطرية فإن للثيوفين خواص مغايرة لمركبات ثيو الإيثر. فعلى سبيل المثال فإن ذرة الكبريت تقاوم تفاعل الألكلة باستخدام يوديد الميثان (يوديد الميثيل) مثلاً. * بالمقابل فإن الثيوفين يظهر قابلية كبيرة تجاه تفاعل السلفنة حبث يتشكل حمض ثيوفين السلفون المنحل في الماء. بالاعتماد على تفاعل السلفنة الآنف ذكره يتم فصل الثيوفين عن البنزين، خاصة أن لديهما درجات غليان متقاربة (الفرق فقط 4°س). استحصاله ووجوده في الطبيعة : يوجد الثيوفين ومشتقاته في المنتجات النفطية على اختلافها، يصل تركيزها فيه إلى 1-3 %، لكن هذه المركبات تتركز بشكل أكبر في القطفات الثقيلة من النفط. تتم إزالة الثيوفين ومشتقاته من النفط عن طريق عملية نزع الكبريت المهدرجة. يجري في هذه العملية تلقيم المواد إلى المفاعل بالحالة الغازية أو السائلة وتمريرها على حفاز من ثنائي كبريتيد الموليبدنوم تحت تطبيق ضغط من غاز الهيدروجين. تخضع مركبات الثيوفين ومشتقاته في هذه الحالة إلى تحلل هيدروجيني لتتشكل الهيدروكربونات الموافقة وكبريتيد الهيدروجين. الاستعمالات : تدخل مركبات الثيوفين كوحدات أساسية لتحضير المركبات الأخرى في العديد من الصناعات الكيميائية مثل صناعة الكيماويات الزراعية وفي الصناعات الدوائية . * المراجع == ثبت_المراجع:

Thiophene Thiophenes Thiophene is a heterocyclic compound with the formula C4H4S. Consisting of a flat five-membered ring, it is aromatic as indicated by its extensive substitution reactions. Related to thiophene are benzothiophene and dibenzothiophene, containing the thiophene ring fused with one and two benzene rings, respectively. Compounds analogous to thiophene include furan (C4H4O) and pyrrole (C4H4NH). * Isolation, occurrence Thiophene was discovered as a contaminant in benzene. It was observed that isatin forms a blue dye if it is mixed with sulfuric acid and crude benzene. The formation of the blue indophenin was long believed to be a reaction with benzene. Victor Meyer was able to isolate the substance responsible for this reaction from benzene. This new heterocyclic compound was thiophene. Thiophene and its derivatives occur in petroleum, sometimes in concentrations up to 1-3%. The thiophenic content of oil and coal is removed via the hydrodesulfurization (HDS) process. In HDS, the liquid or gaseous feed is passed over a form of molybdenum disulfide catalyst under a pressure of H2. Thiophenes undergo hydrogenolysis to form hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulfide. Thus, thiophene itself is converted to butane and H2S. More prevalent and more problematic in petroleum are benzothiophene and dibenzothiophene. * Synthesis and production Reflecting their high stabilities, thiophenes arise from many reactions involving sulfur sources and hydrocarbons, especially unsaturated ones, e.g. acetylenes and elemental sulfur, which was the first synthesis of thiophene by Viktor Meyer in the year of its discovery. Thiophenes are classically prepared by the reaction of 1,4-diketones, diesters, or dicarboxylates with sulfiding reagents such as P4S10. Specialized thiophenes can be synthesized similarly using Lawesson's reagent as the sulfiding agent, or via the Gewald reaction, which involves the condensation of two esters in the presence of elemental sulfur. Another method is the Volhard-Erdmann cyclization. Thiophene is produced on a scale of ca. 2M kg per year worldwide. Production involves the vapor phase reaction of a sulfur source, typically carbon disulfide, and butanol. These reagents are contacted with an oxide catalyst at 500–550 °C. Properties: At room temperature, thiophene is a colorless liquid with a mildly pleasant odor reminiscent of benzene, with which thiophene shares some similarities. The high reactivity of thiophene toward sulfonation is the basis for the separation of thiophene from benzene, which are difficult to separate by distillation due to their similar boiling points (4 °C difference at ambient pressure). Like benzene, thiophene forms an azeotrope with ethanol. The molecule is flat; the bond angle at the sulphur is around 93 degrees, the C-C-S angle is around 109, and the other two carbons have a bond angle around 114 degrees. The C-C bonds to the carbons adjacent to the sulphur are about 1.34A, the C-S bond length is around 1.70A, and the other C-C bond is about 1.41A (figures from the Cambridge Structural Database). Reactivity: Thiophene is considered aromatic, although theoretical calculations suggest that the degree of aromaticity is less than that of benzene. The "electron pairs" on sulfur are significantly delocalized in the pi electron system. As a consequence of its aromaticity, thiophene does not exhibit the properties seen for conventional thioethers. For example the sulfur atom resists alkylation and oxidation. Toward electrophiles: Although the sulfur atom is relatively unreactive, the flanking carbon centers, the 2- and 5-positions, are highly susceptible to attack by electrophiles. Halogens give initially 2-halo derivatives followed by 2,5-dihalothiophenes; perhalogenation is easily accomplished to give C4X4S (X Cl, Br, I). Thiophene brominates 107 times faster than does benzene. Chloromethylation and chloroethylation occur readily at the 2,5-positions. Reduction of the chloromethyl product gives 2-methylthiophene. Hydrolysis followed by dehydration of the chloroethyl species gives 2-vinylthiophene. Desulfurization by Raney nickel: Desulfurization of thiophene with Raney nickel affords butane. When coupled with the easy 2,5-difunctionalization of thiophene, desulfurization provides a route to 1,4-disubstituted butanes. Lithiation: Not only is thiophene reactive toward electrophiles, it is also readily lithiated with butyl lithium to give 2-lithiothiophene, which is a precursor to a variety of derivatives, including dithienyl. Coordination chemistry: Thiophene exhibits little thioether-like character, but it does serve as a pi-ligand forming piano stool complexes such as Cr(η5-C4H4S)(CO)3. Uses: Thiophenes are important heterocyclic compounds that are widely used as building blocks in many agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals. The benzene ring of a biologically active compound may often be replaced by a thiophene without loss of activity. This is seen in examples such as the NSAID lornoxicam, the thiophene analog of piroxicam. Polythiophene: The polymer formed by linking thiophene through its 2,5 positions is called polythiophene. Polythiophene itself has poor processing properties. More useful are polymers derived from thiophenes substituted at the 3- and 3- and 4- positions. Polythiophenes become electrically conductive upon partial oxidation, i.e. they become "organic metals." References: reflist:

Thiophène Noyau aromatique simple | Thiophène composé chimique: Le thiophène est un composé organique hétérocyclique aromatique. C'est un liquide limpide incolore ayant une odeur qui rappelle celle du benzène. Le thiophène est souvent trouvé naturellement dans le pétrole à des concentrations de quelques pourcents. Le thiophène est un des composés utilisés pour dénaturer l'alcool. La réaction de polymérisation du thiophène conduit au polythiophène. Chimie: La chimie du thiophène est essentiellement marquée par son caractère aromatique (4 électrons apportés par les doubles liaisons, deux par le soufre). Le cycle peut donc subir les substitutions électrophiles aromatiques classiquement rencontrées sur les aromatiques, telles les halogénations, les réactions de type Friedel et Crafts (rarement en présence de chlorure d'aluminium, qui a tendance à favoriser des polymérisations par ouverture du cycle, néanmoins), des formylations de Wilsmeier-Haack, ... De par la présence du soufre, les substitutions sont fortement orientées sur les carbones 2 et 5, et il est quasiment impossible d'orienter une réaction en position 3 ou 4 si ces deux positions ne sont pas déjà occupées. Une exception notable est par exemple l'isomérisation du 2-bromothiophène en 3-bromothiophène en présence de silice acide. Le thiophène est cependant nettement plus fragile qu'un aromatique simple, et peut subir des réactions de dégradation en présence d'acide fort (notamment l'acide sulfurique) ou d'acide de Lewis (AlCl3). L'hydrogénation des doubles liaisons est nettement plus simple que sur le benzène, mais il est très difficile de s'arrêter à une seule réaction.

القنفذ سونيك (قصة مصورة) قصص مصورة | قصص مصورة | القنفذ سونيك مجلة القنفذ سونيك Sonic the Hedgehog: هي سلسلة قصص مصورة من الناشر آرتشي كومكس الأمريكية. صدر أول عدد للمجلة في شهر فبراير عام 1993 ويتحدث عن مغامرات سونيك والأصدقاء وتصديهم للأشرار والمجرمين والوحوش الخارقة. الشخصيات : الأبطال : * Sonic the Hedgehog * Miles "Tails" Prower * Princess Sally Acorn * Bunnie Rabbot * Rotor * Antoine D'Coolette * NICOLE * Mina Mongoose * Amy Rose * Knuckles the Echidna * Julie-Su * Chaotix بذرة قصص مصورة:

Sonic the Hedgehog (comics) Sonic the Hedgehog | Comics based on video games | Comics featuring anthropomorphic characters | Sonic the Hedgehog titles | 1993 comic debuts Sonic the Hedgehog is an ongoing series of American comic books published by Archie Comics, featuring Sega's mascot video game character of the same name. The comic book series debuted in the United States as a 4 part mini-series (issues #0-3) published between November 1992 and February 1993. The ongoing series began in May 1993, nearly two years after the release of the first video game in 1991 for the Sega Genesis. Spin-off publications from the comic include a Knuckles the Echidna series starring the titular character, which ran for 32 issues; 15 48-page "Super Specials"; 8 single 48-page special issues; and 4 short three-issue miniseries, each starring a character from the series. On September 21, 2005, Archie Comics started a new series based on the TV show Sonic X. In February 2009, the Sonic X series was replaced by Sonic Universe, a direct spin-off of the parent comic, Sonic the Hedgehog. Aside from the Sonic X series, all of Archie Comics' Sonic-related series take place in the same fictional universe (Sonic X takes place in a different dimension from the main series, although crossovers between the two have occurred in issue #40 of Sonic X). This universe features a mixture of characters, settings and storylines from both Sonic the Hedgehog and Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog animated series, the Sonic video games by Sega, and various other incarnations of Sonic. (though the comic was initially inspired by ) It also includes many elements unique to the comic universe. While the ongoing game series continues to influence the comic series, and there is influence from the different TV series, the games, the various TV series, and comics all exist as entirely different continuities. Sonic the Hedgehog is not to be confused with Sonic the Comic, which ran in the UK until 2002. As of October 2011, there have been 229 issues of the original Sonic the Hedgehog series. Also, the series was recognized by Guinness World Records as the longest running comic series based on a video game. Overview: The main focus of the comic storyline is the title character, world-famous hero Sonic the Hedgehog. Sonic is endowed with super speed and a love of freedom, which puts him at odds with the nefarious Dr. Robotnik. Sonic is in many ways different from his game counterpart - in the comics, he is depicted as having important ties with his family and friends, a characteristic absent from other incarnations. He is also portrayed as having a deep sense of duty - although this is not as clearly portrayed in the games, in the comic he holds a personal grudge against the Doctor and understands his ability to protect the world from this menace. Sometimes he does seem to have a fun time fighting Robotnik, but ultimately he seems to treat the ordeal seriously. Although Sonic normally goes adventuring by himself in the video games (with the occasional company of other player characters), in the comic he is affiliated with the Freedom Fighters, a ragtag rebellion that was formed to counter the tyranny of Dr. Ivo Robotnik (currently known as "Eggman") and his legion of unquestioning, warlike robots. The basis of the original issues were designed to closely mirror the animated television series, as well as the names and likenesses of Sonic's allies in the Freedom Fighters. Since then, the series has integrated many elements from the video games, which has led to ongoing story arcs involving Shadow the Hedgehog and others. Setting: At the beginning of the series the year was 3235, though by now it is approximately 3237 (noted in issue #215 when a side story goes 200 years into the future in the year 3437). Sonic currently lives on Planet Mobius in New Mobotropolis. It was eventually revealed that Mobius is actually a future Earth (in an alternate reality), the year being 14,016 A.D. by the real-life calendar. Originally, the date of the Xorda attack was said to have been three millennia ago (sometime during the 21st century by our calendar), which was likely what caused the year to reset at 0. However, the date of the Xorda attack was retconned to have occurred roughly twelve thousand years ago from the current Mobian year. This was explained in issues #124, #125 and #148. At the onset of the series, Sonic's original home was , a secret metal base hidden within the . Other main areas of setting include , , and . Storyline Summary (issues 1-225) : The original issues of the series and those soon to follow consisted mostly of isolated stories. That is, there was rarely any continuity between issues. However, there were the additions of new characters (such as Bunnie Rabbot, Knuckles, and Super Sonic) that would become familiar and lasting faces as the series continued. The early issues featured much of Sonic versus Robotnik, in which Sonic would constantly foil Robotnik’s plans whether it be to tear down a forest or find the hidden location of Knothole Village. Eventually though, the issues started to gain a sense of an ongoing story, most notably with the addition of the Mecha Sonic storyline in issue #39, in which Sonic is transformed into a robotic form and does as Robotnik commands. This would later be concluded in a Sonic Special issue where Knuckles gives himself up to be transformed into a robot in order to defeat Mecha Sonic. From here, the storyline would be further developed into what is now a fully continuous one. Following the defeat of Mecha Sonic, the Freedom Fighters come together in issue #46 to discuss ways to attack and defeat Robotnik once and for all. The loyalty of many of the Freedom Fighters comes into question, particularly notable in a feud between Sonic and Geoffrey St. John, member of the Acorn Secret Service. This continues into the renowned End Game saga which takes place over a four issue span, #47 through #50. The saga begins with a mission by the Freedom Fighters and the Wolf Pack, led by Lupe, to attack Robotnik’s base. Princess Sally reveals thoughts of her father, King Acorn, telling her that it would soon become apparent that Sonic is a traitor. The mission proceeds and Sally is in need of help or she may fall to her death. The Freedom Fighters look on in despair when they think they see Sonic and assume that he will rescue the princess. Much to their surprise, Sonic aids Sally in falling to her death. The mission is called to retreat, and the Freedom Fighters move back to Knothole Village. Meanwhile, Sonic is seen battling Robotnik inside the base (when he apparently left Sally for dead). Robotnik escapes and Sonic leaves the base, wondering where the rest of his companions have gone. Sonic returns to Knothole, only to be arrested and spared the death penalty in light of all his services, so instead he is sentenced to life in prison on the Devil’s Gulag, where other notorious traitors such as Sleuth Doggy Dog (issue #42) will be imprisoned with him. While Sonic is being transported to the Gulag, Swatbots attack the vessel and it crash lands. Sonic remains conscious and takes the opportunity to escape. News bears word and King Acorn demands the recapture of Sonic by St. John. Sonic on the run, takes refuge in a cavern. Meanwhile, Bunnie and Antoine discover that Drago (a member of the Wolf Pack) has been working with Robotnik in order to frame Sonic. This is followed by King Acorn issuing Robotnik as his new Warlord. Sonic, in the meantime, continues his run from St. John and the secret service with aid from Dulcy the Dragon. Robotnik reveals his duplicate of the king by making it self destruct and the true plan has become evident to all. All this would lead up to Sonic's return to Knothole in issue #50, where Sonic clears his name heads to a final showdown with Robotnik. As the issue notes, Sonic is uncharacteristically devoid of humor as he approaches Robotnik, even going so far as to address him as "Julian". In the battle, Robotnik’s Ultimate Annihilator crashes and the room is destined for destruction, but Robotnik and Sonic remain to fight. In the end, Sonic emerges victorious and Robotnik is wiped out. Sonic later revives Sally with a kiss. Storylines continue to follow after the EndGame saga. Ixis Naugus makes his first appearance in issue #53. Although temporarily defeated, he would later return in issues #64 through #66, along with the appearance of Nate Morgan, former advisor of King Acorn, and Ixis would be defeated this time by Ultra Sonic, one of Sonic's transformations. Issue #75 reveals that a robotized version of Robotnik from another dimension, that Sonic and friends faced in issue #19, known as Robo-Robotnik, survived the last encounter and killed his dimension's version of Sonic, and after learning about the death of the Robotnik Prime in issue #50, decided to fill out the void for both his and Sonic Prime's life by taking Robotnik Prime's place. His presence is revealed by flashbacks to certain issues between issues #51 and #75. Sonic and the Freedom Fighters head to space to battle Robo-Robotnik, and although they defeat him, they only destroyed his robot body. It is then revealed that he had many back-up bodies on standby with which to download himself into. Robo-Robotnik went into one shaped funny, and became who is now Sonic's familiar arch-enemy, Dr. Eggman (until being transformed back into an organic lifeform by the Bem in issue #118). Sonic Adventure is readily adapted into the series with the appearance of Chaos, beginning in issue #79. The saga ends with Sonic successfully defeating Perfect Chaos, the final form of Chaos after absorbing all of the Chaos Emeralds, by transforming into Super Sonic in issue #84. Sonic does not actually destroy Chaos, as Chaos returns to his ancient beginnings to live in peace. Issues #85 and #86 feature the return of Metal Sonic. Sonic Adventure 2 comes into adaptation for one issue featuring Shadow the Hedgehog. In issue #125, Sonic's latest battle leaves him stranded in space after saving Knothole. On Mobius, he is assumed to be dead. Sonic's journey through space leads up to many interesting story lines, such as the return of Super Sonic in issue #126, and Sonic's discovery that Tails' parents are still alive on a far off planet. Sonic returns in issue #130 where he reveals to everyone that he is indeed alive and well. Issues #131 through #144 introduce a sub storyline in which the future of Mobius is the plot. In this future, Sonic is king of Mobotropolis and married to Sally. Knuckles has attained the rank of Guardian and is partnered (not married) to Julie-Su. However, all is not well as the timeline is in danger of collapsing into destruction. Sonic and Knuckles try with the help of Rotor to prevent this catastrophe, but fail and the time line and storyline come to an end. Issue #145 features the return of Shadow, who then returns to take part of the storyline, frequently battling Sonic in issues #157 through #161. Sonic was switched with Anti-Sonic (an evil version of himself from a parallel universe first encountered in Issue 11) temporarily and got back to find Anti-Sonic ruining his reputation around Knothole by making romantic advances toward his female friends. Sally was about to marry Patch (the evil version of Antoine from the same parallel universe, masquerading as his doppelganger), whose plan was to kill King Acorn upon the end of the ceremony, effectively making him king of the Acorn Kingdom. Before Patch's plan could go into motion to come back and accept the crown so Sally wouldn't have to be married off. Sonic defeated Patch, sent him back to Anti-Mobius, and rescued the real Antoine. Realizing that it would take a long time before he and Sally could have a healthy relationship, Sonic began dating Fiona Fox. Issues #160 and #161 feature the creation of Scourge the Hedgehog, Anti-Sonic's green form that resulted from his mutation via the Master Emerald. It is later revealed that Fiona's loyalty belonged to Scourge rather than Sonic, and she subsequently left the Freedom Fighters to be with him, and later return with the other "anti-freedom fighters". In issue #175-#177 The Freedom Fighters are enjoying respite at the original base when Snively catches them off guard in a mech and vaporizes all the Freedom Fighters except Tails, Knuckles, Amy, and Sonic then escapes in the top portion of his robot, the body smashes to pieces by an enraged Mighty. Sonic races off to save everyone else in Knothole while Knuckles, Tails, and Amy are trapped in the ruins of the base. Sonic finds Knothole in ruins as the Egg Fleet burns it too the ground. Sonic, in panic, rushes to the still-standing Castle Acorn to save Elias and the castles inhabitants, when Eggman, in a new battle armor, destroys the castle before Sonic's eyes. Eggman reveals that Snively did not kill Sonic's friends, but teleported them too Eggman's Egg Grapes to convert their life-force into energy to power his Eggman Empire. Eggman and Sonic battle but Eggman easily defeats Sonic; his armor outclassing Sonic in strength and speed. As a last ditch effort, Sonic runs as fast as he ever has, crossing the country in only a few seconds.He rushes at Eggman as fast as he can, slamming into Eggman's shield and throwing him into a pile of rubble. Eggman emerges with no damage but a badly dented shield. Eggman leaves Sonic broken and defeated and returns to his Egg Grapes. Sonic returns to his friends and they discover Nicole the supercomputer has survived the attack with a plan to defeat Eggman. Sonic and his friends race to the Egg Vineyard just as Eggman is preparing to activate the Egg Grape containing Charmy the Bee. Sonic and co. break all the citizens of Knothole out of the Egg Grapes and Nicole reprograms Eggmans computer as Eggman and Snively run to their armor. As all the would-be escapees flee the Egg Vineyard, Eggman tries to teleport everyone into his reserve Egg Grapes, but the reprogramed armor, instead, sends them all to New Mobotropolis, a city created entirely out of Nanites by Nicole. In Issues #198 and #199, the Freedom Fighters and Chaotix proceed to storm Eggman's base. In the process, the team separates and fight against the Dark Legion. Near the end of issue #199, a blocked doorway with a small hole, indicating that Sonic was to Spin-Dash through is discovered. Eggman, who is inside a spider robot, faces off with Sonic. In #200, Sonic once again beats Eggman, who, unexpectedly, goes insane, taking off his eyeglasses and tearing off his mustache. The next issue, Sonic is filled with a dread and remorse, but is cheered up by Sally in order to enjoy the celebration of finally defeating Eggman. However, the party is crashed when Khan appears in a rage. Sonic attacks without hesitation as he is bored, only to find out that the Egg Empire has a new ruler. With Eggman incapacitated, his nephew Snively has given control of the Empire to the Iron Queen, who controls the four ninja clans of the Dragon Kingdom. In a sub story, Espio is seen running off to the empire with a "brother ninja" while on clan business. The Iron Queen uses her technomagic to take control of Bunnie and then Khan, but both attempts are foiled. Meanwhile, Eggman escapes his cell in Robotropolis only to be taken prisoner in New Mobotropolis. Snively tells the Queen that her technomagic can control Nicole, and the Iron Dominion invades New Mobotropolis. After Sonic and Sally break the Queen's hold on Nicole, they, Tails and Khan head to the Dragon Kingdom and one by one break the Queen's alliance with the ninja clans. With her forces now depleted, the four return to New Mobotropolis and help the rest of their friends defeat and capture the Iron Queen. In the process, Snively escapes with Eggman, who has regained his sainty. Khan departs after the Iron Queen's defeat, and Sally then tries to win Sonic back. They then proceed to the wolf pack. They then meet with Lupe who has become grand chief of the newly established wolf pack nation. Unexpectedly they meet with Big the Cat when he walks into the city to search for the ancient onyx. Sonic and Big then head to the cat tribes to ask them if they know where it is while Sally goes elsewhere to find the emerald. Sonic is talking to the chief, the wolf pack suddenly ambushes them. They argue about who has the ancient onyx until Sonic gets them to temporaraly cooperate. Both groups then head to the ruins of the failed Echidnaopolis. Sonic and Big rescue Sally while the Felidae and wolf pack drive the dark egg legion away. Sally then talks the trides into establishing a peace agreement and gives both of them the ancient Onyx. All three of them are made honorary members of the wolf pack nation after that. Back in New Mobotropolis, Rotor and Penelope are reorganizing the city's constitution until Hamlin barges in and warns Rotor that his family is in danger. They then watch a transmission by Guntiver who tells them that the walrus herd is being mind controlled by the Dark egg legion. Rotor has to stay with the council so Sonic heads to the northern tundra alone. When he gets there, he meets with the Arctic Freedom Fighters who go over their plans with him. Back at New Mobotropolis, Rotor is working on a new suit design when NICOLE appears next to him. He asks her to build the suit for him and she does. Rotor then blasts off to aid Sonic in his mission. While Sonic and the Arctic freedom fighters prepare to attack the base, Rotor is ambushed by Silver who thinks that he is the traitor. the next story tells how Silver found who he thinks is the traitor. He is about to finish Rotor off when Rotor tells him how important the mission is. Silver agrees to help him. They head to the totem pole base while Sonic and the others fight the walrus herd and the Dark egg legion. Silver destroys the base, scares off the dark egg legion, and permanently sets the walrus's minds so that they will never be mind controlled again. Later in Icebourogh, Sonic explains to Silver how Rotor got his nickname which tells Silver that his theory was false. Silver returns to his future after the failed mission to speak with his master who was revealed to be Mammoth Mogul. When Sonic returns to Mobotropolis, he is given a new mission:to rendeveous with the freedom fighters in Sand Blast city. Bunnie D'coolete (married with Antoine in issue#174) accompanies Sonic on the mission but is shot by a metal detecting cannon made by the Sand Blast freedom fighters. When she wakes up she is in Dark egg legion territory. She prepares for battle when suddenly her uncle (nicknamed the bandit by his men) comes in and stops her from attacking his men. She discovers that he is part of the DEL. Sonic and the other freedom fighters ambush the DEL but Bunnie stops him. She says that the DEL are misunderstood. Not a moment later Sonic and Bunnie start to battle. They then realize if THEY destroy the oil rig, no one could blame the other for the destruction. After that they set back to Mobotrobolis. In issue #219 Sonic and Geoffrey St. John go to the special zone to retrieve one of the seven chaos emeralds from a god named Feist. Sonic found the emerald and rejoined Geoffrey. Suddenly Geoffrey shot Sonic with a stun arrow and ran off with the chaos emerald to the Casino Night zone to give the emerald to Mammoth Mogul. Mogul isn't surprised until St. John mentioned the revival of the true king, who according to him is Ixis Naugus. Geffory uses the emerald to restore Naugus's sanity (which he had lost after being sent to Eggman's egg grapes) Naugus then makes plans to seize the throne of Acorn with Geffory's help, who is revealed to have been Naugus's apprentice for some time. During this time, Mina (who has become heavely traumatised from when NICOLE had been taken over by the Iron Dominion and helped them take over the city) decides to write a new song that will help warn the people of the potential "threat" NICOLE is to them now. This however fits into Naugus's plans, as he uses his magic to cause the people to become increasingly paranoid of NICOLE after hearing Mina's new song. This also causes tension between Mina and the Freedom Fighters following her actions. Sonic and Sally go on a date at a free concert when Ixis Naugus and Geoffrey attack. The Freedom Fighters manage to stop Geoffrey with words, as they lose the fight. Sonic fights Naugus (who claims the kingdom is his, as Max Acorn swore fealty to him long ago) in the council's room but is forced to stop when his magic affects the council and turns most of them against him to the point where Elias considers giving up the crown. Eggman, however, has been rebuilding the Death Egg and finally obtains a Chaos Emerald to power it. The Death Egg is launched, forcing Naugus and Sonic to start a truce. Sonic and Sally break into the Death Egg and are distracted by a giant Silver Sonic robot. Sally goes onwards to beat Eggman when a gun comes out of the wall. There are three shots and her goggles are seen broken, lying on the ground as Sonic runs to her. Eggman activates the Death Egg and the world goes white. Storyline Summary (issues 226-onward) : The universe is "reset" to an alternate world more similar to the SEGA games,the effects known as "Genesis", where nobody knows who Eggman is. Sonic re-meets his friends the Freedom Fighters and together they shut down Eggman's power sources. The universe seems to be tearing itself apart and Sonic and Sally are slowly remembering parts of their previous lives. Sonic fights Eggman in the Death Egg one-on-one and uses power from the ship's Chaos Emerald to become Super Sonic and save the day. He uses Chaos Control to revert the effects of "Genesis" and rewind time to just before the Death Egg was activated and saves Sally from being killed. Sonic is forced to fight a Metal Sonic and a Silver Sonic while Sally finds a giant "world roboticizer" and is only able to invert it before it fires, crippling the Death Egg, seemingly destroying the robot Sonics, and turning herself into Mecha Sally who is completely under Eggman's control. Genesis also made it possible to again roboticize the inhabitants of Mobius. Sonic is ejected from the ship and Eggman continues the attack, even though the Death Egg's Chaos Emerald power source is missing. First a Titan Metal Sonic—taller than New Mobotropolis—is released and begins wreaking havoc. Bunnie D'Coolette tries to stop it and is joined by Ixis Naugus. Naugus launches a heavy blast of his magic which completely crystallizes the robot—and Bunnie's cyborg parts as well, unfortunately. She is found by Cream the Rabbit and is taken to Dr. Quack. The Death Egg then uses an energy cannon, attempting to destroy New Mobotropolis, but Naugus again saves it by sacrificing the enslaved Titan Metal Sonic. The citizens of the city hail Naugus as their new king. Sonic and the Freedom Fighters are forced to land—their ships damaged by the attacks—and witness Naugus being praised. Sonic wants to save Sally but knows he can't just yet. Naugus is suffering from the effects of "Genesis" and the three beings that make him up—who even he does not know existed—are reawakened. They reveal that they have been in his mind as a viewers, unable to take action, but are now haunting him trying to take his body. Adaptations : The Sonic the Hedgehog comic typically runs original storylines based around characters from various Sonic media, but it has also made a number of adaptations. For instance, it has adapted a couple episodes of Sonic the Hedgehog, as well as complete or partial adaptations of the following video games: * Sonic the Hedgehog Spinball (#6) * Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (Combined with Sonic & Knuckles for the Sonic-Quest mini-series.)(#228-229) * Sonic the Hedgehog 3 (#13) * Sonic & Knuckles (Sonic & Knuckles Special) (also combined with Sonic 2 for the Sonic-Quest mini-series) * Sonic CD (#25) * SegaSonic the Hedgehog (Knuckles #26-28) (arcade game) * Sonic Triple Trouble (Sonic Triple Trouble Special) * Knuckles' Chaotix (Knuckles' Chaotix Special) * Sonic 3D Blast (Sonic Blast Special) * Sonic Adventure (Super Special #13, and issues 79-84, originally planned to be 78-83, and Knuckles issues 33-34 before it was cancelled after issue 32) * Sonic Shuffle (#92) * Sonic Adventure 2 (#98, #124 & Sonic Universe #2) * Sonic Rush (#160 & #161) * Sonic Riders (#163 & #164, Sonic Universe #33-36) * Shadow The Hedgehog (#157, #171) (Shadow's origins) * Sonic Rush Adventure (#180, Sonic Universe #1) * Sonic and the Secret Rings (free comic made for the game) * (#191) * Sonic Unleashed (#193) * Sonic and the Black Knight (#197) * Tails Adventure (Sonic Universe #17-20) * Sonic Colors (#219) * Sonic the Hedgehog (1991) (#226-227) * Sonic Generations (#230) Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series) Episodes: * Sonic the Hedgehog (#38, starts with Sonic singing the theme song) * Sonic the Hedgehog (Super Special #8, Episode: "Ghost Busted") * Sonic the Hedgehog (#113, Episode: "Cry of the Wolf") Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog Episodes: * Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog (#2, Episode: "The Super Special Sonic Search and Smash Squad") * Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog (#9, Episode: "Pseudo-Sonic") Movies: * (Brief reality in #101) Specials, Miniseries, and Knuckles series: dateApril 2011: Sonic the Hedgehog was originally published as a four issue mini-series, with the first issue labeled as "issue 0" and the second as "issue 1" (despite the note on issue 1 that it was the "first issue"). At the end of issue 3 (the fourth issue of the series), it was announced that Sonic would return in a regular series, and the next issue was published as "issue 1" of the regular series. (There is a "special" mini-issue #1/4 that was distributed free at Burger King prior to #0 and featured the main story of that issue as a teaser) In addition to the main Sonic series, Archie Comics published various special issues. Longer than typical issues of the comic, these specials feature stories involving Sonic and other related characters. Several miniseries have also been published, featuring characters such as Sally, Tails and Knuckles. Because of the popularity of the specials and Miniseries featuring Knuckles, in 1997 Knuckles the Echidna became an ongoing series. Knuckles's stories featured its own cast of Characters, including the Chaotix. Like the Sonic comic, Knuckles's comic is filled with background information about Knuckles's family history. Knuckles's family has split into two factions: the Brotherhood of Guardians and the Dark Legion. Knuckles is a member of the former, and Julie-Su used to be a member of the latter. Much of the conflict of the comic surrounds the relations between these two warring factions. In 1999, the series was canceled, but the stories were continued in the pages of Sonic the Hedgehog. After Knuckles's cancellation and until issue 125, a typical issue of Sonic included a Sonic story and a Knuckles story, sometimes even including a third story. This led to each story getting considerably less space than it previously had. Recently, Knuckles's appearances have been infrequent but his story continues within Sonic's stories. The creators also have a comic strip similar to those found in a newspaper at the end of some issues called Off-Panel. Off-Panel was in every issue for a long time and continues in the spinoff series Sonic Universe. In its early days, the strips parodied the lives of the editor and the writers as they walk around the office and interact with characters from the comic in various ways. From 2009 onward, the strips now revolve entirely around the comics fictional characters, often featuring comical gags relating to the issues main story, often containing forth-wall breaking. * Homages Sonic the Hedgehog occasionally features homages to other mainstream or third-party comic books. The most prominent among these include: * The Bunnie-Antoine relationship slightly mirrors that of Rogue and Gambit, one of the better-known couples from X-Men; Bunnie is famous for calling people "Hon" or "Sugah" (like Rogue, who has a Southern accent), and Antoine often peppers his dialog with French phrases (similar to Gambit, who speaks the Cajun variant of English). * A multiverse exists in Sonic's world that allows for travel to parallel universes, similar to the DC multiverse or the Marvel multiverse. Sonic and other characters navigate the dimensions using a literal superhighway called the Cosmic Interstate. * Certain 48-page specials of Sonic have been devoted to thinly-veiled spoofs or crossovers with different comic publications. The Sonic Super Special "Parallel Paradigm" features a mass crossover with Savage Dragon, Shadowhawk, The Maxx, and other characters from Image Comics as they work together to battle a villain called "The Doctor" who has stolen Knuckles' Master Emerald and taken it back in time to the present 1990s. Some believe that The Doctor is actually another version or the original Doctor Robotnik, since The Doctor hints it throughout the adventure. Other heroes make small "shadowy" cameos in the comic as well. Those include Batman, Spider-Man, and Popeye who seem to be prisoners of The Doctor as he plans to transform Earth into a new which just continues to hint towards him being Robotnik. * Issues #103-104 chronicles Sonic's stint in another reality, where he meets a superhero-themed version of the Freedom Fighters that are based on Marvel Comics' Guardians of the Galaxy. * Scourge the Hedgehog is a reverse-colored version of Sonic. This is similar to The Flash villain Reverse-Flash. Instead of being blue with green eyes, Scourge is green with blue eyes. And instead of being red with a yellow symbol, Reverse-Flash is yellow with a red symbol. * Super Sonic Special #08 features a parody of Chibiusa called Chibi Rose. This parody was again brought up in Super Sonic Special #12. * Super Sonic Special #12 also features a parody of Science Ninja Team Gatchaman in the form of Chaos Ninja Team Sonicaman, composed of Sonic (as Ken/G1 the Eagle), Knuckles (as Joe/G2 the Condor), Amy (as Jun/G3 the Swan), Tails (as Jinpei/G4 the Swallow) and Rotor (as Ryu/G5 the Owl), while Sally appeared as the villain, Sallactor (a parody of the Galactor, individually representing Sosai X). * The Zone Cops are much similar to that of DC comics' Green Lantern Corps since they both are intergalactic military/police force, and have similar suits to those of the Judges from Judge Dredd. * Super Sonic Special #15 features a parody of Frank Miller's Sin City series. It stars Sonic The Hedgehog as John Hartigan and Bunnie Rabbot as Nancy Callahan. * Current progression * Comics The Sonic the Hedgehog comic continuity currently comprises the following comics: * Sonic the Hedgehog #1-Ongoing (Published since June 1993) (Published thirteen times a year (every four weeks) until 2007 then published monthly (every month's first Wednesday) thereafter) * Knuckles the Echidna #1-32 (Published monthly from April 1997 to February 2000) * Sonic the Hedgehog Miniseries #0-3 (Published monthly from November 1992 to February 1993) * Princess Sally Miniseries #1-3 (Published monthly from April to June 1995) * Tails Miniseries #1-3 (Published monthly from December 1995 to February 1996) * Knuckles Miniseries #1-3 (Published monthly from July to September 1996) * Sonic Quest: The Death Egg Saga Miniseries #1-3 (Published monthly from December 1996 to February 1997, reprinted February 2007) * Sonic Specials (Eight individual issues, published quarterly from 1995 to 1997) ** Sonic: In Your Face! (Winter 1995) ** Sonic & Knuckles (Summer 1995) ** Sonic Triple Trouble (Fall 1995) ** Knuckles' Chaotix (Winter 1996) ** Super Sonic vs. Hyper Knuckles (Spring 1996) ** Mecha Madness (Fall 1996) ** Sonic Live! (Winter 1997) ** Sonic Blast (Spring 1997) * Sonic Super Specials #1-15 (Published quarterly from 1997 to 2001) ** #1: Battle Royal (Summer 1997) ** #2: Brave New World (Fall 1997) ** #3: Sonic Firsts (Winter 1998) ** #4: Return of the King (Spring 1998) ** #5: Sonic Kids (Summer 1998) ** #6: Sonic #50: Director's Cut (Fall 1998) ** #7: Parallel Paradigm (Winter 1999) ** #8: Zone Wars Prelude (Spring 1999) ** #9: Sonic Kids 2 (Summer 1999) ** #10: Crossover Chaos (Fall 1999) ** #11: Girls Rule! (Winter 2000) ** #12: Turnabout Heroes (Spring 2000) ** #13: Sonic Adventure (Summer 2000) ** #14: Sonic Stew (Fall 2000) ** #15: Naugus Games (Winter 2001) * Free Comic Book Day 2007 comic (a one-shot comic made for free distribution on Free Comic Book Day 2007.) * Free Comic Book Day 2008 comic (a special reprint of Issue #1 of the main comic series, with a new cover—based on the original—by Patrick "Spaz" Spaziante, made for free distribution on Free Comic Book Day 2008) * Free Comic Book Day 2009 comic (a remake of Sonic the Hedgehog #1 for Free Comic Book Day 2009) * Free Comic Book Day 2010 comic (a one-shot comic made for free distribution on Free Comic Book Day 2010) * Free Comic Book Day 2011 comic (a remake of Sonic Super Special 15 for Free Comic Book Day 2011) * Free Comic Book Day 2012 comic (a reprint of issue #230 of the main series, with a special cover for Free Comic Book Day 2012) * Sonic X #1-40 (Published ten times a year from November 2005, to December 2008) (Based on Sonic X anime series, and continued with Sonic Universe) * Sonic Universe #1-Ongoing (Published every month since February 2009) * Sonic also has appeared in issue #28 of Sabrina the Teenage Witch as well in a two-part crossover which concluded in Sonic Super Special #10: Crossover Chaos. In this crossover, Sonic was brought to Sabrina's world and brainwashed into fighting the former. * In 1998, a mini-comic given away for Halloween entitled Archie & Friends: A Halloween Tale was released and featured a short story called A Festival of Fantasy that included appearances by Sonic, Knuckles and Dr. Robotnik. * Sonic has also made cameos in a 1999 Archie's Weird Mysteries mini-comic and issue #65 of Archie & Friends. * Trade Paperbacks Trade Paperbacks have also been released, typically collecting older, hard-to-find issues and compiling them in a single volume. These include: * Sonic Firsts (1998) (Includes the first appearances of Sonic the Hedgehog, Princess Sally Acorn, Bunnie Rabbot, Super Sonic, and Knuckles the Echidna, taking stories from issue #0 of the original Sonic Miniseries, and issues #3, #4, and #13 of the regular series. The stories are edited to give both Sally her modern brown color and Rotor his modern name instead of the Boomer one. A special electronic edition of this comic is among the special features in the Sonic Mega Collection game. Forwarded by Paul Castiglia, a former editor of the Sonic comics.) * Sonic: The Beginning (2003) (A reprint of the original Sonic Miniseries, with a foreword by their author Michael Gallagher) (Eventually rebranded Sonic Archives #0 in February 2009) * Sonic Archives #1 (November 2006) (A reprint of issues #1-4 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #2 (December 2006) (A reprint of issues #5-8 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #3 (May 2007) (A reprint of issues #9-12 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #4 (June 2007) (A reprint of issues #13-16 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #5 (September 2007) (A reprint of issues #17-20 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #6 (October 2007) (A reprint of issues # 21-24 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #7 (June 2008) (A reprint of issues #25-28 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #8 (August 2008) (A reprint of issues #29-32 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #9 (October 2008) (A reprint of issues #33-36 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #0 (February 2009) (An Archives rebranding of Sonic: The Beginning) * Sonic Archives #10 (March 2009) (A reprint of issues #37-40 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #11 (August 2009) (A reprint of issues #41-44 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #12 (January 2010) (A reprint of issues #45-48 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #13 (August 2010) (A reprint of issue #49 of the regular series and the Sonic #50: Director's Cut Super Special) * Sonic Archives #14 (December 2010) (A reprint of issues #51-54 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #15 (June 2011) (A reprint of issues #55-58 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #16 (November 2011) (A reprint of issues #59-62 of the regular series) * Sonic Archives #17 (February 2012) (A reprint of issues #63-66 of the regular series) * Knuckles Archives #1 (October 2011) (A reprint of issues #1-3 of the Knuckles miniseries and #1-3 of the spin-off series.) * Knuckles Archives #2 (April 2012) (A reprint of issues #4-9 of the spin-off series) * Sonic Select #1 (April 2008) (A reprint of the 48 page specials, "Sonic In Your Face", "Sonic & Knuckles", "Sonic Triple Trouble", and one story, "The Substitute Freedom Fighters" from "Sonic Live") * Sonic Select #2 (November 2008) (A reprint of the 48 page specials, "Knuckles' Chaotix", "Super Sonic VS. Hyper Knuckles", "Mecha Madness" and part 2 of "Knuckles' Quest" as seen in "Sonic Live") * Sonic Select #3 (February 2011) (A reprint of the 48 page Sonic Super Specials, "Battle Royal", "Brave New World" and "Return of the King", "Eel of Fortune" from "Mecha Madness" and "Bugged Bunny" from "Sonic Blast") * Sonic Select #4: Zone Wars (December 2011) (A reprint of the 48 page Sonic Super Specials, #8, #10, #12 & #14 plus content from "Sonic Blast") * Sonic Select #5 (May 2012) (A reprint of the 48 page Sonic Super Specials, "Sonic Kids" and "Sonic Kids 2") * Sonic Universe #1: The Shadow Saga (September 2011) (A reprint of issues #1-4 containing the arc "The Shadow Saga") * Sonic Universe #2: 30 Years Later (March 2012) (A reprint of issues #5-8 containing the arc "30 Years Later") * Sonic Legacy Series #1 (October 2011) (A black and white reprint of issues #0-3 from the Original Sonic miniseries and #1-16 of the regular series) * Staff List of Sonic the Hedgehog comics creators: : Resources == reflist: #Sonic HQ (1/17/06):

Sonic the Hedgehog (Archie Comics) Série de comics | Sonic Sonic the Hedgehog: Sonic the Hedgehog (Archie Comics) est une série mensuelle de bandes dessinées parue aux États-Unis à partir de juillet 1993. Elle met en scène le héros de la série de jeux vidéo japonais Sonic, créé par Sega, en lutte contre son ennemi juré, Dr. Robotnik. Elle a connu plusieurs variations autour de mini-séries, de numéros spéciaux de 48 pages et d'une série de comics parallèle, ayant pour héros Knuckles the Echidna, d'avril 1997 à février 1999 (arrêt dû au manque de public). Divers artistes se sont succédé pour représenter cet univers, dont, parmi les plus talentueux, Ken Penders, J. Axer, Steven Butler et Jon Gray. Historique: Les premiers numéros de la série mettaient en scène une lutte très simple entre le petit groupe des Freedom Fighters, retranchés dans une épaisse forêt, et l'imposante cité du Dr. Robotnik, savant dément ne cherchant qu'à détruire toute forme de vie sur la planète. Son arme la plus redoutable: le "robotiseur" qui transforme les animaux en mécaniques dévouées à ses ordres. Progressivement, l'histoire s'est étoffée, de nouveaux personnages apparurent (Knuckles), de nouveaux lieux (Station Square, Downunda), la trame graphique et psychologique s'est complexifiée. Les héros, pour la plupart, apprennent ce qui advint de leurs parents et amis et se mirent en tête de les retrouver. Un point culminant de cette accélération du scénario est atteint dans le n° 50, lorsque Robotnik est tué par une de ses propres inventions et le Roi, père de la princesse Sally, ramené d'une zone parallèle. Par la suite, on assiste à la formation de couples amoureux, à la complexification des personnages due à l'importance de plus en plus grande de leur environnement. Dr. Robotnik, mort, est remplacé dans le n° 74 par Dr. Eggman ou Robo-Robotnik, une version cyborg du savant fou provenant d'une autre dimension, et transformé en corps organique par la suite. Le second point culminant de l'histoire correspond au voyage de Sonic dans l'espace durant un an, du n° 125 au n° 129. À son retour, tout a changé. * Les jeux Sonic Adventure 1 et 2 ont été en partie adaptés par les comics, dans les n° 80 à 84 pour le premier, 98 pour le second. * La série animée Sonic Underground est interprétée comme un des mille mondes parallèles au monde de Sonic, dans lesquels on le force parfois à intervenir. * Le fait que Tails ait deux queues est expliqué ainsi dans le comics : Tails est une chimère et souffre d'une petite malformation de naissance. On apprend que le monde de Sonic, Mobius, et la Terre sont une seule et même planète. La Terre fut anéantie au début du par une attaque d'extraterrestres, en réponse à la considération de leur émissaire de paix comme un animal de laboratoire. Leur attaque nucléaire n'épargna que quelques humains, vivant dans la cité souterraine de Station Square, et provoqua de profondes mutations humanoïdes chez la plupart des espèces animales. L'histoire d'Archie se déroule ans après ces événements. Thèmes: Le comics aborde certains thèmes de fond dont : * L'écologie (la forêt des Freedom Fighters contre la cité toxique et polluante de Robotnik) * La technocratie (transformation des animaux en machines) * La responsabilité politique (la prise en charge du Royaume d'Acorn après le retour du Roi; les nécessités de la guerre contre Robotnik) * La résurgence constante du Mal (apparitions, ré-apparitions de méchants) Personnages: Les héros principaux de la série sont : * Les Freedom Fighters ** Sonic the Hedgehog a.k.a. Maurice "Sonic" Hedgehog ** Miles "Tails" Prower a.k.a Tails ** Princess Sally Acorn ** Antoine D'Coolette ** Bunnie Rabbot ** Rotor a.k.a. Boomer ** Amy Rose * Les amis et personnages du "Bien" ** Knuckles the Echidna et ses amis, les Chaotix ** Roi Maximilian Acorn ** Oncle Chuck Hedgehog ** Mina the Mongoose ** Geoffrey St.John et ses « Secret Service » ** Rouge the Bat * Les personnages du "Mal" ** Dr. Ivo Robotnik a.k.a Julian Kintobor de la maison d'Ivo a.k.a. Dr: Eggman ** Snively Kintobor ** Shadow the Hedgehog * Les personnages secondaires, parmi lesquels : ** Prince Elias Acorn ** Nate Morgan ** Divers groupes de Freedom Fighters éparpillés sur la planète ** Lupe ** Kodos ** Les Evil Freedom Fighters, versions maléfiques des héros de Sonic provenant d'un monde parallèle ** Mecha Sonic ** Zonic ** Rosie Les personnages provenant de la série Archie de Knuckles et dont les histoires se poursuivent dans la série Sonic après l'arrêt de ces derniers Portail comics:

ضاغط الغاز محركات | آلات ضاغط الغاز Gas compressor أو الضاغط Compressor هو آلة ميكانيكية تستخدم لزيادة ضغط الغاز وذلك بتقليل الحجم. وهو شبيه للمضخة فكليهما يزيد الضغط على الموائع وكليهما ينقل المادة المضغوطة خلال انبوب, والفرق بينهما أن الغازات مواد قابلة للضغط فالضاغط يقلل من حجمها ولكن السوائل مواد غير قابلة للضغط فالمضخة تستخدم لنقل السوائل. أنواع الضاغط : ضاغط الطرد المركزي : ضاغط الطرد المركزي يكون مزود بقرص دوار به ريش أو مروحة منحرفة الشكل بحيث توجه الغاز الداخل إلى نهاية طرف المروحة حتى تزداد سرعة الغاز. المقطع الناشر أو قناة التباعد تحول السرعة إلى ضغط. وهي تستخدم أساسا بالمصانع بشكل مستمر وثابت كمعامل تكرير النفط ومصانع الكيماويات والبتروكيماويات والغاز الطبيعي. قدرة تلك الضواغط تبدأ من 100 حصان (75كيلو واط) وحتى الآلاف وتكون متعددة المراحل وبإمكانها استخلاص منها كمية ضغط أكثر من 10,000 psi. عمليات تصنيع الثلج الكبيرة التي تستخدم للتزلج تحتاج لمثل هذا النوع من الآلات الضاغطة, هناك استخدامات أخرى بالمحركات ذات الاحتراق الداخلي كشاحن إضافي supercharger أو شاحن توربيني Turbocharger. أيضا ضاغط الطرد المركزي يستخدم بمحركات التوربين الغازي الصغيرة أو كآخر مرحلة من مراحل الضغط الغازي للتوربينات الغازية المتوسطة الحجم. ضاغط مائل أو ضاغط الدفق المختلط : أنظر ضاغط الدفق المختلط الضاغط المائل أو الدفق المختلط مشابه للضاغط الطرد المركزي ولكن له أدوات السرعة القطرية والمحورية عند مخرج العضو الدوار. الناشر يستخدم عادة لإدارة دفق المائل للإتجاه المحوري, ناشر الضاغط المائل له قطر أصغر قليلا من قرينه بالضاغط المحوري. ضاغط دفع محوري : ضاغط الدفق المحوري يستخدم سلسلة من شفرات شبه مراوح تحرك الدوار لتضغط على تدفق الغاز. وهناك الريش الثابتة موضوعة بنهاية كل دوار لإعادة توجيه الدفق إلى شفرات الدوار التالي. مساحة المرور للغازات تقل خلال الضاغط للمحافظة على السرعة المحورية المطلوبة. هذا النوع من الضاغط يستخدم في التطبيقات العالية الدفق, مثل محركات التوربين الغازي المتوسطة والكبيرة الحجم, وتكون متعددة المراحل. تصميم معدل الضغط يتعدى 4:1, لها أشكال هندسية متعددة لتحسين التشغيل. ضاغط متردد : أنظر ضاغط متردد هو ضاغط يستخدم المكبس (البستون)ويحرك بواسطة العمود المرفقي (crankshaft) بالإمكان ان يكون ثابتا أو متحرك وأيضا متعدد المراحل أو بمرحلة واحدة وبالإمكان تشغيله بواسطة الكهرباء أو بواسطة محركات احتراق داخلي. الضاغط المتردد ذو الأحجام الصغيرة تبدأ من 5 إلى 30 وحدة حصان HorsePower تكون مستعملة على نطاق واسع بالسيارات وتكون ذات استخدام متقطع. أما الضاغط المتردد والذي قدرته إلى 1000 وحدة حصان HorsePower فتستخدم بالتطبيقات الصناعية ولكن أعدادها بدأت تتناقص بسبب استبدالها بأنواع أخرى من الضاغط. معدل التفريغ للضغط يبدأ من ضغط بسيط وحتى درجات عالية من الضغط > 5000 PSI أو 35 ميغا باسكال. بالتطبيقات المعينة كضغط الهواء, فالمناسب لها هو ضاغط متعدد المراحل ومزدوج الحركة, وهو عموما أكبر وأكثر إزعاجا وكلفة من نظيره الوحدة الدوارة.

