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why there are just 28 days in february

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=February&oldid=821812832

February - wikipedia February Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the month . For other uses , see February ( disambiguation ) . `` Feb . '' redirects here . For other uses , see FEB . January February March April May June July August September October November December < < February > > Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2018 February is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars . It is the shortest month of the year as it is the only month to have a length of less than 30 days . The month has 28 days in common years or 29 days in leap years , with the quadrennial 29th day being called the `` leap day . '' February is the third month of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere . In the Southern Hemisphere , February is the last month of summer ( the seasonal equivalent of August in the Northern Hemisphere , in meteorological reckoning ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Pronunciation 2 History 3 Patterns 4 Astronomy 5 Astrology 6 February symbols 7 Observances 7.1 Month - long observances 7.2 Non-Gregorian observances , 2018 7.3 Movable observances , 2018 dates 7.4 Fixed observances 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Pronunciation ( edit ) February may be pronounced either as ( / ˈfɛbjuːˌɛri / ( listen ) FEB - ew - err - ee or / ˈfɛbruːˌɛri / FEB - roo - err - ee ) . Many people pronounce it as ( / juː / ( listen ) ew rather than / ruː / roo ) , as if it were spelled `` Feb - u-ary '' . This comes about by analogy with `` January '' ( which ends in `` - uary '' but not `` - ruary '' ) , as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two `` r '' s close to each other causes one to change for ease of pronunciation . History ( edit ) February , from the Très riches heures du Duc de Berry February , Leandro Bassano Chocolates for St. Valentine 's Day The Roman month Februarius was named after the Latin term februum , which means purification , via the purification ritual Februa held on February 15 ( full moon ) in the old lunar Roman calendar . January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar , since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period . They were added by Numa Pompilius about 713 BC . February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs ( c. 450 BC ) , when it became the second month . At certain intervals February was truncated to 23 or 24 days , and a 27 - day intercalary month , Intercalaris , was inserted immediately after February to realign the year with the seasons . February observances in Ancient Rome include Amburbium ( precise date unknown , Sementivae ( February 2 ) , Februa ( February 13 -- 15 ) , Lupercalia ( February 13 -- 15 ) , Parentalia ( February 13 -- 22 ) , Quirinalia ( February 17 ) , Feralia ( February 21 ) , Caristia ( February 22 ) , Terminalia ( February 23 ) , Regifugium ( February 24 ) , and Agonium Martiale ( February 27 ) . These days do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar . Under the reforms that instituted the Julian calendar , Intercalaris was abolished , leap years occurred regularly every fourth year , and in leap years February gained a 29th day . Thereafter , it remained the second month of the calendar year , meaning the order that months are displayed ( January , February , March , ... , December ) within a year - at - a-glance calendar . Even during the Middle Ages , when the numbered Anno Domini year began on March 25 or December 25 , the second month was February whenever all twelve months were displayed in order . The Gregorian calendar reforms made slight changes to the system for determining which years were leap years and thus contained a 29 - day February . Historical names for February include the Old English terms Solmonath ( mud month ) and Kale - monath ( named for cabbage ) as well as Charlemagne 's designation Hornung . In Finnish , the month is called helmikuu , meaning `` month of the pearl '' ; when snow melts on tree branches , it forms droplets , and as these freeze again , they are like pearls of ice . In Polish and Ukrainian , respectively , the month is called luty or лютий , meaning the month of ice or hard frost . In Macedonian the month is sechko ( сечко ) , meaning month of cutting ( wood ) . In Czech , it is called únor , meaning month of submerging ( of river ice ) . In Slovene , February is traditionally called svečan , related to icicles or Candlemas . This name originates from sičan , written as svičan in the New Carniolan Almanac from 1775 and changed to its final form by Franc Metelko in his New Almanac from 1824 . The name was also spelled sečan , meaning `` the month of cutting down of trees '' . In 1848 , a proposal was put forward in Kmetijske in rokodelske novice by the Slovene Society of Ljubljana to call this month talnik ( related to ice melting ) , but it did not stick . The idea was proposed by a priest , Blaž Potočnik . Another name of February in Slovene was vesnar , after the mythological character Vesna . Patterns ( edit ) Having only 28 days in common years , February is the only month of the year that can pass without a single full moon . Using Coordinated Universal Time as the basis for determining the date and time of a full moon , this last happened in 1999 and will next happen in 2018 . The same is true regarding a new moon : again using Coordinated Universal Time as the basis , this last happened in 2014 and will next happen in 2033 . February is also the only month of the calendar that , once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively , either back into the past or forward into the future , will have four full 7 - day weeks . In countries that start their week on a Monday , it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday , in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday , this was observed in 2010 and can be traced back 11 years to 1999 , 6 years back to 1993 , 11 years back to 1982 , 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965 , and will be observed in 2021 . In countries that start their week on a Sunday , it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday , with the next occurrence in 2026 , and previous occurrences in 2015 ( 11 years earlier than 2026 ) , 2009 ( 6 years earlier than 2015 ) , 1998 ( 11 years earlier than 2009 ) and 1987 ( 11 years earlier than 1998 ) . This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year , but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100 . Astronomy ( edit ) February meteor showers include the Alpha Centaurids ( appearing in early February ) , the Beta Leonids , also known as the March Virginids ( lasting from February 14 to April 25 , peaking around March 20 ) , the Delta Cancrids ( appearing December 14 to February 14 , peaking on January 17 , the Omicron Centaurids ( late January through February , peaking in mid-February ) , Theta Centaurids ( January 23 - March 12 , only visible in the southern hemisphere ) , Eta Virginids ( February 24 and March 27 , peaking around March 18 ) , and Pi Virginids ( February 13 and April 8 , peaking between March 3 and March 9 ) . Astrology ( edit ) The western zodiac signs of February are Aquarius ( until February 19 ) and Pisces ( February 20 onwards ) . February symbols ( edit ) The violet Its birth flower is the violet ( Viola ) and the common primrose ( Primula vulgaris ) . Its birthstone is the amethyst . It symbolizes piety , humility , spiritual wisdom , and sincerity . Observances ( edit ) This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance . Month - long observances ( edit ) In Catholic tradition , February is the Month of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary . American Heart Month ( United States ) Black History Month ( United States , Canada ) National Bird - Feeding Month ( United States ) National Children 's Dental Health Month ( United States ) Season for Nonviolence : January 30 - April 4 ( International observance ) Turner Syndrome Awareness Month ( United States ) Non-gregorian observances , 2018 ( edit ) This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance. Please note that all Baha'i , Islamic , and Jewish observances begin on sundown prior to the date listed , and end on the sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted . January 30 - February 2 : Lenaia ( Attic calendar , modern Hellenism ( religion ) February 7 : 22 Shvat ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism , Chabad sect only ) February 10 : Shabbat Shekalim ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism ) February 14 : Yom Kippur Katan ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism , optional observance ) February 15 - 16 : Rosh Chodesh of Adar ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism ) February 16 : Hecate 's Deipnon ( Attic calendar , modern Hellenism ( religion ) February 17 : Noumenia ( Attic calendar , modern Hellenism ( religion ) February 22 : Seventh of Adar ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism ) February 24 : Shabbat Zachor ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism ) February 26 : Amalaka Ekadashi ( Hinduism ) February 27 - March 1 : Anthesteria ( Attic calendar , modern Hellenism ( religion ) February 28 : Fast of Esther ( Hebrew calendar , Judaism , starts at dawn ) Movable observances , 2018 dates ( edit ) Safer Internet Day : February 6 Food Freedom Day ( Canada ) : February 6 National Day of the Sun : ( Argentina ) Date varies based on providence Random Acts of Kindness Week : February 11 - 17 First Friday : February 2 National Wear Red Day ( United States ) First Saturday : February 3 Ice Cream for Breakfast Day First Sunday : February 4 Mother 's Day ( Kosovo ) Super Bowl ( United States ) Second Sunday before Ash Wednesday ( Western Christianity ) : February 4 Sexagesima 9th Sunday before Pascha ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 4 Sunday of the Prodigal Son Monday to Sunday following the 9th Sunday before Pascha ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 4 - 10 Meatfare Week Saturday of Meatfare Week ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 10 Saturday of Souls Sunday of Meatfare week ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 11 Sunday of Last Judgement ( Meat Fare Sunday ) First Week of February ( first Monday , ending on Sunday ) : February 5 -- 11 Doppelganger Week World Interfaith Harmony Week First Monday : February 5 Constitution Day ( Mexico ) National Frozen Yogurt Day ( United States ) Second Day of the second week : February 6 Safer Internet Day ( International observance ) Last Thursday before Lent ( Western Christianity ) : February 8 Fat Thursday Saturday before Ash Wednesday ( Western Christianity ) : February 10 Festum Ovorum ( University of Oxford ) Second Saturday : February 10 International Purple Hijab Day Second Sunday : February 11 Autism Sunday ( United Kingdom ) Children 's Day ( Cook Islands , Nauru , Niue , Tokelau , Cayman Islands ) Mother 's Day ( Norway ) World Marriage Day Sunday before Ash Wednesday ( Western Christianity ) : February 11 Quinquagesima Monday to Sunday following Meatfare week ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 12 - 18 Cheesefare Week Monday before Ash Wednesday ( Western Christianity ) : February 12 Shrove Monday Fastelavn ( Denmark / Norway ) Nickanan Night ( Cornwall ) Rosenmontag ( Germany ) Second Monday : February 12 Family Day ( Canada ) ( British Columbia ) Meal Monday ( Scotland ) Second Tuesday : February 13 National Sports Day ( Qatar ) Tuesday before Ash Wednesday ( Western Christianity ) : February 13 Shrove Tuesday Fastnacht ( Pennsylvania Dutch ) Feast of the Holy Winding Sheet of Christ Fettisdagen ( Sweden ) Laskiainen ( Finland , Finnish - Americans ) Mardi Gras National Pancake Day ( Netherlands ) Powder Day ( Tolox , Spain ) Užgavėnės ( Lithuania ) 46 days before Easter ( Western Christianity ) : February 14 Ash Wednesday / Lent National No Smoking Day ( Ireland ) Third Thursday : February 15 Global Information Governance Day Friday after Ash Wednesday ( Western Christianity ) : February 15 Feast of the Crown of Thorns Thursday of the 8th week before Pascha ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 15 Feast of Saint Vartan ( Armenian Apostolic Church ) Third Friday : February 16 Yukon Heritage Day ( Canada ) First Sunday of Lent in ( Western Christianity ) : February 18 People 's Sunday ( Żabbar , Malta ) Quadragesima Sunday Sunday of Cheesefare week ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 18 Sunday of Forgiveness ( Cheese - Fare Sunday ) Week of February 22 : February 18 - 24 National Engineers Week ( U.S. ) Monday after Sunday of Forgiveness ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 19 Great Lent begins Clean Monday Third Monday : February 19 Family Day ( Canada ) ( provinces of Alberta , Manitoba , Ontario , Prince Edward Island , and Saskatchewan ) President 's Day / Washington 's Birthday ( United States ) Last Friday : February 23 International Stand Up to Bullying Day First Saturday of Great Lent ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 24 St. Theodore Saturday Last Saturday : February 24 Open That Bottle Night First Sunday of Great Lent ( Eastern Christianity ) : February 25 Feast of Orthodoxy Last Tuesday : February 27 World Spay Day Last day of February : February 28 Rare Disease Day Fixed observances ( edit ) February 1 Abolition of Slavery Day ( Mauritius ) Air Force Day ( Nicaragua ) Federal Territory Day ( Kuala Lumpur , Labuan and Putrajaya , Malaysia ) Heroes ' Day ( Rwanda ) Imbolc ( Ireland , Scotland , Isle of Man , and some Neopagan groups in the Northern hemisphere ) Lammas ( some Neopagan groups in the Southern hemisphere ) Memorial Day of the Republic ( Hungary ) National Freedom Day ( United States ) World Hijab Day February 2 Anniversary of Treaty of Tartu ( Estonia ) Constitution Day ( Philippines ) Day of Youth ( Azerbaijan ) Feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple ( or Candlemas ) ( Western Christianity ) , and its related observances : A quarter day in the Christian calendar ( due to Candlemas ) ( Scotland ) Celebration of Yemanja ( Candomblé ) Groundhog Day ( United States and Canada ) Marmot Day ( Alaska , United States ) Inventor 's Day ( Thailand ) National Tater Tot Day ( United States ) World Wetlands Day February 3 Anniversary of The Day the Music Died ( United States ) Communist Party of Vietnam Foundation Anniversary ( Vietnam ) Day of the Virgin of Suyapa ( Honduras ) Heroes ' Day ( Mozambique ) Martyrs ' Day ( São Tomé and Príncipe ) Setsubun ( Japan ) Veterans ' Day ( Thailand ) February 4 Day of the Armed Struggle ( Angola ) Independence Day ( Sri Lanka ) Rosa Parks Day ( California and Missouri , United States ) World Cancer Day February 5 Crown Princess Mary 's birthday ( Denmark ) Kashmir Solidarity Day ( Pakistan ) Liberation Day ( San Marino ) National Weatherperson 's Day ( United States ) Runeberg 's Birthday ( Finland ) Unity Day ( Burundi ) February 6 International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation Ronald Reagan Day ( California , United States ) Sami National Day ( Russia , Finland , Norway and Sweden ) Waitangi Day ( New Zealand ) February 7 Independence Day ( Grenada ) February 8 Parinirvana Day ( some Mahayana Buddhist traditions , most celebrate on February 15 ) Prešeren Day ( Slovenia ) Propose Day February 9 National Pizza Day ( United States ) St. Maroun 's Day ( Maronite Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , public holiday in Lebanon ) February 10 Feast of St. Paul 's Shipwreck ( Public holiday in Malta ) Fenkil Day ( Eritrea ) National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe ( Italy ) February 11 112 day ( European Union ) Armed Forces Day ( Liberia ) Day of Revenue Service ( Azerbaijan ) Evelio Javier Day ( Panay Island , the Philippines ) Feast day of Our Lady of Lourdes ( Catholic Church ) , and its related observance : World Day of the Sick ( Roman Catholic Church ) Inventors ' Day ( United States ) National Foundation Day ( Japan ) Youth Day ( Cameroon ) February 12 Darwin Day ( International ) Georgia Day ( Georgia ( U.S. state ) ) International Day of Women 's Health Lincoln 's Birthday ( United States ) National Freedom to Marry Day ( United States ) Red Hand Day ( United Nations ) Sexual and Reproductive Health Awareness Day ( Canada ) Union Day ( Myanmar ) Youth Day ( Venezuela ) February 13 Children 's Day ( Myanmar ) World Radio Day February 14 Statehood Day ( Arizona , United States ) Statehood Day ( Oregon , United States ) Presentation of Jesus at the Temple ( Armenian Apostolic Church ) V - Day ( movement ) ( International ) Valentine 's Day ( International ) Singles Awareness Day February 15 National I Want Butterscotch Day ( United States ) Serbia 's National Day National Flag of Canada Day Parinirvana Day ( most Mahayana Buddhist traditions , some celebrate on February 8 ) Statehood Day ( Serbia ) Susan B. Anthony Day ( United States ) February 16 Day of the Shining Star ( North Korea ) Restoration of Lithuania 's Statehood Day ( Lithuania ) February 17 Independence Day ( Kosovo ) Random Acts of Kindness Day ( United States ) Revolution Day ( Libya ) February 18 National Democracy Day ( Nepal ) Dialect Day ( Amami Islands , Japan ) Independence Day ( Gambia ) Kurdish Students Union Day ( Iraqi Kurdistan ) February 19 Armed Forces Day ( Mexico ) Brâncuși Day ( Romania ) Commemoration of Vasil Levski ( Bulgaria ) Flag Day ( Turkmenistan ) Shivaji Jayanti ( Maharashtra , India ) February 20 Day of Heavenly Hundred Heroes ( Ukraine ) Northern Hemisphere Hoodie - Hoo Day World Day of Social Justice February 21 International Mother Language Day Language Movement Day ( Bangladesh ) February 22 Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter ( Roman Catholic Church ) Independence Day ( Saint Lucia ) Celebrity Day ( Church of Scientology ) Founder 's Day or `` B. - P. day '' ( World Organization of the Scout Movement ) National Margarita Day ( United States ) World Thinking Day ( World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ) February 23 Mashramani - Republic Day ( Guyana ) Meteņi ( Latvia ) National Banana Bread Day ( United States ) National Day ( Brunei ) Red Army Day or Day of Soviet Army and Navy in the former Soviet Union , also held in various former Soviet republics : Defender of the Fatherland Day ( Russia ) Defender of the Fatherland and Armed Forces day ( Belarus ) February 24 Dragobete ( Romania ) Engineer 's Day ( Iran ) Flag Day in Mexico Independence Day ( Estonia ) National Artist Day ( Thailand ) Sepandārmazgān or `` Women 's Day '' ( Zoroastrian , Iran ) February 25 Armed Forces Day ( Dominican Republic ) Kitano Baika - sai or `` Plum Blossom Festival '' ( Kitano Tenman - gū Shrine , Kyoto , Japan ) Meher Baba 's birthday ( followers of Meher Baba ) Memorial Day for the Victims of the Communist Dictatorships ( Hungary ) National Day ( Kuwait ) People Power Day ( Philippines ) Revolution Day ( Suriname ) Soviet Occupation Day ( Georgia ) February 26 Liberation Day ( Kuwait ) Day of Remembrance for Victims of Khojaly massacre ( Azerbaijan ) National Wear Red Day ( United Kingdom ) Saviours ' Day ( Nation of Islam ) February 27 Anosmia Awareness Day ( International observance ) Doctors ' Day ( Vietnam ) International Polar Bear Day Majuba Day ( some Afrikaners in South Africa ) Marathi Language Day ( Maharashtra , India ) Independence Day ( Dominican Republic ) February 28 Day of Remembrance for Victims of Massacres in Armenia ( Armenia ) Día de Andalucía ( Andalusia , Spain ) Kalevala Day Finland ) National Science Day ( India ) Peace Memorial Day ( Taiwan ) Teachers ' Day ( Arab states ) World Tailors Day February 29 Bachelor 's Day ( Ireland , United Kingdom ) National Frog Legs Day ( United States ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` February Definition of February by Merriam - Webster '' . Merriam-webster.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : `` Koledar prireditev v letu 2007 in druge informacije občine Dobrova -- Polhov Gradec '' ( The Calendar of Events and Other Information of the Municipality of Dobrova -- Polhov Gradec ) ( PDF ) ( in Slovenian ) . Municipality of Dobrova - Polhov Gradec. 2006 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ Vasmer , Max , ed. ( 1972 ) . `` Zeitschrift für slavische Philologie '' . 36 -- 37 . Markert&Petters : 115 . Jump up ^ `` Slovenska imena mesecev '' ( Slovene Names of Months ) . Kmetijske in rokodelske novice. 6 ( 37 ) . 13 September 1848 . Jump up ^ Bogataj , Janez ( 2005 ) . `` Slovenska mitologija -- Vesna '' ( Slovene Mythology -- Vesna ) . Bilten ; poštne znamke ( Bulletin : Postage Stamps ) ( in Slovenian , English , and German ) ( 56 ) . ISSN 1318 - 6280 . Jump up ^ https://www.timeanddate.com/moon/phases/uk/london?year=1999 Jump up ^ https://www.timeanddate.com/moon/phases/uk/london?year=2018 Jump up ^ https://www.timeanddate.com/moon/phases/uk/london?year=2014 Jump up ^ https://www.timeanddate.com/moon/phases/uk/london?year=2033 Jump up ^ `` Zodiac Signs '' . Mistupid.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Birth Month Flowers '' . Babiesonline.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` February Birthstone Amethyst '' . Americangemsociety.org . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` National Children 's Dental Health Month '' . American Dental Association . 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.hellenion.org/2018calendar/ Jump up ^ http://www.hellenion.org/2018calendar/ Jump up ^ http://www.hellenion.org/2018calendar/ Jump up ^ http://www.hellenion.org/2018calendar/ Jump up ^ https://www.saferinternetday.org/web/coface Jump up ^ http://www.cfa-fca.ca/programs-projects/food-freedom-day-2017 Jump up ^ https://anydayguide.com/calendar/3177 Jump up ^ `` Random Acts of Kindness '' . Random Acts of Kindness . Jump up ^ `` Lenten and Paschal Cycle '' . oca.org . Further reading ( edit ) Anthony Aveni , `` February 's Holidays : Prediction , Purification , and Passionate Pursuit , '' The Book of the Year : A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays ( Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2003 ) , 29 -- 46 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : February Look up February in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . The Straight Dope : How come February has only 28 days ? `` February '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . 1911 . ( hide ) Months and days of the year Today : January 22 , 2018 January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related : January 0 February 30 GND : 4405048 - 3 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=February&oldid=821812832 '' Categories : Months February Hidden categories : CS1 Slovenian - language sources ( sl ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Articles with hAudio microformats Articles including recorded pronunciations ( English ) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc Аҧсшәа Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bahasa Banjar Bân - lâm - gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Eʋegbe فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛 語 ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kalaallisut ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kinyarwanda Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladino Лакку Лезги ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La . lojban . 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when does izzie get cancer in grey's anatomy

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Izzie_Stevens&oldid=808143113

Izzie Stevens - wikipedia Izzie Stevens Jump to : navigation , search Dr. Izzie Stevens Grey 's Anatomy character The Season 6 Promotional Photo of Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens First appearance `` A Hard Day 's Night '' 1x01 , March 27 , 2005 Last appearance `` I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked '' 6x12 , January 21 , 2010 Created by Shonda Rhimes Portrayed by Katherine Heigl Information Full name Isobel Katherine Stevens Nickname ( s ) Dr. Model Cricket Izz Izzie Barbie Tinkerbell Stevens Patient X Bethany Whisper Blondie Cancer Wife Title M.D. Family Robbie Stevens ( Mother ) Hannah Klein ( Daughter ) Spouse ( s ) Alex Karev ( divorced ) Significant other ( s ) Hank Denny Duquette ( fiancé , deceased ) George O'Malley ( deceased ) Religion Catholicism Isobel Katherine `` Izzie '' Stevens , M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes , and was portrayed by actress Katherine Heigl from 2005 to 2010 . Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , Izzie worked her way up to resident level , while her relationships with her colleagues Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , George O'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) formed a focal point of the series . Heigl garnered critical acclaim for her performance as Izzie and received numerous awards and nominations for her role , winning the `` Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series '' at the 2007 Emmy Awards . She was critical of the character 's development during the show 's fourth season , particularly her romance with George . She declined to put herself forward for the 2008 Emmy Awards , citing insufficient material in the role . After speculation that Izzie would be killed off in the fifth season , the character was diagnosed with Stage 4 metastatic melanoma . She married Alex in the series ' one - hundredth episode , and afterwards , her tumor was successfully removed . Izzie made her final appearance in the sixth season , leaving Seattle after Alex refused to resume their marriage . Heigl requested to be released from her contract 18 months early , in order to spend more time with her family . In January 2012 , Heigl reported that she would like to return to Grey 's Anatomy to give closure to her character , however , Rhimes confirmed that there were no plans to have the character return at that time and has since stated that she has no plans to ever re-approach Izzie 's storyline again . Contents ( hide ) 1 Storylines 2 Development 2.1 Casting and creation 2.2 Characterization 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Storylines ( edit ) Izzie appears in the first episode of Grey 's Anatomy , meeting fellow interns Meredith Grey , Cristina Yang , Alex Karev , and George O'Malley . She and George move in with Meredith and become best friends . Izzie 's boyfriend , hockey player Hank ( Jonathan Scarfe ) , struggles to accept her new role as a surgeon , and the two break up . Izzie is hurt when Alex exposes her past as a lingerie model . However , the two later go on to begin a friendship and then a romance . Alex experiences sexual dysfunction with Izzie and cheats on her with nurse Olivia Harper ( Sarah Utterback ) . When Izzie finds out , she breaks up with him , though they briefly reunite following a bomb incident at the hospital . Izzie reveals while treating a pregnant teenager that she had a daughter at the age of 16 and gave up for adoption . Izzie falls in love with cardiothoracic patient Denny Duquette ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) , and the two become engaged . When Denny 's condition deteriorates , Izzie deliberately worsens his health further by cutting his LVAD wire to move him up the donor register . Although Denny receives a new heart , he has a stroke hours later and dies . Izzie is the sole beneficiary of Denny 's will , inheriting $8.7 million . She uses the money to open a free clinic at the hospital : the Denny Duquette Memorial Clinic . Izzie disapproves of George 's relationship and marriage to orthopedic resident Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) . She and George sleep together , and attempt to keep their liaison a secret . George and resident Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) are the only people aware that Izzie gave birth to a daughter at the age of sixteen ; ultimately the child was given up for adoption . He supports Izzie when her daughter Hannah ( Liv Hutchings ) , diagnosed with leukemia , arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital in need of a bone marrow transplant from Izzie . Izzie 's feelings for George grow , and she reveals that she has fallen in love with him . When Callie discovers George has been unfaithful , the two separate , and George and Izzie embark on a short - lived relationship , only to discover there is no real chemistry between them . Izzie supports Alex when he discovers his new girlfriend has psychiatric problems , and convinces him to have her committed . She is also handed primary responsibility for the clinic , as Bailey cuts back on her responsibilities . Izzie and Alex go on to rekindle their relationship , though Izzie is concerned when she begins hallucinating Denny . She discovers she has metastatic melanoma ( Stage IV ) which has spread to her liver , skin , and brain , causing the hallucinations . Her survival chances are estimated at only 5 % . She is admitted to Seattle Grace as a patient , and Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) successfully removes a tumor from her brain . Izzie spends her time in the hospital planning Meredith and Derek 's wedding , but when her condition worsens and Derek discovers a second brain tumor , they give the ceremony to Izzie and Alex , who marry in front of all their friends . The procedure to remove the second tumor from Izzie 's brain causes her to lose her short - term memory , and although she soon regains it , she flatlines moments later . The fifth season ends with her friends ignoring her DNR order and attempting to resuscitate her , transposed with images of Izzie in an elevator encountering George , who has been in an accident and is also currently flatlining . Though George dies , Izzie is resuscitated and recovers enough to return to work . Izzie makes a treatment error that endangers the life of a patient , and is fired from the hospital 's surgical program . Believing Alex is partially to blame , she writes him a Dear John letter and leaves . Izzie later learns that Alex was not responsible for her lost job , and returns to make amends with him , but Meredith informs her that Alex is moving on . Izzie informs Alex that she no longer has cancer . Although he is pleased , Alex officially breaks up with Izzie , telling her that he loves her but deserves better . She leaves Seattle to start fresh . Several episodes later , Alex informs Meredith that Izzie sent divorce papers , which he signs in the episode `` How Insensitive '' . In the sixth - season finale , Alex is shot and asks for Izzie . Imagining that Meredith 's half - sister Lexie ( Chyler Leigh ) is Izzie , he apologizes and asks her never to leave him again . Development ( edit ) Casting and creation ( edit ) Heigl refused to be considered for the 2008 Emmy Awards due to insufficient material on Grey 's Anatomy . Izzie was created by Grey 's Anatomy producer Shonda Rhimes , with actress Katherine Heigl cast in the role . Heigl originally wanted to play Izzie as a brunette , but was requested to retain her natural blond for the part . Heigl 's comprehension of medical procedures and terminology is slight ; the actress explained that while she has an admiration for doctors , she is not as fascinated by medicine as other cast members . When Kate Walsh 's character Addison Montgomery left Grey 's Anatomy to launch the spin - off show Private Practice , Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin - off for Izzie . Heigl declined to put her name forward for consideration at the 2008 Emmy Awards , claiming that she had been given insufficient material on the series to warrant a nomination . Following Heigl 's statement , speculation arose that her character would suffer a brain tumor and be killed off Grey 's Anatomy , substantiated by the announcement Jeffrey Dean Morgan would return to the series as Denny , who died at the end of season two . ABC 's entertainment president Steve McPherson denied the rumor , stating : `` There is an unbelievable storyline for her this year , which is really central to everything that 's going to go on this season '' . Speculation resumed , however , when Dean Morgan returned to the show for a second time in its fifth season . Cast member James Pickens , Jr. announced that both Heigl and T.R. Knight were set to depart from the show , but he later retracted his comment . During the course of the fifth season , Izzie was diagnosed with metastatic melanoma ( Stage IV ) which spread to her liver , skin and brain . Following the show 's one - hundredth episode wrap party , Heigl revealed she did not know if Izzie would survive , as no one on the production team would disclose her character 's fate to her . It was confirmed in June 2009 that Heigl would return as Izzie for the show 's sixth season . Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic , seeing Izzie depart and return twice . Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season , Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early , and made her final appearance on January 21 , 2010 . Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family , and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again . Michael Ausiello spoke further on Katherine Heigl 's perspective on Izzie 's departure . He said , `` ( Katherine ) thinks her Jan. 21 farewell - while not originally intended to be her last episode - oddly works as a bookend to Izzie 's story . `` Even though there 's a part of me that would like to go back and do the quick Izzie farewell , '' she says , `` I also think that my last scene - where Meredith says to Izzie , ' Do n't go , we 're your family , ' and Izzie 's response was , ' No you 're not , you 're just a bunch of people I worked with , and I can find that anywhere ' - was kind of tragic and appropriate all at the same time . When I was playing the scene I was really trying to convey that , for Izzie , that was a lie that she had to tell herself to have the courage to have to move on . '' In August 2010 , Rhimes stated that she did not feel Izzie 's character arc -- specifically her relationship with Alex -- had fully concluded , and hoped to give proper closure to their relationship in the seventh season . She later confirmed that she had intended to kill off Izzie off - screen , but opted against this a day later as she felt that it would destroy Alex , rather than give him closure . Instead , she concluded : `` I 'm open to seeing Izzie again . So if she ( Katherine ) were to come back , we would be thrilled to ( wrap up her story ) . But if she does n't , we 'll just move on . '' Heigl also went on to say in October 2010 that the character returning to show looks bleak because , `` that chapter is closed , and it 's sad . And it 's hard . '' She also felt that Izzie coming back to the show would , `` just feel manipulative . '' However , in January 2012 , Heigl stated in an interview that she has asked the producers if she could return to the show to give closure to Izzie 's storyline : `` I 've told them I want to ( return ) , '' she said . `` I really , really , really want to see where ( Izzie ) is . I just want to know what happened to her and where she went and what she 's doing now . My idea is that she actually like figures it out , and finds some success and does really well in a different hospital . She was always floundering you know , and so she was always one step behind the eight ball and I want to see that girl take some power back . '' She later went on to say that she regrets leaving the show , `` Oh yeah , sometimes , yeah . You miss it . I miss my friends . It was a great work environment ... and it becomes a family . I spent six years together with these people every day ... you grow up together , in a way , '' and again commented on Izzie possibly returning to the show , `` I always felt that if they wanted me to come back and sort of wrap up that storyline ... I want them to know that I 'm down with it if they want me to , but I completely understand if it does n't necessarily work ... They 've got a lot of story lines going on there . '' But in March 2012 , Shonda Rhimes said that there are no plans at the moment for the character to return , `` I think it was really nice to hear her appreciating the show . At the same time we are on a track we have been planning . The idea of changing that track is not something we are interested in right now . '' Three years later , Rhimes said she has completely moved on from the idea of Izzie coming back , `` I 'm done with that story . I 've turned that idea over in my mind a thousand times and thought about how it would go . And I do n't think so . '' Characterization ( edit ) Heigl believes that the Grey 's Anatomy writers incorporate much of the actors ' personalities into their roles , and that Izzie is a `` super moral '' version of herself . Episode `` Bring the Pain '' , which aired as the fifth episode of the second season , was originally intended to be the final episode of the first season . Rhimes explained that Izzie 's character in this episode came `` full circle '' from her role in the pilot : `` Izzie , so vulnerable and underestimated when we first meet her , is the girl who removes her heart from her sleeve in `` Bring the Pain '' . '' Discussing Izzie 's personality in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview , Heigl assessed that she is `` immensely kind '' and patient . When Denny died in the season two episode `` Losing My Religion '' , Rhimes discussed the impact it had on Izzie , noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism , which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine . In the aftermath of Denny 's death , Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor . Executive producer Betsy Beers explained , however , that Denny 's death served to make Izzie more mature , and Heigl affirmed that `` At the beginning of the ( third ) season they were trying to show how lost Izzie was . She lost her optimism . She realizes now that life is difficult , but she still tries very hard to see the best in people . '' In order to demonstrate Izzie 's dislike of George 's love - interest Callie , Rhimes penned a scene which she deemed one of her favorite moments on the show , in which Callie urinates in front of a stunned Izzie and Meredith . Rhimes assessed that : `` I love that Mer and Izzie respond with all the trauma of having viewed a car crash ( ... ) the point is Callie pees and Izzie tortures her a tiny bit about the hand washing and that made me overjoyed because that 's the kind of thing people do . '' Discussing Izzie 's relationship with Alex in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview , Heigl assessed that `` Even when Alex was a complete dirtbag to her ( Izzie ) , she forgave him and gave him another chance . And he really screwed her over . ( ... ) To go for a guy like that is to say I want to be damaged . ' '' Writer Stacy McKee deemed Izzie 's moving on from Alex to patient Denny Duquette `` karma '' , as Alex previously treated Izzie badly , yet as he begins to realize his true feelings , he is forced to watch her embark on a romance with `` the undeniably handsome - and totally charming '' Denny . Series writer Blythe Robe commented on Izzie and Denny : `` I love the way Izzie lights up when she 's around him . I love their relationship because it 's so pure and honest and completely game free . '' Writer Elizabeth Klaviter noted at this time the way Izzie `` seems to be sacrificing her reputation because of her feelings for Denny . '' When Izzie deliberately worsened Denny 's condition to move him up the transplant list , series writer Mark Wilding questioned the morality of the actions , asking : `` is Izzie bad for doing it ? Is she tremendously irresponsible ? She cut the LVAD wire for love so does that make her action understandable ? '' Heigl was critical of Izzie 's relationship with George ( T.R. Knight ) , deeming it `` a ratings ploy '' . Rhimes discussed costuming choices in the scene which saw the interns gather around Denny 's deathbed , explaining : `` Meredith and George and Cristina and Callie and Alex are all dressed , not for a prom , but for a funeral . Everyone in dark colors , everyone dressed somberly . As if they were in mourning . Only Izzie is in happy pink . Only Izzie looks like she did n't know this was coming . '' Following Denny 's death , Heigl approached Rhimes to ask when her character would next have a romantic liaison . Rhimes explained that `` Izzie does n't sleep around '' . Heigl expressed a desire for Izzie to reunite with Alex , explaining : `` I believe on some level , there 's a connection between Izzie and Alex . He can do honorable things even though he 's cutting and sarcastic . I would like to ultimately see them together , if not this season , then next . '' Yahoo ! Voices wrote that Stevens in the third season `` has become more condescending and passive aggressive herself , more than anyone else . '' Heigl was critical of her character 's development in the show 's fourth season , particularly her affair with George , which she deemed `` a ratings ploy '' . Heigl explained : `` They really hurt somebody , and they did n't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it . I have a really hard time with that kind of thing . I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it . I do n't really know Izzie very well right now . She 's changed a lot . '' Attempting to rationalise Izzie 's actions , Heigl later assessed that : People who are so infallible , perfect and moral tend to be the first to slip and fall . But I would love to see how she deals with the consequences of what she 's done , because what 's interesting is when people make decisions that shake their world , they suddenly have to go , ' Woo , I did n't know I was capable of this . ' I 'd like to see Izzie take some culpability . Reception ( edit ) Heigl was nominated for the `` Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series '' award at the 2007 and 2008 Golden Globe Awards for her role as Izzie . She was named `` Favorite Female TV Star '' at the 34th People 's Choice Awards , and awarded `` Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series '' at the 2007 Emmy Awards . Prior to the ceremony , considering Heigl 's chances of winning the Emmy , Variety 's Stuart Levine assessed of her performance : `` Heigl has little difficulty reaching Izzie 's highest highs and lowest lows . Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines , and she 's up to the challenge . '' Levine also noted , however : `` There are times when Izzie becomes completely irrational during crisis situations , which may bother some . '' Fox News included Izzie in its list of `` The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General '' . The character was listed in Wetpaint 's `` 10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's `` 16 Hottest Doctors On Television '' . Heigl at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards where she won the Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Award . During the show 's third season , the New York Post 's Robert Rorke deemed Izzie to be `` the heart and soul '' of Grey 's Anatomy . He deemed her the show 's heroine , and wrote that : `` Izzie is a welcome , calming presence , despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiance Denny Duquette . ( ... ) Besides the formidable Dr. Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , Izzie seems to be the only adult intern at Seattle Grace ; the character has achieved a depth lacking in her fellow interns . '' Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle was critical of Izzie 's ethics in cutting Denny 's LVAD wire , writing that she `` should not be practising medicine '' and stating : `` That 's the reason I do n't watch Grey 's Anatomy , anymore , because the super hot blond chick can make an earth - shattering , fatal decision and she does n't get canned . '' The season four romance between Izzie and George proved unpopular with viewers , and resulted in a fan backlash among Alex and Izzie fans . The return of Izzie 's deceased fiancé Denny and the resumption of their romance during the show 's fifth season also proved unpopular with fans , and was deemed `` the world 's worst storyline '' by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times . McNamara was also critical of the episode `` Now or Never '' , which saw Izzie flatline following neurosurgery , opining that Izzie ought to die . The episode in which Izzie married long - term love Alex received 15.3 million viewers , the largest television audience of the night . Izzie 's cancer storyline received a mixed response from the medical community . Otis Brawley , chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society , commented that Izzie 's treatment options were unrealistic . Whereas in the show she was offered the drug interleukin - 2 , in reality the drug is never recommended to patients when melanoma has spread to the brain , as it can cause bleeding and strokes . Brawley explained that such patients would instead be offered radiosurgery . Conversely however , Tim Turnham , executive director of the Melanoma Research Foundation , praised Grey 's Anatomy for bringing about greater public awareness of melanoma , stating : `` We welcome the national spotlight Grey 's Anatomy has created for melanoma and its efforts to encourage viewers to learn more about the importance of prevention , early detection and research . '' References ( edit ) Specific Jump up ^ Shonda Rhimes ( writer ) , Peter Horton ( director ) ( March 27 , 2005 ) . `` A Hard Day 's Night '' . Grey 's Anatomy . Season 1 . Episode 1 . ABC . Jump up ^ Shonda Rhimes ( writer ) , Peter Horton ( director ) ( April 3 , 2005 ) . `` The First Cut is the Deepest '' . Grey 's Anatomy . Season 1 . Episode 2 . ABC . Jump up ^ Ann Hamilton ( writer ) , John David Coles ( director ) ( April 24 , 2005 ) . `` Shake Your Groove Thing '' . Grey 's Anatomy . Season 1 . Episode 5 . ABC . Jump up ^ James D. 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Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Wilding , Mark ( May 14 , 2006 ) . `` From Mark Wilding , writer of `` 17 Seconds '' `` . Grey Matter . ABC . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Bennetts , Leslie ( January 2008 ) . `` Heigl 's Anatomy '' . Vanity Fair . Condé Nast Publications . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Hollerup , Natasha ( February 27 , 2007 ) . `` The Season that `` Grey 's Anatomy '' Became Riveting `` . Yahoo ! Voices . Retrieved September 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Iley , Chrissy ( March 30 , 2008 ) . `` Katherine Heigl : from Grey 's Anatomy to 27 Dresses '' . The Times . London : Times Newspapers . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Gallo , Phil ( January 13 , 2008 ) . `` ' Atonement , ' ' Sweeney ' win Globes '' . Variety . Reed Elsevier . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice Awards sidestep strike '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . January 9 , 2008 . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Lehner , Marla ( September 18 , 2007 ) . `` Katherine Heigl : Nobody Thought I 'd Win the Emmy '' . People . Time Inc . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Levine , Stuart ( August 13 , 2007 ) . `` Supporting Actress : Drama - Shades of ' Grey ' for ABC 's hospital gal pals '' . Variety . Reed Elsevier . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General '' . Fox News . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Martin , Rebecca ( December 31 , 2012 ) . `` The 10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV '' . Wetpaint . The Cambio Network . Retrieved January 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The 16 Hottest Doctors On Television '' . BuzzFeed . September 28 , 2012 . Retrieved January 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Peralta , Eyder ( February 16 , 2007 ) . `` Tsk . Tsk . Ethics these days . '' . Houston Chronicle . Hearst Corporation . Retrieved July 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Hughes , Sarah ( November 17 , 2008 ) . `` The power of Heroes worship '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Collins , Scott ( February 10 , 2009 ) . `` Katherine Heigl & T.R. Knight : Are they really set to exit ' Grey 's Anatomy ? ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Eddy Hartenstein . Retrieved July 21 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : McNamara , Mary ( May 15 , 2009 ) . `` Dead or alive on ' Grey 's Anatomy ' ? '' . Los Angeles Times . Eddy Hartenstein . Retrieved September 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Toff , Benjamin ; Itzkoff , David ( May 8 , 2009 ) . `` ABC 's Wedding Gift '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . Retrieved May 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Szabo , Liz ( May 18 , 2009 ) . `` Doctors , patients say ' Grey 's ' cancer story is n't accurate '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved July 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Ben ( May 26 , 2009 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and melanoma '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved July 21 , 2009 . General `` Grey 's Anatomy : Episode Recap Guide '' . ABC . Retrieved June 19 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Grey 's Anatomy portal Fictional characters portal Izzie Stevens on IMDb ( hide ) Grey 's Anatomy Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Characters ( cast members ) Meredith Grey Cristina Yang Izzie Stevens Alex Karev George O'Malley Miranda Bailey Richard Webber Derek Shepherd Preston Burke Addison Montgomery Mark Sloan Callie Torres Lexie Grey Erica Hahn Owen Hunt Sadie Harris Arizona Robbins Teddy Altman Jackson Avery April Kepner Amelia Shepherd Stephanie Edwards Maggie Pierce Other Awards and nominations Soundtrack Video game Private Practice A Corazón Abierto ( Mexican telenovela ) A Corazón Abierto ( Colombian telenovela ) Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Izzie_Stevens&oldid=808143113 '' Categories : Grey 's Anatomy characters Fictional models Fictional surgeons Fictional characters from Washington ( state ) Fictional characters introduced in 2005 Fictional characters with cancer Fictional female doctors Hidden categories : Good articles Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Македонски Polski Português Српски / srpski Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 1 November 2017 , at 03 : 46 . 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where is the sun located during the winter solstice

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sun_path&oldid=812597704

Sun path - wikipedia Sun path Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Sun 's seasonal declination differences , viewed from some northern mid-latitude Sun path polar chart for any location at the latitude of Rotterdam Sun path , sometimes also called day arc , refers to the daily and seasonal arc - like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun . The Sun 's path affects the length of daytime experienced and amount of daylight received along a certain latitude during a given season . The relative position of the Sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems . Accurate location - specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area , orientation , landscaping , summer shading , and the cost - effective use of solar trackers . Contents ( hide ) 1 Effect of the Earth 's axial tilt 1.1 Shadow of Vertical Stick at Solar Noon 1.2 Duration of Daylight 2 Building design simulation 3 Visualization 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Effect of the Earth 's axial tilt ( edit ) This section is too long . Consider splitting it into new pages , adding subheadings , or condensing it . ( June 2017 ) Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry . The Earth 's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees , relative to the plane of Earth 's orbit around the Sun . As the Earth orbits the Sun , this creates the 47 ° declination difference between the solstice sun paths , as well as the hemisphere - specific difference between summer and winter . In the Northern Hemisphere , the sun path near to the winter solstice ( November , December , January ) rises in the southeast , transits the celestial meridian at a low angle in the south ( more than 43 ° above the southern horizon in the tropics ) , and then sets in the southwest . It is on the south ( equator ) side of the house all day long . A vertical window facing south ( equator side ) is effective for capturing solar thermal energy . For comparison , the sun path near the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere ( May , June , July ) rises in the northeast , peaks out at a low angle in the north ( more than halfway up from the horizon in the tropics ) , and then sets in the northwest . There , the north - facing window would let in plenty of solar thermal energy to the house . In the Northern Hemisphere , the sun path near to the summer solstice ( May , June , July ) , the Sun rises in the northeast , peaks out slightly south of overhead point ( lower in the south at higher latitude ) , and then sets in the northwest , whereas in the Southern Hemisphere the sun path near the summer solstice ( November , December , January ) , the Sun rises in the southeast , peaks out slightly north of overhead point ( lower in the north at higher latitude ) , and then sets in the southwest . A simple latitude - dependent equator - side overhang can easily be designed to block 100 % of the direct solar gain from entering vertical equator - facing windows on the hottest days of the year . Roll - down exterior shade screens , interior translucent - or - opaque window quilts , drapes , shutters , movable trellises , etc. can be used for hourly , daily or seasonal sun and heat transfer control ( without any active electrical air conditioning ) . Everywhere around the world during the equinoxes ( March 20 / 21 and September 22 / 23 ) except for the poles , the sun rises due east and sets due west . In the Northern Hemisphere , the equinox sun peaks in the southern half ( about halfway up from the horizon at mid latitude ) of the sky , while in the Southern Hemisphere , that sun peaks in the northern half of the sky . When facing the equator , the sun appears to move from left to right in the Northern Hemisphere and from right to left in the Southern Hemisphere . The latitude ( and hemisphere ) - specific solar path differences are critical to effective passive solar building design . They are essential data for optimal window and overhang seasonal design . Solar designers must know the precise solar path angles for each location they design for , and how they compare to place - based seasonal heating and cooling requirements . In the U.S. , the precise location - specific altitude - and - azimuth seasonal solar path numbers are available from NOAA -- the `` equator side '' of a building is south in the Northern Hemisphere , and north in the Southern Hemisphere , where the peak summer solstice solar altitude occurs on December 21 . Shadow of vertical stick at solar noon ( edit ) On the equator , the sun will be straight overhead and a vertical stick will cast no shadow at solar noon on the equinoxes . On the vernal equinox , north of the subsolar point ( on the equator ) the vertical stick 's shadow will point a little westwards of true north ( NNW ) reading 336.5 ° from true north and little eastwards of true south ( SSE ) reading 156.5 ° from true north . On the autumnal equinox , north of the subsolar point ( on the equator ) , the shadow will point a little eastwards of true north ( NNE ) reading 23.5 ° from true north ( and south of the subsolar , the shadow will point a little westward of true south ( SSW ) reading 203.5 ° from true north ) . The same stick will cast no shadow on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point is on the Tropic of Cancer 23.44 ° north of equator . Although north of 23.44 ° N the shadow will point towards true north and south of 23.44 ° N the shadow will point towards true south . The reverse occurs on the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point will be on the Tropic of Capricorn 23.44 ° S and a vertical stick will cast no shadow along that point . But north of the Tropic of Capricorn solar noon shadows will point towards true north and south of the Tropic of Capricorn shadows will point towards true south . The solar noon shadows of objects on points beyond and below subsolar points will point towards true north and true south respectively only when the solar declination has its maximum positive ( δ ☉ = + 23.44 ° ) or maximum negative ( δ ☉ = − 23.44 ° ) value . On the other hand , on the equinoxes when the sun is neither declined north nor south ( δ ☉ = 0 ° ) and solar time noon shadows point NNW north of the equator and SSE south of the equator on the vernal equinox ( and point NNE north of the equator and SSW south of the equator on the autumnal equinox ) . Duration of daylight ( edit ) North of the Arctic circle and south of the Antarctic circle , there will be at least one day a year when the sun is not above the horizon for 24 hours during the winter solstice , and at least one day when the sun is above the horizon for 24 hours during the summer solstice . In the moderate latitudes ( between the circles and tropics , where most humans live ) , the length of the day , solar altitude and azimuth vary from one day to the next , and from season to season . The difference between the length of a long summer day and a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the equator . A solargraph showing the path of the sun as seen in Budapest for every day in 2014 . Photo credit : Elekes Andor Building design simulation ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Before the days of modern , inexpensive , 3D computer graphics , a heliodon ( precisely - movable light source ) was used to show the angle of the sun on a physical model of a proposed building . Today , mathematical computer models calculate location - specific solar gain ( shading ) and seasonal thermal performance , with the ability to rotate and animate a 3D color graphic model of a proposed building design . Heating and cooling issues in passive solar building design can be counterintuitive . Precise performance calculations and simulations are essential to avoid reinventing the wheel and duplicating expensive experimental design errors , such as skylights that turn a building into a solar furnace in summer ( see Daylighting # Sawtooth roof ) . Visualization ( edit ) These pictures show such a perspective as follows . They show the day arcs of the Sun , the paths the Sun tracks along the celestial dome in its diurnal movement . The pictures show this for every hour on both solstice days . The longer arc is always the summer track and the shorter one the winter track . The two tracks are at a distance of 46.88 ° ( 2 × 23.44 ° ) away from each other . In addition , some `` ghost '' suns are indicated below the horizon , as much as 18 ° down . The Sun in this area causes twilight . The pictures can be used for both the northern and southern hemispheres . The observer is supposed to sit near the tree on the island in the middle of the ocean . The green arrows give the cardinal directions . On the northern hemisphere the north is to the left , the Sun rises in the east ( far arrow ) , culminates in the south ( to the right ) while moving to the right and sets in the west ( near arrow ) . Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the north in summer , and towards the south for the winter track . On the southern hemisphere the south is to the left , the Sun rises in the east ( near arrow ) , culminates in the north ( to the right ) while moving to the left and sets in the west ( far arrow ) . Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the south in summer , and towards the north for the winter track . The following special cases are depicted . On the imaginary line of the equator the Sun maximum elevation is great during all the year but it does n't form every day a perfect right angle with the ground at noon . In fact it happens two days of the year , during the equinoxes . The solstices are the dates that the Sun stays farthest away from the zenith but anyway also in those cases it 's high in the sky , reaching an altitude of 66.56 ° either to the north or the south . All days of the year , solstices included , have the same length of 12 hours . The day arcs at 20 ° latitude . The Sun culminates at 46.56 ° altitude in winter and 93.44 ° altitude in summer . In this case an angle larger than 90 ° means that the culmination takes place at an altitude of 86.56 ° in the opposite cardinal direction . For example , in the southern hemisphere , the Sun remains in the north during winter , but can reach over the zenith to the south in midsummer . Summer days are longer than winter days , but approximately the difference is no more than only two and a half hours . The daily path of the Sun is steep at the horizon the whole year round , resulting in a twilight of only about one hour and 20 minutes in the morning and in the evening . The day arcs at 50 ° latitude . During the winter solstice Sun does not rise more than 16.56 ° above the horizon at midday , but 63.44 ° in summer solstice above the same horizon direction . The difference in the length of the day between summer and winter , from here to the north , begin to be striking -- slightly more than 8 hours at winter solstice , to more than 16 hours during the summer solstice . Likewise is the difference in direction of sunrise and sunset . At this latitude at midnight ( around 1 a.m. with summer legal hour ) the summer sun is 16.56 ° below the horizon , which means that astronomical twilight continues the whole night . This phenomenon is known as the grey nights , nights when it does not get dark enough for astronomers to do their observations of the deep sky . Above 60 ° latitude the Sun would be even closer to the horizon , only 6.56 ° away from it . Then civil twilight continues almost all night , only a little bit of `` nautical twilight '' obviously around the local midnight . And above 66.56 ° latitude , there is no sunset at all , a phenomenon referred to as the midnight sun . The day arcs at 70 ° latitude . At local noon the winter Sun culminates at − 3.44 ° , and the summer Sun at 43.44 °. Said another way , during the winter the Sun does not rise above the horizon , it is the polar night . There will be still a strong twilight though . At local midnight the summer Sun culminates at 3.44 ° , said another way , it does not set , it is the polar day . The day arcs at the pole . At the time of the summer or winter solstices , the Sun is 23.44 ° degrees above or below the horizon respectively , irrespective of time of day . Whilst the Sun is up ( during summer months ) it will circle around the whole sky ( clockwise from the North Pole and counter-clockwise from the South Pole ) , appearing to stay at the same angle from the horizon , therefore the concept of day or night is meaningless . The angle of elevation will gradually change on an annual cycle , with the Sun reaching its highest point at the summer solstice , and rising or setting at the equinox , with extended periods of twilight lasting several days after the autumn equinox and before the spring equinox . Day arcs at 0 ° latitude , equator . Day arcs at 20 ° latitude . Day arcs at 50 ° latitude . Day arcs at 70 ° latitude . Day arcs at 90 ° latitude , pole . See also ( edit ) Ecliptic Passive solar design Solar access Pyranometer Pyrheliometer Heliostat Daylighting Analemma Effect of sun angle on climate Position of the Sun Equinox Solstice References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Solar Resource Information '' . National Renewable Energy Laboratory . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : Khavrus , V. ; Shelevytsky , I. ( 2010 ) . `` Introduction to solar motion geometry on the basis of a simple model '' . Physics Education . 45 ( 6 ) : 641 . doi : 10.1088 / 0031 - 9120 / 45 / 6 / 010 . Jump up ^ Khavrus , V. ; Shelevytsky , I. ( 2012 ) . `` Geometry and the physics of seasons '' . Physics Education . 47 ( 6 ) : 680 . doi : 10.1088 / 0031 - 9120 / 47 / 6 / 680 . Jump up ^ Librorum , Helluo ( 2012 ) . `` Notes from Noosphere : The simple geometry of sun , moon , and star paths '' . notesfromnoosphere.blogspot.com . Retrieved September 19 , 2013 . External links ( edit ) U.S. Naval Observatory Sun or Moon Altitude / Azimuth Table The simple geometry of sun , moon , and star paths Sun path calculation and visualization on Android Sun path in augmented reality Sun path by location and date Sun positions , diagram and paths around the world by location and date Seasonal and Hourly Sun Path Design Issue Tutorial `` Three Decades of Passive Solar Heating and Cooling Lessons Learned '' Sun path on map , charts and table , sun position for every location and date Sun position by location and date Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sun_path&oldid=812597704 '' Categories : Observational astronomy Solar design Hidden categories : All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from November 2014 Articles needing additional references from January 2008 All articles needing additional references Articles that may be too long from June 2017 Articles using small message boxes Articles needing additional references from September 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch فارسی Íslenska Nederlands Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2017 , at 19 : 34 . 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what is the meaning of ayes and noes

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Division_of_the_assembly&oldid=855883720