Gas compressor Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning | Compressors | Underwater diving | Underwater work | Gas technologies A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. Types of compressors: The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below: Hermetically sealed, open, or semi-hermetic : Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and motor drive is situated in relation to the gas or vapour being compressed. The industry name for a hermetic is hermetically sealed compressor, while a semi- is commonly called a semi-hermetic compressor. In hermetic and most semi-hermetic compressors, the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the pressurized gas envelope of the system. The motor is designed to operate and be cooled by the gas or vapour being compressed. The difference between the hermetic and semi-hermetic, is that the hermetic uses a one-piece welded steel casing that cannot be opened for repair; if the hermetic fails it is simply replaced with an entire new unit. A semi-hermetic uses a large cast metal shell with gasketed covers that can be opened to replace motor and pump components. The primary advantage of a hermetic and semi-hermetic is that there is no route for the gas to leak out of the system. Open compressors rely on either natural leather or synthetic rubber seals to retain the internal pressure, and these seals require a lubricant such as oil to retain their sealing properties. An open pressurized system such as an automobile air conditioner can leak its operating gases, if it is not operated frequently enough. Open systems rely on lubricant in the system to splash on pump components and seals. If it is not operated frequently enough, the lubricant on the seals slowly evaporates, and then the seals begin to leak until the system is no longer functional and must be recharged. By comparison, a hermetic system can sit unused for years, and can usually be started up again at any time without requiring maintenance or experiencing any loss of system pressure. The disadvantage of hermetic compressors is that the motor drive cannot be repaired or maintained, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down and the gas replaced. Typically hermetic compressors are used in low-cost factory-assembled consumer goods where the cost of repair is high compared to the value of the device, and it would be more economical to just purchase a new device. An advantage of open compressors is that they can be driven by non-electric power sources, such as an internal combustion engine or turbine. However, open compressors that drive refrigeration systems are generally not totally maintenance free throughout the life of the system, since some gas leakage will occur over time. Centrifugal compressors: Centrifugal compressor: Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than . Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium sized gas turbines. Sometimes the capacity of the compressors is written in NM3/hr. Here 'N' stands for normal temperature pressure (20°C and 1 atm ) for example 5500 NM3/hr. * Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors Diagonal or mixed-flow compressor: Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to an axial rather than radial direction. * Axial-flow compressors Axial-flow compressor: Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design. The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation. Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within certain chemical plants. Reciprocating compressors: Reciprocating compressor: Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable rotary units. Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft - see Axial Piston Pump. Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors are typically reciprocating compressors 1½ hp or less with an attached receiver tank. * Rotary screw compressors Rotary screw compressor: Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from to over and from low pressure to moderately high pressure (>). Rotary screw compressors are commercially produced in Oil Flooded, Water Flooded and Dry type. * Rotary vane compressors Rotary vane pump: Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing which can be circular or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer wall of the housing. Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane compressors are, with piston compressors one of the oldest of compressor technologies. With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used at relatively low pressures (e.g., ) for bulk material movement while oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve pressures up to about in a single stage. A rotary vane compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in operation than the equivalent piston compressor. Rotary vane compressors can have mechanical efficiencies of about 90%. * Scroll compressors Scroll compressor: A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors in the lower volume range. Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid or gas between the scrolls. This type of compressor was used as the supercharger on Volkswagen G60 and G40 engines in the early 1990s. * Diaphragm compressors Diaphragm compressor: A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box come in contact with the gas being compressed. The degree of flexing and the material constituting the diaphragm affects the maintenance life of the equipment. Generally stiff metal diaphragms may only displace a few cubic centimeters of volume because the metal can not endure large degrees of flexing without cracking, but the stiffness of a metal diaphragm allows it to pump at high pressures. Rubber or silicone diaphragms are capable of enduring deep pumping strokes of very high flexion, but their low strength limits their use to low-pressure applications, and they need to be replaced as plastic embrittlement occurs. Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other applications. The photograph included in this section depicts a three-stage diaphragm compressor used to compress hydrogen gas to for use in a prototype compressed hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) fueling station built in downtown Phoenix, Arizona by the Arizona Public Service company (an electric utilities company). Reciprocating compressors were used to compress the natural gas. The prototype alternative fueling station was built in compliance with all of the prevailing safety, environmental and building codes in Phoenix to demonstrate that such fueling stations could be built in urban areas. Air bubble compressor: Also known as a trompe. A mixture of air and water generated through turbulence is allowed to fall into a subterranean chamber where the air separates from the water. The weight of falling water compresses the air in the top of the chamber. A submerged outlet from the chamber allows water to flow to the surface at a lower height than the intake. An outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air to the surface. A facility on this principal was built on the Montreal River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines. Temperature: Gas laws: Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature, often referred to as the heat of compression. W \int_{V_1}^{V_2} P dV : P_1 V_1^n \int_{V_1}^{V_2} V^{-n} dV where \frac { P_2 }{ P_1 }\ \left( \frac{ v_1 } { v_2 }\ \right) ^ n so W : \frac {{P_1} {V_1^n}} {1-n}\ ( {V_2^{1-n}} - {V_1^{1-n}} ) with n taking different values for different compression processes (see below). * Adiabatic - This model assumes that no energy (heat) is transferred to or from the gas during the compression, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature rise is : T_2 T_1 . {R_c}^{(k-1)/k} with T1 and T2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, and k : ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air). Rc is the compression ratio; being the absolute outlet pressure divided by the absolute inlet pressure. The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion more closely model real life when a compressor has good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow out of the compressed gas. Thus, making a perfect adiabatic compressor would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of the machine. For example, even a bicycle tire pump's metal tube becomes hot as you compress the air to fill a tire. The relation between temperature and compression ratio described above means that the value of n for an adiabatic process is k (the ratio of specific heats). * Isothermal - This model assumes that the compressed gas remains at a constant temperature throughout the compression or expansion process. In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal compression or expansion more closely models real life when the compressor has a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a small power level). Compressors that utilize inter-stage cooling between compression stages come closest to achieving perfect isothermal compression. However, with practical devices perfect isothermal compression is not attainable. For example, unless you have an infinite number of compression stages with corresponding intercoolers, you will never achieve perfect isothermal compression. For an isothermal process, n is 1, so the value of the work integral for an isothermal process is: W - {P_1} {v_1} \ln \left( \frac {P_2} {P_1}\ \right) When evaluated, the isothermal work is found to be lower than the adiabatic work. * Polytropic - This model takes into account both a rise in temperature in the gas as well as some loss of energy (heat) to the compressor's components. This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency). Compression efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic). Polytropic compression will use a value of n between 0 (a constant-pressure process) and infinity (a constant volume process). For the typical case where an effort is made to cool the gas compressed by an approximately adiabatic process, the value of n will be between 1 and k. * Staged compression In the case of centrifugal compressors, commercial designs currently do not exceed a compression ratio of more than a 3.5 to 1 in any one stage (for a typical gas). Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers typically result in some partial condensation that is removed in vapor-liquid separators. In the case of small reciprocating compressors, the compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan that directs ambient air across the intercooler of a two or more stage compressor. Because rotary screw compressors can make use of cooling lubricant to remove the heat of compression, they very often exceed a 9 to 1 compression ratio. For instance, in a typical diving compressor the air is compressed in three stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 × 7 × 7 : 343 atmospheres). Prime movers: There are many options for the "" or motor which powers the compressor: * gas turbines power the axial and centrifugal flow compressors that are part of jet engines * steam turbines or water turbines are possible for large compressors * electric motors are cheap and quiet for static compressors. Small motors suitable for domestic electrical supplies use single phase alternating current. Larger motors can only be used where an industrial electrical three phase alternating current supply is available. * diesel engines or petrol engines are suitable for portable compressors and support compressors. Common in automobiles and other types of vehicles (including piston-powered airplanes, boats, trucks, etc.), diesel or gasoline engines can power compressors using their own crankshaft power (this setup known as a supercharger), or, using their waste exhaust gas to spin a turbine connected to the compressor (this setup known as a turbocharger). Applications: Gas compressors are used in various applications where either higher pressures or lower volumes of gas are needed: * in pipeline transport of purified natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer. Often, the compressor in this application is driven by a gas turbine which is fueled by gas bled from the pipeline. Thus, no external power source is necessary. * in petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants, and similar large industrial plants for compressing intermediate and end product gases. * in refrigeration and air conditioner equipment to move heat from one place to another in refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-compression refrigeration. * in gas turbine systems to compress the intake combustion air * in storing purified or manufactured gases in a small volume, high pressure cylinders for medical, welding and other uses. * in many various industrial, manufacturing and building processes to power all types of pneumatic tools. * as a medium for transferring energy, such as to power pneumatic equipment. * in pressurised aircraft to provide a breathable atmosphere of higher than ambient pressure. * in some types of jet engines (such as turbojets and turbofans) to provide the air required for combustion of the engine fuel. The power to drive the combustion air compressor comes from the jet's own turbines. * in SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and other life support devices to store breathing gas in a small volume such as in diving cylinders. * in surface supplied diving an air compressor is frequently used to supply low pressure air (10 to 20 bar) to the diver for breathing * in submarines, to store air for later use in displacing water from buoyancy chambers, for adjustment of depth. * in turbochargers and superchargers to increase the performance of internal combustion engines by increasing mass flow. * in rail and heavy road transport to provide compressed air for operation of rail vehicle brakes or road vehicle brakes and various other systems (doors, windscreen wipers, engine/gearbox control, etc.). * in miscellaneous uses such as providing compressed air for filling pneumatic tires. * in the case of the fire piston and the heat pump, the desired outcome is the temperature rise of the gas, and compressing the gas is only a means to that end.

Compresseur mécanique Dispositif mécanique | Organe d'un moteur à explosion | Matériel de plongée | Compresseur | Hydromécanique Un compresseur mécanique est un organe mécanique destiné à augmenter par un procédé uniquement mécanique la pression d'un gaz. Pour exercer la même fonction sur un liquide, quasi incompressible, on utilise une pompe. Utilisation : Milieu Automobile : Le compresseur mécanique (aussi appelé compresseur volumétrique) est utilisé sur les moteurs à combustion interne, pour en augmenter le rendement. Selon le même principe que le turbocompresseur, il permet un meilleur remplissage des cylindres en air. Toutefois, à la différence de ce dernier, il est entraîné directement par le moteur, généralement par le biais d'une courroie ou par cascade de pignons. Par rapport à un turbocompresseur, le compresseur mécanique a un fonctionnement permanent. Il est en effet constamment en train de gaver le moteur, alors que le turbocompresseur ne le charge que pendant la phase de montée en régime. On pourra remarquer que certains véhicules, comme la Lancia Delta S4 les ont utilisés couplés à un turbocompresseur avec un système de by-pass. Compresseur rotatif : À turbine: Ce type de compresseur agit principalement par accélération d'un flux de fluide, il n'est donc pas particulièrement indiqué pour fournir une importante pression en sortie, sauf à multiplier les étages de compression, comme dans les turbines à gaz et les turboréacteurs. * Un turbocompresseur est un dispositif alliant deux turbines. Une turbine parcourue par le flux des gaz d'échappement d'un moteur à combustion interne, entraîne par un axe la turbine compresseur, laquelle augmente la pression de l'air admis dans le moteur. Le turbocompresseur permet d'augmenter la puissance d'un moteur, sans consommation de couple sur son arbre de sortie, mais seulement à partir d'un certain débit de gaz d'échappement, donc d'un régime de rotation donné. * Les compresseurs à turbine classiques sont dits centrifuges. À palettes: Le compresseur à palettes est un compresseur dit à rotation. Il est constitué d'un stator cylindrique dans lequel tourne un rotor excentré. Ce dernier est muni de rainures radiales dans lesquelles coulissent des palettes qui sont constamment plaquées contre la paroi du stator par la force centrifuge. La capacité comprise entre deux palettes est variable. Devant la tubulure d'aspiration, le volume croît : il y a donc aspiration du gaz. Ce gaz est ensuite emprisonné entre deux palettes et transporté vers la tubulure de refoulement. Dans cette zone, le volume décroît et le gaz comprimé s'échappe dans la tuyauterie de refoulement. Deux conceptions de compresseur existent : * fonctionnement avec lubrification : les palettes sont en général en acier et l'huile, outre la diminution du frottement entre palettes et stator, assure l'évacuation des calories et améliore aussi l'étanchéité au niveau des contacts palettes/stator. Dans cette configuration, le gaz comprimé est pollué par l'huile, il est donc parfois indispensable de purifier le gaz comprimé par un procédé adéquat (décantation ou filtrage). * Fonctionnement à sec avec des palettes en matériau composite chargé en graphite ou en téflon. À vis: Le compresseur à vis comporte deux vis synchronisées contre rotatives qui permettent de comprimer l'air. Comme pour le compresseur à piston, on joue ici sur une diminution du volume pour augmenter la pression. L'aspiration de l'air ambiant, se fait d'un côté dans l'axes des vis (En haut sur la photo), du côté ou l'empreinte des vis est la plus creusée, de l'autre côté, après un parcours de plus en plus étroit entre les vis l'air comprimé est libéré. Mais contrairement aux pistons dans les cylindres qui utilisent des segments pour assurer l'étanchéité, il n'y a pas de frottement entre les vis, un film d'huile qui assure l'étanchéité. L'huile utilisée dans ces compresseurs est souvent refroidie. Car, contrairement aux compresseurs à pistons, l'huile sert surtout à l'étanchéité. Si l'huile est trop chaude, elle n'est plus assez visqueuse pour garantir l'étanchéité. Il existe aussi des compresseurs à vis dont les chambres de compression ne sont pas lubrifiées. Les vis synchronisées, n'entrent pas en contact l'une avec l'autre. L'air comprimé produit est alors totalement exempt d'huile. Scroll : Le compresseur à spirale, également connu sous le nom de compresseur scroll, emploie deux spirales intercalées comme des palettes pour pomper et comprimer des fluides. Souvent, une des spires est fixe, alors que l'autre se déplace excentriquement sans tourner, de sorte à pomper puis emprisonner et enfin comprimer des poches de fluide entre les spires comme dessiné ci-dessous. Compresseur type G : L'histoire du compresseur G ou à spirales débute avec le , inventé dans son principe en 1905 par le français Léon Creux, et breveté aux États-Unis le 3 octobre de la même année. À l'époque il était techniquement impossible de le construire. C'est au milieu des années 1980 que Volkswagen décide de donner sa chance au compresseur G sur les modèles Polo G40 phase 2, et les Polo G40 phase 3, Corrado G60 et Golf II G60 et Rallye et Passat G60. Le qualificatif G provient de la forme particulière du compresseur et des spirales qui rappelle cette lettre, quant au 40 ou 60, ils informent sur la largeur de la spirale. En réalité le G60 devrait se nommer G59.5, puisque la spirale ne mesure que de large (au lieu de 60). Le compresseur se compose de deux spirales fixes et deux spirales mobiles. Il est entraîné par la poulie d'un vilebrequin. Dans la suite du texte, nous nous concentrons sur un seul couple, les mêmes explications étant correctes pour l'autre couple, mutatis mutandis. Après le filtre à air, l'air entre dans le compresseur en étant « aspiré » entre les deux spirales (une fixe, l'autre mobile). Grâce à un arbre excentrique, la spirale mobile se rapproche et s'écarte de la spirale fixe, l'air emprisonné est comprimé dans cet espace et est chassé vers le centre du compresseur (sortie), puis vers le conduit d'admission du moteur. Étant donné que cette étape se reproduit quatre fois (quatre couples de spirales), avec un décalage de , il n'y a pas de baisse de pression entre l'arrivée des poches d'air comprimées au niveau de l'admission. On constate, en général, une pression de l'ordre de 0,7 bar pour les G60 avec une puissance de 160 ch pour 1,8 litre de cylindrée. Ce type de compresseur est également utilisé dans l'industrie pour comprimer de l'air à 8, voire 10 bars. La chambre de compression n'est pas lubrifiée, ce qui permet de délivrer un air totalement exempt d'huile. À lobe(s): compresseur Roots: À rotors: ...: Compresseur alternatif : À pistons : Dans un compresseur à pistons, chaque piston présente un mouvement alternatif dans un cylindre. Lors de l'aller, le piston aspire le fluide à une certaine pression puis le comprime au retour. Pour cela, chaque piston est muni d'une entrée et d'une sortie à clapet anti-retour. Le clapet d'admission ne peut laisser passer le fluide que vers la chambre du piston. À l'inverse, le clapet d'échappement ne peut laisser passer le fluide que vers le circuit extérieur. De plus, le clapet d'échappement offre une certaine résistance, de façon à ne s'ouvrir que lorsque la pression de l'intérieur de la chambre du cylindre atteint une valeur suffisante. Voici le fonctionnement pas à pas : * le piston « descend » : la dépression créée à l'intérieur du cylindre entraîne l'ouverture du clapet d'admission et le fluide est aspiré. Le clapet d'échappement est fermé, car il ne marche que dans un sens. * le piston commence sa « remontée » : le fluide commence à se comprimer, car il ne peut sortir par le clapet d'admission (clapet anti-retour) et sa pression n'est pas suffisante pour pousser le clapet d'échappement (maintenu en place par un ressort par exemple). Le fluide ne pouvant s'échapper, il se compresse, car la « remontée » du piston diminue le volume dans le cylindre. * la pression du fluide atteint la pression voulue (contrôlé par la raideur du ressort) : cette pression est suffisante pour ouvrir le clapet d'échappement et le fluide sous pression s'échappe donc. Le piston finissant sa remontée, il chasse le fluide tout en maintenant sa pression. * un nouveau cycle recommence alors, le clapet d'échappement se fermant lorsque le piston arrive à sont point mort haut. Un compresseur à piston est souvent muni de plusieurs pistons, dont les phases d'admission et d'échappement sont décalées pour avoir une sortie de fluide plus constante dans le réservoir. En effet, pour chaque piston, la sortie du fluide comprimé n'occupe qu'une petite partie du cycle. Compresseur hydraulique: Le terme compresseur ou compresseur hydraulique est aussi beaucoup utilisé pour nommer : groupe hydraulique et centrale hydraulique Il peut être à pistons, palettes, engrenages, vis, etc. La technologie est la même que les compresseurs classiques, mais doit supporter des pressions entre 20 et 700 bars, selon les applications Centrale hydraulique: Équipements associés : L'air comprimé produit par un compresseur est saturé en humidité. On lui associe donc souvent un sécheur d'air. Références : Articles connexes : * Pompe hydraulique * Hydromécanique

عدد هرمي ثلاثي أعداد شكلية العدد الهرمي الثلاثي أو عدد رباعي الأوجه هو عدد شكلي يمثل شكل هرم ذو قاعدة على شكل مثلث وأربع أوجه بشكل يسمى رباعي الأوجه. يعطى العدد الهرمي الثلاثي للعدد n بإضافة أول n عدد مثلثي إلى بعضها. تعطى الأعداد الأولى من سلسلة الأعداد الهرمية الثلاثية كما يلي: 1 - 4 - 10 - 20 - 35 - 56 - 84 - 120 - 165 - 220 - 286 - 364 - 455 - 560 - 680 - 816 - 969 - ... تعطى صيغة العدد الهرمي المثلثي للعدد n بالعلاقة: * T_n={n+2\choose3}

Tetrahedral number Figurate numbers A tetrahedral number, or triangular pyramidal number, is a figurate number that represents a pyramid with a triangular base and three sides, called a tetrahedron. The nth tetrahedral number is the sum of the first n triangular numbers. The first few tetrahedral numbers idA000292: are: * 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56, 84, 120, 165, 220, 286, 364, 455, 560, 680, 816, 969, … The formula for the n-th tetrahedral number is represented by the 3rd Rising Factorial divided by the 3rd Factorial. * T_n: {n(n+1)(n+2)\over 6} {n^{\overline 3}\over 3!} Tetrahedral numbers are found in the fourth position either from left to right or right to left in Pascal's triangle. The tetrahedral numbers are therefore binomial coefficients: * T_n: {n+2\choose3}. Tetrahedral numbers can be modelled by stacking spheres. For example, the fifth tetrahedral number (T5  35) can be modelled with 35 billiard balls and the standard triangular billiards ball frame that holds 15 balls in place. Then 10 more balls are stacked on top of those, then another 6, then another three and one ball at the top completes the tetrahedron. A.J. Meyl proved in 1878 that only three tetrahedral numbers are also perfect squares, namely: * T1 : 1² 1 * T2 : 2² 4 * T48 : 140² 19600. The only tetrahedral number that is also a square pyramidal number is 1 (Beukers, 1988), and the only tetrahedral number that is also a perfect cube is 1. Another interesting fact about tetrahedral numbers is that the infinite sum of their reciprocals is 3/2, which can be derived using telescoping series. * \!\ \sum_{n: 1}^{\infty}{6 \over {n(n+1)(n+2)}} {3 \over 2} The tetrahedron with basic length 4 (summing up to 20) can be looked at as the 3-dimensional analogue of the tetractys, the 4th triangular number (summing up to 10). When order-n tetrahedra built from Tn spheres are used as a unit, it can be shown that a space tiling with such units can achieve a densest sphere packing as long as n ≤ 4. The parity of tetrahedral numbers follows the repeating pattern odd-even-even-even. An observation of tetrahedral numbers: T5 : T4 + T3 + T2 + T1 Numbers that are both triangular and tetrahedral must satisfy the binomial coefficient equation: * Tr_n{n+1\choose2}: {m+2\choose3}Te_m. The following are the only numbers that are both Tetrahedral and Triangular numbers: Tetrahedron1 : Triangle1 1 Tetrahedron3 : Triangle4 10 Tetrahedron8 : Triangle15 120 Tetrahedron20 : Triangle55 1540 Tetrahedron34 : Triangle119 = 7140

Nombre tétraédrique Nombre figuré Un nombre tétraédrique, ou nombre pyramidal triangulaire, est un nombre figuré qui peut être représenté par une pyramide avec une base et trois côtés, c'est-à-dire, un tétraèdre. Pour tout entier naturel non nul n, le nombre tétraédrique de rang n, est la somme des n premiers nombres triangulaires. On démontre que le nombre tétraédrique de rang n est égal à : * :\frac{n(n+1)(n+2)}{6}, * soit {n+2 \choose 3}, où {i \choose j} est le symbole du coefficient binomial. Les nombres tétraédriques sont donc ceux de la quatrième colonne du triangle de Pascal. Les premiers nombres tétraédriques sont : 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56, 84, 120, 165, 220, 286, 364, 455, 560, 680, 816, 969. Les nombres tétraédriques peuvent être représentés dans l'espace ordinaire de dimension trois. Par exemple, le nombre tétraédrique 35 peut être représenté par un assemblage de 35 boules de billard. Le « triangle » (armature triangulaire standard du jeu de billard) contient 15 boules. Dix boules supplémentaires sont alors empilées au-dessus de celles-ci, ensuite six de plus forment un autre étage, puis encore trois boules et enfin une complètent le tétraèdre. La parité des nombres tétraédriques suit le modèle impair-pair-pair-pair. En 1878, A.j. Meyl a démontré qu'il y a seulement trois nombres tétraédriques qui sont également carrés, à savoir, 1, 4 et 19600. Jusqu'ici, le seul nombre tétraédrique connu qui soit aussi un nombre pyramidal carré est 1. portail mathématiques:

صيغة أتوم ويب 2.0 أتوم Atom: صيغة بيانات حاسوبية مبنية على XML وتتمثل إحدى تطبيقاتها في نشر التلقيمات. تفيد التليقمات في إعلام من يتابعونها بتحديث المواقع التي توفر التلقيمات، مما يسمح بمتابعة عدد ضخم من المواقع (الإخبارية مثلا) والمدونات دون الحاجة لزيارة المواقع كلها لمعرفة الجديد فيها. كما أنها بروتوكول للتواصل ما بين البرمجيات المختلفة التي تكون منظومات النشر على الوب، مثل تطبيقات سطح المكتب ونظم إدارة المحتوى على الوب مما يمكن البرمجيات والنظم المختلفة من تبادل البيانات فيما بينها نظاميا. و في حين أنها أعقد تصميما من صيغة آر إس إس التي تؤدي غرض نشر التلقيمات ذاته، فإن صيغة أتوم تتيح مرونة أكثر ويرى تقنيون عديدون أنها أفضل تصميما وقابلية للتوسع باعتبارها تطبيقا من تطبيقات XML. بذرة:

Atom (standard) XML-based standards | Atom (standard) | Cloud standards | RSS | Web syndication formats For Atom feeds from Wikipedia, see .: The name Atom applies to a pair of related standards. The Atom Syndication Format is an XML language used for web feeds, while the Atom Publishing Protocol (AtomPub or APP) is a simple HTTP-based protocol for creating and updating web resources. Web feeds allow software programs to check for updates published on a website. To provide a web feed, a site owner may use specialized software (such as a content management system) that publishes a list (or "feed") of recent articles or content in a standardized, machine-readable format. The feed can then be downloaded by programs that use it, like websites that syndicate content from the feed, or by feed reader programs that allow Internet users to subscribe to feeds and view their content. A feed contains entries, which may be headlines, full-text articles, excerpts, summaries, and/or links to content on a website, along with various metadata. The Atom format was developed as an alternative to RSS. Ben Trott, an advocate of the new format that became Atom, believed that RSS had limitations and flaws—such as lack of on-going innovation and its necessity to remain backward compatible— and that there were advantages to a fresh design. Proponents of the new format formed the IETF Atom Publishing Format and Protocol Workgroup. The Atom syndication format was published as an IETF proposed standard in RFC 4287 (December 2005), and the Atom Publishing Protocol was published as (October 2007). * Usage Web feeds are used by the blogging community to share recent entries' headlines, full text, and even attached multimedia files. These providers allow other websites to incorporate the blog's "syndicated" headline or headline-and-short-summary feeds under various usage agreements. Atom and other web syndication formats are now used for many purposes, including journalism, marketing, bug-reports, or any other activity involving periodic updates or publications. Atom also provides a standard way to export an entire blog, or parts of it, for backup or for importing into other blogging systems. It is common to find web feeds on major Web sites, as well as many smaller ones. Some websites let people choose between RSS or Atom formatted web feeds; others offer only RSS or only Atom. In particular, many blog and wiki sites offer their web feeds in the Atom format. A feed reader or "aggregator" program can be used to check feeds and display new articles. Client-side readers may also be designed as standalone programs or as extensions to existing programs like web browsers. Browsers are moving toward integrated feed reader functions. Web-based feed readers and news aggregators require no software installation and make the user's "feeds" available on any computer with Web access. Some aggregators syndicate (combine) web feeds into new feeds, e.g., taking all football related items from several sports feeds and providing a new football feed. There are also several search engines for web feed contentdate: May 2009: . On Web pages, web feeds (both Atom and RSS) are typically linked with the word "Subscribe" or with the unofficial web feed logo . Atom compared to RSS 2.0: When Atom emerged as a format intended to rival or replace RSS, CNET described the motivation of its creators as follows: "Winer's opponents are seeking a new format that would clarify RSS ambiguities, consolidate its multiple versions, expand its capabilities, and fall under the auspices of a traditional standards organization." A brief description of some of the ways Atom 1.0 differs from RSS 2.0 has been given by Tim Bray, who played a major role in the creation of Atom: Content model: RSS 2.0 may contain either plain text or escaped HTML as a payload, with no way to indicate which of the two is provided. Atom, on the other hand, provides a mechanism to explicitly and unambiguously label the type of content being provided by the entry, and allows for a broad variety of payload types including plain text, escaped HTML, XHTML, XML, Base64-encoded binary, and references to external content such as documents, video, audio streams, and so forth. Date formats: The RSS 2.0 specification relies on the use of RFC 822 formatted timestamps to communicate information about when items in the feed were created and last updated. The Atom working group chose instead to use timestamps formatted according to the rules specified by RFC 3339 (which is a subset of ISO 8601; see Appendix A in RFC 3339 for differences). Internationalization: While the RSS vocabulary has a mechanism to indicate a human language for the feed, there is no way to specify a language for individual items or text elements. Atom, on the other hand, uses the standard xml:lang attribute to make it possible to specify a language context for every piece of human-readable content in the feed. Atom also differs from RSS in that it supports the use of Internationalized Resource Identifiers, which allow links to resources and unique identifiers to contain characters outside the US ASCII character set. Modularity: The elements of the RSS vocabulary are not generally reusable in other XML vocabularies. The Atom syntax was specifically designed to allow elements to be reused outside the context of an Atom feed document. For instance, it is not uncommon to find atom:link elements being used within RSS 2.0 feeds. Barriers to adoption: * Despite the emergence of Atom as an IETF Proposed Standard and the decision by major companies such as Google to embrace Atom, use of the older and better-known RSS formats has continued. * RSS 2.0 support for enclosures led directly to the development of podcasting. While many podcasting applications, such as iTunes, support the use of Atom 1.0, RSS 2.0 remains the preferred format. * Many sites choose to publish their feeds in only a single format. For example CNN and the New York Times offer their web feeds only in RSS 2.0 format. * News articles about web syndication feeds have increasingly used the term "RSS" to refer generically to any of the several variants of the RSS format such as RSS 2.0 and RSS 1.0 as well as the Atom format. Development history: Background: Before the creation of Atom the primary method of web content syndication was the RSS family of formats. Members of the community who felt there were significant deficiencies with this family of formats were unable to make changes directly to RSS 2.0 because the official specification document stated that it was purposely frozen to ensure its stability. Initial work: In June 2003, Sam Ruby set up a wiki to discuss what makes "a well-formed log entry". This initial posting acted as a rallying point. People quickly started using the wiki to discuss a new syndication format to address the shortcomings of RSS. It also became clear that the new format could form the basis of a more robust replacement for blog editing protocols such as the Blogger API and LiveJournal XML-RPC Client/Server Protocol as well. The project aimed to develop a web syndication format that was: * "100% vendor neutral," * "implemented by everybody," * "freely extensible by anybody, and" * "cleanly and thoroughly specified." In short order, a project road map was built. The effort quickly attracted more than 150 supporters, including David Sifry of Technorati, Mena Trott of Six Apart, Brad Fitzpatrick of LiveJournal, Jason Shellen of Blogger, Jeremy Zawodny of Yahoo, Timothy Appnel of the O'Reilly Network, Glenn Otis Brown of Creative Commons and Lawrence Lessig. Other notables supporting Atom include Mark Pilgrim, Tim Bray, Aaron Swartz, Joi Ito, and Jack Park. Also, Dave Winer, the key figure behind RSS 2.0, gave tentative support to the new endeavor. After this point, discussion became chaotic, due to the lack of a decision-making process. The project also lacked a name, tentatively using "Pie," "Echo," "Atom," and "Whatever" (PEAW) before settling on Atom. After releasing a project snapshot known as Atom 0.2 in early July 2003, discussion was shifted off the wiki. Atom 0.3 and adoption by Google: The discussion then moved to a newly set up mailing list. The next and final snapshot during this phase was Atom 0.3, released in December 2003. This version gained widespread adoption in syndication tools, and in particular it was added to several Google-related services, such as Blogger, Google News, and Gmail. Google's Data APIs (Beta) GData are based on Atom 1.0 and RSS 2.0. Atom 1.0 and IETF standardization: In 2004, discussions began about moving the project to a standards body such as the World Wide Web Consortium or the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The group eventually chose the IETF and the Atompub working group was formally set up in June 2004, finally giving the project a charter and process. The Atompub working group is co-chaired by Tim Bray (the co-editor of the XML specification) and Paul Hoffman. Initial development was focused on the syndication format. The Atom Syndication Format was issued as a Proposed Standard in IETF RFC 4287 in December 2005. The co-editors were Mark Nottingham and Robert Sayre. This document is known as atompub-format in IETF's terminology. The Atom Publishing Protocol was issued as a Proposed Standard in IETF RFC 5023 in October 2007. Two other drafts have not been standardized. Example of an Atom 1.0 feed: An example of a document in the Atom Syndication Format: Example Feed A subtitle. urn:uuid:60a76c80-d399-11d9-b91C-0003939e0af6 2003-12-13T18:30:02Z John Doe johndoe@example.com Atom-Powered Robots Run Amok urn:uuid:1225c695-cfb8-4ebb-aaaa-80da344efa6a 2003-12-13T18:30:02Z Some text. * Including in XHTML The following tag should be placed into the head of an XHTML document to provide a link to an ATOM Feed.

Atom Technologie web | Normes et standards informatiques | Dialecte XML Atom (homonymie): L'appellation Atom se réfère à deux standards liés. * Le Format de Syndication Atom est un format de document basé sur XML conçu pour la syndication de contenu périodique, tel que les blogs ou les sites d'actualités * Le Protocole de Publication Atom (APP) est un protocole simple basé sur HTTP pour la création et la mise à jour de ressources Web. Généralités : Un document au format Atom est appelé un « fil de syndication Atom » ou fil Web. Ces fils peuvent être affichés aussi bien sur un site Web que directement dans un agrégateur, qui est un logiciel prévu à cet effet. Cela permet de suivre, ou « s'abonner », à un fil. Le propriétaire d'un site web peut quant à lui utiliser un logiciel spécialisé, tel qu'un système de gestion de contenu, pour publier une liste de ressources, dans un format standardisé et lisible par une machine, et dont il souhaite notifier des mises à jour. Le développement d'Atom a été justifié par le manque de flexibilité commun aux nombreuses variantes de RSS et la faible interopérabilité des protocoles de publication fondés sur XML-RPC. Le Format de Syndication Atom fut normalisé en août 2005 par l'IETF dans le RFC 4287 en tant que Proposed Standard, contrairement aux divers RSS, pilotés par des entreprises privées. Le Protocole de Publication Atom est encore à l'étape de document de travail. Ce format est décrit par un schéma XML spécifié grâce au langage RelaxNG. Un fil est constitué d'entrées, qui peuvent être des titres de nouvelles, des articles entiers ou résumés, ainsi qu'éventuellement des liens et métadonnées relatives au site. Les versions expérimentales du format (Atom 0.3) furent un moment relativement répandues sur l'Internet, aux environs de 2003. Chronologie du développement : Au moment où l'idée d'Atom est esquissée, en juin 2003, la principale manière de « syndiquer » périodiquement du contenu est d'utiliser la famille des formats RSS. Pour le groupe de personnes pensant que ces formats souffraient d'insuffisances ou de défauts, il était impossible d'opérer directement des changements sur RSS 2.0. En effet, les spécifications indiquaient que le format était gelé afin d'en assurer la stabilité. En juin 2003, Sam Ruby établit un wiki pour discuter de ce qui constitue « une entrée de journal bien-formée » . Cet article servit de point de ralliement , et certains commencèrent à utiliser le wiki pour discuter d'un nouveau format de syndication afin de pallier les manques de RSS. Il devint clair que le nouveau format pouvait de plus devenir un creuset pour le remplacement de protocoles comme l'API Blogger ou le protocole XML-RPC client-serveur de LiveJournal par un protocole plus robuste. Les objectifs visés étaient de développer un format de syndication de contenu qui soit : * Indépendant vis-à-vis des protagonistes (100% vendor neutral: ) * Facile à mettre en œuvre (implemented by everybody: ) * Librement extensible par quiconque (freely extensible by anybody: ) * Défini clairement et complètement (cleanly and thoroughly specified: ) Une feuille de route fut établie et rapidement des noms connus soutinrent cette initiative. Cependant, les débats devinrent chaotiques à cause de l'absence d'un processus chargé d'entériner les décisions. Il manquait aussi un nom au projet, testant tour à tour des suggestions comme « Pie », « Echo », et « Necho », avant de se décider pour « Atom ». Après avoir livré une version de travail du projet, nommé Atom 0.2, au début de juillet 2003, les débats furent portés hors wiki, vers une liste de diffusion dédiée. La fin de cette phase fut marquée par la mise à disposition d'une nouvelle version de travail du projet Atom 0.3 en décembre 2003. En 2004, il fut envisagé de confier le projet à un groupement tel que le consortium W3C ou l'Internet Engineering Task Force. L'IETF fut choisie et le fut formé. Le brouillon définitif d’Atom 1.0 fut publié en juillet 2005 et accepté par l'IETF en tant que Published Standard en août. Le Format de Syndication Atom fut proposé comme « internet official protocol standard » en décembre 2005 dans l'IETF . Exemple de fil Atom 1.0 : Un exemple de document au Format de Syndication Atom : Fil d'exemple Un titre secondaire. 2010-05-13T18:30:02Z Paul Martin paulmartin@example.com urn:uuid:60a76c80-d399-11d9-b91C-0003939e0af6 Des robots propulsés par Atom deviennent fous urn:uuid:1225c695-cfb8-4ebb-aaaa-80da344efa6a 2010-04-01T18:30:02Z Poisson d'avril ! Notes et références : Source : *

ضغط فيديو قانون الملكية الفكرية | تخزين الصوتيات | تخزين الفيديو ضغط الفيديو Ripping: هي عملية يشار بها عادةً إلى تحويل فيلم على قرص دي في دي من صيغته على القرص البصرى دي في دي إلى ملف فيديو ذو تنسيق يقرأ على جهاز الحاسوب. والغاية من نقل الفيلم من القرص البصرى إلى الحاسوب أن يتم التعامل معه بحرية؛ مثل تحرير الفيلم، أو تغيير صفاته وحجمه، كي يمكن تشغيله على أجهزة متعددة مثل الهاتف المحمول، أو أجهزة الوسائط المتعددة المحمولة، أو حتى بهدف الأرشفة، أو ليمكن تشغيله بدون الحاجة للقرص البصري كما مع ملفات إم بي ثري وغيرها. غالبًا مايكون الفيلم ذو حجم اقل من الحجم على القرص نتيجة الضغط.وتكون جودة الفيلم بهذه الصيغة عالية وممتازة وبحجم مقبول نسبيًا مقارنة بطرق النقل الأخرى. ويعود تقليص حجم الفيلم إلى خوارزمية تجاهل الإطارات الساكنة حيث يتم حذف الكادرات الساكنة أو أجزاء الكدرات الساكنة في الفيلم كالخلفية الثابتة مثلًا. وتسجيل البيانات المتحركة في المشهد فقط كحركة الاشخاص؛ مما يقلل حجمها، لكن لا تصبح الصورة بسلاسة ونعومة الحركة كالفيلم الاصلي. وغالبًا مايتراوح حجم الملف المضغوط لمتوسط زمن الأفلام السينمائية العادية من 650 إلى 800 ميجابايت. برامج يمكن ضغط الفيديو بها : * DVD Decrypter. * AutoGK. * AnyDVD برنامج مجاني على الإنترنت لفك التشفير. * CloneDVD وهو برنامج لنسخ أقراص الديفيدي المحمية. * DVDFab. * DVD Shrink. * HandBrake. * K9Copy. * MEncoder.

Ripping Copyright law | Audio storage | Video storage Ripping is the process of copying audio or video content to a hard disk, typically from removable media. The word is used to refer to all forms of media. Despite the name, neither the media nor the data is damaged after extraction. Digital Audio Extraction (DAE) is a more formal phrase applied to the ripping of Audio CDs. Ripping is distinct from simple file copying, in that the source audio/video to be "ripped" is not formatted for ease of use in a computer filesystem. For example, the hierarchy of files making up the audio/video data on a DVD-Video disc can be encoded into a single MPEG file. In addition, the copied data are often compressed with appropriate codecs. Ripping is often used to shift formats, and to edit, duplicate or back up media content. Media files released on the Internet may describe the source of the rip in their names, e.g. DVD-Rip. Ripping software : CD ripper: A CD ripper, CD grabber or CD extractor is a piece of software designed to extract or "rip" raw digital audio (in format commonly called CDDA) from a compact disc to a file or other output. Some all-in-one ripping programs can simplify the entire process by ripping and burning the audio to disc in one step, possibly re-encoding the audio on-the-fly in the process. Legality: dateDecember 2010: : United States On the whole, it is legal for an individual in the United States to make a copy of media he/she owns for his/her own personal use. For instance, making a copy of a personally-owned audio CD for transfer to an MP3 player for that person's personal use would be legal.date: October 2010: In the case where media contents are protected using some effective copy protection scheme, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act makes it illegal to manufacture or distribute circumvention tools and use those tools for non-fair use purposes. In the case RealNetworks v. DVD CCA, the final injunction reads, "while it may well be fair use for an individual consumer to store a backup copy of a personally owned DVD on that individual's computer, a federal law has nonetheless made it illegal to manufacture or traffic in a device or tool that permits a consumer to make such copies." This case made clear that manufacturing and distribution of circumvention tools was illegal, but fair use of those tools was not. There are also legal restrictions on what may be done with rips. As made clear above, ripping unencrypted media for personal use is legal. However, it is often the case that musical works and videos are not ripped solely for personal use, but are distributed to others. Unless this distribution fits into one of few circumstances, then this constitutes an offense under U.S. copyright law as distribution is one of the exclusive rights granted to copyright holders. This is regardless of whether the distribution is commercial or free of charge. The circumstances under which the ripped media may be distributed to others without infringing on copyright law include narrowly-defined fair use distributions and distributions of material that is either in the public domain or is available under a license that specifically grants distribution rights, such as various Creative Commons licenses. An update to this ruling was issued to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act on July 23, 2010. Video remix artists and other noncommercial users of copyrighted material that falls within Fair Use doctrine are no longer shackled to a DVD copy protection measure that prevented them from legally ripping a DVD for such purposes. "Noncommercial videos are a powerful art form online, and many use short clips from popular movies. Finally the creative people that make those videos won't have to worry that they are breaking the law in the process, even though their works are clearly fair uses. That benefits everyone — from the artists themselves to those of us who enjoy watching the amazing works they create," confirmed Corynne McSherry, senior staff attorney for Electronic Frontier Foundation. Recording industry representatives have claimed (in the context of Atlantic v. Howell) that ripping itself may be regarded as copyright infringement. However, there is no legal precedent for this and, even within the industry, this is the minority view. In oral arguments before the Supreme Court in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., Don Verrilli, representing MGM stated: "And let me clarify something I think is unclear from the amicus briefs. The record companies, my clients, have said, for some time now, and it's been on their Website for some time now, that it's perfectly lawful to take a CD that you've purchased, upload it onto your computer, put it onto your iPod. There is a very, very significant lawful commercial use for that device, going Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. (3/29/05), 04-480] Similarly, there are some who argue that existing copyright laws need revision to allow legal filesharing. See, for example, Other countries: In countries such as Spain, anyone is allowed to make a private copy of a copyrighted material for oneself, providing that the copier has accessed the original material legally. A directive of the European Union allows its member nations to instate in their legal framework this private copy exception to the authors and editors rights. If a member State chooses to do so, it must also introduce a compensation for the copyright holders. In all of Europe, except for a few exceptions (the UK, Malta...) the compensation takes the form of a levy excised on all the machines and blank materials capable of copying copyrighted works. Making copies for other people, however, is forbidden, and if done for profit can lead to a jail sentence. This is also true for Sweden and Poland and most European countries. All of them have introduced a private copying levy, except for Norway, that compensates the owners directly from the country's budget. In 2009 the sum awarded to them was $55 million. In Australia and New Zealand a copy of any legally purchased music may be made by its owner, as long as it is not distributed to others and its use remains personal. In the United Kingdom, making a private copy of copyrighted media without the copyright owner's consent is currently illegal, but the UK government's new Digital Economy Act is likely to make copying of CDs for personal use legal. According to one survey, 59% of British consumers believed ripping a CD to be legal, and 55% admitted to doing it.

Rip (informatique) Art numérique | Gestion numérique des droits Rip: Un rip (anglicisme, verbe ripper) est une donnée numérique (son, image) extraite depuis une source de données analogique ou numérique. Typiquement, il peut s'agir, par exemple, de convertir les pistes d'un CD audio de musique en autant de fichiers informatique, par exemple au format MP3. Selon la source du rip, on parle de DVDrip, CDrip, TVrip, HDrip, SATrip, VHSrip… Aspects techniques : Le rip est donc la composition de deux actions : * l'extraction de la donnée brute (souvent vers un format sans perte) * le transcodage des données extraites vers le format final des données Exemple : CD → Wave → Ogg L'extraction de la donnée brute se fait en lisant les données sur le support original pour les copier dans un format brut sans perte. L'extraction n'est pas un processus simple et le résultat dépend de l'état du support et de la qualité du lecteur. La transcodage peut se faire avec ou sans perte. Sans perte signifie que le résultat du rip sera de même qualité (résolution) que le source. Avec perte signifie que le résultat est d'une qualité altérée par rapport à la source. L'utilisation d'un format avec perte ne se fait pas par volonté mais par contrainte (par exemple, le fichier final ne doit pas dépasser une taille donnée). * Exemples de logiciel de rip de CD audios ...: CDex, Sound Juicer, Windows Media Player, cdparanoia * Exemples de logiciel de rip de DVD vidéos ...: OGMRip, , DVD Decrypter, DVDFab Decrypter, Dvd Shrink, FairUse Wizard * Aspects légaux == Gestion des droits numériques: Le rip étant une copie et la source pouvant être soumise au droit d'auteur, il est restreint par la gestion des droits numériques. En effet, la plupart des contenus multimédias distribués illégalement sur Internet sont obtenus par rip d'une source légitime (DVD ou CD issu du commerce). Le transcodage peut aussi avoir un autre avantage. En effet, transcoder veut dire modifier. Or avoir un fichier lisible sur ordinateur, mais non lisible sur une platine DVD peut s'avérer problématique. Le transcodage est alors une solution, si l'on respecte le cadre légal, pour modifier une vidéo avec un fichier accepté par des machines vidéo plus anciennes. informatique:

صدفيات قشريات الصدفيات (وتعرف أيضاً باسم روبيان البذور بسبب مظهرها) هي طائفة من القشريات. يُوجد ما يُقارب 65,000 نوع معروف من الصدفيات (13,000 منها حية)، مُقسمة إلى رتب عديدة. يُمكن ألا تكون هذه المجموعة من المفصليات أحادية العرق. مجموعة الصدفيات مُوحّدة في طائفة بناءً على تشابهات بنياتها الكبيرة، لكن بالرغم من هذا يَبقى تطورهم الجزيئي مُلتبساً. الصدفيات هي قشريات صغيرة، يَبلغ طولها النموذجي ملليمتراً واحد، لكنها تتراوح في الطول من 0.2 مم إلى 3 سنتيمترات (30 مم). أجساد هذه الحيوانات مسطحة الجانبين ويَحميها كيتين أو "صمام كاليو-كربوني" أو صدفة أو شبه-صدفة ثنائية. وهي التي تشكل الفاصل بين الصمامين في الجزء العلوي من الجسم. بيئياً، يُمكن أن تكون الصدفيات جزءاً من العوالق الحيوانية أو (حسب الأكثر شيوعاً) جزءاً من القاعيات، والتي تعيش على الطبقة العلوية من قاع البحر أو داخلها. تعيش العديد من الصدفيات أيضاً في الماء العذب، وهناك أنواع أرضية حتى تم العثور عليها في تربة الغابات الرطبة لأمريكا الجنوبية وأوستراليا ونيوزيلاندا وتسمانيا. تتغذى هذه المفصليات على مدى واسع من الطعام، وتتضمن المجموعة لواحم وعواشب وقمامات ومُصفّيات (تتغذى بتصفية العوالق من ماء البحر). * الأحافير الصدفيات هي "أكثر المفصليات وفرة في سجل الأحافير على الإطلاق"، مع أحافيرها التي تبدأ من العصر الكامبري وتستمر حتى الوقت الحاضر. وقد عُثر على صدفيات الماء العذب في رسوبيات الكهرمان التي تعود إلى عصر الإيوسين، ومن المُحتمل أنها انجرفت إلى الغابات خلال فيضانات قبل تاريخية. كانت الصدفيات مفيدة بشكل خاص لدراسة الطبقات الحيوية البحرية على المستويين المحلي أو الإقليمي، وهي تشكل دلائل ثمينة على البيئات القديمة بسبب انتشارها الواسع وحجمها الصغير وقابليتها للحفظ بسهولة، إضافة إلى غطائها الخارجي الكلسي ثنائي الصدفة والقابل للتجديد عموماً. * الوصف يتألف الجسد من رأس وصدر، يَفصلهما تقلص ضئيل في الجسد. على عكس العديد من القشريات الأخرى، أجساد الصدفيات ليس مُقسمة بشكل واضح إلى أجزاء. فالبطن راجع أو مفقود. الرأس هو أكبر جزء من الجسد، ويَحمل معظم اللاواحق. هناك زوجان من قرون الاستشعار جيدة التطور لدى الصدفيات، والذين يَستخدمهما الحيوان للسباحة في الماء. إضافة إلى ذلك، هناك زوج من كلابات الفم وزوجان من الفكوك العلوية. يَملك الصدر نموذجياً زوجين من اللاواحق، لكنهما يَنقصان إلى زوج واحد أو يُفقدان تماماً في العديد من الأنواع. كما أن هناك بروزين في جسم الحيوان من طرف الذيل وحتى مؤخرة الصدفة. نموذجياً لا تملك الصدفيات خياشيماً، بل بدلاً من ذلك تأخذ الأوكسجين بـ"الصفائح الفرعية" الموجودة على سطح الجسم. معظم الصدفيات لا تملك قلباً أو جهازاً دورياً، ويَدور الدم ببساطة بين صمامات الصدفة. أما ما يَتبقى من النيتروجين فيُصرّف عن طريق غددٍ في الفكوك العلوية أو قرون الاستشعار أو كليهما. مفترسات : تفترس العديد من الحيوانات الصدفيات في كلا البيئتين البحرية والأرضية. وكمثال لافتراس الصدفيات في البيئة البحرية، تتغذى بعض أنواع ثنائيات الصدفة على الصدفيات، حيث تعثر عليها في البحر بواسطة السيليا ثم تقبض عليها بماصات في جسمها وتمنعها من الحركة، وبعد ذلك تفترسها. يَحدث أيضاً افتراس من قِبل حيوانات أخرى أكبر، فمثلاً تتغذى بعض البرمائيات على أنواع مُحددة من الصدفيات. المراجع : ثبت_المراجع: hu:

Ostracod Crustaceans | Bioluminescent organisms | Ostracods Ostracoda is a class of the Crustacea, sometimes known as the seed shrimp because of their appearance. Some 65,000 species (13,000 of which are extant taxa) have been identified, grouped into several orders. Ostracods are small crustaceans, typically around in size, but varying from to in the case of Gigantocypris. Their bodies are flattened from side to side and protected by a bivalve-like, chitinous or calcareous valve or "shell". The hinge of the two valves is in the upper (dorsal) region of the body. Ostracods are grouped together based on gross morphology, but the group may not be monophyletic; their molecular phylogeny remains ambiguous. Ecologically, marine ostracods can be part of the zooplankton or (most commonly) they are part of the benthos, living on or inside the upper layer of the sea floor. Many ostracods, especially the Podocopida, are also found in fresh water and terrestrial species of Mesocypris are known from humid forest soils of South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania. They have a wide range of diets, and the group includes carnivores, herbivores, scavengers, and filter feeders. Etymology: Ostracod comes from the Greek óstrakon meaning shell or tile. The word ostracize comes from the same root due to the practice of voting with shells or potsherds. Fossils: Ostracods are "by far the most common arthropods in the fossil record" with fossils being found from the Cambrian to the present day. An outline microfaunal zonal scheme based on both Foraminifera and Ostracoda was compiled by M. B. Hart. Freshwater ostracods have even been found in Baltic amber of Eocene age, having presumably been washed onto trees during floods. Ostracods have been particularly useful for the biozonation of marine strata on a local or regional scale, and they are invaluable indicators of paleo-environments because of their widespread occurrence, small size, easily-preservable generally-moulted calcified bivalve carapaces, the valves are a commonly found microfossil. Description: The body of an ostracod is encased by two valves, superficially resembling the shell of a clam. A distinction is made between the valve (hard parts) and the body with its appendages (soft parts). Soft parts: The body consists of a head and thorax, separated by a slight constriction. Unlike many other crustaceans, the body is not clearly divided into segments. The abdomen is regressed or absent, whereas the adult gonads are relatively large. The head is the largest part of the body, and bears most of the appendages. There are two pairs of well-developed antennae, which the animal uses to swim through the water. In addition, there is a pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae. The thorax typically has two pairs of appendages, but these are reduced to a single pair, or entirely absent, in many species. There are two "rami", or projections, from the tip of the tail, that point downwards and slightly forward from the rear of the shell. Ostracods typically have no gills, instead taking in oxygen through branchial plates on the body surface. Most ostracods have no heart or circulatory system, and blood simply circulates between the valves of the shell. Nitrogenous waste is excreted through glands on the maxillae, antennae, or both. The primary sense of ostracods is likely touch, as they have several sensitive hairs on the body and appendages. However, they do possess a single nauplius eye, and, in some cases, a pair of true compound eyes as well. * Life cycle Male ostracods have two penes, corresponding to two genital openings, or "gonopores" on the female. The individual sperm are often large, and are coiled up within the testis prior to mating; in some cases, the uncoiled sperm can be up to six times the length of the male ostracod itself. Mating typically occurs during swarming, with large numbers of females swimming the join the males. Some species are partially or wholly parthenogenetic. In most ostracods, eggs are either laid directly into the water as plankton, or are attached to vegetation or the substratum. However, in some species, the eggs are brooded inside the shell, giving them a greater degree of protection. The eggs hatch into nauplius larvae, which already have a hard shell. * Predators A variety of fauna prey upon ostracods in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. An example of predation in the marine environment is the action of certain Cuspidariidae in detecting ostracods with cilia protruding from inhalant structures, thence drawing the ostracod prey in by a violent suction action. Predation from higher animals also occurs; for example, amphibians such as the Rough-skinned Newt prey upon certain ostracods. * Palaeoclimatic reconstruction A new method is in development called Mutual Ostracod Temperature Range (MOTR), similar to the Mutual Climate Range (MCR) used for beetles, which can be used to infer palaeotemperatures. Bioluminescence: Some ostracods have a light organ in which they produce luminescent chemicals. Most use the light as predation defense, while some use the light for mating (only in the Caribbean). In Malaysia, these ostracods are called "blue sand" and glow blue in the dark at night. References: 2:

Ostracode Ostracode | Microfossile crustacé: Ostracoda : Taxobox fin: Les ostracodes sont des arthropodes crustacés dont le corps est entièrement enfermé dans une carapace constituée de deux valves, le plus souvent calcaires, articulées dorsalement. Seules les extrémités de quelques appendices sortent ventralement de cette carapace quand les animaux se déplacent sur le substrat ou quand ils nagent dans la colonne d'eau. Les ostracodes occupent tous les milieux marins et d'eau douce. Environ 7000 espèces actuelles ont été décrites. Les espèces fossiles sont d'excellents indicateurs stratigraphiques. Leur taille varie de 0,3 mm à environ 5 cm (0,5-3 mm pour la plupart des espèces). Leur répartition stratigraphique va de l'Ordovicien supérieur à nos jours. Il n'y a pas de consensus pour les formes du Cambrien (en phosphate). Liste des sous-taxons actuels : * sous-classe Myodocopa Sars, 1866 ** ordre Myodocopida Sars, 1866 *** famille Cypridinidae Baird, 1850 **** sous-famille Cypridininae Baird, 1850 ***** genre Cypridina Milne-Edwards, 1840 ** ordre Halocyprida * sous-classe Podocopa Sars, 1866 ** ordre Platycopida ** ordre Podocopida ** ordre Palaeocopida Littérature : * Meisch, C. 2000: Freshwater Ostracoda of Western and Central Europe. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag 8/3, 522 pages. (Ouvrage en langue anglaise. Pays considérés: Irlande, Royaume-Uni, moitié nord de la France, pays du Benelux, Allemagne, Suisse, Autriche, Hongrie, République tchèque, Slovaquie). * Sars, G.O. 1866: Oversigt af Norges marine Ostracoder. Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania, Aar 1865: 1-130, Christiania 1866. Références externes : * hu: zoologie:

روبرت دوفال مواليد 1931 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | ممثلون أمريكيون | ممثلون حائزون على جائزة أوسكار | ممثلون حائزون على جائزة أوسكار لأفضل ممثل | ممثلون حائزون على جائزة غولدن غلوب لأفضل ممثل دراما | أمريكيون فرنسيون روبرت دوفال ممثل و مخرج أمريكي من مواليد 5 يناير 1931. سبق له الفوز بجائزة الأوسكار، وجائزتي إيمي، وأربع جوائز غولدن غلوب , ظهر في العديد من الأفلام طوال مسيرته السينمائية منها العراب و القيامة الآن و شبكة. له مشهد خالد في فيلم القيامة الآن حين يقف في ساحة الحرب الفيتنامية مستمتعا بالقصف والقتال من حوله ويقول معلقا: "أحب رائحة النابالم في الصباح.... إنها تذكرني بالنصر". مسيرته : كان لافتا في الأدوار الصغيرة في الستينات: سائق التاكسي في الفيلم البوليسي الكلاسيكي بوليت لبيتر ياتس، والشخصية المثيرة للشبهات في الدراما الاجتماعية لقتل طائر مغرد لروبرت موليغان، وابن البلدة المثير للمتاعب في المطاردة لآرثر بن، ورئيس زمرة القتلة في فيلم الوسترن جرأة حقيقية . حين كبرت أدواره كان للمخرج فرانسيس فورد كوبولا يد في ذلك. فقد منحه دورا رئيسيا في الجزء الأول و الثاني العراب لاعبا دور المحامي ابن عائلة كورليوني بالتبني. وبعد هذا الدور وطوال السبعينات والثمانينات وإلى اليوم، انتقل كأي ممثل محترف بين الأدوار الأولى والأدوار الثانية وتميز بقدرته على تجسيد الشخصية. أفلامه الخاصة : أخرج ثلاثة أفلام تنتمي إلى شخصيته وطلاقته في استحواذ الاهتمام. سنة 1983 أخرج «أنجيلو حبي» وسنة 1997 أخرج «المصلح» ثم سنة 2002 أنجز «تانغو الاغتيال»، وفي كل منها كتب السيناريو وأدى البطولة وعالج شأنا اجتماعيا: حياة الغجر في الأول، المبشر الديني الهارب من العدالة في الثاني، والقاتل المحترف الواقع في حب المرأة التي جاء يقتل زوجها في الثالث. الجوائز : * جائزة الأوسكار ** 1983 أفضل ممثل عن فيلم Tender Mercies * جائزة الأكاديمية البريطانية لفنون الفيلم والتلفزيون ** 1980 أفضل ممثل مساند عن فيلم Apocalypse Now * جائزة الغولدن غلوب ** 1980 أفضل ممثل مساند عن فيلم Apocalypse Now ** 1984 أفضل ممثل في فيلم درامي عن فيلم Tender Mercies ** 1990 أفضل ممثل في مسلسل قصير أو فيلم تلفزيوني عن فيلم Lonesome Dove ** 1993 أفضل ممثل في مسلسل قصير أو فيلم تلفزيوني عن فيلم Stalin * جائزة الأيمي ** 2007 أفضل ممثل في مسلسل قصير أو فيلم عن فيلم Broken Trail * جائزة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة ** 1998 أفضل ممثل عن فيلم A Civil Action مراجع : ثبت_المراجع: بذرة ممثل أمريكي: ru:

Robert Duvall Actors from San Diego, California | American Christian Scientists | American film actors | American film directors | American television actors | Best Actor Academy Award winners | Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners | Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners | Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners | BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor | Duvall family | Actors from Maryland | Emmy Award winners | Independent Spirit Award winners | Military brats | Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre alumni | Obie Award recipients | People from San Diego, California | United States Army soldiers | Western (genre) film actors | United States National Medal of Arts recipients | People from Anne Arundel County, Maryland | Principia College alumni | 1931 births | Living people Robert Selden Duvall (born January 5, 1931) is an American actor and director. He has won an Academy Award, two Emmy Awards, four Golden Globe Awards and a BAFTA over the course of his career. A veteran character actor, Duvall has starred in some of the most acclaimed and popular films and TV shows of all time, among them The Twilight Zone, The Outer Limits, To Kill a Mockingbird, THX 1138, Joe Kidd, The Godfather, The Godfather Part II, MASH, Network, True Grit, Bullitt, The Conversation, Apocalypse Now, Tender Mercies, The Natural and Lonesome Dove. He began appearing in theater as a handsome young lead actor during the late 1950s, moving into television and film roles during the early 1960s in such works as To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) (as Boo Radley) and Captain Newman, M.D. (1963). He started to land much larger roles during the early 1970s with films like the blockbuster comedy MASH (1970) (as Major Burns) and the lead in George Lucas's THX 1138 (1971). This was followed by a series of critically lauded performances in films which were also commercial successes: The Godfather (1972), The Godfather Part II (1974), Network (1976), The Great Santini (1979), Apocalypse Now (1979), and True Confessions (1981). Since then Duvall has continued to act in both film and television with such productions as Tender Mercies (1983) (for which he won an Academy Award), The Natural (1984), Colors (1988), the television mini-series Lonesome Dove (1989), Stalin (1992), The Man Who Captured Eichmann (1996), A Family Thing (1996), The Apostle (1997) (which he also wrote and directed), A Civil Action (1998), Gods and Generals (2003), Broken Trail (2006) and Get Low (2010). Early life: Duvall was born in San Diego, California, the son of Mildred Virginia (née Hart), an amateur actress and relative of American Civil War General Robert E. Lee, and William Howard Duvall, a Virginia-born U.S. Navy admiral. Duvall was raised in the Christian Science religion and has stated that while it is his belief, he does not attend church. Duvall grew up in the traditional life of a career military family, moving frequently from military base to military base, living for a time in Annapolis, Maryland, near the United States Naval Academy. He attended Severn School in Severna Park, Maryland and The Principia in St. Louis, Missouri and graduated, in 1953, from Principia College in Elsah, Illinois. He served in the United States Army from 19 August 1953 to 20 August 1954, leaving as Private First Class. While stationed at Camp Gordon (now known as Fort Gordon) in Georgia, Duvall acted in an amateur production of the comedy "Room Service" in nearby Augusta. In the Winter of 1955 he began studies at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of Theater in New York under Sanford Meisner on the G.I. Bill. He was there for two years. Dustin Hoffman, Gene Hackman and James Caan were some of his classmates. He was there in 1957 attending Meisner's classes. While working to become an actor, he worked as a Manhattan post office clerk. Duvall is friends with actors Dustin Hoffman and Gene Hackman whom he knew during their years as struggling actors. In 1955, Duvall even roomed with Hoffman in a New York City apartment while they were studying at The Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre. * Career * Early career in theatre, television and film: 1952–1969 Duvall began his professional acting career with the Gateway Playhouse, an Equity summer theatre based in Bellport, Long Island, New York. Arguably his stage debut was in its 1952 season when he played the Pilot in Laughter In The Stars at the Gateway Theatre. After a two-year absence when he was with the U.S. Army (1953-1954), he returned to Gateway in its 1955 summer season, playing: Eddie Davis in Ronald Alexander's Time Out For Ginger (July 1955), Hal Carter in William Inge's Picnic (July 1955), Charles Wilder in John Willard's The Cat And The Canary (August 1955), Paris in Arthur Miller's The Crucible (August 1955), and John the Witchboy in William Berney and Howard Richardson's Dark Of The Moon (September 1955). The playbill of Dark Of The Moon indicated that he had portrayed the Witch Boy before and that he will "repeat his famous portrayal" of this character for the 1955 season's revival of this play. For Gateway's 1956 season (his third season with the Gateway Players), he played the role of Max Halliday in Frederick Knott's Dial M For Murder (July 1956), Virgil Blessing in Inge's Bus Stop (August 1956), and Clive Mortimer in John van Druten's I Am A Camera (August 1956). The playbills for the 1956 season described him as "an audience favorite" in the last season and as having "appeared at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York and studied acting with Sandy Meisner this past winter." In its 1957 season, he appeared as Mr. Mayher in Agatha Christie's Witness For The Prosecution (July 1957), as Hector in Jane Anouilh's Thieves Carnival (July 1957), and the role which he once described as the "catalyst of his career" - as Eddie Carbone in Arthur Miller's A View from the Bridge (from July 30 to August 3, 1957 and directed by Ulu Grosbard who was by then a regular director at the Gateway Theatre). Miller himself attended one of Duvall's performances as Eddie and also during this performance he met important people that allowed him to, in two months, land a "spectacular lead" in the Naked City television series. When appearing at the Gateway Theatre in the second half of the 1950s, he was also appearing at the Augusta Civic Theatre, the McLean Theatre in Virginia and the Arena Theatre in Washington, D.C.. The 1957 playbills also described him as "a graduate of the Neighborhood Playhouse" (so he must have completed his studies there by the Summer of 1957), "a member of Sanford Meisner's professional Workshop" and as having worked with Alvin Epstein, a mime and a member of Marcel Marceau's Company. By this time also (July 1957) his noteworthy theatrical credits already included performances as Jimmy in The Rainmaker and as Harvey Weems in Horton Foote's The Midnight Caller. Already receiving top-billing at the Gateway Playhouse, in the 1959 season he appeared in lead roles as Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee William's Streetcar Named Desire (July-August 1959), Maxwell Archer in Once More With Feeling, Igor Romanoff in Peter Ustinov's Romanoff and Juliet, and Joe Mancuso in Kyle Crichton's The Happiest Millionaire (all in August 1959). At the Neighborhood Playhouse, Meisner cast him in Tennessee William's Camino Real and the title role of Harvey Weems in Foote's one-act play The Midnight Caller. The latter was already part of Duvall's performance credits by mid-July 1957. He made his Off-Broadway debut at the Gate Theater as Frank Gardner in George Bernard Shaw's Mrs. Warren's Profession on June 25, 1958. This play closed three days later (June 28) after five performances. His other early Off-Broadway credits include the role of Doug in the premiere of Michael Shurtleff's Call Me By My Rightful Name on January 31, 1961 at One Sheridan Square and the role of Bob Smith in the premiere of William Snyder's The Days and Nights of BeeBee Fenstermaker on September 17, 1962 until June 9, 1963 at the Sheridan Square Playhouse. His most notable Off-Broadway performance, for which he won an Obie Award in 1965 and which he considers his "Othello", was as Eddie Carbone (again) in Miller's A View From the Bridge at the Sheridan Square Playhouse from January 28, 1965 to December 11, 1966. It was directed again by Ulu Grosbard with Dustin Hoffman. On February 2, 1966 he made his Broadway debut as Harry Roat, Jr in Frederick Knott's Wait Until Dark at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre. This played at the Shubert Theatre and George Abbott Theatre and closed on 31 December 1966 at the Music Box Theatre. His other Broadway performance was as Walter Cole in David Marnet's American Buffalo, which opened at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on 16 February 1977 and closed at the Belasco Theatre on 11 June 1977. In 1959, Duvall made his first television appearance on Armstrong Circle Theater in the episode The Jailbreak. He appeared regularly on television as a guest actor during the 1960s, often in action, suspense, detective, or crime dramas. His appearances during this time include performances on Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Naked City, The Untouchables, Route 66, The Twilight Zone, The Outer Limits, The Fugitive, T.H.E. Cat, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, The Time Tunnel and The Mod Squad. Duvall's screen debut was as Boo Radley in the critically acclaimed To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). He was cast in the film on the recommendation of screenwriter Horton Foote, who met Duvall at Neighborhood Playhouse during a 1957 production of Foote's play, The Midnight Caller. Foote, who would collaborate with Duvall many more times over the course of their careers, said he believed Duvall had a particular love of common people and ability to infuse fascinating revelations into his roles. Foote has described Duvall as "our number one actor." After To Kill a Mockingbird, Duvall appeared in a number of films during the 1960s, mostly in mid sized parts but also in a few larger supporting roles. Some of his more notable appearances include the role of Capt. Paul Cabot Winston in Captain Newman, M.D. (1963), Chiz in Countdown (1968), and Gordon in The Rain People. Duvall has a small part as a cab driver who ferries McQueen around just before the chase scene in the film Bullitt (1969). He was the notorious malefactor "Lucky" Ned Pepper in True Grit (1969), in which he engaged in a climactic shootout with John Wayne's Rooster Cogburn on horseback. Mid career: 1970–1989: Duvall became an important presence in American films beginning in the 1970s. He drew a considerable amount of attention in 1970 for his portrayal of Major Frank Burns in the film MASH and for his portrayal of the title role in the cult classic THX 1138 in 1971. His first major critical success came portraying consigliere (family counsel) Tom Hagen in The Godfather (1972) and The Godfather Part II (1974). The former film earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. In 1976 Duvall played supporting roles in The Eagle Has Landed and as Dr. Watson in The Seven-Per-Cent Solution opposite Nicol Williamson, Alan Arkin, Vanessa Redgrave and Sir Laurence Olivier. Duvall received another Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor and won both a BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award for his role as Lt. Colonel Kilgore in Apocalypse Now (1979). His line "I love the smell of napalm in the morning" from Apocalypse Now is now regarded as iconic in cinema history. The full text is as follows: You smell that? Do you smell that? Napalm, son. Nothing else in the world smells like that. I love the smell of napalm in the morning. You know, one time we had a hill bombed, for twelve hours. When it was all over I walked up. We didn't find one of 'em, not one stinkin' dink body. But the smell! You know - that gasoline smell... the whole hill! Smelled like... victory. (Pause) Some day this war is going to end...: Duvall received a BAFTA Award nomination for his portrayal of television executive Frank Hackett in the critically acclaimed film Network (1976) and garnered an Oscar nomination for Best Actor in a Leading Role in The Great Santini (1979) as the hard-boiled Marine and overbearing parent LtCol. "Bull" Meechum. The latter role was loosely based on a Marine aviator, Colonel Donald Conroy, the father of the book's author Pat Conroy. He also portrayed United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower in the television miniseries Ike (1979). In 1977 Duvall returned to Broadway to appear as Walter Cole in David Mamet's American Buffalo. For his performance he received a Drama Desk Award nomination for Outstanding Actor in a Play. To date, Duvall has not returned to the New York stage. Duvall continued to appear in important films during the 1980s, including the roles of cynical sportswriter Max Mercy in The Natural (1984) and Los Angeles police officer Bob Hodges in Colors (1988). He won an Oscar for Best Actor as country western singer Mac Sledge in Tender Mercies (1983). Foote was rumored to have written the part for Duvall, who had always wanted to play a country singer and contributed ideas for the character. Foote denied this, claiming he found it too constraining to write roles for specific actors, but he did hope Duvall would be cast. Duvall was said to have written the music, but the actor said he wrote only a few "background, secondary songs." Duvall did do his own singing, insisting it be added to his contract that he sing the songs himself; Duvall said, "What's the point if you're not going to do your own (singing)? They're just going to dub somebody else? I mean, there's no point to that." Actress Tess Harper, who co-starred, said Duvall inhabited the character so fully that she only got to know Mac Sledge and not Duvall himself. Director Bruce Beresford, too, said the transformation was so believable to him that he could feel his skin crawling up the back of his neck the first day of filming with Duvall. Beresford said of the actor, "Duvall has the ability to completely inhabit the person he's acting. He totally and utterly becomes that person to a degree which is uncanny." Nevertheless, Duvall and Beresford did not get along well during the production and often clashed during filming, including one day in which Beresford walked off the set in frustration. In 1989, Duvall appeared in the landmark mini-series Lonesome Dove in the role of Augustus "Gus" McCrae. He has stated in several forums, including CBS Sunday Morning, that this particular role was his personal favorite. He won a Golden Globe Award and earned an Emmy Award nomination. For his role as a former Texas Ranger peace officer, Duvall was trained in the use of Walker revolvers by the Texas marksman Joe Bowman. * Later career: 1990–present Duvall has maintained a busy film career, sometimes appearing in as many as four in one year. He received Oscar nominations for his portrayals of evangelical preacher Euliss "Sonny" Dewey in The Apostle (1997) — a film he also wrote and directed — and lawyer Jerome Facher in A Civil Action (1998). He directed Assassination Tango (2002), a thriller about one of his favorite hobbies, tango. He portrayed General Robert E. Lee in Gods and Generals in 2003 and is a relative of the Confederate general. Other roles during this period that displayed the actor's wide range included that of a crew chief in Days of Thunder (1990), a retiring cop in Falling Down (1992), an Hispanic barber in Wrestling Ernest Hemingway (1993), a New York tabloid editor in The Paper (1994), a rural doctor in Phenomenon (1996), an abusive father in 1996's Slingblade, an astronaut in Deep Impact (1998), a trail boss in Open Range (2003), a soccer coach in the comedy Kicking & Screaming, an old free spirit in Secondhand Lions (2003), a Las Vegas poker champion in Lucky You and a New York police chief in We Own the Night (both 2007). He has been referred to as "The King of Action". He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on September 18, 2003.date: January 2008: Duvall has periodically worked in television during the last two decades. He won a Golden Globe and garnered an Emmy nomination for his portrayal of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in the 1992 television film Stalin. He was nominated for an Emmy again in 1997 for portraying Adolf Eichmann in The Man Who Captured Eichmann. In 2006, he won an Emmy for the role of Prentice "Print" Ritter in the revisionist Western miniseries Broken Trail. In 2005, Duvall was awarded a National Medal of Arts by President George W. Bush at the White House. George W. Bush White House Archives. November 10, 2005. Duvall founded a production company, Butcher's Run Films, but it appears to have ceased operation. Personal life: Marriages: Duvall has been married four times: First to Barbara Benjamin from 1964 until 1975. He then married Gail Youngs (1982–1986; temporarily becoming the brother-in-law of John Savage, Robin Young, and Jim Youngs). Third to Sharon Brophy (1991–1996). In 2005, Duvall wed Luciana Pedraza, granddaughter of famous Argentine aviator Susana Ferrari Billinghurst. He met Pedraza on a street in Buenos Aires, Argentina. They were both born on January 5, but Duvall is 41 years older. They have been together since 1997. He produced, directed, and they acted together in Assassination Tango, with the majority of filming in Buenos Aires. Duvall and Pedraza have been active supporters of Pro Mujer, a non-profit charity organization dedicated to helping Latin America's poorest women (with Duvall and Pedraza concentrating on Pedraza's home of northern Argentina) help themselves through micro-credit, business training and health care links. He has fathered no children, although he says he has made a number of attempts to do so. Activism: Politics: Duvall's political views are variously described as libertarian or conservative. He was personally invited to Republican President George W. Bush's inauguration in 2001. In September 2007, he announced his support for Republican Presidential candidate Rudy Giuliani. Duvall worked the floor at the GOP's 2008 national convention and, according to an August 29, 2008 MSNBC article, Duvall narrated most of the videos for the convention. In September 2008, he appeared on stage at a John McCain-Sarah Palin rally in New Mexico. * Charity work In May 2009 he spoke for historic preservation against Wal-Mart's proposal to build a store across the road from the entrance to the Wilderness Battlefield national park in Orange County, Virginia. In 2011, Duvall appeared at a record-breaking Houston charity event when he was interviewed by Bob Schieffer for 'An Evening with a Texas Legend'. The event raised over $9 million for Texas Children's Cancer Center. * Filmography * References== 2:

Robert Duvall Acteur américain | Naissance à San Diego | Naissance en 1931 | Oscar du meilleur acteur | Golden Globe du meilleur acteur dans un second rôle Duvall: Robert Duvall est un acteur et réalisateur américain, né le à San Diego, en Californie. Biographie : ...: ;Carrière Un de ses ascendants est Marin Duval, un protestant français, né à Laval ou Nantes au XVIIe siècle: . Il étudia le théâtre au Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre à New York. Il fait ses débuts à l'écran plutôt tardivement avec le rôle de Boo Radley dans To Kill A Mockingbird (1962) et obtient immédiatement un succès critique. Pourtant il ne perce réellement qu'une décennie plus tard, en jouant le rôle de Tom Hagen dans Le Parrain (1972) et Le Parrain 2 (1974). Il reçut une nomination aux Oscars comme meilleur second rôle dans Préjudice et dans Le Parrain ainsi que pour son rôle du colonel Kilgore dans le fameux Apocalypse Now (1979). Il fut nommé aussi comme meilleur acteur aux Oscars pour son rôle dans The Great Santini (1980) et dans Le Prédicateur (1997). Il gagne finalement le prix pour son rôle dans Tendre Bonheur (1983). Il a réalisé le succès critique The Apostle, et Assassination tango, un thriller sur l'un de ses sujets favoris : le tango. Vie privée: Duvall a été marié trois fois : * Barbara Benjamin (1964-1975) * Gail Youngs (1982-1986) * Sharon Brophy (1991-1996) Il vit actuellement (depuis 2005) avec sa partenaire dans Assassination Tango, l'actrice Luciana Pedraza. Filmographie : * 1962 : La Quatrième Dimension (The Twilight Zone) (Série TV), Saison 4, épisode Miniature : Charley Parkes * 1962 : Du silence et des ombres (To Kill a Mockingbird) de Robert Mulligan : Arthur 'Boo' Radley * 1963 : Le Combat du Capitaine Newman (Captain Newman, M.D.) de David Miller : Capt. Paul Cabot Winston * 1965 : Nightmare in the Sun de John Derek et Marc Lawrence : motard * 1966 : La Poursuite impitoyable (The Chase) d’Arthur Penn : Edwin Stewart * 1966 : Fame Is the Name of the Game (TV) : Eddie Franchot * 1967 : Cosa Nostra, Arch Enemy of the FBI (TV) : Ernie Milden * 1967 : Au coeur du temps (Time Tunnel) (Série TV) épisode 24 Chasse à travers le temps (Chase through time) * 1968 : Flesh and Blood (TV) : Howard * 1968 : Countdown de Robert Altman et William Conrad : Chiz * 1968 : Le Détective (The Detective) de Gordon Douglas : Nestor * 1968 : Bullitt de Peter Yates : Weissberg * 1969 : Cent dollars pour un shérif (True Grit) d'Henry Hathaway : Ned Pepper * 1969 : Les Gens de la pluie (The Rain People) de Francis Ford Coppola : Gordon * 1970 : M* A* S* H de Robert Altman : Maj. Frank Burns * 1970 : The Revolutionary de Paul Williams : Despard * 1971 : THX 1138 de George Lucas : THX 1138 * 1971 : L'Homme de la loi (Lawman) de Michael Winner : Vernon Adams * 1972 : Le Parrain (The Godfather) de Francis Ford Coppola : Tom Hagen * 1972 : Tomorrow : Jackson Fentry * 1972 : The Great Northfield Minnesota Raid(La légende de Jesse James) : Jesse James * 1972 : Joe Kidd : Frank Harlan * 1973 : Lady Ice : Ford Pierce * 1973 : Badge 373 : Eddie Ryan * 1973 : Échec à l'organisation (The Outfit) : Earl Macklin * 1974 : Conversation secrète (The Conversation) : The Director * 1974 : Le Parrain 2 (The Godfather: Part II) : Tom Hagen * 1975 : L'Évadé (Breakout) : Jay Wagner * 1975 : Tueur d'élite (The Killer Elite) : George Hansen * 1976 : Sherlock Holmes attaque l'Orient Express (The Seven-Per-Cent Solution) : Dr. John H. Watson / narrateur * 1976 : Main basse sur la TV (Network) : Frank Hackett * 1976 : L'Aigle s'est envolé (The Eagle Has Landed) : Col. Max Radl * 1977 : The Greatest : Bill McDonald * 1978 : Ike, l'épopée d'un héros (Ike: The War Years) (TV) : General Dwight D. Eisenhower * 1978 : The Betsy : Loren Hardeman III * 1978 : L'Invasion des profanateurs (Invasion of the Body Snatchers): un prêtre * 1979 : Ike (feuilleton TV) : Général Dwight D. Eisenhower * 1979 : Apocalypse Now (Apocalypse Now) : Lieutenant Colonel Bill Kilgore * 1979 : The Great Santini : Bull Meechum * 1981 : Sanglantes confessions (True Confessions) : Tom Spellacy * 1981 : 200 000 dollars en cavale (The Pursuit of D.B. Cooper) : Gruen * 1982 : Aliens From Another Planet (TV) : Nimon * 1983 : Tendre Bonheur : Mac Sledge * 1983 : The Terry Fox Story (TV) : Bill Vigars * 1984 : The Stone Boy : Joe Hillerman * 1984 : Le Meilleur (The Natural) : Max Mercy * 1985 : The Lightship : Caspary * 1986 : Belizaire the Cajun : The Preacher * 1986 : Let's Get Harry : Norman Shrike * 1987 : Apocalypse Pooh (TV) : Gopher (voix) * 1987 : Hotel Colonial : Roberto Carrasco (Luca Venieri) * 1988 : Colors : Officer Bob Hodges * 1989 : Lonesome Dove (feuilleton TV) : Augustus 'Gus' McCrae * 1990 : Convicts : Soll * 1990 : La Servante écarlate (The Handmaid's Tale) de Volker Schlöndorff : Commander * 1990 : État de force (A Show of Force) : Howard * 1990 : Jours de tonnerre (Days of Thunder) de Tony Scott : Harry Hogge * 1991 : Rambling Rose : Daddy * 1992 : (vidéo) : Tom Hagen * 1992 : Newsies : Joseph Pulitzer * 1992 : La Peste : Joseph Grand * 1992 : Stalin (TV) : Joseph Staline * 1993 : Chute libre (Falling Down) : Detective Martin Prendergast * 1993 : Geronimo (Geronimo: An American Legend) : Chef des Scouts Al Sieber * 1993 : Deux drôles d'oiseaux (Wrestling Ernest Hemingway) : Walter * 1994 : Le Journal : Bernie White, Editor New York Sun * 1995 : Amour et mensonges (Something to Talk About) : Wyly King * 1995 : Les Aventuriers de l'or noir (The Stars Fell on Henrietta) : Mr. Cox * 1995 : Les Amants du nouveau monde (The Scarlet Letter) de Roland Joffé : Roger Chillingworth * 1996 : La Couleur du destin (A Family Thing) : Earl Pilcher Jr. * 1996 : Phénomène (Phenomenon) : Doc Brunder * 1996 : Sling Blade : Frank Childers * 1996 : The Man Who Captured Eichmann (TV) : Adolf Eichmann * 1997 : Le Prédicateur (The Apostle) : Euliss 'Sonny' Dewey - The Apostle E.F. * 1998 : The Gingerbread Man (The Gingerbread Man) : Dixon Doss * 1998 : Deep Impact (Deep Impact) : Capt. Spurgeon 'Fish' Tanner * 1998 : Préjudice (A Civil Action) : Jerome Facher * 2000 : 60 secondes chrono (Gone in Sixty Seconds) : Otto Halliwell * 2000 : A Shot at Glory : Gordon McLeod * 2000 : À l'aube du 6e jour (The 6th Day) : Dr. Griffin Weir * 2002 : John Q (John Q) : Lt. Frank Grimes * 2002 : Assassination tango de Robert Duvall : John J. Anderson * 2003 : Gods and Generals : général Robert E. Lee * 2003 : Open range (Open Range) : Boss Spearman * 2003 : Le Secret des frères McCann (Secondhand Lions) : Hub * 2005 : Kicking and Screaming : Buck Weston * 2006 : Broken Trail de Walter Hill : Prentice Ritter * 2006 : Thank You for Smoking : Doak 'The Captain' Boykin * 2007 : Lucky You de Curtis Hanson : L. C. Cheever * 2007 : La nuit nous appartient (We Own the Night), de James Gray : Burt Grusinsky * 2008 : Tout... sauf en famille (Four Christmases), de Seth Gordon : Howard * 2009 : Crazy Heart, de Scott Cooper : Wayne Kramer * 2009 : La Route, (The Road) de John Hillcoat : Vieil homme à l'agonie * 2010 : Le grand jour (Get Low), de Aaron Schneider : Felix Bush * 2011 : Seven Days in Utopia, de Matt Russell : Johnny Crowford * 2011 : Hemingway & Gellhorn, (TV) de Philip Kaufman : Russian General * 2012 : Jayne Mansfield's Car de Billy Bob Thornton : Jim Caldwell * 2012 : One Shot, de Christopher McQuarrie Récompenses et nominations: * 1973 : Nomination à l'Oscar du meilleur acteur dans un second rôle - Le Parrain * 1980 : Nomination à l'Oscar du meilleur acteur dans un second rôle - Apocalypse Now * 1981 : Nomination à l'Oscar du meilleur acteur - The Great Santini * 1984 : Oscar du meilleur acteur - Tendre Bonheur * 1998 : Nomination à l'Oscar du meilleur acteur - Le Prédicateur * 1999 : Nomination à l'Oscar du meilleur acteur dans un second rôle - Préjudice

برشام صنع الأدوات المعدنية البرشام Rivet: هو مثبتات ميكانيكية دائمة. يتألف مسمار البرشام قبل تثبيته من محور اسطواني ناعم وفي إحدى نهايته يوجد رأس البرشام وتدعى النهاية المعاكسة لرأس البرشام الذيل العائد. عند التركيب يوضع البرشام ضمن الثقب المراد التثبيت عنده ويتعرض الذيل إلى تشوهات مما يزيد قطره بحوالي 1.5 عن قطر المحور ممسكا بحافتي الثقب (الرأس والذيل). أنواع البرشام : توجد عدة أنواع من البراشيم صممت لتلبية التكاليف المختلفة وسهولة التثبيت ومتطلبات القوة أهم الأنواع: البرشام المصمت : يعتبر البرشام المصمت من أقدم وأكثر الأنواع موثوقية في التثبيت. و قد وجد في علم الآثار و يرجع تاريخه إلى العصر البرونزي. و يتألف الرشام من محور ورأس ويشوه الذيل إما بواسطة مطرقة أو مسدس برشمة كما يمكن استخدام أداة عقف لتشكيل التشوه المطلوب. تستخدم البراشيم المصمتتة في التطبيقات التي تتطلب السلامة والموثوقية العالية، حيث يمكن أن نشاهدها في تركيب هياكل الطائرات و الغواصات. البرشام النصف أنبوبي : و هو مشابه للبرشام المصمت ويختلف عنه بوجود تجويف في الجهة المعاكسة للرأس (الذيل) والغرض من هذا التصميم تقليل القوة اللازمة لإحداث التشوه في الذيل عند التثبيت عن طريق لف حواف القسم الأنبوبي للخارج. و بذلك تصبح القوة المطلوبة لأحداث التشوه ربع قيمة تلك القوة التي نحتاجها في اليرشام المصمت لنفس نوع معدن البرشام. معظم تطبيقات هذا النوع فيالإضاءة والسلالم والفرامل ودكتات التكييف والآلات الإنتاجية والإلكترونيات. اقرأ أيضا : * مسمار * برغي * لحام Rivets: تشكيل:

Rivet Mechanical fasteners | Metalworking | Textile closures Other uses: A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed a rivet consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite the head is called the buck-tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or pre-drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e., deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support tension loads (loads parallel to the axis of the shaft); however, it is much more capable of supporting shear loads (loads perpendicular to the axis of the shaft). Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications. Fastenings used in traditional wooden boat building, like copper nails and clinch bolts, work on the same principle as the rivet but were in use long before the term rivet came about and, where they are remembered, are usually classified among the nails and bolts respectively. Types: There are a number of types of rivets, designed to meet different cost, accessibility, and strength requirements: Solid rivets: Solid rivets are one of the oldest and most reliable types of fasteners, having been found in archaeological findings dating back to the Bronze Age. Solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head which are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. The use of a rivet compression or crimping tool can also be used to deform this type of rivet; this tool is mainly used on rivets close to the edge of the fastened material, since the tool is limited by the depth of its frame. A rivet compression tool does not require two people and is generally the most foolproof way to install solid rivets. Solid rivets are used in applications where reliability and safety count. A typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of solid rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern aircraft. Such rivets come with rounded (universal) or 100° countersunk heads. Typical materials for aircraft rivets are aluminium alloys (2017, 2024, 2117, 7050, 5056, 55000, V-65), titanium, and nickel-based alloys (e.g. Monel). Some aluminum alloy rivets are too hard to buck and must be softened by annealing prior to being bucked. "Ice box" aluminum alloy rivets harden with age, and must likewise be annealed and then kept at sub-freezing temperatures (hence the name "ice box") to slow the age-hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in static structures such as bridges, cranes, and building frames. The setting of these fasteners requires access to both sides of a structure. Solid rivets are driven using a hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically driven squeezing tool or even a handheld hammer. Applications in which only one side is accessible require the use of blind rivets. High strength structural steel rivets: Until relatively recently, structural steel connections were either welded or riveted. High-strength bolts have completely replaced structural steel rivets. Indeed, the latest steel construction specifications published by AISC (the 13th Edition) no longer covers their installation. The reason for the change is primarily due to the expense of skilled workers required to install high strength structural steel rivets. Whereas two relatively unskilled workers can install and tighten high strength bolts, it took a minimum of four highly skilled riveters to install rivets in one joint at a time.dateSeptember 2010: At a central location near the areas being riveted, a furnace was set up. Rivets were placed in the furnace and heated to a glowing hot temperature, at which time the furnace operator would use tongs to individually remove and throw them to catchers stationed near the joints to be riveted. The catcher would place the glowing hot rivet into the hole to be riveted, and quickly turn around to await the next rivet. One worker would then hold a heavy rivet set, also called a 'dolly' against the round head of the rivet, while the hammerer would apply a pneumatic rivet hammer to the unformed head, causing it to mushroom tightly against the joint in its final domed shape. Upon cooling, the rivet would contract and exert further force tightening the joint. This process was repeated for each rivet. The last commonly used high strength structural steel rivets were designated ASTM A502 Grade 1 rivets. Such riveted structures may be insufficient to resist seismic loading from earthquakes if the structure was not engineered for such forces, a common problem of older steel bridges. This is due to the fact that a hot rivet cannot be properly heat treated to add strength and hardness. In the seismic retrofit of such structures it is common practice to remove critical rivets with an oxygen torch, precision ream the hole, and then insert a machined and heat treated bolt. * Semi-tubular rivets Semi-tubular rivets (also known as tubular rivets) are similar to solid rivets, except they have a partial hole (opposite the head) at the tip. The purpose of this hole is to reduce the amount of force needed for application by rolling the tubular portion outward. The force needed to apply a semitubular rivet is about 1/4 of the amount needed to apply a solid rivet. Tubular rivets can also be used as pivot points (a joint where movement is preferred) since the swelling of the rivet is only at the tail. Solid rivets expand radially and generally fill the hole limiting movement. The type of equipment used to apply semi-tubular rivets range from prototyping tools (less than $50) to fully automated systems. Typical installation tools (from lowest to highest price) are hand set, manual squeezer, pneumatic squeezer, kick press, impact riveter, and finally PLC-controlled robotics. The most common machine is the impact riveter and the most common use of semitubular rivets is in lighting, brakes, ladders, binders, HVAC duct work, mechanical products, and electronics. They are offered from 1/16-inch (1.6 mm) to 3/8-inch (9.5 mm) in diameter (other sizes are considered highly special) and can be up to 8 inches (203 mm) long. A wide variety of materials and platings are available, most common base metals are steel, brass, copper, stainless, aluminum and most common platings are zinc, nickel, brass, tin. All tubular rivets are waxed to facilitate proper assembly. The finished look of a tubular rivet will have a head on one side, with a rolled over and exposed shallow blind hole on the other. Semi-tubular rivets are the fastest way to rivet in mass production but require a capital investment. * Blind rivets Blind rivets, also known as pop rivets, are tubular and are supplied with a mandrel through the center. The rivet assembly is inserted into a hole drilled through the parts to be joined and a specially designed tool is used to draw the mandrel into the rivet. This expands the blind end of the rivet and then the mandrel snaps off. These types of blind rivets have non-locking mandrels and are avoided for critical structural joints because the mandrels may fall out, due to vibration or other reasons, leaving a hollow rivet that will have a significantly lower load carrying capability than solid rivets. Furthermore, because of the mandrel they are more prone to failure from corrosion and vibration. Unlike solid rivets, blind rivets can be inserted and fully installed in a joint from only one side of a part or structure, "blind" to the opposite side. Prior to the adoption of blind rivets, installation of a solid rivet typically required access to both sides of the assembly: a rivet hammer on one side and a bucking bar on the other side. Seeking an alternative, inventors such as Carl Cherry and Lou Huck experimented with other techniques for expanding solid rivets. The blind rivet was developed by the United Shoe Machinery Corporation. Due to this feature, blind rivets are mainly used when access to the joint is only available from one side. The rivet is placed in a pre-drilled hole and is set by pulling the mandrel head into the rivet body, expanding the rivet body and causing it to flare against the reverse side. As the head of the mandrel reaches the face of the blind side material, the pulling force is resisted, and at a predetermined force, the mandrel will snap at its break point, also called "Blind Setting". A tight joint formed by the rivet body remains, the head of the mandrel remains encapsulated at the blind side, although variations of this are available, and the mandrel stem is ejected. They are available in flat head, countersunk head, and modified flush head with standard diameters of 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch. Blind rivets are made from soft aluminum alloy, steel (including stainless steel), copper, and Monel. There are also structural blind rivet: , which are designed to designed to take shear and tensile loads. The rivet body is normally manufactured using one of three methods: There is a vast array of specialty blind rivets that are suited for high strength or plastic applications. Typical types include: Internally and externally locked structural blind rivets can be used in aircraft applications because, unlike other types of blind rivets, the locked mandrels cannot fall out and are water tight. Since the mandrel is locked into place they have the same or greater load carrying capacity as solid rivets and may be used to replace solid rivets on all but the most critical stressed aircraft structures. The typical assembly process requires the operator to install the rivet in the nose of the tool by hand then actuate the tool. However, in recent years automated riveting systems have become popular in an effort to reduce assembly costs and repetitive disorders. The cost of such tools range from US$1,500 for autofeed pneumatics to US$50,000 for fully robotic systems. Drive rivet: A drive rivet is a form of blind rivet that has a short mandrel protruding from the head that is driven in with a hammer to flare out the end inserted in the hole. This is commonly used to rivet wood panels into place since the hole does not need to be drilled all the way through the panel, producing an aesthetically pleasing appearance. They can also be used with plastic, metal, and other materials and require no special setting tool other than a hammer and possibly a backing block (steel or some other dense material) placed behind the location of the rivet while hammering it into place. Drive rivets have less clamping force than most other rivets. Flush rivet: A flush rivet is used primarily on external metal surfaces where good appearance and the elimination of unnecessary aerodynamic drag are important. A flush rivet takes advantage of a countersink hole, they are also commonly referred to as countersunk rivets. Countersunk or flush rivets are used extensively on the exterior of aircraft for aerodynamic reasons. Additional post-installation machining may be performed to perfect the airflow. Friction-lock rivet: One early form of blind rivet that was the first to be widely used for aircraft construction and repair was the Cherry friction-lock rivet. Originally, Cherry friction-locks were available in two styles, hollow shank pull-through and self-plugging types. The pull-through type is no longer common, however, the self -plugging Cherry friction-lock rivet is still used for repairing light aircraft. Cherry friction-lock rivets are available in two head styles, universal and 100 degree countersunk. Furthermore, they are usually supplied in three standard diameters, 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch. A friction-lock rivet cannot replace a solid shank rivet, size for size. When a friction-lock is used to replace a solid shank rivet, it must be at least one size larger in diameter because the friction-lock rivet loses considerable strength if its center stem falls out due to vibrations or damage. Rivet alloys, their shear strengths and condition in which they are driven. Self-pierce rivets: dateJuly 2009: Self-pierce riveting (SPR) is a process of joining two or more materials using an engineered rivet. Unlike solid, blind and semi-tubular rivets, self-pierce rivets do not require a drilled or punched hole. SPRs are cold forged to a semi-tubular shape and contain a partial hole to the opposite end of the head. The end geometry of the rivet has a chamfered poke which aids the piercing of the materials being joined, a hydraulic or electric servo rivet setter drives the rivet into the material and an upsetting die provides a cavity for the displaced bottom sheet material to flow. The self-pierce rivet fully pierces the top sheet material(s) but only partially pierces the bottom sheet. As the tail end of the rivet does not break through the bottom sheet it provides a water or gas tight joint. With the influence of the upsetting die, the tail end of the rivet flares and interlocks into the bottom sheet forming a low profile button. Rivets need to be harder than the materials being joined, they are heat treated to various levels of hardness depending on the materials ductility and hardness. Rivets come in a range of diameters and lengths depending on the materials being joined, head styles are either flush countersunk or pan heads. Depending on the rivet setter configuration, i.e. hydraulic, servo, stroke, nose-to-die gap, feed system etc., cycle times can be as quick as one second. Rivets are typically fed to the rivet setter nose from tape and come in cassette or spool form for continuous production. Riveting systems can be manual or automated depending on the application requirements; all systems are very flexible in terms of product design and ease of integration into a manufacturing process. SPR joins a range of dissimilar materials such as steel, aluminum, plastics, composites and pre-coated or pre-painted materials. Benefits include low energy demands, no heat, fumes, sparks or waste and very repeatable quality. * Sizes date: September 2010: Rivet diameters are commonly measured in 32: -inch increments and their lengths in 16: -inch increments, expressed as "dash numbers" at the end of the rivet identification number. A "dash 3 dash 4" (XXXXXX-3-4) designation indicates a -inch diameter and -inch (or -inch) length. Some rivets lengths are also available in "half sizes" and will have a dash number such as –3.5 ( inch) to indicate that it is a half-size rivet. The letters and digits in a rivet's identification number that precede its dash numbers indicate the specification under which the rivet was manufactured and the head style. On many rivets, a size in 32nds may be stamped on the rivet head. Other makings on the rivet head, such as small raised or depressed dimples or small raised bars indicate the rivet's alloy. To become a proper fastener, a rivet should be placed in hole ideally 4–6 thousandths of an inch larger in diameter. This allows the rivet to be easily and fully inserted, then setting allows the rivet to expand, tightly filling the gap and maximizing strength. Applications: Before welding techniques and bolted joints were developed, metal framed buildings and structures such as the Eiffel Tower, Shukhov Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge were generally held together by riveting. Also automobile chassis were riveted. Riveting is still widely used in applications where light weight and high strength are critical, such as in an aircraft. Many sheet-metal alloys are preferably not welded as deformation and modification of material properties can occur. Blind rivets are used almost universally in the construction of plywood road cases. Common but more exotic uses of rivets are to reinforce jeans and to produce the distinctive sound of a sizzle cymbal. Joint analysis: The stress and shear in a rivet is analyzed like a bolted joint. However, it is not wise to combine rivets with bolts and screws in the same joint. Rivets fill the hole where they are installed to establish a very tight fit (often called interference fit). It is difficult or impossible to obtain such a tight fit with other fasteners. The result is that rivets in the same joint with loose fasteners will carry more of the load—they are effectively more stiff. The rivet can then fail before it can redistribute load to the other loose fit fasteners like bolts and screws. This often results in catastrophic failure of the joint when the fasteners "unzip". In general, a joint composed of similar fasteners is the most efficient because all fasteners will reach capacity simultaneously. Installation: Solid & semi tubular rivets: There are several methods for installing solid rivets. * Manual with hammer and handset or bucking bar * Pneumatic Hammers * Handheld Squeezers * Riveting machines * Pin Hammer, Rivet Set Rivets that are small enough and soft enough are often "bucked". In this process the installer places a rivet gun against the factory head and holds a bucking bar against the tail or a hard working surface. The bucking bar is a specially shaped solid block of metal. The rivet gun provides a series of high-impulse forces that upset the rivet in place. Rivets that are large or hard may be more easily installed by squeezing instead. In this process a tool in contact with each end of the rivet clinches to deform the rivet. Rivets may also be upset by hand, using a ball-peen hammer. The head is placed in a special hole made to accommodate it, known as a rivet-set. The hammer is applied to the buck-tail of the rivet, rolling an edge so that it is flush against the fastened material. Testing: Solid rivets for construction: A hammer is also used to "ring" an installed rivet, as a non-destructive test for tightness and imperfections. The inspector taps the head (usually the factory head) of the rivet with the hammer while touching the rivet and base plate lightly with the other hand and judges the quality of the audibly returned sound and the feel of the sound traveling through the metal to the operator's fingers. A rivet tightly set in its hole will return a clean and clear ring, while a loose rivet will return a recognizably different sound. Testing of blind rivets: A blind rivet has strength properties that can be measured in terms of shear and tensile strength. Occasionally rivets also undergo performance testing for other critical features, such as pushout force, break load and salt spray resistance. A standardized destructive test according to the Inch Fastener Standards is widely accepted The shear test involves installing a rivet into two plates at specified hardness and thickness and measuring the force necessary to shear the plates. The tensile test is basically the same, except that it measures the pullout strength. Per the IFI-135 standard, all blind rivets produced must meet this standard. These tests determine the strength of the rivet, and not the strength of the assembly. To determine the strength of the assembly a user must consult an engineering guide or the Machinery's Handbook Alternatives: multicol: * Bolted joints * Brazing * Clinching multicol-break: * Folded joints * Nails * Screws multicol-break: * Soldering * Welding multicol-end:

Rivet Système de fixation Voir homonymie: Un rivet est un élément d'assemblage permanent. Il se présente sous la forme d'une tige cylindrique, généralement métallique, pleine ou creuse qui est munie à l'une de ses extrémités d'une « tête », c'est-à-dire une partie de section plus grande. L'autre extrémité sera aplatie et élargie par écrasement, pour solidariser les éléments qu'on veut riveter ensemble. C'est le rivetage. Ces éléments (par exemple deux plaques de métal) ont été percées au préalable chacune d'un trou permettant à la tige du rivet de traverser l'une et l'autre. Historique : Le rivet est, comme pièce d'assemblage, contemporain du travail des métaux. Dérivés de la fabrication des clous, ils étaient alors fabriqués un par un, par le forgeron. On a plus tard conçu des machines pour fabriquer les rivets. Ces machines de « frappe à froid » prennent en charge un fil métallique dont la section est celle qu'on veut attribuer au rivet. La partie libre du fil est tirée par la machine qui la « frappe » pour obtenir la tête qui aura une forme adéquate à son usage futur (tête ronde, plate, fraiséeetc.: ) ; la machine sectionne le fil de façon que le rivet ait la longueur désirée. C'est ensuite le tour du rivet suivant. Les établissements Dervaux, créés en 1828 à Vieux-Condé par Philippe Dervaux, spécialisés dans le forgeage à froid, fournirent les rivets de la Tour Eiffel. Les Ateliers de la Haute-Garonne, fondés par Marcellin Jules Charles Auriol (1874-1953) sont actuellement devenus la première entreprise mondiale pour la fabrication et la vente des rivets. Marcellin Auriol, après son Tour de France comme forgeron Compagnon du Devoir, s'est établi comme artisan forgeron à En Gélis (Saint-Germier, hameau de la commune de Teyssode, Tarn). Il devint ensuite entrepreneur de battages dans le Tarn et enfin industriel à Toulouse. Le montage du rivet s'est d'abord effectué à chaud : le rivet suffisamment chauffé pour devenir facilement déformable, est mis en place et battu. Son refroidissement participera au serrage des pièces assemblées. Pour éviter le chauffage, le rivet peut être en métal déformable au martelage. Mais ce mode de montage nécessite l'accès aux deux faces de l'assemblage. Types de rivet : Rivet standard : C'est le rivet traditionnel monté à froid ou à chaud selon sa taille. Il peut être en acier doux, en cuivre, en aluminium, duralumin ou en alliage à plasticité suffisante. Le métal choisi dépend de la résistance attendue mais aussi des matériaux à assembler. Sa tête peut être ronde, plate ou fraisée (82°, 90, 120° mais plus généralement 100°). Sa longueur est ajustée à l'épaisseur de l'assemblage : trop court l'assemblage sera impossible et trop long, la dimension de la tête dépassant de l'assemblage le fragilisera. Deux grands types existent : les rivets pleins et les rivets semi-forés. Ces derniers ont subi une étape supplémentaire lors de la fabrication avec la création d'un trou cylindrique plus ou moins profond sur la partie opposée à la tête. Le sertissage se faisant alors en retournant la paroi sur elle-même en formant une bouterolle. Usage typique : les chaises pliantes. Il existe également des rivets en plastique, le rivetage se faisant généralement à chaud pratiquement sans pression. Rivet double : Certains rivets sont constitués de deux pièces comportant chacune une tête, le rivetage s'obtenant en engageant la tige d'une pièce dans la tige creuse de l'autre, une légère conicité permettant le coincement à l'enfoncement. Ces rivets sont généralement en laiton ou en plastique. Rivet aveugle : Une vraie révolution dans le rivetage a été réalisée par l'apparition du « rivet aveugle » (ou marque déposée) qui ne nécessite plus ce double accès. Ce rivet est constitué d'un corps creux (tube avec collerette) en alliage déformable, et d'une tige dont une extrémité est renflée : le clou. La tête peut être ronde, fraisée ou large pour mieux répartir l'effort de serrage. Il est posé avec une pince à riveter, qui tire sur la tige dont le bout renflé pénètre dans le corps du rivet pour réaliser le rivetage. Lorsque le blocage s'effectue, la tige se casse automatiquement en laissant le rivet en place. Le clou casse en raison d'une diminution du diamètre réalisée sous sa tête lors de sa fabrication. Ce point de rupture est important car la force de serrage dépendra de la force nécessaire à la rupture du clou. Il existe des rivets aveugles dont le corps n'est pas percé de bout en bout, mais seulement d'un côté, ce qui donne un rivet étanche. En version ordinaire ce rivet est en aluminium avec tige en acier. Mais il existe aussi des rivets en titane pour l'aviation ou en plastique avec une faible tenue mécanique mais résistant à la corrosion. D'autres matières sont possibles pour le corps : cuivre, acier inox A2 ou A4, cupronickel… Également possible des révêtements améliorant la tenue à la corrosion ou la peinture. Les rivets aveugles standards répondent à des normes AFNOR ou DIN. Les diamètres principaux sont : - - - - - - et . Ces diamètres sont issus des systèmes métrique et anglo-saxon ce qui explique certaines proximités de taille (par ex. : 3,0 et ). Rivet à contreplaque : Lors de la pose, on intercale une rondelle du côté battu pour assurer une meilleure répartition des efforts de l'assemblage. Ce type de rivet est en général court et s'utilise souvent pour l'assemblage de toiles et tissus : le montage est similaire à celui des œillets. Retirer le rivet : Retirer un rivet sans détériorer les pièces rivetées n'est pas une opération toujours facile. Plusieurs procédés sont envisageables : * en perçant la tête du rivet à la perceuse avec un foret d'un diamètre égal ou légèrement inférieur au diamètre du corps du rivet : il s'agit de traverser le rivetage ; * en perçant la tête du rivet avec un foret d'un diamètre nettement supérieur au diamètre du corps du rivet : le but est alors de faire sauter la tête ; * en sciant ou en meulant la tête du rivet ; * en découpant la tête du rivet avec un ciseau à bois et un marteau, si le matériau est suffisamment tendre (aluminium ou inox). Reste alors le corps du rivet, qu'il suffit de chasser, en la poussant avec le foret, une tige ou un chasse-goupille, voire à la main. Le danger des méthodes par perçage est essentiellement d'agrandir le trou du rivet, et l'inconvénient des autres méthodes est d'abimer la surface de la première pièce rivetée. Notes et références : references:

مطار مسقط الدولي مطارات سلطنة عمان | مطار دولي مطار مسقط الدولي هو المطار الرئيسي في سلطنة عمان ، يأتي بعده مطار صلالة من ناحية المساحة والحجم. يقع مطار مسقط في ولاية السيب .تقوم على تشغيل المطار الشركة العمانية لإدارة المطارات والشركة العمانية لخدمات الطيران. يعد مطار مسقط مركز العمليات الرئيسي للطيران العماني. يبتعد المطار عن مسقط القديمة قرابة 30 كم. في هذه الايام يتم توسعة وتكبير وتحديث المطار وزيادة القدرة الاستيعابية للمسافرين. الخطة الجديدة في توسعة المطار تمتد إلى 4 سنوات لزيادة الطاقة الاستيعابية للمطار إلى 12 مليون مسافر سنويا. وقد بدأت بالفعل هذه الخطة ويتوقع ان تنتهي في عام 2010. وهناك خطة لزيادة القدرة الاستيعابية إلى 48 مليون مسافر على المدى البعيد. تم تغيير اسم المطار من مطار السيب الدولي إلى مطار مسقط الدولي في 1 فبراير 2008. إحصائيات المطار : * خطوط وشركات الطيران * الطيران الأزرق (لاهور) * العربية للطيران (الشارقة). * طيران الهند (أحمد آباد، بانجالور، كاليكوت ، تشيناي، كوتشين، حيدر آباد ، دلهي، مومباي). ** طيران الهند إكسبريس (كوتشي، بانجالور، تريفاندرام، كاليكوت ، أبوظبي). * الخطوط الجوية البنغلاديشية - بيمان (دكا، شيتاجونج). * الخطوط الجوية البريطانية (أبوظبي، لندن - هيثرو). * طيران الإمارات (دبي). * طيران الإتحاد (أبوظبي). * مصر للطيران (القاهرة). * طيران الخليج (البحرين). * خطوط آسمان الجوية الإيرانية (شيراز، شاه بحر). * جت إيرويز (كوتشين، مومباي، تريفاندرام ). * الخطوط الجوية الكويتية (أبوظبي، الكويت). * لوفتهانزا (أبوظبي، فرانكفورت). * كي أل أم (الكويت، أمستردام) * مارتين إير كارغو (هونج كونج). * الطيران العماني (أبو ظبي، عمًان، البحرين، بيروت، القاهرة، شيناي، دلهي، الدوحة، دبي، حيدر أباد، جايبور، خصب، كوتشين، بانجالور، لكنو، مومباي، صلالة، تريفاندرام، شيتاجونج، الرياض، جدة، كراتشي، الكويت، باريس- شارل ديجول، بانكوك، لندن-هيثرو ، راس الخيمة ، العين، دار السلام، زنجبار). * الخطوط الجوية الدولية الباكستانية (جوادر، كراتشي، لاهور، إسلام آباد، سيالكوت، توربات). * الخطوط الجوية القطرية (الدوحة). * الملكية الأردنية (الأردن). * الخطوط الجوية العربية السعودية (جدة، الرياض). * شاهين الدولية (كراتشي). * الخطوط الجوية السريلانكية (كولومبو). * الخطوط الجوية التايلاندية (بانكوك). * الخطوط الجوية التركية (إسطنبول - مطار أتاتورك). * الخطوط الجوية الدولية السويسرية (دبي، زيورخ)

Muscat International Airport Airports in Oman | Muscat, Oman Location of Airport in Oman Muscat International Airport (formerly Seeb Airport ) is the main airport in Muscat, Oman. It is the hub for the national carrier Oman Air. The distance from Old Muscat is 30 km and it is 15 km from the main residential localities. At the moment the airport is being expanded and modernized. The airport will be upgraded to 12 million-passenger capacity during the initial stage and subsequently to 48 million. The initial stage is scheduled for completion in 2011. The airport was renamed on 11 February 2008 from the previous name, Seeb International Airport, to Muscat International Airport. The airport was named the tenth fastest growing airport in the world by Airports Council International for the year 2011. * Expansions The expansion project for the airport will include a new modern terminal and a new runway that can handle the new Airbus A380. It will include a new control tower with a height of 101 meters, 32 aerobridges, a new cargo termial to handle 200,000 tons of cargo annually, and extra 6,000 car spaces. The new terminal will be built between the two parallel runways. The new terminal building will have a net floor area of 290,000 sqm. Once the construction of the new runway is completed, upgrade work will progress on the existing one, in order to allow it to handle the larger aircraft. The first phase of the airport expansion, the new terminal building, is expected to be completed by 2014, which will have a capacity to handle 12 million passengers a year. The final phase, which will expand the airport to handle 48 million passengers a year, is expected to be completed by 2015. Several site preparatory steps are underway. Work to protect the airport and the runways from water damage that occurs during the very rare rains is the first phase. The grounds are raised by three meters for this purpose, by driving 10-12 million cubic meters of desert sand and crushed rock into the site. On 8 August 2008, Cowi Group has announced that the designing phase of the airport has reached a major milestone which allows the construction of the new terminal to start in early 2009 The new terminal at Muscat International Airport would be completed by 2014 and will have the capacity to handle 12 million passengers annually. Further expansions planned in three subsequent phases will ultimately boost the airport’ capacity to 24, 36 and 48 million passengers when the demand is required. New Muscat Airport Location Muscat International Airport is situated approximately 32 km west of Muscat, the capital of the Sultanate of Oman. Muscat International Airport is the primary gateway to Oman and provides excellent connections to a number of International destinations particularly in the Gulf, Middle East, Europe and the Far East. The airport is the hub base for Oman Air, 5.7 m passengers traveled through Muscat International Airport during 2010. The passenger terminal building of Muscat International Airport consists of departures, arrivals, transfer area and duty free shopping, a separate VIP building is located next to the passenger terminal and is used for high ranking dignitaries, a separate dedicated Cargo terminal building is located on the airport premises and used for handling international and domestic air freight import and export services. Apart from the civil operations at Muscat International Airport, the airport is a joint user facility for the Royal Flight, Royal Air Force and Royal Oman Police Aviation, these units are located alongside the terminal and are self contained, each with its own road access, terminal and aircraft apron, but sharing the emergency services, air traffic control facilities, taxiways and runway. * Airlines and destinations * Cargo airlines * Other facilities The airport houses the head office of Oman Air. * Airport Statistics References:

Aéroport international de Mascate Aéroport omanais | Mascate Laéroport international de Mascate (Muscat International Airport) est le plus ancien et le plus important aéroport du sultanat d'Oman. Ce n'est cependant pas le premier, car dès 1929 Beit Al Falaj Airport était utilisé à des fins surtout militaires, mais il n'existe plus aujourd'hui . Inauguré le sous le nom de Seeb Airport, le nouvel aéroport mieux adapté aux exigences de l'aviation civile a été renommé d'après le nom de la capitale Mascate le . Il est situé en bordure de la mer d'Oman, à une trentaine de kilomètres à l'ouest de la Vieille Ville (Vieux Muscat). En 2009 4,5 millions de passagers ont transité par cet aéroport . * Notes== références:

جيمس نيوتن هوارد مواليد 1951 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | مؤلفو موسيقى تصويرية | فائزون بجائزة إيمي جيمس نيوتن هوارد James Newton Howard: مواليد 9 يونيو 1951. ملحن موسيقى تصويرية أوركسترالي ومنتج موسيقي أمريكي. يعتبر أحد أشهر مؤلفي الموسيقى التصويرية للأفلام المعروفين عالميا. سيرة : ولد هوارد في لوس أنجليس، كاليفورنيا وعرف كملحن موسيقي ومؤلف أغان قام بوضع الموسيقى التصويرية لأنواع مختلفة ومتعددة من الأفلام، محققا ترشيحات لجوائز متعددة عن أعماله. بدأ هوارد دراسة الموسيقى منذ صغره، حيث ارتاد مدرسة ثاتشر الداخلية The Thacher School في أوجي، كاليفورنيا، وأكاديمية الغرب الموسيقية Music Academy of the West في سانتا باربارا، كاليفورنيا ثم التحق بدروس في أداء البيانو في جامعة جنوبي كاليفورنيا. بعد أن غادر الكلية بدأ القيام بجولة برفقة إلتون جون كخبير كيبورديست خلال أواخر السبعينيات وأوائل الثمانينيات حيث ساهم في توزيع موسيقى العديد من أغان ألتون جون في تلك الفترة. تزوج لفترة قصيرة من روزانا أركيت في 1986 والذي انتهى في 1987. قام هوارد بوضع الموسيقى التصويرية لفيلم الكوميديا الرومانسية بريتي وومن في 1990، كما تلقى أول ترشيح له على جائزة الأوسكار لأفضل موسيقى تصويرية عن فيلم ذا برنس أوف تايدز The Prince of Tides من بطولة باربره سترايسند. لتتوالى بعد ذلك ترشيحاته لنفس الجائزة وجوائز أخرى عن موسيقى أفلام من قبيل: ماي بيست فرندز ودينغ (1997) ذى فيلج (2004) مايكل كلايتن (2007) ديفيانسي (2008) ذى دارك نايت (2008) والذي تعاون فيه مع المؤلف الموسيقي هانز زيمر. أحد أحدث أعماله الموسيقى التصويرية في فيلم الحادثة (2008) The Happening. قدم هوارد أول أوركسترا سيمفونية له بعنوان "I Would Plant A Tree" في فبراير 2009 في اطار مهرجان ملحني السيمفونيات الأمريكيين الباسيفيكي الدوري، حيث تم تقديم العرض في قاعة رينيه وهنري سيغرستروم للحفلات في كوستا ميسا، كاليفورنيا بأوركسترا تحت قيادة كارل سانت كلير. * ديسكوغرافيا وفيلموغرافيا

James Newton Howard 1951 births | Living people | American film score composers | Saturn Award winners | Grammy Award winners | Emmy Award winners | Music Academy of the West alumni | Musicians from Los Angeles, California | People from Ventura County, California | University of Southern California alumni | Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music James Newton Howard (born June 9, 1951) is an American composer best known for his scores to motion pictures. He is one of the most popular and respected composers for cinema, and has scored over 100 films. The recipient of eight Academy Award nominations, some of Howard's best known film scores include The Prince of Tides (1991), The Fugitive (1993), Dinosaur (2000), King Kong (2005), I Am Legend (2007), and, most recently Green Lantern (2011). He is also known for his collaboration with director M. Night Shyamalan, having scored all his films since The Sixth Sense (1999). * Early life and career Howard was born in Los Angeles, California. Throughout his career as a composer/musician/songwriter, he has scored films of all scales and genres, earning multiple award nominations for his work. Howard began studying music as a child and went on to attend the Thacher School in Ojai, California, the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara, California, and then majored in piano performance at the University of Southern California. After Howard left college, he toured with Elton John as a keyboardist during the late 1970s and early 1980s (he was part of the band that played behind John in Central Park, New York, on Sept. 13, 1980). Howard also arranged strings for several of Elton's songs during this period including on the hits "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" and "Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word", as well as playing additional keyboards and synthesizers on several of Elton's studio albums, including "Rock of The Westies" (1975), "Blue Moves" (1976), "21 At 33" (1980), and "The Fox" (1981). After his tenure with John, Howard toured briefly with Crosby, Stills and Nash before moving into film music in the mid-1980s. Howard did, however, return for a brief collaboration with Elton John on his Tour De Force of Australia at the fall of 1986. Howard conducted both his own and Paul Buckmaster's arrangements during second half of the set, which focused on orchestrated performances of selected songs from John's catalog. (Interestingly, most of Howard's film scores are conducted by others.) Twenty-five years after the death of his father, Howard learned from his grandfather that the paternal side of his family was of Jewish heritage * 1990s Howard scored the surprise blockbuster romantic comedy Pretty Woman (1990) and received his first Academy Award nomination for his score for Barbra Streisand's drama The Prince of Tides (1991). Setting the musical mood for numerous films throughout the decade, Howard's skills encompassed a plethora of genres, including four more best original score Oscar nominations, for the Harrison Ford action feature The Fugitive (1993), the Julia Roberts romantic comedy My Best Friend's Wedding (1997), M. Night Shyamalan's The Village (2004) and most recently, Michael Clayton (2007). In addition, Howard scored the Western epic Wyatt Earp (1994), Kevin Costner's Waterworld (1995), and Primal Fear (1996). His collaborations on tunes for One Fine Day (1996) and Junior (1994) garnered Best Song nods. Along with scoring such smaller, character-driven films as Five Corners (1988), Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), and American Heart (1993), Howard proved equally skilled at composing for big-budget Hollywood spectacles, including Space Jam (1996), Dante's Peak (1997) (theme only - score was composed by John Frizzell), and Collateral (2004). He has also scored three Disney feature films which are Dinosaur (2000), Treasure Planet and . Though he concentrated primarily on films, Howard has also contributed music for TV series, earning an Emmy nomination in 1995 for his theme to NBC's ratings smash ER (Howard also scored the two-hour pilot); he also provided the themes for The Sentinel and Gideon's Crossing, winning an Emmy for the latter. He has scored all of Shyamalan's suspense thrillers, The Sixth Sense (1999), Unbreakable (2000), Signs (2002), The Village (2004), Lady in the Water (2006), and The Happening (2008), notably dropping the intense, yet subtle, opening credit music for The Sixth Sense from the corresponding soundtrack album. * 2000s Howard is now one of the most recognized composers for film. On October 14, 2005, it was officially announced that James Newton Howard would replace Howard Shore as composer for King Kong, due to "differing creative aspirations for the score" between Shore and director Peter Jackson. The resultant score earned Howard his first Golden Globe nomination for Best Original Score. His work on Michael Clayton earned him an Oscar nomination. He followed in 2008 with his eighth Oscar nomination for Edward Zwick's Defiance. He also collaborated with Hans Zimmer on the scores for Batman Begins and its record-breaking sequel The Dark Knight. Some of his most recent works are The Happening, his sixth film with M. Night Shyamalan, Blood Diamond, Michael Clayton, , I Am Legend, Charlie Wilson's War, and the M. Night Shyamalan film adaptation of the Nickelodeon series "." Additionally, in a radio interview from early 2008, Howard revealed that he would collaborate with Terrence Malick "in about a year," a project likely to be the director's upcoming Tree of Life (2010). However, it was later revealed that Alexandre Desplat will provide the score. Howard debuted his work for symphony orchestra, I Would Plant A Tree, in February 2009 as part of the Pacific Symphony's annual American Composers Festival. The debut took place at the Renee and Henry Segerstrom Concert Hall in Costa Mesa, California, with the Symphony under the direction of Carl St.Clair. In 2009, he was awarded a Grammy along with Hans Zimmer for the soundtrack to The Dark Knight. After being replaced in later seasons, his original theme song for the hit TV show ER returned for the final episode of the series. In September 2010 he was appointed visiting professor of media composition at the Royal Academy of Music in London. Discography and filmography: Awards and nominations: In May 2008 he was made an Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music. Wins: * 2001: Emmy Award - Outstanding Main Title Theme Music, Gideon's Crossing * 2008: Classical Brit Awards - Soundtrack of the Year, Blood Diamond * 2009: Critics Choice Awards - Best Original Score, The Dark Knight * 2009: Grammy Award - Best Score Soundtrack Album, The Dark Knight (shared with Hans Zimmer) Nominations: * 1991: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Score, The Prince Of Tides * 1993: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Score, The Fugitive * 1994: Golden Globe Award Nomination - Best Original Song, "Look What Love Has Done" from Junior * 1994: Academy Award Nomination (1994) Best Original Song, "Look What Love Has Done" from Junior * 1996: Golden Globe Award Nomination - Best Original Song, "For The First Time" from One Fine Day * 1996: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Song, "For The First Time" from One Fine Day * 1997: Grammy Award Nomination - Best Song Written for a Motion Picture or Television, "For The First Time" from One Fine Day * 1997: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Musical or Comedy Score, My Best Friend's Wedding * 2000: Grammy Award Nomination - Best Instrumental Composition, “The Egg Travels” from Dinosaur * 2002: Grammy Award Nomination - Best Instrumental Composition, “Main Titles” from Signs * 2005: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Score, The Village * 2005: Golden Globe Award Nomination - Best Original Score, King Kong * 2007: International Film Music Critics Association Nomination - Film Composer of the Year * 2008: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Score, Michael Clayton * 2008 - Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media, Blood Diamond * 2009: Golden Globe Nomination - Best Original Score, Defiance * 2009: Academy Award Nomination - Best Original Score, Defiance

James Newton Howard Compositeur américain de musique de film | Naissance à Los Angeles | Naissance en 1951 Howard: James Newton Howard est un musicien et compositeur américain né le à Los Angeles (Californie). Il compose principalement des musiques de film. Il a été nommé à maintes reprises pour ses œuvres musicales. Biographie : James Newton Howard a commencé à étudier la musique jeune, et a continué à l’école de Thacher à Ojai, en Californie, l’académie de musique à l'ouest de Santa Barbara. Il s’est ensuite spécialisé dans le piano à l’Université de Californie du Sud. Il suit Elton John comme clavier à la fin des années 1970 et au début des années 1980. Il écrit aussi les arrangements de plusieurs des chansons d'Elton John au cours de cette période. On lui doit notamment le célèbre arrangement pour orchestre à cordes sur Don't Go Breaking My Heart et Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word. Il suit ensuite Graham Nash (de Crosby, Stills & Nash (and Young)) avant de commencer une carrière dans la musique de film au milieu des années 1980. Il collabore brièvement avec Elton John en 1987 en conduisant l'orchestre symphonique de Melbourne, où le chanteur exécutait un des chansons « orchestrées » de son catalogue. Le studio personnel de James est situé à Santa Monica en Californie. Il y écrit ses chansons avant de les envoyer aux différents studios pour l'enregistrement orchestral. Le principal d'entre-eux, Todd-AO, est localisé à Burbank, à une vingtaine de kilomètres de Santa Monica. James Newton Howard, comme de nombreux compositeurs d'aujourd'hui, est parfois confronté à des délais très courts pour composer sa musique. À titre d'exemple, la bande originale de King Kong, représentant environ 90 minutes de musique, a été composée, enregistrée et mixée en seulement 5 semaines. Il a notamment collaboré avec plusieurs membres du groupe californien Toto, dont Steve Porcaro (, lui aussi compositeur de musiques de film), avec David Paich, Marty Paich et Jeff Porcaro. Ces derniers ont d'ailleurs réalisés un album en commun intitulé James Newton Howard & Friends. Filmographie : 1985 * Head Office de Ken Finkleman 1986 * Nobody's Fool d'Evelyn Purcell * Coup double de Jeff Kanew * Huit millions de façons de mourir d'Hal Ashby * Stargrove et Danja, agents exécutifs de Gil Bettman (co-compositeur avec Lennie Niehaus) * Femme de choc de Michael Ritchie (co-compositeur avec Hawk Wolinski) 1987 * Promised Land de Michael Hoffman * Russkies de Rick Rosenthal * Five Corners de Tony Bill * Campus Man de Ron Casden * Trying Times de Sheldon Larry (série TV) 1988 * Everybody's All-American de Taylor Hackford * Some Girls de Michael Hoffman * Off Limits de Christopher Crowe * Go Toward the Light de Mike Robe (film TV) 1989 * Opération Crépuscule d'Andrew Davis * Les Indians de David S. Ward * Tap de Nick Castle * Men de Peter Werner (série TV) (pilote) 1990 * Tels pères, telle fille d'Emile Ardolino * Désigné pour mourir de Dwight H. Little * L'Expérience interdite de Joel Schumacher * Pretty Woman de Garry Marshall * Coupe de Ville de Joe Roth * Descending Angel de Jeremy Paul Kagan (film TV) * Somebody Has to Shoot the Picture de Frank Pierson (film TV) * Contre toute évidence de Michael Switzer (film TV) * Cas de conscience de Peter Werner (film TV) 1991 * Grand Canyon de Lawrence Kasdan * Le Prince des marées de Barbra Streisand * My Girl d'Howard Zieff * Un été en Louisiane de Robert Mulligan * Le Choix d'aimer de Joel Schumacher * La Liste noire d'Irwin Winkler * King Ralph de David S. Ward 1992 * La loi de la nuit d'Irwin Winkler * American Heart de Martin Bell * Glengarry de James Foley * La Nuit du défi de Michael Ritchie * Le Choix d'une mère de Joan Micklin Silver (film TV) * 2000 Malibu Road de Terry Louise Fisher (série TV) (thème principal) 1993 * Le Saint de Manhattan de Tim Hunter * Le Fugitif d'Andrew Davis * Président d'un jour d'Ivan Reitman * Chute libre de Joel Schumacher * Les Survivants de Frank Marshall 1994 * Junior d'Ivan Reitman * Wyatt Earp de Lawrence Kasdan * Intersection de Mark Rydell * Major League II de David S. Ward (musique de Michel Colombier) (musiques additionnelles) * Urgences de Michael Crichton (série TV) (musique de Marty Davich) (thème principal, pilote) 1995 * Le Don du roi de Michael Hoffman * Waterworld de Kevin Reynolds * French Kiss de Lawrence Kasdan * Alerte! de Wolfgang Petersen * Juste cause d'Arne Glimcher 1996 * Un beau jour de Michael Hoffman * Space Jam de Joe Pytka * Réactions en chaîne de David Koepp * Peur primale de Gregory Hoblit * La Jurée de Brian Gibson * Au-delà des lois de John Schlesinger * Sombres soupçons d'Amy Holden Jones (musique de John Frizzell) (thème principal) * The Sentinel de Danny Bilson (série TV) (musique de John M. Keane) (thème principal) 1997 * The Postman de Kevin Costner * L'Associé du diable de Taylor Hackford * Le Mariage de mon meilleur ami de P.J. Hogan * La Fête des pères d'Ivan Reitman * Trait pour trait de Glenn Gordon Caron (musique de Carter Burwell) (musiques additionnelles) * Le Flic de San Francisco de Thomas Carter (musique de Steve Porcaro) (musiques additionnelles) * Menteur, menteur de Tom Shadyac (musique de John Debney) (thème principal) * Le Pic de Dante de Roger Donaldson (musique de John Frizzell) (thème principal) 1998 * Meurtre parfait d'Andrew Davis * De la terre à la lune de Frank Marshall (série TV) (Episode 6) 1999 * La Neige tombait sur les Cèdres de Scott Hicks * Mumford de Lawrence Kasdan * Sixième Sens de M. Night Shyamalan * Hypnose de David Koepp * Just married (ou presque) de Garry Marshall * Wayward Son de Randall Harris (co-compositeur avec Steve Porcaro) 2000 * Vertical Limit de Martin Campbell * Incassable de M. Night Shyamalan * Dinosaure d'Eric Leighton * Gideon's Crossing de Tony Bill (série TV) (musique de Steve Porcaro) (thème principal) 2001 * Couple de stars de Joe Roth * Atlantide, l'empire perdu de Gary Trousdale et Kirk Wise 2002 * La Planète au trésor, un nouvel univers de Ron Clements * Le Club des empereurs de Michael Hoffman * Amours suspectes de P.J. Hogan * Signes de M. Night Shyamalan * Big Trouble de Barry Sonnenfeld 2003 * Peter Pan de P.J. Hogan * Dreamcatcher de Lawrence Kasdan 2004 * Collatéral de Michael Mann * Le Village de M. Night Shyamalan * Hidalgo de Joe Johnston 2005 * King Kong de Peter Jackson * L'Interprète de Sydney Pollack * Batman Begins de Christopher Nolan (co-compositeur avec Hans Zimmer) * de Mark Cowen (documentaire) (musique de Blake Neely) (thème principal) 2006 * Blood Diamond d'Edward Zwick * La Jeune Fille de l'eau de M. Night Shyamalan * Camping Car de Barry Sonnenfeld * La Couleur du crime de Joe Roth 2007 * La Guerre selon Charlie Wilson de Mike Nichols * Je suis une Légende de Francis Lawrence * de Jay Russell * Michael Clayton de Tony Gilroy * The Lookout de Scott Frank * The Great Debaters de Denzel Washington (co-compositeur avec Peter Golub) 2008 * Confessions d'une accro au shopping de P.J. Hogan * The Happening de M. Night Shyamalan * Defiance d'Edward Zwick * The Dark Knight de Christopher Nolan (co-compositeur avec Hans Zimmer) * Mad Money de Callie Courie (co-compositeur avec Marty Davich 2009 * Duplicity de Tony Gilroy * Inhale de Baltasar Kormákur 2010 * Nanny McPhee et le Big Bang de Susanna White * Le Dernier Maître de l'air de M. Night Shyamalan * Salt de Phillip Noyce * The Risk Pool de Lawrence Kasdan * The Tourist de Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck 2011 * Gnomeo and Juliet de Kelly Asbury * Green Lantern de Martin Campbell 2012 * The Hunger Games de Gary Ross Distinctions : Récompenses : ; ASCAP * 1994 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Président d'un jour et Le Fugitif * 1995 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 1996 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 1996 : Meilleur film pour Alerte ! et Waterworld * 1997 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 1997 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Peur primale et Space Jam * 1998 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 1998 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Le Pic de Dante et Le Mariage de mon meilleur ami * 1999 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 1999 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Meurtre parfait * 2000 : Prix Henry Mancini * 2000 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2000 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Sixième Sens et Just married (ou presque) * 2001 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2001 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Dinosaure * 2002 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2002 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Couple de stars * 2003 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2003 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Signes * 2004 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2005 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2005 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Collatéral et Le Village * 2006 : Meilleure série pour Urgences * 2006 : Meilleur film au box-office pour Batman Begins, King Kong et L'Interprète ; Académie des films de science-fiction, fantastique et horreur * 2009 : Saturn Award de la meilleure musique pour ; Emmy Awards * 2001 : Prix du meilleur thème principal Gideon's Crossing ; Grammy Awards * 2009 : Prix de la meilleure composition originale pour ; Palm Springs International Film Festival * 2008 : Prix Frederick Loewe pour la composition de musiques de film ; World Soundtrack Awards * 2008 : Composition de l'année pour La Guerre selon Charlie Wilson Nominations : ; Oscar du cinéma * 1992 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Le Prince des marées * 1994 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Le Fugitif * 1995 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Junior * 1997 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Un beau jour * 1998 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Le Mariage de mon meilleur ami * 2005 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Le Village * 2008 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Michael Clayton * 2009 : Nommé à l'Oscar de la meilleure musique de film pour Les Insurgés ; Académie des films de science-fiction, fantastique et horreur * 2001 : Nommé au Saturn Award de la meilleure musique pour Dinosaure * 2006 : Nommé au Saturn Award de la meilleure musique pour Batman Begins ; Annie Award * 2000 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique pour Dinosaure * 2001 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique pour Atlantide, l'empire perdu ; BAFTA Awards * 2009 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique pour ; Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards * 2009 : Nommé au prix du meilleur compositeur pour ; Emmy Awards * 1989 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique pour Men * 1991 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique pour Urgences ; Golden Globes * 1995 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique originale pour Junior * 1997 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique originale pour Un beau jour * 2006 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique originale pour King Kong * 2009 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique originale pour ; Grammy Awards * 1998 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure musique originale pour Un beau jour * 2008 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure composition pour Blood Diamond ; Satellite Awards * 2000 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure composition originale pour La neige tombait sur les cèdres * 2008 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure composition originale pour The Lookout ; World Soundtrack Awards * 2001 : Nommé au prix de la meilleure composition originale pour Atlantide, l'empire perdu * 2005 : Nommé au prix de la composition de l'année pour Batman Begins * 2006 : Nommé au prix de la composition de l'année et au prix du compositeur de l'année pour King Kong

عطش مصطلحات صحية | صحة | طب العطش thirst: هو شعور فيزيولوجي ينبه الكائن الحي من إنسان أو حيوان إلى أنه بحاجة إلى ماء. ذلك أن الماء يشكل النسبة العظمى من تكوين الكائن الحي. يفقد الجسم الحي الماء باستمرار عن طريق التنفس والتبول والتعرق والبراز. ويمكن أن يؤدي فقدان الإنسان أو الحيوان لكميات كبيرة من الماء عبر القيء أو الإسهال أو التبخر بسبب حرارة الجو، دون تعويض الكميات المفقودة، إلى تطور التجفاف، وهذه الحالة قد تكون مهددة للحياة. قلة الماء في الجسم يضعف من نشاط خلايا الدماغ: تبين أن نقص كمية الماء داخل الجسم والاستهانه بالعطش يؤثران بشكل ملحوظ على مستوى ذكاء الإنسان هذا مااكدته إحدى الدراسات الطبيه التي اجريت في بريطانيا وقد اوصى القائمون على الدراسة بضرورة شرب كميات من الماء والسوائل تتراوح ما بين 6الى 8 لترات يومياً حتى يحافظ الجسم عل المعدل الطبيعي للمياه بداخله ومن ثم الحفاظ على مستوى الذكاء الذي يتطلب وجود نسبة معينه من الأملاح المفيده والتي توجد فقط في المياه. واشار باحثون إلى ان عبوات المياه الغازيه من الممكن ان تسبب خطورة على الإنسان في حالة زيادة نسبة المعادن والأملاح الموجوده فيها حيث يحصل الجسم على حاجته من الأكسجين من خلال الهواء بصورة طبيعي. أنظر أيضا : * جوع * جفاف مراجع : ثبت_المراجع: بذرة علم الأحياء:

Thirst Food and drink | Effects of external causes | Body water Other uses: Thirsty: Thirst is the craving for fluids, resulting in the basic instinct of animals to drink. It is an essential mechanism involved in fluid balance. It arises from a lack of fluids and/or an increase in the concentration of certain osmolites, such as salt. If the water volume of the body falls below a certain threshold or the osmolite concentration becomes too high, the brain signals thirst. Continuous dehydration can cause many problems, but is most often associated with neurological problems such as seizures and renal problems. Excessive thirst, known as polydipsia, along with excessive urination, known as polyuria, may be an indication of diabetes. There are receptors and other systems in the body that detect a decreased volume or an increased osmolite concentration. They signal to the central nervous system, where central processing succeeds. Some sources, therefore, distinguish "extracellular thirst" from "intracellular thirst", where extracellular thirst is thirst generated by decreased volume and intracellular thirst is thirst generated by increased osmolite concentration. Nevertheless, the craving itself is something generated from central processing in the brain, no matter how it is detected. * Detection There are many different receptors for sensing decreased volume or an increased osmolite concentration. * Decreased volume * Further reading: Hypovolemia * Renin-angiotensin system Hypovolemia leads to activation of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) and a decrease in atrial natriuretic peptide. These mechanisms, along their other functions, contribute to elicit thirst, by affecting the subfornical organ. For instance, angiotensin II, activated in RAS, is a powerful dipsogen (ie it stimulates thirst) which acts via the subfornical organ. * Other ** Arterial baroreceptors sense a decreased arterial pressure, and signals to the central nervous system in the area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarius. ** Cardiopulmonary receptors sense a decreased blood volume, and signal to area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarius as well. Cellular dehydration and osmoreceptor stimulation: Osmoreceptor: Osmosis is the movement of liquid from one side of a semipermeable membrane with lower concentrations of dissolved substances, to the other side of the membrane with higher concentrations, resulting in dilution of the higher concentration solution. In living cells the transport of water from low concentration to high concentration solutions through the cell membrane tends to continue until equilibrium is achieved. The pressure needed to halt the movement through the membrane is the "osmotic pressure." As the volume of extracellular fluids such as blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid drops due to loss of water through perspiration, respiration, urination and defecation, the concentration of sodium (the major substance affecting osmosis in the extracellular fluid) and hence the osmotic pressure, rises; water migrates from the cells of the body, through their membranes, to the extracellular compartment, and cellular dehydration occurs. (Infusion of hypertonic saline solution into the blood stream has the same cellular dehydration effect.) In the mammalian brain, the posterior surface of the hypothalamus forms the front wall of the third ventricle (a cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavity) and clusters of cells (osmoreceptors) on this surface, notably in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT) and subfornical organ (SFO), signal this cellular dehydration to other parts of the brain, and thirst is experienced. Destruction of this part of the hypothalamus in humans and other animals results in partial or total loss of desire to drink even with extremely high salt concentration in the extracellular fluids. In addition, there are visceral osmoreceptors. These project to the area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarius in the brain. * Salt craving Because sodium is also lost from the plasma in hypovolemia, the body's need for salt proportionately increases in addition to thirst in such cases. This is also a result of the renin-angiotensin system activation. Elderly: In adults over the age of 50 years, the body’s thirst sensation reduces and continues diminishing with age, putting this population at increased risk of dehydration. Several studies have demonstrated that elderly persons have lower total water intakes than younger adults, and that women are particularly at risk of too low intake. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recently included water as a macronutrient in its dietary reference values for the first time. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for younger adults (2.0 L/day for females and 2.5 L/day for males) as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Central processing: The area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarius signal, by 5-HT, to lateral parabrachial nucleus, which in turn signal to median preoptic nucleus. In addition, the area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarius also signal directly to subfornical organ. Thus, the median preoptic nucleus and subfornical organ receive signals of both decreased volume and increased osmolite concentration. They signal to higher integrative centers, where ultimately the conscious craving arises. However, the true neuroscience of this conscious craving is not fully clear. In general, the end-result is towards behavior of drinking for hydration, but this can to some degree be resisted, such as in voluntary fluid restriction. In addition to thirst, the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis and the subfornical organ contribute to fluid balance by vasopressin release.

Soif Physiologie | Liquide biologie: La soif est la sensation du besoin de boire et caractérise un manque d'eau chez l'organisme. Sous le contrôle de l'hypothalamus, la soif intervient dans le comportement de boisson en alarmant l'organisme afin qu'il réponde à la nécessité de s'abreuver. La soif est liée au processus d'osmorégulation et traduit, avec la faim et le sommeil, l'un des principaux besoins vitaux de la plupart des êtres vivants. Il apparaît que nous buvons quand nous avons soif ; or la soif est un mécanisme d’alerte, pas de régulation. C’est un indicateur de mauvaise hydratation. Cependant, aucune étude scientifique ne permet de soutenir la recommandation selon laquelle il faut boire 1,5 litre d’eau par jour pour être en bonne santé . Boire à sa soif serait très nettement suffisant. En effet, boire beaucoup d’eau ne permet pas d’améliorer la fonction rénale et d’éliminer plus de toxines, n’empêche pas de grossir et n’aide pas à avoir une belle peau. Autre idée reçue mise à mal : le manque d’eau ne provoque pas de maux de tête . La consommation d’eau est physiologiquement régulée par la sensation de soif qui apparaît lorsque l’organisme a déjà perdu de son stock hydrique (75% du poids corporel chez le nourrisson, 50% chez les personnes âgées) : * Chez l’enfant la sensation de soif apparaît lorsqu’il a déjà perdu 3% de son stock hydrique * Chez l’adulte la sensation de soif apparaît lorsqu’il a perdu de 3 à 5% de son stock hydrique * Chez la personne âgées de plus de 70 ans la sensation de soif apparaît alors qu’elle a déjà perdu 5 à 7% de son stock hydrique. Il existe une maladie mentale liée à la soif : la potomanie. Le malade peut boire jusqu'à 10l d'eau par jour et cela a une répercussion néfaste sur ses reins qui ne filtrent plus correctement. Mécanisme : La soif intervient dans le maintien de la balance hydrique. Elle régule les entrées d'eau dans l'organisme, exerçant une action complémentaire à celle de l'hormone antidiurétique (ADH) qui régit les sorties d'eau . Les mécanismes qui régissent la soif ne sont pas parfaitement connus . La perte d'eau se manifeste par deux phénomènes, l'un au niveau intracellulaire (2/3 du stock hydrique), l'autre au niveau extracellulaire (1/3 du stock hydrique) : la pression osmotique au sein des cellules augmente, tandis que l'hypovolémie, c'est-à-dire la dimininution du volume sanguin, provoque une baisse de la tension artérielle. Détection au niveau intracellulaire : Lorsque le volume d'eau à l'intérieur des cellules diminue, la concentration en solutés, tels que les ions sodium ou chlorure, augmente et provoque ainsi une hyperosmolarité. Cette dernière est détectée par des osmorécepteurs situés dans l'organe vasculaire de la lame terminale (OVLT) et l'organe subfornical (SFO), qui se trouvent tous deux parmi les organes circumventriculaires, partie de l'hypothalamus en dehors de la barrière hémato-encéphalique . Détection au niveau extracellulaire : ...: Autres significations : Par analogie, le terme soif est employé dans des expressions comme « avoir soif de connaissance ». La religion parle par exemple de "soif de Dieu", "soif de l'Esprit-Saint", "soif de vie" et "soif d'espérance". Dans le bouddhisme, la « soif », ou « aditivitée», correspond au mot tṛṣna.

كأس الإنتركونتيننتال بطولات كرة قدم أمريكا الجنوبية للأندية | بطولات كرة قدم أوروبية للأندية كأس الانتركونتيننتال أو كأس تيوتا هي منافسة أوروبية-أمريكية جنوبية لأندية كرة القدم ينظمها الاتحاد الدولي لكرة القدم (FIFA)وهي تعتبر بمثابة كأس العالم للأندية . وتجمع الفائز من بطولة دوري أبطال أوروبا وكأس ليبرتادوريس أقيمت أول مرة في عام 1960 وفاز بها ريال مدريد الأسباني، وبعنبر نادي إيه سي ميلان الإيطالي أكثر الفرق حصولاً على اللقب حيث حصل عليه خمس مرات. وأقيمت آخر بطولة عام 2004 وفاز بها بورتو البرتغالي. وفي عام التالي استبدلت المنافسة ببطولة تيوتا التي تضم أبطال أوروبا وآسيا وأفريقيا وأمريكا الشمالية والجنوبية وأوقيانوسيا. * مراجع == ثبت_المراجع: بذرة كرة قدم: es:

Intercontinental Cup (football) Intercontinental Cup | FIFA Club World Cup | Defunct CONMEBOL club competitions | Defunct UEFA club competitions | Recurring sporting events established in 1960 | Recurring events disestablished in 2004 The European/South American Cup, commonly referred to as the World Club Championship, Intercontinental Cup or (after 1980) Toyota Cup, was a football competition endorsed by UEFA and CONMEBOL, contested between the winners of the European Cup and the South American Copa Libertadores. The cup trophy bears the words "Coupe Européenne-Sudamericaine" ("European-South American Cup") at the top, which involve the ball. At the base of the trophy, there is a drawing of two maps, one from Europe, another from South America. From its formation in 1960 to 1979, the competition was contested over a two legged tie, with a playoff if necessary until 1968, and penalty kicks later. From 1980 until 2004, the competition was contested over a single match held in Japan and organized by Toyota, which offered a secondary trophy, the Toyota Cup. The competition was considered until the creation of its successor, the FIFA Club World Cup, the most important tournament at international level in which any club could participate, for that reason all the winner teams were recognised as world club champions. The last winner of the cup was Portuguese side Porto, defeating Colombian side Once Caldas in a penalty shootout in 2004. * History The inauguration of the European Champion Clubs' Cup in 1955 and the Copa Libertadores in 1960 made the European/South American Cup viable. Spanish side Real Madrid became the first club to win the cup in 1960, defeating Peñarol of Uruguay. The viability of the competition came under fire until Toyota assumed the role of sponsor for the 1980 tournament; for the remainder of the competition's history, no club declined playing in the Intercontinental Cup, and the competition always took the form of a single match held on neutral ground, in Toyota's home country Japan. The sponsor created a new trophy, the Toyota Cup, which was coupled with the original one: if the Intercontinental Cup was give to winners' captain, the Toyota Cup was given to the vice-captain. This cup was played for the last time in 2004 and replaced by the FIFA Club World Cup. * Cup format From 1960 to 1979, the Intercontinental Cup was played in two legs. Between 1960 and 1968, the cup was decided on points only, the same format used by CONMEBOL to determine the winner of the Copa Libertadores final through 1987. Because of this format, a third match was needed when both teams were equal on points. Commonly this match was host by the continent where the last game of the series was played. From 1969 through 1979, the competition adopted the European standard method of aggregate score, with away goals. Starting in 1980, the final became a single match. Up until 2000, the matches were held at Tokyo's National Stadium. Finals since 2002 were held at the Yokohama International Stadium, also the venue of the 2002 FIFA World Cup final. * Finals ;Key * Two-legged finals * Single match finals Notes: * Juventus won 4–2 in a penalty shootout * Nacional won 7–6 in a penalty shootout * European champions Marseille were suspended due to a match fixing and bribery scandal * Ajax won 4–3 in a penalty shootout * Boca Juniors won 3–1 in a penalty shootout * Porto won 8–7 in a penalty shootout Statistics: By club: By country: * By continent Coaches: Carlos Bianchi won three editions as coach: one with Vélez Sársfield in 1994, and 2 with Boca Juniors in 2000 and 2003. Luis Cubilla and Juan Mujica, 2 Uruguayans won cups both as players and coaches: * Luis Cubilla (played for Peñarol in 1961 and for Nacional in 1971; then coached Olimpia in 1979) * Juan Mujica (played for Nacional in 1971; and coached it in 1980) Players: * Alessandro Costacurta and Paolo Maldini played 5 times in the competition, all with Milan (1989, 1990, 1993, 1994, 2003). * Estudiantes (1968, 1969 and 1970) and Independiente (1972, 1973 and 1974) played 3 in consecutive years. Of these teams a few players played the three years, including Carlos Salvador Bilardo and Juan Ramón Verón. Man of the Match: Since 1980

Coupe intercontinentale Coupe intercontinentale La Coupe intercontinentale (ou Coupe européenne/sud-américaine ou Toyota Cup ) était une compétition annuelle de football organisée par l'UEFA et la CONMEBOL qui opposait les vainqueurs de la Ligue des Champions et de la Copa Libertadores, ces deux tournois étant les compétitions majeures des continents respectifs. Elle s'est déroulée entre 1960 et 2004 avant d'être remplacée par la Coupe du monde des clubs de la FIFA. Format : La Coupe intercontinentale s'est déroulée dans deux formats différents durant son histoire. Tout d'abord entre sa date de création 1960 et 1979, l'opposition entre les deux clubs se faisait par match aller-retour dans leurs stades respectifs (une victoire égale deux points, un nul égale un point et une défaite zéro point, en cas d'égalité des points après les matchs aller-retour, un troisième match décisif était organisé), puis entre 1980 et sa dernière édition en 2004 il a été décidé de l'organiser sur un match sur un terrain neutre au Japon, ce dernier fut au Stade olympique de Tokyo entre 1980 et 2001 puis au Yokohama International Stadium entre 2002 et 2004. Histoire : La Coupe intercontinentale fut créée en 1960. Elle se déroulait à l'origine en matchs aller-retour. Jusqu'en 1968, la Coupe était attribuée uniquement aux points. Peu importait donc le nombre de buts marqués. C'est pourquoi certaines éditions se sont terminées par un match de barrage. Après que certaines rencontres se furent terminées par des bagarres, plusieurs champions européens refusèrent d'y participer et laissèrent la place au finaliste de la Ligue des Champions. L'Atlético de Madrid remporta ainsi la Coupe intercontinentale en 1974 sans avoir gagné la Coupe des clubs champions européens précédente. En 1975 et 1978, la Coupe intercontinentale ne fut même pas disputée. Depuis 1980, la Coupe intercontinentale est sponsorisée par Toyota et se joue en un seul match au Stade national d'athlétisme de Kasumigaoka à Tokyo de 1981 à 2001 puis au Yokohama International Stadium à Yokohama depuis 2002. L'Italien Alessandro Costacurta y a participé à cinq reprises... mais aucun joueur n'a réussi à la remporter plus de deux fois durant toute sa carrière. Depuis 2004, elle a été remplacée par la Coupe du monde des clubs. L'Olympique de Marseille est le seul club de l'histoire Champion d'Europe (1993) à ne pas avoir joué une seule finale de cette compétition ; en effet la rencontre prévue en novembre 1993 est annulée, puisqu'il en avait été exclu par la FIFA suite à l'affaire VA-OM. Palmarès : Par match aller-retour (1960-1979) : Sur un match (1980-2004) : * Statistiques * Arbitres À voir : Liste des arbitres ayant officié au moins un match de la Coupe intercontinentale * Bilan par pays Bilan par club : * Bilan par confédération Hommes du match : Depuis 1980. * Notes et références * Article connexe * Coupe du monde des clubs de la FIFA