Division of the assembly - Wikipedia Division of the assembly In parliamentary procedure , a division of the assembly , division of the house , or simply division is a method for taking a better estimate of a vote than a voice vote . Typically , a division is taken when the result of a voice vote is challenged or when a two - thirds vote is required . A division is also called a rising vote , where members stand up from their seats . According to Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised ( RONR ) , the numbers for and against are not counted in a division . However , they may be counted by order of the chairman or by order of the assembly through majority vote . The assembly may also have a rule that the division is counted . Historically , and often still today , members are literally divided into physically separate groups . This was the method used in the Roman Senate , and occasionally in Athenian democracy . Westminster system parliament chambers have separate division lobbies for the `` Ayes '' and `` Noes '' to facilitate physical division . In several assemblies , a division bell is rung throughout the building when a division is happening , in order to alert members not present in the chamber . Contents 1 Australia 1.1 House of Representatives 1.2 Senate 2 Canada 3 Germany 4 Ireland 5 New Zealand 6 United Kingdom 6.1 House of Commons 6.1. 1 Nodding through 6.1. 2 Pairing 6.2 House of Lords 7 United States 8 See also 9 References Australia ( edit ) House of Representatives ( edit ) In the Australian House of Representatives divisions follow a form similar to that of the United Kingdom , but the requirements are generally more stringent . For instance , a Member in the Chamber when the tellers are appointed must vote , while a Member not then present may not . Furthermore , members must vote in accordance to their voice votes . The voice vote is held as in the British House of Commons . If a Member objects , then the division bells are rung throughout the Parliamentary estate . When not less than four minutes have elapsed since the question was first put , the Speaker orders that the doors to the Chamber be locked , and directs that the Ayes proceed to the right side of the Chamber , and that the Noes proceed to the left . Members then take seats on the appropriate side of the Chamber , rather than entering a lobby , and then the Speaker appoints tellers for each side , unless fewer than five Members are seated on one side , in which case the Speaker calls off the division and declares the result for the side with the greater number of Members . If the division is still on , the tellers count and record the names of the Members . The Speaker announces the result , but does not vote unless there is an equality of votes . Senate ( edit ) In the Australian Senate , a procedure similar to that of the House of Representatives is followed . The voice vote is taken , and , if two Senators object , a division is held . Senators take seats in the right or left of the Chamber as in the House , and the President of the Senate appoints one teller for each side to record the votes . The President may vote by stating to the Senate the side on which he intends to vote . If the result of the division is an equality of votes , then the motion is in all cases disagreed to . Canada ( edit ) The procedure used in the House of Commons of Canada is similar to that in the British House of Commons , with a few differences . The Speaker reads the question aloud , and then asks , `` Is it the pleasure of the house to adopt the motion ? '' If anyone dissents , the Speaker then states `` all those in favour of the motion will please say yea . '' After the cries of ' yea ' , the Speaker says `` all those opposed will please say nay , '' and all members opposed to the question cry out ' nay ' all at once . The Speaker then announces his opinion of the outcome of the vote . If five or more MPs challenge the Speaker 's opinion , a formal division follows . A formal division is invoked by the Speaker asking to `` call in the members . '' Bells are rung throughout the Parliament Buildings for either 15 or 30 minutes to allow all present MPs time to enter the chamber and take their seats . The division begins with the whips from both the government and the official opposition bowing to the Speaker and each other before returning to their seats . There are no division lobbies in the House of Commons , so each member votes by simply standing up from his or her seat . `` Yea '' votes are recorded first , followed by the `` Nay '' votes , on the Speaker 's order . Finally , the clerk of the house reads the result of the vote aloud to the Speaker . Germany ( edit ) Three doors marked `` Yes '' , `` Abstention '' and `` No '' in the Landtag of North Rhine - Westphalia In the German Bundestag and some state parliaments the president can call for the so - called Hammelsprung ( literally , wether 's leap ) if an undisputed majority could n't be established by either MPs raising their hands or standing in order to cast their votes . In this voting procedure the MPs leave the plenary hall and re-enter through one of three doors designated for `` yes `` , `` no '' , or `` abstention '' . According to the Duden dictionary , the expression refers to the MPs grouping themselves like sheep behind their respective bellwethers before re-entering the chamber . The procedure was introduced in 1874 by a Reichstag vice president . In 1894 the architect of the new Reichstag building made a reference to the Hammelsprung : above the door for `` yes '' , he depicted Ulysses and his friends escaping from Polyphemus . Ireland ( edit ) This section needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( December 2016 ) In Dáil Éireann , the lower house of the Oireachtas , a division is a formal count that can be called for if ten or more TDs deem a voice vote insufficient . The procedure for divisions is specified by standing orders 68 -- 75 . The Ceann Comhairle ( chair ) puts the question and TDs ( deputies ) present say the Irish word Tá ( yes ) or Níl ( no ) respectively if they agree or disagree . The Ceann Comhairle then gives an opinion on the voice vote ; a TD may demand a division by calling Vótáil ( vote ) . If fewer than ten TDs call for a division , the Ceann Comhairle asks them to rise in their places ; their names are recorded in the journal but the original decision stands . Otherwise the Ceann Comhairle calls Vótáil , which starts the voting process . The division bell sounds around Leinster House and the adjoining Oireachtas buildings , calling TDs to the chamber to vote . The bells ring for six minutes and the doors to the chamber are locked after a further four minutes . The Ceann Comhairle then appoints two tellers for each side and deputies present are given one minute to vote . Voting is usually electronic , with deputies pressing either the Tá or Níl button on their desks . After the voting time has concluded a Division Paper recording the result and each TD 's vote is signed by the four tellers and given to the Ceann Comhairle , who declares the result . Electronic voting was introduced in 2002 . The traditional practice of voting by physically entering division lobbies is retained for some symbolically important votes : confidence motions , and nomination of Taoiseach and cabinet ministers . Since 2016 , in an effort to reduce delays , most physical divisions are deferred until the `` weekly division time '' on Thursdays when they are taken one after another . Although formerly physical voting was done for the election of the Ceann Comhairle , since 2016 this has been by secret ballot , with physical voting only for an uncontested election . A group of at least 20 TDs may demand a non-electronic repeat of an electronic vote , a tactic which Opposition parties sometimes use to increase media coverage of major votes . A summer 2016 upgrade to the electronic voting system allowed a change to standing orders such that TDs may have an abstention from voting formally recorded ; for other purposes this is treated the same as not voting . Notably , in 1969 , when Jack Lynch sought the nomination of the Dáil to be appointed Taoiseach by the President , after the division had been called and the doors locked , the bells continued to ring and several Fianna Fáil deputies subsequently entered the chamber through an unlocked door . After other deputies objected , The Ceann Comhairle called the division again . Lynch won the nomination 74 votes to 66 . In Seanad Éireann , the upper house , a similar procedure is laid out by standing orders 56 -- 63 . The relayed sound of the bell for Seanad divisions differs from that of the Dáil bell . New Zealand ( edit ) In the New Zealand House of Representatives , division of the assembly occurs when the result of a voice vote on a motion is split , and a member disagrees with the Speaker 's call . There are two methods for handling a division : a party vote and a personal vote . A party vote is the most common method , and occurs for non-conscience issues and some conscience issues . In this method , the Clerk of the House reads out each party 's name in order of the number of seats each party has , starting with the largest party , followed by any independent members and any members wishing to cross the floor . A member of the party ( usually a whip ) will respond to their party 's name by stating how many members of the party are in favour or opposed . The Clerk tallies up the votes and gives the results to the Speaker , who declares the result . A split party vote is a variation of the party vote , used for some conscience issues . The main difference is voting members state how many members of their party are in favour and how many members are opposed , and once the voting is completed , must table a list of the members of the party and how they voted . A personal vote is used mainly for conscience issues , and follows similar procedures to other Westminster systems . In the event of a personal vote , the division bells are rung for seven minutes , and after the bells stops , members are instructed to move to one of two lobbies , `` Ayes '' or `` Noes '' , to have their vote recorded as such . Once all the votes are tallied , the results are handed to the speaker who declares the result . An unusual division occurred on 30 August 2012 , with a three - way conscience vote on New Zealand 's legal drinking age . All members were directed to the Noes lobby , where the Clerk of the House recorded each member 's vote ( either for keeping the age at 18 , raising the age to 20 , or raising the off - licence age to 20 while keeping the on - licence age at 18 ) as they passed back into the main debating chamber . The votes were tallied and handed back to the Speaker , who declared the results as 50 votes for 18 years , 38 votes for 20 years , and 33 votes for an 18 / 20 split . As no option acquired the 61 - vote majority needed , the option with the lowest number of votes ( 18 / 20 split ) was dropped , and the members voted again as per a normal personal vote , using the Ayes lobby for 18 years and Noes lobby for 20 years . United Kingdom ( edit ) House of Commons ( edit ) In the House of Commons , the Speaker says `` The Question is that ... '' , then states the question . Next , he / she says , `` As many as are of that opinion say Aye . '' Then , following shouts of `` Aye '' , he says , `` of the contrary , No , '' and similar shouts of `` No '' may follow . If one side clearly has more support , the Speaker then announces his / her opinion as to the winner , stating , for example , `` I think the Ayes have it , the Ayes have it '' . Otherwise , the Speaker declares a division . Any member may object to the Speaker 's determination . If the Speaker feels that the division is unnecessary , he / she may first ask those who support his / her determination of the voice vote to rise , and then ask those who oppose the opinion to rise . Then , the Speaker may either declare that his ruling on the voice vote stands , or proceed to a division . If a division is to be taken , the Speaker first states , `` Division ! Clear the Lobbies ! '' . Like all parliamentary procedure , there is a historical reason for the tradition . In this case it was a division that took place on 27 February 1771 when a non MP ( known as a ' stranger ' ) , one Thomas Hunt , was included in the ' Noes ' vote . It subsequently transpired that he had voted several times previously . The Division bell then sounds across the Parliamentary Estate as well as several buildings in the vicinity , such as restaurants and pubs ( For a full list see External bells ) . The lobbies are cleared of strangers , these days primarily journalists who have access to the Lobby , but historically could have been members of the public . Division bells notify any members not currently in the chamber that a vote is about to start . A recent development has been the use of pagers and mobile phones by party whips , to summon members from further afield . Two minutes into the division the Speaker puts the question to the House again . If it is clear that a division is still required , the Speaker announces the Tellers , two each for the `` ayes '' and `` nos '' . These are appointed by those voting . The tellers are automatically included in the tally of those voting . Some Parliamentary sources will report the vote , for instance as , `` 247 + 2 tell '' . MPs have to walk through one of the two Division Lobbies on either side of the House and give their name to the Division Clerks at the end of the respective Lobbies to vote . They are then counted by the Tellers as they leave the Lobby . The Whips keep check on which MPs enter which Lobby and try to persuade them to enter the Lobby that the Party would like them to enter . An MP is prohibited from voting on any matter in which he or she has a direct financial interest . In order to act as a disqualification , the matter must be immediate and personal and not a general or remote matter . An example might be that a member is disqualified from voting on legislation affecting the rents that can be charged by landlords , if that member owns properties that he or she rents out . Whips have historically been brutal to backbenchers to secure their vote . The whip 's offices to this day display the whips that were once used to ' encourage ' MPs to vote according to their party line . Originally , there was only one lobby . In A Manual of Parliamentary Practice , Thomas Jefferson writes : The one party goes forth , and the other remains in the House . This has made it important which go forth , and which remain ; because the latter gain all the indolent , the indifferent and inattentive . Their general rule therefore is , that those who give their votes for the preservation of the orders of the House , shall stay in , and those who are for introducing any new matter or alteration , or proceeding contrary to the established course , are to go out . After the fire of 1834 , the House of Commons Chamber was rebuilt . At that time , a second lobby was added . Eight minutes after the question has been put for the first time , the Speaker declares , `` Lock the Doors . '' The lobby entrances are locked , and only those within the Lobbies may continue to vote . After all members have voted in the lobbies , the vote totals are written on a card and the numbers are read out to the House by the Tellers . The Speaker then announces these numbers a second time , announcing the final result by saying ' The Ayes / Noes have it , the Ayes / Noes have it ' . The Speaker does not vote , except in the case of a tie and then only strictly in accordance to precedent . This means that the Speaker will let vote in accordance with these principles : Legislation remains unchanged unless there is a majority in favour of amendment , Legislation is allowed to proceed to the next stage unless there is a majority in favour of rejection , and All other motions are rejected unless there is a majority in favour of passage . Members may signify , but not record , an abstention by remaining in their seats during the division . Though the practice is traditionally frowned upon , MPs can also pass through both lobbies , effectively registering their abstention . It is stipulated that all Members of Parliament are required to stay in or around the premises of the House of Commons until the main business of the day has ended , however long that may be . In the unlikely event that fewer than forty members participate in the division ( including the speaker and the tellers ) , the division is declared ' inquorate ' , the question at hand is postponed until the next sitting , and the House proceeds to the next business . The nature of divisions in the House of Commons is one which traditionally could go on well into the night , sometimes past midnight . However , in 2000 the House introduced , on an experimental basis , the procedure of `` Deferred Divisions . '' Essentially , some divisions are delayed until the next Wednesday . The procedure is used for very few matters ; most divisions still occur normally . There have been suggestions that electronic voting may be easier and quicker to do than physically going through a division lobby . However , MPs have often found that a division is the best way to interact for senior members of the government . And it can be considered a way to sort out problems for the Member 's constituents . There are two variations to the normal practice of an MP voting by walking through the respective lobby . Nodding through ( edit ) There have been cases where Members of Parliament are wheeled from far afield to vote for their party in a crucial vote . For members who are too ill to reach the lobby , there is a procedure called ' nodding through ' provided the tellers agree . The whips will ensure that the MP 's name is added to the list of those voting . There are only two conditions . The MP must be within the precincts of the Palace of Westminster , and must be alive . Former MP Joe Ashton remembered a case from the dying days of James Callaghan 's government : I remember the famous case of Leslie Spriggs , the then Member for St. Helens . We had a tied vote and he was brought to the House in an ambulance having suffered a severe heart attack . The two Whips went out to look in the ambulance and there was Leslie Spriggs laid there as though he was dead . I believe that John Stradling Thomas said to Joe Harper , `` How do we know that he is alive ? '' So he leaned forward , turned the knob on the heart machine , the green light went around , and he said , `` There , you 've lost -- it 's 311 . '' . Pairing ( edit ) ' Pairing ' is an arrangement between two opposing MPs where both agree not to participate in any divisions because their votes would cancel each other out anyway . Pairing agreements can last anything from days to the life of the Parliament ( now fixed at five years ) . All pairings have to be registered with the party whips so that they know not to pursue their member for failing to vote . House of Lords ( edit ) This section needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( November 2010 ) An important vote : the House of Lords voting for the Parliament Act 1911 . From the Drawing by S. Begg In the House of Lords , the Lord Speaker proposes the question and announces the result as in the Commons , but substitutes `` Content '' for `` Aye '' and `` Not - Content '' for `` No '' . A Lord may object to the Lord Speaker 's determination . The Lord Speaker then announces a division by stating , `` Clear the Bar ! '' The Bar of the House is then cleared . Tellers are appointed as in the Commons . Three minutes after the question was first proposed , the Lord Speaker again proposes the question as above . If his opinion is not challenged , then the question is decided without a division . But if his decision is once again disputed , the Lord Speaker may again ask the question . The question may be repeated as many times as the Lord Speaker pleases ; the process is referred to as `` collecting the voices '' . But if a single Lord maintains an objection , the Lord Speaker , not having the ( House of Commons ) Speaker 's power to declare a division unnecessary , must eventually announce , `` The Contents to the right by the Throne , the Not - contents to the left by the Bar '' . Lords then vote in the lobbies , as it is done in the Commons . Unlike the Speaker , the Lord Speaker may vote during a division ; he does so from his seat rather than in a lobby . In the event that the votes are equal , then the following principles apply : Legislation remains unchanged unless there is a majority in favour of amendment , Legislation is allowed to proceed to the next stage unless there is a majority in favour of rejection , and All other motions are rejected unless there is a majority in favour of passage . The quorum for divisions is three Lords on a procedural vote and thirty Lords on a substantive one . United States ( edit ) In the United States Congress , divisions are used , but not in the same manner as in the British Parliament . In Congress , lobbies are not used , and the division is not a final determination of the question . The vote is first taken by voice vote , as is the case in Parliament . Then , any member may demand a division . If a division is demanded , then the Speaker of the House of Representatives ( or , more commonly , a Representative of the majority party designated by the Speaker to preside as Speaker pro tempore ) or the Presiding Officer of the Senate asks those voting Yea to rise and remain standing until counted , and then asks those voting Nay to do the same . A division is the least common method of voting in the Senate . ( The Vice President of the United States is constitutionally designated as the President of the United States Senate , and the President pro tempore of the United States Senate presides over its sessions or appoints another senator to do so when the Vice President does not preside . Ordinarily , neither the Vice President nor the president pro tempore preside , but instead the president pro tempore appoints a junior Senator of the majority party to preside ) . A recorded vote must take place upon the demand of one - fifth of members present under Article I , Section 5 of the United States Constitution : `` the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall , at the Desire of one fifth of those Present , be entered on the Journal . '' In the Senate , a recorded vote is accomplished by the clerk 's call of the roll . In the House , an electronic voting device is typically used to take recorded votes , although occasionally roll calls take place ; the House is historically too large to conduct roll calls on a regular basis ( 435 members versus 100 in the Senate ) . When voting to override a Presidential veto , the yeas and nays are required under Article I , Section 7 of the Constitution . See also ( edit ) Voting methods in deliberative assemblies References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Robert , Henry M. ; et al. ( 2011 ) . Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised ( 11th ed . ) . Philadelphia , PA : Da Capo Press . p. 280 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 82020 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Robert 2011 , p. 46 Jump up ^ Robert 2011 , p. 47 ^ Jump up to : `` Infosheet 14 - Making decisions - debate and division '' . www.aph.gov.au . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Chapter 18 - Divisions '' . www.aph.gov.au . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : `` Debate and Voting '' . www.parl.gc.ca . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ Deutsches Universalwörterbuch . 4th edition , Mannheim 2001 . Jump up ^ `` Dáil Standing Orders Relative to Public Business , together with Oireachtas Library Rules '' ( PDF ) ( in English and Irish ) . Oireachtas. 2007 . pp. 29 -- 32 . Retrieved 30 November 2010 . Jump up ^ SO 68 ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Glossary '' . Education . Oireachtas . p . Division . Retrieved 30 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Electronic Voting in Dáil Chamber is part of Major Oireachtas Reform Programme '' ( Press release ) . Oireachtas. 26 February 2002 . Retrieved 30 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Standing Orders : Motion '' . Dáil debates . KildareStreet.com. 28 January 2016 . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Abstentions '' ( PDF ) . Report of the sub-Committee on Dáil Reform regarding changes to Standing Orders . Oireachtas. 8 June 2016 . p. 25 . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . ; `` Consolidated version of all of the Standing Orders of Dáil Éireann currently in effect '' ( PDF ) . Oireachtas. 15 November 2016 . pp. 40 , sec. 77 . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . ; Ní Aodha , Gráinne ( 15 July 2016 ) . `` We 'll be hearing a lot more from politicians after the summer recess '' . TheJournal.ie . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . The electronic voting system in the Dáil chamber also needs to be upgraded to provide a button for TDs who want to abstain on votes . Currently , there is only a facility to cast a vote for or against a proposal . Jump up ^ `` Nomination of Taoiseach . Wednesday , 2 July 1969 '' ( in English and Irish ) . Oireachtas. 1969 . Retrieved 10 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Seanad Standing Orders relative to Public Business '' ( PDF ) ( in English and Irish ) . Oireachtas. 2007 . pp. 56 -- 63 . Retrieved 30 November 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Voting in the House of Representatives '' . New Zealand Parliament . 6 November 2009 . Retrieved 30 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Alcohol Reform Bill -- In Committee '' . New Zealand Parliament . 30 August 2012 . Retrieved 2 September 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Divisions in the House of Commons : House of Commons Background Paper . Document ref : SN / PC / 06401 ( Last updated : 2 August 2013 ) . Jump up ^ Sir Henry Cavendish , Debates of the House of Commons during the 13th Parliament , vol. 2 , P. 333 , 1841 Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived 11 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Lowther , Ed ( 5 March 2013 ) . `` BBC News - Yes but , no but ... MPs who vote both ways '' . BBC . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` House of Commons debate 4 Jun 1997 : Column 506 '' . Hansard by request of UK Parliament . 1997 . Retrieved 15 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Senate : Reference Home > '' . www.senate.gov . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 19 . Parliamentary procedure Major concepts History of parliamentary procedure Principles of parliamentary procedure Deliberative assembly Committee Session Quorum Chair Floor Recognition Motion Second Debate Main motion Order of business Minutes Voting methods in deliberative assemblies Majority Unanimous consent Subsidiary motions Postpone indefinitely Amend Commit Postpone to a certain time Limit or extend limits of debate Previous question Cloture Lay on the table Privileged motions Call for the orders of the day Raise a question of privilege Recess Adjourn Fix the time to which to adjourn Incidental motions Point of order Appeal Suspend the rules Objection to the consideration of a question Division of a question Consideration by paragraph or seriatim Division of the assembly Motions relating to methods of voting and the polls Motions relating to nominations Request to be excused from a duty Requests and inquiries ( Parliamentary inquiry , Request for information , Request for permission to withdraw or modify a motion , Request to read papers , Request for any other privilege ) Motions that bring a question again before the assembly Take from the table Rescind , repeal , annul or amend something previously adopted Discharge a committee Reconsider Legislative procedures Call of the house Hoist Motion to pass on Recall of Parliament Disciplinary procedures Censure Declare the chair vacant Impeach Naming Parliamentary authorities Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised ( RONR ) The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure ( TSC or Sturgis ) Demeter 's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure Riddick 's Rules of Procedure Mason 's Manual of Legislative Procedure Erskine May : Parliamentary Practice Jefferson 's Manual Bourinot 's Rules of Order Beauchesne 's Parliamentary Rules and Forms Morin code ABC of Chairmanship Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Division_of_the_assembly&oldid=855883720 '' Categories : Legislatures Parliamentary procedure Hidden categories : CS1 Irish - language sources ( ga ) Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from July 2013 Articles containing German - language text Wikipedia articles in need of updating from December 2016 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from November 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Edit links This page was last edited on 21 August 2018 , at 13 : 30 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

-325736180194371137

summary of you laughed and laughed and laughed by gabriel okara

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=You_Laughed_and_Laughed_and_Laughed&oldid=779299207

You laughed and laughed and laughed - wikipedia You laughed and laughed and laughed `` You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed '' is a poem by Nigerian writer Gabriel Okara . One of the most popular in his oeuvre , it is a frequent feature of anthologies , such as A New Book of African Verse edited by John Reed and Clive Wake ( Heinemann African Writers Series , 1985 ) . `` The piece belongs with the best of Senghor 's nostalgic verse , '' wrote Michael Echeruo in a tribute to Brutus on the occasion of his seventieth birthday , `` with the militancy of many of David Diop 's lyrics , and certainly with J.P. Clark 's ' Ivbie ' , another of my favorite African poems . Okara 's poem is more relaxed than these , however , more ironic , less tortured . In some ways , of course , it is less urgent , less strident , less involved . If Clark 's ' Ivbie ' was complex and for good reason , You laughed , and laughed , and laughed seemed also appropriately straightforward : proud without arrogance , hurting without showing it , and blunt without rudeness . '' The first of Okara 's poems that it was Echeruo 's pleasure to read , it was also in his opinion the most enduring . The poem is sometimes wrongly attributed to Dennis Brutus . Contents ( hide ) 1 Synopsis 2 Poem 3 References 4 Further reading Synopsis ( edit ) Gabriel Okara 's poem consists of 10 stanzas and describes the interplay of different interpretations of the same sounds , sights , and dances . The interaction that takes place within the poem is commonly thought to be between a white colonialist and an African native . The poem follows a trope in African literature of `` The White Man Laughed '' , which embodies the notion of dismay and cynical derision of the beliefs , practices , and norms of an African . However , Okara 's poem can be seen to transcend the acceptance of the derision of the White Man and present a wiser African intellectual . The poem concludes with the African teaching the White Man of his ignorance and helping him realize that the native beliefs of the African are not primitive nor removed from intellectual thought . As summarized by Pushpa Naidu Parekh , `` In ' You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed , ' the colonizer 's mockery and contemptuous disparagement of indigenous African culture and worldview are confronted and ultimately silenced by the warmth of the native 's ' fire ' laughter . '' Poem ( edit ) You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed In your ears my song is motor car misfiring stopping with a choking cough ; and you laughed and laughed and laughed . In your eyes my ante - natal walk was inhuman , passing your `` omnivorous understanding '' and you laughed and laughed and laughed You laughed at my song , you laughed at my walk . Then I danced my magic dance to the rhythm of talking drums pleading , but you shut your eyes and laughed and laughed and laughed And then I opened my mystic inside wide like the sky , instead you entered your car and laughed and laughed and laughed You laughed at my dance , you laughed at my inside . You laughed and laughed and laughed . But your laughter was ice - block laughter and it froze your inside froze your voice froze your ears froze your eyes and froze your tongue . And now it 's my turn to laugh ; but my laughter is not ice - block laughter . For I know not cars , know not ice - blocks . My laughter is the fire of the eye of the sky , the fire of the earth , the fire of the air , the fie of the seas and the rivers fishes animals trees and it thawed your inside , thawed your voice , thawed your ears , thawed your eyes and thawed your tongue . So a meek wonder held your shadow and you whispered ; `` Why so ? '' And I answered : `` Because my fathers and I are owned by the living warmth of the earth through our naked feet . '' `` You Laughed And laughed And Laughed Gabriel Okara '' . The African Book Review . 9 May 2014 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` You Laughed And laughed And Laughed Dennis Brutus '' . The African Book Review . 9 May 2014 . Retrieved 18 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Echeruo 1992 , p. 454 . Jump up ^ `` You Laughed And laughed And Laughed '' at The African Book Review , 9 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Azuonye , Chukwuma . `` ' The White Man Laughs ' : Commentary on the Satiric Dramatic Monologues of Gabriel Okara '' . Africana Studies Faculty Publication Series . Jump up ^ Pushpa Naidu Parekh , `` Gabriel Okara '' in Pushpa Naidu Parekh and Siga Fatima Jagne ( eds ) , Postcolonial African Writers : A Bio-bibliographical Critical Sourcebook , Westport , Connecticute : Greenwood Press , pp. 353 -- 354 . Further reading ( edit ) Echeruo , Michael J.C. , `` Gabriel Okara : a Poet and His Seasons '' , World Literature Today , 1992 : 454 - 456 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=You_Laughed_and_Laughed_and_Laughed&oldid=779299207 '' Categories : Postcolonial literature Poetry by Gabriel Okara Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 8 May 2017 , at 03 : 30 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

2298825359780396174

who sings at the beginning of nice for what

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Nice_for_What&oldid=843528211

Nice for What - wikipedia Nice for What Jump to : navigation , search `` Nice for What '' Single by Drake Released April 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 06 ) Format Digital download Genre Hip hop bounce Length 3 : 30 Label Young Money Cash Money Songwriter ( s ) Aubrey Graham Shane Lindstrom Alan Bergman Marilyn Bergman Dennis Coles Robert Diggs Gary E. Grice Marvin Hamlisch Lamont Hawkins Lauryn Hill Jason Hunter Russell Jones Clifford Smith Corey Woods Orville Hall Phillip Price Producer ( s ) Murda Beatz Blaqnmild ( co. ) Noah `` 40 '' Shebib ( add. ) Corey Litwin ( add . ) Drake singles chronology `` Walk It Talk It '' ( 2018 ) `` Nice for What '' ( 2018 ) `` Yes Indeed '' ( 2018 ) Music video `` Nice for What '' on YouTube `` Nice for What '' is a song recorded by Canadian rapper Drake . It was released by Young Money Entertainment and Cash Money Records on April 6 , 2018 , along with its music video . The song was produced by Murda Beatz with co-production handled by Blaqnmild , and features additional vocals by Big Freedia and 5th Ward Weebie . It debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , replacing Drake 's own `` God 's Plan '' and becoming his fifth US number one . It also debuted atop the UK Singles Chart , becoming his second number - one song of 2018 in the country after `` God 's Plan '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Composition 3 Music video 4 Critical reception 5 Commercial performance 6 Credits and personnel 7 Charts 8 Certifications 9 Release history 10 References Background ( edit ) On March 14 , 2018 , Lauryn Hill 's son Joshua Omaru Marley posted a snippet of the song on Snapchat . Drake later confirmed an upcoming Murda Beatz - produced single during an Instagram Live session . On April 5 , Drake made a surprise appearance during a Majid Jordan concert in Toronto . `` The reason I 'm here tonight is because I 'm back in the city finishing my album , '' he told the audience . `` I 've got a new single dropping tomorrow night , too , just in case you got some free time . '' Composition ( edit ) Musically , `` Nice for What '' is an upbeat hip hop and bounce song that contains elements of early 2000s R&B , with a length of three minutes thirty seconds . It samples Lauryn Hill 's song `` Ex-Factor '' ( 1998 ) , `` Drag Rap '' by the Showboys ( 1986 ) , `` Get Your Roll On '' by Big Tymers ( 2000 ) , and also features clips from performances by Big Freedia . Lyrically , the hook of Drake 's song samples Lauryn Hill singing about `` cutting loose in the midst of a relationship '' . Music video ( edit ) Directed by Karena Evans , the accompanying music video focuses on women carrying out various activities , including swimming , dancing , modeling and riding horses . It features guest appearances from , in order of appearance , Olivia Wilde , Misty Copeland , Issa Rae , Rashida Jones , Jourdan Dunn , Tracee Ellis Ross , Tiffany Haddish , Yara Shahidi , Zoe Saldana , Elizabeth and Victoria Lejonhjärta , Letitia Wright , Bria Vinaite , Emma Roberts , Syd , Michelle Rodriguez and Drake himself . Evans called it an honour to work on the video , writing on Instagram that it was `` a privilege and a blessing to have told this story with every single one of you revolutionary women , both in front and behind the camera '' . Critical reception ( edit ) `` Nice for What '' received positive reviews from music critics , with many praising its promotion of female empowerment . Hugh McIntyre of Forbes regarded the `` perfectly - pitched '' song as `` another perfect delivery from the biggest artist in hip - hop '' , writing that the `` vocal sample helps the track stand out from much of the rest of his discography '' . Kevin Lozano of Pitchfork awarded the song `` Best New Track '' , praising Drake for `` smoothly handling the impeccable production from Murda Beatz '' , and lauding the song as `` a fantastic piece of hip - hop machinery '' and `` one of Drake 's most complete releases in some time '' . Chris DeVille of Stereogum deemed the song `` a big , brash , almost obnoxiously loud New Orleans bounce - inspired production '' , describing it as `` extremely poppy and sounds like a bid for continued commercial dominance '' . Commercial performance ( edit ) In the United States , Drake became the first artist to have a new number - one debut replace his former number - one debut ( `` God 's Plan '' ) at the top of the Hot 100 . It debuted with 88,000 downloads sold and 60.4 million streams . `` Nice for What '' became the 30th song in Billboard history to enter at number one . It also became Drake 's fifth US number - one song overall and third as a lead artist . The song also became the first song to debut on the Mainstream R&B / Hip - Hop chart in the top 10 . `` Nice for What '' topped the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks before it was dethroned on May 14 , 2018 by Childish Gambino 's `` This Is America '' . It then returned for a fifth non-consecutive week at the number one spot on the issue date June 2 , 2018 . Credits and personnel ( edit ) Credits adapted from Tidal and Qobuz . Murda Beatz -- production Blaqnmild -- co-production Noah `` 40 '' Shebib -- additional production Corey Litwin -- additional production 5thward Weebie -- additional vocals Big Freedia -- additional vocals Karena Evans -- video director Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2018 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 6 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 20 Belgium ( Ultratip Wallonia ) 6 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) Czech Republic ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) 23 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) 13 France ( SNEP ) 28 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 9 Hungary ( Single Top 40 ) 29 Hungary ( Stream Top 40 ) 11 Ireland ( IRMA ) Italy ( FIMI ) 53 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 6 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Norway ( VG - lista ) 5 Portugal ( AFP ) 7 Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) 10 Slovakia ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) 13 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) 62 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 7 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) UK R&B ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 US Dance Club Songs ( Billboard ) 31 US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ( Billboard ) US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) 20 US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) Gold 35,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) 2 × Platinum 160,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Gold 15,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Gold 400,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Ref . Various April 6 , 2018 Digital download Young Money Cash Money United States April 10 , 2018 Rhythmic contemporary radio Young Money Cash Money Republic References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Trust , Gary ( April 16 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Dethrones Himself Atop Hot 100 , as ' Nice for What ' Debuts at No. 1 , Replacing ' God 's Plan ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 17 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved April 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Listen to a Snippet of a Drake and Lauryn Hill Collaboration '' . Rap - Up . March 14 , 2018 . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Mojica , Nick ( March 22 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Confirms New Single on the Way Is Produced by Murda Beatz '' . XXL . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Wicks , Amanda ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Says He 's Releasing a New Song Tomorrow '' . Pitchfork . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Thiessen , Brock ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Is Releasing a New Single Friday Night '' . Exclaim ! . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Robles , Jonathan ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` New Drake Song Is Coming Very , Very Soon '' . Variance . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Rolli , Bryan ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Confirms He 's Finishing New Album , Drops ' Nice For What ' Song / Video '' . Forbes . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Jones , Abby ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Says He 's Dropping a New Single Tonight '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Aswad , Jem ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Says He 's Dropping a New Song Tonight ( Video ) '' . Variety . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Grant , Teddy ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Announces He 's Dropping New Single Tonight '' . Ebony . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Peters , Mitchell ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Drops New Lauryn Hill - Sampling Song and Video ' Nice For What ' : Watch '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Lozano , Kevin ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` '' Nice for What '' by Drake Review `` . Pitchfork . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Johnson , Cherise ( April 8 , 2018 ) . `` Hip Hop Week In Review : Cardi B 's Debut LP , Drake 's Bounce Song & Tupac 's Liner Notes '' . HipHopDX . Retrieved April 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Peters , Micah ( April 9 , 2018 ) . `` '' Nice for What '' Is Another Inevitable Victory for Drake `` . The Ringer . Retrieved April 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Ting , Jasmine ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Does Everything Right in ' Nice For What ' '' . Paper . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Nice For What / Drake TIDAL '' . Tidal . Retrieved April 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Hussein , Wandera ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Legendary New Orleans bounce producer BlaqNmilD talks co-producing `` Nice For What '' `` . The Fader . Retrieved April 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Welsh , April ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Watch the star - studded video for Drake 's new song ' Nice For What ' '' . Fact . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Carmichael , Rodney ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Bounces , Looking To Uplift Single Women As They Drop It Low '' . WPSU . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Arcand , Rob ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Video : Drake -- `` Nice For What '' `` . Spin . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : McIntyre , Hugh ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Drake Drops Energetic New Single ' Nice For What ' '' . Forbes . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Maicki , Salvatore ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` A breakdown of all the cameos in Drake 's `` Nice For What '' video `` . The Fader . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kreps , Daniel ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Watch Drake 's Star - Studded Video for New Song ' Nice for What ' '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Young , Alex ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake drops new single `` Nice For What '' and all - star video : Watch `` . Consequence of Sound . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Hall , Gerrad ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Olivia Wilde , Tiffany Haddish , Issa Rae , more powerful women star in Drake 's ' Nice for What ' video '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Blais - Billie , Braudie ; Wicks , Amanda ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake 's New `` Nice for What '' Video Stars Issa Rae , Olivia Wilde , Rashida Jones : Watch `` . Pitchfork . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Saad , Nardine ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake lauds celebrity girl squad in new ' Nice for What ' video '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Chaplain , Chloe ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake ' Nice For What ' track praised for promoting female empowerment '' . London Evening Standard . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Mapstone , Lucy ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake praised for empowering women with star - studded new video '' . Irish Independent . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ DeVille , Chris ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` Drake -- `` Nice For What '' Video `` . Stereogum . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Anderson , Trevor . `` Drake 's ' Nice for What ' Marks First - Ever Top 10 Debut on Mainstream R&B / Hip - Hop Chart '' . Billboard . Retrieved 18 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary . `` Drake 's ' Nice for What ' No. 1 on Billboard Hot 100 , Post Malone 's ' Psycho ' No. 2 & Camila Cabello 's ' Never Be the Same ' Hits Top 10 '' . Billboard . Archived from the original on May 7 , 2018 . Retrieved 8 May 2018 . Jump up ^ McIntyre , Hugh . `` Camila Cabello and Post Malone Chart New Top 10 Hits While Drake Rules Again '' . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 7 , 2018 . Retrieved May 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Childish Gambino 's ' This Is America ' Blasts in at No. 1 on Billboard Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Drake 's ' Nice for What ' Returns to No. 1 on Billboard Hot 100 , Lil Baby , Ella Mai & BTS Earn First Top 10s '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Nice for What - Drake '' . Qobuz . Retrieved April 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Drake -- Nice for What '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved April 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Drake -- Nice for What '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved April 25 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Drake -- Nice for What '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved April 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Drake -- Nice for What '' ( in French ) . 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Drake songs Discography Comeback Season `` Replacement Girl '' So Far Gone `` Successful '' `` Best I Ever Had '' `` I 'm Goin ' In '' We Are Young Money `` Every Girl '' `` BedRock '' Thank Me Later `` Fireworks '' `` Over '' `` Up All Night '' `` Fancy '' `` Miss Me '' `` Find Your Love '' `` 9AM in Dallas '' Take Care `` Over My Dead Body '' `` Headlines '' `` Crew Love '' `` Take Care '' `` Marvins Room '' `` We 'll Be Fine '' `` Make Me Proud '' `` Lord Knows '' `` HYFR ( Hell Ya Fucking Right ) '' `` The Motto '' Nothing Was the Same `` Tuscan Leather '' `` Furthest Thing '' `` Started from the Bottom '' `` Wu - Tang Forever '' `` Worst Behavior '' `` From Time '' `` Hold On , We 're Going Home '' `` The Language '' `` Too Much '' `` Pound Cake / Paris Morton Music 2 '' `` All Me '' If You 're Reading This It 's Too Late `` Energy '' `` Preach '' What a Time to Be Alive `` Jumpman '' Views `` Controlla '' `` One Dance '' `` Pop Style '' `` Too Good '' `` Hotline Bling '' More Life `` Free Smoke '' `` No Long Talk '' `` Passionfruit '' `` Get It Together '' `` Madiba Riddim '' `` Blem '' `` Gyalchester '' `` Portland '' `` Sacrifices '' `` Teenage Fever '' `` KMT '' `` Glow '' `` Since Way Back '' `` Fake Love '' `` Ice Melts '' Scary Hours / Scorpion `` God 's Plan '' `` Diplomatic Immunity '' `` Nice for What '' Other singles `` Forever '' `` 0 to 100 / The Catch Up '' `` Charged Up '' `` Back to Back '' `` Right Hand '' `` Summer Sixteen '' `` Sneakin ' '' `` Two Birds , One Stone '' `` No Frauds '' `` Signs '' `` Yes Indeed '' As featured artist `` 100 '' `` 4 My Town ( Play Ball ) '' `` Amen '' `` Aston Martin Music '' `` Back on Road '' `` Believe Me '' `` Big Amount '' `` Blessings '' `` Both '' `` Cabaret '' `` Champion '' `` Come and See Me '' `` Come Closer '' `` Deuces ( Remix ) '' `` Diced Pineapples '' `` Digital Girl ( Remix ) '' `` Enough Said '' `` Fall for Your Type '' `` Fed Up '' `` Feel Love '' `` For Free '' `` Fuckin ' Problems '' `` Gonorrhea '' `` I Do It '' `` I Invented Sex '' `` I 'm on One '' `` In the Morning '' `` It 's Good '' `` Know Bout Me '' `` Lemon ( Remix ) '' `` Live For '' `` Look Alive '' `` Love Me '' `` Loving You No More '' `` Mine '' `` Moment 4 Life '' `` Money to Blow '' `` Mr. Wrong '' `` No Complaints '' `` No Guns Allowed '' `` No Lie '' `` No New Friends '' `` No Shopping '' `` Odio '' `` Only '' `` Poetic Justice '' `` Pop That '' `` R.I.C.O. '' `` Recognize '' `` Right Above It '' `` Right Here '' `` Round of Applause '' `` Say Something '' `` She Will '' `` Stay Schemin ' '' `` Still Got It '' `` The One '' `` The Zone '' `` Throw It in the Bag ( Remix ) '' `` To the Max '' `` Trophies '' `` Truffle Butter '' `` Tuesday '' `` Un-Thinkable ( I 'm Ready ) ( Remix ) '' `` Unusual '' `` Used to This '' `` Walk It Talk It '' `` Wavin ' Flag ( Haiti Mix ) '' `` We in This Bitch 1.5 '' `` What 's My Name ? '' `` What Up '' `` Where Ya At '' `` Who Do You Love ? '' `` Why You Always Hatin ? '' `` Work '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nice_for_What&oldid=843528211 '' Categories : 2018 songs 2018 singles Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles Canadian Hot 100 number - one singles Drake ( musician ) songs Number - one singles in Australia Songs written by Drake ( musician ) Songs written by Raekwon Songs written by Marvin Hamlisch Songs written by RZA Songs written by Method Man Songs written by Lauryn Hill Songs written by Ghostface Killah Song recordings produced by Murda Beatz Cash Money Records singles UK Singles Chart number - one singles Young Money Entertainment singles UK R&B Singles Chart number - one singles Hidden categories : CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Tip Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Czechdigital Singlechart called without artist Singlechart usages for Finland Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Hungarysingle Singlechart usages for Hungarystream Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for Portugal Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart usages for Slovakdigital Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart making named ref Singlechart usages for UKrandb Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceclubplay Singlechart usages for Billboardrandbhiphop Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrhythmic Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Talk Views Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018 , at 18 : 42 . 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where are the falls in marble falls texas

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Marble_Falls,_Texas&oldid=826375490

Marble Falls , Texas - wikipedia Marble Falls , Texas Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Marble Falls , Texas City Hill view of Marble Falls , 2007 Nickname ( s ) : Marble Motto ( s ) : `` Lakeside Charm with Downtown Flair '' Location of Marble Falls , Texas Coordinates : 30 ° 34 ′ N 98 ° 17 ′ W  /  30.567 ° N 98.283 ° W  / 30.567 ; - 98.283 Coordinates : 30 ° 34 ′ N 98 ° 17 ′ W  /  30.567 ° N 98.283 ° W  / 30.567 ; - 98.283 Country United States State Texas County Burnet Area Total 12.2 sq mi ( 31.6 km ) Land 11.6 sq mi ( 30.0 km ) Water 0.6 sq mi ( 1.6 km ) Elevation 823 ft ( 251 m ) Population ( 2010 ) Total 6,077 Density 525 / sq mi ( 202.8 / km ) Time zone Central ( CST ) ( UTC - 6 ) Summer ( DST ) CDT ( UTC - 5 ) ZIP codes 78654 , 78657 Area code ( s ) 830 FIPS code 48 - 46584 GNIS feature ID 1362162 Website ci.marble-falls.tx.us Marble Falls is a city in Burnet County , Texas , United States . As of the 2016 United States Census , the city population was 7,154 . It is about 58 miles ( 93 km ) northwest of downtown Austin and 85 miles ( 137 km ) north of San Antonio . Lake Marble Falls is part of the Highland Lakes on the Colorado River , the largest chain of lakes in Texas . It hosts one of the largest drag boat races in the United States each August . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Geography 3 Demographics 4 Notable people 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) Marble Falls was founded in 1887 by Adam Rankin Johnson , a former Indian fighter and Confederate general , known as `` Stovepipe '' Johnson for his Civil War escapades , which included duping the Union army in Newburgh , Indiana , with fake `` cannons , '' constructed from stovepipes and wagon wheels . Johnson had viewed the natural Marble Falls during his pre-war days as a Burnet County surveyor , and had dreamed of building an industrial city , powered by the tumbling Colorado River , not to be confused with the river of the same name in Colorado and Arizona . Despite a `` friendly fire '' incident which blinded him near the end of the Civil War , General Johnson followed through with his dream , facilitating the construction of a railroad to nearby Granite Mountain in 1884 , then ( with ten partners , including one son , one nephew and two sons - in - law ) platting the townsite and selling lots , beginning July 12 , 1887 . Johnson built a fine home , a college ( soon to be home of the `` Falls on the Colorado Museum '' ) and a large factory near the falls . The town grew to a population of 1,800 within ten years . Marble Falls made history in 1917 by electing Ophelia Crosby `` Birdie '' Harwood as the nation 's first woman mayor , three years before women were allowed to vote . When the Max Starcke Dam was completed in 1951 , the marble falls which had given the town its name were submerged under the new Lake Marble Falls . While the town 's economy struggled through the drought of the 1950s , a new economy based on tourism and retirement began to grow in the 1970s . During the last thirty years , Marble Falls has grown into the retail and entertainment center for the Highland Lakes area , and continues to attract tourists , retirees and new businesses . Geography ( edit ) Marble Falls is located in southern Burnet County at 30 ° 34 ′ N 98 ° 17 ′ W  /  30.567 ° N 98.283 ° W  / 30.567 ; - 98.283 ( 30.5741 , - 98.2782 ) , on the banks of Lake Marble Falls . According to the Handbook of Texas website , the former falls were flooded by the lake , which was created by a shelf of limestone running diagonally across the Colorado River from northeast to southwest . The upper layer of limestone , brownish on the exterior but a deep blue inside , was so hard and cherty it was mistaken for marble . The falls were actually three distinct formations at the head of a canyon 1.25 miles ( 2.01 km ) long , with a drop of some 50 feet ( 15 m ) through the limestone strata . The natural lake and waterfall were covered when the Colorado River was dammed with the completion of Max Starcke Dam in 1951 . A photo of the falls as they once existed can be seen at the website for the Wallace Guest House , a local bed and breakfast . Lake Marble Falls sits between Lake Lyndon B. Johnson to the north and Lake Travis to the south . The falls for which the city is named are now underwater but are revealed every few years when the lake is lowered . Equally noteworthy is the huge igneous batholith called Granite Mountain looming on the town 's western edge that secured Marble Falls ' place in Texas history . The famed pink granite was used for the construction of the Texas State Capitol and other state government office buildings , and can also be found in the Galveston Seawall and Austin -- Bergstrom International Airport . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 12.2 square miles ( 31.6 km ) , of which 11.6 square miles ( 30.0 km ) is land and 0.62 square miles ( 1.6 km ) , or 5.21 % , is water . Demographics ( edit ) Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1890 587 -- 1910 1,061 -- 1920 630 − 40.6 % 1930 865 37.3 % 1940 1,021 18.0 % 1950 2,044 100.2 % 1960 2,161 5.7 % 1970 2,209 2.2 % 1980 3,252 47.2 % 4,007 23.2 % 2000 4,959 23.8 % 6,077 22.5 % Est. 2016 6,317 3.9 % U.S. Decennial Census As of the census of 2010 , there were 6,077 people , 2,486 households , and 1,542 families residing in the city . There were 28,235 housing units . The racial makeup of the city was 83.1 % White , 3.9 % African American , 0.7 % Native American , 0.8 % Asian , 9.1 % from other races , and 2.4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 24.2 % of the population . There were 2,486 households out of which 29.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 42 % were married couples living together , 14.6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 38 % were non-families . The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.08 . Marble Falls , as of December 1 , 2009 , is the anchor of the Marble Falls , TX Micropolitan Statistical Area . The census bureau has defined this area as including all of Burnet County and has a total population of 42,896 . The micropolitan area , due to close ties to nearby Austin , is a component of the Austin - Round Rock - Marble Falls , TX Consolidated Statistical Area . Notable people ( edit ) Gerald Lyda ( 1923 -- 2005 ) , general contractor and cattle rancher , born and raised in Marble Falls Leonel Manzano , silver medal winner in the 1500m at the 2012 London Olympics , NCAA 1500m Champion , member of the USA 2008 Beijing Olympic Team and the USA 2012 London Olympic Team John Arthur Martinez , second - place winner on USA Network 's Nashville Star , taught English and tennis at Marble Falls High School . Gallery ( edit ) Marble Falls City Hall , 2011 Marble Falls Public Library , 2011 The Uptown Theater in downtown Marble Falls , 2011 Texas Ranch to Market Road 1431 in Marble Falls extends westward , 2011 See also ( edit ) Marble Falls Independent School District Texas Tech University at Highland Lakes Central Texas College - Marble Falls References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` American FactFinder '' . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` US Board on Geographic Names '' . United States Geological Survey . 2007 - 10 - 25 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31 . ^ Jump up to : `` Geographic Identifiers : 2010 Demographic Profile Data ( G001 ) : Marble Falls city , Texas '' . U.S. Census Bureau , American Factfinder . Retrieved April 23 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome to the City of Marble Falls '' . Ci.marble-falls.tx.us. 1907 - 05 - 18 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 02 - 17 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ http://www.marblefallslakefest.com/event.html Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2012 - 06 - 10 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 03 - 16 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Marble Falls community information and history '' . Marblefalls.info . Archived from the original on 2009 - 03 - 21 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` US Gazetteer files : 2010 , 2000 , and 1990 '' . United States Census Bureau . 2011 - 02 - 12 . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 23 . Jump up ^ Wallace Guest House Jump up ^ History of Granite Mountain Archived December 20 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Population and Housing Unit Estimates '' . Retrieved June 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Census of Population and Housing '' . Census.gov . Retrieved June 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/assets/bulletins/b10-02.pdf Jump up ^ `` La Escalera Ranch - The Legacy - Gerald Lyda '' . Escalera.us . Archived from the original on 2009 - 10 - 29 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 09 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marble Falls , Texas . City of Marble Falls official website Marble Falls , Texas from the Handbook of Texas Online Marble Falls / Lake LBJ Chamber of Commerce The Highlander , Marble Falls newspaper Granite Mountain article Municipalities and communities of Burnet County , Texas , United States County seat : Burnet Cities Bertram Burnet Cottonwood Shores Granite Shoals Highland Haven Horseshoe Bay ‡ Marble Falls Meadowlakes Unincorporated communities Bethel Briggs Joppa Lake Victor Mormon Mill Oakalla Oatmeal Pleasant Hill Sage Smithwick Spicewood Footnotes ‡ This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties Austin -- Round Rock -- San Marcos Central city Austin Satellite cities Cedar Park Georgetown Pflugerville Round Rock San Marcos Other communities Bastrop Buda Burnet Elgin Hudson Bend Hutto Jollyville Kyle Lago Vista Leander Lakeway Lockhart Lost Creek Luling Manor Marble Falls Taylor Smithville Wells Branch West Lake Hills Wimberley Windemere Wyldwood Counties MSA / CSA Bastrop Burnet Caldwell Hays Travis Williamson Outlying Blanco Burleson Colorado Fayette Gillespie Lee Llano Milam Washington Parks and preserves Balcones Canyonlands Bastrop Emma Long Enchanted Rock Hippie Hollow Indiangrass Longhorn Cavern McKinney Falls Mount Bonnell Onion Creek Pedernales Falls John Stokes Wild Basin Zilker Geography Austin Chalk Balcones Fault Edwards Aquifer Edwards Plateau Highland Lakes Hill Country Llano Uplift Bodies of water Barton Creek Barton Springs Colorado River Granger Lake Lady Bird Lake Lake Austin Lake Georgetown Lake Marble Falls Lake Travis Lake Walter E. Long Pedernales River San Gabriel River San Marcos River Transportation Capital Area Rural Transportation System State of Texas Austin ( capital ) Topics Architecture Climate Cuisine Geography Government Healthcare History Languages Law Literature Media Newspapers Radio TV National Historic Landmarks Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks National Register of Historic Places Sites Sports Symbols Texans Tourist attractions Transportation Seal of Texas Society Culture Crime Demographics Economy Education Gambling Politics Regions Ark ‐ La ‐ Tex Big Bend Blackland Prairies Brazos Valley Central Texas Coastal Bend Concho Valley Cross Timbers Deep East Texas East Texas Edwards Plateau Golden Triangle Hill Country Llano Estacado Northeast Texas North Texas Osage Plains Panhandle Permian Basin Piney Woods Rio Grande Valley Southeast Texas South Plains South Texas Texoma Trans - Pecos West Texas Metropolitan areas Abilene Amarillo Austin -- Round Rock Beaumont -- Port Arthur Brownsville -- Harlingen College Station -- Bryan Corpus Christi Dallas -- Fort Worth -- Arlington El Paso Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land Killeen -- Temple Laredo Longview Lubbock McAllen -- Edinburg -- Mission Midland Odessa San Angelo San Antonio -- New Braunfels Sherman -- Denison Texarkana Tyler Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Counties See : List of counties in Texas Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marble_Falls,_Texas&oldid=826375490 '' Categories : Cities in Texas Cities in Burnet County , Texas Populated places established in 1887 1887 establishments in Texas Hidden categories : CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links Articles needing additional references from September 2007 All articles needing additional references Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Bân - lâm - gú Català Cebuano Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Italiano Kreyòl ayisyen Nederlands Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tiếng Việt Volapük Edit links This page was last edited on 18 February 2018 , at 19 : 40 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what were harry patch lasting views on war