بول بوير مواليد 1918 | كيميائيون أمريكيون | حائزو جائزة نوبل في الكيمياء | أمريكيون حازوا جائزة نوبل | صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الوفاة بول بوير (Paul Delos Boyer) هو عالم كيمياء حيوية أمريكي ولد في 31 جويلية 1918. ولد بول في ولاية يوتا التي أكمل فيها دراسته الثانوية. تحصل على بكالوريوس من جامعة برجهام يونج سنة 1939. تزوج بعد ذلك بقليل من ليدا ويكر وأنجبا ثلاثة أطفال. أكمل بول دراسته في جامعة ويسكونسون-ماديسون وتحصل على الدكتوارة سنة 1943. عمل بعد ذلك لمدة خمس سنوات في جامعة ستانفورد. في سنة 1963 عين بروفسورا في جامعة كاليفورنيا بلوس انجلوس في قسم الكيمياء والكيمياء الحيوية. في سنة 1997 حاز على جائزة نوبل في الكيمياء مع جون والكر وذلك لاكتشافه الوسائل الانزيمية لإنتاج أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. بذرة عالم: جائزة نوبل في الكيمياء 1976-2000:

Paul D. Boyer 1918 births | American atheists | American biochemists | American Nobel laureates | Brigham Young University alumni | Former Latter Day Saints | Guggenheim Fellows | Living people | Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences | Nobel laureates in Chemistry | People from Provo, Utah | University of California, Los Angeles faculty | University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni Paul Delos Boyer (born July 31, 1918) is an American biochemist and analytical chemist. He shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for research on the "enzymatic mechanism underlying the biosynthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)" (ATP synthase) with John E. Walker; the remainder of the Prize in that year was awarded to Danish chemist Jens Christian Skou for his discovery of the Na+/K+-ATPase. * Birth and education Boyer was born in Provo, Utah. He grew up in a nonpracticing Mormon family. He attended Provo High School, where he was active in student government and the debating team. He received a B.S. in chemistry from Brigham Young University in 1939 and obtained a Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation Scholarship for graduate studies. Five days before leaving for Wisconsin, Paul married Lyda Whicker. They remain married and have three children: Gail B. Hayes, Alexandra Boyer and Dr. Douglas Boyer; and eight grandchildren: Imran Clark, Mashuri Clark, Rashid Clark, Djahari Clark, Faisal Clark, Lisa A. Hayes, Leah Boyer and Josh Boyer. Though the Boyers connected with the Mormon community in Wisconsin, they considered themselves "on the wayward fringe" and doubted the doctrinal claims of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). After experimenting with Unitarianism, Boyer's scientific background led him to eventually accept atheism. * Academic career After Boyer received his Ph.D. degree in biochemistry from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1943, he spent years at Stanford University on a war-related research project dedicated to stabilization of serum albumin for transfusions. He began his independent research career at the University of Minnesota and introduced kinetic, isotopic, and chemical methods for investigating enzyme mechanisms. In 1955, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship and worked with Professor Hugo Theorell on the mechanism of alcohol dehydrogenase. In 1956, he accepted a Hill Foundation Professorship and moved to the medical campus of the University of Minnesota. In 1959-1960, he served as Chairman of the Biochemistry Section of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and in 1969-1970 as President of the American Society of Biological Chemists. Since 1963, he has been a Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at University of California, Los Angeles. In 1965, he became the Founding Director of the Molecular Biology Institute and spearheaded the construction of the building and the organization of an interdepartmental Ph.D. program. This institutional service did not diminish the creativity and originality of his research program, which led to three postulates for the binding mechanism for ATP synthesis—that energy input was not used primarily to form ATP but to promote the binding of phosphate and mostly the release of tightly bound ATP; that three identical catalytic sites went through compulsory, sequential binding changes; and that the binding changes of the catalytic subunites, circularly arranged on the periphery of the enzyme, were driven by the rotation of a smaller internal subunit. Paul Boyer was Editor or Associate Editor of the Annual Review of Biochemistry from 1963-1989. He was Editor of the classic series, "The Enzymes". In 1981, he was Faculty Research Lecturer at UCLA. In that same year, he was awarded the prestigious Tolman Medal by the Southern California Section of the American Chemical Society. * Publications * Dahms, A. S. & P. D. Boyer. , University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (1972). * Kanazawa, T. & P. D. Boyer. , University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (1972). * Boyer, P. D. , University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Energy Research and Development Administration), (1975). * Boyer, P. D. , University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), United States Department of Energy, (December 31, 1993). * References * Notes == Reflist:

Paul D. Boyer Biochimiste | Biochimiste américain | Lauréat du prix Nobel de chimie | Lauréat américain du prix Nobel | Naissance en 1918 Boyer: chimiste: Paul Delos Boyer (31 juillet 1918) est un biochimiste américain. Il est colauréat, avec John Ernest Walker, de la moitié du prix Nobel de chimie de 1997. * Biographie Boyer naît à Provo dans l'Utah où il fait ses études secondaires. Il reçoit son B.A. à la Brigham Young University en 1939. Peu après son diplôme il se marie avec Lyda Whicker, ils auront trois enfants. Boyer continue ses études à l'université du Wisconsin-Madison et obtient son Ph.D. en 1943. Il travaille ensuite à l'université Stanford pendant cinq ans sur un projet de stabilisation du sérum d'albumine utilisé pour les transfusions. Il commence ses recherches indépendantes à l'université du Minnesota sur les mécanismes enzymatiques. Depuis 1963 il est professeur au département de chimie et de biochimie de l'UCLA. En 1965 il supervise la construction du bâtiment de biologie moléculaire de l'UCLA et l'organisation d'un programme interdépartemental de thèses de doctorat. Ces responsabilités ne l'empêchent de continuer la recherche pure, qui le conduisent à découvrir trois clefs de la synthèse de l'adénosine triphosphate (ATP). Boyer et John E. Walker reçoivent la moitié du prix Nobel de chimie de 1997 (l'autre moitié a été remise à Jens Christian Skou) }}. * Notes et références ==

اقتصاد سياسي ماركسي ماركسية | اقتصاد سياسي ماركسي الاقتصاد السياسي الماركسي هو أحد أركان الماركسية الثلاثة، وكتبه كارل ماركس نتيجة النقد والتأثر بالاقتصاد السياسي الإنجليزي، ولا سيما ادم سميث وكان من أهم اعمال ماركس كتاب رأس المال، حيث يقوم بدراسة التطور الاقتصادي وتطوراته عبر منظور المنطق الجدلي، ويعتبر ماركس ان كل تطور في العلاقات الاقتصادية يخضع لقوانين الدياليكتيك، معطياً مثل وحدة صراع المتناقضات في بيئة الاقطاعي والفلاح، التي تستمر لبدأ مفعول تحول الكم إلى كيف بالثورة البرجوازية، ومن ثم يتم نفي النفي ليظهر لاحقا العامل ورب العمل. ويعتبر الاقتصاد السياسي أهم ما كتبه كارل ماركس في حياته، ورغم أن الدول العظمى تعتمد تحليل ماركس للأزمات الاقتصادية، إلا أن الاقتصاد السياسي الماركسي لم يطبق الإ في الدول الشيوعية، ويبقى الاقتصاد السياسي الماركسي إحدى المواد التي تدرس بالجامعات، علماً بأن الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، إثر الأزمات الاقتصادية في بداية القرن العشرين، إتبعت الكينزية لحل المشاكلات الاقتصادية.وتتبع هذا الاقتصاد امنا دولةإسرائيل. بذرة اقتصاد:

Marxian economics Marxism | Heterodox economics Marxism: Marxian economics refers to economic theories on the functioning of capitalism based on the works of Karl Marx. Adherents of Marxian economics, particularly in academia, distinguish it from Marxism as a political ideology and sociological theory, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is intellectually independent of his advocacy of revolutionary socialism or his support of proletarian revolution. Adherents consider Marx's economic theories to be the basis of a viable analytic framework, and an alternative to more conventional neoclassical economics. Marxian economists do not lean entirely upon the works of Marx and other widely-known Marxists; they draw from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources. Marx's major work on political economy was Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (better known by its German title Das Kapital), a three-volume work, of which only the first volume was published in his lifetime (the others were published by Friedrich Engels from Marx's notes). One of Marx's early works, Critique of Political Economy, was mostly incorporated into Capital, especially the beginning of Volume I. Marx's notes made in preparation for writing Capital were published years later under the title Grundrisse. Marx's response to classical economics : Marx's economics took as its starting point the work of the best-known economists of his day, the British classical economists. Among these economists were Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. Smith, in The Wealth of Nations, argued that the most important characteristic of a market economy was that it permitted a rapid growth in productive abilities. Smith claimed that a growing market stimulated a greater "division of labor" (i.e., specialization of businesses and/or workers) and this, in turn, led to greater productivity. Although Smith generally said little about laborers, he did note that an increased division of labor could at some point cause harm to those whose jobs became narrower and narrower as the division of labor expanded. Smith maintained that a laissez-faire economy would naturally correct itself over time. Marx followed Smith by claiming that the most important beneficial economic consequence of capitalism was a rapid growth in productivity abilities. Marx also expanded greatly on the notion that laborers could come to harm as capitalism became more productive. Additionally, in Theories of Surplus Value, Marx noted, "We see the great advance made by Adam Smith beyond the Physiocrats in the analysis of surplus-value and hence of capital. In their view, it is only one definite kind of concrete labour—agricultural labour —that creates surplus-value....But to Adam Smith, it is general social labour—no matter in what use-values it manifests itself—the mere quantity of necessary labour, which creates value. Surplus-value, whether it takes the form of profit, rent, or the secondary form of interest, is nothing but a part of this labour, appropriated by the owners of the material conditions of labour in the exchange with living labour." Malthus' claim, in "An Essay on the Principle of Population", that population growth was the primary cause of subsistence level wages for laborers provoked Marx to develop an alternative theory of wage determination. Whereas Malthus presented an ahistorical theory of population growth, Marx offered a theory of how a relative surplus population in capitalism tended to push wages to subsistence levels. Marx saw this relative surplus population as coming from economic causes and not from biological causes (as in Malthus). This economic-based theory of surplus population is often labeled as Marx's theory of the reserve army of labour. Ricardo developed a theory of distribution within capitalism, that is, a theory of how the output of society is distributed to classes within society. The most mature version of this theory, presented in On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, was based on a labour theory of value in which the value of any produced object is equal to the labor embodied in the object. (Adam Smith also presented a labor theory of value but it was only incompletely realized.) Also notable in Ricardo's economic theory was that profit was a deduction from society's output and that wages and profit were inversely related: an increase in profit came at the expense of a reduction in wages. Marx built much of the formal economic analysis found in Capital on Ricardo's theory of the economy. Marx's theory: Marx employed a labour theory of value, which holds that the value of a commodity is the socially necessary labour time invested in it. Capitalists, however, do not pay workers the full value of the commodities they produce, but compensate the worker for the necessary labor only (the worker's wage, which cover only the necessary means of subsistence in order to maintain him working in the present and his family in the future as a group -(the working class)- absolutely necessary for the existence of the capital-labor relation, the essence of the capitalist mode of production). This necessary labor is, in fact, only a fraction of a full working day, and the rest, the surplus-labor, is, in fact, pocketed by the capitalist. Marx theorized that the gap between the value a worker produces and his wage is a form of unpaid labour, known as surplus value. Moreover, Marx notes that markets tend to obscure the social relationships and processes of production, a phenomenon he termed commodity fetishism. People are highly aware of commodities, and usually don't think about the relationships and labour they represent. Methodology: Marx used dialectics, a method that he adapted from the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Dialectics focuses on relation and change, and tries to avoid seeing the universe as composed of separate objects, each with essentially stable unchanging characteristics. One component of dialectics is abstraction; out of an undifferentiated mass of data or system conceived of as an organic whole, one abstracts portions to think about or to refer to. One may abstract objects, but also — and more typically — relations, and processes of change. An abstraction may be extensive or narrow, may focus on generalities or specifics, and may be made from various points of view. For example, a sale may be abstracted from a buyer's or a seller's point of view, and one may abstract a particular sale or sales in general. Another component is the dialectical deduction of categories. Marx uses Hegel's notion of categories, which are forms, for economics: The commodity form, the money form, the capital form etc. have to be systematically deduced instead of being grasped in an outward way as done by the bourgeois economists. This corresponds to Hegel's critique of Kant's transcendental philosophy. Marx regarded history as having passed through several stages. The details of his periodisation vary somewhat through his works, but it essentially is: Primitive Communism -- Slave societies -- Feudalism -- Capitalism -- Socialism -- Communism (capitalism being the present stage and communism the future). Marx occupied himself primarily with describing capitalism. Historians place the beginning of capitalism some time between about 1450 (Sombart) and some time in the 17th century (Hobsbawm). A distinguishing feature of capitalism is that most of the products of human labour are produced for sale, rather than consumed by the producers or appropriated, essentially by force, by a ruling elite as in feudalism or slavery. (For example in feudalism, most agricultural produce was either consumed by the peasants who grew it, or appropriated by feudal masters. It almost never was sold for money.) Marx defines a commodity as a product of human labour that is produced for sale in a market. Thus in capitalism, most of the products of human labour are commodities. Marx began his major work on economics, Capital, with a discussion of commodities; Chapter One is called "Commodities". Commodities: "The wealth of those societies in which the capitalist mode of production prevails, presents itself as 'an immense accumulation of commodities,' its unit being a single commodity." (First sentence of Capital, Volume I.) "The common substance that manifests itself in the exchange value of commodities whenever they are exchanged, is their value." (Capital, I, Chap I, section 1.) The worth of a commodity can be conceived of in two different ways, which Marx calls use-value and value. A commodity's use-value is its usefulness for fulfilling some practical purpose; for example, the use-value of a piece of food is that it provides nourishment and pleasurable taste; the use value of a hammer, that it can drive nails. Value is, on the other hand, a measure of a commodity's worth in comparison to other commodities. It is closely related to exchange-value, the ratio at which commodities should be traded for one another, but not identical: value is at a more general level of abstraction; exchange-value is a realisation or form of it. Marx argued that if value is a property common to all commodities, then whatever it is derived from, whatever determines it, must be common to all commodities. The only relevant thing that is, in Marx's view, common to all commodities is human labour: they are all produced by human labour. "This common 'something' cannot be either a geometrical, a chemical, or any other natural property of commodities. . . . If then we leave out of consideration the use-value of commodities, they have only one common property left, that of being products of labour." (Capital I, I, 1.) Marx concluded that the value of a commodity is simply the amount of human labour required to produce it. Thus Marx adopted a labour theory of value, as had his predecessors Ricardo and MacCulloch; Marx himself traced the existence of the theory at least as far back as an anonymous work, Some Thoughts on the Interest of Money in General, and Particularly the Publick Funds, &c., published in London around 1739 or 1740. Marx placed some restrictions on the validity of his value theory: he said that in order for it to hold, the commodity must not be a useless item; and it is not the actual amount of labour that went into producing a particular individual commodity that determines its value, but the amount of labour that a worker of average energy and ability, working with average intensity, using the prevailing techniques of the day, would need to produce it. A formal statement of the law is: the value of a commodity is equal to the average socially necessary labour time required for its production. (Capital, I, I—p 39 in Progress Publishers, Moscow, ed'n.) Marx's contention was that commodities tend, at a fairly general level of abstraction, to exchange at value; that is, if Commodity A, whose value is "V", is traded for Commodity B, it will tend to fetch an amount of Commodity B whose value is the same, "V". Particular circumstances will cause divergence from this rule, however. Money: "Paper money is a token representing gold or money." (Capital, I, Chap III, section 2, part c.) Marx held that metallic money, such as gold, is a commodity, and its value is the labour time necessary to produce it (mine it, smelt it, etc.). Gold and silver are conventionally used as money because they embody a large amount of labour in a small, durable, form, which is convenient. Paper money is a representation of gold or silver, almost without value of its own but held in circulation by state decree. * Production "If, on the other hand, the subject of labour has, so to say, been filtered through previous labour, we call it raw material. . . ." (Capital, I, Chap VII, section 1.) Marx lists the elementary factors of production as: * labour, "the personal activity of man." (Capital, I, VII, 1.) * the subject of labour: the thing worked on. * the instruments of labour: tools, labouring domestic animals like horses, chemicals used in modifying the subject, etc. Some subjects of labour are available directly from Nature: uncaught fish, unmined coal, etc. Others are results of a previous stage of production; these are known as raw materials, such as flour or yarn. Workshops, canals, and roads are considered instruments of labour. (Capital, I, VII, 1.) Coal for boilers, oil for wheels, and hay for draft horses is considered raw material, not instruments of labour. The subjects of labour and instruments of labour together are called the means of production.  Relations of production are the relations human beings adopt toward each other as part of the production process. In capitalism, wage labour and private property are part of the relations of production. * Calculation of value of a product: * If labour is performed directly on Nature and with instruments of negligible value, the value of the product is simply the labour time. If labour is performed on something that is itself the product of previous labour (that is, on a raw material), using instruments that have some value, the value of the product is the value of the raw material, plus depreciation on the instruments, plus the labour time. Depreciation may be figured simply by dividing the value of the instruments by their working life; eg. if a lathe worth £1,000 lasts in use 10 years it imparts value to the product at a rate of £100 per year. value   :    mp  +  lt Where:    value is the value of the product; mp is the value of the means of production; lt is the labour time. Labour: At least, in a fully capitalist society almost all labour is wage labour. In present Western society homemaking is clearly still a huge area of un-waged labour; however it is becoming increasingly commodified as women enter the workforce (that is not to say that women should not be empowered in this way). Convenience foods, day care, hired cleaners, replacing clothes versus mending them, disposable household products generally—all represent subsumption of this formerly non-capitalist area of production into capitalism. Labour in precapitalist societies is either performed to fulfill one's own or one's family's wants directly (e.g. subsistence labour), or some form of forced labour, such as slavery or serfdom; only rarely is labour performed for a wage. In capitalist society it is the reverse: almost all labour is wage labour. Since most labour in a capitalist society is labour exchanged by the worker in return for a price (his wage), it has the form of a commodity: something sold on the market for a price. Therefore Marx held that labour in a capitalist society is a commodity. Like any commodity it has a use-value and a value. Its use value—the useful thing it provides—is the actual accomplishing of some task: spinning, weaving, shovelling, babysitting, or whatever. Its value is determined by the same criterion as is the value of any commodity: its value is the amount of socially necessary labour time needed to create it. This is the amount of socially necessary labour time needed to create the food, housing, clothes, etc. needed to keep the worker alive and able to work: his means of subsistence. This amount must also include something to provide for the raising of the worker's children who will someday be needed to replace his. Marx noted that what is "necessary" for a worker is not merely determined by biological requirements; it is also socially determined: society creates some needs for the worker. For example, some clothing even in warm weather, and some furniture, are not biological necessities, but, in many societies, are necessities in the present sense. (Technically, Marx contended that what is sold on the market is labour-power, the ability or capacity of a person to do work. The term labour in Marx, is the actual doing of some work. Whether the distinction is essential is debatable. In what follows we will write labour (-power) where Marx would have written labour-power. The reader can choose whether to read this as "labour" or "labour-power".) Labour(-power) is unique among commodities in that it is the only commodity that both has value and creates value: all commodities have value, only labour(-power) creates value. The value created by labour(-power) is simply the time during which it was exerted. This follows from the labour theory of value's definition of value as embodied labour time. * Example: * Suppose Idate: August 2010: spend three hours creating some product; and suppose also that in the process I consume means of production that sometime in the past required two hours to produce – i.e., they have a value of two hours. The value of my product will be: * :mp + lt      2 + 3   :    5     (in units of hours.) * It is apparent that I have increased the value that previously existed by 3 units; I have created 3 units of value. (This is assuming that my labour is of average quality, but more or less efficient labour can be accounted for simply by pro-rating the time: e.g., if I work only two-thirds as fast as the average person, we could say that in 3 hours I create a value of only 2.) The unique fact about labour(-power)–that it both has value and creates value–is of paramount importance because those two quantities are in general not equal. The difference between them is the source of profit to employers of labour and it is what drives the capitalist system. An employer (a capitalist) buys labour(-power) at its value (or tends to, at least). He receives from it the value it creates. If the latter is greater than the former—if the value created by labour is greater than the wage—the capitalist gains by using that labour. This difference between values, which the capitalist keeps, Marx called surplus value. The income statement (or Profit and Loss account) of the capitalist is this: * Expenditure: *   mp + lv      where lv is the value of the labour(-power). * Income: * :   value of product *   mp + lt * Difference: * :   lt - lv *   surplus value There is a large moral element in Marx's treatment of surplus value because surplus value is unearned. It may be that the capitalist does some work in the production of the product—in an accounting capacity perhaps—but in this capacity he is merely functioning as part of the work force and his labour contribution may be treated like any other. In particular, the time during which he labours himself on the product must be figured into its value, so the income becomes: * Income: * :   value of product *   mp  +  lt (other workers)  +  lt (capitalist while he works) He still makes money on the difference between lt (other workers) and lv (other workers). Besides looking at surplus-value creation from the point of view of value, Marx sometimes looked at it from the point of view of time. This leads to the same process being described in alternate terminology, as explained in the remainder of this paragraph. The worker creates value continuously during the time he is working; the longer he works, the more value he creates. Suppose he is paid by the day. At some point during the day he has created enough value for the capitalist to pay his wage; the time he works beyond that point is time during which he creates value that the capitalist gets to keep—surplus value. Marx thus divided the working day conceptually into two portions: the first portion, during which the worker creates enough value to just cover his wages (the value of his means of subsistence, if labour is paid at value) he called "necessary labour time"; and the rest, during which he creates surplus value for the capitalist, he called "surplus labour time". Marx called the portion of capital spent on means of production constant capital, and that spent on labour(-power) variable capital. His reasoning for this was as follows. Recall the equations for the capitalist's expenditure and income: * Expenditure   :    mp + lv * Value of product      mp + lt According to these two equations, the value of the means of production (mp) is simply transferred to the value of the product without alteration; the same term mp appears in the expenditure and the value of the product. Marx thus called capital spent on mp "constant" -- because the labour process doesn't change it. On the other hand, capital spent on labour(-power) "expands" during production because  lt > lv  . Marx therefore called it "variable". The ratio between the wages [the value of the labour(-power)] and the surplus value—or, alternatively speaking, the ratio between the necessary and surplus labour time—Marx called the rate of surplus value. s′  :   s / V   st / lt Where:    s′    is the rate of surplus value s is the surplus value; V is the variable capital (the wages); st is the surplus labour time; lt is the necessary labour time; Marx held that the rate of surplus-value is determined by struggle between the working class and the capitalist class. The workers attempt to increase necessary labour time (by demanding higher wages) and/or decrease surplus labour time. Two of their main weapons are trade union activity and getting legislation passed to limit the length of the working day. The capitalists attempt to do the opposite, their main lever being the fact that a worker will starve if the capitalists refuse to hire him. Marx presents considerable amounts of data in Capital (e.g. Volume I, Chap's X, XV) on wages and working conditions in England up to the late 1860s, and on the struggle via the Factory Acts to achieve legislated limits on the length of the working day for women and children. (Ca. 1833: limited to 12 hours for children, eight hours for those under 13; 1844: 12 hours for women, 6½ or seven hours for children; 1848: 10 hours for women and young persons.) These applied at first only to parts of the textile industry; between 1845 and 1863 several other industries, notably baking, were brought under the purview of these acts. * Effect of technical progress According to Marx, the amount of actual product (i.e. use-value) that a typical worker produces in a given amount of time is the productivity of labour. It has tended to increase under capitalism. This is due to increase in the scale of enterprise, to specialisation of labour, and to the introduction of machinery. The immediate result of this is that the value of a given item tends to decrease, because the labour time necessary to produce it becomes less. In a given amount of time, labour produces more items, but each unit has less value; the total value created per time remains the same. This means that the means of subsistence become cheaper; therefore the value of labour power or necessary labour time becomes less. If the length of the working day remains the same, this results in an increase in the surplus labour time and the rate of surplus value. Technological advancement tends to increase the amount of capital needed to start a business, and it tends to result in an increasing preponderance of capital being spent on means of production (constant capital) as opposed to labour (variable capital). Marx called the ratio of these two kinds of capital the composition of capital. * Current theorizing in Marxian economics Marxian economics has been built upon by many others, beginning almost at the moment of Marx's death. The second and third volumes of Das Kapital were edited by his close associate Friedrich Engels, based on Marx's notes. Marx's Theories of Surplus value was edited by Karl Kautsky. The Marxian value theory and the Perron-Frobenius theorem on the positive eigenvector of a positive matrix are fundamental to mathematical treatments of Marxist economics. Universities offering one or more courses in Marxian economics, or teach one or more economics courses on other topics from a perspective that they designate as Marxian or Marxist, include Colorado State University, New School for Social Research, School of Oriental and African Studies, Universiteit Maastricht, University of Bremen, University of California at Riverside, University of Leeds, University of Maine, University of Manchester, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, University of Massachusetts-Boston, University of Missouri–Kansas City, University of Sheffield, University of Utah, and York University (Toronto). English-language journals include Capital & Class, Historical Materialism, Monthly Review, Rethinking Marxism, Review of Radical Political Economics, and Studies in Political Economy. * Criticism Criticisms of Marxism: See also Criticisms of Socialism, Criticism of communism, and Criticisms of Communist party rule for a discussion on specific criticisms of Communist states.: Much of the critique of classical Marxian economics came from Marxian economists that revised Marx's original theory, or by the Austrian school of economics. V. K. Dmitriev, writing in 1898, Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, writing in 1906-07, and subsequent critics have alleged that Marx's value theory and law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew conclusions that actually do not follow from his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by, and equal to, aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds true. This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole source of profit. Whether the rate of profit in capitalism has, as Marx predicted, tended to fall is a subject of debate. N. Okishio, in 1961, devised a theorem (Okishio's theorem) showing that if capitalists pursue cost-cutting techniques and if the real wage does not rise, the rate of profit must rise. The inconsistency allegations have been a prominent feature of Marxian economics and the debate surrounding it since the 1970s. Andrew Kliman argues that, since internally inconsistent theories cannot possibly be right, the inconsistency charges serve to legitimate the suppression of Marx's critique of political economy and current-day research based upon it, as well as the correction of Marx's alleged inconsistencies. Critics who have alleged that Marx has been proved internally inconsistent include former and current Marxian and/or Sraffian economists, such as Paul Sweezy, Nobuo Okishio, Ian Steedman, John Roemer, Gary Mongiovi, and David Laibman, who propose that the field be grounded in their correct versions of Marxian economics instead of in Marx's critique of political economy in the original form in which he presented and developed it in Capital. Proponents of the Temporal Single System Interpretation (TSSI) of Marx's value theory claim that the supposed inconsistencies are actually the result of misinterpretation; they argue that when Marx's theory is understood as "temporal" and "single-system," the alleged internal inconsistencies disappear. In a recent survey of the debate, a proponent of the TSSI concludes that "the proofs of inconsistency are no longer defended; the entire case against Marx has been reduced to the interpretive issue." Relevance to economics: Marxist economics was assessed in 1988 by Robert M. Solow, who criticized the New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics for over-sampling articles on Marxism themes, giving "false impression of the state of play" in the economics profession: "Economists working in the Marxian-Sraffian tradition represent a small minority of modern economists, and that their writings have virtually no impact upon the professional work of most economists in major English-language universities", according to George Stigler.

Marxisme économique Courant d'inspiration marxiste | École de pensée économique | École de pensée économique hétérodoxe datejanvier 2008: Le marxisme économique est l'économie politique proposée dans les travaux de Karl Marx, et par extension les théories qui s’en sont inspirées. À proprement parler, au sein du marxisme économique, il faut faire la distinction entre l'économie marxienne dont les représentants se revendiquent directement de la pensée de Marx, l'économie marxiste, qui appuie sa réflexion sur le marxisme, et enfin les écrits économiques de Marx. Pour désigner le marxisme économique, on parle alors suivant les cas de l'économie marxienne, de l'économie marxiste, de l'économie politique marxiste, de la science économique marxiste, de la théorie économique de Marx, des écrits économiques de Marx, de l'économie politique de Marx, etc. * Présentation des écrits économiques de Marx * Conception matérialiste de l’histoire La conception matérialiste de l’histoire, inspirée du matérialisme de Ludwig Feuerbach (parfois désignée par l’expression « matérialisme historique », et initialement appelée par Marx « nouveau matérialisme »), s’applique à l’étude de la vie sociale, à l’étude de la société, à l’étude de l’histoire de la société. Les principaux points sont les suivants. Les hommes font leur propre histoire, mais sur la base de conditions données, héritées du passé. Parmi celles-ci, les conditions de la reproduction matérielle de la société sont déterminantes. D'autre part, l'histoire humaine ne suit pas comme dans le positivisme comtien un déroulement linéaire vers le progrès. Marx s'inspire de Hegel, qui considère que le devenir de toute réalité se comprend dans la triade suivante : l'affirmation (la thèse), la négation (l'antithèse), et la négation de la négation (la synthèse). Toutefois, si pour Hegel cette évolution se déduit de la nature de l'Esprit, pour Marx elle s'inscrit dans l’évolution de l’activité humaine. Aussi est-il amené à penser que les conditions économiques et matérielles déterminent l'anatomie d'une société. Et ce n'est pas la conscience des hommes qui détermine la réalité, mais c'est la réalité sociale qui détermine leur conscience. Nous retrouvons donc l'idée d'Auguste Comte selon laquelle l'Esprit est déterminé par des conditions historiques et sociales. Mais, là où Marx se démarque de Comte, c'est qu'il essaie de faire reposer cette idée sur une base scientifique et matérielle. Il rattache en effet la conscience à un mode de production, ensemble composé d'une infrastructure (nature des forces productives comme les outils et le travail, et rapports techniques et sociaux de travail) et de la superstructure (religion, Droit, morale, idéologies, science,...) Pour Marx, l'évolution de la pensée et de la société humaine, suit donc une course dialectique. Plusieurs modes de productions (féodalisme, esclavagisme, capitalisme...) se succèdent. Chaque mode se heurtant à un moment donné aux contradictions entre les institutions et les forces productives, qui trouvent leur résolution dans le mode qui leur succède. À terme, ces contradictions doivent, par l’action consciente de l’Humanité (et du prolétariat en particulier), se réconcilier dans une synthèse : le communisme. * Racines du marxisme économique Marx effectue une synthèse entre quatre grands courants économiques. * La pensée socialiste française. À la manière de Comte, Marx pense qu'il faut découvrir des lois socio-économiques historiques. De même, comme Saint-Simon qui considérait qu'il existe un clivage entre la classe des producteurs et la classe des oisifs (bourgeois, militaires, juristes, ...) au fondement historique de tous les antagonismes de classe (antinomie qu'il voulait résoudre en soumettant la société à l'intérêt des producteurs, ce qui n'exclurait pas la « dictature du prolétariat »), Marx observe que la société est divisée en plusieurs classes sociales, les deux principales étant la bourgeoisie et le prolétariat. Bien sûr, il y a de nombreuses nuances entre la philosophie marxiste et la philosophie sociale de Saint-Simon. Mais dans tous les cas, le communisme vers lequel doit tendre la société est pour une grande part inspiré des penseurs utopistes français. Marx pense que la société doit se diriger vers l'abolition de la propriété privée et l'appropriation des moyens de production par les travailleurs. * L'économie politique Classique, avec la théorie économique de la valeur-travail de David Ricardo. * La théorie du circuit qu'il emprunte aux physiocrates. * La théorie de la plus-value et de l'exploitation qu'il emprunte à Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. * Principe de l'exploitation Étudiant le mode de production capitaliste, Marx considère qu'il révèle une opposition entre deux classes sociales (bien qu'il puisse y avoir d’autres classes) : la classe bourgeoise qui détient le capital, et la classe prolétarienne, qui ne dispose que de sa force de travail. S'inspirant de l'idée d'exploitation des travailleurs lancée par Proudhon, ainsi que de la pensée ricardienne qui ramène la valeur économique à la valeur-travail, Marx pense que le capitaliste exploite le travailleur en lui subtilisant une plus-value (c’est le « sur-travail »). En effet le capitaliste ne paye que la valeur de la force de travail. Or la valeur de la force de travail et la valeur que cette force produit sont deux choses différentes. Ce que coûte un ouvrier pour pouvoir travailler et le coût réel de son produit diffèrent énormément. Un travailleur produit plus de valeur qu'il ne lui en coûte pour travailler et vivre lui et sa famille. Le capitaliste tire son profit de cette différence, qui est la plus-value. Dans la valeur du produit il y a ainsi : * la valeur des moyens de production consommés dans la fabrication du produit ; * la valeur du travail payé (constitué par la valeur de la force de travail utilisée, donc le montant des salaires) ; * et une autre partie du travail fourni par l'ouvrier qui n'est pas payée et qui constitue la plus value empochée par le propriétaire des moyens de production qui devient par ce mécanisme un capitaliste. Il tire de ces fondamentaux une théorie selon laquelle les tendances internes du système capitaliste recèlent des contradictions indépassables qui vont déclencher systématiquement et de manière récurrente, des crises économiques. Le mécanisme économique qu'il décrit est le suivant . * Circuit économique Marx emprunte certains éléments de réflexion à Ricardo. Il distingue tout d'abord, les biens qui sont produits et consommés par le producteur direct (et la communauté dans laquelle il vit) et les "marchandises qui sont produites pour l'échange direct ou le commerce. Ensuite, Marx utilise la distinction entre valeur d'usage d'une marchandise (subjective et variable d'un agent à un autre et qui change aussi avec le développement technique) et valeur d'échange (acceptable par tous les agents, ceci pour permettre justement l'échange). Enfin, Marx suppose que "la valeur" d'une marchandise est une donnée objective, fixée par la quantité de travail incorporée en elle, c'est le temps socialement nécessaire pour la produire. Elle prend forme ou se réalise grâce à l'échange et apparait comme "valeur d'échange". Ce qui intéresse Marx, c'est de comprendre la logique qui amène dans un premier temps la circulation simple des marchandises et celle du capital ensuite. Si la circulation simple de marchandises M-A-M (échange marchandise-argent et ensuite échange argent-marchandise) où l'argent intervient comme moyen de circulation (moyen d'achat) et fonctionne comme équivalent général, le troc M-M (échange marchandise contre marchandise) est caractérisé par un échange direct de valeurs où l'argent n'est pas nécessaire. La circulation M-A-M aboutit à échanger un produit contre un autre par l'intermédiaire de l'argent. Le but de l'échangiste, qui après avoir vendu quelque chose dont il n'a pas besoin, achète la marchandise qu'il désire, c'est de consommer mieux et plus. En revanche la circulation du capital A-M-A renferme en elle un objectif tout autre qui est celui d'acheter des marchandises pour les vendre plus cher. Là le but n'est pas la consommation mais l'enrichissement, faire avec l'argent plus d'argent, c'est faire du capital. Le capital est le résultat d'un long processus de développement social et n'apparait que là où la circulation simple des marchandises est déjà très développée. Enfin au stade plus évolué le capital s'assujettit la production proprement dite pour la transformer en mode de production capitaliste c’est-à-dire produire non seulement des objets d'utilité sociale, des valeurs d'usage mais surtout des marchandises, des valeurs et par dessus tout de la plus value. Produire de la plus value est le but du mode de production capitaliste. C'est sa raison d'être. Il ne stimule la production que là où il y a de la plus value. * Exploitation du travailleur et principe de la plus-value Marx considère que les capitaux engagés A se décomposent en deux parts : le capital constant c (les machines, les matières premières et les matières auxiliaires) et le capital variable v (les salaires). La valeur de A est donc A : c + v. Il suppose de plus que le capital constant ne fournit aucun surplus au capitaliste, ce n'est que le capital variable qui est source de valeur, et cette valeur est proportionnée au temps de travail social nécessaire à la production de la marchandise. Celui-ci comprend le travail indirect et le travail direct. L'exploitation des capitalistes s'exprime alors dans le fait que la force de travail utilisée n'est pas payée par le capitaliste au prorata de sa valeur. Le travailleur est payé, dans la logique de l'économie classique, au minimum vital qui permet sa subsistance. Sous la pression d'un chômage permanent, les salaires seront toujours ramenés à long terme vers le salaire minimum. Le capitaliste récupère donc une différence : la plus-value, notée pl. On a donc : A' c + v + pl. On peut dès lors définir : * le taux de plus value : pl/v qui exprime le niveau d'exploitation du travailleur. * le taux de profit : pl/(c+v), qui mesure le gain du capitaliste sur le capital engagé. La valeur produite se répartit alors dans : * Les salaires qui tendent vers le minimum vital. * Les profits, donnés par la somme des plus-values, différence entre le travail total mis en œuvre et le travail nécessaire. * Les intérêts et les rentes. Ils sont considérés par Marx comme une répartition de second degré prélevés sur les profits. Ils dépendent de facteurs monétaires ou financiers. Trois possibilités s'offrent aux capitalistes pour accroître la plus value : * Augmenter la durée du travail (c'est la plus-value absolue). * Diminuer le temps de travail pour produire l'équivalent du minimum de subsistance (c'est la plus-value relative), en pesant par exemple sur la production agricole, en améliorant le progrès technique ou en important de l'étranger - ce qui expliquerait l'impérialisme. * Produire une quantité de produit plus importante pour un même temps de travail en découvrant une innovation technologique (c'est la plus-value différentielle). Seulement, lorsque cette innovation est généralisée, du fait de la concurrence, la plus-value relative disparaît, le prix de vente rejoint le prix de production. * Baisse tendancielle du taux de profit Marx explique donc la répartition du capital et l'exploitation des travailleurs, mais il lui reste à expliquer la contradiction fondamentale du capitalisme qui conduit à l'apparition récurrente de crises. Il l'explique par le concept de baisse tendancielle du taux de profit. Marx considère que les capitalistes sont tentés d'accroître leurs capacités de production par des innovations technologiques pour obtenir un avantage temporaire sur leurs concurrents, appelé plus-value relative. Il s'ensuit qu'ils substituent des machines à la main d'œuvre, autrement dit ils substituent du capital constant c à du capital variable v, ce qui a pour conséquence d'augmenter l'intensité capitalistique de la composition organique du capital (proportion de c et v dans le capital). Comme la plus-value est donnée par l'utilisation de travail direct, et que le taux de profit est pl / (c + v), il vient une baisse tendancielle du taux de profit qui provoque des crises. Cependant, Marx dit qu'il existe des contre-tendances à cette baisse. Les capitalistes tentent de la compenser en accroissant leur débouchés (impérialisme), ou en augmentant le taux de plus-value (qui est le taux d'exploitation pl / v, donc en baissant les salaires par exemple), et on pourrait envisager un état stationnaire, mais le problème est que la substitution du travail par le capital engendre de plus en plus de chômage, une armée de réserve de travailleurs, ce qui conduit inexorablement la société vers des conflits sociaux. À terme donc, le capitalisme croule sous le poids de ses contradictions, c'est l'état de crise permanent, qui ne peut être évité que temporairement par l'expansion économique à des marchés vierges, ou par l'emballement de la croissance technologique. * Le marxisme économique après Marx Le marxisme économique a eu une grande influence sur la pensée économique du 19e: et du 20e: siècle. Celle-ci s'est exercée de différentes manières. * Courants en prolongation directe de l'économie politique de Marx On distingue généralement les marxiens des marxistes (on introduit aussi parfois le terme de marxologue pour désigner les chercheurs qui étudient l'œuvre de Marx). La délimitation est cependant assez floue. Écoles marxiennes On englobe dans l'expression écoles marxiennes des théories directement inspirées des travaux de Marx, mais qui s'en démarquent de différentes manières. Les auteurs marxiens reviennent aux travaux économiques de Marx tout en laissant le plus souvent de côté l'aspect idéologique ou métaphysique des écrits de Marx. L'école de la régulation s'inscrit dans cette lignée. Écoles marxistes Généralement, le marxisme renvoie à une doctrine et un ensemble de propositions fondamentales qui ont été tirés de l'exégèse des travaux de Marx. On pourrait inclure dans le courant marxiste les travaux de Rosa Luxemburg, de Lénine, de Karl Kautsky, de Louis Althusser, et de nombreux autres penseurs. Ces travaux sont fortement teintés de l'idéologie communiste qui n'est pourtant qu'une partie de l'œuvre de Marx. Différents courants de pensée semblent aujourd'hui développer des approches qui s'appuient sur un marxisme économique rénové. C'est le cas notamment de certains courants de pensée proches de l'altermondialisme. On peut penser par exemple à l'apport récent de Michael Hardt et Antonio Negri. * Courants qui s'inspirent du marxisme économique Le marxisme économique a inspiré les travaux de nombreux économistes. Les concepts introduits par Marx se sont retrouvés dans des travaux aux origines très diverses. Il est donc devenu presque impossible de décrire exhaustivement l'influence de son œuvre. Voici quelques exemples de théories qui s'en sont inspirées : * École historique allemande. L'économie politique de Marx a fortement influencé l'école historique allemande. Les travaux de Joseph Schumpeter traduisent ainsi un intérêt marqué pour les écrits de Marx. * École du circuit. L'école du circuit est un courant en partie d'inspiration marxiste qui insiste essentiellement sur les travaux de Marx qui sont relatifs à sa conception du circuit économique. Un des principaux représentants de ce courant est l'économiste Frédéric Poulon. * Post-marxisme. * Synthèses entre le marxisme et d'autres courants Les travaux d'Oskar Lange ou Michio Morishima, dans la lignée de ceux de John von Neumann sur l'équilibre général, ouvre des passerelles entre la pensée de Marx et celle de Walras, jugées jusque-là antagonistes. Le marxisme a donné lieu à des synthèses avec les travaux des keynésiens. Par exemple, Michał Kalecki introduira des concepts marxistes dans ses théories. Dans les pays anglo-saxons se profile un courant marxiste assez particulier, le marxisme analytique. Les marxistes analytiques réinterprètent les propositions fondamentales de Marx en les éclairant à la lumière des théories individualistes (rationalité, intérêt ...), de la microéconomie et de la philosophie analytique. Gerald Cohen, John Roemer, Philippe Van Parijs, Jon Elster ont fait partie, à des degrés divers, de ce mouvement (Elster s'en étant distancé dans les années 1990 et Van Parijs ayant participé aux travaux du groupe de Septembre sans pour autant se proclamer marxiste). Le marxisme analytique prend place parmi les débats ouverts par la Théorie de la justice (1971) de John Rawls et sa critique libertarienne par Robert Nozick dans Anarchie, État et utopie (1974). * Critiques du marxisme économique Critiques par les marxistes. La séparation du marxisme en différentes branches (marxisme économique, politique et sociologique) n'est pas considérée comme pertinente par tous les marxistes. Karl Korsch la conteste par exemple vigoureusement. Critiques externes. Le marxisme économique a fait l'objet des interrogations suivantes : * la théorie de la valeur travail garde-t-elle un sens dans l'optique marginaliste utilisée depuis la fin du XIXe siècle: ? * la notion de lutte des classes garde-t-elle une pertinence ? (voir Raymond Aron) ; * la baisse tendancielle du taux de profit dans une technologie reste-t-elle aussi importante avec les renouvellements incessants de technologie ? * les "prévisions" de Marx telles que la paupérisation de la population et l'écroulement du système capitaliste ne s'étant pas réalisées, cela ne suggère-t-il pas l'oubli de facteurs dans son analyse, comme les notions de culture libre et de biens communs (voir Lawrence Lessig) ? * Marx ne confère-t-il pas une intention collective à une classe bourgeoise moins homogène et soudée qu'il ne le prétend ? (voir cependant l'article Émergence) * Notes et références ==

أجوستا ويستلاند شركات صناعة طائرات دولية | شركات صناعة طائرات في إيطاليا | شركات صناعة طائرات في المملكة المتحدة | شركات تأسست سنة 2000 أجوستا ويستلاند AgustaWestland: هي شركة تصمم وتصنع المروحيات، تأخذ الشركة من إيطاليا والمملكة المتحدة مقرا لها. أسست الشركة في يوليو عام 2000 بعد ما تم الاتفاق بين فينمكانيكا و جي كاي أن أن يدمج شركاتا صانعة المروحيات أجوستا و ويستلاند هيليكوبترز التبعان لهما، ليملك كلن من المساهمين النصف من الشركة. تم شراء حصة شركة "جي كاي أن" من قبل شريكتها فينمكانيكا بملغ قدره 1.06£ مليار في 24 يوليو 2004. حاليا تعد فينمكانيكا المالك الوحيد لشركة. منتجاتها : * أغستاوستلاند AW101 * ڤي أتش-71 كيسترل - نوع من أي أتش101 مصممة لتكون مروحية الرئيس الأمريكي مارين ون. بالمشاركة مع لوكهيد مارتن و بيل للمروحيات. * أجوستا ويستلاند أي دبليو 109 * أجوستا ويستلاند أي دبليو 139 - سابقا أي بي 139، والتي كانت بالمشاركة مع بيل للمروحيات. * أجوستا ويستلاند أي دبليو 149 * أجوستا ويستلاند أي دبليو 159 منتجات أجوستا : * أجوستا ويستلاند أي دبليو 109 * أجوستا ويستلاند أي دبليو 119 * أجوستا أي 129 مانجوستا منتجات ويستلاند : * ويستلاند لينكس منتجات مشاركة : * أن أتش90 * بيل\أجوستا بي أي609 منتجات بالترخيص : * بيل 412 * أجوستا ويستلاند أباتشي

AgustaWestland Aircraft manufacturers of Italy | Helicopter manufacturers of Italy | Defence companies of Italy | Companies established in 2000 AgustaWestland is an Anglo-Italian helicopter design and manufacturing company. It was formed in July 2000 when Finmeccanica S.p.A. and GKN plc agreed to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries (Agusta and Westland Helicopters) to form AgustaWestland with Finmeccanica and GKN each holding a 50% share. AgustaWestland is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Finmeccanica of Italy. History: On May 26, 2004 GKN confirmed that it would sell its share to Finmeccanica for £1.06 billion. AgustaWestland opened offices in Philadelphia in 2005, and won a contract to build the new presidential helicopter Marine One over the U.S. manufacturer Sikorsky Aircraft, but this program was canceled in 2009. In early 2010 AgustaWestland acquired PZL-Świdnik, a Polish helicopter manufacturer. Products: * EH101/AW101 * VH-71 Kestrel – The cancelled VIP variant of the EH101 for the United States Marine Corps Marine One contract. Partnered with Lockheed Martin and Bell Helicopter. * AW109S Grand * AW119 * AW139 (formerly the AB139, was a 50% joint venture with Bell Helicopter) * AW149 * AW159 * AW169 * AW189 * PZL Świdnik products: ** PZL SM-1 ** PZL SM-2 ** PZL Mi-2 ** PZL Kania ** PZL W-3 Sokół ** PZL SW-4 * Joint ventures: ** NH90 (32% share) ** AW609 (100% share) * Licensed production: ** AB412 ** Westland WAH-64 Apache version of the Boeing Apache AH-64 (67 built for the British Army) production started under GKN-Westland Gallery: AW139

AgustaWestland Constructeur aéronautique italien | Constructeur d'hélicoptères | Entreprise fondée en 2000 Westland: personnes (2009) Agusta Westland SpA est une société industrielle multinationale dont la production principale sont les hélicoptères civils et militaires. C'est une filiale du groupe public de haute technologie italien Finmeccanica. Née de la fusion en 2000 de l’italien Agusta SpA et du britannique Westland Aircraft Ltd, Finmeccanica a racheté le la totalité des parts du groupe britannique pour millions de Livres * Histoire La collaboration entre les constructeurs italien Agusta et britannique Westland remonte aux années 1960 quand Westland a commencé la production sous licence du modèle AB47G Agusta, mieux connu comme le « Sioux ». À partir de 1964, Westland construit 250 de ces hélicoptères à Yeovil. La relation entre Agusta et Westland évolue depuis plus de vingt ans grâce à la collaboration sur le développement et la production de l'hélicoptère de multi-rôle EH101. Cette association a fourni la plate-forme qui a permis aux deux compagnies de conclure une intégration rapide et efficace quand le groupe public italien Finmeccanica SpA et le britannique GKN ont signé un accord pour la création d'une J-V nommée AgustaWestland en 2001. En Décembre 2004, Finmeccanica a acquis la totalité du capital AgustaWestland SpA. * Production * Appareils civils : ** Agusta A.119 Koala ** A109 Power ** A109 Power elite ** Bell 412 (production sous licence) ** Da Vinci, hélicoptères de sauvetage en montagne de la REGA ** Grand ** AB139 ** BA609 ** AgustaWestland EH101 * Appareils militaires : ** Agusta A.109 ** Agusta A.119 ** Agusta A.129 Mangusta ** Super Lynx 300 ** Apache AH MK1 (production sous licence) ** AgustaWestland EH101 * Partenariats Agusta Westland est liée aux principaux constructeurs d'hélicoptères par le moyen de partenariats ciblés : * le Bell/Agusta BA609, un convertible civil de type tiltrotor, dans le cadre d'une coentreprise avec Bell Aircraft Corporation où Agusta Westland détient 50 % des parts * l'hélicoptère de transport militaire NH90, produit par le consortium européen NHIndustries, détenu à 32 % par Agusta Westland * Agusta Westland, associé avec Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, remporta en 2005 le contrat pour 23 appareils pour le transport du Président des États-Unis (Marine One), du Vice-président (Marine Two) et des membres du cabinet présidentiel américain. Ce programme, qui devait aboutir à la mise en service de l'US101, un dérivé de l'EH101, a été stoppé le 6 avril 2009 . Notes et références :

أجوستا شركات صناعة طائرات في إيطاليا | شركات صناعة طائرات في الولايات المتحدة أجوستا Agusta: هي شركة مقرها مدينة فاريزي الإيطالية و المملكة المتحدة و تعتبر من الشركات الرائدة في تصنيع الطائرات المروحية. تم دمجها مع ويستلاند هيليكوبترز لتصبح أجوستا ويستلاند. التاريخ : * كانت بداياتها في عام 1952 برخصة تصنيع مروحيات شركة بيل للطائرات Bell Aircraft الأمريكية ، و لاحقا سيكورسكي للطائرات ومن ثم بوينغ و ماكدونل دوجلاس. * في منتصف عام 2000 قامت الشركة المنتجة فينميكانيكا Finmeccanica بالاندماج مع شركة جي كي إن البريطانية GKN تحت الاسم التجاري أجوستا ويستلاند. * في 26 مايو 2004 قامت شركة فينميكانيكا بشراء حصة جي كي إن بأكثر من مليار جنية استرليني. * في عام 2005 قامت بافتتاح فرع لها في مدينة فيلادلفيا وفازت بعقد تصنيع المروحية الرئاسية الأمريكية مارين ون Marine One في مصانع سيكورسكي للطائرات. خط التصنيع : * Agusta A.101 * Agusta A.106 * AgustaWestland AW109|A109/AW109 * AgustaWestland AW119 * Agusta A129 Mangusta|A129 Mangusta * AgustaWestland AW139 * حصص مشتركة ** AgustaWestland AW101|EH101 ** NHI NH90 (شراكة 32%) ** Bell/Agusta BA609 (شراكة 50%) * تحت الترخيص ** Bell 412|AB412 مصادر و مراجع : بوابة طيران: * بذرة طيران: Agusta:

Agusta Aircraft engine manufacturers of Italy | Helicopter manufacturers of Italy | Defence companies of Italy | Companies established in 1923 otheruses: Agusta (now part of AgustaWestland) is an Italian helicopter manufacturer. It is based in Samarate, Northern Italy. It is a subsidiary of Finmeccanica. The company was founded by Count Giovanni Agusta in 1923, who flew his first airplane in 1907. The MV Agusta motorcycle manufacturer began as an offshoot of the Agusta aviation company at the end of the Second World War as a means to save the jobs of employees of the Agusta firm. History : From 1952 the company got involved in helicopter manufacturing, first building Bell helicopters under licence, but later Sikorsky, Boeing and McDonnell Douglas products as well. The company also had ambitions to design and build its own helicopters. The Agusta A.101 and the Agusta A.106 can be considered the best of its earlier attempts. Others included the AB.102, A.103, A.104, and A.115. It also produced a small line of aero engines such as the GA.70 and GA.140. Developed in the 1970s, the Agusta A109 has undoubtedly been the company's biggest success. The A109 is a commercial and military twin turbine helicopter, of which the latest variants are still in production, hundreds having already been sold. In 1983 the Agusta A129 Mangusta anti-tank helicopter partook in its first official flight engagement. It was the first attack helicopter to be designed and produced in Western Europe. However, this helicopter has been a limited commercial success so far, seeing service with the Italian Army, and only now has a modernized variant being developed for the Turkish Army. The 1980s saw the start of several collaborative projects for Agusta. In 1981 Agusta and Westland of Britain started the EH101 medium-lift naval helicopter project in order to satisfy the requirements of the Royal Navy and the Italian Navy. In 1985 the company started a collaborative programme with the aeronautic industries of France, Germany and the Netherlands in order to develop and produce the NHI NH90, a 9-ton twin engine multi-role medium helicopter in order to satisfy the requirements of their respective countries’ armed forces. 1990s projects include the Agusta A109 Power, an improved version of the A109 (1994) and the Agusta A119 Koala (1997), a single-engine design based on the A109. Agusta became involved in a notorious Belgian bribery scandal when it was revealed that the company had paid the two Belgian socialist parties who were then (1988/1989) in the government to assist the company in getting the contract for attack helicopters for the Belgian army. In 1998 Agusta formed a joint venture with Bell Helicopter Textron called the Bell/Agusta Aerospace Company. Its aim was to develop the Bell/Agusta AB139 helicopter and the Bell/Agusta BA609 tiltrotor aircraft. Bell later withdrew from the AB139 project, which is now known as the AgustaWestland AW139. In July 2000 Finmeccanica and GKN plc agreed to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries (Agusta and GKN-Westland Helicopters), forming AgustaWestland. Products : Aircraft: * A.101 * A.106 * A109/AW109 * AW119 * A129 Mangusta ;Joint ventures: * AgustaBell AB139 * Bell/Agusta BA609 (50% share) * EHI Industries EH101 * NH90 (32% share) ;Licensed production: * AB206 * AB212 * AB412 Aircraft engines: * Agusta GA.40 * Agusta GA.70 References : Reflist:

Agusta Constructeur aéronautique italien | Constructeur d'hélicoptères | Entreprise de Lombardie | Entreprise fondée en 1923 | Groupe Finmeccanica MV Agusta: Agusta S.p.A. est une société italienne qui construit des hélicoptères. Elle a repris le constructeur britannique Westland Helicopters, et fait désormais partie du géant italien Finmeccanica. Agusta est l'une des sociétés techniquement les plus avancées sur le marché mondial de l'hélicoptère. La société est basée à Cascina Costa di Samarate, une frazione de la commune de Samarate, dans la province de Varèse, en Lombardie. De la moto à l'hélicoptère : Ses activités dans l'industrie aéronautique remontent à l'aube de l'aviation. En 1907 Giovanni Agusta, fondateur de la compagnie, décolle dans un avion qu'il a lui même construit. À partir de 1923 la compagnie, basée à Cascina Costa, travaille à la conception, la production, et à l'entretien d'avions. À la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale la famille Agusta ne pouvait espérer reprendre ses activités aéronautiques, mais Domenico Agusta avait une autre passion que l’aviation : La moto. Il crée dans le village de Verghera la société Meccanica Verghera (MV) pour construire des motos. Un premier modèle (MV 98) sort dès 1945, 50 exemplaires en sont vendus en 1946. En 1950 l’usine de Cascina Costa produit annuellement motos par an, et très rapidement MV Agusta devient synonyme de motos de compétitions. Dès 1952 MV Agusta remporte le championnat du monde en , avant de s’attribuer 17 fois de suite le titre de champion du monde entre 1958 et 1974. En 1952 le constructeur américain Bell cherche un partenaire en Europe, où Sikorsky était déjà présent par le biais d’accords avec la SNCASE en France et Westland Helicopters en Grande-Bretagne. Domenico Agusta décide alors d’acheter la licence de production du Bell 47, puis des modèles 204, 205, 206 et 212. Des accords sont également pris avec Sikorsky, puisqu’Agusta a construit les Sikorsky SH-3D Sea King destinés à la Marine italienne. Entre 1954 et 1971, année de la mort de Domenico Agusta, Costruzione Aeronautiche Giovanni Agusta construit hélicoptères. Premiers hélicoptères italiens : Cette politique de sous-traitance permet de former le personnel italien, l’expérience acquise entraine à la fin des années 1950 la création d’un bureau d’études qui développe une gamme propre de voilures tournantes. On voit donc apparaître durant les années 1960 toute une série de prototypes : * Agusta A.101, trimoteur de transport de la classe du Super Frelon dessiné par Filippo Zappata. * Agusta-Bell AB.102, dérivé du Bell 48. * Agusta A.103, un monoplace expérimental équipé d'un moteur « maison », le MV Agusta GA.70 de 85 ch. Ce prototype qui a débuté ses essais en octobre 1959 est aujourd'hui conservé au Musée Agusta. * Agusta A.104 Hélicar, version biplace du précédent qui prit l'air en décembre 1960. Deux exemplaires furent construits avec un moteur GA.140, le troisième avec une turbine expérimentale Agusta GA.270. * Agusta A.105, destiné au marché civil et entrainé par une turbine Turboméca-Agusta TA-230, dont la transmission était entièrement conçue en Italie. Deux prototypes furent construits: ** A.105, biplace, dont les essais en vol débutèrent en octobre 1964. ** A.105B, quadriplace présenté au Salon du Bourget en 1965, aujourd'hui conservé par le Musée Agusta. * Agusta A.106, ambitieux monoplace de lutte ASM dont la Marine Italienne a commandé 5 exemplaires. * Agusta A.115, dérivé du Bell 47J-3 avec une turbine Turboméca Astazou II, un seul exemplaire construit. * Agusta-Meridionali EMA.124, un triplace dérivé du Bell 47 qui aurait dû être construit par Elicotteri Meridionali. Un seul prototype fut construit, qui prit l'air le 28 mai 1970. Le 4 août 1971 eut lieu le premier vol du A.109, qui connut un gros succès commercial. En 1978, le programme A.129 est lancé, celui-ci aboutit à la réalisation du premier hélicoptère de combat spécifiquement conçu pour ce rôle en Europe. Le premier A.129 Mangusta prend l’air le 15 septembre 1983. Tout en poursuivant la production sous licence d’appareils Bell (Bell 205, 206, 212), Agusta continue à étoffer sa gamme vers le bas avec le petit monomoteur A.119 Koala, apparu en 1994. EH Industries, NH Industries et Bell/Agusta Aerospace : Poursuivant sa politique de coopération internationale, Agusta crée en 1981 avec la firme britannique Westland une coentreprise, EH Industries, avec pour objectif de réaliser et produire un hélicoptère de lutte anti-sous-marine pouvant remplacer le SH-3 Sea King, construit sous licence par les deux entreprises. En 1992 Agusta entre également à hauteur de 32 % dans le consortium international NHIndustries et crée en 1995 une autre co-entreprise, mais avec Bell cette fois, Bell/Agusta Aerospace, pour produire le convertible Bell/Agusta BA609, mais aussi un hélicoptère devant compléter vers le haut la gamme Agusta, le bimoteur AB-139, dont le prototype effectue son premier vol le 3 février 2001. AgustaWestland : Le 26 juillet 2000 les groupes Finmeccanica SpA (Italie), propriétaire d’Agusta, et GKN plc (Royaume-Uni), propriétaire de Westland, finalisent un accord prévoyant la fusion des deux entreprises. Le 12 février 2001, après approbation des autorités européennes, un géant européen de la construction d’hélicoptères est donc né, AgustaWestland. Une création qui entraîne de fait la disparition d’EH Industries. AgustaWestland est donc aujourd'hui un leader dans son domaine d'activité et le principal concurrent d'Eurocopter. Si Eurocopter a remporté le programme LUH de l’US Army, AgustaWestland, associée à Lockheed-Martin, décroche le contrat VXX. C’est donc un dérivé du EH101 qui transportera le Président des États-Unis. Le 21 novembre 2005 la co-entreprise Bell/Agusta Aerospace fait l’objet d’une redistribution du capital, Bell revendant à Agusta ses 25 % dans le programme AB-139, le groupe Finmeccanica devient le seul et unique actionnaire de la société. Appareils en production en 2010 : * A.109 LUH (bi-moteur à turbine, TURBOMECA Arrius 2K2) * A.119 Koala (monomoteur à turbine) * A.109E Power (bi-moteur performant et polyvalent) * A.109S Grand(version élargie et encore plus performant du bi-moteur A109E polyvalent, cette version sera remplacé par le AW 109 SP New Grand) * A.109SP New Grand(Un A109S Grand avec une électronique et une gestion des affichages améliorés) * A.129 Mangusta (petit hélicoptère à vocation militaire uniquement) * AB 412 (hélicoptère désigné pour le travail aérien) * AW.139 (hélicoptère de liaison, adapté à la fois aux opération off shore et transport VIP) * AW 149 (version militaire de l'AW139) * AW 159 (hélicoptère militaire de la classe 6 tonnes, version améliorée du Lynx) * AW 169 (hélicoptère civil et parapublic, version amélioré du A109) * BA609 (phase finale de certification du tilt rotor, l'hélicoptère avion) * EH101 (hélicoptère tri-turbine multi-rôle et multi-missions) Sources : * R.W.Simpson (1998). Airlife's Helicopters and Rotorcraft. Ramsbury : Airlife Publishing. * G.Apostolo (1984). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. * K.Munson (1968). Helicopters And Other Rotorcraft Since 1907.

أثل طرفاوية | نباتات طبية الأَثْل أو الطرفاء جنس نباتي من الفصيلة الطرفاوية. الموئل والانتشار : موطن الأَثل الأصلي غرب آسيا وبلدان حوض المتوسط. تتواجد أشجار الأَثل في الأماكن الدافئة ولا تتحمل الصقيع طويلاً. تنتشر جذورها في الغالب في الأراضي الرطبة بالقرب من المياه والأنهار والأَودية. في القرآن الكريم : ذُكِرَت مرّة واحدة في القرآن الكريم في الآية السادسة عشر من سورة سبأ. من أنواعه : * الأثل الآرالي Tamarix aralensis: * الأثل الأردني Tamarix jordanis: * الأثل الأطلسي Tamarix atlantis: * الأثل الإفريقي Tamarix africana: * الأثل العربي Tamarix arabica: * الأثل الفرنسي Tamarix gallica: * الأثل كبير الثمار Tamarix macrocarpa: * الأثل اللا ورقي Tamarix aphylla: * الأثل النيلي Tamarix nilotica: بذرة نبات:

Tamarix Tamarix | Invasive plant species | Iranian cuisine Italictitle: dateMarch 2008: Tamarisk: The genus Tamarix (tamarisk, salt cedar) is composed of about 50-60 species of flowering plants in the family Tamaricaceae, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa. The generic name originated in Latin and may have referred to the Tamaris River in Hispania Tarraconensis (Spain). * Description They are evergreen or deciduous shrubs or trees growing to 1–18 m in height and forming dense thickets. The largest, Tamarix aphylla, is an evergreen tree that can grow to 18 m tall. They usually grow on saline soils, tolerating up to 15,000 ppm soluble salt and can also tolerate alkali conditions. Tamarisks are characterized by slender branches and grey-green foliage. The bark of young branches is smooth and reddish-brown. As the plants age, the bark becomes bluish-purple, ridged and furrowed. The leaves are scale-like, 1–2 mm long, and overlap each other along the stem. They are often encrusted with salt secretions. The pink to white flowers appear in dense masses on 5–10 cm long spikes at branch tips from March to September, though some species (e.g. T. aphylla) tend to flower during the winter. * Reproduction Tamarix can spread both vegetatively, by adventitious roots or submerged stems, and sexually, by seeds. Each flower can produce thousands of tiny (1 mm diameter) seeds that are contained in a small capsule usually adorned with a tuft of hair that aids in wind dispersal. Seeds can also be dispersed by water. Seedlings require extended periods of soil saturation for establishment. Tamarix species are fire-adapted, and have long tap roots that allow them to intercept deep water tables and exploit natural water resources. They are able to limit competition from other plants by taking up salt from deep ground water, accumulating it in their foliage, and from there depositing it in the surface soil where it builds up concentrations temporarily detrimental to some plants. The salt is washed away during heavy rains. Tamarix trees are most often propagated by cuttings. Tamarix species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Coleophora asthenella which feeds exclusively on T. africana. * Selected species Formerly placed here: * Myricaria germanica (L.) Desv. (as T. germanica L.) * Tamarix in North America The Tamarix was introduced to the United States as an ornamental shrub, a windbreak, and a shade tree in the early 19th century. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, tree-planting was used as a tool to fight soil erosion on the Great Plains, and the trees were planted by the millions in the Great Plains Shelterbelt. Eight species are found in North America. They can be divided into two sub-groups: ;Evergreen species The Tamarix aphylla (Athel tree), a large evergreen tree, does not sexually reproduce in the local climate and is not considered a seriously invasive species. The Athel tree is commonly used for windbreaks on the edge of agricultural fields and as a shade tree in the deserts of the Southwestern United States. ;Deciduous species * The second sub-group contains the deciduous tamarisks, which are small shrubby trees, commonly known as "saltcedars." These include Tamarix pentandra, Tamarix tetranda, Tamarix gallica, Tamarix chinensis, Tamarix ramosissima, and Tamarix parvifolia. These deciduous trees establish themselves in disturbed and undisturbed streams, waterways, bottom lands, banks and drainage washes of natural or artificial water bodies, moist rangelands and pastures, and other areas where seedlings can be exposed to extended periods of saturated soil for establishment. Invasive species: It is commonly believed that Tamarix disrupts the structure and stability of North American native plant communities and degrades native wildlife habitat, by outcompeting and replacing native plant species, salinizing soils, monopolizing limited sources of moisture, and increasing the frequency, intensity and effect of fires and floods. While it has been shown that individual plants may not consume larger quantities of water than native species, it has also been shown that large dense stands of Tamarix do consume more water than equivalent stands of native cottonwoods. There is an active and ongoing debate as to when Tamarix can out-compete native plants, and if it is actively displacing native plants or it just taking advantage of disturbance by removal of natives by humans and changes in flood regimes. Research on competition between Tamarix seedlings and co-occurring native trees has found that the seedlings are not competitive over a range of environments, however stands of mature trees effectively prevent native species establishment in the understory, due to low light, elevated salinity, and possibly changes to the soil biota. Thus, anthropogenic activities that preferentially favor tamarisk (such as changes to flooding regimes) are associated with infestation. To date, Tamarix has taken over large sections of riparian ecosystems in the western United States that were once home to native cottonwoods and willows, and are projected by some to spread well beyond the current range. Controls: There are several ways to deal with pest populations of tamarisk in the United States. The National Park Service has used physically removing the plants, spraying them with herbicides, and introducing northern tamarisk beetles (Diorhabda carinulata) in the National Park System. This has been done in the Dinosaur National Monument in Utah and Colorado along the Green and Yampa Rivers, during the summers of 2006 and 2007. After years of study, the USDA Agricultural Research Service has found that the tamarisk beetles eat only the tamarisk, and starve when there is no more tamarisk available. No other native North American plants have been found to be eaten by the introduced tamarisk beetle. Progress is slow, but proves that containment of the tamarisk is possible in the long term. * Uses * The tamarisk is used as an ornamental shrub, a windbreak, and a shade tree. The wood may be used for carpentry or firewood. It is a possible agroforestry species. * Plans are being made for the tamarisk to play a role in anti-desertification programs in China., * Salt cedars can be planted to mine salts, then be used in the production of fuel and fertilizer (although the latter will be somewhat salty). Invasive species: Tamarix ramosissima has naturalized and become a major invasive plant species in parts of the world, such as in the Southwestern United States and Desert Region of California, consuming large amounts of groundwater in riparian and oases habitats. The balance and strength of the native flora and fauna is being helped by various restoration projects, by removing, like tall woody noxious weeds, Tamarix groves. Cultural history: In Genesis 21:33, Abraham is recorded to have "planted a tamarisk at Beer-sheba". He had built a well there, earlier. In the Quran 34:16, the people of Saba were punished when "[Allah] converted their two garden (rows) into gardens producing bitter fruit and tamarisks [...]" In Egyptian Mythology, the body of Osiris is hidden for a time in a tamarisk tree in Byblos, until it was retrieved by Isis. A reference to this is also made in the computer game, Age of Mythology, where the head of Osiris is said to be hidden inside the trunk of a great tamarisk tree. Wedgwood made a “Tamarisk” China pattern. According to the New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, the tamarisk plant is a favorite of the Greek god Apollo. References: dateFebruary 2008: reflist: : Further reading=== * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * .

Tamarix Flore (nom vernaculaire) | Tamaricaceae | Bonsaï végétal : Tamarix: Taxobox fin: Tamarix (les tamaris ou tamarix) est un genre d'arbustes ou de petits arbres qui appartenant à la famille des Tamaricacées. Il est fréquent dans les régions méditerranéennes, où il peut être spontané ou cultivé. Ses fleurs printanières (mars-avril) forment de nombreux chatons de couleur rose ou blanchâtre. Ses petites feuilles alternes et écailleuses sont semblables à celles de certains conifères. Le fruit est une petite capsule triangulaire. Principales espèces : * Tamarix africana * Tamarix aphylla * Tamarix aralensis * Tamarix canariensis * Tamarix chinensis * Tamarix dioica * Tamarix gallica * Tamarix mannifera * Tamarix tetrandra * Tamarix ultorana * Tamarix ramossissima - Tamarix d'été Répartition géographique : Le tamaris gallica est adapté au climat méditerranéen alors que le tamaris anglais (Tamaris anglica Webb.) est mieux adapté au climat océanique et se retrouve sur la côte atlantique.

لسان منحني نجمية | نباتات المشرق العربي | نباتات المغرب العربي | نباتات روسيا | نباتات قازاخستان | نباتات القوقاز | نباتات أذربيجان | نباتات إيران | نباتات أرمينيا | نباتات إسبانيا | نباتات إيطاليا | نباتات فرنسا اللُسّان المنحني Carduus nutans: نوع نباتي يتبع جنس اللُسّان من الفصيلة النجمية. موطنه الأصلي المشرق العربي والمغرب العربي وجنوب روسيا وقازاخستان والقوقاز وأذربيجان وإيران وأرمينيا. وينتشر في كل أوروبا و جنوباً في إيطاليا و إسبانيا . يتواجد في كل المناطق حتى ارتفاع 2500 م. يفضل المراعي والأراضي المهجورة الكلسية منها مع حرارة الشمس، لذا يعتبر محباً للحرارة ويتواجد ضمن مجموعة شوك الحمار Onopordum acanthium: ، النبات الرحيقي المعروف على جوانب الطرق و سكك القطار وعلى أطراف المزارع وعند الأسيجة. الوصف النباتي : نبات ثنائي الحول يزهر في السنة الثانية في الصيف (تموز إلى أيلول). تنضج بذوره الغنية بالزيت في تشرين الأول، وبعد نضج الثمار تنتهي دورته و يذبل. مصادر : ثبت المراجع: بذرة نبات:

Carduus nutans Carduus | Invasive plant species italic title: The Musk thistle or Nodding thistle (Carduus nutans) is a member of the sunflower family Asteraceae. It is a biennial herb with showy red-purple flowers and sharply spiny stems and leaves. It is native to much of Europe and Asia except for the far north. Description: Mature plants range in height from 1-1.5 m tall and have multi-branched stems. The leaves are dark green, coarsely bipinnately lobed, with a smooth, waxy surface and sharp yellow-brown to whitish spines at the tips of the lobes. They are more or less hairy on top, and wooly on the veins below. The large globose flower heads, containing hundreds of tiny individual flowers, are 3–5 cm (rarely to 7 cm) diameter and occur at the tips of stems. The flower heads commonly droop to a 90° to 120° angle from the stem when mature, hence its alternate name of "Nodding thistle". Each plant may produce thousands of straw-colored seeds adorned with plume-like bristles. They are 4 to 6 cm across, with purple-red bracts. The stem is cottony/hairy. Musk thistle is usually a biennial, requiring 2 years to complete a reproductive cycle. However, it may germinate and flower in a single year in warmer climates. Seedlings may emerge at any time from spring to late summer and develop a rosette of large leaves 30–60 cm long. Plants overwinter in the rosette stage, sending up a multi-branched flowering stem in mid spring of their second year. The number of flowerheads per plant is site-dependent and ranges from about 20-50 on good sites and 1-20 on poor sites. Flowering occurs from late spring to late summer, and seed dissemination occurs approximately one month after the flowers form. A single flower head may produce 1,200 seeds and a single plant up to 120,000 seeds, which are wind dispersed. The seeds may remain viable in the soil for over ten years, making it a difficult plant to control. Musk thistle grows from sea level to an elevation of about 2,500 m in neutral to acidic soils. It typically grows on open disturbed soil or heavily grazed land in areas such as meadows, arable land, roadsides, building sites and similar. It spreads rapidly in areas subjected to frequent natural disturbance events such as landslides and flooding, but does not grow well in excessively wet, dry or shady conditions. * Cultivation Musk thistle was introduced into the eastern North America in the early 19th century and has a long history there as an invasive species. It has been declared a noxious weed in Australia, many U.S. states and Canadian provinces. Some farmers spend many hours attempting to rid them from farm ground, mostly pastures. It is equally noxious to farming operations in New Zealand. * References== reflist:

Chardon penché Flore (nom vernaculaire) | Asteraceae | Adventice | Plante envahissante végétal : Carduus_nutans: Taxobox fin: Le chardon penché (Carduus nutans) est une plante bisannuelle de la famille des Astéracées commune en Europe. Autres noms vernaculaires : chardons aux ânes, cardinal. Description : C'est une plante épineuse à port dressé qui peut atteindre un mètre de haut. Sa racine pivotante est assez développée. Les feuilles ont un limbe découpé et bordé d'épines nombreuses. Elle se prolongent en ailes sur la tige. Les fleurs, rose pourpre, parfois blanches, sont réunies en capitules de 3 à 5 cm de diamètre, qui prennent un port penché lorsqu'ils sont épanouis. Elles sont toutes tubulées stamino-pistillées et donnent des akènes équipés de pappus. L'involucre est constitué de bractées nombreuses terminées par une épine simple, forte et piquante, les plus extérieures, étalées et renversées, rayonnent autour du capitule. Sous espèces : * Carduus nutans ssp. alpicola (Gillot) Chass. & Arènes - Chardon des Alpes * Carduus nutans ssp. leiophyllus (Petrovic) Stojanov * Carduus nutans ssp. macrocephalus (Desf.) Nyman * Carduus nutans ssp. nutans L. - Chardon penché * Carduus nutans subsp. platylepis (Rchb. & Saut.) Nyman - Chardon à bractées larges Caractéristiques : * Organes reproducteurs : ** Type d'inflorescence : racème de capitules ou capitule simple ** Répartition des sexes : hermaphrodite ** Type de pollinisation : entomogame, autogame ** Période de floraison : juillet à septembre * graine : ** Type de fruit : akène ** Mode de dissémination : anémochore * Habitat et répartition : ** Habitat type : friches vivaces xérophiles, médioeuropéennes, mésothermes ** Aire de répartition : eurasiatique ** très aimé par les chardonneret données d'après : . Origine et distribution : Cette espèce est spontanée dans une vaste zone de l'ancien monde incluant : * en Europe : les îles britanniques, l'Europe centrale (Allemagne, Suisse, Autriche, Tchécoslovaquie), les pays baltes, la Russie, l'ouest et le sud (Pays-Bas, Belgique, France, Espagne, Italie, ex-Yougoslavie) ; * en Asie centrale : Caucase : Arménie, Azerbaïdjan, Géorgie, Daghestan ; Sibérie occidentale, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang (Chine). Elle s'est largement naturalisée dans tous les pays tempérés. C'est une plante assez commune dans toute la France, ainsi qu'en Belgique. Le chardon penché est une mauvaise herbe typique des friches récentes et des bords de champs labourés. Il s'établit au printemps et forme la première année une rosette de feuilles aplatie au sol (qui de ce fait résiste au fauchage dans les prairies) et n'émet sa tige florifère que la seconde année.

علم الصومال الصومال | أعلام دول أفريقيا | أعلام دول عربية علم الصومال الحالي]] علم الصومال (بالصومالية: Calanka Soomaaliya) وتم اعتماده في 12 أكتوبر 1954. وقام بتصميمه "محمد عوالي ليبان" والذي كان مقدرا له أن يمثل كل الأراضي الصومالية أو التي يقتنها الصوماليون وقد استخدم العلم لتمثيل جمهورية الصومال الديموقراطية في أعقاب توحيد شطري الصومال: الصومال البريطاني والصومال الإيطالي في 1 يوليو 1960. التاريخ : في الأشهر الأولى من عام 1954 أجتمع المجلس التشريعي الصومالي بحضور ممثلين عن الشعب الصومالي والأمم المتحدة وإيطاليا لوضع كافة التشريعات والقوانين وذلك حتى يتسنى إقامة دولة وحكومة منظمة قبل إعلان الاستقلال الذي كان مقررا له عام 1960. وكان موضوع العلم الصومالي مطروحا على أجندة اجتماعات المجلس التشريعي، وعند طرح الموضوع للنقاش أصر "محمد عوالي ليبان" على أن يحضر المناقشة ممثلي الشعب الصومالي فقط لأنه شأن داخلي بالكامل وهو الطلب الذي وافق عليه أعضاء المجلس التشريعي بالإجماع ووقع اختيار الأعضاء على محمد عوالي ليبان نفسه ليضع تصميما للعلم المنتظر والذي قدمه لأعضاء المجلس التشريعي في العاشرة والنصف من صباح اليوم التالي. الألوان : وفقا لمحمد علي ليبان نفسه فإن اللون الأزرق قد اختير ليكون مماثلا للون علم الأمم المتحدة وذلك للتعبير عن امتنان الشعب الصومالي للدور الذي لعبته الأمم المتحدة حتى تنال الصومال استقلالها، أما اللون الأبيض الذي رسمت به النجمة في وسط العلم فهو للتعبير عن السلام والرخاء وأخيرا النجمة الخماسية فهي تدل على المناطق الخمسة التي يتواجد بها الشعب الصومالي وهي: الصومال البريطاني والصومال الإيطالي والصومال الفرنسي (جيبوتي) وأقليم أوجادين والمقاطعة الحدودية الشمالية. أراء أخرى مختلفة عن مغزى اللون الأزرق في العلم الصومالي ترجح أنه يشير إلى المحيط الهندي الذي يحيط بالصومال، وهو رأي ضعيف للغاية مقارنة بسابقه. تسمية العلم : يطلق على العلم الصومالي اسم "Azure, a mullet Argent" والذي يعني بالإيطالية: "الأزرق السماوي والفضي البوري" في إشارة للألوان المستخدمة في العلم الصومالي. يوم العلم : يحتفل بيوم العلم في الصومال في 26 يونيو من كل عام وهو يوافق ذكرى رفع العلم الصومالي لأول مرة على الأراضي الصومالية وتحديدا مدينة هرجيسا في 26 يونيو 1960 وذلك بعد انسحاب القوات البريطانية من مدينة. أعلام أخرى : القوات المسلحة : مناطق مستقلة داخل الصومال : مناطق كانت ولم تعد مستقلة داخل الصومال : الجماعات الإسلامية في الصومال : أعلام تاريخية : أعلام مشابهة : المراجع : * انظر أيضاً : * نشيد الصومال الوطني أعلام الدول العربية: أعلام دول أفريقيا: مواضيع الصومال:

Flag of Somalia National symbols of Somalia | National flags The flag of Somalia (Calanka Soomaaliya: ) was adopted on October 12, 1954. It was designed by Mohammed Awale Liban. Upon reunification of Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland, the flag was used for the nascent Somali Republic. History: The flag of Somalia was created in 1954 during the transitional trusteeship period of the nation's history. It was personally designed by the Somali scholar Mohammed Awale Liban, after having being selected by the Somali labour trade union to come up with a design in preparation for independence. Characteristics: An ethnic flag, the five-pointed white Star of Unity in its center represents the Somali ethnic group found in Djibouti, the Ogaden region in Ethiopia, the North Eastern Province in Kenya, and the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland territories. The light blue represents the Indian Ocean flanking Somalia. It is most similar to the flag of Vietnam, which is the same, except Vietnam's flag is red and yellow, and the star in that flag is slightly bigger. It also resembles the Bonnie Blue Flag of West Florida. The blue colour of Somalia's flag is taken from the flag of the United Nations, in honour of the United Nations' role in Somalia gaining independence. The blazon, or heraldic description, of this flag is: Azure, a mullet Argent.

Drapeau de la Somalie Drapeau national | Drapeau d'Afrique | Somalie }} Le drapeau de la Somalie est le drapeau national et le pavillon national de la République de Somalie. Il est adopté le 12 octobre 1954. Le drapeau dessiné par Mohammed Awale Liban devait être utilisé pour la Somalie britannique mais finalement attribué au nouveau pays issue de la fusion entre la Somalie italienne et la Somalie britannique. Selon M. Liban, le drapeau devrait ressembler au drapeau de l'ONU qui a aidé la Somalie à gagner son indépendance envers l'Italie. Les cinq branches de l'étoile symbolisent les cinq zones où vivent les Somalis : la Somalie britannique, la Somalie italienne, la Somalie française (Djibouti), l'Ogaden (Éthiopie) et le Nord du Kenya. Palette Drapeaux d'Afrique:

بيير ميشان فلكيون فرنسيون | مواليد 1744 | وفيات 1804 بيري ميتشاين Pierre Méchain: (16 آب (أغسطس) 1744م - 20 أيلول (سبتمبر) 1804م) هو فلكي فرنسي كان هو وزميله شارل مسييه من أوائل من درسوا أجسام الفضاء البعيدة والمذنبات. حياته : في بداية عمره كان اهتمامه مركزا على الرياضيات والفيزياء لكن الفلكي الفرنسي "جيروم لاليند" أثار اهتمامه بعلم الفلك بعد ذلك. وفي عام 1770م انتقل للعمل في وظيفة تتعلق بدراسات فيزيائية وخلال تلك الفترة وفي عام 1774 تقريباً التقى بشارل مسييه وأصبحا صديقين. وفي السنة نفسها أنجز عمله الفلكي الأول وهو ورقة تصف وصفاً علمياً حجب القمر لنجم الدبران. وفي عام 1777م تزوج وأنجب بعدها ثلاثة أولاد. ثم عَمل برسم خرائط لفرنسا وإسبانيا حتى قرابة عام 1791م.ثم اندلعت الثورة الفرنسية وتم اعتقاله لأنه قد شُك بأن أدواته هي أسلحة، واحتجز في برشلونة ثم اندلعت الحرب بين إسبانيا وفرنسا وصودرت أملاكه في باريس. ثم تم إطلاق سراحه ورحل إلى إيطاليا ثم عاد أخيراً إلى فرنسا في عام 1795م. ومنذ عام 1799م أصبح مديراً في مرصد باريس. اكتشافاته : اكتشف بيري ميتشاين ما يتراوح بين 26 و27 من أجرام الفضاء البعيدة 18 منها هي ضمن فهرس مسييه (أي أنه اكتشف سُدس أجرام مسييه تقريباً): * م63. * م72. * م74. * م75. * م76 (سديم دمبل الصغير). * م77. * م78. * م79. * م85. * م94. * م95. * م96. * م97 (سديم البومة). * م98. * م99. * م100. * م101 (مجرة دولاب الهواء). * م102. * م103. وتوجد بعض الأجرام الأخرى التي نُسبت إليه لكنه ليس المُكتشف الحقيقي لها. أسبوع الويكي: بوابة فلك: فهرس مسييه:

Pierre Méchain 1744 births | 1804 deaths | People from Laon | Deaths from yellow fever | French astronomers | Comet discoverers | Members of the French Academy of Sciences | Infectious disease deaths in Spain Pierre François André Méchain (16 August 1744 – 20 September 1804) was a French astronomer and surveyor who, with Charles Messier, was a major contributor to the early study of deep sky objects and comets. * Life Pierre Méchain was born in Laon, the son of the ceiling designer and plasterer Pierre François Méchain. He displayed mental gifts in mathematics and physics but had to give up his studies for lack of money. However, his talents in astronomy were noticed by Joseph Jérôme Lalande, for whom he became a friend and proof-reader. Lalande then secured a position for him with the Naval Depot of Maps at Versailles, where he worked through the 1770s engaged in hydrographic work and coastline surveying. It was during this time—approximately 1774—that he met Charles Messier, with whom he also became friends. In this year he also produced his first astronomical work, a paper on an occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon. In 1777 he married Barbe-Thérèse Marjou, who bore him two sons and a daughter. He was admitted to the French Académie des sciences in 1782, and was the editor of Connaissance des Temps from 1785 to 1792; this was the journal which, among other things, first published the list of Messier objects. With his surveying skills, he worked on maps of Northern Italy and Germany after this, but his most important mapping work was geodetic: the determination of the southern part of the meridian arc of the Earth's surface between Dunkirk and Barcelona beginning in 1791. This measurement would become the basis of the metric system's unit of length, the meter. He encountered numerous difficulties on this project, largely stemming from the effects of the French Revolution. He was arrested after it was suspected his instruments were weapons, he was interned in Barcelona after war broke out between France and Spain, and his property in Paris was confiscated during The Terror. He was released from Spain to live in Italy, then returned home in 1795. From 1799, he was the director of the Paris Observatory. Continuing doubts about his measurements of the Dunkirk-Barcelona arc led him to return to that work. This took him back to Spain in 1804, where he caught yellow fever and died in Castellon de la Plana. * Discoveries Méchain discovered either 26 or 27 deep-sky objects, depending on how one counts M102. Eighteen of these were included in the Messier catalog: * Sunflower Galaxy, the Sunflower Galaxy * Globular Cluster M72 * Spiral Galaxy M74, the Phantom Galaxy * Globular Cluster M75 * Little Dumbbell Nebula, the Little Dumbbell Nebula * Spiral Galaxy M77 * M78 * Globular Cluster M79 * Messier 85 * M94 * M95 * M96 * Owl Nebula, the Owl Nebula * M98 * M99, the Coma Pinwheel Galaxy * M100 * Pinwheel Galaxy, the Pinwheel Galaxy * M102, an object listed in the Messier Catalogue that remains unidentified * M103 He independently discovered four others, originally discovered by someone else but unknown to him at the time and included in the Messier catalog: M71, discovered by Philippe de Cheseaux in the 1740s; M80, discovered by Messier about two weeks earlier than Méchain's observation; and M81 and M82, discovered originally by Johann Bode. Six other discoveries are "honorary Messier objects" added to the list in the 20th century: M104, M105, M106, M107, M108, M109. He also discovered NGC 5195, the companion galaxy that makes M51 (AKA the Whirlpool Galaxy) so distinctive. One other Messier object can be attributed to him, M102. However, Méchain specifically disavowed the observation from 1783 onwards as a mistaken re-observation of M101. Since that time, others have proposed that he did in fact observe another object, and suggested what they might be. See the discussion for more details. Interestingly, Méchain never set out to observe deep-sky objects. Like Messier, he was solely interested in cataloging objects that might be mistaken for comets; having done so, he was the second-most successful discoverer of comets of his time, after Messier himself. Altogether, he discovered nine comets either alone or in combination with Messier . His sole discoveries are: * C/1781 M1 (Mechain), 1781 I * C/1781 T1 (Mechain), 1781 II * C/1785 E1 (Mechain), 1785 II * 2P/Encke, discovered in 1786 * C/1787 G1 (Mechain), 1787 I * 8P/Tuttle, discovered in 1790 * C/1799 P1 (Mechain), 1799 II * C/1799 Y1 (Mechain), 1799 III His co-discovery with Messier was C/1785 A1 (Messier-Mechain), former designation 1785 I. Note that only the two named comets have been connected to periodic comets that have computed orbits and in neither case was he an observer when they were computed, so by that technical definition (commonly used for comets since the 19th century) Méchain did not discover any of these nine. * Legacy Asteroid 21785 Méchain is named after him. * Footnotes== reflist:

Pierre Méchain Astronome du XVIIIe siècle | Astronome français | Membre de l'Académie des sciences (France) | Ingénieur du corps des ponts et chaussées | Naissance en 1744 | Naissance à Laon | Décès en 1804 | Découvreur de comète | Créateur du système métrique Pierre François André Méchain, né à Laon le 16 août 1744 et mort à Castellón de la Plana (Espagne) le 20 septembre 1804, est un astronome français. Avec son ami Charles Messier, il est l'un de ceux qui découvrirent le plus d'objets du ciel profond. Sa vie : Pierre Méchain est le fils de l'architecte Pierre François Méchain. Il se révèle doué en mathématiques et en physique mais doit abandonner ses études par manque d'argent. Ses talents en astronomie sont remarqués par Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande (1732-1807) dont il devient l'ami et qui l'engage comme assistant. Il se lie également avec Charles Messier en 1774. Le 4 novembre 1777, il épouse Barbe-Thérèse Marjou, dont il a deux garçons et une fille. Il est admis à l'Académie des sciences en 1782. Il est chargé de la connaissance des temps en 1788 et remplit une mission géodésique entre 1792 et 1795, année où il entre au Bureau des longitudes. Il a laissé un fils, Jérôme Isaac Méchain, astronome comme son père. A Paris (XIVe) une rue, et à Laon un lycée portent son nom en son honneur. Ses découvertes : Pierre Méchain est connu surtout pour avoir découvert une majeure partie des objets du catalogue Messier. Entre 1779 et 1782, il ne découvre pas moins de 29 objets dont il indique la position à son ami Charles Messier, qui les inclut dans son catalogue. Méchain découvre deux comètes en 1781 et détermine leur orbite grâce à ses connaissances mathématiques. En 1781 et 1799, il ne découvre pas moins de sept comètes. Il effectue également, avec Jean-Baptiste Delambre, une mesure de l'arc Dunkerque-Barcelone afin de déterminer précisément le mètre, mais il refuse de communiquer ses mesures à cause d'une anomalie qui l'obsède jusqu'à sa mort. C'est d'ailleurs pour refaire la mesure qu'il retourne en Espagne, où il meurt de la fièvre jaune. Publications : * Base du système métrique décimal, avec Jean-Baptiste Delambre (3 volumes, 1806)

هايدن بانتير مواليد 1989 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | ممثلات أمريكيات | نيويورك | أشخاص من نيويورك هايدن بانتير Hayden Panettiere: ممثلة ومغنية أمريكية من مواليد 21 اغسطس 1989 في ولاية نيويورك، حاصلة على جائزة زحل عام 2006 لأفضل ممثلة في دور مساند عن دورها في مسلسل هيروز . وحصلت أيضا على جائزة أفضل ممثلة شابة في مسابقة اختيار المراهقين Teen Choice Award. دورها في مسلسل Heroes يعتبر من أشهر الأدوار التي قامت بها غير أن هذا المسلسل كان سبب في نجاحها. لأنه يعتبر من أكثر المسلسلات متابعةً في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. هايدن بانتير لديها عدة مشاريع سينمائية أحدها " I Love You, Beth Cooper " الذي سيكون في صالات السينما * حياتها ولدت هايدن بانتير وترعرعت في نيويورك وهي ابنة ليزلي ر فوجل، وأوبرا ممثلة السابقة ،وهي إيطالية في الاصل تلقت تعليمها في المنزل من الصف 9 واجلت هايدن بانتير التعليم العالي لصالح مهنة التمثيل * الجوائز * 2007 : اختيار الممثلة التلفزيونية : دراما—الأبطال * 2008 : اختيار التلفزيون ممثلة : مغامرة—الأبطال * 2009 : اختيار الممثلة التلفزيونية : مغامرة—الأبطال * أفضل ممثلة صاعدة، دور الدعم—الأميرة الثلج (2005): المراجع ثبت المراجع:

Hayden Panettiere 1989 births | Actors from New York | American activists | American child actors | American child singers | American environmentalists | American female singers | American film actors | American musicians of Italian descent | American people of Italian descent | American soap opera actors | American television actors | American vegetarians | American voice actors | Animal rights advocates | Hollywood Records artists | Living people | Musicians from New York | People from Rockland County, New York dateJune 2011: Hayden Leslie Panettiere (; born August 21, 1989) is an American actress and singer, best known as cheerleader Claire Bennet on the NBC television series Heroes. She began her acting career by playing Sarah Roberts on One Life to Live (1994–1997), and Lizzie Spaulding on Guiding Light (1996–2000), before starring at age 10 as Sheryl Yoast in the Disney feature film Remember the Titans, and then achieved wider fame on Heroes. She also had a leading role, as Kirby Reed, in the 2011 horror film Scream 4. * Early life Panettiere was born in and partly raised in Palisades, New York, the daughter of Lesley R. Vogel, a former soap opera actress, and Alan L. "Skip" Panettiere, a fire department lieutenant. Panettiere is of Italian descent, her surname meaning "baker" in Italian. She has one younger brother, fellow actor Jansen Panettiere. Although Panettiere attended South Orangetown Middle School in New York, she was homeschooled from grade nine to the completion of high school. For now, Panettiere is postponing higher education in favor of an acting career. * Career * Acting * Television Panettiere first appeared in commercials at 11 months, beginning with an advertisement for Playskool. She landed a role as Sarah Roberts on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live (1994–1997), and she followed that up by playing the part of Elizabeth "Lizzie" Spaulding on the CBS soap opera Guiding Light (1997–2000). While on Guiding Light, Panettiere's character Lizzie battled leukemia. For drawing the attention of daytime viewers to the disease, and for improving national awareness, the Leukaemia & Lymphoma Society gave her its Special Recognition Award. For her performance in Lifetime Television's 1999 TV movie If You Believe, she was nominated for the Young Artist Award for Young Actress Age Ten or Under in the category of Best Performance in a TV Movie or Pilot. Panettiere appeared on Fox's Ally McBeal as the title character's daughter, had a recurring guest role on Malcolm in the Middle and guest starred in . Panettiere became most prominent as Claire Bennet in the NBC series Heroes, which was created by Tim Kring, as a high school cheerleader with regenerative healing powers. Thanks to her role on Heroes, she became a regular on the science fiction convention circuit, invited to attend conventions around the world in 2007, including Gen Con, New York Comic-Con, and Fan Expo Canada. Panettiere has complained that her acting options are sometimes limited because "people look at [her] as either the 'popular cheerleader' type or just 'the blonde.'" In early 2007, Panettiere appeared on the MTV show, Punk'd. The appearance was engineered by her mother and involved a male "fan" discussing her work with her, instigating a jealous reaction from the man's spouse. * Films Panettiere has appeared in over a dozen full-length feature films. In 1998, she provided the voice for Dot in A Bug's Life. She played the role of Coach Yoast's daughter, Sheryl, in the 2000 Disney film Remember the Titans. She also starred in as a cheerleader and had a supporting role as Adelaide Bourbon in the independent film Shanghai Kiss. In 2004, she appeared in the Disney Channel film Tiger Cruise, and in Raising Helen as Kate Hudson's adolescent niece. In 2005, she was the title character's rival in a skating contest in Ice Princess. In the same year she starred in the film Racing Stripes where she played the character Channing Walsh. In June 2007, she signed with the William Morris Agency, after previously being represented by United Talent Agency. Forbes estimated that she earned $2 million in 2007. In 2008, Panettiere appeared in the drama Fireflies in the Garden as a younger version of Emily Watson's character, Jane Lawrence. In September 2008, she appeared in a satirical video, a mock-PSA (public service announcement) on funnyordie.com entitled "Hayden Panettiere PSA: Your Vote, Your Choice." Again, in October, Panettiere appeared in another satirical PSA video on funnyordie.com entitled "Vote for McCain: He's just like George Bush, except older and with a worse temper." In July 2009, Panettiere starred in the teen comedy I Love You, Beth Cooper. In September 2010, Panettiere was signed to star as Amanda Knox in the controversial . Panettiere also provided the voice of Kate, along side Justin Long in 2010's Alpha and Omega. In 2011, she replaced Anne Hathaway as the voice of Red for the animated sequel Hoodwinked Too! Hood vs. Evil. In April 2011, Panettiere appeared in the sequel of the Scream franchise, Scream 4. She played Kirby Reed, alongside Emma Roberts and Rory Culkin. Video games : Panettiere voices Kairi in the Kingdom Hearts series of video games created by Square Enix. She also voiced as Xion in the secret ending of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep replacing Alyson Stoner. Singing : Panettiere was nominated for a Grammy in 1999 for A Bug's Life Read-Along (2000). In 2004, she recorded a song entitled "My Hero Is You" with a video for the Disney Channel film she starred in, Tiger Cruise. The next year she recorded a song entitled "I Fly" for the Disney film Ice Princess in which she also co-starred. She recorded a song for the Hollywood Records compilation Girl Next (2006) and another song entitled "Go to Girl" for Girl Next 2 (2007). Also in 2007, She also recorded a cover for "Cruella De Vil" for DisneyMania 5, "Try" for the Bridge to Terabithia soundtrack and a ballad called "I Still Believe" for . Panettiere's first single, "Wake Up Call", was digitally released on August 5, 2008. A clothing brand named Candie's announced that it was premiering an ad campaign for the single in late July. Similarly, Candie's would also provide additional promotion for the single with a television advertisement and a music video. Commercial-product endorser : In late 2006, Neutrogena made Panettiere the cover girl for their new worldwide ad campaign; following in the footsteps of actresses Kristin Kreuk, Josie Bissett, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Mandy Moore, Mischa Barton, Gabrielle Union and Jennifer Freeman. In September 2007, Panettiere appeared in a Heroes-themed Got Milk? ad for which the photographs were shot by Annie Leibovitz. In February 2008, Kohl's announced that Panettiere would be their next Candie's spokesperson. * Personal life Panettiere has dated heavyweight boxer Wladimir Klitschko. She was ringside for his knockout victory over Samuel Peter on September 11, 2010. The actress confirmed on May 12, 2011 that she and Klitschko have broken up amicably after two years together. Both cited the long-distance nature of their relationship as the reason, and said they would remain close friends. Panettiere has a tattoo of the Italian words Vivere senza rimipianti [sic] running down her left side. The word rimpianti is misspelled in what otherwise would mean "To Live Without Regrets". Activism : In 2007, Panettiere became an official supporter of Ronald McDonald House Charities and is a member of their celebrity board, called the Friends of RMHC. On October 31, 2007, Panettiere joined with The Whaleman Foundation to try to disrupt the annual dolphin hunt in Taiji, Wakayama, Japan. She was involved in a confrontation between Japanese fishermen and five other surfers from Australia and the United States (including former Home and Away star Isabel Lucas) of the group. The confrontation lasted more than 10 minutes before the surfers were forced to return to the beach, after which they left the country. Parts of the confrontation can be seen on the award-winning Sundance Film Festival documentary film, The Cove. The fishermen consider the condemnation as an attack on their culture. Panettiere told E! News that an arrest warrant has been issued in Japan for her interference in the dolphin hunt, but her claim was later dismissed by the Japanese Fisheries Agency. In November 2007, she was awarded the "Compassion in Action Award" from the animal rights group PETA for her efforts to stop the dolphin hunt in Japan. She is also a vegetarian. On January 28, 2008, Panettiere handed a letter of protest to the Norwegian ambassador in the United States arguing that Norway should stop its hunt for whales. She also delivered a letter to the Japanese ambassador calling for the end of Japan's hunting of whales. At a 2007 Greenpeace event in Anchorage, Alaska, Panettiere defended aboriginal whaling, saying that there is a difference between commercial whaling and the whaling practiced by aboriginal tribes in the United States. In May 2008, Panettiere was involved in an eBay auction to benefit Save The Whales Again, a campaign of The Whaleman Foundation. The auction included tickets to a fundraising dinner hosted at the Hollywood restaurant Beso, owned by Eva Longoria, and a whale watching tour, with Panettiere, off the coast of Santa Barbara. The same month, during an interview with Teen Vogue, Hayden explained how her fame gives her a platform for her activism: "The show [Heroes] put me in a place to speak for things that I'm passionate about." In September 2008, Panettiere launched her own line of calfskin leather bags for the company Dooney & Bourke. In October 2008, Panettiere delved into the presidential election, releasing a public service announcement through the website Funny or Die. In this video Panettiere mocked Republican candidate John McCain for his age and temper. She subsequently made clear her intention to vote for Barack Obama, and urged other young people to vote. Panettiere also appeared in a public service announcement with DC Shadow Senator Paul Strauss endorsing voting rights for the District of Columbia. Panettiere is a teen ambassador for the Candie's Foundation, whose mission is to fight teen pregnancy. On May 6, 2009, she participated in a town hall meeting in New York City alongside Bristol Palin and then-Tampa Bay Rays pitcher Matt Garza on the issue of teen pregnancy. * Filmography * Awards * Newport Beach Film Festival – Feature Film Award for Acting – Shanghai Kiss (2007) * Saturn Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Television Series – Heroes (2007) ** Teen Choice Award * 2007: Choice TV Actress: Drama – Heroes * 2008: Choice TV Actress: Action Adventure – Heroes * 2009: Choice TV Actress: Action Adventure – Heroes ** Teen Film/TV Series International Awards * Best Film Actress, Support Role – Ice Princess (2005) * Outstanding Casting for a Film (shared with cast) – Ice Princess * Outstanding Casting for a Film Comedy or Drama (shared with cast) – Ice Princess * Vail Film Festival Rising Star Award (2007) ** Young Artist Award * 2001: Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actress – Remember the Titans * 2006: Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Lead Actress – Heroes * Discography * Singles * Soundtracks and compilations References : 30em:

Hayden Panettiere Actrice américaine | Chanteuse américaine | Compositeur américain | Enfant acteur | Végétarien | Naissance en 1989 | Naissance dans l'État de New York Hayden Lesley Panettiere est une actrice et chanteuse américaine, née le 21 août 1989 à Palisades, dans l'État de New York aux États-Unis. Elle est surtout connue pour son rôle dans la série Heroes. Biographie: Hayden Panettiere est née à Palisades (comté de Rockland, État de New York). Elle est la fille de Lesley R. Vogel, une actrice de soap-opera, et Alan L. "Skip" Panettiere, un pompier. Panettiere signifie « boulanger » en italien. Elle a un frère cadet, Jansen Panettiere, lui aussi acteur. Carrière d'actrice: Hayden a commencé à apparaître dans des films publicitaires à onze mois, d'abord dans une publicité pour Playskool. Elle a décroché le rôle de Sarah Roberts dans le soap opera ABC One Life to Live (1994-1997). Alors que dans Guiding Light, son personnage Lizzie a combattu la leucémie. Pour attirer l'attention des téléspectateurs à la maladie, et pour améliorer la prise de conscience nationale, la Leukemia and Lymphoma Society lui a donné un prix de reconnaissance spéciale. Elle devient plus populaire en jouant le rôle de Claire Bennet dans la série Heroes de NBC, créée par Tim Kring. Une jeune lycéenne pom-pom girl avec un pouvoir de régénération cellulaire spontanée. Grâce à son rôle dans Heroes, elle devient une invitée régulière sur le circuit des conventions de science-fiction, invitée à assister à des conventions à travers le monde en 2007, y compris la Gen Con à New York, Comic-Con et Fan Expo Canada. Panettiere s'est plaint que ses options sont parfois limitées, car les gens qui la regardent la voient comme pom-pom girl populaire ou simplement « la blonde ». Elle est apparue dans plus d'une douzaine de longs métrages, plusieurs films réalisés pour la télévision et elle a fait la voix de Dot dans 1001 pattes. Elle a joué le rôle de la fille de l'entraîneur Yoast, Sheryl, dans le film Le Plus Beau des combats. En outre, elle a fait la voix de Kairi dans la série de jeux vidéo Kingdom Hearts pour la console PlayStation 2. Panettiere est apparu sur la chaîne Fox dans la série Ally McBeal en tant que la fille de celle-ci, et avait un rôle d'invitée récurrente dans Malcolm in the Middle et des apparitions dans . Elle a joué dans comme une meneuse de claque et avait un rôle de soutien en tant que Adelaide Bourbon dans le récent film indépendant de Shanghai Kiss. Elle est apparue dans le film de Disney Channel Tiger Cruise, dans le film Fashion maman dans le rôle de sa nièce adolescente, et dans Ice Princess, comme une étudiante populaire et patineuse rivale. Au début de 2007, Panettiere est apparue dans le show MTV Ashton Kutcher-produit, Punk'd. L'apparition a été conçu par sa mère et un "fan" impliqué afin de discuter de ses travaux avec elle. Elle est apparue dans le film Fireflies in the Garden dans le rôle de la version plus jeune du personnage d'Emily Watson, Jane Lawrence. En décembre 2007 Panettiere a été nommé Obsession de l'année par le GQ Magazine de l'année. Forbes estime que elle a obtenu 2 millions de dollars en 2007. En septembre 2008, Panettiere apparu dans une vidéo satirique, une maquette PSA (message d'intérêt public) sur funnyordie.com, intitulé « Hayden Panettiere PSA : votre voix, votre choix. ». Encore une fois, en octobre, Panettiere apparue dans une autre satirique vidéo PSA sur funnyordie.com intitulé « votez pour McCain : Il est comme George Bush, à l'exception âgé et avec une plus mauvaise humeur ». En juillet 2009, Panettiere a joué dans la comédie pour adolescents I Love You, Beth Cooper, dans laquelle elle jouait Beth Cooper, la chef pom-pom girl du lycée. En 2010, elle joue aussi dans la vidéo britannique de la chanson de Joshua Radin, I'd Rather Be With You. En mai 2010, Panettiere a signé dans la suite à venir de la franchise Scream, Scream 4. Elle jouera le rôle de Kirby Reed aux côtés de Emma Roberts et Rory Culkin. Carrière de chanteuse: En 1999, Hayden a été nommée pour un Grammy pour le film 1001 pattes. En 2004, elle enregistre la chanson My hero is you et la vidéo qui l'accompagne, pour le film Tiger Cruise dont elle tient elle-même la vedette. L'année suivante, elle enregistre la chanson I Fly pour le film Ice Princess dont elle tient également un rôle. Son premier single Wake up call est sorti en juillet 2008. Vie privée: En 2006, Hayden fréquente l'acteur Stephen Colletti. Le couple se sépare en septembre 2007. En décembre 2007, il y a eu une rumeur disant que Hayden serait en couple avec son partenaire dans Heroes, Milo Ventimiglia. En avril 2008, Milo confirme la rumeur en disant qu'Hayden lui a proposé d'emménager avec elle. Mais le couple se sépare en février 2009.2009 elle est en couple avec le boxeur Wladimir Klitchko jusqu'en mai 2011. Hayden a un tatouage à son flanc gauche disant en italien « Vivere senza rimpianti » (« Vivre sans regrets », en français). * Filmographies * Cinéma * 1998 : L'Objet de mon affection (The Object of My Affection) : Mermaid * 1999 : La Vie secrète d'une milliardaire (Too Rich: The Secret Life of Doris Duke) : Doris Duke jeune * 1999 : Une bouteille à la mer (Message in a Bottle) : Girl on Sinking Boat * 2000 : Le Plus Beau des combats (Remember the Titans) : Sheryl Yoast * 2001 : Super papa (Joe Somebody) : Natalie Scheffer * 2001 : L'affaire du collier (The Affair of the Necklace) : Jeanne jeune * 2003 : Normal : Patty Ann Applewood * 2004 : The dust Factory : Melanie Lewis * 2004 : Fashion maman (Raising Helen) : Audrey Davis * 2005 : Ice Princess : Gen Harwood * 2005 : Zig Zag, l'étalon zébré (Racing Stripes) : Channing Walsh * 2006 : The Architect : Christina Waters * 2006 : The Good Student : Allyson Palmer * 2006 : American Girls 3 (Bring It On: All or Nothing) : Britney Allen * 2007 : Shanghai Kiss : Adelaide * 2008 : Fireflies in the Garden : Jane Lawrence jeune * 2009 : I Love You, Beth Cooper : Beth Cooper * 2010 : Carmel : Amber * 2011 : Scream 4 : Kirby Reed * 2011 : The Amanda Knox Story : Amanda Knox * 2012 : Scream 5 : Kirby Reed (rumeur) * Télévision * 1994 à 1997 : On ne vit qu'une fois (One life to live) (série TV) : Sarah Victoria "Flash" Roberts * 1996 : Aliens in the Family (série TV) : jeune fille * 1996 : How do you spell God ? (téléfilm) * 1996 à 2000 : Les Vertiges de la passion (The Guiding Light) (série TV) : Elizabeth "Lizzie" Spaulding * 1999 : Les Anges du bonheur (Touched by an angel) (série TV) : Diana * 1999 : La Vie secrète d'une milliardaire (téléfilm) : Doris Duke jeune * 1999 : La Mélodie de la vie (I you believe) (téléfilm) : Susan Stone jeune/ Alice Stone * 2000 : New York, unité spéciale (Law & Order : Special Victims Unit) (série TV) (saison 2) : Ashley * 2001 : Chestnut Hill (téléfilm) : Molly Eastman * 2001 : Ally McBeal (série TV) (saison : 5) : Maddie Harrington * 2001 : New York, unité spéciale (série TV) (saison : 2) : Ashley * 2003 : Malcolm (Malcolm in the Middle) (Série TV) (saison 4, épisode 13) : Jessica * 2004 : New York, unité spéciale (Law & Order: Special Victims Unit) (série TV) (saison 6) : Angela Agnelli * 2004 : Tiger Cruise (téléfilm) : Maddie Dolan * 2004 : Malcolm (Malcolm in the Middle) (série TV) (saison 6, épisodes 4) : Jessica * 2005 : Les Mensonges d'une mère (Lies my mother told me) (Téléfilm) : Haylei Sims * 2005 : Commander in chief (Série TV) : Stacy * 2005 : Malcolm (Malcolm in the Middle) (série TV) (saison 7, épisodes 5-6) : Jessica * 2006 à 2010 : Heroes (série TV) (saisons 1, 2, 3, 4) : Claire Bennet * Voix * 1999 : 1001 pattes (A Bug's Life) de John Lasseter : princesse Couette * 2000 : Dinosaure de Eric Leighton : Suri * 2002 : Kingdom Hearts (jeu vidéo) : Kairi * 2006 : Kingdom Hearts 2 (jeu vidéo) : Kairi * 2007 : Robot Chicken (saison 3, épisode 6) : Cheetara * 2008 : Scooby-Doo et la Créature des ténèbres (Scooby Doo and the Goblin King) (DVD) : princesse Willow * 2010 : La Vengeance du Petit Chaperon rouge : Rouge * 2010 : Alpha et Oméga : Kate * 2010 : Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep : Kairi * Discographie * Albums * Chansons * 2003 "Someone Like You" — The Dust Factory OST * 2005 "My Hero Is You" — Tiger Cruise (Found on the Disney Channel Hits: Take 2 CD) * 2005 "I Fly" — Ice Princess OST * 2006 "Your new girlfriend" - Smackers Presents: Girl Next * 2006 "That Girl" - Bring It On: All Or Nothing DVD * 2007 "I Still Believe" — Cinderella III OST * 2007 "Try" — from Bridge to Terabithia OST * 2007 "Cruella De Vil" — DisneyMania 5 * 2007 "Go To Girl" - Smackers Presents: Girl Next 2 * 2007 "Home" * 2008 "Wake Up Call" * Distinctions * Récompenses * 2006 : Saturn Awards : meilleure actrice dans un second rôle pour une série * 2007 : Teen Choice Awards : Award de la meilleure actrice TV dramatique * 2007 : Saturn Awards : meilleure actrice dans un second rôle pour une série * 2007 : Teen Choice Awards : Award de la meilleure actrice TV action/aventure pour Heroes * 2007 : Young Artist Awards : meilleure performance dans une série TV d'une actrice secondaire * 2007 : SyFy Genre Awards : meilleure jeune actrice * 2008 : Teen Choice Awards : Award de la meilleure actrice TV action/aventure pour Heroes * 2010 : Scream : meilleure performance d'acteur * Nominations * 1999 : Grammy Award * Anecdotes anecdotes: * Elle pose dans le FHM d'octobre 2007. * Elle est l'interprète de la chanson Try sur la BO du film Le Secret de Terabithia sorti en mars 2007. * Son nom de famille, Panettiere, signifie « boulanger » en italien . * Elle est amie avec l'actrice Kristen Bell depuis l'âge de huit ans qui joue aussi dans Heroes dans le rôle de Ella Bishop. * Références==

عناصر الدورة الخامسة جدول دوري عناصر الدورة الخامسة هي العناصر الكيميائية الموجودة في الصف الخامس " الدورة الخامسة " من الجدول الدوري للعناصر . وهذه العناصر هي: العناصر الكيميائية للدورة الخامسة المجموعة 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 العناصر 37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 I 54 Xe الشكل الإلكتروني فلزات قلويةفلزات قلويات ترابيةلانثينيداتأكتينيداتفلزات انتقالية فلزات ضعيفةأشباه الفلزاتاللافلزاتهالوجيناتغازات نبيلة عناصر الدورة الأولي - عناصر الدورة الثانية - عناصر الدورة الثالثة - عناصر الدورة الرابعة - عناصر الدورة الخامسة - عناصر الدورة السادسة - عناصر الدورة السابعة - عناصر الدورة الثامنة - تذييل جدول دوري:

Period 5 element Periodic table A period 5 element is one of the chemical elements in the fifth row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The fifth period contains 18 elements, beginning with rubidium and ending with xenon. As a rule, period 5 elements fill their 5s shells first, then their 4d, and 5p shells, in that order, however there are exceptions, such as rhodium. Properties: This period contains technetium, one of the two elements until lead that has no stable isotopes (along with promethium), as well as molybdenum and iodine, two of the heaviest elements with a known biological role, and Niobium has the largest magnetic known penetration depth of all the elements. Zirconium is one of the main components of zircon crystals, currently the oldest known minerals in the earth's crust. Many later transition metals, such as rhodium, are very commonly used in jewelry due to the fact that they are incredibly shiny. This period is known to have a large number of exceptions to the Madelung rule. * Elements * (* ) Exception to the Madelung rule Rubidium: Rubidium is the first element placed in period 5. It is an alkali metal, the most reactive group in the periodic table, having properties and similarities with both other alkali metals and other period 5 elements. For example, rubidium has 5 electron shells, a property found in all other period 5 elements, whereas its electron configuration's ending is similar to all other alkali metals: s1. Rubidium also follows the trend of increasing reactivity as the atomic number increases in the alkali metals, for it is more reactive than potassium, but less so than caesium. In addition, both potassium and rubidium yield almost the same hue when ignited, so researchers must use different methods to differentiate between these two 1st group elements. Rubidium is very susceptible to oxidization in air, similar to most of the other alkali metals, so it readily transforms into rubidium oxide, a yellow solid with the chemical formula Rb2O. Strontium: Strontium is the second element placed in the 5th period. It is an alkaline earth metal, a relatively reactive group, although not as nearly reactive as the alkali metals. Like rubidium, it has 5 electron shells or energy levels, and in accordance with the Madelung rule it has two electrons in its 5s subshell. Strontium is a soft metal and is extremely reactive upon contact with water. If it does come in contact with water, though, it will combine with the atoms of both oxygen and hydrogen to form strontium hydroxide and pure hydrogen gas which quickly diffuses in the air. In addition, strontium, like rubidium, oxidizes in air and turns a yellow color. When ignited, it will burn with a strong red flame. References: reflist: Element color legend: PeriodicTablesFooter:

Éléments de la période 5 Élément chimique par période ÉlementsPériodes: Un élément de la période 5 est un des éléments chimiques de la cinquième ligne (ou période) du tableau périodique des éléments. Cette période contient des éléments du bloc s, du bloc d et du bloc p : Éléments/Période 5: ( * ) Exceptions à la règle de Klechkowski : niobium 41Nb, molybdène 42Mo, ruthénium 44Ru, rhodium 45Rh, palladium 46Pd et argent 47Ag. Tableau périodique (navigation): Séries chimiques: Portail chimie:

فلزات نبيلة علم الفلزات | تسمية المواد الكيميائية الفلزات النبيلة هي المعادن المقاومة للتآكل والأكسدة في ظروف الهواء الرطب على العكس من معظم المعادن الأساسية. وهي تميل إلى أن تكون مرتفعة السعر ، بسبب ندرتها في القشرة الأرضية. و المعادن النبيلة (وفق ترتيب زيادة العدد الذري) الروثينيوم و الروديوم والبلاديوم والفضة و الأوزميوم و الإريديوم والبلاتين والذهب. توجد بعض المصادر تضيف إلى ما سبق من المعادن الزئبق والرينيوم. في حين لا يتم اعتبار التيتانيوم و النيوبيوم و التانتالوم من ضمن المعادن النبيلة على الرغم من مقاومتها العالية للتآكل وينبغي عدم الخلط بين المعادن النبيلة و المعادن الثمينة على الرغم من أن معظم المعادن النبيلة تنتمي إلى المعادن الثمينة المراجع: ثبت المراجع: بذرة كيمياء:

Noble metals Chemical nomenclature | Metallurgy | Noble metals Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion and oxidation in moist air, unlike most base metals. They tend to be precious, often due to their rarity in the Earth's crust. The noble metals are considered to be (in order of increasing atomic number) ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, osmium, iridium, platinum, and gold. Other sources include mercury or even rhenium as a noble metal. On the other hand, titanium, niobium, and tantalum are not included as noble metals despite the fact that they are very resistant to corrosion. Noble metals should not be confused with precious metals (although many noble metals are precious). Introduction : Palladium, platinum, gold and mercury can be dissolved in aqua regia, a highly concentrated mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, but iridium and silver cannot. (Silver can dissolve in nitric acid though.) Ruthenium can be dissolved in aqua regia only when in the presence of oxygen, while rhodium must be in a fine pulverized form. Niobium and tantalum are resistant to acids, including aqua regia. This term can also be used in a relative sense, considering "noble" as an adjective for the word "metal". A "galvanic series" is a hierarchy of metals (or other electrically conductive materials, including composites and semimetals) that runs from noble to active, and allows designers to see at a glance how materials will interact in the environment used to generate the series. In this sense of the word, graphite is more noble than silver and the relative nobility of many materials is highly dependent upon context, as for aluminium and stainless steel in conditions of varying pH. In physics, the definition of a noble metal is even more strict. It is required that the d-bands of the electronic structure are filled. Taking this into account, only copper, silver and gold are noble metals, as all d-like bands are filled and do not cross the Fermi level. For platinum two d-bands cross the Fermi level, changing its chemical behaviour; it is used as a catalyst. The different reactivity can easily be seen during the preparation of clean metal surfaces in an ultra-high vacuum; surfaces of "physically defined" noble metals (e.g., gold) are easy to clean and keep clean for a long time, while those of platinum or palladium, for example, are covered by carbon monoxide very quickly.S. Fuchs, T.Hahn, H.G. Lintz, "The oxidation of carbon monoxide by oxygen over platinum, palladium and rhodium catalysts from 10−10 to 1 bar", Chemical engineering and processing, 1994, V 33(5), pp. 363-369 * Electrochemistry Metallic elements, including several non-noble metals, sorted by their chemical "nobility" (noble metals bolded): The column group denotes its position in the periodic table, hence electronic configuration. The simplified reactions, listed in the next column, can also be read in detail from the Pourbaix diagrams of the considered element in water. Finally the column potential indicates the electric potential of the element measured against a H-electrode in aqueous, pH 7 solution. All missing elements in this table are either not metals or have a negative standard potential. Antimony and polonium are considered metalloids and thus can not be noble metals. Also chemists and metallurgists consider copper and bismuth not noble metals because they easily oxidize due to the reaction + 2 + 4 ⇄ 4(aq) + 0.40 V which is possible in moist air. Silver and copper film over and oxidize easily and readily, thus the copper sheets with a patina of oxidation used in architectural designs and the resultant market for a myriad of silver polishing compoundsdate: June 2010: . The film over of silver is due to its high sensitivity to hydrogen sulfide. Chemically patina is caused by an attack of oxygen in wet air and by afterward. On the other hand, rhenium coated mirrors are said to be very durable, despite the fact that rhenium and technetium are said to tarnish slowly in moist atmosphere.

Métal noble Métal chimie: Un métal noble est un métal qui résiste à la corrosion et à l'oxydation. Notamment, c'est un métal qui ne peut pas être dissous par une solution d'un acide seul. En revanche, la plupart de ces métaux sont dissous par l'« eau régale ». Les métaux nobles sont l'or, l'argent, le platine. On y inclut aussi parfois le rhénium, l'osmium et l'iridium. La noblesse d'un métal est directement liée au potentiel d'oxydo-réduction du couple oxyde/métal. Dans le domaine de la construction métallique et de la mécanique, les métaux nobles sont, entre autres, les aciers inoxydables, le titane, le zirconium, le tantale. Articles connexes : * Métal précieux * Test à l'acide

خليج بافن خلجان المحيط الأطلسي خليج بافن (بالفرنسية: Baie de Baffin, بالإنجليزية: Baffin Bay) يقع بين جزيرة بافن وساحل جنوب غرب جرينلاند, وهو بحر هامشي لشمال المحيط الأطلسي. أنه متصل إلى المحيط الأطلسي من خلال مضيق دافيس وبحر لابرادور. مضيق أصغر يدعى ناريس يصل خليج بافن مع المحيط المتجمد الشمالي. الخليج كان يُسكن من 500 قبل الميلاد تقريباً من شعوب الدورسيت, وبعد ذلك من الثول والإنويت. وصله الأوروبيين في 1585 ميلادي ووصفه بشكل دقيق ويليام بافن في 1616, على من سُمى الخليج والجزيرة. لا يمكن التحرك في الخليج معضم الأوقات من السنة بسبب الغطاء الجليدي وكثافة الجبال الجليدية العالية في الماطق المفتوحة. ولكن بولونيا تعادل مساحتها 80,000 كيلومتر مربع (31,000 ميل مربع), معروفة كالمياه الشمالية, تُفتح في فصل الصيف في الشمال بجانب مضيق سميث. معضم الحياة البحرية في الخليج مُركزة بجانب تلك المنطقة. تاريخ : في 1585 ميلادي, مستكشف بريطاني جون دافيس كان أول أوروبي مسجل يدخل الخليج. لاحقاً, بين 1612 و1616 ميلادي, ويليام بافن كوّن خمس بعثات إلى القطب الشمالي, مع روبيرت بيلوت, لقد إستكشف ووصل إلى خليج بافين في 1616 ميلادي. لقد أثبت أيضا أن لا يوجد طريق شمالي في منطقة خليج هدسون. تقريرات بافن وبيلوت كانت مشكوك بها في إنجلترا وفي 1818 ميلادي تم "إعادة إكتشتاف" الخليج من قبل جون روس. درسات متقدمة علمياً آخرى تبعته في 1928, في الثلاثينيات من القرن العشرين, وبعد الحرب العالمية الثانية من قبل بعثات دنماركية, أمريكية, وكندية. الساحل الشمالي من المنطقة كان يعيش فيه الدورسيت (500 قبل الميلاد – 1200 ميلادي) وشعوب ثول والإنويت. حالياً هناك عددٌ قليل من مستوطنات الإنويت على الساحل الكندي من الخليج, ما يضمن خليج أركتيك (690 نسمة), بركة إنليت (1,315) ونهر سلايد (820). هذه المستوطنات توصل من خلال الطيرات كي تتزود بمؤن. في 1975, تم بناء بلدة قرب نانيسيفيك لدعم إنتاج الرصاص والزنك في منجم نانيسسفيك – أول منجم كندي في القطب الشمالي. تم إغلاق المنجم بشكل دائم في 2002 بسبب إنخفاض معدلات المعدن وارتفاع الأسعار. ولكن البلدة لا تزال تحتوي على ميناء عملي ومطار, من إحصاء سكان كندا لعام 2006 كان عدد سكان البلدة صفر. خليج بافن كان مركز زلزال بقوة 7.3 في عام 1933 ميلادي. أقوى زلزال معروف في القطب الشمالي. لم يسبب أي ضرر بسبب موقعه البعيد عن الساحل والعدد القليل من المجتمعات قرب الساحل. شمال غرب الخليج يضل أكثر موقع ذو نشاط زلزالي في كندا الشرقية, وذو 5 زلازل ذو قوة أكبر من 6 درجات حصلوا بعد 1933. آخر أقوى زلزال حدث بـ15 أبريل 2010 مع قوة 5.1. جغرافية وجيولوجية : خليج بافن فرع من المحيط الأطلسي محدود عند جزيرة بافن في الغرب وجرينلاند في الشرق وجزيرة إليسمير من الشمال. أنه تصل إلى المحيط الأطلسي من خلال مضيق دافيس والمحيط التجمد الشمالي من خلال عدد من القنوات الضيقة لمضيق ناريس. أنه تفرُع شمال غربي للمحيط الأطلسي وبحر لابرادور. يكمن أيضا اعتبار الخليج كمضيق طويل يفصل جزيرة بافن وجرينلاند. الخليج عمقه أقل من 1,000 متر (3,000 قدم) بجانب الساحل, أين القاع مُغطة بالحصى, حجار مسحوقة والرمال. في المركز هناك حفرة كبيرة تدعى جوف بافن يصل عمقها إلى 2,136 متر (7,008 قدم), الذي مليئ بالطمي. التيارات تُشكل أعاصير متداولة. على الحدود الخارجية الشرقية, في فصل الصيف, تيار جرينلاند الغربي ينقل المياه من المحيط الأطلسي إلى الشمال. في الجزء الغربي, تيار جزيرة بافن يجلب المياه من المحيط المتجمد الشمالي إلى الجنوب. * المناخ والهيدرولوجية وكيمياء الماء مناخ المنطقة قطبي مع العديد من العواصف, خصوصاً بفصل الشتاء. متوسط الحرارة في يناير تُعلدل -20 درجة مئوية (-4 فهرنهايت) في الجنوب و-28 (-18) في الشمال. في يوليو متوسط الحرارة 7 درجات مئوية (45 فهرنهايت). معدل تساقت الأمطار يُعادل 100-250 مم (3.9-9.8 بوصة) على الجانب الجرينلاندي وتقريباً ضعف تلك الكمية قرب جزيرة بافن. حرارة المياه عند السطح 1- درجة مئوية (30.2 فهرنهايت) في الشتاء. في فصل الصيف يتراوح من 4-5 درجات مئوية (39-41) في الجنوب الشرقي إلى صفر (32) عند الشمال الغربي. مستوى الملح في الماء يفوق 34 فرع لكل ألف. في الصيف يُعادل 32 في الشرق و30-31 في الغرب. المياه العميقة تتكون بسبب إختلاط مياه المحيط الأطلسي مع المحيط المتجمد الشمالي: حرارتهم حوالي –0.5 (31 فهرنهايت) ودرجة الملح 34.5. في فصل الشتاء, 80% من الخليج مُغطى بالجليد, جليد طافي, وجليد سريع. في بعض فصول الشتاء الغطأ الجليدي يُغطي كل الخليج من غرب إلى الشرق. الجليد وفير أكثر في مارس وأقل شيء بين أغسطس وسبتمبر. في الصيف الجليد الطافي يضل في الآجزء المركزية والغربية للخليج. العديد من الجبال الجليدية تتكون في هذه الفترة ويُنقلون مع الجليد إلى المحيط الأطلسي قرب نيوفاوندلاند. المد والجزر شبه نهاري, مع متوسط ارتفاع 4 أمتار (13 قدم) وأقصى ارتفاع 9 أمتار (30 قدم). سرعتهم بين 1 و3.7 كيلومتر في الساعة. * أنظر أيضا * مراجع == 30em: قائمة بحار ومحيطات العالم: جغرافيا:

Baffin Bay Baffin Bay | Bays of Greenland Baffin Bay (Texas): Baffin Bay (Inuktitut: Saknirutiak Imanga, Baie de Baffin: ), located between Baffin Island and the southwest coast of Greenland, is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is connected to the Atlantic via Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea. A narrower Nares Strait connects Baffin Bay with the Arctic Ocean. The bay area was inhabited from around 500 BC by the Dorset and then Thule and Inuit people. It was reached by Europeans in 1585 and described in detail in 1616 by William Baffin, after whom the bay and the island are named. The bay is not navigable most of the year because of the ice cover and high density of floating ice and icebergs in the open areas. However, a polynya of about , known as the North Water, opens in summer on the north near Smith Sound. Most of the aquatic life of the bay is concentrated near that region. History: In 1585, British explorer, John Davis, was the first recorded European to enter the bay. Later, between 1612 and 1616, William Baffin made five expeditions to the Arctic; together with Robert Bylot, he reached and explored the Baffin Bay in 1616. He also proved that no Northwest Passage was in the Hudson Bay area. The reports by Baffin and Bylot were questioned in England and in 1818, the bay was "rediscovered" by John Ross. More advanced scientific studies followed in 1928, in the 1930s and after World War II by Danish, American and Canadian expeditions. The northern coast of area of the bay was occupied by the Dorset (500 BC – 1200 AD) and then Thule and Inuit people. Currently, there are a few Inuit settlements on the Canadian coast of the bay, including Arctic Bay (population 690), Pond Inlet (1,315) and Clyde River (820). Those settlements are accessed and supplied by air and annual sealifts. In 1975, a town was built at Nanisivik to support lead and zinc production at the Nanisivik Mine – the first Canadian mine in the Arctic. The mine was permanently closed in 2002 due to declining resources and metal prices. Whereas the town still has an operational seaport and an airport, as of the Canada 2006 Census, it has a population of zero. Baffin Bay was the epicenter of a 7.3 magnitude earthquake in 1933. This is the largest known earthquake north of the Arctic Circle. It caused no damage because of its offshore location and the small number of the nearby onshore communities. The northwestern part of the bay remains one of the most seismically active regions in eastern Canada, and with five earthquakes of magnitude 6 have occurred here since 1933. The latest strong earthquake occurred on 15 April 2010 and had the magnitude of 5.1. Extent: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of Baffin Bay as follows: ) to Cape Bryant, Greenland. On the East. The West Coast of Greenland. On the South. The parallel of 70° North between Greenland and Baffin Land. On the West. The Eastern limits of the North-West Passages [The East Coast of Ellesmere Island between C. Sheridan and Cape Norton Shaw , thence across to Phillips Point (Coburg Island) through this Island to Marina Peninsula and across to Cape Fitz Roy (Devon Island) down the East Coast to Cape Sherard (Cape Osborn) and across to Cape Liverpool, Bylot Island ; down the East coast of this island to Cape Graham Moore, its southeastern point, and thence across to Cape Macculloch and down the East coast of Baffin Island to East Bluff, its Southeastern extremity, and thence the Eastern limit of Hudson Strait]. Geography and geology: Jakobshavn Isbræ: Baffin Bay is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by the Baffin Island in the west, Greenland in the east, and Ellesmere Island in the north. It connects to the Atlantic through the Davis Strait, and to the Arctic through several narrow channels of Nares Strait. It is a northwestern extension of the North Atlantic and Labrador Sea. It can also be viewed as a long strait separating Baffin Island and Greenland. The bay is less than deep near the coast, where the sea bottom is covered with gravel, crushed stone and sand. In the center, there is a deep pit called Baffin Hollow reaching (see ), which is mostly covered in silt. Currents form a cyclonic circulation. On the eastern periphery, in summer, the West Greenland Current transports water from the Atlantic Ocean to the North. In its western part, the Baffin Island Current brings the Arctic waters to the south. * Climate, hydrology and hydrochemistry The climate is Arctic with frequent storms, especially in winter. Average January temperatures are in the south and on the north. In July, the average temperature is . The annual precipitation is on the Greenland side and about twice larger near the Baffin Island. The water temperature at the surface is below in winter. In summer, it varies from in the south-east to and below at north-west. The salinity exceeds 34‰ (parts per thousand) in winter. In summer, it is 32‰ on the east and 30–31‰ on the west. Deep waters are formed as a result of mixing of Arctic and Atlantic waters; their temperature is about and salinity is 34.5 ‰. In winter, 80% of the bay is covered with continuous ice, floating ice and fast ice. In some winters, the continuous ice stretches from shore to shore. The ice is most abundant in March and least in August–September. In summer, drifting ice remains in the central and western parts of the bay. Numerous icebergs are formed in this period and are brought, together with ice, to the Atlantic Ocean near Newfoundland. The tides are semidiurnal, with an average height of and the maximum of . Their speed varies between hour and the direction by as much as 180°. This variability results in in the collision and crushing of fresh, old, and pack ice. Winds are predominantly north-western through the whole year. South-eastern and eastern winds are common in July and August. * North Water Between May and July (sometimes April), a significant portion of navigable open water (polynya) forms at the extreme north of the bay, presumably due to the relatively warm Greenland Current. With an area of about in summer, it is the largest polynya of the Canadian Arctic and covers the Smith Sound between the Ellesmere Island and Greenland. This polynya has a stable position and existed for at least 9,000 years. It was first described in 1616 by William Baffin and was named North Water by whalers of the 18–19th centuries. * Wildlife The North Water provides air to ice algae and zooplankton and is characterized by abundant fauna. Of about 20,000 Beluga whales living in the Baffin Bay, some 15,000 are concentrated at the North Water. Other abundant animals of the region include walrus, narwhal, Harp Seal, bearded seal, ringed seal and polar bear. All aquatic mammals crucially depend on the availability of open water; they have very limited ability to maintain breathing holes in ice and are all vulnerable to attacks by the polar bear when breathing at the holes. The seals and walrus occupy areas of fast ice, which is essential for giving birth and raising the pups. Bearded seals feed near the bottom of the bay and therefore are restricted to the shallow waters. Ringed seal is the most common meal of the polar bear. It is also an occasional prey of the walrus and Arctic Fox. Most large animals of the bay are being traditionally hunted, but the hunting has been restricted in the 20th century in order to preserve the wildlife population. For example, the quota for polar bears in the bay area is 105 per year. There are about 400 plant and tree species on the bay shores, including birch, willow, alder and plants adapted to salty soils, as well as lyme grass, mosses, and lichens. These serve as food for caribou and rodents, such as lemming. Resident fish species include polar cod, Arctic flounder (Pleuronectidae, Liopsetta), four-horned sculpin and capelin, whereas cod, haddock, herring, halibut, and rattail migrate from the Atlantic. The birds are represented by the Little Auk, Snowy Owl, Willow Ptarmigan, Rock Ptarmigan, Gyrfalcon, Arctic Redpoll and guillemots. Most of them migrate to the south during the winter.

Mer de Baffin Mer de l'océan Atlantique Baffin: La mer de Baffin, ou baie de Baffin est un vaste golfe ouvert de l'Atlantique, prolongement de la mer du Labrador situé entre le Groenland à l'est, la Terre de Baffin à l'ouest et l'île Ellesmere au nord par 68°- 82° de longitude ouest, 67°- 78° de latitude nord. Elle a été nommée ainsi en l'honneur de l'explorateur britannique William Baffin. Ce golfe a environ 1 500 km de long sur 550 de large, et est presque toujours couvert de glaces. Il communique avec l'Atlantique par le détroit de Davis, avec la baie d'Hudson par ceux de Cumberland et d'Hudson, avec l'Archipel arctique par celui de Lancaster, et avec l'océan Arctique par le détroit de Nares. Source : * Bouillet: Mers:

ثقب أسود نجمي مستعرات | تطور النجوم | بلازما الفضاء | نجوم | فلك | مصطلحات فلكية ثقب أسود نجمي في الفلك (بالإنجليزية:stellar black hole) هو ثقب أسود ينشأ من تقلص نجم عملاق عظيم (تكون كتلته نحو 15 كتلة شمسية أو أكثر) عند نهاية عمر النجم. ويشاهد ذلك الحدث في صورة انفجار مستعر أعظم أو انفجار أشعة غاما. خواصه: للثقب الأسود ثلاثة خواص تميزه: الكتلة، والشحنة الكهربية وزخم زاوي. ويعتقد أن جميع الثقوب السوداء يكون لها زخم زاوي بمعنى أنه يدور حول محوره، ولكن لم تستطع المشاهدة حتى الآن القطع بوجود زخم زاوي للثقب الأسود. وافتراض وجود زخم زاوي للثقب الأسود نابعة عن ضرورة انحفاظ الزخم الزاوي عند تقلص النجم من حجمه الأصلي الكبير إلى حجمه الصغير (قطر الثقب الأسود تكون عشرات الكيلومترات فقط). وانهيار النجم على نفسه وتقلصه تحت فعل الجاذبية بعد نفاذ وقوده إنما هي عملية طبيعية وينتج عنها ثقبا أسودا. فعند نهاية عمر نجم عندما يكون النجم قد استهلك كل ما لديه من وقود ينهار على نفسه. فإذا كانت كتلة الجزء المتقلص من النجم (القلب) أقل من حد معين فهو ينتهي في هيئة نجم مضغوط، أي يكوّن قزما أبيضا أو نجما نيوترونيا. وكلا نوعي النجوم تتسم بكتلة قصوى تميزها. فإذا تعدت كتلة النجم الحد الأقصى لتكوّن نجما نيوترونيا يستمر التقلص وارتفاع كثافة النجم إلى حد التقلص الثقالي وينتج بعد ذلك ثقب أسود. ولا تعرف الكتلة القصوى للنجم النيوتروني بالضبط، ففي عام 1939 اقترحت كتلة قدرها 7و0 كتلة شمسية وهي الكتلة المسماة حد كتلة توف TOV limit. وفي عام 1996 قدر تقدير جديد لهذا الحد بين 5و1 إلى 3 كتلة شمسية. وطبقا ل النظرية النسبية العامة فمن الممكن أن يتكون الثقب الأسود من أي كتلة كبيرة أو صغيرة. وكلما قلت الكتلة كلما كان هناك احتياج أكبر لكثافة مادية عالية لتكوين ثقب أسود. (أنظر مناقشة نصف قطر شفارتزشيلد ونصف قطر الثقب الأسود). ولكن لم تشاهد عملية في الطبيعة تنتج ثقبا أسودا من كتلة أقل من عدة كتل شمسية. وإذا وجدت تلك فهي قد تكون في مرحلة تكوين ثقب أسود. وأكبر ثقب أسود معروف حتى عام 2007 كانت كتلته 15.65 كتلة شمسية. بالإضافة إلى ذلك فتوجد مؤشرات إلى كون الجرم السماوي IC 10 X-1 - وهو يصدر أشعة إكس - ثقبا أسودا، وتقدر كتلته بين 24 إلى 33 كتلة شمسية. ثم أعلنت ناسا في أبريل عام 2008 أن الجرم السماوي XTE J1650-500 كما أعلن آخرون أن أقل كتلة تعرف لثقب أسود تقدر بنحو 8و3 كتلة شمسية وأن قطره يبلغ 24 كيلومتر فقط. كذلك توجد مؤشرات أخرى لوجود نوعين آخرين من الثقوب السوداء، وكليهما ذو كتلة أكبر من ثقب أسود نجمي : (1) ثقوب سوداء متوسطة الكتلة وهي تكون في مراكز التجمعات النجمية و(2) ثقوب سوداء عظيمة الكتلة توجد في مركز مجرة درب التبانة وفي مراكز المجرات النشطة. انظمة ثنائية تصدر أشعة إكس: يمكن مشاهدة الثقوب السوداء النجمية الموجودة في نجم ثنائي عندما تنجذب مادة من النجم القرين إلى الثقب الأسود (باعتبار أن الثقب الأسود أحد "النجمين " في الثنائي). وتعمل الطاقة الكبيرة الناتجة عن انهيار المادة على الثقب الأسود على تسخين المادة إلى درجات حرارة عالية تصل إلى عدة مئات الملايين كلفن وهذه تتسبب في إنتاج أشعة إكس والتي يمكن تسجيلها (أنظر علم الفلك للأشعة السينية). أي أن الثقب الأسود يمكن رؤيته من الأشعة السينية التي يصدرها، بينما تمكن مشاهدة النجم القرين من ضوئه بالتلسكوب الضوئي. ويبدو أن الطاقة الناتجة من الثقب الأسودتكون مساوية للطاقة التي تُنتج أيضا من نجم نيوتروني. ولذلك يصعب التفرقة بين الثقب الأسود والنجم النيوتروني. ولكن النجم النيوتروني له خواص أحرى تميزه، منها أن له دوران تفاضلي حول محوره، وقد يكون له مجال مغناطيسي، وقد تحدث فيه انفجارات موضعية صغيرة (انفجار نووي حراري). فعندما تشاهد تلك الصفات فيمكن القول بأن الجرم المنضغط في نظام ثنائي إنما هو نجم نيوتروني. ويمكن تعيين الكتلة عن طريق الأشعة السينية التي يصدرها الجرم المنضغط بالإضافة إلى بيانات الضوء المرصود. وتحوي جميع النجوم النيوترونية كتل بين 3 - 5 كتلة شمسية. ولم تُبدي أي من تلك الأجرام المنضغطة (المتقلصة) التي تحوي كتلة أكبر من 5 كتلة شمسية بأن لها خواص النجوم النيوترونية. تلك البيانات تجعلنا نستنتج أن تلك الأصناف من النجوم المنضغطة التي تحتوي على كتلة أكبر من 5 كتلة شمسية إنما تكون في الواقع ثقوبا سوداء. بعض المرشحين: تحوي مجرتنا مجرة درب التبانة عل عدة مرشحين ليكون كل منهم ثقب أسود نجمي ومن ضمنهم عدة أقرب لنا من الثقب الأسود الفائق الكتلة الموجود في مركز المجرة (الرامي أ* ). ويوجد كل من تلك المرشحين في أنظمة ثنائية تصدر أشعة سينية حيث يجذب الجرم المنضغط مادة من قرينه على هيئة قرص حلزوني ينهار عليه. وتقدر كتلة الثقب الأسود في تلك الثنائيات بين 3 أضعاف إلى نحو 12 ضعف كتلة شمسية. المصادر : ثبت المراجع:

Stellar black hole Stellar mass black holes | Stellar phenomena | Star types A stellar black hole (or stellar mass black hole) is a black hole formed by the gravitational collapse of a massive star. They have masses ranging from about 3 to several tens of solar masses. The process is observed as a supernova explosiondate: November 2010: or as a gamma ray burstdateNovember 2010: . * Properties By the no-hair theorem, a black hole can only have three fundamental properties: mass, electric charge and angular momentum (spin). It is believed that black holes formed in nature all have spin, but no definite observation on the spin have been performed. The spin of a stellar black hole is due to the conservation of angular momentum of the star that produced it. The collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below a certain critical value, the end product is a compact star, either a white dwarf or a neutron star. Both these stars have a maximum mass. So if the collapsing star has a mass exceeding this limit, the collapse will continue forever (catastrophic gravitational collapse) and form a black hole. The maximum mass of a neutron star is not well known, in 1939 it was estimated at 0.7 solar masses, called the TOV limit. In 1996 a different estimate put this upper mass in a ranged from 1.5 to 3 solar masses. In the theory of general relativity, a black hole could exist of any mass. The lower the mass, the higher the density of matter has to be in order to form a black hole. (See, for example, the discussion in Schwarzschild radius, the radius of a black hole.) There are no known processes that can produce black holes with mass less than a few times the mass of the Sun. If they exist, they are most likely primordial black holes. The largest known stellar black hole (as of 2007) is 15.65±1.45 solar masses. Additionally, there is evidence that the IC 10 X-1 X-ray source is a stellar black hole with a probable mass of 24-33 solar masses. As of April 2008, XTE J1650-500 was reported by NASA and others to be the smallest mass black hole currently known to science, with a mass 3.8 solar masses and a diameter of only 15 miles (24 kilometers). However, this claim was subsequently retracted. The more likely mass is 5-10 solar masses. There is observational evidence for two other types of black holes, which are much more massive than stellar black holes. They are intermediate-mass black holes (in the centre of globular clusters) and supermassive black holes in the centre of the Milky Way and active galaxies. * X-ray compact binary systems Stellar black holes in close binary systems are observable when matter is transferred from a companion star to the black hole. The energy release in the fall toward the compact star is so large that the matter heats up to temperatures of several hundred million degrees and radiates in X-rays (X-ray astronomy). The black hole therefore is observable in X-rays, whereas the companion star can be observed with optical telescopes. The energy release for black holes and neutron stars are of the same order of magnitude. Black holes and neutron stars are often difficult to distinguish. However, neutron stars may have additional properties. They show differential rotation, and can have a magnetic field and exhibit localized explosions (thermonuclear bursts). Whenever such properties are observed, the compact object in the binary system is revealed as a neutron star. The derived masses come from observations of compact X-ray sources (combining X-ray and optical data). All identified neutron stars have a mass below 3 to 5 solar masses. None of the compact systems with a mass above 5 solar masses reveals the properties of a neutron star. The combination of these facts make it more and more likely that the class of compact stars with a mass above 5 solar masses are in fact black holes. Note that this proof of existence of stellar black holes is not entirely observational but relies on theory: We can think of no other object for these massive compact systems in stellar binaries besides a black hole. A direct proof of the existence of a black hole would be if one actually observes the orbit of a particle (or a cloud of gas) that falls into the black hole. * Candidates Our Milky Way galaxy contains several stellar-mass Black Hole Candidates (BHCs) which are closer to us than the supermassive black hole in the Galactic center region. These candidates are all members of X-ray binary systems in which the compact object draws matter from its partner via an accretion disk. The probable black holes in these pairs range from three to more than a dozen solar masses.

Trou noir stellaire Trou noir | Trou noir stellaire Trou noir (homonymie): Trou noir: Un trou noir stellaire résulte de l'effondrement d'une étoile massive sur elle-même. Cet effondrement se manifeste directement par l'apparition d'une supernova, possiblement associée à un sursaut gamma. Un tel trou noir a une masse comprise entre trois et cinq masses solaires au minimum, le plus massif connu (en 2001) ayant une masse de 14 masses solaires. Les principaux progéniteurs de trous noirs stellaires par effondrement sont les étoiles Wolf-Rayet. Effondrement : On peut envisager un trou noir d'une masse quelconque, en se basant uniquement sur la loi de l'attraction universelle telle qu'énoncée par Newton. Toutefois, plus la masse est faible, plus la matière doit être confinée pour former un trou noir, qui est en théorie infiniment dense. On ne connaît en fait aucun processus naturel à même d'engendrer un trou noir inférieur à environ 1,5 fois la masse du Soleil, ce qui est dû à la nature des différentes forces intervenant dans l'effondrement gravitationnel. L'effondrement d'une étoile massive sur elle-même est un processus quasi-inévitable. Il pourrait être théoriquement évité dans le cas d'étoiles très massives (120 masses solaires initialement) qui ont une grande métallicité, impliquant un fort vent stellaire qui fait perdre à l'étoile trop de masse pour qu'elle puisse s'effondrer par la suite. À la fin de sa vie nucléaire, l'étoile se contracte sous l'effet de la gravité de sa propre matière. Si la masse de l'étoile est inférieure à la limite de Chandrasekhar (1,44 masses solaires), l'étoile mourante deviendra une naine blanche. Tandis que pour une étoile de masse supérieure, mais néanmoins plus petite que la limite d'Oppenheimer-Volkoff (3,2 masses solaires), c'est une étoile à neutrons qui sera le produit final. Au-delà de cette limite, la gravité n'est plus contrebalancée par la pression de dégénérescence des électrons (comme pour la naine blanche), ni par celle des protons (pour l'étoile à neutrons). Dans ce cas, l'effondrement est inéluctable, et l'objet se transforme en singularité. Un trou noir stellaire se définit par trois propriétés : sa masse, sa charge électrique et son moment angulaire (le spin). On pense que les trous noirs existants ont un moment angulaire, mais l'observation qui viendrait le confirmer n'a pas encore été faite. Dans l'absolu, le moment angulaire d'un trou noir stellaire est celui de l'étoile qui l'a engendré. Système binaire à rayons X : Les trous noirs dans des systèmes binaires serrés sont observables indirectement par le transfert de matière qui s'effectue depuis leurs compagnons stellaires. Un disque d'accrétion se forme autour du trou noir. Ce disque peut provoquer l'apparition de jets relativistes qui semblent parfois avoir une vitesse supraluminique (c'est en fait un effet de projection). L'énergie dégagée par l'échauffement de la matière sur le disque d'accrétion (qui atteint des températures de plusieurs milliers de millions de degrés) provoque un fort rayonnement X. On parle alors de binaires à rayons X. L'étude du mouvement orbital du système, ainsi que la détermination de son angle d'inclinaison, permettent de calculer les masses des deux composantes et ainsi celle du trou noir. Les systèmes binaires à rayons X sont aussi appelés microquasars, en allusion aux quasars qui sont eux des galaxies avec un trou noir supermassif au centre. Pourtant, même si les échelles de temps et de températures sont différentes, il semblerait que la physique des microquasars et des quasars soit la même. D'où l'intérêt de bien comprendre les microquasars, bien plus accessibles aux échelles humaines de temps d'investigation que leurs parents galactiques. Parmi les exemples les plus fameux de microquasars, on trouve GRS 1915+105 et GRO J1655-40. Liste de trous noirs stellaires : * Cygnus X-1 * LMC X-1 * LMC X-3 * 1A 0620-00 (Nova Monocerotis 1917, V616 Monocerotis) * V404 Cygni * Granat 1124-68 (Nova Muscae 1991, GU Muscae) * GRO J1655-40 (Nova Scorpii 1994) * H 1705-250 (V2107 Ophiuchi) * Ginga 2000+251 (QZ Vulpeculae) * GRS 1915+105 (V1487 Aquilae, Nova Aquilae 1992) * XTE J1118+480 (KV Ursae Majoris) * GRO J0422+32 (V518 Persei) * GRS 1009-45 (MM Velorum) * 4U 1543-475 (IL Lupi) * XTE J1550-564 (V381 Normae) * GX 339-4 (V821 Arae) * XTE J1819-254 (V4641 Sagittarii) * XTE J1859+226 (V406 Vulpeculae) * XTE J1650-500 Référence : * Livre Camenzind: , page 452.