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Harry_Patch&oldid=809874177

Harry Patch - wikipedia Harry Patch Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Harry Partch . Harry John Patch Patch , aged 109 , in Prior Park Landscape Garden . Nickname ( s ) Harry Patch ( 1898 - 06 - 17 ) 17 June 1898 Combe Down , Bath , Somerset ( 2009 - 07 - 25 ) 25 July 2009 ( aged 7004405800000000000 ♠ 111 years , 38 days ) Wells , Somerset Buried St Michael 's Church , Monkton Combe Allegiance United Kingdom Service / branch British Army Years of service 1916 -- 1918 Rank Private , briefly Lance Corporal Unit 7th ( Service ) Battalion , Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry Battles / wars First World War Western Front Battle of Passchendaele Awards Officer of the Légion d'honneur Knight of the Order of Leopold British War Medal Victory Medal 1939 -- 45 Defence Medal National Service Medal Hors de combat Freedom of the City of Wells Honorary Master of Arts , Bristol Spouse ( s ) Ada Billington ( 1919 -- 1976 ; her death ) Kathleen Alice Joy `` Jean '' ( 1979 -- 1984 ; her death ) Doris Whittaker ( d . 2007 ) Other work Plumber Firefighter Henry John Patch ( 17 June 1898 -- 25 July 2009 ) , dubbed in his later years `` the Last Fighting Tommy '' , was a British supercentenarian , briefly the oldest man in Europe and the last surviving combat soldier of the First World War from any country . He is known to have fought in the trenches of the Western Front . Patch was the longest surviving combat soldier of World War I , but he was the fifth longest surviving veteran of any sort from World War I , behind British veterans Claude Choules and Florence Green , Frank Buckles of the United States and John Babcock of Canada . At the time of his death , aged 111 years , 1 month , 1 week and 1 day , Patch was the third - oldest man in the world and the oldest man in Europe . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biography 1.1 The Last Tommy 2 Medals 2.1 Ribbons 3 Death 3.1 Funeral 4 Legacy 5 See also 6 Bibliography 7 References 8 External links Biography ( edit ) Patch was born in the village of Combe Down , near Bath , Somerset , England . He appears in the 1901 Census as a two - year - old boy along with his stonemason father William John Patch , mother Elizabeth Ann ( née Morris ) and older brothers George Frederick and William Thomas at a house called `` Fonthill '' . The family are recorded at the same address `` Fonthill Cottage '' in the 1911 census . His elder brothers are recorded as a carpenter and banker mason . Longevity ran in Patch 's family ; his father lived to 82 , his mother to 94 , his brother George to 95 and his brother William to 87 . Patch left school in 1913 and became an apprentice plumber in Bath . In October 1916 , during World War I , he was conscripted into the British Army as a private , reporting for duty at Tolland Barracks , Taunton . During the winter of 1916 -- 17 he was promoted lance - corporal but was demoted after a fist fight with a soldier , who had taken his boots from his billet , and he saw no further promotion . Patch went through a series of short - lived attachments to several regiments , including the Royal Warwickshire Regiment before being posted after completing training to the 7th ( Service ) Battalion , Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry , serving as an assistant gunner in a Lewis gun section . Patch arrived in France in June 1917 . He fought on the Western Front at the Battle of Passchendaele ( also known as the Third Battle of Ypres ) and was injured in the groin , when a shell exploded overhead at 22 : 30 on 22 September 1917 , killing three of his comrades . He was removed from the front line and returned to England on 23 December 1917 . Patch referred to 22 September as his personal Remembrance Day . He was still convalescing on the Isle of Wight when the Armistice with Germany was declared the following November . When the war ended , I do n't know if I was more relieved that we 'd won or that I did n't have to go back . Passchendaele was a disastrous battle -- thousands and thousands of young lives were lost . It makes me angry . Earlier this year , I went back to Ypres to shake the hand of Charles Kuentz , Germany 's only surviving veteran from the war . It was emotional . He is 107 . We 've had 87 years to think what war is . To me , it 's a licence to go out and murder . Why should the British government call me up and take me out to a battlefield to shoot a man I never knew , whose language I could n't speak ? All those lives lost for a war finished over a table . Now what is the sense in that ? -- Harry Patch After the war , Patch returned to work as a plumber , during which time he spent four years working on the Wills Memorial Building in Bristol , before becoming manager of the plumbing company 's branch in Bristol . A year above the age to be called up for military service at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , he became a part - time fireman in Bath , dealing with the Baedeker raids . Later in the war he moved to Street , Somerset , where he ran a plumbing company until his retirement at the age of 65 . Patch married Ada Emily Billington at the Parish Church , Hadley , Shropshire on 13 September 1919 . Harry and Ada had two children . Denis Howard Patch ( 1920 - 1987 ) and Gordon Roy Patch ( 1927 - 2002 ) . Ada suffered a severe stroke in 1976 and died at Wells and District Hospital on 20 September 1976 , aged 85 . Harry married Kathleen Alice Joy ( née Weedon ) at Mendip Register Office on 5 June 1982 . Harry was 83 and Kathleen , known as Jean , was 80 . Jean died of breast cancer at St. Margaret 's Hospice , aged 87 on 18 March 1989 . Harry 's eldest son , Denis , was deeply affected by his mother 's death and began drinking heavily . Denis died at Kings College Hospital , London in 1987 of cirrhosis of the liver , aged 66 . At the age of 100 , Harry moved to Fletcher House Nursing Home . Harry found a companion in widow Doris Whitaker . Harry became estranged from his son Gordon , known as Roy following Denis ' death and they did not speak for the last twenty years of Roy 's life . Roy died of cancer in 2002 aged 75 . Harry 's partner Doris died on 19 March 2007 aged 92 . The last Tommy ( edit ) Patch had refused to discuss his war experiences , until approached in 1998 for the BBC One documentary Veterans , on reflection of which and with the realisation that he was part of a fast dwindling group of veterans of `` the war to end all wars '' . Patch was featured in the 2003 television series World War 1 in Colour and said `` if any man tells you he went over the top and he was n't scared , he 's a damn liar . '' He reflected on his lost friends and the moment when he came face to face with a German soldier . He recalled the story of Moses descending from Mount Sinai with God 's Ten Commandments , including `` Thou shalt not kill '' and could not bring himself to kill the German . Instead , he shot him in the shoulder , which made the soldier drop his rifle . However , he had to carry on running towards his Lewis Gun , so to proceed , he shot him above the knee , and in the ankle . Patch said , I had about five seconds to make the decision . I brought him down , but I did n't kill him ... Any one of them could have been me . Millions of men came to fight in this war and I find it incredible that I am the only one left . -- Commenting on graves at a Flanders war cemetery , July 2007 . In November 2004 , at the age of 106 , Patch met Charles Kuentz , a 107 - year - old Alsatian veteran , who had fought on the German side at Passchendaele ( and served on the French side in World War II ) . Patch was quoted as saying : `` I was a bit doubtful before meeting a German soldier . Herr Kuentz is a very nice gentleman however . He is all for a united Europe and peace -- and so am I '' . Kuentz had brought along a tin of Alsatian biscuits and Patch gave him a bottle of Somerset cider in return . The meeting was featured in a 2005 BBC TV programme The Last Tommy , which told the stories of several of Britain 's last World War I veterans . In December 2004 , Patch was given a present of 106 bottles of Patch 's Pride Cider , which has been named after him and produced by the Gaymer Cider Company . In the spring of 2005 he was interviewed by the Today programme , in which he said of the First World War : `` Too many died . War is n't worth one life '' and in July 2005 , Patch voiced his outrage over plans to build a motorway in northern France over cemeteries of the First World War . On 16 December 2005 , Patch was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Bristol , whose buildings he helped construct in the 1920s . The University 's newly restored Wills Memorial Building was reopened by Patch on 20 February 2008 . He was chosen for this honour as he was a member of the workforce that originally helped build the tower , which was opened on 9 June 1925 by King George V , an event which Patch also attended . In July 2007 , marking the 90th anniversary of the beginning of the Battle of Passchendaele , Patch revisited the site of the battle in Flanders , to pay his respects to the fallen on both sides . He was accompanied by an historian , Richard van Emden . On this occasion , Patch described war as the `` calculated and condoned slaughter of human beings '' and said that `` war is n't worth one life . '' In August 2007 , Patch 's autobiography The Last Fighting Tommy was published , making him one of the oldest authors ever . With the proceeds from this book , Patch decided to fund an Inshore Lifeboat for the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) and he attended the RNLI 's Lifeboat College on 20 July 2007 , to officially name the boat The Doris and Harry . In February 2008 , the poet laureate of the United Kingdom Andrew Motion , was commissioned by the BBC West television programme Inside Out West , to write a poem in Patch 's honour . Entitled `` The Five Acts of Harry Patch '' it was first read at a special event at the Bishop 's Palace in Wells , where it was introduced by the Prince of Wales and received by Harry Patch . In July 2008 , Wells City Council conferred the freedom of the city of Wells on Patch . On 27 September 2008 , in a private ceremony attended by a few people , Patch opened a memorial on the bank of the Steenbeek , at the point where he crossed the river in 1917 . The memorial reads , Here , at dawn , on 16 August 1917 , the 7th Battalion , Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry , 20th ( Light ) Division , crossed the Steenbeek prior to their successful assault on the village on Langemarck . This stone is erected to the memory of fallen comrades , and to honour the courage , sacrifice and passing of the Great War generation . It is the gift of former Private and Lewis Gunner Harry Patch , No. 29295 , C Company , 7th DCLI , the last surviving veteran to have served in the trenches of the Western Front . '' In October 2008 , Patch launched the 2008 Royal British Legion Poppy Appeal in Somerset . On 11 November 2008 , marking the 90th anniversary of the end of World War I , together with fellow veterans Henry Allingham and Bill Stone , Patch laid a commemorative wreath for the Act of Remembrance at The Cenotaph in London , escorted by Victoria Cross recipient Johnson Beharry . On 9 November 2008 , the Master of the Queen 's Music , Sir Peter Maxwell Davies attended the world premiere of his choral work paying tribute to Patch . The piece sets words by the Poet Laureate , Andrew Motion and was performed at Portsmouth Cathedral by the London Mozart Players , the Portsmouth Grammar School chamber choir and the cathedral 's choristers . The creation of the work was featured in A poem for Harry , a BBC West documentary that was subsequently repeated on BBC Four . The programme won a gold medal at the New York Festivals International Television Programming and Promotion Awards . On 18 July 2009 , with the death of Henry Allingham , Patch became the oldest surviving veteran and also the oldest man in the United Kingdom . Patch was the last trench veteran of World War I . The penultimate Western Front veteran , the 108 - year - old Fernand Goux of France , who died on 9 November 2008 , fought for 8 days . He came out unscathed , unlike Patch and the last Alpine Front veteran , 110 - year - old Delfino Borroni of Italy , who died on 26 October 2008 . Patch was also the last surviving Tommy , since the death on 4 April 2009 of Netherwood Hughes , who was still in training when the war ended . The last - but - one fighting Tommy , Harold Lawton , died on 24 December 2005 . Claude Choules , the last remaining First World War naval veteran , died on 5 May 2011 . We came across a lad from A company . He was ripped open from his shoulder to his waist by shrapnel and lying in a pool of blood . When we got to him , he said : ' Shoot me ' . He was beyond human help and , before we could draw a revolver , he was dead . And the final word he uttered was ' Mother . ' I remember that lad in particular . It 's an image that has haunted me all my life , seared into my mind . -- An extract from Patch 's book The Last Fighting Tommy which was read out at his funeral by Marie - France André , the chargé d'affaires of the Belgian embassy , August 2009 . Medals ( edit ) Harry Patch received eight medals and honours ; for his service in the First World War he received the British War Medal and the Victory Medal . In 1998 , as a surviving veteran of the First World War , who had fought for the Allies in France and Flanders , the President of the Republic of France made him a Knight of the Légion d'honneur . The award was presented to Patch on his 101st birthday . On 9 March 2009 , Patch was appointed an Officer of the Légion d'honneur by the French Ambassador at his nursing home in Somerset . On 7 January 2008 , Albert II , King of the Belgians , conferred upon Patch the award of Knight of the Order of Leopold . He received the award from Jean - Michel Veranneman de Watervliet , Belgium 's Ambassador to the United Kingdom , at a ceremony in the Ambassador 's residence in London , on 22 September 2008 , which coincidentally was the 91st anniversary of the day he was wounded in action and three of his closest friends killed . For service during the Second World War , Patch was awarded the 1939 -- 45 Defence Medal . This was subsequently lost and on 20 September 2008 , at a ceremony at Bath Fire Station , Patch was presented with a replacement medal . Patch also received two commemorative medals : the National Service Medal and the Hors de combat medal , which signifies outstanding bravery of servicemen and women , who have sustained wounds or injury in the line of duty . The medals are unofficial and not a part of the official order of wear in any Commonwealth realm . In accordance with his wishes , Harry Patch 's medals are displayed at the Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry Museum in Bodmin . Ribbons ( edit ) Death ( edit ) Patch died at 9 a.m. on 25 July 2009 , aged 111 years , one month , one week and one day . Harry 's death came seven days after that of fellow veteran Henry Allingham , the last veteran of The Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) and founder member of The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , aged 113 . The Prince of Wales led the tributes to him , saying : `` Today , nothing could give me greater pride than paying tribute to Harry Patch , of Somerset . '' Patch was the last male First World War veteran living in Europe and the last British male known to have been born in the 1890s . Funeral ( edit ) Harry Patch 's funeral procession Patch 's funeral was held in Wells Cathedral on Thursday 6 August 2009 . At 11.00 a.m. , the bells of Wells Cathedral were rung 111 times to mark each year of his life . A quarter peal of Grandsire Caters was also rung , half muffled , while quarter - peals were also rung in Bristol and at several churches around the country . His coffin travelled from his home , Fletcher House , to the cathedral where the service commenced at noon . The theme of the service was `` Peace and Reconciliation '' and in addition to pallbearers from The Rifles ( the successor regiment to the Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry ) , Patch 's coffin was accompanied by two private soldiers from each of the armies of Belgium , France and Germany . In accordance with Patch 's instructions , no guns were allowed at the funeral and even the officiating soldiers did not have their ceremonial weapons . Due to public interest in the funeral , which was broadcast live on TV and radio , 1,050 tickets were made available for the service . Some , wanting to pay their respects , slept overnight on the Cathedral green in order to get tickets . The funeral was led by the Dean of Wells , The Very Revd John Clarke and the Bishop of Taunton , The Rt Revd Peter David Maurice . Among notables to attend the funeral were The Duchess of Cornwall and The Duchess of Gloucester . Patch was buried at St Michael 's Church , Monkton Combe , near his parents and brother . Legacy ( edit ) Race horse trainer and owner Michael Jarvis named a horse after Patch in 2008 . Having bought the horse in October 2007 , during that year 's Poppy Appeal , the Newmarket trainer decided to name him after a First World War veteran . Michael 's daughter suggested Patch after reading an article about him . The horse won the 1.30 at Doncaster racecourse on 8 November 2008 , the day before Remembrance Sunday . A commemorative plaque in Patch 's memory is to be placed on the Guildhall in Bath . Band Radiohead , pays tribute to the legacy of Harry John Patch with single Harry Patch ( In Memory Of ) The BBC commissioned Carol Ann Duffy , the Poet Laureate , to write a poem to mark the deaths of Patch and Henry Allingham ( who died one week before Patch , on 18 July 2009 ) . The result , Last Post , was read by Duffy on the Today programme on BBC Radio 4 on 30 July 2009 , the day of Allingham 's funeral . On 5 August 2009 , Radiohead released the song `` Harry Patch ( In Memory Of ) '' and lead singer Thom Yorke explained that the song was inspired by `` a very emotional interview with him '' in 2005 , on the Today programme on BBC Radio 4 . The song was sold direct from Radiohead 's website for £ 1 , with proceeds donated to the British Legion . The commemorative nameplate on GWR HST Power Car no . 43172 stands under grey skies at Newton Abbot . In early summer 2009 , Harry recorded some spoken word parts for UK heavy metal band Imperial Vengeance , to be included on the title track to the album At the Going Down of the Sun . The song was about the horrors of the trenches and Patch read part of the poem For the Fallen . The former UK Poet Laureate , Andrew Motion composed a poem , The Death of Harry Patch , which he read for the first time on The World at One Radio 4 programme on Armistice Day 2010 . On 6 November 2015 Great Western Railway named one of their Class 43 High Speed locomotives after Harry to commemorate the forthcoming armistice day . The locomotive was wrapped in remembrance vinyls that included images of poppies , soldiers , and text from the ' For the Fallen ' poem by Laurence Binyon . The locomotive nameplates read : ' Harry Patch The last survivor of the trenches ' and included a coloured line of all eight ribbons from the medals awarded to Patch . See also ( edit ) List of British supercentenarians List of the verified oldest men List of last surviving World War I veterans Bibliography ( edit ) Patch , Harry ; Van Emden , Richard ( August 2007 ) . The Last Fighting Tommy : The Life of Harry Patch , the Oldest Surviving Veteran of the Trenches . Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7475 - 9115 - 3 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` WWI veteran Patch dies aged 111 '' . BBC News . 25 July 2009 . Retrieved 5 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Last Living Veterans '' . First World War in the News . Retrieved 9 July 2014 . Jump up ^ See General Register Office indices for quarter ending September 1886 ; `` Index entry for marriage of Patch , William John -- Bath 5c 887 '' . FreeBMD . FreeBMD / Office for National Statistics . Retrieved 14 March 2010 . and `` Index entry for marriage of Morris , Elizabeth Ann -- Bath 5c 887 '' . FreeBMD . FreeBMD / Office for National Statistics . Retrieved 14 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Piece details RG 14 / 14687 , General Register Office : 1911 Census Schedules , Registration Sub-District : Bathwick -- Civil Parish , Township or Place : Monkton Combe ( part ) -- RD 316 RS 2 ED 6 , The Catalogue , The National Archives . Images of census pages available by subscription on findmypast.com as reference RG14 Piece 14687 Reference RG78PN891 RD316 SD2 ED6 SN65 Jump up ^ `` Mr Henry John Patch Master of Arts '' . University of Bristol . 16 December 2005 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` WWI veteran celebrates 109 years '' , BBC News , 17 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Patch , Harry ; van Emden , Richard ( 6 August 2007 ) . The Last Fighting Tommy . Bloomsbury . pp. 62 -- 64 . ISBN 0 - 7475 - 9115 - 6 . Jump up ^ The Last Fighting Tommy . p. 64 . He recorded : `` In early 1917 we went to Sutton Veney near Warminster where I joined the 33rd Training Reserve Battalion . At this point we were n't attached to any regiment , although before we joined the 33rd I wore several different regimental cap badges , the Royal Warwickshire Regiment being one , so I must have been shifted around . '' Jump up ^ `` Private Harry Patch '' . The Telegraph . 25 July 2009 . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Obituary : Harry Patch '' . BBC News . 24 July 2009 . Retrieved 24 July 2009 . Jump up ^ The Sunday Times , 7 November 2004 ^ Jump up to : `` Obituary : Private Harry Patch '' . Daily Telegraph . London . 25 July 2009 . Retrieved 25 July 2009 . Jump up ^ The Last Fighting Tommy . pp. 163 -- 174 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Marriage Index , 1916 - 2005 '' . Ancestry.com . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Death Index , 1916 - 2007 '' . ancestry.com . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Marriage Index , 1916 - 2005 '' . ancestry.com. 1982 . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Death Index , 1916 - 2007 '' . ancestry.co.uk. 1989 . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Death Index , 1916 - 2007 '' . ancestry.co.uk. 1987 . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Death Index , 1916 - 2007 '' . ancestry.co.uk. 2002 . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` England & Wales , Civil Registration Death Index , 1916 - 2007 '' . ancestry.co.uk. 2007 . Retrieved 3 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Nigel Blundell ( 31 July 2007 ) . `` I 've never got over it '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Jump up ^ Craig , Olga ( 14 November 2004 ) . `` ' With a handshake we said more about peace than anything else ever could ' '' . Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Charles Kuentz -- Germany 's only surviving veteran of the Great War '' . The Western Front Association . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The Last Tommy Gallery '' . BBC . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Cider joy for World War I vet '' . BBC News . 22 December 2004 . Retrieved 5 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Durie , Peter ( 16 December 2005 ) . `` Mr Henry John Patch -- Master of Arts '' . University of Bristol . Retrieved 29 December 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Honour for 107 - year - old veteran '' . BBC Bristol . BBC . 16 December 2005 . Retrieved 25 September 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Harry Patch , 109 , World War I veteran , lights up city 's skyline '' . Press release . University of Bristol . 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 29 December 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Veteran , 109 , revisits World War I trench '' . BBC News . 30 July 2007 . Retrieved 5 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Daily Telegraph Review Section , 19 August 2007 , p. 28 Jump up ^ `` Joint naming ceremony in Poole on Friday '' . RNLI. 17 July 2007 . Archived from the original on 22 February 2012 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Poem honours World War I veteran aged 109 '' . BBC News . 7 March 2008 . Retrieved 7 March 2008 . Jump up ^ Motion , Andrew ( 8 March 2008 ) . `` Harry Patch : A century 's life shaped by four months at war '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on 8 March 2008 . Retrieved 8 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Freedom of Wells for Britain 's oldest soldier '' . MoD. 11 July 2008 . Archived from the original on 7 August 2009 . Retrieved 8 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Private Harry Patch No. 29295 '' . All - party Parliamentary War Graves and Battlefields Heritage Group . Retrieved 24 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` WWI veteran launches Poppy Appeal '' . BBC News . 29 October 2008 . Retrieved 29 October 2008 . Jump up ^ Kennedy , Maev ( 12 November 2008 ) . `` Last survivors of first world war salute the fallen '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 12 November 2008 . Jump up ^ `` 2009 Television Programming and Promotion awards winners credits '' ( PDF ) . New York Festivals . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Oldest WWI veteran dies aged 113 '' . BBC News . 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Last WWI combat veteran Claude Choules dies aged 110 '' . BBC News . 5 May 2011 . Retrieved 5 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Steven Morris ( 6 August 2009 ) . `` Mourners pay tribute to first world war soldier Harry Patch '' . The Guardian . London . Jump up ^ `` Medal card of Patch , Henry J and others '' ( PDF ) . DocumentsOnline . The National Archives . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` WW1 veteran receives honour award '' . BBC News . 9 March 2009 . Retrieved 9 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Bates , Stephen ( 23 September 2008 ) . `` Soldiering on at 110 : Belgium honours veteran of western front '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 23 September 2008 . Jump up ^ `` War hero Harry Patch presented with new medal '' . Bath Chronicle. 21 September 2008 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` World War I veteran 's medals go on show '' . BBC News . 12 August 2009 . Retrieved 13 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Service planned for WWI sacrifice '' . BBC News . BBC . 26 July 2009 . Retrieved 26 July 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ticket details for Patch memorial '' . BBC Somerset News . BBC . 29 July 2009 . Retrieved 28 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Performance Details -- Bath & Wells Diocesan Association -- Wells Cathedral , Somerset -- Thursday , 6 August 2009 '' . Campanophile. 6 August 2009 . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 7 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Performance Details -- Bath & Wells Diocesan Association -- Abergavenny ( Y Fenni ) , Gwent , St Mary -- Thursday , 6 August 2009 '' . Campanophile. 6 August 2009 . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 7 August 2009 . `` Performance Details -- Bath & Wells Diocesan Association -- Bath , Somerset , St Michael -- Thursday , 6 August 2009 '' . Campanophile. 6 August 2009 . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 7 August 2009 . `` Performance Details -- Dorset County Association -- Huntsham , Devon , All Saints -- Thursday , 6 August 2009 '' . Campanophile. 6 August 2009 . Archived from the original on 22 February 2016 . Retrieved 7 August 2009 . `` Performance Details -- Kingstone , Somerset , St John & All Saints -- Thursday , 6 August 2009 '' . Campanophile. 6 August 2009 . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 7 August 2009 . `` Performance Details -- Wiveliscombe , Somerset , St Andrew -- Thursday , 6 August 2009 '' . Campanophile. 6 August 2009 . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 7 August 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Harry Patch 's funeral service '' . BBC Somerset News . BBC . 5 August 2009 . Retrieved 6 August 2009 . Jump up ^ Burns , John F. ( 6 August 2009 ) . `` Thousands Mourn Britain 's Oldest Warrior '' . New York Times . Retrieved 24 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Naughton , Philippe ( 6 August 2009 ) . `` Bell tolls 111 times for Harry Patch '' . The Times . London . Retrieved 6 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Our money 's on ' Harry Patch ' to win cash for Poppy Appeal '' . Western Daily Press . 7 November 2008 . Archived from the original on 14 January 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Commemorative plaque for Harry Patch '' . Bath and North East Somerset Council . Archived from the original on 12 March 2012 . Retrieved 21 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Poems for the last of WWI '' . BBC . 6 August 2009 . Retrieved 6 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Harry Patch ( In Memory Of ) '' . Radiohead.com . Retrieved 5 August 2009 . Jump up ^ Harris , John ( 6 August 2009 ) . `` Radiohead 's farewell to old first world war soldier in song '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 6 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The good , the bad and the crosscore '' . True cult heavy metal . Retrieved 21 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Motion , Andrew ( 11 November 2010 ) . `` Armistice poem : The Death of Harry Patch '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ `` Pictures of train engine named in honour of Bath war hero and longest surviving soldier Harry Patch '' . Bath Chronicle. 9 November 2015 . External links ( edit ) Harry Patch on IMDb Harry Patch in profile and Obituary ( BBC ) Daily Telegraph Obituary Guardian Obituary BBC News report of Patch 's 108th birthday BBC News report of Patch 's 109th birthday BBC News report of Patch 's 110th birthday BBC News report of Patch 's 111th birthday In Memory of Harry Patch -- A poem by former Royal Marine Commando , Michael Browne `` Harry Patch ( In memory of ) '' by Radiohead , words inspired by an interview of Harry Patch 's . BBC Radio 4 Today programme Harry Patch at Find a Grave VIAF : 52023376 LCCN : no2007117654 ISNI : 0000 0001 1472 6513 GND : 134023625 SUDOC : 140549013 BNF : cb15794171p ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Patch&oldid=809874177 '' Categories : 1898 births 2009 deaths People from Bath , Somerset People from Wells , Somerset British Army personnel of World War I Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry soldiers English supercentenarians Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Last living survivors Hidden categories : Use British English from December 2012 Use dmy dates from December 2012 Find a Grave template with ID not in Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog Edit links This page was last edited on 12 November 2017 , at 00 : 47 . 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Ecuador - wikipedia Ecuador Not to be confused with Equator . For other uses , see Ecuador ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Coordinates : 2 ° 00 ′ S 77 ° 30 ′ W  /  2.000 ° S 77.500 ° W  / - 2.000 ; - 77.500 Republic of Ecuador República del Ecuador ( Spanish ) Flag Coat of arms Motto : `` Dios , patria y libertad '' ( Spanish ) `` Pro Deo , Patria et Libertate '' ( Latin ) `` God , homeland and freedom '' Anthem : Salve , Oh Patria ( Spanish ) Hail , Oh Homeland Location of Ecuador ( dark green ) in South America ( grey ) Capital Quito 00 ° 9 ′ S 78 ° 21 ′ W  /  0.150 ° S 78.350 ° W  / - 0.150 ; - 78.350 Largest city Guayaquil Official languages Spanish Recognized regional languages Kichwa ( Quichua ) , Shuar and others `` are in official use for indigenous peoples '' Ethnic groups ( ) 71.9 % Mestizo 7.4 % Montubio 7.2 % Afro - Ecuadorian 7 % Amerindian 6.1 % White 0.4 % others Demonym Ecuadorian Government Unitary presidential constitutional republic President Lenín Moreno Vice President María Alejandra Vicuña Legislature National Assembly Independence Declared August 10 , 1809 from Spain May 24 , 1822 from Gran Colombia May 13 , 1830 Recognized by Spain February 16 , 1840 Current constitution September 28 , 2008 Area Total 283,561 km ( 109,484 sq mi ) ( 73rd ) Water ( % ) 5 Population 2016 estimate 16,385,068 ( 65th ) 2010 census 14,483,499 Density 58.95 / km ( 152.7 / sq mi ) ( 151st ) GDP ( PPP ) 2016 estimate Total $194.845 billion Per capita $11,788 GDP ( nominal ) 2016 estimate Total $109.759 billion ( 64th ) Per capita $6,640 Gini ( 2014 ) 45.4 medium HDI ( 2015 ) 0.739 high 89th Currency United States dollar ( USD ) Time zone ECT / GALT ( UTC − 5 / − 6 ) Drives on the right Calling code + 593 ISO 3166 code EC Internet TLD . ec Including Galápagos . Sucre until 2000 , replaced by the US $ and Ecuadorian centavo coins . Ecuador ( / ˈɛkwədɔːr / ( listen ) EK - wə - dor , Spanish : ( ekwaˈðor ) ) ( Quechua : Ikwadur ) , officially the Republic of Ecuador ( Spanish : República del Ecuador , which literally translates as `` Republic of the Equator '' ; Quechua : Ikwadur Ripuwlika ) , is a representative democratic republic in northwestern South America , bordered by Colombia on the north , Peru on the east and south , and the Pacific Ocean to the west . Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific , about 1,000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) west of the mainland . The capital city is Quito , while the largest city is Guayaquil . What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century . The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century , achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia , from which it emerged as its own sovereign state in 1830 . The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador 's ethnically diverse population , with most of its 16.4 million people being mestizos , followed by large minorities of European , Amerindian , and African descendants . Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population , though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized , including Quichua and Shuar . Ecuador is a middle - income country , with a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities , namely petroleum and agricultural products . It is governed as a democratic presidential republic . One of 17 megadiverse countries in the world , Ecuador hosts many endemic plants and animals , such as those of the Galápagos Islands . In recognition of its unique ecological heritage , the new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature , or ecosystem rights . Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Inca era 1.2 Inca era 1.3 Spanish rule 1.4 Independence 1.5 Liberal Revolution 1.6 Loss of claimed territories since 1830 1.6. 1 President Juan José Flores de jure territorial claims 1.6. 2 Struggle for independence 1.6. 3 Peruvian occupation of Jaén , Tumbes , and Guayaquil 1.6. 4 The dissolution of Gran Colombia 1.6. 5 Struggle for possession of the Amazon Basin 1.7 Military governments ( 1972 -- 79 ) 1.8 Return to democracy 2 Government and politics 2.1 Executive branch 2.2 Legislative branch 2.3 Judicial branch 2.4 Electoral branch 2.5 Transparency and social control branch 2.6 Human rights 2.7 Foreign affairs 3 Administrative divisions 3.1 Regions and planning areas 4 Military 5 Geography 5.1 Climate 5.2 Hydrology 5.3 Biodiversity 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 7 Transport 8 Electrical power outlets 9 Mobile ( cellular ) phone frequencies 10 Demographics 10.1 Religion 10.2 Nations 10.3 Population genetics 10.4 Population density 10.5 Immigration and emigration 11 Culture 11.1 Language 11.2 Music 11.3 Cuisine 11.4 Literature 11.5 Art 11.6 Sports 12 Health 13 Education 14 Sciences and research 15 See also 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links History Main articles : History of Ecuador and Indigenous peoples in Ecuador Pre-inca era Tumaco - La Tolita mythological figure in feathered costume . Between 100 BC and 100 AD . Found in Esmeraldas Various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas . The archeological evidence suggests that the Paleo - Indians ' first dispersal into the Americas occurred near the end of the last glacial period , around 16,500 -- 13,000 years ago . The first Indians who reached Ecuador may have journeyed by land from North and Central America or by boat down the Pacific Ocean coastline . Much later migrations to Ecuador may have come via the Amazon tributaries , others descended from northern South America , and others ascended from the southern part of South America through the Andes . They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups . Even though their languages were unrelated , these groups developed similar groups of cultures , each based in different environments . The people of the coast developed a fishing , hunting , and gathering culture ; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life ; and the people of the Amazon basin developed a nomadic hunting - and - gathering mode of existence . Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe , with a similar language and culture . Many civilizations arose in Ecuador , such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast , the Quitus ( near present - day Quito ) , and the Cañari ( near present - day Cuenca ) . Each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture , pottery , and religious interests . In the highland Andes mountains , where life was more sedentary , groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages ; thus the first nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals formed . Eventually , through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders , a group of nations formed confederations . One region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris , which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions . Its political and military power came under the rule of the Duchicela blood - line . Inca era Ruins of Ingapirca , this site served as an outpost and provisioning of the Incan troops , but mainly it was a place of worship and veneration to the sun , the maximum Incan God , thus constituting a Coricancha , dedicated to the Inca ritual . Pre-Hispanic shrunken head of the Shuars ( Jivaroan peoples ) . When the Incas arrived , they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers -- Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Capac -- to absorb them into the Inca Empire . The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru , Bolivia , and north Argentina . Similarly , a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion . Thus , the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language . In contrast , when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador , they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile . Moreover , when the Incas tried to subdue them , these indigenous people withdrew to the interior and resorted to guerrilla tactics . As a result , Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered . The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force . The Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination , maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century . Before the arrival of the Spaniards , the Inca Empire was involved in a civil war . The untimely death of both the heir Ninan Cuchi and the Emperor Huayna Capac , from a European disease that spread into Ecuador , created a power vacuum between two factions . The northern faction headed by Atahualpa claims that Huayna Capac gave a verbal decree before his death about how the empire should be divided . He gave the territories pertaining to present - day Ecuador and northern Peru to his favorite son Atahualpa , who was to rule from Quito ; and he gave the rest to Huáscar , who was to rule from Cuzco . He willed that his heart be buried in Quito , his favorite city , and the rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco . Huáscar did not recognize his father 's will , since it did not follow Inca traditions of naming an Inca through the priests . Huáscar ordered Atahualpa to attend their father 's burial in Cuzco and pay homage to him as the new Inca ruler . Atahualpa , with a large number of his father 's veteran soldiers , decided to ignore Huáscar , and a civil war ensued . A number of bloody battles took place until finally Huáscar was captured . Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother . A small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro landed in Tumbez and marched over the Andes Mountains until they reached Cajamarca , where the new Inca Atahualpa was to hold an interview with them . Valverde , the priest , tried to convince Atahualpa that he should join the Catholic Church and declare himself a vassal of Spain . This infuriated Atahualpa so much that he threw the Bible to the ground . At this point the enraged Spaniards , with orders from Valverde , attacked and massacred unarmed escorts of the Inca and captured Atahualpa . Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he made good his promise of filling a room full of gold . But , after a mock trial , the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by strangulation . Spanish rule Major square of Quito . Painting of 18th century . Quito Painting Colonial School . New infectious diseases , endemic to the Europeans , caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule , as they had no immunity . At the same time , the natives were forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish . In 1563 , Quito became the seat of a real audiencia ( administrative district ) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada . After nearly 300 years of Spanish rule , Quito was still a small city numbering 10,000 inhabitants . On August 10 , 1809 , the city 's criollos called for independence from Spain ( first among the peoples of Latin America ) . They were led by Juan Pío Montúfar , Quiroga , Salinas , and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo . Quito 's nickname , `` Luz de América '' ( `` Light of America '' ) , is based on its leading role in trying to secure an independent , local government . Although the new government lasted no more than two months , it had important repercussions and was an inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of Spanish America . August 10 is now celebrated as Independence Day , a national holiday . Independence Main article : Ecuadorian War of Independence Venezuelan independence leader Antonio José de Sucre The `` Guayaquil Conference '' was the meeting between the two main Hispanic South American independence leaders . In it the form of government of the nascent countries was discussed , San Martín opted for a unified South America in the form of a monarchy , while Bolívar opted for the same but into a republic . 1843 painting . On October 9 , 1820 , Guayaquil became the first city in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain . The people were very happy about the independence and celebrated , which is now Ecuador 's independence day , officially on May 24 , 1822 . The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha , near Quito . Following the battle , Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar 's Republic of Gran Colombia , also including modern - day Colombia , Venezuela and Panama . In 1830 Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic . The 19th century was marked by instability for Ecuador with a rapid succession of rulers . The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan - born Juan José Flores , who was ultimately deposed , followed by several authoritarian leaders , such as Vicente Rocafuerte ; José Joaquín de Olmedo ; José María Urbina ; Diego Noboa ; Pedro José de Arteta ; Manuel de Ascásubi ; and Flores 's own son , Antonio Flores Jijón , among others . The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church . In the late 19th century , world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast . Ecuador abolished slavery and freed its black slaves in 1851 . Liberal Revolution Antique dug out canoes in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the Historic Center of Quito Main article : Liberal Revolution of 1895 The Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners . This liberal wing retained power until the military `` Julian Revolution '' of 1925 . The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians , such as five - time President José María Velasco Ibarra . Loss of claimed territories since 1830 Main article : History of the Ecuadorian -- Peruvian territorial dispute The Ecuadorian -- Peruvian territorial dispute History of the Ecuadorian -- Peruvian territorial dispute Gran Colombia -- Peru War ( 1828 - 1829 ) Ecuadorian -- Peruvian territorial dispute of 1857 -- 60 Ecuadorian - Peruvian War ( 1941 ) Paquisha War ( 1981 ) Cenepa War ( 1995 ) President Juan José Flores de jure territorial claims Since Ecuador 's separation from Colombia in May 13 , 1830 , its first President , General Juan José Flores , laid claim to the territory that was called the Real Audiencia of Quito , also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito . He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees or Real Cedulas , that delineated the borders of Spain 's former overseas colonies . In the case of Ecuador , Flores - based Ecuador 's de jure claims on the following cedulas - Real Cedula of 1563 , 1739 , and 1740 ; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil ( 1829 ) which Peru reluctantly signed , after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar 's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui . In addition , Ecuador 's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso ( 1777 ) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire . Moreover , to add legitimacy to his claims , on February 16 , 1840 , Flores signed a treaty with Spain , whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain 's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito . Ecuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors , such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916 , Brazil in 1904 through a series of peaceful treaties , and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942 . Struggle for independence During the struggle for independence , before Peru or Ecuador became independent nations , a few areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada - Guayaquil , Tumbez , and Jaén - declared themselves independent from Spain . A few months later , a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martin decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén with the intention of using these towns as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then to liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito ( Ecuador ) . It was common knowledge among the top officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martin wished to liberate present - day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru , since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it . However , Bolívar 's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia , out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia , Venezuela , and Ecuador . San Martin 's plans were thwarted when Bolívar , with the help of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and the Gran Colombian liberation force , descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil ; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia . This happened a few days before San Martin 's Peruvian forces could arrive and occupy Guayaquil , with the intention of annexing Guayaquil to the rest of Audiencia of Quito ( Ecuador ) and to the future republic of Peru . Historic documents repeatedly stated that San Martin told Bolivar he came to Guayaquil to liberate the land of the Incas from Spain . Bolivar countered by sending a message from Guayaquil welcoming San Martin and his troops to Colombian soil . Peruvian occupation of Jaen , Tumbes , and Guayaquil In the south , Ecuador had de jure claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as Tumbes which lay between the Zarumilla and Tumbes rivers . In Ecuador 's southern Andes Mountain region where the Marañon cuts across , Ecuador had de jure claims to an area it called Jaén de Bracamoros . These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar in December 17 , 1819 , during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created . Tumbes declared itself independent from Spain on January 17 , 1821 , and Jaen de Bracamoros on June 17 , 1821 , without any outside help from revolutionary armies . However , that same year , 1821 , Peruvian forces participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both Jaen and Tumbes . Some Peruvian generals , without any legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia , had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of the Gran Colombia , feeling that Ecuador was once part of the Inca Empire . On July 28 , 1821 , Peruvian independence was proclaimed in Lima by the Liberator San Martin and Tumbes and Jaen which were included as part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force , had the whole region swear allegiance to the new Peruvian flag and incorporated itself into Peru , even though Peru was not completely liberated from Spain . After Peru was completely liberated from Spain by the patriot armies led by Bolivar and Antonio Jose de Sucre at the Battle of Ayacucho dated December 9 , 1824 , there was a strong desire by some Peruvians to resurrect the Inca Empire and to include Bolivia and Ecuador . One of these Peruvian Generals was the Ecuadorian - born José de La Mar , who became one of Peru 's presidents after Bolivar resigned as dictator of Peru and returned to Colombia . Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the return of Jaen and Tumbes for almost a decade , then finally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaen , Tumbes , and part of Mainas , declared war . President and General José de La Mar , who was born in Ecuador , believing his opportunity had come to annex the District of Ecuador to Peru , personally , with a Peruvian force , invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on November 28 , 1828 . The war ended when a triumphant heavily outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui dated February 27 , 1829 , led by Antonio José de Sucre , defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar . This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil dated September 22 , 1829 , whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes , Jaen , and Maynas . Through protocolized meetings between representatives of Peru and Gran Colombia , the border was set as Tumbes river in the west and in the east the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them . However , what was pending was whether the new border around the Jaen region should follow the Chinchipe river or the Huancabamba river . According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil , Tumbez , and Jaén ; despite this , Peru returned Guayaquil , but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén , alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements , since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations - Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela . The dissolution of Gran Colombia Map of the former Gran Colombia in 1824 ( named in its time as Colombia ) , the Gran Colombia covered all the colored region . Ecuador in 1832 The Central District of the Gran Colombia , known as Cundinamarca or New Granada ( modern Colombia ) with its capital in Bogota , did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia , with its capital in Quito , from the Gran Colombian federation on May 13 , 1830 . After Ecuador 's separation , the Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota . President Juan José Flores with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on December 20 , 1830 , since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of the South as far back as April 1830 . Moreover , the Cauca region throughout its long history had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador . Also , the Cauca region which included such cities as Pasto , Popayán , and Buenaventura had always been dependent on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito . Fruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogotá and Quito , where the government of Bogotá did not recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832 . In five months , New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to fight against their fellow countrymen . Seeing that his officers were rebelling , mutinying , and changing sides , President Flores had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New Granada . The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New Granada ( modern Colombia ) , the government of Bogotá recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the border was to follow the Ley de División Territorial de la República de Colombia ( Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia ) passed on June 25 , 1824 . This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquetá river . Later , Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia , while reorganizing its government , unlawfully made its eastern border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayán extended its control all the way to the Napo River . Struggle for possession of the Amazon Basin South America ( 1879 ) : All land claims by Peru , Ecuador , Colombia , Brazil , Argentina , Chile , and Bolivia in 1879 When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia , Peru decided not to follow the treaty of Guayaquil of 1829 or the protocoled agreements made . Peru contested Ecuador 's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802 , by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru . During colonial times this was to halt the ever - expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains , which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin . Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument , which had nothing to do with political borders . Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories , after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil . This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish - Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers . Peru began occupying the defenseless missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region which it began calling Loreto with its capital in Iquitos . During its negotiations with Brazil , Peru stated that based on the royal cedula of 1802 , it claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range , depriving Ecuador and Colombia of all their claims to the Amazon Basin . Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers . Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon - Amazon river . Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos which it had recently invaded and systematically began to occupy using the river systems in all the territories claimed by both Colombia and Ecuador . Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860 , since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders , but returned Guayaquil after a few months . The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910 , but to no avail . In the early part of the 20th century Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbours through negotiation . On May 6 , 1904 , Ecuador signed the Tobar - Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil 's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador 's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru 's earlier Treaty with Brazil back in October 23 , 1851 . Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government 's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza - Suarez Treaty was signed July 15 , 1916 , in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador 's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers . In this way Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia , thus cutting itself off from Brazil . Later a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru , over Peru 's claims to the Caquetá region , which ended with the Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon - Lozano Treaty on March 24 , 1922 . Ecuador protested this secret treaty , since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916 . In July 21 , 1924 the Ponce - Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration . Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on September 30 , 1935 . These negotiations were long and tiresome . Both sides logically presented their cases , but no one seemed to give up their claims . Then on February 6 , 1937 , Ecuador presented a transactional line which Peru rejected the next day . The negotiations turned into intense arguments during the next 7 months and finally on September 29 , 1937 the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations without submitting the dispute to arbitration because the direct negotiations were going nowhere . Four years later in 1941 , amid fast - growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River , war broke out with Peru . Peru claimed that Ecuador 's military presence in Peruvian - claimed territory was an invasion ; Ecuador , for its part , claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador 's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez , Jaen , and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers . In July 1941 , troops were mobilized in both countries . Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300 , of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces . Hostilities erupted on July 5 , 1941 , when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations , testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops . Finally , on July 23 , 1941 , the Peruvians launched a major invasion , crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro . Map of Ecuadorian Land Claims after 1916 During the course of the Ecuadorian -- Peruvian War , Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro , and some parts of the province of Loja , demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims . The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil , almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops . After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations , all fighting came to a stop . Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol , signed on January 29 , 1942 , in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favouring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end . The 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military - civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador 's government . However , a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s , while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon . In 1972 , construction of the Andean pipeline was completed . The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast , making Ecuador South America 's second largest oil exporter . The pipeline in southern Ecuador did nothing to resolve tensions between Ecuador and Peru , however . Ecuadorian troops during the Cenepa War The Mirage F. 1JA ( FAE - 806 ) was one aircraft involved in the claimed shooting down of two Peruvian Sukhoi Su - 22 on February 10 , 1995 . The Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote Cordillera del Cóndor region in southern Ecuador . This caused a long - simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru , which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries ; first a border skirmish in January -- February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident , and ultimately full - scale warfare in January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador . Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities , known as the Cenepa War . Sixto Durán Ballén , the Ecuadorian president , famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador . Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru : graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the `` Cain de Latinoamérica '' , a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis . Ecuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on October 26 , 1998 , which ended hostilities , and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere 's longest running territorial dispute . The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol ( Argentina , Brazil , Chile , and the United States of America ) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the Cordillera del Cóndor . While Ecuador had to give up its decades - old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera , as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters , Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador , in perpetual lease but without sovereignty , 1 km ( 0.39 sq mi ) of its territory , in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza -- focal point of the war -- had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict . The final border demarcation came into effect on May 13 , 1999 and the multi-national MOMEP ( Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru ) troop deployment withdrew on June 17 , 1999 . Military governments ( 1972 -- 79 ) In 1972 , a `` revolutionary and nationalist '' military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra . The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G . The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina . He remained in power until 1976 , when he was removed by another military government . That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda , who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council . The Supreme Council included two other members : General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Leoro Franco . The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections . Colonel Richelieu Levoyer , Government Minister , proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections . This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office . Return to Democracy Elections were held on April 29 , 1979 , under a new constitution . Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president , garnering over one million votes , the most in Ecuadorian history . He took office on August 10 , as the first constitutionally elected president after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships . In 1980 , he founded the Partido Pueblo , Cambio y Democracia ( People , Change , and Democracy Party ) after withdrawing from the Concentración de Fuerzas Populares ( Popular Forces Concentration ) and governed until May 24 , 1981 , when he died along with his wife and the minister of defense , Marco Subia Martinez , when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border . Many people believe that he was assassinated by the CIA , given the multiple death threats leveled against him because of his reformist agenda , deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation , and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident . Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado , who was followed in 1984 by León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party . Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left ( Izquierda Democrática , or ID ) party won the presidency in 1988 , running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram ( brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party ) . His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms , notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade . The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group , `` ¡ Alfaro Vive , Carajo ! '' ( `` Alfaro Lives , Dammit ! '' ) , named after Eloy Alfaro . However , continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID , and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999 . The emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years . The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform , lower unemployment and provision of social services , and historical exploitation by the land - holding elite . Their movement , along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements , has led to a deterioration of the executive office . The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital , as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005 . Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place and remained in office until the presidential election of 2006 , in which Rafael Correa gained the presidency . In December 2008 , president Correa declared Ecuador 's national debt illegitimate , based on the argument that it was odious debt contracted by corrupt and despotic prior regimes . He announced that the country would default on over $3 billion worth of bonds ; he then pledged to fight creditors in international courts and succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60 % . He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009 . To date , Correa 's administration has succeeded in reducing the high levels of poverty and unemployment in Ecuador . Government and politics Main article : Politics of Ecuador The former President Rafael Correa assumed office on January 15 , 2007 The Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government : the Executive Branch , the Legislative Branch , the Judicial Branch , the Electoral Branch , and Transparency and Social Control . Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected President , for a four - year term . The current president of Ecuador , Lenin Moreno , exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito . The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007 , and was approved by referendum in 2008 . Since 1936 , voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18 -- 65 , optional for all other citizens . The executive branch includes 23 ministries . Provincial governors and councilors ( mayors , aldermen , and parish boards ) are directly elected . The National Assembly of Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December . There are thirteen permanent committees . Members of the National Court of Justice are appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine - year terms . Executive branch Main article : List of heads of state of Ecuador Palacio de Carondelet , the executive branch of the Ecuadorian Government The executive branch is led by the president , an office currently held by Lenin Moreno . He is accompanied by the vice-president , currently Jorge Glas , elected for four years ( with the ability to be re-elected only once ) . As head of state and chief government official , he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of national coordinators , ministers , ministers of State and public servants . The executive branch defines foreign policy , appoints the Chancellor of the Republic , as well as ambassadors and consuls , being the ultimate authority over the Armed Forces of Ecuador , National Police of Ecuador , and appointing authorities . The acting president 's wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador . Legislative branch Main article : National Assembly ( Ecuador ) The legislative branch is embodied by the National Assembly , which is headquartered in the city of Quito in the Legislative Palace , and consists of 137 assemblymen , divided into ten committees and elected for a four - year term . Fifteen national constituency elected assembly , two Assembly members elected from each province and one for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 150,000 , according to the latest national population census . In addition , statute determines the election of assembly of regions , and metropolitan districts . Judicial branch Ecuador 's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council , and also includes the National Court of Justice , provincial courts , and lower courts . Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council . The National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years . Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code . These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits . The justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender . Auxiliary organs are as follows : notaries , court auctioneers , and court receivers . Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians . Electoral branch The electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur . Its main functions are to organize , control elections , and punish the infringement of electoral rules . Its main body is the National Electoral Council , which is based in the city of Quito , and consists of seven members of the political parties most voted , enjoying complete financial and administrative autonomy . This body , along with the electoral court , forms the Electoral Branch which is one of Ecuador 's five branches of government . Transparency and Social control branch The Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council of Citizen Participation and Social Control , an ombudsman , the Comptroller General of the State , and the superintendents . Branch members hold office for five years . This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly , as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption , as also designate certain authorities , and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country . Human rights UN 's Human Rights Council 's ( HRC ) Universal Periodic Review ( UPR ) has treated the restrictions on freedom of expression and efforts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions for the expression of opinions , and delay in implementing judicial reforms . Ecuador rejected the recommendation on decriminalization of libel . According to Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) President Correa has intimidated journalists and subjected them to `` public denunciation and retaliatory litigation '' . The sentences to journalists have been years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation , even though defendants have been pardoned . Correa has stated he was only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements . According to HRW , Correa 's government has weakened the freedom of press and independence of the judicial system . In Ecuador 's current judicial system , judges are selected in a contest of merits , rather than government appointments . However , the process of selection has been criticized as biased and subjective . In particular , the final interview is said to be given `` excessive weighing . '' Judges and prosecutors that have made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits have received permanent posts , while others with better assessment grades have been rejected . Adult Galápagos sea lion resting on a park bench in Puerto Baquerizo Moreno . The laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate . In the first half of 2012 , twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down . In July 2012 the officials warned the judges that they would be sanctioned and possibly dismissed if they allowed the citizens to appeal to the protection of their constitutional rights against the state . People engaging in public protests against environmental and other issues are prosecuted for `` terrorism and sabotage '' , which may lead to an eight - year prison sentence . Foreign Affairs Main article : Foreign relations of Ecuador Ecuador 's principal foreign policy objectives have traditionally included defense of its territory from external aggression and support for the objectives of the United Nations and the OAS . Ecuador 's membership in the OPEC in the 1970s and 1980s allowed Ecuadorian leaders to exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy . In Antarctica , Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study as a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty . Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues . Ecuador is a member of the United Nations ( and most of its specialized agencies ) and a member of many regional groups , including the Rio Group , the Latin American Economic System , the Latin American Energy Organization , the Latin American Integration Association , the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America , the Andean Community of Nations , the Union of South American Nations ( UNASUR ) , and The Bank of the South ( Spanish : Banco del Sur or BancoSur ) . Administrative divisions Main articles : Provinces of Ecuador and Cantons of Ecuador Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces ( Spanish : provincias ) , each with its own administrative capital : Map of Ecuador Extent of Ecuador 's western EEZ in the Pacific Administrative divisions of Ecuador Province Surface ( km2 ) Population ( 2010 ) Capital Azuay 8,639 702,893 Cuenca Bolívar 3,254 182,744 Guaranda Cañar 3,908 223,463 Azogues Carchi 3,699 165,659 Tulcán 5 Chimborazo 5,287 452,352 Riobamba 6 Cotopaxi 6,569 406,798 Latacunga 7 El Oro 5,988 588,546 Machala 8 Esmeraldas 15,216 520,711 Esmeraldas 9 Galápagos 8,010 22,770 Puerto Baquerizo Moreno 10 Guayas 17,139 3,573,003 Guayaquil 11 Imbabura 4,599 400,359 Ibarra 12 Loja 11,027 446,743 Loja 13 Los Ríos 6,254 765,274 Babahoyo 14 Manabí 18,400 1,345,779 Portoviejo 15 Morona - Santiago 25,690 147,886 Macas 16 Napo 13,271 104,047 Tena 17 Orellana 20,773 137,848 Puerto Francisco de Orellana 18 Pastaza 29,520 84,329 Puyo 19 Pichincha 9,494 2,570,201 Quito 20 Santa Elena 3,763 301,168 Santa Elena 21 Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas 3,857 365,965 Santo Domingo 22 Sucumbíos 18,612 174,522 Nueva Loja 23 Tungurahua 3,334 500,775 Ambato 24 Zamora - Chinchipe 10,556 91,219 Zamora The provinces are divided into cantons and further subdivided into parishes ( parroquias ) . Regions and Planning areas Regionalization , or zoning , is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital Quito . In Ecuador there are seven regions or zones , each shaped by the following provinces : Region 1 ( 42,126 km2 , or 16,265 mi2 ) : Esmeraldas , Carchi , Imbabura , and Sucumbios . Administrative city : Ibarra Region 2 ( 43,498 km2 , or 16,795 mi2 ) : Pichincha , Napo , and Orellana . Administrative city : Tena Region 3 ( 44,710 km2 , or 17,263 mi2 ) : Chimborazo , Tungurahua , Pastaza , and Cotopaxi . Administrative city : Riobamba Region 4 ( 22,257 km2 , or 8,594 mi2 ) : Manabí and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas . Administrative city : Ciudad Alfaro Region 5 ( 38,420 km2 , or 14,834 mi2 ) : Santa Elena , Guayas , Los Ríos , Galápagos , and Bolívar . Administrative city : Milagro Region 6 ( 38,237 km2 , or 14,763 mi2 ) : Cañar , Azuay , and Morona Santiago . Administrative city : Cuenca Region 7 ( 27,571 km2 , or 10,645 mi2 ) : El Oro , Loja , and Zamora Chinchipe . Administrative city : Loja Quito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts . Galápagos , despite being included within Region 5 , is also under a special unit . Military Main article : Military of Ecuador A Puma helicopter from the Army 's Aviation Branch Ecuadorian Air Force ( FAE ) BAE Shyri ( SS - 101 ) ( es ) from the Ecuadorian Navy . The Ecuadorian Armed Forces ( Fuerzas Armadas del Ecuador ) , consists of the Army , Air Force , and Navy and have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory . The military tradition starts in Gran Colombia , where a sizable army was stationed in Ecuador due to border disputes with Peru , which claimed territories under its political control when it was a Spanish vice-royalty . Once Gran Colombia was dissolved after the death of Simón Bolívar in 1830 , Ecuador inherited the same border disputes and had the need of creating its own professional military force . So influential was the military in Ecuador in the early republican period that its first decade was under the control of General Juan Jose Flores , first president of Ecuador of Venezuelan origin . General Jose Ma . Urbina and General Robles are examples of military figures who became presidents of the country in the early republican period . Due to the continuous border disputes with Peru , finally settled in the early 2000s , and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces , the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes . In 2009 , the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces , increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803 , an increase of 25 % . The icons of the Ecuadorian military forces are the Marshall Antonio José de Sucre and General Eloy Alfaro . The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro ( c. 1838 ) graduates the army officers and is located in Quito . The Ecuadorian Navy Academy ( c. 1837 ) , located in Salinas graduates the navy officers , and the Air Academy `` Cosme Rennella ( c. 1920 ) , also located in Salinas , graduates the air force officers . Other training academies for different military specialties are found across the country . Geography Main article : Geography of Ecuador Ecuador topography A view of the Cotopaxi volcano , in Cotopaxi Province birds in the Yasuni National Park Ecuador has a total area of 283,561 km ( 109,484 sq mi ) , including the Galápagos Islands . Of this , 276,841 km ( 106,889 sq mi ) is land and 6,720 km ( 2,595 sq mi ) water . Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay , Suriname , Guyana and French Guyana in South America . Ecuador lies between latitudes 2 ° N and 5 ° S , bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean , and has 2,337 km ( 1,452 mi ) of coastline . It has 2,010 km ( 1,250 mi ) of land boundaries , with Colombia in the north 590 km ( 367 mi ) border and Peru in the east and south 1,420 km ( 882 mi ) border . It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator . The country has four main geographic regions : La Costa , or `` the coast '' : The coastal region consists of the provinces to the West of the Andean range -- Esmeraldas , Guayas , Los Ríos , Manabí , El Oro , Santa Elena . It is the country 's most fertile and productive land , and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations of the companies Dole and Chiquita . This region is also where most of Ecuador 's rice crop is grown . The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries . The largest coastal city is Guayaquil . La Sierra , or `` the highlands '' : The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces -- Azuay , Cañar , Carchi , Chimborazo , Imbabura , Loja , Pichincha , and Tungurahua . This land contains most of Ecuador 's volcanoes and all of its snow - capped peaks . Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato , maize , and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua . The largest Sierran city is Quito . La Amazonía , also known as El Oriente , or `` the east '' : The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces -- Morona Santiago , Napo , Orellana , Pastaza , Sucumbíos , and Zamora - Chinchipe . This region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones , which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living traditionally . It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador , and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies . The population is primarily mixed Amerindian Shuar , Huaorani and Kichua , although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little - contacted . The largest city in the Oriente is probably Lago Agrio in Sucumbíos , although Macas in Morona Santiago runs a close second . La Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands , some 1,000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean . Ecuador 's capital is Quito , which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region . Its largest city is Guayaquil , in the Guayas Province . Cotopaxi , just south of Quito , is one of the world 's highest active volcanoes . The top of Mount Chimborazo ( 6,268 m , or 20,560 ft , above sea level ) , Ecuador 's tallest mountain , is the most distant point from the center of the Earth on the Earth 's surface because of the ellipsoid shape of the planet . Climate Main article : Climate of Ecuador Ecuador map of Köppen climate classification . There is great variety in the climate , largely determined by altitude . It is mild year - round in the mountain valleys , with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands . The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season . The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry , and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones . Because of its location at the equator , Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year . Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours . Hydrology Main article : Rivers of Ecuador Baños de Agua Santa is an important tourist site The Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon watershed , which runs to the east , and the Pacific , including the north -- south rivers Mataje , Santiago , Esmeraldas , Chone , Guayas , Jubones , and Puyango - Tumbes . Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador form in the La Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean . The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations . In the La Sierra region , the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes . Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions . The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente . A beach of Salinas , Santa Elena Province In the Costa , the external coast has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season . The few exceptions are the longer , perennial rivers that flow throughout the external coast from the internal coast and La Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean . The internal coast , by contrast , is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season , sometimes forming swamps . Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza , Napo , and Putumayo . The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers , both of which rise in the Sierra . The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall , which at sixty - one meters ( 200 feet ) is the highest waterfall in Ecuador . The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the eastern lowlands . The Napo ranges in width from 500 to 1,800 m ( 1,600 to 5,900 ft ) . In its upper reaches , the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries , the Coca River , where it slows and levels off . The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia . All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River . The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers . Several of the larger islands , however , have freshwater springs although they are surrounded by the Pacific Ocean . Biodiversity Ecuador is one of the most megadiverse countries in the world , it also has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation , and is one of the highest endemism worldwide . In the image the Spectacled bear of the Andes . Ecuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International , and it has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation . Ecuador has 1,600 bird species ( 15 % of the world 's known bird species ) in the continental area and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos . In addition to over 16,000 species of plants , the country has 106 endemic reptiles , 138 endemic amphibians , and 6,000 species of butterfly . The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna , famous as the place of birth of Darwin 's Theory of Evolution and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Ecuador has the first constitution to recognize the rights of nature . The protection of the nation 's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of `` Buen Vivir '' , or good living , Objective 4 , `` Guarantee the rights of nature '' , Policy 1 : `` Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage , including its land and marine biodiversity , which is considered a strategic sector '' . As of the writing of the Plan in 2008 , 19 % of Ecuador 's land area was in a protected area ; however , the Plan also states that 32 % of the land must be protected in order to truly preserve the nation 's biodiversity . Current protected areas include 11 national parks , 10 wildlife refuges , 9 ecological reserves , and other areas . A program begun in 2008 , Sociobosque , is preserving another 2.3 % of total land area ( 6,295 km2 , or 629,500 ha ) by paying private landowners or community landowners ( such as Amerindian tribes ) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands . Eligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region , the number of hectares that will be protected , and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected , among other factors . Despite being on the UNESCO list , the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects , threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem . Additionally , oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes , gas , and crude oil into the environment , contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples . Economy Main article : Economy of Ecuador Tree map of products exported by Ecuador in the HS4 product classification . Ecuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities , namely petroleum and agricultural products . The country is classified as an upper - middle - income country . Ecuador 's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6 % between 2000 and 2006 . From 2007 to 2012 Ecuador 's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent , above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean , which was 3.5 % , according to the United Nations ' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean ( ECLAC ) . Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the crisis . In January 2009 the Central Bank of Ecuador ( BCE ) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88 % . In 2011 its GDP grew at 8 % and ranked 3rd highest in Latin America , behind Argentina ( 2nd ) and Panama ( 1st ) . Between 1999 and 2007 , GDP doubled , reaching $65,490 million according to BCE . Inflation rate up to January 2008 was located about 1.14 % , the highest recorded in the last year , according to the government . The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008 ; however , it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent . Unemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5 % because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies . From this point unemployment rates started a downward trend : 7.6 % in 2010 , 6.0 % in 2011 , and 4.8 % in 2012 . The extreme poverty rate has declined significantly between 1999 and 2010 . In 2001 it was estimated at 40 % of the population , while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4 % of the total population . This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction . However , starting in 2008 with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work , the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending mainly in education and health . The United States dollar is the common currency circulation in Ecuador . Oil accounts for 40 % of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance . Since the late 1960s , the exploitation of oil increased production , and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels as of 2011 . The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012 , a huge figure compared with that of 2007 , which reached only $5.7 million ; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006 . The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008 , while non-oil was negative , amounting to $2.842 million . The trade balance with the United States , Chile , the European Union , Bolivia , Peru , Brazil , and Mexico is positive . The trade balance with Argentina , Colombia , and Asia is negative . In the agricultural sector , Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas ( first place worldwide in production and export ) , flowers , and the seventh largest producer of cocoa . Ecuador also produces coffee , rice , potatoes , cassava ( manioc , tapioca ) , plantains and sugarcane ; cattle , sheep , pigs , beef , pork and dairy products ; fish , and shrimp ; and balsa wood . The country 's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country , like eucalyptus and mangroves . Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts , rosemary , and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin . The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil , the largest industrial center , and in Quito , where in recent years the industry has grown considerably . This city is also the largest business center of the country . Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market . Despite this , there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially . These include canned foods , liquor , jewelry , furniture , and more . A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca . The incomes due to the tourism have been increasing during the last years because of the efforts of the Government of showing the variety of climates and the biodiversity in Ecuador . World Trade Center headquarters in Guayaquil Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries , besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations , and an associate member of Mercosur . It also serves on the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank ( IDB ) , World Bank , International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , Corporación Andina de Fomento ( CAF ) and other multilateral agencies . In April 2007 , Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF , thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country . The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador ( BCE ) , the National Development Bank ( BNF ) , the State Bank . Tourism Main article : Tourism in Ecuador The historic center of Quito has one of the largest and best - preserved historic centers in the Americas . The city also houses a large number of museums . The Ministry of Information and Tourism was created on August 10 , 1992 , at the beginning of the government of Sixto Durán Ballén , who viewed tourism as a fundamental activity for the economic and social development of the peoples . Faced with the growth of the tourism sector , in June 1994 , the decision was taken to separate tourism from information , so that it is exclusively dedicated to promoting and strengthening this activity . Ecuador is a country with vast natural wealth . The diversity of its four regions has given rise to thousands of species of flora and fauna . It has around 1640 kinds of birds . The species of butterflies border the 4,500 , the reptiles 345 , the amphibians 358 and the mammals 258 , among others . Not in vain , Ecuador is considered one of the 17 countries where the planet 's highest biodiversity is concentrated , being also the largest country with diversity per km2 in the world . Most of its fauna and flora lives in 26 protected areas by the State . Also , it has a huge culture spectrum . Since 2007 , with the government of Rafael Correa , the tourism brand `` Ecuador Ama la Vida '' has been transformed , with which the nation 's tourism promotion would be sold . Focused on considering it as a country friendly and respectful of the nature , natural biodiversity and cultural diversity of the peoples . And for this , means of exploiting them are developed along with the private economy . The country has two cities UNESCO World Heritage Sites : Quito and Cuenca , as well as two natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites : the Galapagos Islands and Sangay National Park in addition to one World Biosphere Reserve , such as the Cajas massif . Culturally , the Toquilla straw hat and the culture of the Zapara indigenous people are recognized . The most popular sites for national and foreign tourists have different nuances due to the various tourist activities offered by the country . Among the main tourist destinations are : Nature attractions : Galapagos Islands , Yasuni National Park , El Cajas National Park , Sangay National Park , Podocarpus National Park , Vilcabamba , Baños de Agua Santa . Cultural attractions : Historic center of Quito , Ciudad Mitad del Mundo , Ingapirca , Historic center of Cuenca , Latacunga and its Mama Negra festival . Snowy mountains : Antisana volcano , Cayambe volcano , Chimborazo volcano , Cotopaxi volcano , Illinizas volcanoes . Beaches : Crucita , Atacames , Bahía de Caráquez , Esmeraldas , Manta , Salinas , Montañita Transport The Trolebús bus rapid transit system that runs through Quito . It is the principal BRT in Ecuador . Railways in Ecuador ( interactive map ) Main article : Transport in Ecuador The rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters . The roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement . The major routes are Pan American ( under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato , the conclusion of 4 lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja ) . In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru , there are the Route Espondilus and / or Ruta del Sol ( oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline ) and the Amazon backbone ( which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon , linking most and more major cities of it ) . Another major project is developing the road Manta -- Tena , the highway Guayaquil -- Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo , Riobamba -- Macas ( which crosses Sangay National Park ) . Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil , the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana , the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name , and , perhaps the most remarkable of all , the Bahia -- San Vincente Bridge , being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast . The Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization . In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal , once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013 , with Canadian assistance . However , the main road leading from Quito city centre to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014 , making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour . Quito 's old city - centre airport is being turned into parkland , with some light industrial use . Electrical power outlets Electrical power outlets in Ecuador are the same as in the US ( 110v ) . Mobile ( cellular ) phone frequencies Mobile ( cellular ) phone frequencies in Ecuador are 850 MHz , 1900 MHz , and 1700 / 2100 MHz ( LTE ) . Demographics Main article : Ecuadorian people Three mulattomen from Esmeraldas by Andrés Sánchez Galque . Painting of 1599 . Quito Painting Colonial School . Portrait of a noble lady with her black slave by Vicente Albán . Painting of 1783 . Quito Painting Colonial School . Ecuador 's population is ethnically diverse and the 2016 estimates put Ecuador 's population at 16,385,068 . The largest ethnic group ( as of 2010 ) is the Mestizos , who are the descendants of Spanish colonists that interbred with Amerindian peoples , and constitute about 71 % of the population . The White Ecuadorians ( White Latin American ) account for 6.1 % of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador primarily around the urban areas . Even though Ecuador 's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain , today Ecuador 's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants , predominantly from Spain with people from Italy , France , Germany , and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century . Ecuador also has people of middle eastern extraction that have also joined the ranks of the white minority . These include economically well off immigrants of Lebanese and Palestinian descent , who are either Christian or Muslim ( Islam in Ecuador ) . In addition , there is a small European Jewish ( Ecuadorian Jews ) population , which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil . Amerindians account for 7 % of the current population . The mostly rural Montubio population of the coastal provinces of Ecuador , who might be classified as Pardo account for 7.4 % of the population . The Afro - Ecuadorians is a minority population ( 7 % ) in Ecuador , that includes the Mulattos and zambos , and are largely based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantly Mestizo provinces of Coastal Ecuador - Guayas and Manabi . In the Highland Andes where a predominantly Mestizo , white and Amerindian population exist , the African presence is almost non-existent except for a small community in the province of Imbabura called Chota Valley . Religion Main article : Religion in Ecuador Iglesia de San Sebastián church in Cuenca Religion in Ecuador Religion percent Roman Catholic 74 % Protestant 10.4 % Atheist 7.9 % Other 6.4 % Jehovah 's Witness 1.2 % Black 1 % Agnostic 0.1 % Other 0.4 % According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census , 91.95 % of the country 's population have a religion , 7.94 % are atheists and 0.11 % are agnostics . Among the people that have a religion , 80.44 % are Roman Catholic Latin Rite ( see List of Roman Catholic dioceses in Ecuador ) , 11.30 % are Evangelical Protestants , 1.29 % are Jehovah 's Witnesses and 6.97 % other ( mainly Jewish , Buddhists and Latter - day Saints ) . Iglesia y Convento de San Francisco in Quito In the rural parts of Ecuador , Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized . Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations , many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons . There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians , Amerindian religions , Muslims ( see Islam in Ecuador ) , Buddhists and Bahá'í . According to their own estimates , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints accounts for about 1.4 % of the population , or 211,165 members at the end of 2012 . According to their own sources , in 2017 there were 92,752 Jehovah 's Witnesses in the country . The first Jews arrived in Ecuador in the 16th and 17th centuries . Most of them are Sephardic Anusim ( Crypto - Jews ) and many still speak Judaeo - Spanish ( Ladino ) language . Today the Jewish Community of Ecuador ( Comunidad Judía del Ecuador ) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 200 members . Nevertheless , this number is declining because young people leave the country for the United States or Israel . The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue , a country club , and a cemetery . It supports the `` Albert Einstein School '' , where Jewish history , religion , and Hebrew classes are offered . There are very small communities in Cuenca . The `` Comunidad de Culto Israelita '' reunites the Jews of Guayaquil . This community works independently from the `` Jewish Community of Ecuador '' and is composed of only 30 people . Nations Main article : Indigenous peoples in Ecuador Ethnic groups in Ecuador Ethnic group percent Mestizo ( mixed Amerindian and White ) 71.9 % Montubio 7.4 % Amerindian 7 % White 6.1 % Afro Ecuadorian 4.3 % Mulato 1.9 % Black 1 % Other 0.4 % The Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the `` pluri - nationality '' of those who want to exercise their affiliation with their native ethnic groups . Thus , in addition to criollos , mestizos , and Afro - Ecuadorians , some people belong to the Amerindian nations scattered in a few places in the coast , Quechua Andean villages , and the Amazonian jungle . Population genetics According to a 2015 genealogical DNA testing , the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96 % Native American , 41.77 % European , and 5.26 % Sub-Saharan African overall . Population density The majority of Ecuadorians live in the central provinces , the Andes mountains , or along the Pacific coast . The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains ( El Oriente ) remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3 % of the population . Birth rate is 2 - 1 for each death . Marriages are usually from 14 and above using parental consent . About 12.4 % of the population is married in the ages 15 -- 19 . Divorce rates are moderate . Population cities ( 2010 ) Largest cities of Ecuador Guayaquil Quito Cuenca City Province Population Santo Domingo Machala Guayaquil Guayas 2 710 915 Quito Pichincha 2 342 191 Cuenca Azuay 331 888 Santo Domingo Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas 305 632 5 Machala El Oro 241 606 6 Durán Guayas 235 769 7 Portoviejo Manabí 223 086 8 Manta Manabí 221 122 9 Loja Loja 180 617 10 Ambato Tungurahua 178 538 Status According to the 2010 Census Immigration and emigration This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( August 2012 ) See also : Emigration from Ecuador A small east Asian Latino community , estimated at 2,500 , mainly consists of those of Japanese and Chinese descent , whose ancestors arrived as miners , farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century . In the early years of World War II , Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants , and in 1939 , when several South American countries refused to accept 165 Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship Koenigstein , Ecuador granted them entry permits . In recent years , Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates . They 're drawn there by the authentic cultural experience and beautiful natural surroundings . Also , Ecuador 's favorable residency options make for an easy transition for those who decide to settle there indefinitely . Another perk that draws many expats to Ecuador is its low cost of living . Since everything from gas to groceries costs far less than in North America , it 's a popular choice for those who are looking to make the most of their retirement budget . Even real estate in Ecuador is much less than its tropical counterparts . However , as more and more North Americans are discovering Ecuador 's potential , property prices are beginning to rise from where they were a decade ago , particularly in the areas that are popular among expats and tourists . Culture Main article : Culture of Ecuador Cañari children with the typical Andean indigenous clothes Ecuador 's mainstream culture is defined by its Hispanic mestizo majority , and , like their ancestry , it is traditionally of Spanish heritage , influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by African elements . The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists , following the arrival of Europeans in 1499 . A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries and , in smaller numbers , Poles , Lithuanians , English , Irish , and Croats during and after the Second World War . Huaorani man with the typical Amazonian indigenous clothes Since African slavery was not the workforce of the Spanish colonies in the Andes Mountains , given the subjugation of the Amerindian people through proselytization and encomiendas , the minority population of African descent is mostly found in the coastal northern province of Esmeraldas . This is largely owing to the 17th - century shipwreck of a slave - trading galleon off the northern coast of Ecuador . The few black African survivors swam to the shore and penetrated the then - thick jungle under the leadership of Anton , the chief of the group , where they remained as free men maintaining their original culture , not influenced by the typical elements found in other provinces of the coast or in the Andean region . A little later , freed slaves from Colombia known as cimarrones joined them . In the small Chota Valley of the province of Imbabura exists a small community of Africans among the province 's predominantly mestizo population . These blacks are descendants of Africans , who were brought over from Colombia by Jesuits to work their colonial sugar plantations as slaves . As a general rule , small elements of zambos and mulattoes coexisted among the overwhelming mestizo population of coastal Ecuador throughout its history as gold miners in Loja , Zaruma , and Zamora and as shipbuilders and plantation workers around the city of Guayaquil . Today you can find a small community of Africans in the Catamayo valley of the predominantly mestizo population of Loja . Ecuador 's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees , but some may also practice their own native cultures , particularly the more remote Amerindian communities of the Amazon basin . Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90 % of the population and as a first or second language by more than 98 % . Part of Ecuador 's population can speak Amerindian languages , in some cases as a second language . Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages . Language Main article : Languages of Ecuador Languages in Ecuador Language percent Spanish ( Castilian ) 93 % Quechua 4.1 % Foreign 2.2 % Other Indigenous 0.7 % Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish , though many speak Amerindian language , such as Kichwa ( also spelt Quichua ) , which is one of the Quechuan languages and is spoken by approximately 2.5 million people in Ecuador , Bolivia , Colombia , and Peru . Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit ( spoken by the Awá ) , A'ingae ( spoken by the Cofan ) , Shuar Chicham ( spoken by the Shuar ) , Achuar - Shiwiar ( spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar ) , Cha'palaachi ( spoken by the Chachi ) , Tsa'fiki ( spoken by the Tsáchila ) , Paicoca ( spoken by the Siona and Secoya ) , and Wao Tededeo ( spoken by the Waorani ) . Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are those universal to the Spanish - speaking world , there are several idiosyncrasies . Music Main article : Music of Ecuador Julio Jaramillo is an icon of the old Bolero music genre . The music of Ecuador has a long history . Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music . In Ecuador it is the `` national genre of music '' . Through the years , many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music . There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo , pasacalle , fox incaico , tonada , capishca , Bomba ( highly established in Afro - Ecuadorian societies ) , and so on . Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures . One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito . It 's originally from northern Ecuador ( Otavalo - Imbabura ) . Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities . According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno , Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista 's birthday . This important date was established by the Spaniards on June 24 , coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi . Cuisine See also : List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods Ceviche ecuatoriano ( Ecuadorian - style ceviche ) and Cuy asado ( grilled guinea pig ) are some of the typical dishes . Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse , varying with the altitude and associated agricultural conditions . Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three course meal of soup , a course that includes rice and a protein , and then dessert and coffee to finish . Supper is usually lighter and sometimes consists only of coffee or herbal tea with bread . In the highland region , pork , chicken , beef , and cuy ( guinea pig ) are popular and are served with a variety of grains ( especially rice and corn ) or potatoes . In the coastal region , seafood is very popular , with fish , shrimp , and ceviche being key parts of the diet . Generally , ceviches are served with fried plantain ( chifles y patacones ) , popcorn , or tostado . Plantain - and peanut - based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals . Encocados ( dishes that contain a coconut sauce ) are also very popular . Churrasco is a staple food of the coastal region , especially Guayaquil . Arroz con menestra y carne asada ( rice with beans and grilled beef ) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil , as is fried plantain , which is often served with it . This region is a leading producer of bananas , Cocoa beans ( to make chocolate ) , shrimp , tilapia , mango , and passion fruit , among other products . In the Amazon region , a dietary staple is the yuca , elsewhere called cassava . Many fruits are available in this region , including bananas , tree grapes , and peach palms . Centro de Arte Contemporáneo , Quito Centro Cultural Metropolitano in the historic center of Quito Literature Early literature in colonial Ecuador , as in the rest of Spanish America , was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age . One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo , an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today 's Ibarra , born in the late 1600s . Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish , Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian , but his work was written in Quechua . The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish , and in order to preserve their work , many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language . The history behind the Inca drama `` Ollantay '' , the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America , shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo . Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned . The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later , when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript . The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the `` Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa '' , a poem written by Collahuazo , which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa . Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre , born in Daule in 1725 , and Father Juan de Velasco , born in Riobamba in 1727 . De Velasco wrote about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the Kingdom of Quito ( today Ecuador ) before the arrival of the Spanish . His historical accounts are nationalistic , featuring a romantic perspective of precolonial history . Juan Montalvo Famous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include Eugenio Espejo , a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times ; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo ( born in Guayaquil ) , famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled Victoria de Junin ; Juan Montalvo , a prominent essayist and novelist ; Juan Leon Mera , famous for his work `` Cumanda '' or `` Tragedy among Savages '' and the Ecuadorian National Anthem ; Juan A. Martinez with A la Costa ' ; , Dolores Veintimilla ; and others . Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum ; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade ; the essayist Benjamín Carrión ; the poets Medardo Angel Silva , Jorge Carrera Andrade , and Luis Alberto Costales ; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert ; the novelist Jorge Icaza ( author of the novel Huasipungo , translated to many languages ) ; the short story author Pablo Palacio ; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio . In spite of Ecuador 's considerable mystique , it is rarely featured as a setting in contemporary western literature . One exception is `` The Ecuadorian Deception , '' a murder mystery / thriller authored by American Bear Mills . In it , George d'Hout , a website designer from the United States is lured under false pretenses to Guayaquil . A corrupt American archaeologist is behind the plot , believing d'Hout holds the keys to locating a treasure hidden by a buccaneer ancestor . The story is based on a real pirate by the name of George d'Hout who terrorized Guayaquil in the 16th Century . Art The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña ( Quito School ) , which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries , examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito . Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman , Oswaldo Guayasamín , and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement ; Manuel Rendon , Jaime Zapata , Enrique Tábara , Aníbal Villacís , Theo Constanté , Luis Molinari , Araceli Gilbert , Judith Gutierrez , Felix Arauz , and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement ; Teddy Cobeña from expressionism and figurative style and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract , futuristic style . The Amerindian people of Tigua , Ecuador , are also world - renowned for their traditional paintings . Sports Main article : Sport in Ecuador Jefferson Pérez , Olympic gold medalist Estadio Monumental Isidro Romero Carbo of Guayaquil . The most popular sport in Ecuador , as in most South American countries , is football . Its best known professional teams include Liga De Quito from Quito ; Emelec from Guayaquil ; Deportivo Quito , and El Nacional from Quito ; Olmedo from Riobamba ; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca . Currently the most successful football team in Ecuador is LDU Quito , and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores , the Copa Sudamericana , and the Recopa Sudamericana ; they were also runners - up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup . The matches of the Ecuadorian national team are the most - watched sporting events in the country . Ecuador has qualified for the final rounds of the 2002 , the 2006 , & the 2014 FIFA World Cups . The 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a huge success for the country and its inhabitants . The unusually high elevation of the home stadium in Quito often affects the performance of visiting teams . Ecuador finished in 2nd place in the CONMEBOL qualifiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become World Champions , Brazil . In the 2006 FIFA World Cup , Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica finishing second behind Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup . They were defeated by England in the second round . Ecuador has won only two medals in the Olympic Games , both gained by 20 - km ( 12 mi ) racewalker Jefferson Pérez , who took gold in the 1996 games and silver 12 years later . Pérez also set a world best in the 2003 World Championships of 1 : 17 : 21 for the 20 - km ( 12 mi ) distance . Health Main article : Health in Ecuador IESS Hospital in Latacunga The current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967 . The Ministry of the Public Health ( Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador ) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans . The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic . The current minister , or Ecuadorian general surgeon , is Margarita Guevara . The philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population , and its main plan of action lies around communitarian health and preventive medicine . The public healthcare system allows patients to be treated without an appointment in public general hospitals by general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient clinic ( Consulta Externa ) at no cost . This is done in the four basic specialties of pediatric , gynecology , clinic medicine , and surgery . There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases , target a particular group of the population , or provide better treatment in some medical specialties . Some examples in this group are the Gynecologic Hospitals , or Maternities , Children Hospitals , Geriatric Hospitals , and Oncology Institutes . Although well - equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces , there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics , gynecology , clinical medicine , and surgery . Community health care centers ( Centros de Salud ) are found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas . These are day hospitals that provide treatment to patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours . The doctors assigned to rural communities , where the Amerindian population can be substantial , have small clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major cities . The treatment in this case respects the culture of the community . The public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service , which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers . Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system . The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security ( IESS ) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation . Ecuador currently ranks 20 , in most efficient health care countries , compared to 111 back in the year 2000 . Ecuadorians have a life expectancy of 75.6 years . The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births , a major improvement from approximately 76 in the early 1980s and 140 in 1950 . 23 % of children under five are chronically malnourished . Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water , and its supply is provided by mean of water tankers . There are 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people . Basic health care , including doctor 's visits , basic surgeries , and basic medications , has been provided free since 2008 . However , some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients . Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population . Education Rectorate building of the Higher Polytechnic School of the Litoral of Guayaquil Main article : Education in Ecuador The Oldest Observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory , founded in 1873 and located in Quito , Ecuador . The Quito Astronomical Observatory is managed by National Polytechnic School . The Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a `` basic level of education '' , which is estimated at nine school years . In 1996 , the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9 % , and 71.8 % of children stayed in school until the fifth grade . The cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the government , but families often face significant additional expenses such as fees and transportation costs . Provision of public schools falls far below the levels needed , and class sizes are often very large , and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education . In rural areas , only 10 % of the children go on to high school . The Ministry of Education states that the mean number of years completed is 6.7 . Maldonado High School of Riobamba Ecuador has 61 universities , many of which still confer terminal degrees according to the traditional Spanish education system , honoring a long tradition of having some of the oldest universities in the Americas : University of San Fulgencio , founded in 1586 by the Augustines ; San Gregorio Magno University , founded in 1651 by the Jesuits ; and University of Santo Tomás of Aquino , founded in 1681 by the Dominican order . Among the traditional conferred terminal degrees can be noted the doctorate for medicine and law schools or engineering , physics , chemistry , or mathematics for polytechnic or technology institutes . These terminal degrees , as in the case of the PhD in other countries , were the main requirement for an individual to be accepted in academia as a professor or researcher . In the professional realm , a terminal degree granted by an accredited institution automatically provides a professional license to the individual . However , in 2004 , the National Council of Higher Education ( CONESUP ) , started the reorganization of all the degree - granting schemes of the accredited universities in order to pair them with foreign counterparts . The new structure of some careers caused the dropping of subjects , credits , or even the name of the previously conferred diplomas . The terminal degree in law , previously known as JD Juris Doctor ( Doctor en Jurisprudencia ) was replaced by the one of abogado ( attorney ) with the exception of the modification of the number of credits to equate it to an undergraduate degree . In the same fashion for medical school , the required time of education was considerably reduced from nine years ( the minimum needed to obtain the title of MD in Medicine and Surgery ) to almost five , with the provision that the diploma is not terminal anymore , and it is given with the title of médico ( medic ) . Therefore , an MD or PhD in medicine is only to be obtained overseas until the universities adjust themselves to granting schemes and curriculum as in foreign counterparts . Nonetheless , a `` médico '' can start a career as family practitioner or general medicine physician . Municipal Library of Guayaquil This new reorganization , although very ambitious , lacked the proper path to the homologation of diplomas for highly educated professionals graduated in the country or even for the ones graduated in foreign institutions . One of the points of conflict was the imposition of obtaining foreign degrees to current academicians . As today , a master 's degree is a requirement to keep an academic position and at least a foreign PhD to attain or retain the status of rector ( president of a university ) or décano ( dean ) . For Ecuadorian researchers and many academicians trained in the country , these regulations sounded illogical , disappointing , and unlawful since it appeared a question of a title name conflict rather than specialization or science advancement . A debate to modify this and other reforms , especially the one which granted control of the Higher Education System by the government , was practically passed with consensus by the multi-partisan National Assembly on August 4 , 2010 , but vetoed by President Rafael Correa , who wanted to keep the law strictly as it was originally redacted by his political party and SENPLADES ( National Secretary of Planning and Development ) . Due to this change , there are many highly educated professionals and academicians under the old structure but estimated that only 87 % of the faculty in public universities have already obtained a master 's degree , and fewer than 5 % have a PhD ( although many of them already have Ecuadorian - granted doctorate degrees ) . About 300 institutes of higher education offer two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training . Sciences and research EXA 's first satellite , NEE - 01 Pegasus Ecuador is currently placed in 96th position of innovation in technology . The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado , born in Riobamba in 1707 , and the printer , independence precursor , and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo , born in 1747 in Quito . Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Lavandera , a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837 ; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar ( 1898 -- 1950 ) , a botanist and biologist of Andean flora ; and José Aurelio Dueñas ( 1880 -- 1961 ) , a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy . The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields , tropical and infectious diseases treatments , agricultural engineering , pharmaceutical research , and bioengineering . Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology , Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology . The antivirus program Checkprogram , banking protection system MdLock , and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development . The scientific production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics , statistics , and partial differential equations in mathematics . In the case of engineering fields , the majority of scientific production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions : Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral - ESPOL , Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE , and Escuela Politécnica Nacional EPN . The Center for Research and Technology Development in Ecuador is an autonomous center for research and technology development funded by Senecyt . EPN is known for research and education in the applied science , astronomy , atmospheric physics , engineering and physical sciences . The Geophysics Institute monitors over the country 's volcanoes in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador and in the Galápagos Islands , all of which is part of the Ring of Fire . EPN adopted the polytechnic university model that stresses laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering . The oldest observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory and is located in Quito , Ecuador . The Quito Astronomical Observatory , which gives the global community of a Virtual Telescope System that is connected via the Internet and allows the world to watch by streaming , is managed by EPN . Contemporary Ecuadorian scientists who have been recognized by international institutions are Eugenia del Pino ( born 1945 ) , the first Ecuadorian to be elected to the United States National Academy of Science , and Arturo Villavicencio , who was part of the working group of the IPCC , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore for their dissemination of the effects of climate change . Currently , the politics of research and investigation are managed by the National Secretary of Higher Education , Science , and Technology ( Senescyt ) . See also Ecuador portal Latin America portal Geography portal Index of Ecuador - related articles French Geodesic Mission International rankings of Ecuador List of Ecuadorians List of mountains in Ecuador List of national parks in Ecuador Lost Pyramid of Puñay National symbols of Ecuador Outline of Ecuador Energy policy of Ecuador Tourism in Ecuador References ^ Jump up to : `` Ecuador '' . The World Factbook . Retrieved August 18 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Constitución Política de la República del Ecuador '' . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : EL UNIVERSO . `` Población del país es joven y mestiza , dice censo del INEC - Data from the national census 2010 ( 2011 - 09 - 02 ) '' . El Universo . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ España ( January 1 , 1841 ) . `` Tratado de paz y amistad celebrado entre España y la República del Ecuador : en 16 de febrero de 1840 '' . en la Imprenta Nacional -- via Google Books . ^ Jump up to : `` Ecuador - Geography '' . 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PMC 4374169 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Resultados Nacionales Censo de Población y Vivienda '' . Inec.gob.ec . Archived from the original on February 7 , 2012 . Retrieved February 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Ecuador : Virtual Jewish History Tour '' . American - Israeli Cooperative Enterprise . 2004 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cuenca Ecuador -- How The American Dream Moved South '' . vivatropical.com. 2013 . Retrieved January 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Elisabeth Hurtel . `` Photos Indigenous people of Ecuador '' . South-images.com . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2012 . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kichwa Kichwa language page ^ Jump up to : Borja , Piedad . Boceto de Poesía Ecuatoriana , ' Journal de la Academia de Literatura Hispanoamericana ' , 1972 Jump up ^ Robertson , W.S. , History of the Latin - American Nations , 1952 Jump up ^ Karnis , Surviving Pre-Columbian Drama , The Johns Hopkins University Press , 1952 Jump up ^ Dolores Veintimilla Brief biography Archived April 25 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Las esculturas de Teddy Cobeña las favoritas del público '' . Europa Press . Jump up ^ `` Teddy Cobeña expondrá en Europa y Asia '' . Diario Expreso . Jump up ^ `` Madrid guarda arte manabita '' . El Diario de Ecuador . Jump up ^ `` The pride of Ecuador '' . Synergos.org . August 14 , 1996 . Archived from the original on May 10 , 2011 . Retrieved December 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Larrea , Julio. `` 25 Años de Vida Institucional '' , Imprenta del Ministerio de Salud Publica , Quito 2008 . Jump up ^ `` History of the Ministry of Public Health '' . Msp.gob.ec . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2012 . Retrieved February 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Program of the Ministry of Public Health -- Ecuador '' . Msp.gob.ec . Archived from the original on October 5 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Public health care network -- Ministry of Public Health -- Ecuador '' . Msp.gob.ec . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Medical Services -- Instituto Ecuatoriano de Seguridad Social '' . Iess.gob.ec . February 19 , 2010 . Archived from the original on February 21 , 2012 . Retrieved February 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Most Efficient Health Care : Countries - Bloomberg Best ( and Worst ) '' . Bloomberg . Jump up ^ CIA -- The World Factbook -- Rank Order -- Life Expectancy At Birth ^ Jump up to : Olsont , David ( September 19 , 2009 ) . `` Still in its infancy , Ecuador 's free health care has growing pains Special Reports '' . PE.com . Archived from the original on December 25 , 2010 . Retrieved June 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Rex A. Hudson . `` Labor '' . Ecuador : A country study ( Dennis M. Hanratty , ed . ) . Library of Congress Federal Research Division ( 1989 ) . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Ecuador '' . Archived from the original on October 26 , 2007 . Retrieved November 4 , 2009 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) . Fightingdiseases.org Jump up ^ `` NASA Creating a Virtual Telescope with Two Small Spacecraft '' . NASA . ^ Jump up to : `` Ecuador '' . The Department of Labor 's 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor . Bureau of International Labor Affairs , U.S. Department of Labor . 2002 . Archived from the original on May 3 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Spanish Education System , Spanish Education System ( Text in Spanish ) Jump up ^ Ecuador ocupa el puesto 96 en innovación tecnológica . elcomercio.com . September 19 , 2013 Jump up ^ Lavandera , J.R. ( December 27 , 2009 ) . `` José rodríguez lavandera , el inventor '' . Archived from the original on May 10 , 2011 . Retrieved January 26 , 2011 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) . expreso.ec Jump up ^ `` Checkprogram press release '' . Eluniverso.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Instituto Geofísico - EPN - Home '' . igepn.edu.ec . Jump up ^ `` Secretaria Nacional de Educacion Superior , Ciencia y Tecnologia '' . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Further reading Ades , H. and Graham , M. ( 2010 ) The Rough Guide to Ecuador , Rough Guides Becker , M. ( 2008 ) Indians and Leftists in the Making of Ecuador 's Modern Indigenous Movements , Duke University Press Books Becker , M. and Clark , A.K. ( 2007 ) Highland Indians and the State in Modern Ecuador , University of Pittsburgh Press Blakenship , J. ( 2005 ) Cañar : A Year in the Highlands of Ecuador , University of Texas Press Brown , J. and Smith , J. ( 2009 ) Moon Guidebook : Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands , Avalon Travel Publishing Crowder , N. ( 2009 ) Culture Shock ! Ecuador : A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette , Marshall Cavendish Corporation Gerlach , A. ( 2003 ) Indians , Oil , and Politics : A Recent History of Ecuador , SR Books Handelsman , M.H. ( 2008 ) Culture and Customs of Ecuador , Greenwood Hurtado , O. ( 2010 ) Portrait of a Nation : Culture and Progress in Ecuador , Madison Books O'Connor , E. ( 2007 ) Gender , Indian , Nation : The Contradictions of Making Ecuador , 1830 -- 1925 , University of Arizona Press Pineo , R. ( 2007 ) Ecuador and the United States : Useful Strangers , University of Georgia Press Roos , W. and Van Renterghem , O. ( 2000 ) Ecuador in Focus : A Guide to the People , Politics , and Culture , Latin America Bureau Sawyer , S. ( 2004 ) Crude Chronicles : Indigenous Politics , Multinational Oil , and Neoliberalism in Ecuador , Duke University Press Books Striffler , S. ( 2001 ) In the Shadows of State and Capital : The United Fruit Company , Popular Struggle , and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador -- 1900 -- 1995 , Duke University Press Books Torre , C. de la and Striffler , S. ( 2008 ) The Ecuador Reader : History , Culture , Politics , Duke University Press Books Various ( 2010 ) Insight Guidebook : Ecuador & Galápagos , Insight Guides Various ( 2009 ) Lonely Planet Guide : Ecuador & the Galápagos Islands , Lonely Planet Whitten , N.E. ( 2011 ) Histories of the Present : People and Power in Ecuador , University of Illinois Press Whitten , N.E. ( 2003 ) Millennial Ecuador : Critical Essays on Cultural Transformations and Social Dynamics , University Of Iowa Press External links Find more aboutEcuadorat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity President of Ecuador ( in Spanish ) CIA Library Site : Chief of State and Cabinet Members `` Ecuador '' . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . 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where are nimbus clouds found in the sky

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Nimbostratus_cloud&oldid=828721797

Nimbostratus cloud - wikipedia Nimbostratus cloud Jump to : navigation , search Nimbostratus cloud Nimbostratus with fractus Abbreviation Ns Symbol Genus Nimbostratus ( rain , layered ) Species none Variety none Altitude below 3,000 m ( below 10,000 ft ) Appearance Dark , widespread , formless layer Precipitation cloud ? Yes , but may be virga Nimbostratus is a stratiform genus formerly classified as `` Family C '' low - level , but now considered by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) to be a middle - or multi-level stratus type. . Although it is usually a low - based cloud , it actually forms most commonly in the middle level of the troposphere and then spreads vertically into the low and high levels . This change in classification would once have made it a `` Family D '' cloud , but this style of letter - based family nomenclature was discontinued by the WMO in 1956 . Nimbostratus usually produces precipitation over a wide area . Nimbo - is from the Latin word nimbus , which denotes precipitation . Downward - growing nimbostratus can have the same vertical extent as most large upward - growing cumulus , but its horizontal extent tends to be even greater . This sometimes leads to the exclusion of nimbostratus from the group of vertical clouds by some independent meteorologists and educators . Classifications that follow this approach usually show nimbostratus as low - level based on its normal base height range . Contents ( hide ) 1 Appearance 2 Formation 3 Forecast 4 Origin of name 5 Subtypes and derivative types 6 Relation to other clouds 7 References 8 External links Appearance ( edit ) Nimbostratus has a diffuse cloud base generally found anywhere from near surface in the low levels to about 3,000 m ( 9,800 ft ) in the middle level of the troposphere . Although usually dark at its base , it often appears illuminated from within to a surface observer . Nimbostratus usually has a thickness of about 2000 to 4000 m . Though found worldwide , nimbostratus occurs more commonly in the middle latitudes . It is coded C 2 on the SYNOP report . Formation ( edit ) Nimbostratus occurs along a warm front or occluded front where the slowly rising warm air mass creates nimbostratus along with shallower stratus clouds producing less rain , these clouds being preceded by higher - level clouds such as cirrostratus and altostratus . Often , when an altostratus cloud thickens and descends into lower altitudes , it will become nimbostratus . Nimbostratus , unlike cumulonimbus , is not associated with thunderstorms , however at an unusually unstable warm front caused as a result of the advancing warm air being hot , humid and unstable , cumulonimbus clouds may be embedded within the usual nimbostratus . Lightning from an embedded cumulonimbus cloud may interact with the nimbostratus but only in the immediate area around it . In this situation with lightning and rain occurring it would be hard to tell which type of cloud was producing the rain from the ground , however cumulonimbus tend to produce larger droplets and more intense downpours . The occurrence of cumulonimbus and nimbostratus together is uncommon , and usually only nimbostratus is found at a warm front . Forecast ( edit ) Nimbostrati often have very few visual features . Nimbostratus is generally a sign of an approaching warm or occluded front producing steady moderate precipitation , as opposed to the shorter period of typically heavier precipitation released by a cold - frontal cumulonimbus cloud . Precipitation may last for several days , depending on the speed of the frontal system . A nimbostratus virga cloud is the same as normal nimbostratus , but the rain or snow falls as virga which does n't reach the ground . Stratus or stratocumulus usually replace the nimbostratus after the passage of the warm or occluded front . Origin of name ( edit ) Further information : Cloud § History of cloud science and nomenclature Under Luke Howard 's first systematized study of clouds , carried out in France in 1802 , three general cloud forms were established based on appearance and characteristics of formation : cirriform , cumiliform and stratiform . These were further divided into upper and lower types depending on altitude . In addition to these three main types , Howard added two names to designate multiple cloud types joined together : cumulostratus , a blending of cumulus clouds and stratus layers , and nimbus , a complex blending of cirriform , cumuliform , and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation . Later , in the 20th Century , an IMC commission for the study of clouds put forward a refined and more restricted definition of the genus nimbus , effectively reclassifying it as a stratiform cloud type . It was then renamed nimbostratus , and published with the new name in the 1932 edition of the International Atlas of Clouds and of States of the Sky . This left cumulonimbus as the only nimbiform type as indicated by its root - name . Subtypes and derivative types ( edit ) Species and varieties : Nimbostratus is very thick , opaque , and featureless , so this genus type is not subdivided into species or varieties . Precipitation - based supplementary features : Nimbostratus is a major precipitation cloud and produces the virga or praecipitatio features . The latter can achieve heavy intensity due to the cloud 's vertical depth . Accessory cloud : Nimbostratus pannus is an accessory cloud of nimbostratus that forms as a ragged layer in precipitation below the main cloud deck. Pannus is coded C 7 . Genitus mother clouds : This genus type can form from cumulus and cumulonimbus . Mutatus mother clouds : Nimbostratus can form due to the complete transformation of altocumulus , altostratus and stratocumulus . Relation to other clouds ( edit ) Multi-level nimbostratus is physically related to other stratiform genus - types by way of being non-convective in nature . However , the other sheet - like clouds usually each occupy only one or two levels at the same time . Stratus clouds are low - level and form from near ground level to 2,000 metres ( 6,600 ft ) at all latitudes . In the middle level are the altostratus clouds that form from 2,000 metres ( 6,600 ft ) to 7,000 metres ( 23,000 ft ) in polar areas , 7,000 metres ( 23,000 ft ) in temperate areas , and 7,600 metres ( 24,900 ft ) in tropical areas . Although altostratus forms mostly in the middle level of the troposphere , strong frontal lift can push it into the lower part of the high - level . The main hight - level stratiform cloud is cirrostratus which is composed of ice crystals that often produce halo effects around the sun . Cirrostratus forms at altitudes of 3,000 to 7,600 metres ( 9,800 to 24,900 ft ) in high latitudes , 5,000 to 12,000 metres ( 16,000 to 39,000 ft ) in temperate latitudes , and 6,100 to 18,000 metres ( 20,000 to 59,100 ft ) in low , tropical latitudes . Of the non-stratiform clouds , cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus are the most closely related to nimbostratus because of their vertical extent and ability to produce moderate to heavy precipitation . The remaining cumuliform ( cumulus ) and stratocumuliform ( stratocumulus , altocumulus , and cirrocumulus ) clouds have the least in common with nimbostratus . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ World Meteorological Organization , ed. ( 2017 ) . `` Definitions , International Cloud Atlas '' . Retrieved 30 March 2017 . Jump up ^ JetStream ( 5 January 2010 ) . `` Cloud Classifications '' . National Weather Service . Retrieved 31 January 2011 . Jump up ^ `` cloud : Classification of Clouds '' . Infoplease.com . Jump up ^ Hatheway , Becca ( 2009 ) . `` Cloud Types '' . Windows to the Universe , US National Earth Science Teachers Association ( NESTA ) . Retrieved 15 September 2011 . Jump up ^ UXL , ed. ( 2002 ) . `` clouds . UXL Encyclopedia of Science '' . Retrieved 23 November 2014 . Jump up ^ World Meteorological Organization , ed. ( 1975 ) . Nimbostratus , International Cloud Atlas ( PDF ) . I . pp. 37 -- 39 . ISBN 92 - 63 - 10407 - 7 . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Pretor - Pinney , Gavin ( 2007 ) . The Cloudspotter 's Guide : The Science , History , and Culture of Clouds . Perigee . ISBN 0 - 399 - 53345 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Dunlop , Storm ( 2003 ) . Weather Identification Handbook : The Ultimate Guide for Weather Watchers . Guilford , Connecticut : Globe Pequot . ISBN 1 - 58574 - 857 - 9 . Jump up ^ Thompson , Graham ; Turk , Jonathan ( 1993 ) . Earth Science and the Environment . Fort Worth : Saunders College Publishing . ISBN 0 - 03 - 075446 - 1 . Jump up ^ Lankford , Terry ( 2000 ) . Aviation Weather Handbook . McGraw - Hill Professional . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 136103 - 3 . Jump up ^ World Meteorological Organization , ed. ( 1975 ) . Species , International Cloud Atlas ( PDF ) . pp. 18 -- 20 . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . Jump up ^ World Meteorological Organization , ed. ( 1975 ) . Varieties , International Cloud Atlas ( PDF ) . pp. 20 -- 22 . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . Jump up ^ World Meteorological Organization , ed. ( 1975 ) . Features , International Cloud Atlas ( PDF ) . I . pp. 22 -- 24 . ISBN 92 - 63 - 10407 - 7 . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Cite error : The named reference nws - jetstream was invoked but never defined ( see the help page ) . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nimbostratus clouds . National Science Digital Library - Nimbostratus Nimbostratus and Other Low Clouds ( hide ) Cloud genera and selected species , supplementary features , and other airborne hydrometeors - WMO Latin terminology except where indicated Extreme - level Polar mesospheric cirriform type Noctilucent Very high - level Polar stratospheric cirriform type Nacreous High - level Tropospheric cirriform , stratiform , and stratocumuliform genera Cirrus ( Ci ) Cirrostratus ( Cs ) Cirrocumulus ( Cc ) General type ( non-WMO terminology ) Aviaticus cloud ( Contrail ) Medium - level Tropospheric stratiform and stratocumuliform genera Altostratus ( As ) Altocumulus ( Ac ) Stratocumuliform species Altocumulus castellanus ( Ac cas ) Low - level Tropospheric stratiform , stratocumuliform and cumuliform genera Stratus ( St ) Stratocumulus ( Sc ) Cumulus ( Cu ) Horseshoe Stratiform and cumuliform species Fractus Cumulus humilis ( Cu hum ) Stratocumulus variants ( non-WMO terminology ) Actinoform cloud Asperitas Moderate vertical Tropospheric stratiform and cumuliform genera Nimbostratus ( Ns ) Cumulus ( Cu ) Cumuliform species Cumulus mediocris ( Cu med ) Cumuliform supplementary features Cumulus Pileus Cumulus Volutus Towering vertical Tropospheric cumulonimbiform genus Cumulonimbus ( Cb ) Cumuliform species Cumulus congestus ( ICAO term Towering cumulus ( Tcu ) ) Cumuliform and cumulonimbiform supplementary features mamma Tuba ( Funnel cloud ) Pileus Arcus ( Shelf ) Cumuliform and cumulonimbiform variants ( non-WMO terminology ) Wall cloud Cumulonimbuus Overshooting top Hot tower Surface based General type Fog Non-height specific General types Accessory cloud Kelvin -- Helmholtz cloud Special Special modifiers Flammagenitus ( cloud ) Homogenitus ( cloud ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nimbostratus_cloud&oldid=828721797 '' Categories : Stratus Hidden categories : Pages with reference errors Pages with broken reference names Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Kaszëbsczi Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 33 more Edit links This page was last edited on 4 March 2018 , at 10 : 24 . 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8178812834126067626

jay z magna carta holy grail album sales

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Magna_Carta_Holy_Grail&oldid=798869266