رورونوا زورو ون بيس رورونوا زورو،ロロノア・ゾロ: ، شخصية خياليه من تأليف إييتشيرو أودا صفاته المميزة: حس المغامرة:4 القوة:6 الذكاء:3 الذوق:2 الفضول:3 السيرة الذاتية : االاسم: رورونوا زورو (مشتق من اسم القرصان الفرنسي الشهير فرنسواس لولونياس) العمر: 19 عاماً (قبل تفرق الطاقم) 21 عاماً (بعد تجمع الطاقم) تاريخ الميلاد: 11/11 الطول: 178 سم الطعام المفضل: الأرز الأبيض وسمك ملك البحر والخمر (الإيل) المكافئة الموضوعة على رأسه: 120,000,000 بيلي الوظيفة في الطاقم: السياف، العديد من متابعي ون بيس يرونه كساعد لوفي الأيمن. أول ظهور له: المانجا – الفصل 3 أنمي – الحلقة 2 ألقابه: صائد القراصنة (الحكومة العالمية) ماريمو (سانجي) السيد بوشيدو (فيفي) السيد السياف (نيكو روبن) مؤدي الصوت: كازويا ناكاي و ميجومي أوراوا كزورو الصغير نبذة : رورونوا زورو شخصية في الأنمي المشهور ون بيس وهو فرد من طاقم قراصنة القبعة القشية. بالنسبة لكاتب المانجا الحيوان الذي يشبه زورو هو القرش وأن رائحته تشبه رائحة الفولاذ. أثناء مشاهدة الأنمي وقراءة المانجا يستغرب المتابع من قوة زورو الشديدة للتحمل كما أن قوته في تحمل أقوى الضربات تضاهي قدرة كابتن السفينة مونكي دي لوفي. زورو ظهر أكثر من مرة وهو يتلقى ضربات يظن من يراها تلقن إليه بأنه سيموت لا محالة أو أنه سيصاب بشلل أو إعاقة دائمة لكنه دائماً يشفى كأن شيئاً لم يكن. حتى أن قوته الجسمية مثيرة للعجب فمعظم أقوى أقوياء عالم ون بيس اكتسبوا قوتهم من فاكهة الشيطان إلى أن زورو يعود فضل قوته لتدريباته الشاقة المتواصلة. تبدو على وجه زورو ملامح الغضب والاستياء والجدية لكنه عادة طيب وظهر أكثر من مرة حرصه الشديد على أصدقائه حتى أكثر من حرصه على نفسه. كما أن زورو يعد ساعد الكابتن الأيمن وهو عادة ً من يرشد الكابتن إلى الصحيح من الفعل. زورو رجل يحكم بعقله وعادة ً يميز الصواب من الخطأ ويفعل الصواب مهما كانت تكلفته. ماضي رورونوا زورو : لم يظهر أبداً أي أثر على أن زورو كان لديه والدان أو أهل طيلة فترة متابعة ون بيس، لذا فأغلب الظن أنه يتيم وحيد لم يعرفه أحد قبل دخوله ذاك الدوجو في صباه عندما كان يبلغ من العمر 9 سنوات. في ذاك اليوم طرأت على زورو نقطة تحول في حياته حيث ذهب كعادته, كما يبدو, باحثاً عن ولد قوي أو رجل ليتنازل ضده بالسيف حتى وصل إلى دوجو حيث وعد صاحبه الدوجو بالانضمام للدوجو إن هو خسر النزال. لكنه فوجئ بصاحب الدوجو الذي نادى ابنته "كوينا" لتبارز زورو. في البداية اعترض زورو لكن صاحب الدوجو قال بأنها أقوى من كل الرجال الذين بارزتهم. فبارزها زورو مستخدماً سبع عصي من البامبو (واحد في فمه وثلاثة في كل يد) وخسر المبارزة بضربة واحدة من كوينا، فلزم عليه الوفاء بعهده والانضمام إلى الدوجو. عند خسارته في تلك المرة قال زورو لكوينا "سأهزمك, سأتدرب وأتدرب وأهزمك". بعدها نرى زورو يتدرب كثيراً حتى يتمكن من هزيمة الرجال لكنه يقف عاجزاً عن هزيمة كوينا. وتواصل الأمر حتى كانت خسارته ال2001 أمامها قرر زورو أن يضع حداً للأمر ويبارزها بسيوف حقيقية، حيث أنهم كانوا من قبل يتبارزون بعصي البامبو. وعند هزيمته الـ2001 اعترض زملاء زورو على هزيمته واحتجوا عند معلمهم صاحب الدوجو قائلين بلابد أنه يعطي كوينا دروساً إضافية إلا أن صاحب الدوجو رد قائلاً أن كوينا أيضاً بدأت بالتدرب أكثر منذ عرفت زورو. ذهب زورو إلى كوينا قائلاً لها بأنه يود حسم الأمر الليلة فوافقت كوينا وسرعان ما بدأت مبارزتهم، وكان زورو يستخدم تقنية "النيتوريو" آنذاك، أي استخدام سيفين في القتال بحمل سيف في كل يد. لكنه خسر أيضاً في تلك المرة ولحزنه هم بالبكاء غير أن كوينا بادرت حين رأت ذلك منه قائلة: "أنا من عليها البكاء" ذلك أنها لا يمكن أبداً أن تكون أفضل سيافة في العالم لأنها فتاة والفتاة عادة أضعف من الولد. فقال لها زورو أنه عليها ألا تقول ما تقوله لأنها هكذا تهينه، حيث أنه منذ بارزها لأول مرة وهو يتدرب بشدة لهزيمتها وأنه إن فاز عليها يوماً من الأيام فإن ما تقوله لا يمكن أن يكون عذراً لخسارتها. وواعدها على أن يصبح أحدهما أفضل سياف في العالم. لكن في اليوم التالي توفيت كوينا بسبب تعثرها بسلالم القبو. لم يبكي زورو عند موت كوينا لكننا نرى حزنه بتشديده لتدريباته وتخيلها بجانبه دائماً. فذهب والد كوينا، المعلم وصاحب الدوجو، إلى زورو ليكلمه عن ابنته وهو يحمل سيفها. فقال لزورو بأنها كانت عنيدة وأنه يشكره لأنه قبل انضمامه إلى الدوجو كانت كوينا تهزم الجميع، حتى الأكبر منها سناً حتى اغترت بنفسها، لكن منذ أن قدم زورو شكل لها تحدياً فكثفت تدريباتها. فقال له زورو وهو يبكي بحرقة لأول مرة منذ موت كوينا: "سينسي.. هذا الكاتانا.. رجاءً أعطني إياه، أنا سآخذ حصتها من التدريب وسأغدو أقوى! سأصبح قوياً لدرجة أن صدى اسمي سيصل الجنان! سأصبح أقوى سياف في العالم! لقد تعاهدنا.. أنا.. أنا.." المعلم، مناولاً سيف كوينا لزورو: "حسناً.. روح كوينا وأحلامها.. سأدعها معك." وبعد عدة سنوات خرج زورو من الدوجو لتحقيق حلمه بأن يصبح أقوى سياف في العالم، وتاه في البحار ولم يكن يجيد عملاً سوى القتال فأصبح يصيد القراصنة ليحصل على المكافئة التي على رؤوسهم ليعيش منها. انضمام زورو إلى الطاقم : رورونوا زورو هو أول من انضم إلى طاقم القبعة القشية، حيث كان ولوفي الفردين الوحيدين في الطاقم في البداية. وسبب انضمامه إلى لوفي أنه لم يملك خياراً غير ذلك، فقد كان حبيساً موثوقاً على خشبة وعلى وشك الحكم عليه بالإعدام. في هذه الحالة عرض لوفي على زورو أن يصبح رفيقه في البحر وسياف سفينته فوافق زورو على شرط واحد وهو ألا يعترض لوفي حلمه في أن يصبح أعظم سياف في العالم وإلا فإنه قد يقوم بقتله. سيوف زورو : وادو اتشيمونجي "الطريق المستقيم إلى الوئام" هذا هو سيف كوينا الذي أخذه زورو ليحقق حلمهما معاً وهو الذي يضعه في فمه أثناء القتال. وعادةً إن استخدم في مبارزاته تقنية السيف الواحد، فإنه يضرب مستخدماً هذا السيف، كضربة "أغنية الأسد" التي تغلب بها على مستر1. الوادو هو أحد إنجازات الحرف اليدوية الأسطورية العظيمة ال21 "أووازا-مونو 21" وقيمته تصل إلى أكثر من 20,000,000 بيلي. يبدو لي أنه حتى عين الصقر ميهوك يعرف قيمة هذا الكاتانا لأنه عند نزاله لزورو كسر سيفي زورو وأبقى على هذا. سانداي كيتاتسو "قاطع الشياطين الثالث" حصل زورو على هذا السيف في الحلقة ال51 في قرية لوجوي، أسلاف هذا الكاتانا الأول والثاني كانوا أيضاَ من أحد إنجازات الحرف اليدوية العظيمة المنشأة بأعلى درجة من المهارة "سايجو أووزا-مونو". قال زورو عن هذا السيف في أول تجربة له بأنه متعطش للدماء ووصفه بالطفل المشاكس لأنه يقطع دون أن يأمره بذلك. حصل زورو عليه عندما ذهب إلى محل لبيع السيوف من أجل شراء كاتانا جديد بعد أن كسر عين الصقر سيفيه، إلى أن البائع رفض أن يأخذ مالاً من زورو لقاء هذا السيف وذلك لأن زورو أبهره حين شعر بلعنة هذا الكاتانا الشريرة ثم قال: "سنرى ما الأقوى، حظي أم لعنة السيف" ثم رمى السيف في الهواء ومد ذراعه حيث أنه إذا كانت لعنة السيف أقوى فإنه سيقطع ذراعه وإذا كان حظه الأقوى فإن الكاتانا لن يقطع ذراعه، وهذا ما حصل. بعدها أعجب صاحب المحل بزورو أعطاه أثمن سيف لديه في المحل بالإضافة إلى ما الملعون هذا قائلاً: "لقد مضى زمن طويل منذ أن شاهدت سيافاً حقيقياً لآخر مرة، يقولون بأن الكاتانا تختار صاحبها، سأصلي ليحالفك الحظ". -سابقاً- يوباشيري "خطوة الثلج" هذا هو أثمن سيف كان عند صاحب المحل المذكور في السابق والذي أعطاه لزورو. السيف أحد الـ50 عملاً الماهرة لصنع الخير "ريوو-وازا-مونو 50". وصفه زورو في أول تجربة له بأنه سيف خفيف وجيد. فقد زورو هذا السيف في إنيس لوبي أثناء عملية البستر كول التي استهدفت القضاء على طاقم القبعة القشية. في هذه الأثناء وفي الحلقة الـ309 هاجم كابتن قوات المارينز شيو زورو ودمر سيفه مستخدما قوة فاكهته الشيطانية "سابي سابي نو مي" الصدأ، حتى أنه كاد يقضي على زورو إلى أن يوسوب ضربه فأنقذ زورو من قبضته. شوزوي " الماء الخريفي" كالوادو، هذا السيف أحد إنجازات الحرف اليدوية الأسطورية العظيمة الـ21 "أووازا-مونو 21". حصل عليه زورو من الساموراي ريوما بعد أن تغلب عليه. صمم هذا الكتانا ليزيد من حجم الأضرار على الخصم، وهو ثقيل جداً على عكس يوياشيري، ووصفه زورو بـ"المزاجي". كما قال بأن أفضل صفة لهذا السيف صلابته، فإنه لن ينحني، ولو قام دينصور بالدهس عليه. هجمات زورو القتالية: يلاحظ كل من يتابع أنمي ومانجا ون بيس أن معظم أسامي هجمات زورو مأخوذة إما من مخلوقات أسطورية أو أنها مشتقة من أسامي الحيوانات. ملاحظة: أحياناً يقول زورو قبل اسم ضربته "إياي"، ومعناه أنه يستل سيفه، يقطع عدوه، ثم يعيد سيفه لغمده. هجمات اللا سيف "أو-توريو" (أي أن زورو يستخدم سيف خصمه ليضربه به) تاتسو ماكيي (إعصار التنين): يمد يديه ويدور حول نفسه ضارباً خصمه. هجمات تقنية السيف الواحد "إي-توريو" "إياي" شي شي-سون سون (أغنية الأسد): هذه الضربة التي يقطع زورو بها الفولاذ. هنا يستل سيفه ويضرب خصمه بقوة وبسرعة. اكتشف زورو سر هذه الضربة عند قتاله ضد مستر1 عندما كان على حافة الموت. حيث ظهر له جلياً في ذاك الوقت معنى أن السيف الحقيقي ليس الذي يقطع كل شيء، إنما الذي ينفذ أوامر صاحبه. سر هذه الضربة هو إدراك أن كل شيء في هذا الوجود يتنفس، حتى الفولاذ. باستماع زورو لنفس الفولاذ، لرمق الحياة فيه، استطاع زورو قطعه. سانجو روك باوند هو (مدفع 36 باوند): هذه الضربة هي أول ضربة مسمية رأيناها من قبل زورو بتقنيته "السيف الطائر"، أي أن قوة ضربة السيف تطير فتضرب الخصم دون أن يمسه السيف. هذا الاسم مشتق من الحواس الستة (النظر والسمع والشم والتذوق واللمس والتفكير، ثم بداخل الست الحواس الفانية الشر والخير والحياد، ثم من بعيد بداخل كل واحد فيهم الطهارة والفساد، لتساوي الـ36 رغبة دنيوية في هذا العالم). (6* 3* 236). ملاحظة: زورو يحسب التفكير كحاسة. شيريو (التنين الطائر): يركض زورو ثم يقفز ويضرب "تقنية السيف الطائر". كايين (اللهب): يمسك زورو يده اليسار بيده اليمين، ثم يضرب خصمه مباشرةً فيخرج لهب من الجرح الذي سببه. هجمات تقنية السيفين "ني-توريو" تاكا نامي (موجة الصقر): هنا يفرد زورو سيفيه بالعرض، كلٌ على جهته، ويدور حول نفسه ويهجم وهو على هذه الوضعية. قرأت مرة أنها سميت موجة الصقر لأنه حتى لو لم تمسس العدو الضربة فإنه يسقط من انبعاثها كما يحصل عندما يهجم الصقر على فريسته، حتى لو أنه لم يمسكها فإنها تسقط من الهواء الذي تحدثه سرعته أو (موجته). "إياي" راشومون (بوابة الحياة الأبدية- بوابة مهملة في كيوتو القديمة): يستل زورو سيفيه ويضعهما خلفه بطريقة متقاطعة ثم يضرب بقوة فتتطاير الضربات نحو خصمه "تقنية السيف الطائر". نيجيري-تورو (قطعتين-صعود بناية): أولاً يمسك سيفيه بمحاذاة بعضهما بالعرض وعلى جهة اليمين ثم عندما يهجم يقفز ويرفع سيفيه. أوتورو: إعادة الضربة السابقة لكنه يهجم نزولاً إلى تحت. هيراميكي (الوميض): نفس الضربات السابقة إلا أنه يسددها إلى الأمام وتخرج الضربة وميضاً أزرق. سامون (شكل الرمال): نفس الضربات السابقة إلا أن زورو يقفز عند تسديدها وتكون بشكل مقوس. هجمات تقنية الثلاث سيوف "سان-توريو" أوني-جيري (قَطعَة الشيطان): في هذه الضربة يضم زورو يديه ببعضهما وتكون السيوف التي يمسكها ممتدة بالطول بينما الذي في فمه بالعرض، ثم يهجم بسرعة كبيرة وهو على هذه الوضعية. هذه أكثر ضربة يقوم بها زورو. ياكي-أوني-حيري (قطعة الشيطان النارية): مثل الأوني جيري، إلا أن جسم زورو وسيوفه تكون مغطى بالنار. تاتسو-ماكيي (إعصار التنين): هنا يدور زورو حول نفسه ماداً سيوفه كلها بالعرض ويسدد ضربته التي تدور كالإعصار القاطع، قاطعةً كل ما تلمسه. كما أن هذه الضربة يمكنها أن تسدد أي أنها تضرب تصيب الشخص حتى لو لم يمسسه السيف. * الندوب في جسمه== الجرح الكبير الذي يمتد من أعلى صدره لأسفله سببه له عين الصقر ميهوك أثناء مبارزته معه في الحلقة 24، وهي الضربة التي انتهى بها النزال بينهما. المميز في هذا الجرح هو أن ميهوك سببه لزورو بسيفه الكبير الذي يعد أقوى سيف في عالم ون بيس، وميهوك عادة لا يبارز مستخدماً هذا السيف إلا إن كان الشخص يستحق النزال.

Roronoa Zoro One Piece characters | Fictional pirates | Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength | Fictional sword fighters | Anime and manga martial artists | Comics characters introduced in 1997 , nicknamed , is a fictional character in the One Piece franchise created by Eiichiro Oda. He the swordsman of the Straw Hat Pirates. He was the first to join Monkey D. Luffy after being saved from being executed by Marines. Native to East Blue, and the dojo where I train is in a town called Shimotsuki. He is an expert swordsman who can use three swords for his Santōryū (Three Sword Style). Has a bounty of 120,000,000. Creation and conception : Design : Throughout the series, Zoro usually wears a white shirt, dark green pants, and carries a haramaki to use to hold their swords. Zoro also uses a dark green bandanna, which is attached to his left arm, and wears it during his fights. Eventually, Zoro's appearance was completely revamped. He has a new scar running down his left eye and he now wears a long dark green coat, closed at the waist with a red sash. He has no shirt underneath, and green haramaki is visible under the coat. Personality : Zoro is confidential, but very often acts in a comic mode, and also has a lousy sense of direction. When he and the rest of the crew is sailing, Zoro is sleeping or training. He and Sanji have a great rivalry, they resort to fighting (verbally and physically) for minor issues and very often. Voice actors : In the original Japanese version of the One Piece anime series, Zoro has been voiced by Kazuya Nakai as an adult and Megumi Urawa as a child. In addition to the Japanese versions, different voice actors have been used for the child and adult forms of the character. In 4Kids' dub of the first five story arcs of One Piece, child Zoro was voiced by Andrew Rannells. In Funimation's dub of the One Piece franchise, child Zoro was voiced by Aaron Dismuke in , Cynthia Cranz for episode 2 and by Brina Palencia for the rest of the series. In 4Kids' dub of of One Piece, adult Zoro was voiced by Marc Diraison. In Funimation's dub of the entire One Piece franchise, adult Zoro has been consistently voiced by Christopher R. Sabat. Appearances : Zoro first appears in the manga chapter , first published in Japan's Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine on August 18, 1997. He first appears as a captured criminal awaiting his execution at the hands of the Marines. Before the beginning of the series' narrative, Zoro loses his childhood friend Kuina and vows to get strong. For years, he devoted himself to hunt pirates with their sword skills in the company of his friends Johnny and Yosaku. Until Luffy offered to join his crew, and although at first he refused, in the end he agreed. When he discovers that the best swordsman who there in the world is Dracule Mihawk, Zoro thinks only beat him one day. During the separation of the Straw Hat Pirates, Zoro finished in Mihawk's home, and during the time-skip he was training. * Reception Zoro ranked second in all four Shōnen Jump character popularity polls. Furthermore, in a 2007 poll by Oricon, Zoro was voted as the 4th most desired character to receive a spinoff. DVD Talk praises Zoro's "hilarious" three-sword fighting style as a great example of the show's sense of humor. Holly Ellingwood from Activeanime praised Zoro's fight against Luffy as one of the best moments from the 10th DVD from the series released by Viz Media, praising the action scenes. Sabat's work with Zoro has resulted in him being a nominated of the category "Best Voice Actor (English)" in the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation (SPJA) Awards from 2008. Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network commented on Sabat's work with Zoro as a "standout", noting that Zoro and Sabat are "well-matched. Kimlinger also found that his and Sanji's flashbacks from the anime "really do jerk tears, even if they are less than gracefully executed". References : One Piece:

Zorro Roronoa Personnage de One Piece | Chasseur de primes de fiction | Pirate de fiction | Épéiste de fiction Zorro (homonymie): unicode japonais: Zorro Roronoa ( – Roronoa Zoro dans la version originale et l'anime, Zoko dans la version AB de l'animé) est un personnage du manga One Piece. Il fait partie de l'Équipage du chapeau de paille dirigé par Monkey D. Luffy, le héros de l'histoire, et est un épéiste de grand renom qui se bat avec trois sabres. Personnalité : Zorro est un personnage aux allures sérieuses et froides. Le créateur de la série le compare d'ailleurs à un requin ou un démon. Pourtant, ses réactions sont souvent comiques ou exagérées. Lors des traversées en mer, on le voit soit en train de s'entraîner soit en train de faire la sieste ou dormir, ce qui lui vaut souvent dans le dernier cas d'être réveillé de façon assez brutale. Tout comme Nami, il possède une grande résistance à l'alcool et on ne le voit jamais ivre. Il souffre d'un déplorable sens de l'orientation et entretient une relation conflictuelle et concurrentielle avec Sanji , le cuisinier du navire, avec lequel il se dispute constamment, y compris et surtout en pleine bataille. Cependant, en tant que combattants, ils se font régulièrement preuve de respect mutuel. Ses relations avec Nami ne sont elles aussi pas très bonnes car il n'apprécie guère sa cupidité et elle a de plus réussi à le piéger à Wiskey Peak. Ils sont pourtant avec Nico Robin les membres les moins malléables de l'équipage. On ignore le montant actuel de sa dette envers elle. Lorsqu'il se bat, Zorro reste toujours sérieux, concentré, et focalisé sur la victoire. Sa façon d'appréhender les combats contraste donc fortement avec celle de Luffy ou de Pipo, il s'est battu avec Luffy mais ils n'ont toujours pas été départagés. Son attitude rappelle d'une certaine façon le bushidō des samouraï japonais et Vivi lui donna le surnom de « Mister Bushidō » dès leur première rencontre. Certaines de ses attaques font également référence aux samouraïs. Dès que Zorro sent que le combat devient sérieux, il détache son bandana de son bras pour se le mettre autour de la tête à la façon des pirates, ceci montre le respect que porte Zorro à ses adversaires les plus forts, mais aussi, lorsqu'il le porte cela le "transforme" et il devient plus démoniaque, et plus fort surtout. Lorsque Zorro porte son bandana pendant un combat c'est qu'il veut que ce combat représente un élément de sa progression vers son but : devenir le plus fort épéiste (ou bretteur) du monde (donc battre Mihawk œil de faucon). Il est un ami fidèle et est le second de Luffy. Histoire : Enfance : Dans son enfance, Zorro était élève dans un dojo situé dans le village de Shimotsuki. Il se spécialisa dans le et était déjà assez fort pour battre des adultes. Pourtant, il n'arrivait jamais à gagner contre Kuina, la fille du maître. Il la combattit plus de 2000 fois, mais ne réussit jamais à prendre le dessus. Un jour, il la défia une dernière fois en utilisant cette fois-ci de véritables armes, mais il se fit encore battre, les vrais sabres étant plus lourds que les sabres en bois. Zorro pleura de frustration de ne pouvoir devenir le meilleur bretteur du monde. Kuina partageait elle-aussi le même rêve, mais en tant que femme, elle savait qu'en grandissant elle n'aurait jamais la force physique pour y parvenir. Zorro n'en était que davantage mortifié, car s'il venait à gagner un jour contre Kuina, il lui serait impossible de savoir si c'était vraiment grâce à sa propre force. Ils se firent la promesse que l'un d'eux deviendrait le meilleur bretteur du monde. Le lendemain, Kuina fit une chute mortelle dans les escaliers. Zorro se jura de tenir sa promesse et demanda à son maître le katana de Kuina, le Wado Ichimonji, et développa un nouveau style de combat qu'il appela le , qui consiste à tenir un katana dans chaque main et un troisième dans la bouche (en l'occurrence, celui de Kuina). Vie en mer : Zorro quitta le dojo et partit voyager d'île en île afin de se perfectionner. Il s'improvisa chasseur de primes afin de pouvoir se payer à manger et entretenir ses épées. Il devint très réputé et fut surnommé « Zorro le chasseur de pirates » (kaizoku-gari). Vers cette époque, il reçut une offre de Baroque Works, qui l'invita à venir travailler pour lui. Il déclina cette dernière, refusant de travailler pour une organisation si on ne faisait pas de lui le chef, et tua l'émissaire. Sur l'île de Shell, il eut un petit différend avec le fils du Colonel Morgan, le chef de la caserne locale de la Marine, et fit le pari qu'il ne mangerait pas pendant un mois attaché à une croix. Dix jours avant la fin de la peine, les Marines décidèrent de l'exécuter, mais il fut sauvé par Monkey D. Luffy qui l'invita alors à faire partie de son équipage de pirates. Après avoir initialement refusé en déclarant ne pas vouloir devenir un bandit, poussé par les événements, il finit par décider que pour accomplir son rêve, peu lui importait d'être bon ou mauvais tant que son nom pût faire trembler les cieux. Pour Luffy, il paraissait naturel que le seigneur des pirates et le meilleur bretteur du monde fasse partie du même équipage et ne vit donc aucune objection à le prendre comme second membre de son équipage. Zorro fut donc la première personne que Luffy recrute dans son équipage. Lors d'un de ses voyages, il rencontra Mihawk un des sept puissant corsaires, qui portait le titre de meilleur bretteur du monde qu'il convoite, et le défia. Mais Zorro subit une sévère défaite et porte depuis une longue cicatrice au torse. Il se jura de ne plus jamais perdre un combat avant de pouvoir affronter Mihawk. Au début de la série, Zorro est incapable de couper l'acier avec ses épées alors que d'autres matières telle la roche ne lui posent aucun problème. Dans le combat l'opposant à l'un des soldats de Crocodile, Mr 1 alias Daz Boness – un homme ayant mangé le Fruit Tailladant, qui transforme son corps en acier – il sera de prime abord vaincu, aucune de ses attaques ne pouvant blesser son adversaire. Il comprendra grâce au souvenir des paroles de son maître qu'avant de trancher quoi que ce soit, il faut sentir sa cible vivre et respirer. Après avoir entendu le souffle d'acier de Mr 1, il le bat en un coup. Un peu plus tard, il met au point sa propre variation de la « lame tranchant l'air », qui comme son nom l'indique s'étend et permet à Zorro d'attaquer à distance. Cette technique est nommé Calibre 36 si lancé avec un sabre, Calibre 72 si lancé avec deux et enfin Calibre 108 si lancé avec trois. Bien qu'il jure à Mihawk de ne plus jamais perdre, il subit une certaine déconvenue contre Ener (Eneru pour la version Japonaise), qui le foudroie et le met ainsi au tapis. Durant l'arc Enies Lobby, il combat le membre du CP9 Kaku (anciennement contre-maître charpentier de la Galley-la Compagnie), d'une force de 2200 dourikis et ayant mangé le fruit de la girafe. Il réussit à le vaincre après un combat acharné en développant une nouvelle et étrange technique, le Kyutouryu (style à neuf sabres). Sur Thriller Bark il se fait voler son ombre, puis il combat le détenteur de l'ombre de Brook, le grand samouraï Ryuma, désireux de s'approprier son sabre, le Shûsui qui est l'un des 21 sabres d'exception, comme remplacement du Yubashiri, brisé à Enies Lobby. Séparation du chapeau de paille : Suite à l'attaque de Kuma, Zorro est projeté sur la même île que Perona (chef des fantômes sur Thriller bark), l'île de Lugubra sur Grand line. Après la guerre entre la marine et Barbe-blanche on apprend que cette île est la résidence de Mihawk, elle est également habitée par une certaine race de singes qui ont la faculté de copier ce qu'ils voient. À cause de la bataille qui a fait rage sur cette ile, ils manient très bien le sabre et viennent s'opposer à Zorro qui essaie de quitter l'île. Il a battu tous les babouins malgré leur supériorité numérique, et est soigné par Perona qui lui fournit un journal qui donnera au bretteur des nouvelles de son chef, contrairement aux autres membres d'équipage il ne comprendra pas immédiatement le message de Luffy. On le revoit plus tard supplier Mihawk de lui apprendre à manier le sabre, ce dernier refuse avant d'apprendre qu'il a vaincu tous les singes. Il finit par accepter en remarquant sa détermination à devenir plus fort pour Luffy et le reste de l'équipage. Il explique ensuite à Perona que Luffy a donné rendez-vous à son équipage non pas dans trois jours mais dans deux ans. Deux ans plus tard : Deux ans après, sur l'archipel Shabondy, son sens de l'orientation n'a pas changé (Perona a été obligée de le guider) mais il montre une maîtrise des techniques de Mihawk, en tranchant en deux avec son sabre le bateau pirate qu'il prit pour le bateau de pêche avec lequel il comptait aller pêcher. Physiquement parlant, on peut dire qu'il est borgne (son œil gauche est fermé par une longue cicatrice qui part de son front et va jusqu'à sa joue) et que ses cheveux semblent plaqués en arrière. Son style vestimentaire aussi à changé, sa nouvelle tenue ressemble à celle des samouraïs. Par la suite, il rencontre Sanji. On remarque que leurs relations ne se sont pas améliorées depuis qu'il se sont quittés, se disputant toujours pour des peccadilles. On observe ses progrès lorsqu'il tranche en deux un pacifista sans forcer. À noter que c'était une chose dont il était loin d'être capable avant l'ellipse. L'île des Hommes-Poissons : Zoro montre ses progrès en battant Neptune (le roi de la mer) avec deux sabres sans difficultés. Suite à l’inondation du château, il bat Hody (un homme poisson) sous l'eau en un coup de sabre; ce dernier y survécut grâce à des stéroïdes. Il fut capturé à cause du manque d'oxygène ; mais fut libéré plus tard avec Usopp et Brook grâce à Paggug qui était toujours en liberté dans le palais. Il réapparut plus tard à place de Gyoncorde en compagnie des autres membres de l'équipage prêt à combattre l'armée d'Hody. Au cours de celle ci il affrontera Hyouzou le meilleur épéiste de l' ile des hommes poissons, il le vaincra sans difficultés. Sabres : Zorro possède des sabres d'exception du monde de One Piece qu'il a gagné au fur et à mesure de son aventure. Il existe 83 lames de renom réparties en 3 catégories. Nous avons donc par ordre d'importance les 12 sabres de premiers rangs (12 Saijo O Wazamono), les 21 grands sabres (21 Oo Wazamono) et enfin les 50 lames de qualité supérieure (50 Ryou Wazamono). Retrouvez ici la liste des sabres d'exception qu'a utilisé (ou utilise encore) Zorro pendant son aventure dans leur ordre d'acquisition : * Wadô Ichimonji : Zorro acquis ce sabre pendant sa jeunesse. Après la mort de son amie et rivale Kuina, Zorro se jura de tenir sa promesse et demanda à son maître le katana de celle-ci. Ce katana fait partie de la classe des 21 Oo-Wazamono. * Sandai Kitetsu : Ippon-Matsu est un armurier de Loguetown. Sachant que ce sabre était maudit, il voulut le vendre parmi les sabres bas de gamme pour ne pas éveiller les soupçons. Zorro sentira que ce sabre n'était pas commun, il décida après un test d'acheter ce sabre. Admiratif, Ippon-Matsu décida de lui en faire cadeau. Ce katana fait partie de la classe des 50 Ryou-Wazamono. * Yubashiri : Ippon-Matsu est un armurier de Loguetown. Admiratif devant l'épéiste d'exception qu'est Zorro, il lui fait cadeau de son plus précieux trésor, ce sabre d'exception. Shuu, colonel de la Marine, affronta Zorro à Enies Lobby et lui fait perdre Yubashiri grâce au pouvoir du Sabi Sabi no Mi. Ce katana fait partie de la classe des 50 Ryou-Wazamono. * Shûsui : Ce sabre appartenait avant à Ryuma, un samouraï légendaire dont on prétend qu'il aurait tué un dragon millénaire. Zorro défia Ryuma pour avoir son sabre. Il fut battu par Zorro, qui récupère celui-ci. Ce katana fait partie de la classe des 21 Oo-Wazamono. Techniques : Zorro est l'un des personnages "humains" (n'utilisant pas de Fruit du Démon) de One Piece les plus forts et est également le membre le plus puissant de l'équipage du chapeau de paille après Luffy. Zorro a acquis sa force grâce à sa volonté et sa détermination, et en s'imposant un entraînement difficile. Il possède une endurance lui permettant de survivre à de terribles blessures et à de grandes pertes de sang. Même désarmé, sa force physique reste bien au-dessus de la moyenne. Son style de combat principal, le santoryu, consiste à se battre avec trois sabres en même temps, un dans chaque main et un entre les dents. Au fur et à mesure de ses aventures, il acquiert tout un panel de bottes secrètes et le nom qu'il leur donne est souvent un jeu de mots : par exemple, Onigiri peut se traduire soit par « trancher le démon » , soit par « boulette de riz » . De plus, les techniques de Zorro ont souvent un rapport avec les animaux (rhinocéros, crabe, dragon, léopard...), il se contente de placer ses sabres de telles façons qu'elles représentent l'élément offensif de l'animal en question (taureau : les cornes ; crabe : les pinces, etc.) Dans le Thousand Sunny il occupe le poste de la vigie, de plus la vigie est une pièce assez spacieuse autour du mat et il s'en sert pour s'entraîner, on y voit des haltères gigantesques de plusieurs tonnes. Attaques : * Techniques à trois sabres : Santoryu ** Oni Giri : Zorro croise ses sabres pour former les cornes d'un démon et tranche son adversaire avec ses trois lames en lui fonçant dessus. C'est son attaque principale. ** Tohra Gari : Il croise les sabres qu'il a dans ses mains derrière celui qu'il a dans sa bouche, puis tranche sa cible verticalement. ** Sanzen Sekai : Il fait tournoyer ses sabres devant puis taillade son ennemi. ** Tourou Nagashi : Technique qui lui permet d'esquiver des attaques en rafale (comme les attaques à six sabres d'Octo et le Tsuppari Pad Hou de Kuma) et de contre-attaquer. ** Tatsu Maki : Zorro représente un dragon japonais avec ses sabres, puis tournoie sur lui-même pour trancher son adversaire qui s'envole en tournoyant. Cela ressemble au calibre 108 mais en forme de dragon. ** Yaki Oni Giri : Un Oni Giri, mais avec ses sabres enflammés. Il utilise cette technique pour battre Mr 5. Il n'a utilisé cette technique que une seule fois. ** Ushi Bari : Zorro pointe deux sabres vers son adversaires comme les cornes d'un taureau, puis il fonce sur lui pour le taillader. ** Gazami Dori : Zorro positionne ses sabres autour du cou de son ennemi comme la pince d'un crabe, puis lui tranche le cou. ** Hyakuhachi Pound Hou : Comme le Sanjuuroku Pound Hou, mais avec ses trois lames. Évidemment, l'attaque est beaucoup plus puissante. ** Karasuma Gari : Une attaque qui permet de trancher plusieurs projectiles dans les airs. ** Gyuki Yuzume : Zorro fonce tout droit sur son adversaire, ses trois sabres pointés droits sur lui. ** Enbima Yonezu Oni Giri : Zorro se concentre tellement que ses ennemis ont l'impression de voir un démon aux sabres ondulants, puis il exécute un Oni Giri beaucoup plus puissant. ** Nigori zake : Zorro concentre toutes ses forces dans ses biceps et frappe son adversaire avec la force d'un gorille. ** Hyou Kin Dama : Zorro se courbe tel une panthère prête à bondir puis fonce sur l'adversaire en tournoyant sur lui-même et fonce vers la cible avec ses trois sabres. ** Daibutsu Giri : Zorro tranche une tour à la hauteur des étages. ** Yasha Garasu : Zorro donne une multitude de coups de sabres, dont les entailles font penser aux pattes d'un oiseau. * Techniques à deux sabres : Nitoryu ** Takanami : Le souffle déclenché en tirant rapidement deux sabres de leurs fourreaux permet d'atteindre des adversaires même éloignés et se propage. Parfait pour se débarasser de sous-fifres. ** Sai Kuru : Zorro tient ses deux épées face à lui, comme les cornes d'un rhinocéros, puis tranche tous ses ennemis d'un coup. ** Iaï Rashômon : Zorro s'accroupit en position Iaï avec une main sur chaque fourreau. Puis il dégaine, frappe et rengaine en un éclair. Généralement, cette technique tranche en deux tout ce qui se trouve devant lui. ** Nanajuuni Pound Hou : Comme le Sanjuuroku Pound Hou, mais avec ses deux sabres. Évidemment, l'attaque est beaucoup plus puissante. ** Tôrô : Zorro crée deux lames d'air qui tranchent de bas en haut. ** Ôtôrô : Deux lames d'air qui tranchent de haut en bas. ** Hirameki : Deux lames d'air qui tranchent horizontalement. ** Samon : Deux lames d'air qui tranchent de haut en bas en diagonale. ** Nigiri Hirameki Magma : Zorro lance deux slashs vers l'avant en tenant ses sabres à l'envers. * Techniques à un sabre : Ittoryu ** Sanjuuroku Pound Hou : Grâce à cette technique, Zorro peut trancher un ennemi à distance en créant une lame d'air avec son sabre. Le nombre 36 a été inspiré par les six sens sous ses trois formes: bon, ordinaire ou mauvais. ** Ïai Shishi Sonson : Zorro se concentre pour ressentir la "respiration" de toute chose qui l'entoure, et lance un seul coup net capable de trancher l'acier. Il a acquis cette technique en combattant Mr 1, dont le corps était en acier. ** Hiyu Kaen : Zorro plonge sur son adversaire en étant entouré d'une aura représentant un dragon cracheur de feu. Puis le bretteur tranche son ennemi, dont la blessure s'enflamme instantanément. * Techniques sans sabre : Mutōryu ** Tatsumaki : Cette attaque est similaire au Tatsumaki, mais uniquement avec ses poings. ** Rattraper la lame de son adversaire : il rattrape la lame de son adversaire sans se blesser. * Techniques à neuf sabres : Kyutoryu ** Ashura : Sa dernière technique lui permit d'inventer un nouveau style de combat : le Kyūtōryū ou technique à neuf sabres. En fait, en utilisant sa concentration spirituelle et sa force mentale, il est capable de se battre avec trois sabres en donnant l'effet d'en utiliser neuf, il apparaît donc comme un Zorro avec six bras et trois têtes (cet effet est sans doute emprunté au Senteï Taïsei, héros japonais qui dans la légende pouvait apparaître avec plusieurs corps en un). On ne sait encore rien sur cette technique, si ce n'est que l'adversaire est persuadé de se faire trancher par neuf sabres. ** Ichibugin : Sous sa forme à trois têtes et six bras, Zorro taillade l'adversaire. Pour l'instant, cette technique n'a été utilisée qu'une fois, pour achever Kaku. ** Makyuusen : Nouvelle technique de l'Ashura qu'il utilisa contre le pacifista entre une Diable Jambe Flambage Shot de Sandy et un Gomu Gomu no jet canon Luffy en gear 2, cette technique ressemble à la brume argentée mais sans brume. ** Ugui : Technique de l'Ashura qu'il utilise contre le Dr. Indigo dans Strong World. Il fonce sur l'ennemi les épées en forme de vrille. Attaques Combinées : * Gomu Gomu no 300 Pound Cannon : Une surpuissante attaque combinée de Luffy et Zorro: Luffy lance un Gomu Gomu no Canon et Zorro utilise le 300 Pound Hou pour ainsi trancher nimporte quelle matière (comme le calibre 108 mais en beaucoup plus puissant). * Jackpot à 600 Millions de Berry : Attaque combinée des bourrins de l'équipage: Luffy, Zorro, Sandy, Robin et Franky se défoulent sur leurs adversaires et où Zorro tranche tout ce qui bouge. * Pirates Docking 6 Giant Robot Warrior Big Emperor : Six des Mugiwara s'assemblent pour former le robot guerrier géant "Big Emperor" Zorro et Sandy font les jambes, Franky le corps, Chopper la tête et Pipo le bras droit. Malheureusement Robin refusera de faire le bras gauche, trop embarrassant selon elle. * Armée de l'Air: Power Shoot : Attaque combinée de Zorro et Sanji: Le bretteur grimpe sur la jambe du cuistot qui le propulse dans les airs en donnant un coup de pied. Utile contre des ennemis géants. * Diable Jet 600 Pound Cannon : Une puissante attaque combinée de Zorro, Luffy et Sandy, Sandy utilise la Jambe du Diable Mouton Shoot, Luffy le Gear 2 Jet Cannon et Zorro son Calibre 108 ils l'utilisent contre un pacifista (PX-4) * Armée de l'Air: Power Shoot Dai Gekken : Zorro enfonce deux épées dans le heavy Nunchaku de Franky, le fait tournoyer, puis cour en direction de Sandy. Quant a lui, il envoie Zorro en l'air et ce dernier frappe l'ennemi avec son gros nunchaku. * Knee Crush : Attaque combinée de Zorro et Franky. Les deux bourrins frappent les genoux de leur adversaire géant pour le mettre à terre, l'un avec ses sabres, l'autre avec son nunchaku géant. Techniques après les 2 ans d'entrainements : * Techniques à trois sabres : Santoryu ** Ougi Rokudo no Tsuji : Il coupe un tentacule du Kraken en 6 parties sans qu'il n'ait besoin de bouger. ** Kokujo O Tatsu Maki : Le même que le Tatsu Maki mais la tornade ne s'arrête jamais et elle peut trancher l'acier. ** Rengoku Oni Giri : Un version beaucoup plus puissante de l'originel Oni Giri, Zoro attend que son ennemi arrive, puis le tranche en laissant une marque en X avec le sang de son ennemi. * Techniques à un sabre : Ittoryu ** Yakkoudori : Le même que le Sanjuuroku Pound Hou. Divers : * Après les deux années d'entrainement avec Mihawk, on découvre qu'il a une grosse cicatrice sur son œil gauche. * Le nom de famille de Zorro vient du nom du pirate français François L'Olonnais sous la forme L'Olonnois. * Lors de sa création, Eiichiro Oda pensait lui donner le rôle du garde de corps de Baggy le Clown, idée qu'il abandonna par la suite. * Zorro mesure . * Zorro a 19 ans (21 dans la 2e: partie du manga). * Zorro adore le rhum. * Zorro semble être ventriloque puisqu'il parle avec une épée dans la bouche, mais l'auteur déclare qu'il parle avec son cœur, vérité ou symbole, on ne sait pas. * Zorro a un très très mauvais sens de l'orientation, qui semble d'ailleurs se dégrader au fil de la série. * Zorro est né le 11 novembre, il est donc Scorpion. * Zorro garde une énorme cicatrice du combat contre Mihawk (sur le torse), une autre du combat contre le duo Mr 3/Miss GoldenWeek (sur les deux chevilles) et une autre sur l ' œil gauche suite a l'entraînement de Mihawk. * Un de ses sabres, le Wadō Ichimonji, est considéré comme l'un des 21 meilleurs sabres du monde. Ses deux autres sabres sont le Troisième Kitetsu et le Yubashiri. Ce dernier fut détruit par un colonel de la Marine nommé Shû capable de rouiller instantanément ce qu'il touche. Durant l'arc Thriller Bark, Zorro acquit, après avoir vaincu le zombie samouraï Ryuma (celui de Brook), l'une des 21 grandes lames, le Shuusui. * Sa tête est mise à prix à hauteur de 60 millions de berry après le sauvetage d'Alabasta, son combat contre Mr 1 puis à 120 millions après la destruction de l'Enies Lobby et sa victoire sur Kaku. * Zorro adore l'alcool mais il n'est jamais saoul. * Zorro a toujours voulu avoir une épée de feu. Palette One Piece:

لغة واجهة مستخدم إكس إم إل لغة رقم | موزيلا في برمجة الحاسوب، زول XUL: أو لغة واجهة مستخدم إكس إم إل XML User Interface Markup Language: ، هي لغة رقم واجهة مستخدم بترميز إكس إم إل تم تطويرها من قبل مشروع موزيلا، وتعمل في تطبيقات موزيلا متعددة المنصات مثل فيرفكس وفلوك. محرك التصميم جيكو من موزيلا يقدم تطبيقاً كاملاً لزول المستخدم في فيرفكس. التصميم: زول يعتمد على مجموعة متعددة من معايير الويب وتقنيات الويب، تشمل التقنيات صفحات الطرز المتراصة وجافا سكريبت وDOM. هذا الإعتماد على تقنيات الويب جعل زول سهلة التعلم على مبرمجي مواقع الويب. موزيلا: بذرة حاسوب:

XUL User interface markup languages | XML-based standards | Mozilla | RDF data access In computer programming, XUL (pronounced zuul: ), the XML User Interface Language, is an XML user interface markup language developed by the Mozilla project. XUL operates in Mozilla cross-platform applications such as Firefox. The Mozilla Gecko layout engine provides the implementation of XUL used in the Firefox browser. Design : XUL relies on multiple existing Web standards and Web technologies, including CSS, JavaScript, and DOM. Such reliance makes XUL relatively easy to learn for people with a background in Web programming and design. XUL has no formal specification and does not inter-operate with non-Gecko implementations. However, it uses an open source implementation of Gecko, tri-licensed under the GPL, LGPL, and MPL. Mozilla provides experimental XULRunner builds to let developers build their applications on top of the Mozilla application framework and of XUL in particular. XUL provides a portable definition for common widgets, allowing them to move easily to any platform on which Mozilla applications run. * XUL documents Programmers typically define a XUL interface as three discrete sets of components: * content: the XUL document(s), whose elements define the layout of the user interface * skin: the CSS and image files, which define the appearance of an application * locale: the files containing user-visible strings for easy software localization * XUL elements XUL defines a wide range of elements, which roughly belong to the following types: ; top-level elements: window, page, dialog, wizard, etc. ; widgets: label, button, text box, list box, combo box, radio button, check box, tree, menu, toolbar, group box, tab box, colorpicker, spacer, splitter, etc. ; box model: box, grid, stack, deck, etc. ; events and scripts: script, command, key, broadcaster, observer, etc. ; data source: template, rule, etc. ; others: overlay (analogous to SSI, but client-side and more powerful, with higher performance), iframe, browser, editor, etc. One can use elements from other applications of XML within XUL documents, such as XHTML, SVG, and MathML. Mozilla added some common widgets — (sometimes called "slider"), (spinbox), time and date pickers — during the Gecko 1.9 development cycle. XUL applications : While XUL serves primarily for constructing Mozilla applications and their extensions, it may also feature in Web applications transferred over HTTP. The Mozilla Amazon Browser, a former XUL application of this type (and well-known in its day ), provided a rich interface for searching books at Amazon.com. However, many of the powerful features of Mozilla (such as privileged XPCOM objects) remain unavailable to unprivileged XUL documents unless the script has a digital signature, and unless the user obtains grants of certaindateOctober 2009: privileges to the application. Such documents also suffer from various limitations of the browser, including the inability to load remote XUL, DTD, and RDF documents. As Gecko provides the only full implementation of XUL, such applications remain inaccessible to users of browsers not based on Mozilla. Mozilla-programmers sometimes refer to XUL applications running locally as chrome. Other applications using XUL are: * The Ample SDK Open-Source GUI Framework provides a cross-browser implementation of XUL in JavaScript. * The ActiveState Komodo IDE uses XUL as well as the Open Komodo project announced in 2007. * The Songbird music-player and Miro video-player both use built-in XUL. * The Elixon WCMS/XUL Content management system uses exclusively remote XUL, thus overcoming some of the aforementioned limits of remote unprivileged XUL documents. * The developers of the Celtx media pre-production application used XUL. * The Flickr was built using XUL With the release of Firefox 4, support for remote XUL was disabled by default, due to security concerns. Loading an XUL page via HTTP would now display an error unless the domain was added to a hidden whitelist. * The name The name "XUL" references the film Ghostbusters (1984), in which the ghost of an ancient Sumerian deity called Zuul possesses the character Dana Barrett (played by Sigourney Weaver) and declares, "There is no Dana, only Zuul". Since XUL, like MXML, uses XML to define an interface rather than a document, its developers adopted the slogan: "There is no data, there is only XUL". Hence the XML namespace URI at the beginning of every XUL document: http://www.mozilla.org/keymaster/gatekeeper/there.is.only.xul The linked document displays the slogan in large letters in the center of the screen. "Keymaster" and "gatekeeper" also refer to the plot-line of the Ghostbusters film. (Other references to Ghostbusters also occur within Mozilla products: for instance, the JavaScript debugger component is called Venkman, after one of the main characters in the film.) * Example This example shows 3 buttons stacked on top of each other in a vertical box container: Similar languages : HTML Application resembles XUL in that it provides a stand-alone capability to run applications based on HTML, DHTML, and Javascript outside of a Web browser for the Microsoft Windows environment developed by Microsoft. The Microsoft Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) defines XAML, another declarative UI language similar to XUL — it runs on top of the .NET Framework stack.

XML-based User interface Language Dialecte XML | Interface utilisateur | Mozilla | Format ouvert (XUL) (abréviation XUL) est un langage de description d’interfaces graphiques fondé sur XML créé dans le cadre du projet Mozilla. XUL se prononce zoul en anglais (pour rimer avec cool, mais aussi en hommage au demi-dieu Zoul dans le film S.O.S. Fantômes). * Caractéristiques XUL comprend un ensemble de balises permettant de définir des boutons, des listes, des menus, ou encore des zones d’édition, bref tous les éléments d’une véritable interface utilisateur. Un tel langage facilite le travail du développeur et permet d’écrire l’interface d’une application aussi aisément qu’une page web. Le développement d’une application XUL se rapproche du développement d’une application cliente ou client-serveur traditionnelle. À chaque objet graphique sont associés des événements (clic de souris, double-clic, etc.: ) pour lesquels le développeur doit écrire du code (typiquement en JavaScript) à exécuter par la machine cliente. L’application peut récupérer des données d’un serveur, par exemple via des requêtes HTTP. Le fait de définir dans un document XML la structure de l’interface graphique permet de réutiliser la même structure d’un environnement à l’autre et même d’un langage de programmation à l’autre. Des moteurs similaires à XUL existent pour GTK+ (Glade), Java, PHP, JavaScript, Flash (MXML), Qt (Qt Designer), wxWidgets(wxXmlResource, fichiers XRC), .Net (XAML) et Android. Les deux grandes richesses de XUL sont son extensibilité et la facilité de réutilisation d’éléments. Il est possible de définir ses propres balises pour mettre en place des composants complexes et réutilisables en écrivant un fichier XBL . Celui-ci comporte, pour chaque nouveau composant qu’il décrit, une partie décrivant l’aspect graphique du composant, par association des éléments graphiques de base par exemple, et plusieurs parties décrivant son comportement, sous la forme de fonctions JavaScript. Les ainsi définis peuvent hériter les uns des autres, et surcharger leurs contenus ou comportements. Initialement, XUL a été développé afin de permettre de créer facilement l’interface graphique du navigateur web Mozilla. Un moteur XUL est intégré au moteur Gecko de Mozilla. Actuellement, Mozilla développe XULRunner, qui permet d’exécuter des applications XUL sans Mozilla ou Firefox. * Organisation d'une fenêtre Une fenêtre XUL est conçue comme un emboîtement de « boîtes » rectangulaires. Une boîte contient des sous-éléments qui sont juxtaposés soit verticalement, soit horizontalement. Ces sous-éléments peuvent être des champs de type texte, des listes déroulantes, des champs affichant du code HTML, et ainsi de suite. Ces sous-éléments peuvent aussi être des boîtes, qui elles-mêmes contiendront d’autres éléments. À l’intérieur de chaque boîte, divers paramètres permettent de paramétrer facilement l’alignement des sous-éléments (à gauche, en haut, centré…) ainsi que leur comportement en cas de redimensionnement de la fenêtre (taille fixe, taille proportionnelle…). L’affichage de tous ces éléments graphiques peut être configuré en utilisant une feuille de style CSS, ce qui facilite l’accès à XUL pour les développeurs web. * Exemple Voici une comparaison entre quelques lignes de code XUL et HTML qui affichent toutes deux le traditionnel « Hello World! » : XUL Hello world! HTML Hello World! XUL et les autres technologies d'interface graphique : XUL facilite la mise au point d’une interface plus évoluée que HTML sur le plan technique. En effet les objets XUL se manipulent via une interface DOM, comme en DHTML. De plus une interface XUL peut récupérer d’un serveur les seules données nécessaires à la mise à jour d’un élément de la page et non l’ensemble de la page elle-même ; ces données peuvent être récupérées en XML et de manière asynchrone, ce qui permet d’utiliser la méthode AJAX en programmation XUL. Ces techniques permettent d’améliorer considérablement les temps de réponse et le confort de l’utilisateur. L’environnement XUL les utilise de manière transparente pour l’utilisateur dans le système des (modèles de page) qui permet de générer une partie de l’interface utilisateur à partir de données externes en RDF, sans avoir à écrire une ligne de code Javascript. XUL peut exploiter et interagir avec les diverses ressources de Mozilla dont le SVG. XUL est aussi un concurrent des technologies client-serveur traditionnelles comme Delphi. XUL offre par exemple l’avantage d’être fondé sur des standards ouverts, tel XML, et sur des logiciels libres : les fichiers de description d’interface sont de simples fichiers texte. Toutefois, XUL ne bénéficie pas pour le moment du support d’environnements de développement sophistiqués : il faut écrire ou générer des fichiers XML pour décrire l’interface graphique.