Magna Carta Holy Grail - wikipedia Magna Carta Holy Grail Jump to : navigation , search Magna Carta Holy Grail Studio album by Jay - Z Released July 4 , 2013 ( 2013 - 07 - 04 ) Recorded 2011 -- June 2013 Studio Jungle City Studios ( NYC ) Oven Studios ( New York ) Genre Hip hop Length 58 : 55 Label Roc - A-Fella Roc Nation Def Jam Producer Shawn Carter ( exec . ) Boi - 1da Darhyl `` Hey DJ '' Camper Hit - Boy Jerome `` Jroc '' Harmon Kyambo `` Hip Hop '' Joshua Marz Mike Dean Mike Will Made It No I.D. Pharrell Williams Swizz Beatz The - Dream Timbaland Justin Timberlake Travis Scott Vinylz Jay - Z chronology Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) Magna Carta Holy Grail ( 2013 ) 4 : 44 ( 2017 ) Singles from Magna Carta Holy Grail `` Holy Grail '' Released : July 10 , 2013 `` Tom Ford '' Released : September 26 , 2013 `` Part II ( On the Run ) '' Released : February 18 , 2014 Magna Carta Holy Grail ( alternatively written and stylized as Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ) is the twelfth studio album by American rapper Jay - Z . It was made available for free digital download for Samsung customers via the Jay - Z Magna Carta app on July 4 , 2013 . It was released for retail sale on July 8 , 2013 , by Roc - A-Fella , Def Jam and Roc Nation . The album features guest appearances by Justin Timberlake , Nas , Rick Ross , Frank Ocean and Beyoncé . Most of the album was produced by Timbaland and Jerome `` J - Roc '' Harmon , while other producers included Boi - 1da , Mike Will Made It , Hit - Boy , Mike Dean , No I.D. , The - Dream , Swizz Beatz , and Pharrell Williams among others . The album was promoted through various commercials presented by Samsung and was not preceded by any retail singles . Upon its release , Magna Carta Holy Grail was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Some complimented the album 's production and composition , while others were disappointed with its overall theme and found many songs repetitive . On the day of its physical release in the United States , the album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 1,000,000 copies . It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , selling 528,000 copies in its first week , making it Jay - Z 's 13th consecutive studio album to top the chart . On September 2 , 2013 , it was announced that Magna Carta Holy Grail was certified double Platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of two million copies in the United States . The album was nominated in six categories at the 2014 Grammy Awards winning the Best Rap / Sung Collaboration trophy for `` Holy Grail '' featuring Justin Timberlake . The album spawned three successful singles , `` Holy Grail '' , `` Tom Ford '' and `` Part II ( On the Run ) '' featuring Beyoncé . Multiple other songs on the album achieved chart success including , `` FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt '' , `` Oceans '' , `` Heaven '' and `` Picasso Baby '' . Additionally , the album was supported by the concert tour , Magna Carter World Tour . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Recording and production 3 Release and promotion 4 Singles 5 Critical reception 5.1 Accolades 6 Commercial performance 7 Track listing 8 Personnel 9 Charts 9.1 Weekly charts 9.2 Year - end charts 10 Certifications 11 Release history 12 References 13 External links Background ( edit ) On September 23 , 2010 , rapper Q - Tip confirmed working on Jay - Z 's twelfth studio album , with a tentative release in 2011 . By May 2012 , reports arose that he was working on new music with Roc Nation producer Jahlil Beats . In an interview with XXL , Beats stated : `` Me and Jay - Z been going back and forth . He picked a couple of my joints that he 's working on . I do n't even wan na say too much about Jay , but we definitely working on some stuff . I have n't even sent him a bunch of beats . I sent him my favorite stuff . He hit me right back like , ' Yo , I'ma go in on this , ' or , ' I like this . ' '' The album development was kept a secret , but The - Dream hinted about a new Jay - Z album in an April 2013 interview with Hot 97 . Leading up to the album 's announcement , Jay - Z served as an executive producer for both the film The Great Gatsby and its soundtrack , The Great Gatsby : Music from Baz Luhrmann 's Film , which he and film director Baz Luhrmann worked together for two years . The opening song , `` 100 $ Bill '' by Jay - Z contains a chopped and screwed beat , electro - rap elements and is written in the perspective of a modern - day Gatsby , it was both co-written and produced by E * vax one half of electronic rock duo Ratatat . Recording and production ( edit ) Timbaland provided the bulk of the production on the album . In late 2011 , it was confirmed three songs had been recorded and one of which featured Frank Ocean which would end up being `` Oceans '' , the oldest song that appeared on the album . The recording for `` Oceans '' and production for `` Holy Grail '' were completed in 2011 , during the recording sessions for Jay 's collaborative album with Kanye West , Watch the Throne . West wanted the two songs to appear on Watch the Throne , however Jay - Z chose to keep them for Magna Carta Holy Grail . After Watch the Throne was released , Jay - Z chose to go on a worldwide concert tour instead of devoting more time for the album . Following the end of the tour , the main bulk of recording sessions for Magna Carta Holy Grail took place at Alicia Keys and Swizz Beatz ' Jungle City Studios in New York , where Justin Timberlake and Beyoncé Knowles were also working on their albums at the time . Jay - Z described the recording process as having a `` minimalist approach '' to give Magna Carta Holy Grail a `` 1990s feel '' . While working on Beyoncé 's fifth studio album , frequent collaborator Timbaland played Jay - Z the instrumental for what would become `` Picasso Baby '' . According to Jay - Z , that song built the sound of the album . Jay - Z and Timbaland had grown apart after they worked on The Blueprint 3 , but reunited for this album . Timbaland ended up handling the majority of the production on Magna Carta Holy Grail . In an interview with BBC Radio 1 , Jay - Z stated that while the two have recorded many songs in the past , it was not until Magna Carta Holy Grail that they got the chemistry to collaborate for a whole project . Producer J - Roc described `` Picasso Baby '' as `` just New York '' . He told XXL that him and Timbaland `` were really just feeling the city , the energy that it gives out '' and were inspired by the `` numerous different cultures and different dialects or sounds . '' Justin Timberlake makes three appearances on the album . The instrumental for `` FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt '' was started by producer Vinylz , who was inspired by a Pimp C speech he found on YouTube . He sampled Pimp C 's voice for the intro and then created the instrumental in a short amount of time . After fellow producer Boi - 1da added to the production , the song was sent to Rick Ross who intended to use it for his upcoming album . Jay - Z was meant to add a guest verse to it , but when he heard the instrumental , he wanted the track for his album . Timbaland added additional changes to it before they mastered the final version . In 2012 , Jay - Z contacted GOOD Music producer Hit - Boy about working together on Magna Carta Holy Grail . Hit - Boy created the instrumental for `` Somewhereinamerica '' , a song that was initially supposed to appear on the debut album of Grand Hustle artist Travis Scott . While in the studio with Jay - Z , Scott played the instrumental for him and Jay - Z instantly liked it . The instrumental for the song `` Crown '' was made by 16 - year - old Canadian producer WondaGurl . She had collaborated with Travis Scott on his Owl Pharaoh mixtape and went on to produce another track for his upcoming album . Scott liked the instrumental and started to build upon it with Mike Dean . The two then gave it to Jay - Z who recorded `` Crown '' over it . Overall , Jay - Z worked extensively on the album 's production with producers such as Swizz Beatz , Timbaland and Pharrell Williams who were also featured in the Samsung commercials promoting Magna Carta Holy Grail . He had also worked on the album 's production with Jahlil Beats , Boi - 1da , Mike Dean , Kanye West and Mike Will Made It , among others . He had also been seen in the studio with various recording artists such as Drake , The - Dream , Raekwon , Nas , and Timberlake working on the album . The final track listing revealed guest appearances by Timberlake , Frank Ocean , Nas , Pharrell , Swizz Beatz , Rick Ross and Beyoncé among others . Release and promotion ( edit ) See also : Legends of the Summer , Magna Carter World Tour , and On the Run Tour ( Beyoncé and Jay - Z ) On June 16 , 2013 , during the fifth game of the 2013 NBA Finals , Jay - Z was featured in a new commercial by Samsung where he announced that his twelfth studio album would be titled , Magna Carta Holy Grail and would be released on July 4 , 2013 . He was seen speaking to producer Rick Rubin in the studio about the album saying , `` ( It ) is about , like this duality of how do you navigate through this whole thing , through success , through failures , through all this and remain yourself . '' The commercial featured producers that are confirmed to be on the album including Timbaland , Swizz Beatz and Pharrell Williams . The album was made available for free download on July 4 , 12 : 01 a.m. EST , to the first one million Samsung Galaxy S III , Samsung Galaxy S4 and Samsung Galaxy Note II users of a new app . Shortly after , Billboard said that the Samsung deal would not count towards the sales figures used by Nielsen SoundScan to compile their charts . The album was then released for retail sale three days later , on July 7 , 2013 . Leading up to the release of the album , Jay - Z released selected lyrics of each song daily , via the Samsung app . This included `` Holy Grail '' , `` Heaven '' , `` Oceans '' , `` Part II ( On the Run ) '' , `` BBC '' , `` Jay Z Blue '' , `` Versus '' , `` La Familia '' , `` Tom Ford '' , `` Beach Is Better '' , `` Crown '' , `` Picasso Baby '' , `` F.U.T.W. '' , `` Nickels & Dimes '' and `` SomewhereInAmerica '' in order . On July 3 , 2013 , the cover art of the album was revealed in a photo where it was placed next to the one of the four surviving copies of album 's namesake ( the 13th - century English charter ) in Salisbury Cathedral , England , and it remained on display there until the end of July . The logo for the album was inspired by an art piece by Be Andr from 2009 named ' Untitled ( art ) ' . During the 2013 Grammy Awards , Timberlake and Jay - Z performed their hit single `` Suit & Tie '' . Following their appearance on Grammys , rumors of a stadium tour between the artists were raised as a result of Jay - Z 's posts on his Life + Times website ; he posted series of venues with the note `` # LegendsOfSummer this week '' . The Legends of the Summer Stadium Tour was officially announced on February 22 , 2013 . The tour begun on July 14 , 2013 in London , England . Starting in October 2013 , Jay - Z toured Europe on the Magna Carter World Tour . It begun on October 3 at the Manchester Arena in Manchester , England and concluded on October 29 at the Ziggo Dome in Amsterdam , Netherlands . The North American leg followed that , and it ended on January 31 , 2014 . Singles ( edit ) On April 11 , 2013 , Jay - Z released the first song from the album titled `` Open Letter '' . The song was a response to the critics of his fifth wedding anniversary that took place in Cuba . This was due to the current United States embargo against Cuba , which required them needing a permit to visit the country . The song was produced by Swizz Beatz , and was included on the album as a bonus track . On July 10 , 2013 , Third Man Records announced on their website that they had entered a deal to release Magna Carta Holy Grail on vinyl , also confirming that `` Open Letter '' would be included as a vinyl - only bonus track and that there would be `` something ( else ) very special planned for the vinyl edition . '' However , the ' vinyl - only ' appearance of `` Open Letter '' has been shown to not apply to all market areas . Third Man Records is set to issue `` Open Letter '' in the form of a vinyl single designed as a playable letter . In an interview with Hot 97 , Jay - Z went into detail about the single 's release , saying : `` It 's in a letter . You can play the letter . It 's amazing ... You open the letter , and you can actually play the card . '' The song `` Holy Grail '' features vocals from singer Justin Timberlake and served as the album 's first single . It was produced by The - Dream , Timbaland and Jerome `` J - Roc '' Harmon , with additional production from No ID and containing elements of Nirvana 's 1991 hit single `` Smells Like Teen Spirit '' . Following the release of the album , the song debuted at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 24 on the UK Singles Chart . The song has since peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video was released on August 29 , 2013 , making social media history as the first time a clip from major artists debuted strictly on Facebook . On September 26 , 2013 , the album 's second single `` Tom Ford '' was serviced to urban contemporary radio in the United Kingdom and then on October 15 , 2013 , to rhythmic contemporary in the United States . Prior to its single release , the song peaked at number 39 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . `` Part II ( On the Run ) '' featuring Beyoncé was serviced to contemporary hit radio stations on February 18 , 2014 as the album 's third single . The song has since peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Critical reception ( edit ) Professional ratings Aggregate scores Source Rating AnyDecentMusic ? 5.4 / 10 Metacritic 60 / 100 Review scores Source Rating AllMusic The A.V. Club C -- The Daily Telegraph Los Angeles Times MSN Music B+ NME 6 / 10 Pitchfork 5.8 / 10 Rolling Stone Spin 5 / 10 The Times Magna Carta Holy Grail received generally mixed reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 60 , based on 42 reviews . In The New York Times , Jon Pareles wrote that Jay - Z was trying to transition from his pop sensibilities but had not yet found a `` reliable alternative '' on Magna Carta Holy Grail , where his raps were often mismatched with rigidly produced tracks . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman believed the record was hastily produced and despite occasionally impressive lyrics , Jay - Z 's pop culture references sounded reflexive . Spin magazine 's Jordan Sargent said the songs sounded at once overly elaborate and unfinished , along with similar but less momentous themes in comparison to Watch the Throne . Jesse Cataldo from Slant Magazine deemed it a self - important album marred by shallow name - dropping , while accusing Jay - Z of becoming disinterested creatively because of his increased success . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club felt the rapper had exhausted the end of his rags to riches narrative and was unable to reinvent himself beyond gloating superficially about his riches . The Daily Telegraph 's Helen Brown found his boastful references heavy - handed and the album unchallenging , albeit enjoyable for `` the lazy listener '' . Greg Kot wrote in the Chicago Tribune viewed that , apart from well - written moments on `` Oceans '' , `` Jay - Z Blue '' , and `` Nickel & Dimes '' , most of the album was inconsequential . In a generally positive review , Randall Roberts from the Los Angeles Times was impressed by the production 's energy and samples , even though he thought the album was not as intellectual or adventurous as its title suggests . Uncut wrote that it mostly succeeded as an attempt by Jay - Z to `` balance his great wealth , tough history and news responsibility while retaining his grit . '' NME critic Louis Pattison said it lacked a radical presence such as Kanye West to complement Jay - Z 's mature ruminations , but nonetheless showed him as a sagacious lyricist comparable with Bruce Springsteen or Bob Dylan . In The Observer , Kitty Empire believed that while the diverse production would appeal to listeners at first rather than Jay - Z 's predictably `` umpteenth retelling '' of his rags - to - riches story , the topics become more interesting on subsequent listens because of his surprisingly concerned takes on fatherhood and charity . Robert Christgau from MSN Music said he was won over after several listens by the familial songs , which he found amusing on a record that pits `` black man as artistic rebel versus black man as family stalwart '' . Accolades ( edit ) Closing out the year , Magna Carta Holy Grail was met with many accolades and was named in multiple `` Albums of the Year '' lists by major publications . It was nominated for Album of the Year at the 2013 BET Hip Hop Awards and for Best Rap Album at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . Complex ranked the album at number 23 , on their list of the 50 best albums of 2013 . They praised the `` high - gloss production , '' and strong rhymes by Jay - Z , deeming it `` very listenable '' . Rolling Stone named it the tenth best hip hop album of the 2013 saying , `` The legendary MC explored of - the - moment sounds , textures and tempos in ways only he could ( ... ) Even on a bit of an off day , Jay is still plenty impressive . '' It was named the eighth best album of 2013 by XXL . Year Ceremony Category Result 2014 Billboard Music Awards Top Rap Album Nominated Commercial performance ( edit ) Magna Carta Holy Grail debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 528,000 copies in its first week , which bypassed its predicted debut in the range of 350,000 to 400,000 . The album also debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart . It is Jay - Z 's third straight number one album in Canada . The album debuted at number one on the UK Album Chart , Jay - Z 's first UK number one album . In its second week the album sold 129,000 more copies in the United States . Despite the 76 % drop in sales , Magna Carta Holy Grail retained its number one position on the Billboard 200 , becoming the first rap album to spend two consecutive weeks on top since Lil Wayne 's Tha Carter IV ( 2011 ) . In its third week the album would drop down to number two , selling 77,000 copies . In its fourth week the album would drop down to number three , selling 62,000 copies . It sold 1,099,000 copies in 2013 in the United States , making it the tenth best - selling album of the year . By February 26 , 2014 , the album had sold 1,130,000 copies in the United States . As of September 2 , 2013 , It was announced by Billboard that Magna Carta Holy Grail was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of two million copies in the United States . At the time of its release , the album had the second - biggest sales week for 2013 , behind Justin Timberlake 's The 20 / 20 Experience . Magna Carta Holy Grail 's debut marked the first time in Billboard 's history when four different rap albums have consecutively spent weeks at number one , after Kanye West 's Yeezus , Wale 's The Gifted and J. Cole 's Born Sinner . Magna Carta Holy Grail also became Jay - Z 's 13th studio album in a row to top the Billboard 200 , extending his record for the most chart - toppers by a solo act in Billboard 's history . Track listing ( edit ) On June 22 , Jay - Z held a viral scavenger hunt around Brooklyn , New York as part of his `` # NEWRULES '' venture with Samsung . The 100 winners of the hunt were given a binder that revealed the track list . No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Holy Grail '' ( featuring Justin Timberlake ) Shawn Carter Terius `` The - Dream '' Nash Justin Timberlake Timothy Mosley Jerome `` Jroc '' Harmon Ernest Wilson Kurt Cobain Dave Grohl Krist Novoselic The - Dream Timbaland Jroc No I.D. 5 : 38 2 . `` Picasso Baby '' Carter Mosley Harmon Adrian Younge Timbaland Jroc 4 : 05 3 . `` Tom Ford '' Carter Mosley Harmon Timbaland Jroc 3 : 09 4 . `` Fuckwithmeyouknowigotit '' ( featuring Rick Ross ) Carter Matthew Samuels Anderson Hernandez William Roberts II Boi - 1da Vinylz Timbaland Jroc 4 : 03 5 . `` Oceans '' ( featuring Frank Ocean ) Carter Christopher Breaux Pharrell Williams Williams Timbaland 3 : 57 6 . `` F.U.T.W. '' Carter Mosley Harmon Timbaland Jroc 4 : 02 7 . `` Somewhereinamerica '' Carter Chauncey Hollis Darhyl `` Hey DJ '' Camper , Jr . Mike Dean Hit - Boy Hey DJ Camper Dean 2 : 28 8 . `` Crown '' Carter Jacques Webster Dean Kirk Bennett Miguel Collins Bobby Dixon Travis Scott Dean 4 : 34 9 . `` Heaven '' Carter Nash Timberlake Mosley Harmon William Berry Peter Buck Mike Mills Michael Stipe Younge Timbaland Jroc 4 : 02 10 . `` Versus '' Carter Mosley Kasseem Dean Harmon Jonathan Davis Frederick Hubbard Muhammad Jones Malik Taylor Timbaland Swizz Beatz 0 : 51 11 . `` Part II ( On the Run ) '' ( featuring Beyoncé ) Carter James Fauntleroy Mosley Harmon Timbaland Jroc 5 : 33 12 . `` Beach Is Better '' Carter Michael Williams Marquel Middlebrooks Mike Will Made It Marz 0 : 55 13 . `` BBC '' Carter P. Williams Nasir Jones Mosley Timberlake K. Dean P. Williams 3 : 12 14 . `` JAY Z Blue '' Carter Mosley Harmon Timberlake Carlos Broady Sean Combs Darryl McDaniels Nashiem Myrick Christopher Wallace Timbaland Jroc Timberlake 3 : 50 15 . `` La Familia '' Carter Mosley Harmon Timbaland Jroc 3 : 33 16 . `` Nickels and Dimes '' Carter Kyambo `` Hip Hop '' Joshua M. Dean Sumach Valentine Hip Hop M. Dean 5 : 03 ( show ) Vinyl edition bonus track No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 17 . `` Open Letter '' Carter K. Dean Mosley Harmon Swizz Beatz Timbaland Jroc 2 : 40 Notes signifies a co-producer . signifies an additional producer . `` Holy Grail '' features additional vocals by Terius `` The - Dream '' Nash . `` Picasso Baby '' features additional vocals by The - Dream and Zofia Borucka Moreno . `` Tom Ford '' features additional vocals by Third Ward Trill . `` Crown '' features additional vocals by Travis Scott . `` Heaven '' features additional vocals by Justin Timberlake . `` BBC '' features additional vocals by Nas , Third World Trill , Pharrell , Timbaland , Justin Timberlake and Swizz Beatz . `` JAY Z Blue '' features additional vocals by Taffy . `` Open Letter '' features additional vocals by Trey Songz Samples credits `` Holy Grail '' contains elements of `` Smells Like Teen Spirit '' performed by Nirvana . `` Picasso Baby '' contains a sample of `` Sirens '' performed by Adrian Younge . `` Tom Ford '' contains elements of `` Bad Girls '' performed by M.I.A. `` Somewhereinamerica '' embodies portions of `` Gangster of Love ( Part 1 ) '' written by Johnny Guitar Watson . `` Crown '' contains a sample of `` Solid as a Rock '' performed by Sizzla . `` Heaven '' contains a sample of `` Reverie '' performed by Adrian Younge , and lyrically samples `` Losing My Religion '' performed by R.E.M. `` Versus '' embodies portions of A Tribe Called Quest 's `` Sucka Nigga '' , and contains a sample of `` Lilith -- On The Way '' performed by Bruno Spoerri `` Part II ( On the Run ) '' contains a sample of `` Believe in Me '' performed by One Way . `` BBC '' lyrically samples `` Feel So Good '' performed by Mase . `` Jay Z Blue '' contains samples from `` My Downfall '' performed by The Notorious B.I.G. and a monologue by Faye Dunaway in the 1981 film Mommie Dearest . `` Nickels and Dimes '' contains a sample of `` Nikels and Dimes '' performed by Gonjasufi . Personnel ( edit ) Credits are adapted from AllMusic . Beyoncé -- featured artist , vocals Boi - 1da -- producer Darhyl `` DJ '' Camper Jr. -- producer Shawn `` Jay - Z '' Carter -- executive producer , primary artist Mike Dean -- additional production , mixing , producer Demacio `` Demo '' Castellon -- engineer , mixing The - Dream -- producer , vocals Dominique Dunn -- A&R Chris Gehringer -- mastering Chris Godbey -- engineer Jerome `` J - Roc '' Harmon -- additional production , producer Hit - Boy -- producer Ken `` Duro '' Ifill -- mixing Jaycen Joshua -- mixing Kyambo `` Hip Hop '' Joshua -- producer Ryan Kaul -- mixing assistant Johnathan Lee -- assistant engineer Ari Marcopoulos -- photography Marz -- producer Zeke Mishanec -- assistant engineer Zofia Borucka Moreno -- vocals Nas -- vocals No ID -- additional production Frank Ocean -- featured artist Ebony `` WondaGurl '' Oshunrinde -- additional production Willo Perron -- creative director Ramon Rivas -- assistant engineer , engineer Brian Roettinger -- art direction Rick Ross -- featured artist Lenny S. -- A&R Travis Scott -- producer , vocals Swizz Beatz -- producer , vocals Taffy -- vocals Timbaland -- additional production , producer , vocals Justin Timberlake -- additional production , featured artist , vocals Vinylz -- producer Matt Weber -- assistant engineer Eric Weissman -- sample clearance Mike Will -- producer Pharrell Williams -- producer , vocals Jordan `` DJ Swivel '' Young -- editing , engineer Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2013 ) Peak position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) 14 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders ) 7 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia ) 31 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) 7 French Albums ( SNEP ) 12 Finnish Albums ( Suomen virallinen lista ) 17 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) 9 Irish Albums ( IRMA ) Italian Albums ( FIMI ) 23 Japanese Albums ( Oricon ) 46 South Korean Albums ( Gaon ) 19 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) Norwegian Albums ( VG - lista ) Polish Albums ( ZPAV ) 28 South African Albums ( RISA ) 18 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) 8 Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) 59 UK Albums ( OCC ) US Billboard 200 US Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums ( Billboard ) US Top Tastemaker Albums ( Billboard ) Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2013 ) Position Australian Urban Albums Chart 13 Belgian Albums Chart ( Wallonia ) 85 Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) 175 Canadian Albums Chart 24 Swedish Albums Chart 90 Swiss Albums Chart 67 UK Albums Chart 70 US Billboard 200 12 US Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) Platinum 80,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Gold 100,000 United States ( RIAA ) 2 × Platinum 2,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Edition Worldwide July 4 , 2013 Digital download ( via JAY Z Magna Carta Samsung app ) Roc Nation Roc - A-Fella Universal Standard Australia July 8 , 2013 Digital download CD Bonus track Germany Digital download CD Standard United Kingdom Digital download Virgin EMI Canada July 9 , 2013 Digital download CD Roc Nation Roc - A-Fella Universal United States Digital download CD United Kingdom July 22 , 2013 CD Roc Nation Roc - A-Fella Virgin EMI Canada July 23 , 2013 CD Roc Nation Roc - A-Fella Universal United States March 20 , 2015 Vinyl Third Man Bonus track References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Timbaland Breaks Down The Genesis of Jay Z 's ' Magna Carta Holy Grail , ' Production Credits '' . XXL . Harris Publications . July 4 , 2013 . Retrieved July 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` JAY Z `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' Album Cover `` . Life and Times . Retrieved August 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Q - Tip Confirms Jay - Z 's Upcoming New Album '' . Rap Basement . September 22 , 2010 . Retrieved July 31 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Horowitz , Steven . `` Jay - Z Working With Jahlil Beats On New Music '' . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved May 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Jay - Z Announces New Album , ' Magna Carta Holy Grail , ' In Samsung Commercial '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . June 16 , 2013 . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` New Great Gatsby trailer reveals Beyoncé soundtrack '' . The Daily Telegraph . London , United Kingdom : Telegraph Media Group . April 5 , 2013 . ISSN 0307 - 1235 . OCLC 49632006 . Retrieved April 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Makarechi , Kia ( April 4 , 2013 ) . `` ' Great Gatsby ' Soundtrack Tracklist Includes Jay - Z , Beyonce , Andre 3000 , Florence , The XX & More '' . The Huffington Post . AOL . Retrieved April 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Young , Alex ( April 4 , 2013 ) . `` The Great Gatsby soundtrack features new Jay - Z , The xx , Florence & the Machine '' . Consequence of Sound . Retrieved April 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Gamboa , Glenn ( May 3 , 2013 ) . `` Hear ' The Great Gatsby ' soundtrack now '' . Newsday . Cablevision . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` New Music : Jay - Z -- 100 $ Bill ( Snippet ) '' . Rap - Up . Devin Lazerine. April 22 , 2013 . Retrieved April 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Murphy , Keith ( May 7 , 2013 ) . `` 15 Thoughts On ' The Great Gatsby ' Soundtrack '' . Vibe . Spin Media . `` Page 2 of 4 '' . `` Page 3 of 4 '' . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z Twitter Answers '' . Complex . Complex Media . Retrieved July 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z Says Kanye West Wanted `` Holy Grail '' & `` Oceans '' On `` Watch The Throne '' `` . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` BBC Radio 1 's Zane Lowe Speaks to Jay - Z about ' Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ' ( Part 1 ) '' . Hypetrak . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' Behind The Scenes : Five Producers Who Helped Craft The Album '' . XXL . Harris Publications . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Hit - Boy Says `` SomeWhereInAmerica '' Was n't Intended For Jay - Z `` . XXL . Harris Publications . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` XXL Presents ... The 35 Most Anticipated Albums of 2013 '' . XXL . Harris Publications . January 14 , 2013 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z And Eminem Return With 2013 's Most Anticipated Hip - Hop Albums '' . MTV News . Viacom Media Networks . January 4 , 2013 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2 . Jay - Z , TBA -- The Most Anticipated Albums of Summer 2013 '' . Complex . Complex Media . June 13 , 2013 . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z `` Magna Carta Holy Grail '' Tracklist `` . Complex . Complex Media . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sowmya Krishnamurthy . `` Mike Dean Debunks ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' Tracklist , Talks `` Sad State '' of Rap Music `` . MTV Hive . Viacom Media Networks . Retrieved July 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Cooper , Roman . `` Jay - Z `` Magna Carta Holy Grail '' Release Date & Updated Tracklist `` . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved June 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Faughnder , Ryan ( June 21 , 2013 ) . `` Billboard wo n't count Jay - Z sales to Samsung on its chart '' . Los Angeles Times . Eddy Hartenstein . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The already is already `` platinum . '' -- What We Know About Jay - Z 's `` Magna Carta Holy Grail '' So Far `` . Complex . Complex Media . Retrieved July 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Paine , Jake . `` Jay - Z Releases Lyrics To `` Oceans , '' Featuring Frank Ocean `` . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved June 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z Shares Lyrics To `` La Familia '' -- XXL `` . XXL . Harris Publications . June 30 , 2013 . Retrieved June 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Paine , Jake ( June 23 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z Releases Lyrics To `` Tom Ford '' & `` Beach Is Better '' `` . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved July 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` SALISBURY CATHEDRAL THE LOCATION FOR GLOBAL LAUNCH OF ARTWORK FOR JAY Z 'S LATEST ALBUM ' MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL ' '' . Salisbury Cathedral . July 3 , 2013 . Archived from the original on July 10 , 2013 . Retrieved July 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Snapes , Laura ( July 3 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z Unveils Magna Carta Holy Grail Cover Art Next to the Actual Magna Carta '' . Pitchfork . Pitchfork . Retrieved July 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ArtRabbitt Be Andr -- ANYTHING BUT BLACK AND WHITE ' '' . Be Andr . February 26 , 2010 . Retrieved February 26 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Jay - Z and Justin Timberlake Announce ' Legends of the Summer ' Tour Dates '' . Rap - Up . Devine Lazerine . Retrieved February 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The ' SexyBack ' singer and the rapper will apparently head out on a 12 - date jaunt across a series of US cities '' . Capital FM . February 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Baker , Soren . `` Jay - Z Announces `` Magna Carta '' European Tour `` . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved July 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` JAY Z Announces `` Magna Carter World Tour '' North American Dates `` . Roc Nation . September 6 , 2013 . Retrieved November 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Eric R Danton ( April 11 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z Address Cuba Critics on ' Open Letter ' '' . Rolling Stone . Wenner Media LLC . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay Z 's Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' . Third Man Records . July 10 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' . Sanity . July 8 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Hughes , Josiah ( July 10 , 2013 ) . `` Jack White 's Third Man Records to Release Jay - Z 's ' Open Letter ' and ' Magna Carta ' on Vinyl '' . Exclaim ! . Ian Danzig . Retrieved September 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ( FIRST LISTEN ) Jay Z Drops `` Holy Grail '' In Most Innovative Campaign Which Turned Out To Be A Flop JAY Z News MTV European `` . MTV News . Viacom Media Networks . July 4 , 2013 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Stream Jay - Z 's ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' On Hot 97 '' . XXL . Harris Publications . July 4 , 2013 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z Justin Timberlake Holy Grail '' . Complex . Complex Media . July 4 , 2013 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Listen : Jay - Z 's `` Holy Grail '' ft . Justin Timberlake -- Fuse `` . Fuse . July 5 , 2013 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Grein , Paul ( July 16 , 2013 ) . `` Week Ending July 14 , 2013 . Albums : Jay - Z Back On The Throne '' . Chart Watch . Yahoo !. Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Official UK Singles Top 100 -- 20th July 2013 '' . UK Singles Chart . Official Charts Company . Archived from the original on March 11 , 2014 . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved November 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Video : Jay Z f / Justin Timberlake -- ' Holy Grail ' '' . Rap - Up . Rap Up , LLC . August 29 , 2013 . Retrieved March 16 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top 40 / Rhythmic - Crossover Future Releases '' . All Access Music Group . Archived from the original on October 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Top 40 Mainstream Releases '' . All Access Music Group . Archived from the original on February 4 , 2014 . Retrieved January 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta Holy Grail by Jay - Z reviews '' . www.anydecentmusic.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Magna Carta Holy Grail Reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved September 3 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Andy Kellman . `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail -- Jay - Z '' . AllMusic . All Media Group LLC . Retrieved July 20 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Rytlewski , Evan ( July 9 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z : Magna Carta Holy Grail '' . The A.V. Club . Chicago . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Helen ( July 5 , 2013 ) . `` Jay Z , Magna Carta Holy Grail , review '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Roberts , Randall ( July 5 , 2013 ) . `` Review : Jay - Z 's ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' full of empty boasts '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Christgau , Robert ( August 13 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z / The Lonely Island '' . Robert Christgau . MSN Music . Retrieved August 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Pattison , Louis ( July 19 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z -- ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' '' . NME . London . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Ian . `` Jay - Z : Magna Carta Holy Grail : Album Reviews '' . Pitchfork . Pitchfork . Retrieved July 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Vozick - Levinson , Simon ( July 10 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z 's ' Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ' '' . Rolling Stone . New York . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sargent , Jordan ( July 7 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z , ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' ( Roc - A-Fella / Roc Nation / Universal ) '' . Spin . Spin Media . Retrieved July 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Hodgkinson , Will ( July 12 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z : Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' . The Times . Retrieved September 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Pareles , Jon ( July 5 , 2013 ) . `` Daddy Dearest '' . The New York Times . Arthur Ochs Sulzberger , Jr. p . C1 . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Cataldo , Jesse ( July 7 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z : Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' . Slant Magazine . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kot , Greg ( July 9 , 2013 ) . `` Album review : Jay - Z , ' Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ' '' . Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on December 13 , 2013 . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Review : Magna Carta Holy Grail '' . Uncut . London : 90 . September 2013 . Jump up ^ Empire , Kitty ( July 6 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z : Magna Carta Holy Grail -- review '' . The Observer . London . The New Review section , p. 30 . Retrieved August 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Here Are The BET Award Nominees '' . Complex . Complex Media . August 22 , 2013 . Retrieved August 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 56th Annual GRAMMY Awards Nominees '' . National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on December 1 , 2011 . Retrieved December 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 23 . Jay Z , Magna Carta ... Holy Grail -- The 50 Best Albums of 2013 '' . Complex . Complex Media . December 9 , 2013 . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 20 Best Hip - Hop Albums of 2013 : Jay Z , ' Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ' '' . Rolling Stone . Wenner Media LLC . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The 25 Best Albums Of 2013 - Page 4 of 6 '' . XXL . Harris Publications . December 23 , 2013 . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Finalists '' . Billboard Music Awards . Archived from the original on June 1 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Jay - Z 's ' Magna Carta ' Debuts at No. 1 on Billboard 200 Chart '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Hip Hop Album Sales : The Week Ending 7 / 21 / 2013 '' . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved July 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Lopez , Korina ( July 24 , 2013 ) . `` Jay Z rules ' Billboard ' album chart for second week '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved July 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Hip Hop Album Sales : The Week Ending 7 / 28 / 2013 '' . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved July 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Hip Hop Album Sales : The Week Ending 8 / 4 / 2013 '' . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved August 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Paul Grein ( January 2 , 2014 ) . `` The Top 10 Albums and Songs of 2013 '' . Chart Watch . Yahoo ! . Jump up ^ Tardio , Andres ( February 26 , 2014 ) . `` Hip Hop Album Sales : Week Ending 2 / 23 / 2014 '' . HipHopDX . Cheri Media Group . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Gold & Platinum Searchable Database '' . RIAA . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z 's ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' Tracklist Revealed '' . XXL . Harris Publications . June 8 , 2013 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kennedy , Gerrick D. `` Jay - Z enlists fans to unveil ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' tracklist '' . Los Angeles Times . Eddy Hartenstein . Archived from the original on September 29 , 2013 . Retrieved June 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Magna Carta ... Holy Grail LP '' . Storenvy . Retrieved September 15 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` The album is heavily influenced by early - ' 90s alternative rock . -- What We Know About Jay - Z 's `` Magna Carta Holy Grail '' So Far `` . Complex . Complex Media . Retrieved July 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` '' Versus '' -- Between the Lines : A Track by Track Breakdown of Jay - Z 's `` Magna Carta Holy Grail '' `` . Complex . Complex Media . June 27 , 2013 . Retrieved July 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Pareles , Jon ( July 4 , 2013 ) . `` Jay - Z Frets on ' Magna Carta Holy Grail ' '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail Credits '' . AllMusic . All Media Group LLC . Retrieved July 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Australiancharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' ( in German ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' ( in Dutch ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' ( in French ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' Billboard Canadian Albums Chart for Jay - Z . Retrieved March 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Danishcharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' ( in Dutch ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z : MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' ( in Finnish ) . Musiikkituottajat -- IFPI Finland . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Officialcharts.de -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved July 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` GFK Chart - Track Albums : Week 28 , 2013 '' . Chart - Track . IRMA . Retrieved July 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Classifica settimanale WK 28 ( dal 08 - 07 - 2013 al 14 - 07 - 2013 ) '' ( in Italian ) . FIMI . Retrieved July 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` マグナ ・ カルタ ... ホーリー ・ グレイル '' ( in Japanese ) . oricon.co.jp . Retrieved August 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` South Korea Gaon Album Chart '' . On the page , select `` August 3 , 2013 '' to obtain the corresponding chart . Gaon Chart Retrieved October 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Oficjalna lista sprzedaży : : OLiS - Official Retail Sales Chart '' . OLiS . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved August 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` South African Top 20 Albums Chart '' . RSG ( Recording Industry of South Africa ) . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Spanishcharts.com -- Jay - Z -- MAGNA CARTA ... HOLY GRAIL '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Myers , Justin . `` Jay - Z 's Magna Carta Holy Grail gives rapper his first ever Number 1 album in the UK . '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved July 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Caulfield , Keith ( July 16 , 2013 ) . Jay - Z 's ' Magna Carta ' Debuts at No. 1 , Has Year 's Second - Biggest Sales Week . Billboard.com . Accessed from July 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' Billboard Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums for Jay - Z . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' Billboard Top Tastemaker Albums for Jay - Z . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Top 50 Urban Albums 2013 '' . ARIA . Retrieved April 30 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop Belgian Charts '' . Ultratop . Retrieved January 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop Belgian Charts '' . Ultratop . Retrieved January 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian Albums '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved January 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Årslista Album -- År 2013 '' ( in Swedish ) . Sverigetopplistan . Swedish Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2014 . Retrieved 30 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Steffen Hung . `` Schweizer Jahreshitparade '' . Hit Parade . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` End of Year 2013 '' ( PDF ) . UKChartsPlus . Retrieved June 8 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 2013 Year - End Charts -- Billboard 200 Albums '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved December 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` R&B / Hip - Hop Albums : 2013 Year - End Charts '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved March 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian album certifications -- Jay - Z -- Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' . Music Canada . Retrieved September 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` British album certifications -- Jay - Z -- Magna Carta ... Holy Grail '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved September 10 , 2013 . Enter Magna Carta ... Holy Grail in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications -- Jay - Z -- Magna Carta '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved September 3 , 2013 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ `` iTunes -- Music -- Magna Carta ... Holy Grail by JAY Z '' . iTunes . Apple Inc . July 8 , 2013 . Retrieved July 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta Holy Grail Jay - Z Format : Audio CD '' . Amazon.com , Inc . July 8 , 2012 . Retrieved July 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ( Explicit ) ( + digital booklet ) Format : MP3 Download '' . Amazon.com , Inc . July 8 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail JAY Z '' . iTunes . Apple Inc . July 9 , 2013 . Retrieved July 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta ... Holy Grail JAY Z '' . iTunes . Apple Inc . July 9 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta Holy Grail Jay - Z Format : Audio CD '' . Amazon.com , Inc . July 9 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta Holy Grail ( Limited Edition ) ( Deluxe Edition ) Format : Audio CD '' . Amazon.com , Inc . July 22 , 2013 . Retrieved August 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta Holy Grail ( Deluxe Version ) Format : Audio CD '' . Amazon.com , Inc . July 23 , 2013 . Retrieved July 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jack White 's Third Man to Release Jay Z 's Magna Carta Holy Grail as 7 '' Box Set `` . Pitchfork . External links ( edit ) Magna Carta Holy Grail at Discogs ( list of releases ) Jay - Z Albums Singles Videos Songs Films Awards and nominations Studio albums Reasonable Doubt In My Lifetime , Vol. 1 Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life Vol. 3 ... Life and Times of S. Carter The Dynasty : Roc La Familia The Blueprint The Best of Both Worlds The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & The Curse The Black Album Unfinished Business Kingdom Come American Gangster The Blueprint 3 Watch the Throne Magna Carta Holy Grail 4 : 44 Live albums MTV Unplugged Compilation albums Chapter One : Greatest Hits Blueprint 2.1 Bring It On : The Best of Jay - Z Greatest Hits Jay - Z : The Hits Collection , Volume One EPs Collision Course Live in Brooklyn Concert tours Blueprint Lounge Tour Best of Both Worlds Tour American Gangster Live Heart of the City Tour Projekt Revolution 2008 Europe Jay - Z & Ciara Live Jay - Z Fall Tour The Home & Home Tour U2 360 ° Tour Watch the Throne Tour Legends of the Summer Magna Carter World Tour On the Run Tour 4 : 44 Tour Related articles Roc - A-Fella Records Rocawear Roc Nation StarRoc Takeover Roc Nation 40 / 40 Club Beyoncé Kanye West Rihanna Linkin Park The Grey Album Jaydiohead Fade to Black Live Nation Entertainment NBA 2K13 Brooklyn Nets Made in America Festival Made in America Book Category Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magna_Carta_Holy_Grail&oldid=798869266 '' Categories : Jay - Z albums 2013 albums Albums produced by Boi - 1da Albums produced by Hit - Boy Albums produced by Jerome `` J - Roc '' Harmon Albums produced by Mike Dean ( record producer ) Albums produced by Mike Will Made It Albums produced by Pharrell Williams Albums produced by Swizz Beatz Albums produced by The - Dream Albums produced by Timbaland Albums produced by Travis Scott English - language albums Roc - A-Fella Records albums Roc Nation albums Universal Music Group albums Albums produced by Vinylz Albums produced by WondaGurl Hidden categories : CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) Use mdy dates from March 2014 Good articles Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Track listings with deprecated parameters Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Español Français 한국어 Italiano Lietuvių Magyar Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 4 September 2017 , at 08 : 22 . 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what is the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Somatic_cell_nuclear_transfer&oldid=842629338

Somatic cell nuclear transfer - wikipedia Somatic cell nuclear transfer Jump to : navigation , search Somatic cell nuclear transfer can create clones for both reproductive and therapeutic purposes . The diagram depicts the removal of the donor nucleus for schematic purposes ; in practice the whole donor cell is transferred . In genetics and developmental biology , somatic cell nuclear transfer ( SCNT ) is a laboratory strategy for creating a viable embryo from a body cell and an egg cell . The technique consists of taking an enucleated oocyte ( egg cell ) and implanting a donor nucleus from a somatic ( body ) cell . It is used in both therapeutic and reproductive cloning . Dolly the Sheep became famous for being the first successful case of the reproductive cloning of a mammal . In January 2018 , a team of scientists in Shanghai announced the successful cloning of two female crab - eating macaques ( named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua ) from fetal nuclei . `` Therapeutic cloning '' refers to the potential use of SCNT in regenerative medicine ; this approach has been championed as an answer to the many issues concerning embryonic stem cells ( ESC ) and the destruction of viable embryos for medical use , though questions remain on how homologous the two cell types truly are . Wikinews has related news : Healthy cloned monkeys born in Shanghai Contents ( hide ) 1 Introduction 2 Process 3 Applications 3.1 Stem cell research 3.2 Reproductive cloning 3.3 Interspecies nuclear transfer 4 Limitations 5 Controversy 6 Policies regarding human SCNT 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Introduction ( edit ) It is a technique for cloning in which the nucleus of a somatic cell is transferred to the cytoplasm of an enucleated egg . When this is done , the cytoplasmic factors affect the nucleus to become a zygote . The blastocyst stage is developed by the egg which helps to create embryonic stem cells from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst . The first animal that was developed by this technique was Dolly , the sheep , in 1996 . Process ( edit ) The process of somatic cell nuclear transplant involves two different cells . The first being a female gamete , known as the ovum ( egg / oocyte ) . In human SCNT ( Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer ) experiments , these eggs are obtained through consenting donors , utilizing ovarian stimulation . The second being a somatic cell , referring to the cells of the human body . Skin cells , fat cells , and liver cells are only a few examples . The nucleus of the donor egg cell is removed and discarded , leaving it ' deprogrammed . ' What is left is a somatic cell and an denucleated egg cell . These are then fused by inserting the somatic cell into the ' empty ' ovum . After being inserted into the egg , the somatic cell nucleus is reprogrammed by its host egg cell . The ovum , now containing the somatic cell 's nucleus , is stimulated with a shock and will begin to divide . The egg is now viable and capable of producing an adult organism containing all the necessary genetic information from just one parent . Development will ensue normally and after many mitotic divisions , this single cell forms a blastocyst ( an early stage embryo with about 100 cells ) with an identical genome to the original organism ( i.e. a clone ) . Stem cells can then be obtained by the destruction of this clone embryo for use in therapeutic cloning or in the case of reproductive cloning the clone embryo is implanted into a host mother for further development and brought to term . Applications ( edit ) Stem cell research ( edit ) Somatic cell nuclear transplantation has become a focus of study in stem cell research . The aim of carrying out this procedure is to obtain pluripotent cells from a cloned embryo . These cells genetically matched the donor organism from which they came . This gives them the ability to create patient specific pluripotent cells , which could then be used in therapies or disease research . Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated cells of an embryo . These cells are deemed to have a pluripotent potential because they have the ability to give rise to all of the tissues found in an adult organism . This ability allows stem cells to create any cell type , which could then be transplanted to replace damaged or destroyed cells . Controversy surrounds human ESC work due to the destruction of viable human embryos . Leading scientists to seek an alternative method of obtaining stem cells , SCNT is one such method . A potential use of stem cells genetically matched to a patient would be to create cell lines that have genes linked to a patient 's particular disease . By doing so , an in vitro model could be created , would be useful for studying that particular disease , potentially discovering its pathophysiology , and discovering therapies . For example , if a person with Parkinson 's disease donated his or her somatic cells , the stem cells resulting from SCNT would have genes that contribute to Parkinson 's disease . The disease specific stem cell lines could then be studied in order to better understand the condition . Another application of SCNT stem cell research is using the patient specific stem cell lines to generate tissues or even organs for transplant into the specific patient . The resulting cells would be genetically identical to the somatic cell donor , thus avoiding any complications from immune system rejection . Only a handful of the labs in the world are currently using SCNT techniques in human stem cell research . In the United States , scientists at the Harvard Stem Cell Institute , the University of California San Francisco , the Oregon Health & Science University , Stemagen ( La Jolla , CA ) and possibly Advanced Cell Technology are currently researching a technique to use somatic cell nuclear transfer to produce embryonic stem cells . In the United Kingdom , the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority has granted permission to research groups at the Roslin Institute and the Newcastle Centre for Life . SCNT may also be occurring in China . In 2005 , a South Korean research team led by Professor Hwang Woo - suk , published claims to have derived stem cell lines via SCNT , but supported those claims with fabricated data . Recent evidence has proved that he in fact created a stem cell line from a parthenote . Though there has been numerous successes with cloning animals , questions remain concerning the mechanisms of reprogramming in the ovum . Despite many attempts , success in creating human nuclear transfer embryonic stem cells has been limited . There lies a problem in the human cell 's ability to form a blastocyst ; the cells fail to progress past the eight cell stage of development . This is thought to be a result from the somatic cell nucleus being unable to turn on embryonic genes crucial for proper development . These earlier experiments used procedures developed in non-primate animals with little success . A research group from the Oregon Health & Science University demonstrated SCNT procedures developed for primates successfully using skin cells . The key to their success was utilizing oocytes in metaphase II ( MII ) of the cell cycle . Egg cells in MII contain special factors in the cytoplasm that have a special ability in reprogramming implanted somatic cell nuclei into cells with pluripotent states . When the ovum 's nucleus is removed , the cell loses its genetic information . This has been blamed for why enucleated eggs are hampered in their reprogramming ability . It is theorized the critical embryonic genes are physically linked to oocyte chromosomes , enucleation negatively affects these factors . Another possibility is removing the egg nucleus or inserting the somatic nucleus causes damage to the cytoplast , affecting reprogramming ability . Taking this into account the research group applied their new technique in an attempt to produce human SCNT stem cells . In May 2013 , the Oregon group reported the successful derivation of human embryonic stem cell lines derived through SCNT , using fetal and infant donor cells . Using MII oocytes from volunteers and their improved SCNT procedure , human clone embryos were successfully produced . These embryos were of poor quality , lacking a substantial inner cell mass and poorly constructed trophectoderm . The imperfect embryos prevented the acquisition of human ESC . The addition of caffeine during the removal of the ovum 's nucleus and injection of the somatic nucleus improved blastocyst formation and ESC isolation . The ESC obtain were found to be capable of producing teratomas , expressed pluripotent transcription factors , and expressed a normal 46XX karyotype , indicating these SCNT were in fact ESC - like . This was the first instance of successfully using SCNT to reprogram human somatic cells . This study used fetal and infantile somatic cells to produce their ESC . In April 2014 , an international research team expanded on this break through . There remained the question of whether the same success could be accomplished using adult somatic cells . Epigenetic and age related changes were thought to possibly hinder an adult somatic cells ability to be reprogrammed . Implementing the procedure pioneered by the Oregon research group they indeed were able to grow stem cells generated by SCNT using adult cells from two donors , aged 35 and 75. Indicating age does not impede a cells ability to be reprogrammed Late April 2014 , the New York Stem Cell Foundation was successful in creating SCNT stem cells derived from adult somatic cells . One of these lines of stem cells was derived from the donor cells of a type 1 diabetic . The group was then able to successfully culture these stem cells and induce differentiation . When injected into mice , cells of all three of the germ layers successfully formed . The most significant of these cells , were those who expressed insulin and were capable of secreting the hormone . These insulin producing cells could be used for replacement therapy in diabetics , demonstrating real SCNT stem cell therapeutic potential . The impetus for SCNT - based stem cell research has been decreased by the development and improvement of alternative methods of generating stem cells . Methods to reprogram normal body cells into pluripotent stem cells were developed in humans in 2007 . The following year , this method achieved a key goal of SCNT - based stem cell research : the derivation of pluripotent stem cell lines that have all genes linked to various diseases . Some scientists working on SCNT - based stem cell research have recently moved to the new methods of induced pluripotent stem cells . Though recent studies have put in question how similar iPS cells are to embryonic stem cells . Epigenetic memory in iPS affects the cell lineage it can differentiate into . For instance , an iPS cell derived from a blood cell will be more efficient at differentiating into blood cells , while it will be less efficient at creating a neuron . This raises the question of how well iPS cells can mimic the gold standard ESC in experiments , as stem cells are defined as having the ability to differentiate into any cell type . SCNT stem cells do not pose such a problem and continue to remain relevant in stem cell studies . Reproductive cloning ( edit ) Main article : Cloning BTX ECM 2001 Electrofusion generator used for SCNT and Cloning applications This technique is currently the basis for cloning animals ( such as the famous Dolly the sheep ) , and has been theoretically proposed as a possible way to clone humans . Using SCNT in reproductive cloning has proven difficult with limited success . High fetal and neonatal death make the process very inefficient . Resulting cloned offspring are also plagued with development and imprinting disorders in non-human species . For these reasons , along with moral and ethical objections , reproductive cloning in humans is proscribed in more than 30 countries . Most researchers believe that in the foreseeable future it will not be possible to use the current cloning technique to produce a human clone that will develop to term . It remains a possibility , though critical adjustments will be required to overcome current limitations during early embryonic development in human SCNT . There is also the potential for treating diseases associated with mutations in mitochondrial DNA . Recent studies show SCNT of the nucleus of a body cell afflicted with one of these diseases into a healthy oocyte prevents the inheritance of the mitochondrial disease . This treatment does not involve cloning but would produce a child with three genetic parents . A father providing a sperm cell , one mother providing the egg nucleus and another mother providing the enucleated egg cell . In 2018 , the first successful cloning of primates using somatic cell nuclear transfer , the same method as Dolly the sheep , with the birth of two live female clones ( crab - eating macaques named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua ) was reported . Interspecies nuclear transfer ( edit ) Interspecies nuclear transfer ( iSCNT ) is a means of somatic cell nuclear transfer used to facilitate the rescue of endangered species , or even to restore species after their extinction . The technique is similar to SCNT cloning which typically is between domestic animals and rodents , or where there is a ready supply of oocytes and surrogate animals . However , the cloning of highly endangered or extinct species requires the use of an alternative method of cloning . Interspecies nuclear transfer utilizes a host and a donor of two different organisms that are closely related species and within the same genus . In 2000 , Robert Lanza was able to produce a cloned fetus of a gaur , Bos gaurus , combining it successfully with a domestic cow , Bos taurus . Interspecies nuclear transfer provides evidence of the universality of the triggering mechanism of the cell nucleus reprogramming . For example , Gupta et al. , explored the possibility of producing transgenic cloned embryos by interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer ( iSCNT ) of cattle , mice , and chicken donor cells into enucleated pig oocytes . Moreover , NCSU23 medium , which was designed for in vitro culture of pig embryos , was able to support the in vitro development of cattle , mice , and chicken iSCNT embryos up to the blastocyst stage . Furthermore , ovine oocyte cytoplast may be used for remodeling and reprogramming of human somatic cells back to the embryonic stage . Limitations ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) SCNT can be inefficient . Stresses placed on both the egg cell and the introduced nucleus in early research were enormous , resulting in a low percentage of successfully reprogrammed cells . For example , in 1996 Dolly the sheep was born after 277 eggs were used for SCNT , which created 29 viable embryos . Only three of these embryos survived until birth , and only one survived to adulthood . As the procedure was not automated , but had to be performed manually under a microscope , SCNT was very resource intensive . The biochemistry involved in reprogramming the differentiated somatic cell nucleus and activating the recipient egg was also far from understood . However , by 2014 , researchers were reporting success rates of 70 - 80 % with cloning pigs and in 2016 a Korean company , Sooam Biotech , was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos a day . In SCNT , not all of the donor cell 's genetic information is transferred , as the donor cell 's mitochondria that contain their own mitochondrial DNA are left behind . The resulting hybrid cells retain those mitochondrial structures which originally belonged to the egg . As a consequence , clones such as Dolly that are born from SCNT are not perfect copies of the donor of the nucleus . This fact may also hamper the potential benefits of SCNT derived tissues / organs for therapy , as there may be an immunoresponse to the non-self mtDNA after transplant . Controversy ( edit ) Further information : stem cell controversy Human Blastocyst , showing the inner cell mass ( top , right ) . Proposals to use nucleus transfer techniques in human stem cell research raise a set of concerns beyond the moral status of any created embryo . These have led to some individuals and organizations who are not opposed to human embryonic stem cell research to be concerned about , or opposed to , SCNT research . One concern is that blastula creation in SCNT - based human stem cell research will lead to the reproductive cloning of humans . Both processes use the same first step : the creation of a nuclear transferred embryo , most likely via SCNT . Those who hold this concern often advocate for strong regulation of SCNT to preclude implantation of any derived products for the intention of human reproduction , or its prohibition . A second important concern is the appropriate source of the eggs that are needed . SCNT requires human eggs , which can only be obtained from women . The most common source of these eggs today are eggs that are produced and in excess of the clinical need during IVF treatment . This is a minimally invasive procedure , but it does carry some health risks , such as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome . One vision for successful stem cell therapies is to create custom stem cell lines for patients . Each custom stem cell line would consist of a collection of identical stem cells each carrying the patient 's own DNA , thus reducing or eliminating any problems with rejection when the stem cells were transplanted for treatment . For example , to treat a man with Parkinson 's disease , a cell nucleus from one of his cells would be transplanted by SCNT into an egg cell from an egg donor , creating a unique lineage of stem cells almost identical to the patient 's own cells . ( There would be differences . For example , the mitochondrial DNA would be the same as that of the egg donor . In comparison , his own cells would carry the mitochondrial DNA of his mother . ) Potentially millions of patients could benefit from stem cell therapy , and each patient would require a large number of donated eggs in order to successfully create a single custom therapeutic stem cell line . Such large numbers of donated eggs would exceed the number of eggs currently left over and available from couples trying to have children through assisted reproductive technology . Therefore , healthy young women would need to be induced to sell eggs to be used in the creation of custom stem cell lines that could then be purchased by the medical industry and sold to patients . It is so far unclear where all these eggs would come from . Stem cell experts consider it unlikely that such large numbers of human egg donations would occur in a developed country because of the unknown long - term public health effects of treating large numbers of healthy young women with heavy doses of hormones in order to induce hyperovulation ( ovulating several eggs at once ) . Although such treatments have been performed for several decades now , the long - term effects have not been studied or declared safe to use on a large scale on otherwise healthy women . Longer - term treatments with much lower doses of hormones are known to increase the rate of cancer decades later . Whether hormone treatments to induce hyperovulation could have similar effects is unknown . There are also ethical questions surrounding paying for eggs . In general , marketing body parts is considered unethical and is banned in most countries . Human eggs have been a notable exception to this rule for some time . To address the problem of creating a human egg market , some stem cell researchers are investigating the possibility of creating artificial eggs . If successful , human egg donations would not be needed to create custom stem cell lines . However , this technology may be a long way off . Policies regarding human SCNT ( edit ) SCNT involving human cells is currently legal for research purposes in the United Kingdom , having been incorporated into the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 . Permission must be obtained from the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority in order to perform or attempt SCNT . In the United States , the practice remains legal , as it has not been addressed by federal law . However , in 2002 , a moratorium on United States federal funding for SCNT prohibits funding the practice for the purposes of research . Thus , though legal , SCNT can not be federally funded . American scholars have recently argued that because the product of SCNT is a clone embryo , rather than a human embryo , these policies are morally wrong and should be revised . In 2003 , the United Nations adopted a proposal submitted by Costa Rica , calling on member states to `` prohibit all forms of human cloning in as much as they are incompatible with human dignity and the protection of human life . '' This phrase may include SCNT , depending on interpretation . The Council of Europe 's Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine and its Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine , on the Prohibition of Cloning Human Being appear to ban SCNT of human beings . Of the Council 's 45 member states , the Convention has been signed by 31 and ratified by 18 . The Additional Protocol has been signed by 29 member nations and ratified by 14 . See also ( edit ) Cloning Embryogenesis In vitro fertilisation Induced stem cells New Jersey legislation S1909 / A2840 Rejuvenation Stem cell controversy Stem cell research References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Li , J ; Liu , X ; Wang , H ; Zhang , S ; Liu , F ; Wang , X ; Wang , Y ( 2009 ) . `` Human embryos derived by somatic cell nuclear transfer using an alternative enucleation approach '' . Cloning and Stem Cells. 11 : 39 -- 50 . doi : 10.1089 / clo. 2008.0041 . PMID 19196043 . ^ Jump up to : Liu , Zhen ; et al. ( 24 January 2018 ) . `` Cloning of Macaque Monkeys by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer '' . Cell . doi : 10.1016 / j. cell. 2018.01. 020 . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Somatic cell nuclear transfer biology and technology '' . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 27 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer - Embryology '' . embryology.med.unsw.edu.au . Retrieved 27 January 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Pattinson , Shaun D. ; Kind , Vanessa ( 2017 - 09 - 12 ) . `` Using a moot to develop students ' understanding of human cloning and statutory interpretation '' . Medical Law International . doi : 10.1177 / 0968533217726350 . Jump up ^ Wilmut , I. ; Schnieke , A.E. ; McWhir , J. ; Kind , A.J. ; Campbell , K.H.S. ( 1997 ) . `` Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells '' . Nature . 385 ( 6619 ) : 810 -- 813 . doi : 10.1038 / 385810a0 . PMID 9039911 . Jump up ^ Lomax , G.P. ; Dewitt , N.D. ( 2013 ) . `` Somatic cell nuclear transfer in Oregon : Expanding the pluripotent space and informing research ethics '' . Stem Cells and Development . 22 Suppl 1 : 25 -- 8 . doi : 10.1089 / scd. 2013.0402 . PMID 24304071 . Jump up ^ Lo , B ; Parham , L ( 2009 ) . `` Ethical issues in stem cell research '' . Endocrine Reviews . 30 ( 3 ) : 204 -- 13 . doi : 10.1210 / er. 2008 - 0031 . PMC 2726839 . PMID 19366754 . ^ Jump up to : Semb H ( 2005 ) . `` Human embryonic stem cells : origin , properties and applications '' ( PDF ) . APMIS. 113 ( 11 -- 12 ) : 743 -- 50 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1600 - 0463.2005. apm_312. x . PMID 16480446 . ^ Jump up to : Pera , M ; Trounson , A ( 2013 ) . `` Cloning debate : Stem - cell researchers must stay engaged '' . Nature . 498 ( 7453 ) : 159 -- 61 . doi : 10.1038 / 498159a . PMID 23765475 . Jump up ^ Hadjantonakis AK , Papaioannou VE ( July 2002 ) . `` Can mammalian cloning combined with embryonic stem cell technologies be used to treat human diseases ? '' . Genome Biol. 3 ( 8 ) : REVIEWS1023 . doi : 10.1186 / gb - 2002 - 3 - 8 - reviews1023 . PMC 139399 . PMID 12186652 . ^ Jump up to : Tachibana M ( 2013 ) . `` Human Embryonic Stem Cells Derived by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer '' . Cell. 153 : 1228 -- 38 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cell. 2013.05. 006 . PMC 3772789 . PMID 23683578 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Weise , `` Cloning race is on again '' , USA Today ( January 17 , 2006 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Jump up ^ `` Dolly scientists ' human clone bid '' , BBC News ( September 28 , 2004 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Jump up ^ Charles C. Mann , `` The First Cloning Superpower '' , Wired ( January 2003 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Jump up ^ Hwang WS , Roh SI , Lee BC , et al. ( June 2005 ) . `` Patient - specific embryonic stem cells derived from human SCNT blastocysts '' . Science . 308 ( 5729 ) : 1777 -- 83 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1112286 . PMID 15905366 . ( Retracted ) Jump up ^ Kennedy D ( January 2006 ) . `` Editorial retraction '' . Science . 311 ( 5759 ) : 335 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1124926 . PMID 16410485 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) , Nature Stem Cell Blog . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) , The Scientist 19 June 2007 Jump up ^ Human Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Using Adult Cells Cell Stem Cell . Retrieved 18 April 2014 Jump up ^ Ariana Eunjung Cha ( 18 April 2014 ) Cloning advance using stem cells from human adult reopens ethical questions Washington Post . Retrieved 18 April 2014 Jump up ^ Yamada , M ; Johannesson , B ; Sagi , I ; Burnett , L.C. ; Kort , D.H. ; Prosser , R.W. ; Paull , D ; Nestor , M.W. ; Freeby , M ; Greenberg , E ; Goland , R.S. ; Leibel , R.L. ; Solomon , S.L. ; Benvenisty , N ; Sauer , M.V. ; Egli , D ( 2014 ) . `` Human oocytes reprogram adult somatic nuclei of a type 1 diabetic to diploid pluripotent stem cells '' . Nature . 510 ( 7506 ) : 533 -- 6 . doi : 10.1038 / nature13287 . PMID 24776804 . Jump up ^ Gretchen Vogel ( December 2008 ) . `` Breakthrough of the year : Reprogramming Cells '' . Science . 322 ( 5909 ) : 1766 -- 1767 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 322.5909. 1766 . PMID 19095902 . Jump up ^ Kim , K. ; Doi , A. ; Wen , B. ; Ng , K. ; Zhao , R. ; Cahan , P. ; Kim , J. ; Aryee , M.J. ; Ji , H. ; Ehrlich , L.I.R. ; Yabuuchi , A. ; Takeuchi , A. ; Cunniff , K.C. ; Hongguang , H. ; McKinney - Freeman , S. ; Naveiras , O. ; Yoon , T.J. ; Irizarry , R.A. ; Jung , N. ; Seita , J. ; Hanna , J. ; Murakami , P. ; Jaenisch , R. ; Weissleder , R. ; Orkin , S.H. ; Weissman , I.L. ; Feinberg , A.P. ; Daley , G.Q. ( 2010 ) . `` Epigenetic memory in induced pluripotent stem cells '' . Nature . 467 ( 7313 ) : 285 -- 90 . doi : 10.1038 / nature09342 . PMC 3150836 . PMID 20644535 . ^ Jump up to : Campbell KH , McWhir J , Ritchie WA , Wilmut I ( March 1996 ) . `` Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line '' . Nature . 380 ( 6569 ) : 64 -- 6 . doi : 10.1038 / 380064a0 . PMID 8598906 . Jump up ^ Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine ( 2012 ) . `` Human somatic cell nuclear transfer and cloning '' . Fertility and Sterility. 98 ( 4 ) : 804 -- 7 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fertnstert. 2012.06. 045 . PMID 22795681 . Jump up ^ Revel M ( 2000 ) . `` Research on animal cloning technologies and their implications in medical ethics : an update '' . Med Law . 19 ( 3 ) : 527 -- 43 . PMID 11143888 . Jump up ^ Rhind SM , Taylor JE , De Sousa PA , King TJ , McGarry M , Wilmut I ( November 2003 ) . `` Human cloning : can it be made safe ? '' . Nat. Rev. Genet. 4 ( 11 ) : 855 -- 64 . doi : 10.1038 / nrg1205 . PMID 14634633 . Jump up ^ Normile , Dennis ( 24 January 2018 ) . `` These monkey twins are the first primate clones made by the method that developed Dolly '' . Science . doi : 10.1126 / science. aa1066 . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Cyranoski , David ( 24 January 2018 ) . `` First monkeys cloned with technique that made Dolly the sheep -- Chinese scientists create cloned primates that could revolutionize studies of human disease '' . Nature . 553 : 387 -- 388 . doi : 10.1038 / d41586 - 018 - 01027 - z . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Maron , Dina Fine ( 24 January 2018 ) . `` First Primate Clones Produced Using the `` Dolly '' Method -- The success with monkeys could ignite new ethical debates and medical research `` . Scientific American . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Briggs , Helen ( 24 January 2018 ) . `` First monkey clones created in Chinese laboratory '' . BBC News . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Kolata , Gina ( 24 January 2018 ) . `` Yes , They 've Cloned Monkeys in China . That Does n't Mean You 're Next '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 25 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Lanza , Robert P. ; Jose B. Cibelli ; Francisca A. Diaz ; Carlos T. Moraes ; Peter W. Farin ; Charlotte E. Farin ; Carolyn J. Hammer ; Michael D. West ; Philip Damiani ( 2000 ) . `` Cloning of an endangered species ( Bos gaurus ) using interspecies nuclear transfer '' ( PDF ) . Cloning. 2 ( 2 ) : 79 -- 90 . doi : 10.1089 / 152045500436104 . Retrieved 10 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Gupta , M.K. ; Das , Z.C. ; Heo , Y.T. ; Uhm , S.J. ( 2013 ) . `` Transgenic Chicken , Mice , Cattle , and Pig Embryos by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer into Pig Oocytes '' . Cellular Reprogramming. 15 ( 4 ) : 322 -- 328 . doi : 10.1089 / cell. 2012.0074 . Jump up ^ Hosseini , S. Morteza ; Hajian , Mehdi ; Forouzanfar , Mohsen ; Nasr - Esfahani , Mohammad H. ( April 2012 ) . `` Enucleated Ovine Oocyte Supports Human Somatic Cells Reprogramming Back to the Embryonic Stage '' . Cellular Reprogramming. 14 ( 2 ) : 155 -- 163 . doi : 10.1089 / cell. 2011.0061 . PMID 22384929 . Jump up ^ Shukman , David ( 14 January 2014 ) China cloning on an ' industrial scale ' BBC News Science and Environment , Retrieved 10 April 2014 Jump up ^ Zastrow , Mark ( 8 February 2016 ) . `` Inside the cloning factory that creates 500 new animals a day '' . New Scientist . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Jeremy Rifkin . ( February 18 , 2002 ) . `` Fusion Biopolitics '' . The Nation . Retrieved on August 7 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Sheryl Gay Stolberg , `` Some for Abortion Rights Lean Right in Cloning Fight '' , New York Times ( January 24 , 2002 ) Jump up ^ Lori B. Andrews , et al. , Open Letter to US Senate on Human Cloning Archived 2010 - 11 - 22 at the Wayback Machine. , ( March 19 , 2002 ) Jump up ^ Lori B. Andrews et al. ( March 19 , 2002 ). `` Open Letter to US Senators on Human Cloning and Eugenic Engineering '' . Archived 2006 - 09 - 30 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on August 7 , 2006 Jump up ^ Andy Coghlan , `` Cloning opponents fear loopholes in new UK law '' , New Scientist ( November 23 , 2001 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Jump up ^ `` Chapter 5 : Legal and Policy Considerations . Cloning Human Beings '' Archived 2007 - 07 - 06 at the Wayback Machine . Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory Commission , June 1997 . Accessed 21 Oct 06 Jump up ^ Robertson , John A ( 2010 ) . `` Embryo Stem Cell Research : Ten Years of Controversy '' . The Journal of Law , Medicine , & Ethics. 38 ( 2 ) : 191 -- 203 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1748 - 720x. 2010.00479. x . Jump up ^ Cunningham , Thomas V ( 2013 ) . `` What justifies the United States ban on federal funding for nonreproductive cloning ? '' . Medicine , Health Care and Philosophy. 16 ( 4 ) : 825 -- 841 . doi : 10.1007 / s11019 - 013 - 9465 - 5 . Jump up ^ United Nations , `` General Assembly Adopts United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning By Vote of 84 - 34 - 37 '' , press release ( August 3 , 2005 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Jump up ^ Council of Europe , Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine : Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine ( April 4 , 1997 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) ; Council of Europe , Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine , on the Prohibition of Cloning Human Being ( January 12 , 1998 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Further reading ( edit ) Wilmut I , Beaujean N , de Sousa PA , et al. ( October 2002 ) . `` Somatic cell nuclear transfer '' . Nature . 419 ( 6907 ) : 583 -- 6 . doi : 10.1038 / nature01079 . PMID 12374931 . Kikyo N , Wolffe AP ( January 2000 ) . `` Reprogramming nuclei : insights from cloning , nuclear transfer and heterokaryons '' . J. Cell Sci. 113 . ( Pt 1 ) : 11 -- 20 . PMID 10591621 . Tian XC , Kubota C , Enright B , Yang X ( November 2003 ) . `` Cloning animals by somatic cell nuclear transfer -- biological factors '' . Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 1 ( 1 ) : 98 . doi : 10.1186 / 1477 - 7827 - 1 - 98 . PMC 521203 . PMID 14614770 . Gurdon JB , Byrne JA , Simonsson S ( September 2003 ) . `` Nuclear reprogramming and stem cell creation '' . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100 . Suppl 1 ( 90001 ) : 11819 -- 22 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1834207100 . PMC 304092 . PMID 12920185 . External links ( edit ) Research Cloning : Medical and scientific , legal and ethical aspects The Basics : Stem Cells and Public Policy The Century Foundation , June 2005 `` Research Cloning Basic Science '' , Center for Genetics and Society , ( Last modified October 4 , 2004 , retrieved October 6 , 2006 ) Cloning : present uses and promises National Institutes of Health , Paper giving background information on cloning in general and SCNT from The Office of Science Policy Analysis . Nuclear Transfer -- Stem Cells or Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer ( SCNT ) The International Society for Stem Cell Research The Hinxton Group : An International Consortium on Stem Cells , Ethics & Law ( hide ) Genetic engineering Genetically modified organisms Crops Maize MON 810 MON 863 StarLink List of varieties of genetically modified maize Potato Amflora Rice Golden rice Soybean Roundup ready soybean Vistive Gold Tomato Flavr Savr Cotton Bt cotton Other Apple Arabidopsis Brinjal Canola Papaya Rose SmartStax Sugar beet Tobacco Trees Wheat Mammals Mouse Knockout mouse Oncomouse Enviropig Herman the Bull Knockout rat Other animals Insects Fish Glofish Salmon Birds Frogs Bacteria and viruses Ice - minus bacteria Hepatitis B vaccine Oncolytic virus Processes Inserting DNA Agrobacteria Biolistics Electroporation Genetic transduction Lipofection Microinjection Somatic cell nuclear transfer Transfection Types Recombinant DNA Transgenesis Cisgenesis Uses In agriculture Genetically modified food Controversies Pharming Companies BASF Bayer Dow AgroSciences DuPont Pioneer Monsanto Syngenta In humans and diagnostics Gene therapy Genetic enhancement In research Gene knockout Gene knockdown Gene targeting Related articles Transgene Detection of genetically modified organisms Genetic pollution Genetic engineering in fiction Human enhancement Reverse transfection Transhumanism Regulation Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Geography Europe Africa Asia North America ( US ) South America Oceania Similar fields Synthetic biology Cloning Stem cell research Biology Genetics Biotechnology Bioethics Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somatic_cell_nuclear_transfer&oldid=842629338 '' Categories : Cloning Genetics Stem cell research Induced stem cells Life extension Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al . Webarchive template wayback links Articles needing additional references from August 2016 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Português Русский සිංහල Українська 中文 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 May 2018 , at 17 : 04 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

996740052006736596

why is interphase not truly a period of rest

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Interphase&oldid=836776689

Interphase - wikipedia Interphase Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Interface ( chemistry ) . This article is about the phase in the cell cycle . For the video game , see Interphase ( video game ) . An illustration of interphase . The chromatin has not yet condensed , and the cell is undergoing its normal functions . An image of the nucleus of a cell ( HT1080 ) currently in interphase ( likely G1 ) . Note : Cytoplasm of this cell or the neighboring cell is not visible ( top - left ) , which is currently in the telophase of mitosis . Image taken using an optical microscope and DAPI staining of DNA . Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life . During this phase , the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis . Interphase is the ' daily living ' or metabolic phase of the cell , in which the cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them , grows , reads its DNA , and conducts other `` normal '' cell functions . The majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase . This phase was formerly called the resting phase . However , interphase does not describe a cell that is merely resting ; rather , the cell is living , and preparing for later cell division , so the name was changed . A common misconception is that interphase is the first stage of mitosis . However , since mitosis is the division of the nucleus , prophase is actually the first stage . In interphase , the cell gets itself ready for mitosis or meiosis . Somatic cells , or normal diploid cells of the body , go through mitosis in order to reproduce themselves through cell division , whereas diploid germ cells ( i.e. , primary spermatocytes and primary oocytes ) go through meiosis in order to create haploid gametes ( i.e. , sperm and ova ) for the purpose of sexual reproduction . Chromosomes are copied . Contents ( hide ) 1 Stages of interphase 2 Interphase within sequences of cellular processes 2.1 Interphase and the cell cycle 2.2 Interphase and other cellular processes 3 See also 4 References Stages of interphase ( edit ) There are three stages of cellular interphase , with each phase ending when a cellular checkpoint checks the accuracy of the stage 's completion before proceeding to the next . The stages of interphase are : G ( Gap 1 ) , in which the cell grows and functions normally . During this time , a high amount of protein synthesis occurs and the cell grows ( to about double its original size ) -- more organelles are produced and the volume of the cytoplasm increases . If the cell is not to divide again , it will enter G . Synthesis ( S ) , in which the cell duplicates its DNA ( via semiconservative replication ) . G ( Gap 2 ) , in which the cell resumes its growth in preparation for division . The mitochondria divide and the cell continues to grow until mitosis begins . In plants , chloroplasts also divide during G2 . In addition , some cells that do not divide often or ever , enter a stage called G ( Gap zero ) , which is either a stage separate from interphase or an extended G . The duration of time spent in interphase and in each stage of interphase is variable and depends on both the type of cell and the species of organism it belongs to . Most cells of adult mammals spend about 20 hours in interphase ; this accounts for about 90 % of the total time involved in cell division . Interphase includes G1 , S , and G2 phases . Mitosis and cytokinesis , however , are separate from interphase . Interphase within sequences of cellular processes ( edit ) Interphase and the cell cycle ( edit ) When G is completed , the cell enters a relatively brief period of nuclear and cellular division , composed of mitosis and cytokinesis , respectively . After the successful completion of mitosis and cytokinesis , both resulting daughter cells re-enter G of interphase . In the cell cycle , interphase is preceded by telophase and cytokinesis of the M phase . In alternative fashion , interphase is sometimes interrupted by G phase , which , in some circumstances , may then end and be followed by the remaining stages of interphase . After the successful completion of the G checkpoint , the final checkpoint in interphase , the cell proceeds to prophase , or in plants to preprophase , which is the first stage of mitosis . G phase is viewed as either an extended G phase where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide and or as a distinct quiescent stage which occurs outside of the cell cycle . Interphase and other cellular processes ( edit ) In gamete production interphase is succeeded by meiosis . In programmed cell death , interphase is followed or preempted by apoptosis . See also ( edit ) Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Marieb , Elaine ( 2000 ) , Essentials of human anatomy and physiology , San Francisco : Benjamin Cummings , ISBN 0805349405 Jump up ^ The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial The Biology Project -- Cell Biology . University of Arizona . Jump up ^ Cummings , M.R. ( 2014 ) . Human Heredity : Principles and Issues ( 10th ed. , pp. 28 - 29 ) . Belmont , CA : Brooks / Cole . Jump up ^ Mader , S.S. 2007 . Biology 9th Ed . McGraw Hill Higher Education , Boston , MA , USA . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 325839 - 3 Jump up ^ Re : Are the cells in the G0 ( g zero ) phase of mitosis really suspended ? Erin Cram , Grad student , Molecular and Cellular Biology , University of California , Berkeley . 1999 . MadScience Network . Question ID 942142089. Cb . ( hide ) Cell cycle proteins Cyclin A ( A1 , A2 ) B ( B1 , B2 , B3 ) D ( D1 , D2 , D3 ) E ( E1 , E2 ) CDK 6 7 8 9 10 CDK - activating kinase CDK inhibitor INK4a / ARF ( p14arf / p16 , p15 , p18 , p19 ) cip / kip ( p21 , p27 , p57 ) P53 p63 p73 family p53 p63 p73 Other Cdc2 Cdc25 Cdc42 Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein E2F Maturation promoting factor Wee Cullin ( CUL7 ) Phases and checkpoints Interphase G phase S phase G phase M phase Mitosis ( Preprophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase ) Cytokinesis Cell cycle checkpoints Restriction point Spindle checkpoint Postreplication checkpoint Other cellular phases Apoptosis G phase Meiosis Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interphase&oldid=836776689 '' Categories : Mitosis Cell biology Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Lietuvių Македонски Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 19 : 46 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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why did the united states begin opening prisons

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=History_of_United_States_prison_systems&oldid=827768242

History of United States prison systems - wikipedia History of United States prison systems Jump to : navigation , search Eastern State Penitentiary , constructed in the 1820s during the first major wave of penitentiary building in the United States . Imprisonment as a form of criminal punishment only became widespread in the United States just before the American Revolution , though penal incarceration efforts had been ongoing in England since as early as the 1500s , and prisons in the form of dungeons and various detention facilities had existed since long before then . Prison building efforts in the United States came in three major waves . The first began during the Jacksonian Era and led to widespread use of imprisonment and rehabilitative labor as the primary penalty for most crimes in nearly all states by the time of the American Civil War . The second began after the Civil War and gained momentum during the Progressive Era , bringing a number of new mechanisms -- such as parole , probation , and indeterminate sentencing -- into the mainstream of American penal practice . Finally , since the early 1970s , the United States has engaged in a historically unprecedented expansion of its imprisonment systems at both the federal and state level . Since 1973 , the number of incarcerated persons in the United States has increased five-fold , and in a given year 7,000,000 people were under the supervision or control of correctional services in the United States . These periods of prison construction and reform produced major changes in the structure of prison systems and their missions , the responsibilities of federal and state agencies for administering and supervising them , as well as the legal and political status of prisoners themselves . Contents ( hide ) 1 Intellectual origins of United States prisons 1.1 The English workhouse 1.2 English philanthropist penology 1.3 Rationalist penology 2 Historical development of United States prison systems 2.1 Early settlement , convict transportation , and the prisoner trade 2.2 Colonial criminal punishments , jails , and workhouses 2.3 Post-Revolutionary Penal Reform and the Beginnings of United States Prison Systems 2.4 Jacksonian and Antebellum era 2.4. 1 New origins of deviancy and an institutional response 2.4. 2 The Pennsylvania system 2.4. 3 New York , the Auburn system , and the future of the penitentiary 2.4. 4 The South 2.4. 4.1 Antebellum Southern republicanism and political opposition to penitentiary building 2.4. 4.2 Prison construction 2.4. 4.3 Urban crime in the antebellum South 2.4. 4.4 Rural crime in the antebellum South 2.5 Reconstruction era 2.5. 1 Northern developments 2.5. 1.1 Brutality , immigration , eugenics , and `` prisons as laboratories '' 2.5. 1.2 Failure of Jacksonian reform and renewed efforts 2.5. 2 Southern developments 2.5. 2.1 Changing demographics of crime and punishment in the Reconstruction - era South 2.5. 2.2 Institutional power struggles over the Southern justice apparatus 2.5. 2.3 Beginning of the convict lease system 2.6 Progressive era 2.6. 1 Southern developments 2.6. 1.1 Gradual demise of the convict lease 2.7 Civil rights era 2.7. 1 The prisoners ' rights movement 2.7. 2 The `` law and order '' movement 2.8 Modern developments 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography Intellectual origins of United States prisons ( edit ) Incarceration as a form of criminal punishment is `` a comparatively recent episode in Anglo - American jurisprudence , '' according to historian Adam J. Hirsch . Before the nineteenth century , sentences of penal confinement were rare in the criminal courts of British North America . But penal incarceration had been utilized in England as early as the reign of the Tudors , if not before . When post-revolutionary prisons emerged in United States , they were , in Hirsch 's words , not a `` fundamental departure '' from the former American colonies ' intellectual past . Early American prisons systems like Massachusetts ' Castle Island Penitentiary , built in 1780 , essentially imitated the model of the 1500s English workhouse . The English workhouse ( edit ) See also : Workhouse `` The workroom at St James 's workhouse '' , from The Microcosm of London ( 1808 ) The English workhouse , an intellectual forerunner of early United States penitentiaries , was first developed as a `` cure '' for the idleness of the poor . Over time English officials and reformers came to see the workhouse as a more general system for rehabilitating criminals of all kinds . Common wisdom in the England of the 1500s attributed property crime to idleness . `` Idleness '' had been a status crime since Parliament enacted the Statute of Laborers in the mid-fourteenth century . By 1530 , English subjects convicted of leading a `` Rogishe or Vagabonds Trade or Lyfe '' were subject to whipping and mutilation , and recidivists could face the death penalty . In 1557 , many in England perceived that vagrancy was on the rise . That same year , the City of London reopened the Bridewell as a warehouse for vagrants arrested within the city limits . By order of any two of the Bridewell 's governors , a person could be committed to the prison for a term of custody ranging from several weeks to several years . In the decades that followed , `` houses of correction '' or `` workhouses '' like the Bridewell became a fixture of towns across England -- a change made permanent when Parliament began requiring every county in the realm to build a workhouse in 1576 . The workhouse was not just a custodial institution . At least some of its proponents hoped that the experience of incarceration would rehabilitate workhouse residents through hard labor . Supporters expressed the belief that forced abstinence from `` idleness '' would make vagrants into productive citizens . Other supporters argued that the threat of the workhouse would deter vagrancy , and that inmate labor could provide a means of support for the workhouse itself . Governance of these institutions was controlled by written regulations promulgated by local authorities , and local justices of the peace monitored compliance . Although `` vagrants '' were the first inhabitants of the workhouse -- not felons or other criminals -- expansion of its use to criminals was discussed . Sir Thomas More described in Utopia ( 1516 ) how an ideal government should punish citizens with slavery , not death , and expressly recommended use of penal enslavement in England . Thomas Starkey , chaplain to Henry VIII , suggested that convicted felons `` be put in some commyn work ... so by theyr life yet the commyn welth schold take some profit . '' Edward Hext , justice of the peace in Somersetshire in the 1500s , recommended that criminals be put to labor in the workhouse after receiving the traditional punishments of the day . Former workhouse in Nantwich , dating from 1780 During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , several programs experimented with sentencing various petty criminals to the workhouse . Many petty criminals were sentenced to the workhouse by way of the vagrancy laws even before these efforts . A commission appointed by King James I in 1622 to reprieve felons condemned to death with banishment to the American colonies was also given authority to sentence offenders `` to toyle in some such heavie and painful manuall workes and labors here at home and be kept in chains in the house of correction or other places , '' until the King or his ministers decided otherwise . Within three years , a growing body of laws authorized incarceration in the workhouse for specifically enumerated petty crimes . Throughout the 1700s , even as England 's `` Bloody Code '' took shape , incarceration at hard labor was held out as an acceptable punishment for criminals of various kinds -- e.g. , those who received a suspended death sentence via the benefit of clergy or a pardon , those who were not transported to the colonies , or those convicted of petty larceny . In 1779 -- at a time when the American Revolution had made convict transportation to North America impracticable -- the English Parliament passed the Penitentiary Act , mandating the construction of two London prisons with internal regulations modeled on the Dutch workhouse -- i.e. , prisoners would labor more or less constantly during the day , with their diet , clothing , and communication strictly controlled . Although the Penitentiary Act promised to make penal incarceration the focal point of English criminal law , a series of the penitentiaries it prescribed were never constructed . Despite the ultimate failure of the Penitentiary Act , however , the legislation marked the culmination of a series of legislative efforts that `` disclose ( ) the ... antiquity , continuity , and durability '' of rehabilitative incarceration ideology in Anglo - American criminal law , according to historian Adam J. Hirsch . The first United States penitentiaries involved elements of the early English workhouses -- hard labor by day and strict supervision of inmates . English philanthropist penology ( edit ) John Howard , English philanthropist penal reformer . A second group that supported penal incarceration in England included clergymen and `` lay pietists '' of various religious denominations who made efforts during the 1700s to reduce the severity of the English criminal justice system . Initially , reformers like John Howard focused on the harsh conditions of pre-trial detention in English jails . But many philanthropists did not limit their efforts to jail administration and inmate hygiene ; they were also interested in the spiritual health of inmates and curbing the common practice of mixing all prisoners together at random . Their ideas about inmate classification and solitary confinement match another undercurrent of penal innovation in the United States that persisted into the Progressive Era . Beginning with Samuel Denne 's Letter to Lord Ladbroke ( 1771 ) and Jonas Hanway 's Solitude in Imprisonment ( 1776 ) , philanthropic literature on English penal reform began to concentrate on the post-conviction rehabilitation of criminals in the prison setting . Although they did not speak with a single voice , the philanthropist penologists tended to view crime as an outbreak of the criminal 's estrangement from God . Hanway , for example , believed that the challenge of rehabilitating the criminal law lay in restoring his faith in , and fear of the Christian God , in order to `` qualify ( him ) for happiness in both worlds . '' Philanthropist penal reformer Jonas Hanway , author of Solitude in Imprisonment ( 1776 ) , circa 1785 . Many eighteenth - century English philanthropists proposed solitary confinement as a way to rehabilitate inmates morally . Since at least 1740 , philanthropic thinkers touted the use of penal solitude for two primary purposes : ( 1 ) to isolate prison inmates from the moral contagion of other prisoners , and ( 2 ) to jump - start their spiritual recovery . The philanthropists found solitude far superior to hard labor , which only reached the convict 's worldly self , failing to get at the underlying spiritual causes of crime . In their conception of prison as a `` penitentiary , '' or place of repentance for sin , the English philanthropists departed from Continental models and gave birth to a largely novel idea -- according to social historians Michael Meranze and Michael Ignatieff -- which in turn found its way into penal practice in the United States . A major political obstacle to implementing the philanthropists ' solitary program in England was financial : Building individual cells for each prisoner cost more than the congregate housing arrangements typical of eighteenth - century English jails . But by the 1790s , local solitary confinement facilities for convicted criminals appeared in Gloucestershire and several other English counties . The philanthropists ' focus on isolation and moral contamination became the foundation for early penitentiaries in the United States . Philadelphians of the period eagerly followed the reports of philanthropist reformer John Howard And the archetypical penitentiaries that emerged in the 1820s United States -- e.g. , Auburn and Eastern State penitentiaries -- both implemented a solitary regime aimed at morally rehabilitating prisoners . The concept of inmate classification -- or dividing prisoners according to their behavior , age , etc. -- remains in use in United States prisons to this day . Rationalist penology ( edit ) Cesare Beccaria , Italian rationalist penal reformer and author of On Crimes and Punishments ( 1764 ) . A third group involved in English penal reform were the `` rationalists '' or `` utlitarians '' . According to historian Adam J. Hirsch , eighteenth - century rationalist criminology `` rejected scripture in favor of human logic and reason as the only valid guide to constructing social institutions . Eighteenth - century rational philosophers like Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham developed a `` novel theory of crime '' -- specifically , that what made an action subject to criminal punishment was the harm it caused to other members of society . For the rationalists , sins that did not result in social harm were outside the purview of civil courts . With John Locke 's `` sensational psychology '' as a guide , which maintained that environment alone defined human behavior , many rationalists sought the roots of a criminal 's behavior in his or her past environment . Rationalists differed as to what environmental factors gave rise to criminality . Some rationalists , including Cesare Beccaria , blamed criminality on the uncertainty criminal punishment , whereas earlier criminologists had linked criminal deterrence to the severity of punishment . In essence , Beccaria believed that where arrest , conviction , and sentencing for crime were `` rapid and infallible , '' punishments for crime could remain moderate . Beccaria did not take issue with the substance of contemporary penal codes -- e.g. , whipping and the pillory ; rather , he took issue with their form and implementation . Jeremy Bentham , English rationalist penal reformer and designer of the Panopticon . Other rationalists , like Jeremy Bentham , believed that deterrence alone could not end criminality and looked instead to the social environment as the ultimate source of crime . Bentham 's conception of criminality led him to concur with philanthropist reformers on the need for rehabilitation of offenders . But , unlike the philanthropists , Bentham and like - minded rationalists believed the true goal of rehabilitation was to show convicts the logical `` inexpedience '' of crime , not their estrangement from religion . For these rationalists , society was the source of and the solution to crime . Ultimately , hard labor became the preferred rationalist therapy . Bentham eventually adopted this approach , and his well - known 1791 design for the Panopticon prison called for inmates to labor in solitary cells for the course of their imprisonment . Another rationalist , William Eden , collaborated with John Howard and Justice William Blackstone in drafting the Penitentiary Act of 1779 , which called for a penal regime of hard labor . According to social and legal historian Adam J. Hirsch , the rationalists had only a secondary impact on United States penal practices . But their ideas -- whether consciously adopted by United States prison reformers or not -- resonate in various United States penal initiatives to the present day . Historical development of United States prison systems ( edit ) Although convicts played a significant role in British settlement of North America , according to legal historian Adam J. Hirsch `` ( t ) he wholesale incarceration of criminals is in truth a comparatively recent episode in the history of Anglo - American jurisprudence . '' Imprisonment facilities were present from the earliest English settlement of North America , but the fundamental purpose of these facilities changed in the early years of United States legal history as a result of a geographically widespread `` penitentiary '' movement . The form and function of prison systems in the United States has continued to change as a result of political and scientific developments , as well as notable reform movements during the Jacksonian Era , Reconstruction Era , Progressive Era , and the 1970s . But the status of penal incarceration as the primary mechanism for criminal punishment has remained the same since its first emergence in the wake of the American Revolution . Early settlement , convict transportation , and the prisoner trade ( edit ) See also : Penal transportation Richard Hakluyt , promoter of large - scale English settlement in the Jamestown Colony by convicts , as depicted in stained glass in the west window of the south transept of Bristol Cathedral . Prisoners and prisons appeared in North America simultaneous to the arrival of European settlers . Among the ninety or so men who sailed with the explorer known as Christopher Columbus were a young black man abducted from the Canary Islands and at least four convicts . By 1570 , Spanish soldiers in St. Augustine , Florida , had built the first substantial prison in North America . As other European nations began to compete with Spain for land and wealth in the New World , they too turned to convicts to fill out the crews on their ships . According to social historian Marie Gottschalk , convicts were `` indispensable '' to English settlement efforts in what is now the United States . In the late sixteenth century , Richard Hakluyt called for the large - scale conscription of criminals to settle the New World for England . But official action on Haklyut 's proposal lagged until 1606 , when the English crown escalated its colonization efforts . Sir John Popham 's colonial venture in present - day Maine was stocked , a contemporary critic complained , `` out of all the gaols ( jails ) of England . '' The Virginia Company , the corporate entity responsible for settling Jamestown , authorized its colonists to seize Native American children wherever they could `` for conversion ... to the knowledge and worship of the true God and their redeemer , Christ Jesus . '' The colonists themselves lived , in effect , as prisoners of the Company 's governor and his agents . Men caught trying to escape were tortured to death ; seamstresses who erred in their sewing were subject to whipping . One Richard Barnes , accused of uttering `` base and detracting words '' against the governor , was ordered to be `` disarmed and have his arms broken and his tongue bored through with an awl '' before being banished from the settlement entirely . When control of the Virginia Company passed to Sir Edwin Sandys in 1618 , efforts to bring large numbers of settlers to the New World against their will gained traction alongside less coercive measures like indentured servitude . Vagrancy statutes began to provide for penal transportation to the American colonies as an alternative to capital punishment in this period , during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I . At the same time , the legal definition of `` vagrancy '' was greatly expanded . Under Queen Elizabeth I , English vagrancy laws began increasingly to provide for penal transportation as a substitute for capital sentences . Soon , a royal commissions endorsed the notion that any felon -- except those convicted of murder , witchcraft , burglary , or rape -- could legally be transported to Virginia or the West Indies to work as a plantation servant . Sandys also proposed sending maids to Jamestown as `` breeders , '' whose costs of passage could be paid for by the planters who took them on as `` wives . '' Soon , over sixty such women had made the passage to Virginia , and more followed . King James I 's royal administration also sent `` vagrant '' children to the New World as servants . a letter in the Virginia Company 's records suggests that as many as 1,500 children were sent to Virginia between 1619 and 1617 . By 1619 , African prisoners were brought to Jamestown and sold as slaves as well , marking England 's entry into the Atlantic slave trade . The infusion of kidnapped children , maids , convicts , and Africans to Virginia during the early part of the seventeenth century inaugurated a pattern that would continue for nearly two centuries . By 1650 , the majority of British emigrants to colonial North America went as `` prisoners '' of one sort or another -- whether as indentured servants , convict laborers , or slaves . The prisoner trade became the `` moving force '' of English colonial policy after the Restoration -- i.e. , from the summer of 1660 onward -- according to By 1680 , the Reverend Morgan Godwyn estimated that almost 10,000 persons were spirited away to the Americas annually by the English crown . Parliament accelerated the prisoner trade in the eighteenth century . Under England 's Bloody Code , a large portion of the realm 's convicted criminal population faced the death penalty . But pardons were common . During the eighteenth century , the majority of those sentenced to die in English courts were pardoned -- often in exchange for voluntary transport to the colonies . In 1717 , Parliament empowered the English courts to directly sentence offenders to transportation , and by 1769 transportation was the leading punishment for serious crime in Great Britain . Over two - thirds of those sentenced during sessions of the Old Bailey in 1769 were transported . The list of `` serious crimes '' warranting transportation continued to expand throughout the eighteenth century , as it had during the seventeenth . Historian A. Roger Ekirch estimates that as many as one - quarter of all British emigrants to colonial America during the 1700s were convicts . In the 1720s , James Oglethorpe settled the colony of Georgia almost entirely with convict settlers . The typical transported convict during the 1700s was brought to the North American colonies on board a `` prison ship . '' Upon arrival , the convict 's keepers would bathe and clothe him or her ( and , in extreme cases , provide a fresh wig ) in preparation for a convict auction . Newspapers advertised the arrival of a convict cargo in advance , and buyers would come at an appointed hour to purchase convicts off the auction block . The Old Newgate Prison in London was one of many detention centers that facilitated the convict trade between England and its American colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries . Prisons played an essential role in the convict trade . Some ancient prisons , like the Fleet and Newgate , still remained in use during the high period of the American prisoner trade in the eighteenth century . But more typically an old house , medieval dungeon space , or private structure would act as a holding pen for those bound for American plantations or the Royal Navy ( under impressment ) . Operating clandestine prisons in major port cities for detainees whose transportation to the New World was not strictly legal , became a lucrative trade on both sides of the Atlantic in this period . Unlike contemporary prisons , those associated with the convict trade served a custodial , not a punitive function . Many colonists in British North America resented convict transportation . As early as 1683 , Pennsylvania 's colonial legislature attempted to bar felons from being introduced within its borders . Benjamin Franklin called convict transportation `` an insult and contempt , the cruellest , that ever one people offered to another . '' Franklin suggested that the colonies send some of North America 's rattlesnakes to England , to be set loose in its finest parks , in revenge . But transportation of convicts to England 's North American colonies continued until the American Revolution , and many officials in England saw it as a humane necessity in light of the harshness of the penal code and contemporary conditions in English jails . Dr. Samuel Johnson , upon hearing that British authorities might bow to continuing agitation in the American colonies against transportation , reportedly told James Boswell : `` Why they are a race of convicts , and ought to be thankful for anything we allow them short of hanging ! '' When the American Revolution ended the prisoner trade to North America , the abrupt halt threw Britain 's penal system into disarray , as prisons and jails quickly filled with the many convicts who previously would have moved on to the colonies . Conditions steadily worsened . It was during this crisis period in the English criminal justice system that penal reformer John Howard began his work . Howard 's comprehensive study of British penal practice , The State of the Prisons in England and Wales , was first published in 1777 -- one year after the start of the Revolution . Colonial criminal punishments , jails , and workhouses ( edit ) The `` Old Gaol ( Jail ) '' in Barnstable , Massachusetts , built in 1690 and operated until 1820 , is today the oldest wooden jail in the United States of America . The jail was built in 1690 by order of Plimouth and Massachusetts Bay Colony Courts . Used as a jail from 1690 -- 1820 ; at one time moved and attached to the Constable 's home . The ' Old Gaol ' was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 . Although jails were an early fixture of colonial North American communities , they generally did not serve as places of incarceration as a form of criminal punishment . Instead , the main role of the colonial American jail was as a non-punitive detention facility for pre-trial and pre-sentence criminal defendants , as well as imprisoned debtors . The most common penal sanctions of the day were fines , whipping , and community - oriented punishments like the stocks . Jails were among the earliest public structures built in colonial British North America . The 1629 colonial charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , for example , granted the shareholders behind the venture the right to establish laws for their settlement `` not contrarie to the lawes of our realm in England '' and to administer `` lawfull correction '' to violators , and Massachusetts established a house of correction for punishing criminals by 1635 . Colonial Pennsylvania built two houses of correction starting in 1682 , and Connecticut established one in 1727 . By the eighteenth century , every county in the North American colonies had a jail . A whipping post or pillory , with stocks atop it , at the New Castle County Jail , Delaware , in 1897 . Colonial American jails were not the `` ordinary mechanism of correction '' for criminal offenders , according to social historian David Rothman . Criminal incarceration as a penal sanction was `` plainly a second choice , '' either a supplement to or a substitute for traditional criminal punishments of the day , in the words of historian Adam J. Hirsch . Eighteenth - century criminal codes provided for a far wider range of criminal punishments than contemporary state and federal criminal laws in the United States . Fines , whippings , the stocks , the pillory , the public cage , banishment , capital punishment at the gallows , penal servitude in private homes -- all of these punishments came before imprisonment in British colonial America . The most common sentence of the colonial era was a fine or a whipping , but the stocks were another common punishment -- so much so that most colonies , like Virginia in 1662 , hastened to build these before either the courthouse or the jail . The theocratic communities of Puritan Massachusetts imposed faith - based punishments like the admonition -- a formal censure , apology , and pronouncement of criminal sentence ( generally reduced or suspended ) , performed in front of the church - going community . Sentences to the colonial American workhouse -- when they were actually imposed on defendants -- rarely exceeded three months , and sometimes spanned just a single day . Colonial jails served a variety of public functions other than penal imprisonment . Civil imprisonment for debt was one of these , but colonial jails also served as warehouses for prisoners - of - war and political prisoners ( especially during the American Revolution ) . They were also an integral part of the transportation and slavery systems -- not only as warehouses for convicts and slaves being put up for auction , but also as a means of disciplining both kinds of servants . Depiction of slaves -- another labor force brought to England 's American colonies in captivity -- processing tobacco in 17th - century Virginia . The colonial jail 's primary criminal law function was as a pre-trial and pre-sentence detention facility . Generally , only the poorest or most despised defendants found their way into the jails of colonial North America , since colonial judges rarely denied requests for bail . The only penal function of significance that colonial jails served was for contempt -- but this was a coercive technique designed to protect the power of the courts , not a penal sanction in its own right . The colonial jail differed from today 's United States prisons not only in its purpose , but in its structure . Many were no more than a cage or closet . Colonial jailers ran their institutions on a `` familial '' model and resided in an apartment attached to the jail , sometimes with a family of their own . The colonial jail 's design resembled an ordinary domestic residence , and inmates essentially rented their bed and paid the jailer for necessities . Before the close of the American Revolution , few statutes or regulations defined the colonial jailers ' duty of care or other responsibilities . Upkeep was often haphazard , and escapes quite common . Few official efforts were made to maintain inmates ' health or see to their other basic needs . Post-revolutionary penal reform and the beginnings of United States prison systems ( edit ) A map of Philadelphia in 1796 , at a time when a century of population growth and social change was beginning to transform crime and punishment in the city and elsewhere in the early United States . The first major prison reform movement in the United States came after the American Revolution , at the start of the nineteenth century . According to historians Adam J. Hirsch and David Rothman , the reform of this period was shaped less by intellectual movements in England than by a general clamor for action in a time of population growth and increasing social mobility , which prompted a critical reappraisal and revision of penal corrective techniques . To address these changes , post-colonial legislators and reformers began to stress the need for a system of hard labor to replace ineffectual corporal and traditional punishments . Ultimately , these early efforts yielded the United States ' first penitentiary systems . The onset of the eighteenth century brought major demographic and social change to colonial and , eventually post-colonial American life . The century was marked by rapid population growth throughout the colonies -- a result of lower mortality rates and increasing ( though small at first ) rates of immigration . In the aftermath of the Revolutionary War , this trend persisted . Between 1790 and 1830 , the population of the newly independent North American states greatly increased , and the number and density of urban centers did as well . The population of Massachusetts almost doubled in this period , while it tripled in Pennsylvania and increased five-fold in New York . In 1790 , no American city had more than fifty thousand residents ; however , by 1830 nearly 500,000 people lived in cities larger than that . The population of the former British colonies also became increasingly mobile during the eighteenth century , especially after the Revolution . Movement to urban centers , in and out of emerging territories , and up and down a more fluid social ladder throughout the century made it difficult for the localism and hierarchy that had structured American life in the seventeenth century to retain their former significance . The Revolution only accelerated patterns of dislocation and transience , leaving displaced families and former soldiers struggling to adapt to the strictures of a stunted post-war economy . The emergence of cities created a kind of community very different from the pre-revolutionary model . The crowded streets of emerging urban centers like Philadelphia seemed to contemporary observers to dangerously blur class , sex , and racial boundaries . William Bradford , like other commentators of the post-revolutionary period , believed that the harsh punishments of English criminal law had perpetuated crime in the North American colonies . Demographic change in the eighteenth century coincided with shifts in the configuration of crime . After 1700 , literary evidence from a variety of sources -- e.g. , ministers , newspapers , and judges -- suggest that property crime rates rose ( or , at least , were perceived to ) . Conviction rates appear to have risen during the last half of the eighteenth century , rapidly so in the 1770s and afterward and especially in urban areas . Contemporary accounts also suggest widespread transiency among former criminals . Communities began to think about their town as something less than the sum of all its inhabitants during this period , and the notion of a distinct criminal class began to materialize . In the Philadelphia of the 1780s , for example , city authorities worried about the proliferation of taverns on the outskirts of the city , `` sites of an alternative , interracial , lower - class culture '' that was , in the words of one observer , `` the very root of vice . '' In Boston , a higher urban crime rate led to the creation of a specialized , urban court in 1800 . The efficacy of traditional , community - based punishments waned during the eighteenth century . Penal servitude , a mainstay of British and colonial American criminal justice , became nearly extinct during the seventeenth century , at the same time that Northern states , beginning with Vermont in 1777 , began to abolish slavery . Fines and bonds for good behavior -- one of the most common criminal sentences of the colonial era -- were nearly impossible to enforce among the transient poor . As the former American colonists expanded their political loyalty beyond the parochial to their new state governments , promoting a broader sense of the public welfare , banishment ( or `` warning out '' ) also seemed inappropriate , since it merely passed criminals onto a neighboring community . Public shaming punishments like the pillory had always been inherently unstable methods of enforcing the public order , since they depended in large part on the participation of the accused and the public . As the eighteenth century matured , and a social distance between the criminal and the community became more manifest , mutual antipathy ( rather than community compassion and offender penitence ) became more common at public executions and other punishments . In urban centers like Philadelphia , growing class and racial tensions -- especially in the wake of the Revolution -- led crowds to actively sympathize with the accused at executions and other public punishments . Colonial governments began making efforts to reform their penal architecture and excise many traditional punishments even before the Revolution . Massachusetts , Pennsylvania , and Connecticut all inaugurated efforts to reconstitute their penal systems in the years leading up to the war to make incarceration at hard labor the sole punishment for most crimes . Although war interrupted these efforts , they were renewed afterward . A `` climate change '' in post-Revolutionary politics , in the words of historian Adam J. Hirsch , made colonial legislatures open to legal change of all sorts after the Revolution , as they retooled their constitutions and criminal codes to reflect their separation from England . The Anglophobic politics of the day bolstered efforts to do away with punishments inherited from English legal practice . An artist 's 1840 depiction of Massachusetts ' Charlestown State Prison , opened in 1805 to accommodate the state 's increasing prison population due to post-revolutionary penal reforms . Reformers in the United States also began to discuss the effect of criminal punishment itself on criminality in the post-revolutionary period , and at least some concluded that the barbarism of colonial - era punishments , inherited from English penal practice , did more harm than good . `` The mild voice of reason and humanity , '' wrote New York penal reformer Thomas Eddy in 1801 , `` reached not the thrones of princes or the halls of legislators . '' `` The mother country had stifled the colonists ' benevolent instincts , '' according to Eddy , `` compelling them to emulate the crude customs of the old world . The result was the predominance of archaic and punitive laws that only served to perpetuate crime . '' Attorney William Bradford made an argument similar to Eddy 's in a 1793 treatise . By the second decade of the nineteenth century every state except North Carolina , South Carolina , and Florida had amended its criminal code to provide for incarceration ( primarily at hard labor ) as the primary punishment for all but the most serious offenses . Provincial laws in Massachusetts began to prescribe short terms in the workhouse for deterrence throughout the eighteenth century and , by mid-century , the first statutes mandating long - term hard labor in the workhouse as a penal sanction appeared . In New York , a 1785 bill , restricted in effect to New York City , authorized municipal officials to substitute up to six months ' hard labor in the workhouse in all cases where prior law had mandated corporal punishment . In 1796 , an additional bill expanded this program to the entire state of New York . Pennsylvania established a hard labor law in 1786 . Hard - labor programs expanded to New Jersey in 1797 , to Virginia in 1796 , to Kentucky in 1798 , and to Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maryland in 1800 . This move toward imprisonment did not translate to an immediate break from traditional forms of punishment . Many new criminal provisions merely expanded the discretion of judges to choose from among various punishments , including imprisonment . The 1785 amendments to Massachusetts ' arson statute , for instance , expanded the available punishments for setting fire to a non-dwelling from whipping to hard labor , imprisonment in jail , the pillory , whipping , fining , or any or all of those punishments in combination . Massachusetts judges wielded this new - found discretion in various ways for twenty years , before fines , incarceration , or the death penalty became the sole available sanctions under the state 's penal code . Other states -- e.g. , New York , Pennsylvania , and Connecticut -- also lagged in their shift toward incarceration . Prison construction kept pace with post-revolutionary legal change . All states that revised their criminal codes to provide for incarceration also constructed new state prisons . But the focus of penal reformers in the post-revolutionary years remained largely external to the institutions they built , according to David Rothman . For reformers of the day , Rothman claims , the fact of imprisonment -- not the institution 's internal routine and its effect on the offender -- was of primary concern . Incarceration seemed more humane than traditional punishments like hanging and whipping , and it theoretically matched punishment more specifically to the crime . But it would take another period of reform , in the Jacksonian Era , for state prison initiatives to take the shape of actual justice institutions . Jacksonian and antebellum Era ( edit ) Present - day exterior shot of the gate at Eastern State Penitentiary , birthplace of the `` Pennsylvania ( or Separate ) System '' of prison governance . By 1800 , eleven of the then - sixteen United States -- i.e. , Pennsylvania , New York , New Jersey , Massachusetts , Kentucky , Vermont , Maryland , New Hampshire , Georgia , and Virginia -- had in place some form of penal incarceration . But the primary focus of contemporary criminology remained on the legal system , according to historian David Rothman , not the institutions in which convicts served their sentences . This changed during the Jacksonian Era , as contemporary notions of criminality continued to shift . Starting in the 1820s , a new institution , the `` penitentiary '' , gradually became the focal point of criminal justice in the United States . At the same time , other novel institutions -- the asylum and the almshouse -- redefined care for the mentally ill and the poor . For its proponents , the penitentiary was an ambitious program whose external appearance , internal arrangements , and daily routine would counteract the disorder and immorality thought to be breeding crime in American society . Although its adoption was haphazard at first , and marked by political strife -- especially in the South -- the penitentiary became an established institution in the United States by the end of the 1830s . New origins of deviancy and an institutional response ( edit ) Francis Wayland , a Baptist reformer of the antebellum period , advocated for the `` Auburn ( or Congregate ) System '' . Jacksonian - era reformers and prison officials began seeking the origins of crime in the personal histories of criminals and traced the roots of crime to society itself . In the words of historian David Rothman , `` They were certain that children lacking discipline quickly fell victim to the influence of vice at loose in the community . '' Jacksonian reformers specifically tied rapid population growth and social mobility to the disorder and immorality of contemporary society . To combat society 's decay and the risks presented by it , Jacksonian penologists designed an institutional setting to remove `` deviants '' from the corruption of their families and communities . In this corruption - free environment , the deviant could learn the vital moral lessons he or she had previously ignored while sheltered from the temptations of vice . This solution ultimately took the shape of the penitentiary . In the 1820s , New York and Pennsylvania began new prison initiatives that inspired similar efforts in a number of other states . Post-revolutionary carceral regimes had conformed to the English workhouse tradition ; inmates labored together by day and shared congregate quarters at night . Antebellum reformer Dorothea Dix supported the `` Pennsylvania ( or Separate ) System '' . Beginning in 1790 , Pennsylvania became the first of the United States to institute solitary confinement for incarcerated convicts . After 1790 , those sentenced to hard labor in Pennsylvania were moved indoors to an inner block of solitary cells in Philadelphia 's Walnut Street Jail . New York began implementing solitary living quarters at New York City 's Newgate Prison in 1796 . From the efforts at the Walnut Street Jail and Newgate Prison , two competing systems of imprisonment emerged in the United States by the 1820s . The `` Auburn '' ( or `` Congregate System '' ) emerged from New York 's prison of the same name between 1819 and 1823 . And the `` Pennsylvania '' ( or `` Separate System '' ) emerged in that state between 1826 and 1829 . The only material difference between the two systems was whether inmates would ever leave their solitary cells -- under the Pennsylvania System , inmates almost never did , but under the Auburn System most inmates labored in congregate workshops by day and slept alone . To advocates of both systems , the promise of institutionalization depended upon isolating the prisoner from the moral contamination of society and establishing discipline in him ( or , in rarer cases , her ) . But the debate as to which system was superior continued into the mid-nineteenth century , pitting some of the period 's most prominent reformers against one another . Samuel Gridley Howe promoted the Pennsylvania System in opposition to Matthew Carey , an Auburn proponent ; Dorothea Dix took up the Pennsylvania System against Louis Dwight ; and Francis Lieber supported Pennsylvania against Francis Wayland . The Auburn system eventually prevailed , however , due largely to its lesser cost . The Pennsylvania system ( edit ) See also : Separate system Present - day photograph of a typical cell at the Eastern State Penitentiary , where the `` Pennsylvania ( or Separate ) System '' was first practiced , in restored condition . The Pennsylvania system , first implemented in the early 1830s at that state 's Eastern State Penitentiary outskirts of Philadelphia and Western State Penitentiary at Pittsburgh , was designed to maintain the complete separation of inmates at all times . Until 1904 , prisoners entered the institution with a black hood over their head , so they would never know who their fellow convicts were , before being led to the cell where they would serve the remainder of their sentence in near - constant solitude . The Cherry Hill complex entailed a massive expenditure of state funds ; its walls alone cost $200,000 , and its final price tag reached $750,000 , one of the largest state expenditures of its day . Like its competitor Auburn system , Eastern State 's regimen was premised on the inmate 's potential for individual rehabilitation . Solitude , not labor , was its hallmark ; labor was reserved only for those inmates who affirmatively earned the privilege . All contact with the outside world more or less ceased for Eastern State prisoners . Proponents boasted that a Pennsylvania inmate was `` perfectly secluded from the world ... hopelessly separated from ... family , and from all communication with and knowledge of them for the whole term of imprisonment . '' Samuel Gridley Howe , antebellum American reformer and advocate for the `` Pennsylvania ( or Separate ) System '' of prison governance . Through isolation and silence -- complete separation from the moral contaminants of the outside worlds -- Pennsylvania supporters surmised that inmates would begin a reformation . `` Each individual , '' a representative tract reads , `` will necessarily be made the instrument of his own punishment ; his conscience will be the avenger of society . '' Proponents insisted that the Pennsylvania system would involve only mild disciplinary measures , reasoning that isolated men would have neither the resources nor the occasion to violate rules or to escape . But from the outset Eastern State 's keepers used corporal punishments to enforce order . Officials used the `` iron gag , '' a bridle - like metal bit placed in the inmate 's mouth and chained around his neck and head ; the `` shower bath , '' repeated dumping of cold water onto a restrained convict ; or the `` mad chair , '' into which inmates were strapped in such a way so as to prevent their bodies from resting . Ultimately , only three prisons ever enacted the costly Pennsylvania program . But nearly all penal reformers of the antebellum period believed in Pennsylvania 's use of solitary confinement . The system remained largely intact at Eastern State Penitentiary into the early twentieth century . New York , the Auburn system , and the future of the penitentiary ( edit ) See also : Auburn system Elam Lynds , the first warden of the Auburn Penitentiary , is credited with creating the `` Auburn ( or Congregate ) System . '' The Auburn or `` Congregate '' System became the archetypical model penitentiary in the 1830s and 1840s , as its use expanded from New York 's Auburn Penitentiary into the Northeast , the Midwest , and the South . The Auburn system 's combination of congregate labor in prison workshops and solitary confinement by night became a near - universal ideal in United States prison systems , if not an actual reality . Under the Auburn system , prisoners slept alone at night and labored together in a congregate workshop during the day for the entirety of their fixed criminal sentence as set by a judge . Prisoners at Auburn were not to converse at any time , or even to exchange glances . Guards patrolled secret passageways behind the walls of the prison 's workshops in moccasins , so inmates could never be sure whether or not they were under surveillance . One official described Auburn 's discipline as `` tak ( ing ) measures for convincing the felon that he is no longer his own master ; no longer in a condition to practice deceptions in idleness ; that he must learn and practice diligently some useful trade , whereby , when he is let out of the prison to obtain an honest living . '' Inmates were permitted no intelligence of events on the outside . In the words of an early warden , Auburn inmates were `` to be literally buried from the world . '' The institution 's regime remained largely intact until after the Civil War . An 1855 engraving of New York 's Sing Sing Penitentiary , which also followed the `` Auburn ( or Congregate ) System . '' Auburn was the second state prison built in New York State . The first , Newgate , located in present - day Greenwich Village in New York City , contained no solitary cells beyond a few set aside for `` worst offenders . '' Its first keeper , Quaker Thomas Eddy , believed rehabilitation of the criminal was the primary end of punishment ( though Eddy also believed that his charges were `` wicked and depraved , capable of every atrocity , and ever plotting some means of violence and escape . '' ) Eddy was not inclined to rely on prisoners ' fear of his severity ; his `` chief disciplinary weapon '' was solitary confinement on limited rations , he forbade his guards from striking inmates , and permitted `` well - behaved '' inmates to have a supervised visit with family once every three months . Eddy made largely unsuccessful efforts to establish profitable prison labor programs , which he had hoped would cover incarceration costs and provide seed money for inmates ' re-entry into society in the form of the `` overstint '' -- i.e. , a small portion of the profits of an inmate 's labor while incarcerated , payable at his or her release . Discipline nevertheless remained hard to enforce , and major riots occurred in 1799 and 1800 -- the latter only subdued via military intervention . Conditions continued to worsen in the wake of the riots , especially during a crime wave that followed the War of 1812 . Present - day photograph of a cell in the older facility at Sing Sing Penitentiary . New York legislators set aside funds for construction of the Auburn prison to address the disappointments of Newgate and alleviate its persistent overcrowding . Almost from the outset , Auburn officials , with the consent of the legislature , eschewed the `` humane '' style envisioned by Thomas Eddy for Newgate . Floggings of up to thirty - nine lashes in duration as punishment for disciplinary infractions were permitted under an 1819 state law , which also authorized the use of the stocks and the irons . The practice of providing convicts with some of the proceeds of their labor at the time of release , the `` overstint , '' was discontinued . The severity of the new regime likely caused another series of riots in 1820 , after which the legislature formed a New York State Prison Guard for putting down future disturbances . Officials also began implementing a classification system at Auburn in the wake of the riots , dividing inmates into three groups : ( 1 ) the worst , who were placed on constant solitary lockdown ; ( 2 ) middling offenders , who were kept in solitary and worked in groups when well - behaved ; and ( 3 ) the `` least guilty and depraved , '' who were permitted to sleep in solitary and work in groups . Construction on a new solitary cell block for category ( 1 ) inmates ended in December 1821 , after which these `` hardened '' offenders moved into their new home . Within a little over a year , however , five of these men had died of consumption , another forty - one were seriously ill , and several had gone insane . After visiting the prison and seeing the residents of the new cell block , Governor Joseph C. Yates was so appalled by their condition that he pardoned several of them outright . When Joseph C. Yates visited solitary cells at the Auburn Penitentiary in the early 1820s , he pardoned several inmates on the spot to spare them further confinement at the prison . Scandal struck Auburn again when a female inmate became pregnant in solitary confinement and , later , died after repeated beatings and the onset of pneumonia . ( Because Auburn relied on female inmates for its washing and cleaning services , women remained part of the population but the first separate women 's institution in New York was not completed until 1893 . ) A jury convicted the keeper who beat the woman of assault and battery , and fined him $25 , but he remained on the job . A grand jury investigation into other aspects of the prison 's management followed but was hampered , among other obstacles , by the fact that convicts could not present evidence in court . Even so , the grand jury eventually concluded that Auburn 's keepers had been permitted to flog inmates without a higher official present , a violation of state law . But neither the warden nor any other officer was ever prosecuted , and the use and intensity of flogging only increased at Auburn , as well as the newer Sing Sing prison , in subsequent years . Despite its early scandals and regular political power struggles that left it with an unstable administrative structure , Auburn remained a model institution nationwide for decades to come . Massachusetts opened a new prison in 1826 modeled on the Auburn system , and within the first decade of Auburn 's existence , New Hampshire , Vermont , Maryland , Kentucky , Ohio , Tennessee , and the District of Columbia all constructed prisons patterned on its congregate system . By the eve of the American Civil War , Illinois , Indiana , Georgia , Missouri , Mississippi , Texas , and Arkansas , with varying success , had all inaugurated efforts to establish an Auburn - model prison in their jurisdictions . The widespread move to penitentiaries in the antebellum United States changed the geography of criminal punishment , as well as its central therapy . Offenders were now ferried across water or into walled compounds to centralized institutions of the criminal justice system hidden from public view . The penitentiary thus largely ended community involvement in the penal process -- beyond a limited role in the criminal trial itself -- though many prisons permitted visitors who paid a fee to view the inmates throughout the nineteenth century . The South ( edit ) On eve of American Civil War , crime did not pose a major concern in the Southern United States . Southerners in the main considered crime to be a Northern problem . A traditional extra-legal system of remedying slights , based in honor culture made personal violence the hallmark of Southern crime . Southern penitentiary systems brought only the most hardened criminals under centralized state control . Most criminals remained outside of formal state control structures -- especially outside of Southern cities . Antebellum Southern republicanism and political opposition to penitentiary building ( edit ) The historical record suggests that , in contrast to Northerners , Southernern states experienced a unique political anxiety about whether to construct prisons during the antebellum period . Disagreements over republican principles -- i.e. , the role of the state in social governance -- became the focus of a persistent debate about the necessity of southern penitentiaries in the decades between independence and the Civil War . To many Southerners , writes historian Edward L. Ayers , `` republicanism '' translated simply to freedom from the will of anyone else : Centralized power , even in the name of an activist republican government , promised more evil than good . Ayers concludes that this form of Southern republicanism owed its particular shape to slavery . The South 's slave economy perpetuated a rural , localized culture , he argues , in which men distrusted strangers ' claims to power . In this political milieu , the notion of surrendering individual liberties of any kind -- even those of criminals -- for some abstract conception of `` social improvement '' was abhorrent to many . But criminal incarceration appealed to others in the South . These Southerners believed that freedom would best grow under the protection of an enlightened state government that made the criminal law more effective by eradicating its more brutal practices and offering criminals the possibility of rehabilitation and restoration to society . Some also believed that penitentiaries would help to remove the contagion of depravity from republican society by segregating those who threatened the republican ideal ( the `` disturbing class '' ) . Notions of living up to the world 's ideas of `` progress '' also animated Southern penal reformers . When the Georgia legislature considered abolishing the state 's penitentiary after a devastating fire in 1829 , reformers there worried their state would become the first to renounce republican `` progress . '' A sizable portion of the Southern population -- if not the majority -- did not support the establishment of the penitentiary . Of the two times that voters in the region had an opportunity to express their opinion of the penitentiary system at the ballot box -- in Alabama and North Carolina -- the penitentiary lost overwhelmingly . Some viewed traditional public punishments as the most republican mechanism for criminal justice , due to their inherent transparency . Some worried that , since the quantity of suffering under penitentiary system would sure to far exceed that of the traditional system , Southern jurors would maintain their historic disposal toward acquittal . Evangelical Southern clergymen also opposed the penitentiary -- especially when its implementation accompanied statutory restriction of the death penalty , which they deemed a biblical requirement for certain crimes . Opposition to the penitentiary crossed party lines ; neither the Whigs nor the Democrats lent consistent support to the institution in the antebellum period . But consistent and enthusiastic support for the penitentiary did come , almost uniformly , from Southern governors . The motives of these governors are note entirely unclear , historian Edward L. Ayers concludes : Perhaps they hoped that the additional patronage positions offered by a penitentiary would augment the historically weak power of the Southern executive ; perhaps they were legitimately concerned with the problem of crime ; or perhaps both considerations played a role . Grand juries -- drawn from Southern `` elites '' -- also issued regular calls for penitentiaries in this period . Ultimately , the penitentiary 's supporters prevailed in the South , as in the North . Southern legislators enacted prison legislation in state after Southern state before the Civil War , often over public opposition . Their motives in doing so appear mixed . According to Edward L. Ayers , some Southern legislators appear to have believed they knew what was best for their people in any case . Since many Southern legislators came from the elite classes , Ayers also observes , they may also have had a personal `` class control '' motive for enacting penitentiary legislation , even while they could point to their participation in penitentiary efforts as evidence of their own benevolence . Historian Michael S. Hindus concludes that Southern hesitation about the penitentiary , at least in South Carolina , stemmed from the slave system , which made the creation of a white criminal underclass undesirable . Prison construction ( edit ) Southern states erected penitentiaries alongside their Northern counterparts in the early nineteenth century . Virginia ( 1796 ) , Maryland ( 1829 ) , Tennessee ( 1831 ) , Georgia ( 1832 ) , Louisiana and Missouri ( 1834 -- 1837 ) , and Mississippi and Alabama ( 1837 -- 1842 ) all erected penitentiary facilities during the antebellum period . Only the North Carolina , South Carolina and largely uninhabited Florida failed to build any penitentiary before the Civil War Virginia was the first state after Pennsylvania , in 1796 , to dramatically reduce the number of crimes punishable by death , and its legislators simultaneously called for the construction of a `` gaol and penitentiary house '' as the cornerstone of a new criminal justice regime . Designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe , the state 's first prison at Richmond resembled Jeremy Bentham 's Panopticon design ( as well as the not - yet - built Eastern State Penitentiary 's ) . All inmates served a mandatory period of solitary confinement after initial entry . Unfortunately for its inhabitants , the site at Richmond where Virginia 's first penitentiary was built bordered a stagnant pool , in which sewage collected . The prison 's cells had no heating system and water oozed from its walls , leading inmates ' extremities to freeze during the winter months . Prisoners could perform no work during the solitary portion of their sentence , which they served completely isolated in near - total darkness , and many went mad during this portion of their sentence . Those prisoners who survived the isolation period joined other inmates in the prison workshop to make goods for the state militia . The workshop never turned a profit . Escapes were common . But despite Virginia 's example , Kentucky , Maryland , and Georgia all constructed prisons before 1820 , and the trend continued in the South thereafter . Early Southern prisons were marked by escapes , violence , and arson . The personal reformation of inmates was left almost solely to underpaid prison chaplains . Bitter opposition from the public and rampant overcrowding both marked Southern penal systems during the antebellum period . But once established , southern penitentiaries took on lives of their own , with each state 's system experiencing a complex history of innovation and stagnation , efficient and inefficient wardens , relative prosperity and poverty , fires , escapes , and legislative attacks ; but they did follow a common trajectory . During the period in which slavery existed , few black Southerners in the lower South were imprisoned , and virtually none of those imprisoned were slaves . Most often , slaves accused of crimes -- especially less serious offenses -- were tried informally in extra-legal plantation `` courts , '' although it was not uncommon for slaves to come within the formal jurisdiction of the Southern courts . The majority of Southern inmates during the antebellum period were foreign - born whites . Nevertheless , in the upper South , free blacks made up a significant ( and disproportionate ) one - third of state prison populations . Governors and legislators in both the upper and lower South became concerned about racial mixing in their prison systems . Virginia experimented for a time with selling free blacks convicted of `` serious '' crimes into slavery until public opposition led to the measure 's repeal ( but only after forty such persons were sold ) . Very few women , black or white , were imprisoned in the antebellum South . But for those women who did come under the control of Southern prisons , conditions were often `` horrendous , '' according to Edward L. Ayers . Although they were not made to shave their heads like male convicts , female inmates in the antebellum South did not live in specialized facilities -- as was the case in many antebellum Northern prisons -- and sexual abuse was common . As in the North , the costs of imprisonment preoccupied Southern authorities , although it appears that Southerners devoted more concern to this problem than their Northern counterparts . Southern governors of the antebellum period tended to have little patience for prisons that did not turn a profit or , at least , break even . Southern prisons adopted many of the same money - making tactics as their Northern counterparts . Prisons earned money by charging fees to visitors . They also earned money by harnessing convict labor to produce simple goods that were in steady demand , like slave shoes , wagons , pails , and bricks . But this fomented unrest among workers and tradesmen in Southern towns and cities . Governor Andrew Johnson of Tennessee , a former tailor , waged political war on his state 's penitentiary and the industries it had introduced among its inmates . To avoid these conflicts , some states -- like Georgia and Mississippi -- experimented with prison industry for state - run enterprises . But in the end few penitentiaries , North or South , turned a profit during the antebellum period . Presaging Reconstruction - era developments , however , Virginia , Georgia , and Tennessee began considering the idea of leasing their convicts to private businesspersons by the 1850s . Prisoners in Missouri , Alabama , Texas , Kentucky , and Louisiana all leased their convicts during the antebellum period under a variety of arrangements -- some inside the prison itself ( as Northern prisons were also doing ) , and others outside of the state 's own facilities . Urban crime in the antebellum South ( edit ) Between 1800 and 1860 , the vast majority of the Southern population worked in agriculture . Whereas the proportion of the Northern population working on farms dropped in this period from 70 to 40 percent , 80 percent of Southerners were consistently engaged in farm - related work . Reflecting this , only one - tenth of Southerners lived in what the contemporary census criteria described as an urban area ( compared to nearly one - quarter of Northerners ) . Antebellum southern cities stood at juncture of the region 's slave economy and the international market economy , and economics appear to have played crucial role in shaping the face of crime in Southern cities . These urban centers tended to attract young and propertyless white males , not only from the Southern countryside , but also from the North and abroad . Urban immigration in the South reached a peak during the 1850s , when an economic boom in cotton produced `` flush times . '' Poor young men and others -- white and black -- settled on the peripheries of Southern cities like Savannah , Georgia . Here they came into contact with the wealthy and more stable elements of modern society , producing demographics similar to those in post-revolutionary Philadelphia and other Northern cities . The first modern Southern police forces emerged between 1845 and the Civil War in large part due to the class - based tensions that developed in Southern cities . Some Southern cities -- notably New Orleans and Charleston -- experimented with police forces even earlier in the eighteenth century as a means of controlling their large urban slave populations . But most Southern cities relied on volunteer night - watch forces prior to mid-century . The transition to uniformed police forces was not especially smooth : Major political opposition arose as a result of the perceived corruption , inefficiency , and threat to individual liberty posed by the new police . According to Edward L. Ayers , Southern police forces of the antebellum period tended to enforce uniformity by creating crime out of `` disorder '' and `` nuisance '' enforcement . The vast majority of theft prosecutions in the antebellum South arose in its cities . And property offenders made up a disproportionate share of the convict population . Although thieves and burglars constituted fewer than 20 percent of the criminals convicted in Southern courts , they made up about half the South 's prison population . During the period between independence and the Civil War , Southern inmates were disproportionately ethnic . Foreign - born persons made up less than 3 percent of the South 's free population . In fact , only one - eighth of all immigrants to the United States during the antebellum period settled in the South . Yet foreign immigrants represented anywhere from 8 to 37 percent of the prison population of the Southern states during this period . Crime in Southern cities generally mirrored that of Northern ones during the antebellum years . Both sections experienced a spike in imprisonment rates during a national market depression on the eve of the American Civil War . The North had experienced a similar depression during the 1830s and 1840s -- with a concurrent increase in imprisonment -- that the agrarian South did not . But urban crime in the South differed from that in the North in one key way -- its violence . A significantly higher percentage of violence characterized Southern criminal offenders of all class levels . Young white males made up the bulk of violent offenders in the urban South . Slavery in the urban South also played a role in the development of its penal institutions . Urban slave - owners often utilized jails to `` store '' their human property and to punish slaves for disciplinary infractions . Slaveholding in urban areas tended to be less rigid than in the rural South . Nearly 60 percent of slaves living in Savannah , Georgia , for example , did not reside with their master ; many were allowed to hire themselves out for wages ( though they had to share the proceeds with their owner ) . In this environment , where racial control was more difficult to enforce , Southern whites were constantly on guard against black criminality . Charleston , South Carolina , established a specialized workhouse for masters to send their slaves for punishment for a fee . In Savannah , Georgia , owners could send their slaves to the city jail to have punishment administered . Rural crime in the antebellum South ( edit ) Industrialization proceeded haphazardly across the South during the antebellum period , and large sections of the rural population participated in a subsistence economy like that of the colonial era . Patterns of crime in these regions reflected these economic realities ; violence , not thefts , took up most of the docket space in rural Southern courts . Unlike antebellum urban spaces , the ups and downs of the market economy had a lesser impact on crime in the South 's rural areas . Far fewer theft cases appear on criminal dockets in the rural antebellum South than in its cities ( though rural judges and juries , like their urban counterparts , dealt with property offenders more harshly than violent ones ) . Crime in rural area areas consisted almost solely of violent offenses . Most counties in the antebellum South -- as in the North -- maintained a jail for housing pre-trial and pre-sentence detainees . These varied in size and quality of construction considerably as a result of disparities in wealth between various counties . Unlike Southern cities , however , rural counties rarely used the jail as criminal punishment in the antebellum period , even as states across the Northeast and the Midwest shifted the focus of their criminal justice process to rehabilitative incarceration . Instead , fines were the mainstay of rural Southern justice . The non-use of imprisonment as a criminal punishment in the rural antebellum South reflected the haphazard administration of criminal justice in these regions . Under the general criminal procedure of the day , victims of theft or violence swore out complaints before their local justice of the peace , who in turn issued arrest warrants for the accused . The county sheriff would execute the warrant and bring the defendant before a magistrate judge , who would conduct a preliminary hearing , after which he could either dismiss the case or bind the accused over to the Superior Court for a grand jury hearing . ( Some cases , however , particularly those involving moral offenses like drinking and gambling , were initiated by the grand jury of its own accord . ) Criminal procedure in the antebellum rural South offered many avenues of escape to a criminal defendant , and only the poorest resided in the jail while awaiting trial or sentencing . Those defendants who did spend time in jail before trial had to wait for the prosecutor 's biannual visit to their county . Southern prosecutors generally did not live in the local area where they prosecuted cases and were generally ill - prepared . Disinterested jurors were also hard to come by , given the generally intimate nature of rural Southern communities . Relative leniency in sentencing for appears to have marked most judicial proceedings for violent offenses -- the most common . Historical evidence suggests that juries indicted a greater number of potential offenders than the judicial system could handle in the belief that many troublemakers -- especially the landless -- would leave the country altogether . Few immigrants or free blacks lived in the rural South in the pre-Civil War years , and slaves remained under the dominant control of a separate criminal justice system administered by planters throughout the period . Thus , most criminal defendants were Southern - born whites ( and all socio - economic classes were represented on criminal dockets ) . Blacks occasionally came within the purview of the conventional criminal justice apparatus from their dealings with whites in the `` gray market , '' among other offenses . But the danger to whites and blacks alike from illicit trading , the violence that often erupted at their meetings , and the tendency of whites to take advantage of their legally impotent black counterparties all made these occurrences relatively rare . Reconstruction Era ( edit ) The American Civil War and its aftermath witnessed renewed efforts to reform America 's system and rationale for imprisonment . Most state prisons remained unchanged since the wave of penitentiary building during the Jacksonian Era and , as a result , were in a state of physical and administrative deterioration . Auburn and Eastern State penitentiaries , the paradigmatic prisons of Jacksonian reform , were little different . New reformers confronted the problems of decaying antebellum prisons with a new penal regime that focused on the rehabilitation of the individual -- this time with an emphasis on using institutional inducements as a means of affecting behavioral change . At the same time , Reconstruction - era penology also focused on emerging `` scientific '' views of criminality related to race and heredity , as the post-war years witnessed the birth of a eugenics movement in the United States . Northern developments ( edit ) Brutality , immigration , eugenics , and `` prisons as laboratories '' ( edit ) Social historian David Rothman describes the story of post-reconstruction prison administration as one of decline from the ambitions Jacksonian period . Facing major overcrowding and understaffing issues , prison officials reverted to `` amazingly bizarre '' methods of controlling their charges , Rothman writes . Among the punishments that proliferated in this period were : The Pulley or Tying Up -- Convicts were suspended by the wrists , fastened over their head , for anywhere from a few minutes to an hour . At Sing Sing Prison , where this treatment was especially popular a New York investigator related , `` Men have been kept raised so long as to cause bleeding from the mouth , before the doctor would order the prisoner taken down . '' Wardens also used a variation on the pulley known as the `` hooks , '' which involved tying the inmates ' hands together and lashing them to the wall at chest height , forcing them to put most of their weight onto their toes . The Iron Cap or `` Cage '' -- The convict wore a case composed of small rods or bands of iron -- which weighed between 6 1⁄2 and 8 pounds -- around the neck , and an iron band across the next and shoulders held it in place . The Lash and Paddle -- This traditional penitentiary punishment continued into the post-war era with some refinement -- i.e. , weighted leather strips and aerated paddles were used instead of whips . The number of strokes was set to the offense and in some placed , like Massachusetts , limited by statute . Sing Sing convicts in the 1880s reportedly jumped from the upper galleries of the prison 's cell blocks in an effort to break their legs and escape a paddling . Solitary Confinement ( `` The Dungeon '' ) -- Reconstruction - era inmates were locked in dark solitary cells , furnished only with a bucket , and fed short rations for disciplinary infractions ( usually for a period of up to a week , but sometimes up to six or more ) . Straitjackets -- Wardens used these as much for discipline as for inmate safety . Brickbag -- Convicts who would not work were forced in some institutions to wear a heavy bag ( full of weighted objects ) . Water Crib -- Used at the Reconstruction - era prison in Kansas , this disciplinary instrument involved the inmate 's being placed in a coffin - like box about six - and - a-half feet long , thirty inches wide , and three - feet deep . The inmate would lie face down , his or her hands cuffed behind the back , while keepers slowly filled the crib with water to simulate drowning . Although wardens tended to believe these measures were necessary for control , contemporary observers generally found them `` unquestionably cruel and unusual , '' according to Rothman . Northern states continued to lease the labor of their convicts to private business interests in the post-war years . The Thirteenth Amendment , adopted in 1865 , expressly permitted slavery `` as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted . '' In Northern prisons , the state generally housed and fed inmate laborers , while contractors brought all necessary machinery to the prison facility and leased the inmates ' time . Abuses were common , according to investigative reporter Scott Christianson , as employers and guards tried to extract as much time and effort from prisoners as possible . At New Jersey 's prison at Trenton , after an inmate died while being `` stretched '' by the prison staff , a committee investigating discipline at the prison determined that officials had poured alcohol on epileptics and set them on fire to see if they were faking convulsions in order to skip work . At an Ohio penitentiary , unproductive convicts were made to sit naked in puddles of water and receive electric shocks from an induction coil . In New York , public investigations of practices in the state 's prisons became increasingly frequent during the 1840s , 1860s , and 1870s -- though with little actual effect on conditions . They revealed that a prisoner had been poisoned to death for not working in one institution ; another was found to have been kept chained to the floor for ten months in solitary confinement , until he eventually suffered a mental breakdown . By and large , Americans of the 1870s , 1880s , and 1890s did little to address the disciplinary and other abuses in United States penitentiaries of the time . One reason for this apathy , according to authors Scott Christianson and David Rothman , was the composition of contemporary prison populations . Following the Civil War , the volume of immigration to the United States increased alongside expanding nativist sentiment , which had been a fixture of national politics since long before the War . During the 1870s , as many as 3 million immigrants arrived on the shores of the United States . By the 1880s , the influx rose to 5.2 million , as immigrants fled persecution and unrest in eastern and southern Europe . This trend continued until immigration reached a zenith between 1904 and 1914 of 1 million persons per year . Already in the 1850s and 1860s , prisons ( along with asylums for the mentally ill ) were becoming the special preserve of the foreign - born and the poor . This trend accelerated as the nineteenth century drew to a close . In Illinois , for example , 60 percent of inmates in 1890 were foreign - born or second - generation immigrants -- Irish and German , mostly . Less than one - third of the Illinois inmates had completed grammar school , only 5 percent had a high school or college education , and the great majority held unskilled or semi-skilled jobs . In the 1890s California , 45 percent of prisoners were foreign - born -- predominantly of Chinese , Mexican , Irish , and German descent -- and the majority were laborers , waiters , cooks , or farmers . Throughout the post-war years , the rate of imprisonment for foreign - born Americans was twice that of native - born ones ; black Americans were incarcerated , North and South , at three times the rate of white Americans . The Civil War 's end also witnessed the emergence of pseudo-scientific theories concerning biological superiority and inherited social inferiority . Commentators grafted the Darwinian concept of `` survival of the fittest '' onto notions of social class . Charles Loring Brace , author of The Dangerous Classes of New York ( 1872 ) , warned his readers that attempts to cure poverty through charity would backfire by lessening the poor 's chance of survival . Richard L. Dugdale , civic - minded New York merchant , toured thirteen county jails during the 1870s as a voluntary inspector for the prestigious Prison Association of New York . Reflecting on his observations in later writings , Dugdale traced crime to hereditary criminality and promiscuity . These views on race and genetics , Christianson and Rothman conclude , affected the various official supervisory bodies established to monitor regulatory compliance in United States prisons . Although these monitoring boards ( established either by the state executive or legislature ) would ostensibly ferret out abuses in the prison system , in the end their apathy toward the incarcerated population rendered them largely ill - equipped for task of ensuring even humane care , Rothman argues . State and federal judges , for their part , refrained from monitoring prison conditions until the 1950s . Persistent beliefs in inherited criminality and social inferiority also stoked a growing eugenics movement during the Reconstruction Era , which sought to `` improve '' the human race through controlled breeding and eliminate `` poor '' or `` inferior '' tendencies . By the late 1890s , eugenics programs were enjoying a `` full - blown renaissance '' in American prisons and institutions for the mentally ill , with leading physicians , psychologists , and wardens as proponents . Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso published a highly influential tract in 1878 entitled L'uomo delinquente ( or , The Criminal Man ) , which theorized that a primitive criminal type existed who was identifiable by physical symptoms or `` stigmata . '' Phrenology also became a popular `` science '' among prison officials ; at the height of the study 's popularity , the influential Reconstruction Era matron of Sing Sing Prison , Elizabeth W. Farnham , was one of its adherents , and officials at Eastern State Penitentiary maintained phrenological data on all inmates during the post-war years . As the field of physical anthropology gained traction in the 1880s , prisons became laboratories for studying eugenics , psychology , human intelligence , medicine , drug treatment , genetics , and birth control . Support for these initiatives sprang from the influential prison reform organizations in the United States at the time -- e.g. , the Prison Reform Congress , the National Conference for Charities and Corrections , the National Prison Congress , the Prison Association of New York , and the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons . New methods of identifying criminal tendencies and classifying offenders by threat level emerged from prison - based research . In 1896 , for instance , New York began requiring all persons sentenced to a penal institution for thirty days or more to be measured and photographed for state records . Eugenics studies in the prison setting led to the development of the vasectomy as a replacement for total castration . Eugenics studies of the day aimed to prevent the extinction or genetic deterioration of mankind through restraints on reproduction , according to author Scott Christianson . In the mid-1890s , the Kansas `` Home for the Feeble - Minded '' began performing mass castrations on all of its residents . And Indiana became the first state to enact a compulsory sterilization act for certain mentally ill and criminal persons in 1907 . John D. Rockefeller Jr. , a eugenics devotee , became involved in social Darwinist experiments in New York . In the 1910s , Rockefeller created the Bureau for Social Hygiene , which conducted experiments on female prisoners , with the state 's consent and financial support , to determine the roots of their criminality and `` mental defectiveness . '' Failure of Jacksonian reform and renewed efforts ( edit ) A new group of prison reformers emerged in the Reconstruction Era that maintained some optimism about the institution and initiated efforts to make the prison a center for moral rehabilitation . Their efforts led to some change in contemporary prisons , but it would take another period of reform during the Progressive Era for any significant structural revisions to the prison systems of the United States . The primary failure of Reconstruction Era penitentiaries , according to historian David Rothman , was administrative . State governors typically appointed political patrons to prison posts , which were usually not full - time or salaried . In the 1870s , for example , the board of the Utica , New York , asylum was composed of two bankers , a grain merchant , two manufacturers , two lawyers , and two general businessman . Prison oversight boards like the Utica one , composed of local businessmen , tended to defer to prison officials in most matters and focus solely on financial oversight , Rothman writes , and therefore tended to perpetuate the status quo . Prison reform efforts of the Reconstruction Era came from a variety of sources . Fears about genetic contamination by the `` criminal class '' and its effect on the future of mankind led to numerous moral policing efforts aimed at curbing promiscuity , prostitution , and `` white slavery '' in this period . Meanwhile , campaigns to criminalize domestic violence , especially toward children , and related temperance movements led to renewed commitment to `` law and order '' in many communities from the 1870s onward . When legislators ignored demands for more protection for women and children , feminist activists lobbied for harsher punishments for male criminal offenders -- including the whipping post , castration , and longer prison terms . Another group of reformers continued to justify penitentiaries for negative reasons -- i.e. , for fear that a sustained and successful attack on the prison system and its failings might yield a return to the `` barbarism '' of colonial - era punishments . Nevertheless , a degree of optimism continued to dominate the thinking of reformers in the post-Civil War period , according to historian David Rothman . By October 1870 , notable Reconstruction Era prison reformers Enoch Wines , Franklin Sanborn , Theodore Dwight , and Zebulon Brockway -- among others -- convened with the National Congress of Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline in Cincinnati , Ohio . The resolutions that emerged from the conference , called the Declaration of Principles , became the chief planks of the penitentiary reform agenda in the United States for the next several decades . The essence of the National Congress ' agenda in the Declaration was a renewed commitment to the `` moral regeneration '' of offenders ( especially young ones ) through a new model of penitentiary . The National Congress ' Declaration of Principles characterized crime as `` a sort of moral disease . '' The Declaration stated that the `` great object ( of ) ... the treatment of criminals ... should be ( their ) moral regeneration ... the reformation of criminals , not the infliction of vindictive suffering . '' The Declaration took inspiration from the `` Irish mark system '' pioneered by penologist Sir Walter Crofton . The object of Crofton 's system was to teach prisoners how to lead an upright life through use of `` good - time '' credits ( for early release ) and other behavioral incentives . The Declaration 's primary goals were : ( 1 ) to cultivate prisoners ' sense of self - respect ; and ( 2 ) to place the prisoner 's destiny in his or her own hands . But the Declaration more broadly : Called for sanitary improvements and an end to the political appointment of prison administrators ; Welcomed the increased participation of women in prison management ; Advocated for a more progressive system of classifying prisoners based on individualized and continuous assessments of their character through a mark system ; Stressed the importance of educating inmates ; and Argued that prisoners ' wills must be won over via persuasion , not destroyed . The National Congress and those who responded to its agenda also hoped to implement a more open - ended sentencing code . They advocated for the replacement of the peremptory ( or mandatory ) sentences of the day , set by a judge after trial , with sentences of indeterminate length . True `` proof of reformation , '' the Congress Declaration provided , should replace the `` mere lapse of time '' in winning an inmate 's release from confinement . These suggestions anticipated the near - comprehensive adoption of indeterminate sentencing during the Progressive Era . In spite of its many `` progressive '' suggestions for penal reform , the National Congress showed little sensitivity to the plight of freed blacks and immigrants in the penal system , in the view of author Scott Christianson . Christianson notes that the National Congress ' membership generally subscribed to the prevailing contemporary notion that blacks and foreigners were disproportionately represented in the prison system due to their inherent depravity and social inferiority . The rise and decline of the Elmira Reformatory in New York during the latter part of the nineteenth century represents the most ambitious attempt in the Reconstruction Era to fulfill the goals set by the National Congress in the Declaration of Principles . Built in 1876 , the Elmira institution was designed to hold first - time felons , between the ages of sixteen and thirty , who were serving an indeterminate term of imprisonment set by their sentencing judge . Elmira inmates had to earn their way out of the institution through good behavior , as assessed through an elaborate grading system . The only limits on inmates ' terms of imprisonment were whatever upper threshold the legislature set for their offense . Elmira 's administration underscores the fundamental tension of contemporary penal reform , according to authors Scott Christianson and David Rothman . On the one hand , its purpose was to rehabilitate offenders ; on the other , its reform principles were tempered by a belief in the heretability of criminal behavior . Elmira 's first warden , National Congress member Zebulon Brockway , wrote in 1884 that at least one - half of his charges were `` incorrigible '' due to their genetics . Brockway further characterized modern criminals as `` to a considerable extent the product of our civilization and ... of emigration to our shore from the degenerated populations of crowded European marts . '' Brockway reserved the harshest disciplinary measures -- e.g. , frequent whippings and solitary confinement -- for those he deemed `` incorrigible '' ( primarily the mentally and physically disabled ) . Elmira was regarded by many contemporaries as a well - run , model institution in its early years . Nevertheless , by 1893 the reformatory was seriously overcrowded and Brockway 's ideas about genetic degeneracy , low - intelligence , and criminality came under fire as a result of his brutality toward the mentally and physically disabled . An 1894 executive investigation of Elmira 's disciplinary practices concluded that discipline in the institution was harsh , although it eventually cleared Brockway of charges that he practiced `` cruel , brutal , excessive , degrading and unusual punishment of inmates . '' But continuing stigma led the Brockway to resign from his post at Elmira by 1900 . Historian David Rothman characterizes Brockway 's departure from Elmira as marking the institution 's failure as a reformed penitentiary , since its methods were hardly different from those of other Jacksonian Era institutions that had survived into the post-war years . But Rothman also concludes that the Elmira experience suggested to contemporary reformers only that management was to blame , not their proposed system of incarceration generally . The Progressive Era of the early twentieth century thus witnessed renewed efforts to implement the penal agenda espoused by the National Congress and its adherents in 1870 -- albeit with some noteworthy structural additions . Southern developments ( edit ) The Civil War brought overwhelming change to Southern society and its criminal justice system . As freed slaves joined the Southern population , they came under the primary control of local governments for the first time . At the same time , the market economy began to affect individuals and regions in the South that were previously untouched . Widespread poverty at the end of the nineteenth century unraveled the South 's prior race - based social fabric . In Reconstruction - era cities like Savannah , Georgia , intricate codes of racial etiquette began to unravel almost immediately after the war with the onset of emancipation . The local police forces that had been available in the antebellum South , depleted during the war , could not enforce the racial order as they had before . Nor was the white population , stricken by poverty and resentment , as united in its racial policing as it was during the antebellum period . By the end of Reconstruction , a new configuration of crime and punishment had emerged in the South : a hybrid , racialized form of incarceration at hard labor , with convicts leased to private businesses , that endured well into the twentieth century . Changing demographics of crime and punishment in the Reconstruction - Era South ( edit ) The economic turmoil of the post-war South reconstituted race relations and the nature of crime in the region , as whites attempted to reassert their supremacy . Earlier , extra-legal efforts toward reestablishing white supremacy , like those of the Ku Klux Klan , gradually gave way to more certain and less volatile forms of race control , according to historian Edward L. Ayers . Racial animosity and hatred grew as the races became ever more separate , Ayers argues , and Southern legal institutions turned much of their attention to preserving the racial status quo for whites . Patterns of `` mono - racial law enforcement , '' as Ayers refers to it , were established in Southern states almost immediately after the American Civil War . Cities that had never had police forces moved quickly to establish them , and whites became far less critical of urban police forces in post-war politics , whereas in the antebellum period they had engendered major political debate . Savannah , Georgia 's post-war police force was made up of Confederate veterans , who patrolled the city in gray uniforms , armed with rifles , revolvers , and sabers . They were led by an ex-Confederate General , Richard H. Anderson . Ayers concludes that white policemen protecting white citizens became the model for law enforcement efforts across the South after the American Civil War . Depressed economic conditions impacted both white and black farmers in the post-war South , as cotton prices entered a worldwide decline and interest rates on personal debt rose with `` astonishing '' speed after the close of hostilities . Property crime convictions in the Southern countryside , rare in the antebellum years , rose precipitously throughout the 1870s ( though violent crime by white offenders continued to take up the majority of the rural courts ' business ) . Former slaves who migrated to Southern cities , where they often received the lowest - paying jobs , were generally affected more acutely by economic downturns than their rural counterparts . Five years after the Civil War , 90 percent of the black population of Savannah , Georgia , owned no property . Increases in black property crime prosecutions in Savannah correlate to major economic downturns of the post-war period . Whites made few attempts to disguise the injustice in their courts , according to historian Edward L. Ayers . Blacks were uniformly excluded from juries and denied any opportunity to participate in the criminal justice process aside from being defendants . Thefts by black offenders became a new focus of the Southern justice systems and began to supplant violent crimes by white offenders in court dockets . Whether they were from the city or the countryside , those accused of property crime stood the greatest chance of conviction in post-war southern courts . But black defendants were convicted in the highest numbers . During the last half of the nineteenth century , three out of every five white defendants accused of property crime in Southern courts were convicted , while four out of every five black defendants were . Conviction rates for whites , meanwhile , dropped substantially from antebellum levels throughout the last half of the nineteenth century . This system of justice led , in the opinion of W.E.B. Du Bois , to a system in which neither blacks nor whites respected the criminal justice system -- whites because they were so rarely held accountable , and blacks because their own accountability felt so disproportionate . Ultimately , thousands of black Southerners served long terms on chain gangs for petty theft and misdemeanors in the 1860s and 1870s , while thousands more went into the convict lease system . In criminal sentencing , blacks were disproportionately sentenced to incarceration -- whether to the chain gang , convict leasing operation , or penitentiary -- in relation to their white peers . Black incarceration peaked before and after radical Reconstruction , when Southern whites exercised virtually unchecked power and restored `` efficiency '' to the criminal courts . For example , 384 of North Carolina 's 455 prisoners in 1874 were black , and in 1878 the proportion had increased slightly to 846 of 952 . By 1871 , 609 of Virginia 's 828 convicts in -- including all but four of its sixty - seven female prisoners -- were black . But this phenomenon was not specific to the South : The proportion of black inmates in Northern prisons was virtually identical to that in Southern prisons throughout the second half of the nineteenth century . Rural courts met so rarely in the post-war years that prisoners often sat in jails for months while awaiting trial , at the government 's expense . Chain gangs emerged in the post-war years as an initial solution to this economic deficit . Urban and rural counties moved the locus of criminal punishment from municipalities and towns to the county and began to change the economics of punishment from a heavy expense to a source of public `` revenue '' -- at least in terms of infrastructure improvements . Even misdemeanors could be turned to economic advantage ; defendants were often sentenced to only a few on the chain gang , with an additional three to eight months tacked onto the sentence to cover `` costs . '' As the Southern economy foundered in the wake of the peculiar institution 's destruction , and property crime rose , state governments increasingly explored the economic potential of convict labor throughout the Reconstruction period and into the twentieth century . Institutional power struggles over the Southern justice apparatus ( edit ) `` The most far - reaching change in the history of crime and punishment in the nineteenth - century South , '' according to historian Edward L. Ayers , was `` the state 's assumption of control over blacks from their ex-masters ... '' The process by which this occurred was `` halting and tenuous , '' but the transition began the moment a master told his slaves they were free . '' In this landscape , Ayers writes , the Freedmen 's Bureau vied with Southern whites -- through official government apparatuses and informal organizations like the Ku Klux Klan -- over opposing notions of justice in the post-war South . Southern whites in the main tried to salvage as much of the antebellum order as possible in the wake of the American Civil War , waiting to see what changes might be forced upon them . The `` Black Codes '' enacted almost immediately after the war -- Mississippi and South Carolina passed theirs as early as 1865 -- were an initial effort in this direction . Although they did not use racial terms , the Codes defined and punished a new crime , `` vagrancy , '' broadly enough to guarantee that most newly free black Americans would remain in a de facto condition of servitude . The Codes vested considerable discretion in local judges and juries to carry out this mission : County courts could choose lengths and types of punishment previously unavailable . The available punishments for vagrancy , arson , rape , and burglary in particular -- thought by whites to be peculiarly black crimes -- widened considerably in the post-war years . Soon after hostilities officially ceased between the United States and the Confederate States of America , black `` vagrants '' in Nashville , Tennessee , and New Orleans , Louisiana , were being fined and sent to the city workhouse . In San Antonio , Texas , and Montgomery , Alabama , free blacks were arrested , imprisoned , and put to work on the streets to pay for their own upkeep . A Northern journalist who passed through Selma , Alabama , immediately after of the war , was told that no white man had ever been sentenced to the chain gang , but that blacks were now being condemned to it for such `` crimes '' as `` using abusive language towards a white man '' or selling farm produce within the town limits . At the same time that Reconstruction Era Southern governments enacted the `` Black Codes '' , they also began to change the nature of the state 's penal machinery to make it into an economic development tool . Social historian Marie Gottschalk characterizes the use of penal labor by Southern state governments during the post-war years as an `` important bridge between an agricultural economy based on slavery and the industrialization and agricultural modernization of the New South . '' Many prisons in the South were in a state of disrepair by the end of the American Civil War , and state budgets across the region were exhausted . Mississippi 's penitentiary , for instance , was devastated during the war , and its funds depleted . In 1867 the state 's military government began leasing convicts to rebuild wrecked railroad and levees within the state . By 1872 , it began leasing convicts to Nathan Bedford Forrest , a former Confederate general and slave trader , as well as the first Imperial Wizard of the then emerging Ku Klux Klan . Texas also experienced a major postwar depression , in the midst of which its legislators enacted tough new laws calling for forced inmate labor within prison walls and at other works of public utility outside of the state 's detention facilities . Soon Texas began leasing convicts to railroads , irrigation and navigation projects , and lead , copper , and iron mines . Virginia 's prison at Richmond collapsed in the wake of the City 's 1865 surrender , but occupying Union forces rounded up as many convicts as they could in order to return them to work . Alabama began leasing out its Wetumpka Prison to private businessmen soon after the Civil War . During the Reconstruction Era , the North Carolina legislature authorized state judges to sentence offenders to work on chain gangs on county roads , railroads , or other internal improvements for a maximum term of one year -- though escapees who were recaptured would have to serve double their original sentence . North Carolina had failed to erect a penitentiary in the antebellum period , and its legislators planned to build an Auburn - style penitentiary to replace the penal labor system . But graft and shady dealings soon rendered a new prison impracticable , and North Carolina convicts continued to be leased to railroad companies . Freed blacks became the primary workers in the South 's emerging penal labor system . Those accused of property crime -- white or black -- stood the greatest chance of conviction in post-war Southern courts . But black property offenders were convicted more often than white ones -- at a rate of eight convictions for every ten black defendants , compared to six of every ten white defendants . Overall , conviction rates for whites dropped substantially from antebellum levels during the Reconstruction Era and continued to decline throughout the last half of the nineteenth century . The Freedmen 's Bureau , charged with implementing congressional reconstruction throughout the former Confederate states , was the primary political body that opposed the increasing racial overtones of Southern criminal justice during the Reconstruction Era . The Bureau 's mission reflected a strong faith in impersonal legalism , according to historian Edward L. Ayers , and its agents were to act as guarantors of blacks ' legal equality . The Bureau maintained courts in the South from 1865 to 1868 to adjudicate minor civil and criminal cases involving freed slaves . Ultimately , Ayers concludes , the Bureau largely failed to protect freed slaves from crime and violence by whites , or from the injustices of the Southern legal system , although the Bureau did provide much needed services to freed slaves in the form of food , clothing , school support , and assistance in contracts . The Greensboro , North Carolina Herald more bluntly stated that the Freedmen 's Bureau was no match for the `` Organic Law of the Land '' in the South , white supremacy . In the rural South , the Freedmen 's Bureau was only as strong as its isolated agents , who were often unable to assert their will over that of the whites in their jurisdiction . Manpower issues and local white resentment led to early compromises under which southern civilians were allowed to serve as magistrates on the Freedmen 's Courts , although the move was opposed by many former slaves . In cities like Savannah , Georgia , the Freedmen 's Courts appeared even more disposed to enforcing the wishes of local whites , sentencing former slaves ( and veterans of the Union Army ) to chain gangs , corporal punishments , and public shaming . The Savannah Freedmen 's Courts even approved arrests for such `` offenses '' as `` shouting at a religious colored meeting , '' or speaking disrespectfully to a white man . The Bureau 's influence on post-war patterns of crime and punishment was temporary and limited . The United States Congress believed that only its unprecedented federal intrusion into state affairs through the Bureau could bring true republicanism to the South , according to Edward L. Ayers , but Southerners instinctively resented this as a grave violation of their own republican ideals . Southerners had always tended to circumscribe the sphere of written , institutionalized law , Ayers argues , and once they began to associate it with outside oppression from the federal government , they saw little reason to respect it at all . From this resentment , vigilante groups like the Ku Klux Klan arose in opposition to the Bureau and its mission -- though , in the words of Ayers , the Klan was a `` relatively brief episode in a long history of post-war group violence in the South , '' where extralegal retribution was and continued to be a tradition . For their part , former slaves in the Reconstruction - era South made efforts of their own to counteract white supremacist violence and injustice . In March 1866 , Abraham Winfield and ten other black men petitioned the head of the Georgia Freedmen 's Bureau for relief from the oppression of the Bureau 's Court in Savannah -- especially for Civil War veterans . In rural areas like Greene County , Georgia , blacks met vigilante violence from whites with violence of their own . But with the withdrawal of the Freedmen 's Bureau in 1868 and continuing political violence from whites , blacks ultimately lost this struggle , according to historian Edward L. Ayers . Southern courts were largely unable -- even they were willing -- to bring whites to justice for violence against black Southerners . By the early to mid-1870s , white political supremacy had been established anew across most of the South . In Southern cities , a different form of violence emerged in the post-war years . Race riots erupted in Southern cities almost immediately after the war and continued for years afterward . Edward L. Ayers concludes that antebellum legal restraints on blacks and widespread poverty were the primary cause of many of these clashes . Whites resented labor competition from blacks in the depressed post-war Southern economy , and police forces -- many composed of unreconstructed Southerners -- often resorted to violence . The ultimate goal for both blacks and whites was to obtain political power in the vacuum created by war and emancipation ; again , blacks ultimately lost this struggle during the Reconstruction period . Beginning of the convict lease system ( edit ) Convict leasing , practiced in the North from the earliest days of the penitentiary movement , was taken up by Southern states in earnest following the American Civil War . The use of convict labor remained popular nationwide throughout the post-war period . An 1885 national survey reported that 138 institutions employed over 53,000 inmates in industries , who produced goods valued at $28.8 million . Although this was a relatively small sum in comparison to the estimated $5.4 billion in goods produced by free labor in 1880 , prison labor was big business for those involved in particular industries . But convict leasing in the post-war South came to play a more central role in crime and punishment than in the North , and it continued to do so with the approbation of the South 's leading men until well into the twentieth century . For over a half - century following the Civil War , convict camps dotted the Southern landscape , and thousands of men and women -- most of them former slaves -- passed years of their lives within the system . Men with capital , from the North and the South , bought years of these convicts ' lives and put them to work in large mining and railroad operations , as well as smaller everyday businesses . On average , the death rate in Southern leasing arrangements exceeded that in Northern prisons three-fold . The convict lease , as practiced in the South , was not just a bald attempt by state governments to resurrect slavery , according to historians Edward L. Ayers and Marie Gottschalk . It reflected continuities in race relations , both argue , but it also reflected fundamental changes in the post-war Southern economy . For first time , millions of freed slaves came under the centralized control of state penal apparatuses ; at the same time , nascent industrial capitalism in the South faced a shortage of both capital and labor . Former slaves were the easiest Southern demographic to impress into service and adapt southern industries to these changes . Ultimately , however , the longest legacy of the system may be as symbol for white South 's injustice and inhumanity . In 1912 , Dr. E. Stagg of the National Commission on Prison Labor described the status of the Southern convict as `` the last surviving vestige of the slave system . '' A Northern writer in the 1920s referred to the Southern chain gang as the South 's new `` peculiar institution '' . Southern penitentiaries from the antebellum period by and large continued to fall into disrepair in the post-war years as they became mere outposts of the much larger convict labor system . One by one , Southern penitentiary systems had disintegrated during the American Civil War . Mississippi sent its prisoners to Alabama for safekeeping in the midst of a Northern invasion . Louisiana concentrated its prisoners into a single urban workhouse . Arkansas dispersed its convicts in 1863 when the Union Army breached its borders . Occupied Tennessee hired its prisoners out to the United States government , while Georgia freed its inmates as General William Tecumseh Sherman headed for Atlanta with his armies in 1864 . With the fall of Richmond , most of Virginia 's prisoners escaped . The convict lease system emerged haltingly from this chaos , Edward L. Ayers and Marie Gottschalk conclude , just as the penitentiary itself had in years past . The penitentiary had become a Southern institution at this point , Ayers points out , and its complete abolition would have required a major renovation of state criminal codes . Some states , like Georgia , tried to revive their penitentiary systems in the post-war years , but had to first deal with crumbling state infrastructure and a growing prison population . The three states that had not established prisons in the antebellum period -- i.e. , the Carolinas and Florida -- hastened to establish them during Reconstruction . But many Southern states -- including North Carolina , Mississippi , Virginia , and Georgia -- soon turned to the lease system as a temporary expedient , as rising costs and convict populations outstripped their meager resources . According to Edward L. Ayers , `` ( t ) he South ... more or less stumbled into the lease , seeking a way to avoid large expenditures while hoping a truly satisfactory plan would emerge . '' Social historian Marie Gottschalk characterizes these leasing arrangements as an `` important bridge between an agricultural economy based on slavery and the industrialization and agricultural modernization of the New South . '' This may help to explain why support for the convict lease was altogether widespread in Southern society , Ayers concludes . No single group -- black or white , Republican or Democrat -- consistently opposed the lease once it gained power . The labor that convict lessees performed varied as the Southern economy evolved after the American Civil War . Ex-plantation owners were early beneficiaries , but emerging industrial capitalism ventures -- e.g. , phosphate mines and turpentine plants in Florida , railroads in Mississippi ( and across the South ) -- soon came to demand convict labor . The South experienced an acute labor shortage in the post-war years , Edward L. Ayers explains , and no pool of displaced agricultural laborers was available to feed the needs of factory owners , as they had been in England and on the Continent . The lease system was useful for capitalists who wanted to make money quickly : Labor costs were fixed and low , and labor uncertainty was reduced to the vanishing point . Convicts could be and were driven to a point free laborers would not tolerate ( and could not drink or misbehave ) . Although labor unrest and economic depression continued to rile the North and its factories , the lease system insulated its beneficiaries in South from these external costs . In many cases , Edward L. Ayers writes , the businessmen who utilized the convict - lease system were the same politicians who administered it . The system became , Ayers argues , a sort of `` mutual aid society '' for the new breed of capitalists and politicians who controlled the white Democratic regimes of the New South . Thus , Ayers concludes , officials often had something to hide , and contemporary reports on leasing operations often skirted or ignored the appalling conditions and death rates that attended these projects . In Alabama , 40 percent of convict lessees died during their term of labor in 1870 -- death rates for 1868 and 1869 were 18 and 17 percent , respectively . Lessees on Mississippi 's convict labor projects died at nine times the rate of inmates in Northern prisons throughout the 1880s . One man who had served time in the Mississippi system claimed that reported death rates would have been far higher had the state not pardoned many broken convicts before they died , so that they could do so at home instead . Compared to contemporary non-leasing prison systems nationwide , which recouped only 32 percent of expenses on average , convict leasing systems earned average profits of 267 percent . Even in comparison to Northern factories , Edward L. Ayers writes , the lease system 's profitability was real and sustained in the post-war years and remained so into the twentieth century . Exposes on the lease system began appearing with increasing frequency in newspapers , state documents , Northern publications , and the publications of national prison associations during the post-war period -- just as they did for Northern prisons like those in New York . Mass grave sites containing the remains of convict lessees have been discovered in Southern states like Alabama , where the United States Steel Corporation purchased convict labor for its mining operations for several years at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries . The focus of Southern justice on racial control in the post-war years had a profound effect on the demographics of the lease systems ' populations . Before the Civil War , virtually all Southern prisoners were white , but under post-war leasing arrangements almost all ( approximately 90 percent ) were black . In the antebellum period , white immigrants made up a disproportionate share of the South 's prison population before all but disappearing from prison records in the post-war period . The reasons for this are likely two-fold , Edward L. Ayers suggests . First , white immigrants generally avoided the post-war South due to its generally poor economic climate and the major increase in labor competition posed by emancipated slaves . Second , the preoccupation of post-war Southern police forces with crime committed by blacks decreased their efforts among the white population , including immigrants . The source of convicts also changed in the post-war South . Before the American Civil War , rural counties sent few defendants to the state penitentiaries , but after the war rural courts became steady suppliers to their states ' leasing systems ( though cities remained the largest supplier of convict lessees during this period ) . Savannah , Georgia , for example , sent convicts to leasing operations at approximately three times the number that its population would suggest , a pattern amplified by the reality that 76 percent of all blacks convicted in its courts received a prison sentence . Most convicts were in their twenties or younger . The number of women in Southern prison systems , increased in the post-war years to about 7 percent , a ratio not incommensurate with other contemporary prisons in the United States , but a major increase for the South , which had previously boasted of the moral rectitude of its ( white ) female population . Virtually all such women were black . The officials who ran the South 's leasing operations tried to maintain strict racial separation in the convict camps , refusing to recognize social equality between the races even among felons . As one Southerner reported to the National Prison Congress in 1886 : Mixing the races in prison `` is akin to the torture anciently practised of tieing ( sic ) a murderer to the dead body of his victim limb to limb , from head to foot , until the decaying corpse brought death to the living . '' Whites who did end up in Southern prisons , according to Edward L. Ayers , were considered the lowest of their race . At least some legislators referred to white prisoners with the same racial epithets reserved for blacks at the time . The Southern lease system was something less than a `` total system . '' The vast majority of convict - lease camps were dispersed , with little in the way of walls or other securities measures -- although some Southern chain gangs were carted around in open - air cages to their work sites and kept in them at night . Order in the camps was generally tenuous at best , Edward L. Ayers argues . Escapes were frequent and the brutal punishments that characterized the camps -- chains , bloodhounds , guns , and corporal punishments -- were dealt with a palpable sense of desperation . ( At least some observers , however , questioned whether the high number of reported escapees was not a ploy to cover up foul play . ) Reflecting changing criminal dockets in the Southern courts , about half of prisoners in the lease system served sentences for property crime . Rehabilitation played no real role in the system . Whatever onus for reform there was fell on the shoulders of chaplains , Edward L. Ayers relates . As Warden J.H. Bankhead of the Alabama penitentiary observed in the 1870s : `` ( O ) ur system is a better training school for criminals than any of the dens of iniquity that exist in our large cities ... You may as well expect to instill decent habits into a hog as to reform a criminal whose habits and surroundings are as filthy as a pig 's . '' Some proponents of the lease claimed that the system would teach blacks to work , but many contemporary observers came to recognize -- as historian C. Vann Woodward later would -- that the system dealt a great blow to whatever moral authority white society had retained in its paternalistic approach to the `` race problem . '' Time in the penitentiary came to carry little stigma in the black community , as preachers and other community leaders spread word of its cruelty . Whites presented far from a united front in defense of the lease system during the Reconstruction Era . Reformers and government insiders began condemning the worst abuses of the system from early on . Newspapers began taking up the call by the 1880s , although they had defended it during the more politically charged years that immediately followed the Civil War . But the system also had its defenders -- at times even the reformers themselves , who chafed at Northern criticism even where they agreed with its substance . The `` scientific '' racial attitudes of the late nineteenth century also helped some supporters of the lease to assuage their misgivings . One commentator wrote that blacks died in such numbers on the convict lease farms because of the weakness of their inferior , `` uneducated '' blood . Economic , rather than moral , concerns underlay the more successful attacks on leasing . Labor launched effective opposition movements to the lease in the post-war period . Birmingham , Alabama , and its Anti-Convict League , formed in 1885 , were the center of this movement , according to Ayers . Coal miner revolts against the lease occurred twenty - two recorded times in the South between 1881 and 1900 . By 1895 , Tennessee caved in to the demands of its miners and abolished its lease system . These revolts notably crossed racial lines . In Alabama , for instance , white and black free miners marched side - by - side to protest the use of convict labor in local mining operations . In these confrontations , convict labor surely took on a somewhat exaggerated importance to free workers , argues Edward L. Ayers . Only 27,000 convicts were engaged in some form of labor arrangement in the 1890s South . But the emerging nature of Southern industry and labor groups -- which tended to be smaller and more concentrated -- made for a situation in which a small number of convicts could affect entire industries . Progressive Era ( edit ) Southern developments ( edit ) Gradual demise of the convict lease ( edit ) Just as the convict lease emerged gradually in the post-war South , it also made a gradual exit . Although Virginia , Texas , Tennessee , Kentucky , and Missouri utilized Northern - style manufacturing prisons in addition to their farms , as late as 1890 the majority of Southern convicts still passed their sentences in convict camps run by absentee businessmen . But the 1890s also marked the beginning of a gradual shift toward compromise over the lease system , in the form of state - run prison farms . States began to cull the women , children , and the sick from the old privately run camps during this period , to remove them from the `` contamination '' of bad criminals and provide a healthier setting and labor regime . Mississippi enacted a new state constitution in 1890 that called for the end of the lease by 1894 . Despite these changes , and continuing attacks from labor movements , Populists , and Greenbackers , only two Southern states besides Mississippi ended the system prior to the twentieth century . Most Southern states did bring their systems under tighter control and make increasing use of state penal farms by the twentieth century , however , resulting in improved conditions and a decline in death rates . Georgia abolished its system in 1908 , after an expose by Charles Edward Russell in Everybody 's Magazine revealed `` hideous '' conditions on lease projects . A former warden described how men in the Georgia camps were hung by their thumbs as punishment , to the point that their thumbs became so stretched and deformed , to the length of index fingers , that they resembled the `` paws of certain apes . '' Florida 's prison camps -- where even the sick were forced to work under threat of a beating or shooting -- remained in use until 1923 . Replacements for the lease system , such as chain gangs and state prison farms , were not so different from their predecessors . An example of the lingering influence of the lease system can be found in the Arkansas prison farms . By the mid-twentieth century , Arkansas ' male penal system still consisted of two large prison farms , which remained almost totally cut off from the outside world and continued to operate much as they had during the Reconstruction Era . Conditions in these camps were bad enough that , as late as the 1960s , an Oregon judge refused to return escapees from Arkansas , who had been apprehended in his jurisdiction . The judge declared that returning the prisoners to Arkansas would make his state complicit in what he described as `` institutes of terror , horror , and despicable evil , '' which he compared to Nazi concentration camps . In 1966 , around the time of the Oregon judge 's ruling , the ratio of staff to inmates at the Arkansas penal farms was one staff member for every sixty - five inmates . By contrast , the national average at the time was around one prison staff member for every seven inmates . The state was not the only entity profiting from the farm ; private operators controlled certain of its industries and maintained high profit margins . The physician who ran the farm 's for - profit blood bank , for instance , earned between $130,000 and $150,000 per year off of inmate donations that he sold to hospitals . Faced with this acute shortage of manpower , authorities at the penal farms relied upon armed inmates , known as `` trusties '' or `` riders , '' to guard the convicts while they worked Under the trusties ' control prisoners worked ten to fourteen hours per day ( depending on the time of year ) , six days per week . Arkansas was , at the time , the only state where prison officials could still whip convicts . Violent deaths were commonplace on the Arkansaw prison farms . An investigation begun by incumbent Governor Orval Faubus during a heated 1966 gubernatorial race revealed ongoing abuses -- e.g. , use of wire pliers on inmates ' genitals , stabbings , use of nut crackers to break inmates knuckles , trampling of inmates with horses , and charging inmates for hospital time after beatings . When the chairman of the Arkansas legislature 's prison committee was asked about the allegations , however , he replied , `` Arkansas has the best prison system in the United States . '' Only later , after a federal court intervened , did reforms begin at the Arkansas prison camps . Civil rights era ( edit ) The prisoners ' rights movement ( edit ) The `` law and order '' movement ( edit ) See also : United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines Modern developments ( edit ) Main article : Incarceration in the United States See also ( edit ) History of criminal justice in Colonial America References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Gottschalk , 1 -- 2 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , xi . Jump up ^ Hirsch , xi ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 13 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 31 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 14 ; McKelvey , 3 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 14 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 15 . ^ Jump up to : See Hirsch , 16 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 17 . Jump up ^ Hirsh , 17 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 17 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Meranze , 141 ; Hirsch , 19 . ^ Jump up to : Meranze , 141 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 18 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 19 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Hirsch , 19 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 19 Jump up ^ Meranze , 141 ; Ignatieff , 93 -- 96 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 20 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 20 -- 21 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 21 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 21 ; McKelvey , 1 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 22 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 23 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , xi -- xii . Jump up ^ Christianson , 3 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 6 . Jump up ^ Gottschalk , 43 -- 44 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 7 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 9 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 10 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 11 . Jump up ^ See Christianson , 12 ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 13 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 15 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 20 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 23 -- 24 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 24 . Jump up ^ Ekirch , 27 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 33 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 16 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 18 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 20 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 49 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Christianson , 50 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 50 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 51 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 75 ; see also Meranze , 141 ; Hirsch , 19 . Jump up ^ Meranze , 140 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 59 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 3 . Jump up ^ See Hirsch , 6 ; Christianson , 41 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 6 -- 7 ; Christianson , 60 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 46 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 8 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 48 ; Hirsch , 4 -- 5 . Jump up ^ See Rothman , Discovery , 48 -- 49 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 5 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 7 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 59 , 61 -- 62 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 7 ; Rothman , Discovery , 52 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 8 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 61 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 61 ; Hirsch , 9 ; Rothman , Discovery , 53 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 53 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 56 ; Christianson , 61 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 9 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 9 ; Christianson , 62 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 9 ; Christianson , 63 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 57 ; Hirsch , 32 , 114 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 39 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 58 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 35 , 55 ; Rothman , Discovery , 58 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 55 . Jump up ^ Meranze , 106 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 36 . Jump up ^ Meranze , 99 -- 100 ( contemporary quotation at 100 ) . Jump up ^ Hindus , 14 . Jump up ^ See , e.g. , Hirsch , ch. 3 , 4 ; Rothman , Discovery , ch. 3 ; Meranze , ch. 3 ; Hindus , ch. 8 , 9 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 37 Jump up ^ Hirsch , 38 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 58 ; Meranze , 56 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 50 ; Meranze , 20 , 34 . Jump up ^ Meranze , 36 -- 48 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 55 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 56 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 47 ; Rothman , Discovery , 60 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 49 . ^ Jump up to : Qtd. in Rothman , Discovery , 58 Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 58 ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 61 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 40 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 42 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 61 ; Hirsch , 57 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 57 , 59 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 57 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 57 -- 58 . ^ Jump up to : Hirsch , 59 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 62 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 62 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 11 -- 12 ; Christianson , 100 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 62 -- 78 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 79 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , ch. 6 , 8 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 68 ; Meranze , 292 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 65 Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 66 Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 69 ; Lewis , 70 -- 71 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 71 ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 79 ; Hirsch , 65 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 82 -- 83 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 81 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 66 ; Lewis , 70 , . Jump up ^ Christianson , 132 ; McKelvey , 13 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 133 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 132 . Jump up ^ McKelvey , 11 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 134 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Rothman , Discovery , 95 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 85 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Rothman , Discovery , 85 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Discovery , 86 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 136 . Jump up ^ McKelvey , 12 ; Hirsch , 66 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 82 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 116 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Christianson , 115 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Discovery , 95 . Jump up ^ W. David Lewis , 30 . Jump up ^ W. David Lewis , 31 -- 32 ( quotation at 31 ) . ^ Jump up to : W. David Lewis , 32 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 99 . Jump up ^ W. David Lewis , 33 . Jump up ^ W. David Lewis , 43 . Jump up ^ W. David Lewis , 44 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 112 ; W. David Lewis , 46 . Jump up ^ W. David Lewis , 46 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 100 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 113 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 114 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 118 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 120 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 119 . Jump up ^ See Rothman , Discovery , 94 -- 95 . Jump up ^ McKelvey , 11 Jump up ^ McKelvey , 32 -- 33 Jump up ^ Hirsch , 44 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 45 ; Meranze , 173 -- 174 ; Rothman , Discovery , 85 -- 86 . Jump up ^ Hirsch , 45 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 141 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 141 ; Hindus , 59 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 41 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 42 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 45 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 47 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 49 -- 50 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 46 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 56 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 51 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 52 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 55 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 53 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 53 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Hindus , 242 -- 44 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 34 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 35 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 38 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 39 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 59 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 61 . Jump up ^ Hindus , 137 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 62 -- 63 Jump up ^ Ayers , 62 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 63 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 64 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 65 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 66 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 67 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 68 . ^ Jump up to : McPherson , 40 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 76 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 79 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 78 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 82 -- 83 . Jump up ^ Meranze , 67 -- 68 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 83 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 87 -- 90 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 90 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 75 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 53 -- 55 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 91 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 99 ; Hindus , 59 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 100 -- 102 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 102 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 103 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 105 . Jump up ^ Hindus , 146 -- 49 . Jump up ^ Hindus , 147 n. 47 . Jump up ^ McPherson , 14 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 109 , 111 ; Hindus , 59 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 109 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 109 , 111 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 115 Jump up ^ Ayers , 110 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 109 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 110 -- 11 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 111 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 112 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 113 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 116 . Jump up ^ Hindus , 131 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 131 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 177 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 20 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 18 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Rothman , Conscience , 18 -- 19 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 19 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 184 ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 20 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 20 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 18 . Jump up ^ U.S. Const . amend . XIII . Jump up ^ Christianson , 183 -- 84 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 184 . Jump up ^ Christianson 184 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 23 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 189 ; McPherson , 130 -- 38 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 190 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 23 -- 24 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 24 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 25 ; Christianson , 184 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 25 Jump up ^ Gottschalk , 44 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 191 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 191 -- 92 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 192 ( citing several examples ) . Jump up ^ Christianson , 194 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 193 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 195 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 197 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 25 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 26 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 27 . ^ Jump up to : Gottschalk , 118 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 28 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 29 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 31 ; Christianson , 177 Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 31 ; Christianson , 177 . Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 31 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Rothman , Conscience , 32 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 32 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 178 . Jump up ^ See Rothman , Conscience , 44 , 68 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 179 ; Rothman , Conscience , 33 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 179 ; Rothman , Conscience , 33 Jump up ^ Rothman , Conscience , 33 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 179 ; Rothman , Conscience , 36 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 179 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Christianson , 180 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 181 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 36 ; Christianson , 181 . ^ Jump up to : Rothman , Conscience , 36 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 142 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 149 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 142 ; see also Blackmon . Jump up ^ Ayers , 183 Jump up ^ Ayers , 183 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 175 -- 76 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 173 Jump up ^ Ayers , 166 -- 67 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 168 -- 69 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 172 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 172 -- 73 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 184 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 175 -- 76 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 176 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 179 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Ayers , 183 Jump up ^ Ayers , 169 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 170 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 172 Jump up ^ Christianson , 173 Jump up ^ Ayers , 170 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 177 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 178 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 182 -- 85 . Jump up ^ Ayers 150 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 150 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 151 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 171 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 172 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Christianson , 171 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 172 ; Gottschalk , 47 -- 52 ^ Jump up to : Gottschalk , 49 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 172 -- 73 Jump up ^ Christianson , 174 Jump up ^ Christianson , 174 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 173 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 176 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 152 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 155 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Ayers , 155 . Jump up ^ Ayers 154 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 154 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 164 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 155 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 156 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 157 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 158 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 160 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 161 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 161 -- 62 ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 183 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 187 Jump up ^ Christianson , 186 ; see also generally Blackmon . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 186 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 182 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 185 ; Gottschalk , 47 -- 52 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 185 ; see also Gottschalk , 47 -- 52 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 185 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 186 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 182 Jump up ^ Qtd. in Christianson , 182 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 188 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 188 -- 89 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 189 ; Gottschalk , 47 -- 52 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 190 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 191 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 192 -- 93 Jump up ^ Ayers , 192 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 193 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 193 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 195 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 196 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 201 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Ayers , 201 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 197 . Jump up ^ Blackmon , 3 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 197 -- 98 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 198 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 199 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 200 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Ayers , 198 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 203 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 181 ; see also generally Blackmon . Jump up ^ Ayers , 201 ; Christianson , 182 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 207 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 208 -- 09 ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 211 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 218 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 219 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 220 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 214 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 216 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 215 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 213 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 221 . ^ Jump up to : Ayers , 222 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 258 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 262 . Jump up ^ Ayers , 262 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 261 . ^ Jump up to : Christianson , 259 . Jump up ^ Qtd. in Christianson , 259 . Jump up ^ Christianson , 260 -- 64 . Bibliography ( edit ) Alexander , Michelle ( 2012 ) , The New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness , New York . Ayers , Edward L. ( 1984 ) , Vengeance and Justice : Crime and Punishment in the 19th - Century American South , New York . Blackmon , Douglas A. ( 2008 ) , Slavery by Another Name : The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II , New York . Bookspan , Shelley ( 1991 ) , A Germ of Goodness : The California State Prison System , 1851 -- 1944 , Lincoln . Christianson , Scott ( 1998 ) , With Liberty for Some : 500 Years of Imprisonment in America , Boston . Ekirch , A. Roger ( 1987 ) , Bound for America : The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies , 1718 -- 1775 , Oxford . Gottschalk , Marie ( 2006 ) , The Prison and the Gallows : The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America , Cambridge . Hindus , Michael Stephen ( 1980 ) , Prison and Plantation : Crime , Justice , and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina , 1767 -- 1878 , Chapel Hill . Hirsch , Adam J. ( 1992 ) , The Rise of the Penitentiary : Prisons and Punishment in Early America , New Haven . Ignatieff , Michael ( 1978 ) , A Just Measure of Pain : The Penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution , 1750 -- 1850 , New York . Lewis , O.F. ( 1922 ) , The Development of American Prisons and Prison Customs , 1776 -- 1845 , New York . Lewis , W. David ( 1965 ) , From Newgate to Dannemora : The Rise of the Penitentiary in New York , 1796 -- 1848 , Ithaca . Lynch , Mona ( 2010 ) , Sunbelt Justice : Arizona and the Transformation of American Punishment , Stanford . McKelvey , Blake ( 1936 ) , American Prisons : A Study in American Social History Prior to 1915 , Chicago . McLennan , Rebecca ( 2008 ) , The Crisis of Imprisonment : Protest , Politics , and the Making of the American Penal State , 1776 - 1941 , Cambridge . McPherson , James M. ( 1988 ) , Battle Cry of Freedom : The Civil War Era , New York . Meranze , Michael ( 1996 ) , Laboratories of Virtue : Punishment , Revolution , and Authority in Philadelphia , 1760 -- 1834 , Chapel Hill . Rothman , David J. ( 2002 ) , Conscience and Convenience : The Asylum and Its Alternatives in Progressive America , New York . Rothman , David J. ( 2011 ) , The Discovery of the Asylum : Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic , New Brunswick . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_United_States_prison_systems&oldid=827768242 '' Categories : History of the United States Prisons in the United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 26 February 2018 , at 16 : 45 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where is yemen located in the middle east

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Yemen&oldid=815879098

Yemen - wikipedia Yemen Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Yemen ( disambiguation ) . Coordinates : 15 ° N 48 ° E  /  15 ° N 48 ° E  / 15 ; 48 Republic of Yemen الجمهورية اليمنية ( Arabic ) al - Jumhūrīyah al - Yamanīyah Flag Emblem Motto : الله ، الوَطَن ، الثَورة ، الوَحدة ( Arabic ) `` Allāh , al - Waṭan , ath - Thawrah , al - Waḥdah '' `` God , Country , Revolution , Unity '' Anthem : الجمهورية المتحدة ( Arabic ) al - Jumhūrīyah al - Muttaḥidâh `` United Republic '' Location of Yemen ( red ) Capital Sana'a Aden ( provisional , Hadi Government ) Largest city Sana'a Official languages Arabic Religion Islam Demonym Yemeni , Yemenite Government Provisional government President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi ( Aden ) Prime Minister Ahmed Obeid bin Daghr ( Aden ) President of the Supreme Political Council Saleh Ali al - Sammad ( Sana'a ) Prime Minister Abdel - Aziz bin Habtour ( Sana'a ) Legislature House of Representatives Establishment North Yemen ( Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen ) independence 1 November 1918 South Yemen independence 30 November 1967 Unification 22 May 1990 Area Total 527,968 km ( 203,850 sq mi ) ( 49th ) Water ( % ) negligible Population 2016 estimate 27,584,213 ( 48th ) 2004 census 19,685,000 Density 44.7 / km ( 115.8 / sq mi ) ( 160th ) GDP ( PPP ) 2017 estimate Total $117.679 billion Per capita $2,818 GDP ( nominal ) 2017 estimate Total $37.307 billion Per capita $1,244 Gini ( 2014 ) 36.7 medium HDI ( 2015 ) 0.482 low 168th Currency Yemeni rial ( YER ) Time zone AST ( UTC + 3 ) Drives on the right Calling code + 967 ISO 3166 code YE Internet TLD . ye , اليمن . From the Ottoman Empire . From the United Kingdom . Yemen ( / ˈjɛmən / ( listen ) ; Arabic : اليَمَن ‎ al - Yaman ) , officially known as the Republic of Yemen ( الجمهورية اليمنية al - Jumhūrīyah al - Yamanīyah ) , is an Arab country in Western Asia at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula . Yemen is the second - largest country in the peninsula , occupying 527,970 km ( 203,850 sq mi ) . The coastline stretches for about 2,000 km ( 1,200 mi ) . It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north , the Red Sea to the west , the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south , and Oman to the east - northeast . Although Yemen 's constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sana'a , the city has been under Houthi rebel control since February 2015 . Because of this , Yemen 's capital has been temporarily relocated to the port city of Aden , on the southern coast . Yemen 's territory includes more than 200 islands ; the largest of these is Socotra . Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans ( biblical Sheba ) , a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and also included parts of modern - day Ethiopia and Eritrea . In 275 AD , the region came under the rule of the later Jewish - influenced Himyarite Kingdom . Christianity arrived in the fourth century . Islam spread quickly in the seventh century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests . Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult . Several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries , the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous . The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the early twentieth century . The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962 . South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later , a Marxist state . The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990 . Yemen is a developing country , and the poorest country in the Middle East . Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh , Yemen was described by critics as a kleptocracy . According to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International , Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed . In the absence of strong state institutions , elite politics in Yemen constituted a de facto form of collaborative governance , where competing tribal , regional , religious , and political interests agreed to hold themselves in check through tacit acceptance of the balance it produced . The informal political settlement was held together by a power - sharing deal between three men : President Saleh , who controlled the state ; major general Ali Mohsen al - Ahmar , who controlled the largest share of the Republic of Yemen Armed Forces ; and Abdullah ibn Husayn al - Ahmar , figurehead of the Islamist Islah party and Saudi Arabia 's chosen broker of transnational patronage payments to various political players , including tribal sheikhs . The Saudi payments have been intended to facilitate the tribes ' autonomy from the Yemeni government and to give the Saudi government a mechanism with which to weigh in on Yemen 's political decision - making . It is a member of the United Nations , Arab League , Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation , G - 77 , Non-Aligned Movement , Arab Satellite Communications Organization , Arab Monetary Fund and the World Federation of Trade Unions . From 2011 , Yemen has been in a state of political crisis starting with street protests against poverty , unemployment , corruption , and president Saleh 's plan to amend Yemen 's constitution and eliminate the presidential term limit , in effect making him president for life . President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi , who was formally elected president on 21 February 2012 in a one - man election . The transitional process was part of the UN-backed Gulf Cooperation Council Initiative known as National Dialogue Conference . In September 2014 , the Houthis took over Sana'a with the help of the ousted president Saleh , later declaring themselves in control of the country after a coup d'état . This resulted in a new civil war and a Saudi Arabian - led military intervention aimed at restoring Hadi 's government . The war has blocked food imports , leading to a famine that is affecting 17 million people . The lack of safe drinking water , caused by depleted aquifers and the destruction of the country 's water infrastructure , has also caused the world 's worst outbreak of cholera , with the number of suspected cases exceeding 913,741 . Over 2,196 people have died since the outbreak began to spread rapidly at the end of April 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Ancient history 2.2 Middle Ages 2.2. 1 Advent of Islam and the three dynasties 2.2. 2 Sulayhid Dynasty ( 1047 -- 1138 ) 2.2. 3 Ayyubid conquest ( 1171 -- 1260 ) 2.2. 4 Rasulid Dynasty ( 1229 -- 1454 ) 2.2. 5 Tahiride Dynasty ( 1454 -- 1517 ) 2.3 Modern history 2.3. 1 The Zaydis and Ottomans 2.3. 2 Great Britain and the Nine Regions 2.3. 3 Ottoman return 2.3. 4 Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen 2.3. 5 Colonial Aden 2.3. 6 Two states 2.3. 7 Unification and civil war 2.4 Contemporary Yemen 2.4. 1 Al Qaeda 2.4. 2 Revolution and aftermath 3 Geography 3.1 Regions and climate 3.2 Biodiversity 4 Politics 4.1 Foreign relations 4.2 Human rights 4.2. 1 Human trafficking 4.3 Military 4.4 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Agriculture 5.2 Industry 5.3 Labor force 5.4 Export and import 5.5 State budget 5.6 International relations 5.7 Water supply and sanitation 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Languages 6.3 Urban areas 6.4 Religion 7 Culture 7.1 Media 7.2 Theatre 7.3 Sport 7.4 World Heritage sites 8 Education 9 Health 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Etymology ( edit ) Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat . In Arabic literature , the term al - Yaman includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen . It stretches from the northern ' Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman . One etymology derives Yemen from `` ymnt '' , meaning `` South '' , and significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right ( 𐩺𐩣𐩬 ) . Other sources claim that Yemen is related to `` yamn '' or `` yumn '' , meaning `` felicity '' or `` blessed '' as much of the country is fertile . The Romans called it Arabia Felix ( happy Arabia ) , as opposed to Arabia Deserta ( deserted Arabia ) . History ( edit ) Main article : History of Yemen Ancient History ( edit ) Main articles : Ancient history of Yemen , Sabaeans , Qataban , Minaeans , and Himyarite Kingdom With its long sea border between eastern and western civilizations , Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic location in terms of trade on the west of the Arabian Peninsula . Large settlements for their era existed in the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC . A Sabaean gravestone of a woman holding a stylized sheaf of wheat , a symbol of fertility in ancient Yemen The Sabaean Kingdom came into existence from at least the 11th century BC . The four major kingdoms or tribal confederations in South Arabia were : Saba , Hadramout , Qataban , and Ma'in . Saba is thought to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent federation . The Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib generally thought to mean unifier , or a priest - king , or the head of confederation of South Arabian kingdoms , the ' king of the kings ' . The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them all . The Sabaens built the Great Dam of Marib around 940 BC . The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley . Between 700 and 680 BC , the Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings and challenged the Sabaean supremacy in the Arabian South . Sabaean Mukarrib Karib'il Watar I conquered the entire realm of Awsan , and expanded Sabaean rule and territory to include much of South Arabia . Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula . Instead , they established various colonies to control trade routes . Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia , where the South Arabian alphabet , religion and pantheon , and the South Arabian style of art and architecture were introduced . The Sabaean created a sense of identity through their religion . They worshipped El - Maqah and believed that they were his children . For centuries , the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the Bab - el - Mandeb , a strait separating the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea from the Indian Ocean . By the third century BC , Qataban , Hadramout , and Ma'in became independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni arena . Minaean rule stretched as far as Dedan , with their capital at Baraqish . The Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'in after the collapse of Qataban in 50 BCE . By the time of the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC , the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia . Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans . The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix or Yemen . The Roman army of 10,000 men was defeated before Marib . Strabo 's close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend 's defeat in his writings . It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and 60 days to return to Egypt . The Romans blamed their Nabataean guide and executed him for treachery . No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet been found . A funerary stela featuring a musical scene , first century AD Himyarite King Dhamar Ali Yahbur II After the Roman expedition -- perhaps earlier -- the country fell into chaos , and two clans , namely Hamdan and Himyar , claimed kingship , assuming the title King of Sheba and Dhu Raydan . Dhu Raydan , i.e. , Himyarites , allied themselves with Aksum in Ethiopia against the Sabaeans . The chief of Bakil and king of Saba and Dhu Raydan , El Sharih Yahdhib , launched successful campaigns against the Himyarites and Habashat , i.e. , Aksum , El Sharih took pride in his campaigns and added the title Yahdhib to his name , which means `` suppressor '' ; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them to pieces . Sana'a came into prominence during his reign , as he built the Ghumdan Palace as his place of residence . The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 AD . Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them and regained Sana'a around 180 AD . Shammar Yahri'sh had not conquered Hadramout , Najran , and Tihama until 275 AD , thus unifying Yemen and consolidating Himyarite rule . The Himyarites rejected polytheism and adhered to a consensual form of monotheism called Rahmanism . In 354 AD , Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity . According to Philostorgius , the mission was resisted by local Jews . Several inscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean praising the ruling house in Jewish terms for `` ... helping and empowering the People of Israel . '' According to Islamic traditions , King As'ad the Perfect mounted a military expedition to support the Jews of Yathrib . Abu Kariba As'ad , as known from the inscriptions , led a military campaign to central Arabia or Najd to support the vassal Kingdom of Kindah against the Lakhmids . However , no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib was discovered from his lengthy reign . Abu Kariba died in 445 AD , having reigned for almost 50 years . By 515 AD , Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention . The last Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by Aksum against his Jewish rivals . Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a campaign against the Lakhmids in southern Iraq , with the support of other Arab allies of Byzantium . The Lakhmids were a Bulwark of Persia , which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like Christianity . After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur around 521 AD , a Himyarite Jewish warlord named Yousef Asar Yathar rose to power with the honorary title of Yathar ( meaning , `` to avenge '' ) . Yemenite Christians , aided by Aksum and Byzantium , systematically persecuted Jews and burned down several synagogues across the land . Yousef avenged his people with great cruelty . He marched toward the port city of Mocha , killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000 . Then he settled a camp in Bab - el - Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum . At the same time , Yousef sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord , Sharahil Yaqbul , to Najran . Sharahil had reinforcements from the Bedouins of the Kindah and Madh'hij tribes , eventually wiping out the Christian community in Najran . Yousef or Dhu Nuwas ( the one with sidelocks ) as known in Arabic literature , believed that Christians in Yemen were a fifth column . Christian sources portray Dhu Nuwas ( Yousef Asar ) as a Jewish zealot , while Islamic traditions say that he threw 20,000 Christians into pits filled with flaming oil . This history , however , is shrouded in legend . Dhu Nuwas left two inscriptions , neither of them making any reference to fiery pits . Byzantium had to act or lose all credibility as protector of eastern Christianity . It is reported that Byzantium Emperor Justin I sent a letter to the Aksumite King Kaleb , pressuring him to `` ... attack the abominable Hebrew . '' A tripartite military alliance of Byzantine , Aksumite , and Arab Christians successfully defeated Yousef around 525 -- 527 AD , and a client Christian king was installed on the Himyarite throne . The ruins of The Great Dam of Marib Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord , mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of an ancient Sabaean palace in Marib to build a church on its ruins . Three new churches were built in Najran alone . Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios 's authority . Esimiphaios was displaced in 531 by a warrior named Abraha , who refused to leave Yemen and declared himself an independent king of Himyar . Emperor Justinian I sent an embassy to Yemen . He wanted the officially Christian Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes in inner Arabia to launch military operations against Persia . Justinian I bestowed the `` dignity of king '' upon the Arab sheikhs of Kindah and Ghassan in central and northern Arabia . From early on , Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the coast of the Red Sea . They were successful in converting Aksum and influencing their culture . The results with regard to Yemen were rather disappointing . A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against Abraha and his Arab Christian allies . A truce was reached once the Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach . Abraha died around 555 -- 565 ; no reliable sources regarding his death are available . The Sasanid empire annexed Aden around 570 AD . Under their rule , most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for Aden and Sana'a . This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization , since the greater part of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival of Islam in 630 AD . Middle ages ( edit ) See also : Islamic history of Yemen Advent of Islam and the three Dynasties ( edit ) Main articles : Yufirids , Ziyadid Dynasty , and Imams of Yemen The interior of the Great Mosque of Sana'a , the oldest mosque in Yemen Muhammed sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a and its surroundings around 630 AD . At the time , Yemen was the most advanced region in Arabia . The Banu Hamdan confederation was among the first to accept Islam . Muhammed sent Muadh ibn Jabal , as well to Al - Janad , in present - day Taiz , and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders . The reason behind this was the division among the tribes and the absence of a strong central authority in Yemen during the days of the prophet . Major tribes , including Himyar , sent delegations to Medina during the `` year of delegations '' around 630 -- 631 AD . Several Yemenis accepted Islam before the year 630 , such as Ammar ibn Yasir , Al - Ala'a Al - Hadrami , Miqdad ibn Aswad , Abu Musa Ashaari , and Sharhabeel ibn Hasana . A man named ' Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al - Ansi expelled the remaining Persians and claimed he was a prophet of Rahman . He was assassinated by a Yemeni of Persian origin called Fayruz al - Daylami . Christians , who were mainly staying in Najran along with Jews , agreed to pay Jizya , although some Jews converted to Islam , such as Wahb ibn Munabbih and Ka'ab al - Ahbar . Yemen was stable during the Rashidun Caliphate . Yemeni tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic expansion of Egypt , Iraq , Persia , the Levant , Anatolia , North Africa , Sicily , and Andalusia . Yemeni tribes who settled in Syria , contributed significantly to the solidification of Umayyad rule , especially during the reign of Marwan I. Powerful Yemenite tribes such as Kindah were on his side during the Battle of Marj Rahit . Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in North Africa and Andalusia . Effective control over entire Yemen was not achieved by the Umayyad Caliphate . Imam Abdullah ibn Yahya Al - Kindi was elected in 745 AD to lead the Ibāḍī movement in Hadramawt and Oman . He expelled the Umayyad governor from Sana'a and captured Mecca and Medina in 746 AD . Al - Kindi , known by his nickname `` Talib al - Haqq '' ( seeker of truth ) , established the first Ibadi state in the history of Islam , but was killed in Taif around 749 AD . Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty in Tihama around 818 AD . The state stretched from Haly ( in present - day Saudi Arabia ) to Aden . They nominally recognized the Abbasid Caliphate , but were in fact ruling independently from their capital in Zabid . The history of this dynasty is obscure . They never exercised control over the highlands and Hadramawt , and did not control more than a coastal strip of the Yemen ( Tihama ) bordering the Red Sea . A Himyarite clan called the Yufirids established their rule over the highlands from Saada to Taiz , while Hadramawt was an Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in Baghdad . By virtue of its location , the Ziyadid dynasty of Zabid developed a special relationship with Abyssinia . The chief of the Dahlak islands exported slaves , as well as amber and leopard hides , to the then ruler of Yemen . The first Zaidi imam , Yahya ibn al - Husayn , arrived in Yemen in 893 AD . He was the founder of the Zaidi imamate in 897 . He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada from Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes . Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen to follow his teachings . The sect slowly spread across the highlands , as the tribes of Hashid and Bakil , later known as `` the twin wings of the imamate , '' accepted his authority . Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran . He also tried to capture Sana'a from the Yufirids in 901 AD , but failed miserably . In 904 , the Qarmatians invaded Sana'a . The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim retreated to Al - Jawf , and between 904 and 913 , Sana'a was conquered no less than 20 times by Qarmatians and Yufirids . As'ad ibn Ibrahim regained Sana'a in 915 . Yemen was in turmoil as Sana'a became a battlefield for the three dynasties , as well as independent tribes . The Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burned Zabid in 989 , severely weakening the Ziyadid dynasty . The Ziyadid monarchs lost effective power after 989 , or even earlier than that . Meanwhile , a succession of slaves held power in Zabid and continued to govern in the name of their masters , eventually establishing their own dynasty around 1022 or 1050 according to different sources . Although they were recognized by the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad , they ruled no more than Zabid and four districts to its north . The rise of the Ismaili Shia Sulayhid dynasty in the Yemeni highlands reduced their history to a series of intrigues . Sulayhid dynasty ( 1047 -- 1138 ) ( edit ) Main article : Sulayhid dynasty Jibla became the capital of the Sulayhid dynasty . The Sulayhid dynasty was founded in the northern highlands around 1040 ; at the time , Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties . In 1060 , Ali ibn Muhammed Al - Sulayhi conquered Zabid and killed its ruler Al - Najah , founder of the Najahid dynasty . His sons were forced to flee to Dahlak . Hadramawt fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture of Aden in 1162 . By 1063 , Ali had subjugated Greater Yemen . He then marched toward Hejaz and occupied Makkah . Ali was married to Asma bint Shihab , who governed Yemen with her husband . The Khutba during Friday prayers was proclaimed in her husband and her names . No other Arab woman had this honor since the advent of Islam . Ali al - Sulayhi was killed by Najah 's sons on his way to Mecca in 1084 . His son Ahmed Al - Mukarram led an army to Zabid and killed 8,000 of its inhabitants . He later installed the Zurayids to govern Aden . al - Mukarram , who had been afflicted with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries , retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wife Arwa al - Sulayhi . Queen Arwa moved the seat of the Sulayhid dynasty from Sana'a to Jibla , a small town in central Yemen near Ibb . Jibla was strategically near the Sulayhid dynasty source of wealth , the agricultural central highlands . It was also within easy reach of the southern portion of the country , especially Aden . She sent Ismaili missionaries to India , where a significant Ismail community was formed that exists to this day . Queen Arwa continued to rule securely until her death in 1138 . Queen Arwa al - Sulaihi Palace Arwa al - Sulayhi is still remembered as a great and much loved sovereign , as attested in Yemeni historiography , literature , and popular lore , where she is referred to as Balqis al - sughra ( `` the junior queen of Sheba '' ) . Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili , they never tried to impose their beliefs on the public . Shortly after Queen Arwa 's death , the country was split between five competing petty dynasties along religious lines . The Ayyubid dynasty overthrew the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt . A few years after their rise to power , Saladin dispatched his brother Turan Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174 . Ayyubid Conquest ( 1171 -- 1260 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ayyubid Dynasty Turan Shah conquered Zabid from the Mahdids in May 1174 , then marched toward Aden in June and captured it from the Zurayids . The Hamdanid sultans of Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175 , and the Ayyubids did not manage to definitely secure Sana'a until 1189 . The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen , where they succeeded in eliminating the ministates of that region , while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in a number of fortresses . The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen . In 1191 , Zaydis of Shibam Kawkaban rebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid soldiers . Imam Abdullah bin Hamza proclaimed the imamate in 1197 and fought al - Mu'izz Ismail , the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen . Imam Abdullah was defeated at first , but was able to conquer Sana'a and Dhamar in 1198 al - Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202 . Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until his death in 1217 . After his demise , the Zaidi community was split between two rival imams . The Zaydis were dispersed and a truce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219 . The Ayyubid army was defeated in Dhamar in 1226 . Ayyubid Sultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228 , never to return . Other sources suggest that he was forced to leave for Egypt instead in 1123 . Rasulid dynasty ( 1229 -- 1454 ) ( edit ) Main article : Rasulid dynasty Al - Qahyra ( Cairo ) Castle 's Garden in Taiz , the capital of Yemen during the Rasulid 's era The Rasulid Dynasty was established in 1229 by Umar ibn Rasul , who was appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in 1223 . When the last Ayyubid ruler left Yemen in 1229 , Umar stayed in the country as caretaker . He subsequently declared himself an independent king by assuming the title `` al - Malik Al - Mansur '' ( the king assisted by Allah ) . Umar established the Rasulid dynasty on a firm foundation and expanded its territory to include the area from Dhofar to Mecca Umar first established himself at Zabid , then moved into the mountainous interior , taking the important highland centre Sana'a . However , the Rasulid capitals were Zabid and Taiz . He was assassinated by his nephew in 1249 . Omar 's son Yousef defeated the faction led by his father 's assassins and crushed several counter-attacks by the Zaydi imams who still held on in the northern highland . Mainly because of the victories he scored over his rivals , he assumed the honorific title `` al - Muzaffar '' ( the victorious ) . After the fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258 , al - Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated the title of caliph . He chose the city of Taiz to become the political capital of the kingdom because of its strategic location and proximity to Aden . al - Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296 , having reigned for 47 years . When the news of his death reached the Zaydi imam Al - Mutawakkil al - Mutahhar bin Yahya , he commented , The greatest king of Yemen , the Muawiyah of the time , has died . His pens used to break our lances and swords to pieces . A 13th - century slave market in Yemen The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen 's commercial links with India and the Far East . They profited greatly by the Red Sea transit trade via Aden and Zabid . The economy also boomed due to the agricultural development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive cultivation of palms . The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the population of Tihama and southern Yemen , while they had to buy the loyalty of Yemen 's restive northern highland tribes . The Rasulid sultans built numerous Madrasas to solidify the Shafi'i school of thought , which is still the dominant school of jurisprudence amongst Yemenis today . Under their rule , Taiz and Zabid became major international centers of Islamic learning . The kings themselves were learned men in their own right , who not only had important libraries , but who also wrote treatises on a wide array of subjects , ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy . The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the fall of pre-Islamic Himyarite Kingdom . They were of Turkic descent . They claimed an ancient Yemenite origin to justify their rule . The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious genealogy for political purposes , nor were they doing anything out of the ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia . By claiming descent from a solid Yemenite tribe , the Rasulids brought Yemen to a vital sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional milieu . They had a difficult relationship with the Mamluks of Egypt because the latter considered them a vassal state . Their competition centered over the Hejaz and the right to provide kiswa of the Ka'aba in Mecca . The dynasty became increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over the problem of succession , combined by periodic tribal revolts , as they were locked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands . During the last 12 years of Rasulid rule , the country was torn between several contenders for the kingdom . The weakening of the Rasulid provided an opportunity for the Banu Taher clan to take over and establish themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454 AD . Tahiride dynasty ( 1454 -- 1517 ) ( edit ) Main article : Tahirids ( Yemen ) The Tahirids were a local clan based in Rada'a . While they were not as impressive as their predecessors , they were still keen builders . They built schools , mosques , and irrigation channels , as well as water cisterns and bridges in Zabid , Aden , Rada'a , and Juban . Their best - known monument is the Amiriya Madrasa in Rada ' District , which was built in 1504 . The Tahiride were too weak either to contain the Zaydi imams or to defend themselves against foreign attacks . The Mamluks of Egypt tried to attach Yemen to Egypt and the Portuguese led by Afonso de Albuquerque , occupied Socotra and made an unsuccessful attack on Aden in 1513 . The Portuguese posed an immediate threat to the Indian Ocean trade . The Mamluks of Egypt , therefore , sent an army under the command of Hussein Al - Kurdi to fight the intruders . The Mamluk sultan of Egypt sailed to Zabid in 1515 and began diplomatic talks with Tahiride Sultan ' Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed for jihad against the Portuguese . Instead of confronting the Portuguese , the Mamluks , who were running out of food and water , landed their fleet on the Yemen coastline and started to harass Tihama villagers for what they needed . Realizing how rich the Tahiride realm was , they decided to conquer it . The Mamluk army , with the support of forces loyal to Zaydi Imam Al - Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad - Din , conquered the entire realm of the Tahiride , but failed to capture Aden in 1517 . The Mamluk victory was short - lived . The Ottoman Empire conquered Egypt , hanging the last Mamluk Sultan in Cairo . The Ottomans had not decided to conquer Yemen until 1538 . The Zaydi highland tribes emerged as national heroes by offering a stiff , vigorous resistance to the Turkish occupation . Modern History ( edit ) See also : Modern history of Yemen The Zaydis and Ottomans ( edit ) See also : Yemen Eyalet Al Bakiriyya Ottoman Mosque in Sana'a , was built in 1597 The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen : The Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina , and the trade route with India in spices and textiles -- both threatened , and the latter virtually eclipsed , by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the early 16th century . Hadım Suleiman Pasha , The Ottoman governor of Egypt , was ordered to command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen . The country was in a state of incessant anarchy and discord as Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by saying : Yemen is a land with no lord , an empty province . It would be not only possible but easy to capture , and should it be captured , it would be master of the lands of India and send every year a great amount of gold and jewels to Constantinople . Imam al - Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad - Din ruled over the northern highlands including Sana'a , while Aden was held by the last Tahiride Sultan ' Amir ibn Dauod . Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormed Aden in 1538 , killing its ruler , and extended Ottoman authority to include Zabid in 1539 and eventually Tihama in its entirety . Zabid became the administrative headquarters of Yemen Eyalet . The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands . They held sway mainly in the southern coastal region , particularly around Zabid , Mocha , and Aden . Of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from Egypt between 1539 and 1547 , only 7,000 survived . The Ottoman accountant - general in Egypt remarked : We have seen no foundry like Yemen for our soldiers . Each time we have sent an expeditionary force there , it has melted away like salt dissolved in water . The Ottomans sent yet another expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547 , while Imam al - Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad - Din was ruling the highlands independently . Imam al - Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him , a decision that infuriated his other son al - Mutahhar ibn Yahya . Al - Mutahhar was lame , so was not qualified for the imamate . He urged Oais Pasha , the Ottoman colonial governor in Zabid , to attack his father . Indeed , Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam al - Mutahhar stormed Taiz and marched north toward Sana'a in August 1547 . The Turks officially made Imam al - Mutahhar a Sanjak - bey with authority over ' Amran . Imam al - Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a , but the Ottomans , led by Özdemir Pasha , forced al - Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in Thula . Özdemir Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560 . He was considered a competent ruler given Yemen 's notorious lawlessness , garrisoning the main cities , building new fortresses , and rendering secure the main routes . Özdemir died in Sana'a in 1561 , and was succeeded by Mahmud Pasha . Unlike Özdemir 's brief but able leadership , Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman officials as a corrupt and unscrupulous governor . He used his authority to take over a number of castles , some of which belonged to the former Rasulid kings . Mahmud Pasha killed a Sunni scholar from Ibb . The Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by the Zaydi Shia community in the northern highlands . Disregarding the delicate balance of power in Yemen by acting tactlessly , he alienated different groups within Yemeni society , causing them to forget their rivalries and unite against the Turks . Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564 . By 1565 , Yemen was split into two provinces , the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha and Tihama under Murad Pasha . Imam al - Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed that prophet Mohammed came to him in a dream and advised him to wage jihad against the Ottomans . Al - Mutahhar led the tribes to capture Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567 . When Murad tried to relieve Sana'a , highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of them . Over 80 battles were fought . The last decisive encounter took place in Dhamar around 1568 , in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and his head sent to al - Mutahhar in Sana'a . By 1568 , only Zabid remained under the possession of the Turks . Ruins of Thula fortress in ' Amran , where al - Mutahhar ibn Yahya barricaded himself against Ottoman attacks Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha , the Ottoman governor of Syria , was ordered by Selim II to suppress the Yemeni rebels . However , the Turkish army in Egypt was reluctant to go to Yemen due to their knowledge of the hegemony of the northern Yemenis . Mustafa Pasha sent a letter with two Turkish shawishes hoping to persuade al - Mutahhar to give an apology and confirm that Mustafa Pasha did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman army , and state that the `` ignorant Arabian '' according to the Turks , acted on their own . Imam al - Mutahhar refused the Ottoman offer . When Mustafa Pasha sent an expeditionary force under the command of Uthman Pasha , it was defeated with great casualties . Sultan Selim II was infuriated by Mustafa 's hesitation to go Yemen . He executed a number of sanjak - beys in Egypt and ordered Sinan Pasha to lead the entire Turkish army in Egypt to reconquer Yemen . Sinan Pasha was a prominent Ottoman general of Albanian origin . He reconquered Aden , Taiz , and Ibb , and besieged Shibam Kawkaban in 1570 for 7 months . The siege was lifted once a truce was reached . Imam al - Mutahhar was pushed back , but could not be entirely overcome . After al - Mutahhar 's demise in 1572 , the Zaydi community was not united under an imam ; the Turks took advantage of their disunity and conquered Sana'a , Sa'dah , and Najran in 1583 . Imam al - Nasir Hassan was arrested in 1585 and exiled to Constantinople , thereby putting an end to the Yemeni rebellion . The Zaydi tribesmen in the northern highlands particularly those of Hashid and Bakil , were ever the Turkish bugbear in all Arabia . The Ottomans who justified their presence in Yemen as a triumph for Islam , accused the Zaydis of being infidels . Hassan Pasha was appointed governor of Yemen and enjoyed a period of relative peace from 1585 to 1597 . Pupils of al - Mansur al - Qasim suggested he should claim the immamate and fight the Turks . He declined at first , but the promotion of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence at the expense of Zaydi Islam infuriated al - Mansur al - Qasim . He proclaimed the imamate in September 1597 , which was the same year the Ottoman authorities inaugurated al - Bakiriyya Mosque . By 1608 , Imam al - Mansur ( the victorious ) regained control over the highlands and signed a truce for 10 years with the Ottomans . Imam al - Mansur al - Qasim died in 1620 . His son Al - Mu'ayyad Muhammad succeeded him and confirmed the truce with the Ottomans . In 1627 , the Ottomans lost Aden and Lahej . ' Abdin Pasha was ordered to suppress the rebels , but failed , and had to retreat to Mocha . Al - Mu'ayyad Muhammad expelled the Ottomans from Sana'a in 1628 , only Zabid and Mocha remained under Ottoman possession . Al - Mu'ayyad Muhammad captured Zabid in 1634 and allowed the Ottomans to leave Mocha peacefully . The reason behind Al - Mu'ayyad Muhammad 's success was the possession of firearms by the tribes and their unity behind him . Mocha was Yemen 's busiest port in the 17th and 18th centuries . In 1632 , Al - Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1000 men to conquer Mecca . The army entered the city in triumph and killed its governor . The Ottomans were not ready to lose Mecca after Yemen , so they sent an army from Egypt to fight the Yemenites . Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome , the Yemeni army retreated to a valley outside Mecca . Ottoman troops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water . This plan proceeded successfully , causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties , most from thirst . The tribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen . Al - Mu'ayyad Muhammad died in 1644 . He was succeeded by Al - Mutawakkil Isma'il , another son of al - Mansur al - Qasim , who conquered Yemen in its entirety , from Asir in the north to Dhofar in the east . During his reign , and during the reign of his successor , Al - Mahdi Ahmad ( 1676 -- 1681 ) , the imamate implemented some of the harshest discriminatory laws ( ghiyar ) against the Jews of Yemen , which culminated in the expulsion of all Jews ( Exile of Mawza ) to a hot and arid region in the Tihama coastal plain . The Qasimid state was the strongest Zaydi state to ever exist . During that period , Yemen was the sole coffee producer in the world . The country established diplomatic relations with the Safavid dynasty of Persia , Ottomans of Hejaz , Mughal Empire in India , and Ethiopia , as well . Fasilides of Ethiopia sent three diplomatic missions to Yemen , but the relations did not develop into political alliance , as Fasilides had hoped , due to the rise of powerful feudalists in his country . In the first half of the 18th century , the Europeans broke Yemen 's monopoly on coffee by smuggling coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies , East Africa , the West Indies , and Latin America . The imamate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession , and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century . In 1728 or 1731 , the chief representative of Lahej declared himself an independent sultan in defiance of the Qasimid dynasty and conquered Aden , thus establishing the Sultanate of Lahej . The rising power of the fervently Islamist Wahhabi movement on the Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi state its coastal possessions after 1803 . The imam was able to regain them temporarily in 1818 , but new intervention by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833 again wrested the coast from the ruler in Sana'a . After 1835 , the imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams were assassinated . After 1849 , the Zaidi polity descended into chaos that lasted for decades . Great Britain and the nine regions ( edit ) See also : Aden Protectorate and Sultanate of Lahej Saint Joseph church in Aden was built by the British in 1850 and is currently abandoned . The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to India . It took 700 tons of coal for a round - trip from Suez to Bombay . East India Company officials decided on Aden . The British Empire tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of Sana'a , permitting them a foothold in Mocha , and when unable to secure their position , they extracted a similar agreement from the Sultan of Lahej , enabling them to consolidate a position in Aden . An incident played into British hands when , while passing Aden for trading purposes , one of their sailing ships sank and Arab tribesmen boarded it and plundered its contents . The British India government dispatched a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to demand compensation . Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839 . The ruler of Lahej , who was in Aden at the time , ordered his guards to defend the port , but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval power . The British managed to occupy Aden and agreed to compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6000 riyals . The British evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden and forced him to accept their `` protection . '' In November 1839 , 5000 tribesmen tried to retake the town , but were repulsed and 200 were killed . The British realized that Aden 's prosperity depended on their relations with the neighboring tribes , which required that they rest on a firm and satisfactory basis . The British government concluded `` protection and friendship '' treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden , whereas they would remain independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they do not conclude treaties with foreigners ( non-Arab colonial powers ) . Aden was declared a free zone in 1850 . With emigrants from India , East Africa , and Southeast Asia , Aden grew into a world city . In 1850 , only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city . The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans . The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of Arabia , including Yemen as successor of Mohammed and the chief of the universal caliphate . Ottoman return ( edit ) See also : Yemen Vilayet The Ottoman Grand Vizier and Wāli of Yemen Ahmed Muhtar Pasha The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from India to the Red Sea and Arabia . They returned to the Tihama in 1849 after an absence of two centuries . Rivalries and disturbances continued among the Zaydi imams , between them and their deputies , with the ulema , with the heads of tribes , as well as with those who belonged to other sects . Some citizens of Sana'a were desperate to return law and order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in Tihama to pacify the country . Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans would improve their trade , for the Ottomans would become their customers . An Ottoman expedition force tried to capture Sana'a , but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands . The Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 , strengthened the Ottoman decision to remain in Yemen . In 1872 , military forces were dispatched from Constantinople and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands ( Tihama ) to conquer Sana'a . By 1873 , the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands . Sana'a became the administrative capital of Yemen Vilayet . The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions . They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society , while Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms . The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts . They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country 's economic welfare . However , corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen . This was because only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so . The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for temporary duration . The so - called Tanzimat reforms were considered heretic by the Zaydi tribes . In 1876 , the Hashid and Bakil tribes rebelled against the Ottomans ; the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising . The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed Ottoman efforts to pacify the land . Ahmed Izzet Pasha proposed that the Ottoman army evacuate the highlands and confine itself to Tihama , and not unnecessarily burden itself with continuing military operation against the Zaydi tribes . The hit - and - run tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman military . They resented the Turkish Tanzimat and defied all attempts to impose a central government upon them . The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in 1890 . Imam Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904 ; the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern . The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans , costing them as many as 10,000 soldiers and as much as 500,000 pounds per year . The Ottomans signed a treaty with imam Yahya Hamidaddin in 1911 . Under the treaty , Imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the Zaydi northern highlands . The Ottomans continued to rule Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918 . Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen ( edit ) Main article : Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen Imam Yahya hamid ed - Din 's house in Sana'a Imam Yahya hamid ed - Din al - Mutawakkil was ruling the northern highlands independently from 1911 . After the Ottoman departure in 1918 , he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid ancestors . He dreamed of Greater Yemen stretching from Asir to Dhofar . These schemes brought him into conflict with the de facto rulers in the territories claimed , namely the Idrsids , Ibn Saud , and the British government in Aden . The Zaydi imam did not recognize the Anglo - Ottoman border agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it was made between two foreign powers occupying Yemen . The border treaty effectively divided Yemen into north and south . In 1915 , the British signed a treaty with the Idrsids guaranteeing their security and independence if they would fight against the Turks . In 1919 , Imam Yahya hamid ed - Din moved southward to `` liberate '' the nine British protectorates . The British responded by moving quickly towards Tihama and occupying al - Hudaydah . Then they handed it over to their Idrisi allies . Imam Yahya attacked the southern protectorates again in 1922 . The British bombed Yahya 's tribal forces using aircraft to which the tribes had no effective counter . In 1925 , Imam Yahya captured al - Hudaydah from the Idrsids . He continued to follow and attack the Idrsids until Asir fell under the control of the imam 's forces , forcing the Idrisi to request an agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name of the imam . Imam Yahya refused the offer on the grounds that the Idrisis were of a Moroccan descent . According to Imam Yahya , the Idrisis , along with the British , were nothing but recent intruders and should be driven out of Yemen permanently . In 1927 , Imam Yahya 's forces were 50 km away from Aden , Taiz , and Ibb , and were bombed by the British for five days ; the imam had to pull back . Small Bedouin forces , mainly from the Madh'hij confederation of Marib , attacked Shabwah but were bombed by the British and had to retreat . British colony of Aden : Queen Elizabeth II stamp , 1953 The Italian Empire was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as the King of Yemen in 1926 . This created a great deal of anxiety for the British , who interpreted it as recognition of Imam Yahya 's claim to sovereignty over Greater Yemen , which included the Aden protectorate and Asir . The idrisis turned to Ibn Saud seeking his protection from Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed - Din . However , in 1932 , the Idrisis broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya seeking help against Ibn Saud himself , who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi domain . Imam Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi dominion . That same year , a group of Hejazi liberals fled to Yemen and plotted to expel Ibn Saud from the former Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz , which had been conquered by the Saudis seven years earlier . Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid . The British government sent arms and aeroplanes . The British were anxious that Ibn Saud 's financial difficulties may encourage the Italian Empire to bail him out . Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri rebellion in 1933 , after which the Idrsids fled to Sana'a . Negotiations between the Imam Yahya Hamid ed - Din and Ibn Saud proved fruitless . After a military confrontation , Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934 . Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody . Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of Najran , Asir , and Jazan for 20 years . and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934 . The imam recognized the British sovereignty over Aden protectorate for 40 years . Out of fear for Hudaydah , Yahya did submit to these demands . According to Bernard Reich , Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at George Washington University , Yahya could have done better by reorganizing the Zaydi tribes of the northern highlands as his ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and turn the lands they captured into another graveyard . Colonial Aden ( edit ) Queen Elizabeth II holding a sword prepared to knight subjects in Aden in 1954 Starting in 1890 , hundreds of Yemeni people from Hajz , Al - Baetha , and Taiz migrated to Aden to work at ports and as laborers . This helped the population of Aden once again become predominantly Arab after , having been declared a free zone , it had become mostly foreigners . During World War II , Aden had increasing economic growth and became the second - busiest port in the world after New York City . After the rise of labour unions , a rift was apparent between the sectors of workers and the first signs of resistance to the occupation started in 1943 . Muhammed Ali Luqman founded the first Arabic club and first Arabic school in Aden and was the first to start working towards a union . The Colony of Aden was divided into an eastern colony and a western colony . Those were further divided into 23 sultanates and emirates , and several independent tribes that had no relationships with the sultanates . The deal between the sultanates and Britain detailed protection and complete control of foreign relations by the British . The Sultanate of Lahej was the only one in which the sultan was referred to as His Highness . The Federation of South Arabia was created by the British to counter Arab nationalism by giving more freedom to the rulers of the nations . The North Yemen Civil War inspired many in the south to rise against the British rule . The National Liberation Front ( NLO ) of Yemen was formed with the leadership of Qahtan Muhammad Al - Shaabi . The NLO hoped to destroy all the sultanates and eventually unite with the Yemen Arab Republic . Most of the support for the NLO came from Radfan and Yafa , so the British launched Operation Nutcracker , which completely burned Radfan in January 1964 . Two States ( edit ) Main articles : North Yemen and South Yemen Egyptian military intervention in North Yemen in 1962 Arab nationalism made an impact in some circles who opposed the lack of modernization efforts in the Mutawakkilite monarchy . This became apparent when Imam Ahmad bin Yahya died in 1962 . He was succeeded by his son , but army officers attempted to seize power , sparking the North Yemen Civil War . The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia , Britain , and Jordan ( mostly with weapons and financial aid , but also with small military forces ) , whilst the military rebels were backed by Egypt . Egypt provided the rebels with weapons and financial assistance , but also sent a large military force to participate in the fighting . Israel covertly supplied weapons to the royalists to keep the Egyptian military busy in Yemen and make Nasser less likely to initiate a conflict in the Sinai . After six years of civil war , the military rebels were victorious ( February 1968 ) and formed the Yemen Arab Republic . The revolution in the north coincided with the Aden Emergency , which hastened the end of British rule in the south . On 30 November 1967 , the state of South Yemen was formed , comprising Aden and the former Protectorate of South Arabia . This socialist state was later officially known as the People 's Democratic Republic of Yemen and a programme of nationalisation was begun . British Army 's counter-insurgency campaign in the British controlled territories of South Arabia , 1967 Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile . The South was supported by the Eastern bloc . The North , however , was not able to get the same connections . In 1972 , the two states fought a war . The war was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by the Arab League , where it was declared that unification would eventually occur . In 1978 , Ali Abdallah Saleh was named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic . After the war , the North complained about the South 's help from foreign countries . This included Saudi Arabia . In 1979 , fresh fighting between the two states resumed and efforts were renewed to bring about unification . North Yemen ( in orange ) and Marxist South Yemen ( in blue ) before 1990 Thousands were killed in 1986 in the South Yemen Civil War . President Ali Nasser Muhammad fled to the north and was later sentenced to death for treason . A new government formed . Unification and civil war ( edit ) Main article : Yemeni unification In 1990 , the two governments reached a full agreement on the joint governing of Yemen , and the countries were merged on 22 May 1990 , with Saleh as President . The President of South Yemen , Ali Salim al - Beidh , became Vice President . A unified parliament was formed and a unity constitution was agreed upon . In the 1993 parliamentary election , the first held after unification , the General People 's Congress won 122 of 301 seats . After the invasion of Kuwait crisis in 1990 , Yemen 's president opposed military intervention from non-Arab states . As a member of the United Nations Security Council for 1990 and 1991 , Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait and voted against the `` ... use of force resolution . '' The vote outraged the U.S. Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for its opposition to the intervention . Following food riots in major towns in 1992 , a new coalition government made up of the ruling parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993 . However , Vice President al - Beidh withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed . These included northern violence against his Yemeni Socialist Party , as well as the economic marginalization of the south . Negotiations to end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994 . The government of Prime Minister Haydar Abu Bakr Al - Attas became ineffective due to political infighting An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed in Amman , Jordan on 20 February 1994 , but this could not stop the civil war . During these tensions , both the northern and southern armies ( which had never integrated ) gathered on their respective frontiers . The May -- July 1994 civil war in Yemen resulted in the defeat of the southern armed forces and the flight into exile of many Yemeni Socialist Party leaders and other southern secessionists . Saudi Arabia actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war . Contemporary Yemen ( edit ) Prayers during Ramadan in Sana'a Saleh became Yemen 's first directly elected president in the 1999 presidential election , winning 96.2 % of the vote . The only other candidate , Najeeb Qahtan Al - Sha'abi , was the son of Qahtan Muhammad al - Shaabi , a former president of South Yemen . Though a member of Saleh 's General People 's Congress ( GPC ) party , Najeeb ran as an independent . In October 2000 , 17 U.S. personnel died after a suicide attack on the U.S. naval vessel USS Cole in Aden , which was subsequently blamed on al - Qaeda . After the September 11 attacks on the United States , President Saleh assured U.S. President George W. Bush that Yemen was a partner in his War on Terror . In 2001 , violence surrounded a referendum , which apparently supported extending Saleh 's rule and powers . The Shia insurgency in Yemen began in June 2004 when dissident cleric Hussein Badreddin al - Houthi , head of the Zaidi Shia sect , launched an uprising against the Yemeni government . The Yemeni government alleged that the Houthis were seeking to overthrow it and to implement Shī'a religious law . The rebels counter that they are `` defending their community against discrimination '' and government aggression . `` Sana'a risks becoming the first capital in the world to run out of a viable water supply as Yemen 's streams and natural aquifers run dry , '' says The Guardian . In 2005 , at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country between police and protesters over rising fuel prices . In the 2006 presidential election , held on 20 September , Saleh won with 77.2 % of the vote . His main rival , Faisal bin Shamlan , received 21.8 % . Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27 September . A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in the province of Marib in July 2007 . A series of bomb attacks occurred on police , official , diplomatic , foreign business , and tourism targets in 2008 . Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people , including six of the assailants in September 2008 . In 2008 , an opposition rally in Sana'a demanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire . Al Qaeda ( edit ) In January 2009 , the Saudi Arabian and Yemeni al - Qaeda branches merged to form Al - Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula , which is based in Yemen , and many of its members were Saudi nationals who had been released from Guantanamo Bay . Saleh released 176 al - Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour , but terrorist activities continued . The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the Shia insurgents in 2009 , assisted by Saudi forces . Tens of thousands of people were displaced by the fighting . A new ceasefire was agreed upon in February 2010 . However , by the end of the year , Yemen claimed that 3,000 soldiers had been killed in renewed fighting . The Shia rebels accused Saudi Arabia of providing support to salafi groups to suppress Zaidism in Yemen . Some news reports have suggested that , on orders from U.S. President Barack Obama , U.S. warplanes fired cruise missiles at what officials in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of Sana'a and Abyan on 17 December 2009 . Instead of hitting Al - Qaeda operatives , it hit a village , killing 55 civilians . Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60 civilians , 28 of them children . Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December . The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived growing terror threat due to political chaos in Yemen . Since December 2009 , U.S. strikes in Yemen have been carried out by the U.S. military with intelligence support from the CIA . The drone strikes are protested by human - rights groups who say they kill innocent civilians and that the U.S. military and CIA drone strikes lack sufficient congressional oversight , including the choice of human targets suspected of being threats to America . Controversy over U.S. policy for drone attacks mushroomed after a September 2011 drone strike in Yemen killed Anwar al - Awlaki and Samir Khan , both U.S. citizens . Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar 's teenaged son , Abdulrahman al - Awlaki . In 2010 , the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people whose names are not known . The U.S. government increased military aid to $140 million in 2010 . U.S. drone strikes continued after the ousting of President Saleh . As of 2015 , Shi'a Houthis are fighting against the Islamic State , Al Qaeda , and Saudi Arabia . U.S. supports the Saudi - led military intervention in Yemen against the Houthis , but many in US SOCOM reportedly favor Houthis , as they have been an effective force to roll back al - Qaeda and recently ISIL in Yemen . The Guardian reported that `` The only groups poised to benefit from the war dragging on are the jihadis of Islamic State ( ISIL ) and al - Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula ( AQAP ) , the latter 's most powerful franchise , who are likely to gain influence amid the chaos . ISIL has claimed recent , bloody suicide bombings in Houthi mosques and Sana'a when it once had no known presence in the country , while AQAP has continued to seize territory in eastern Yemen unhindered by American drone strikes . '' In February 2016 Al - Qaeda forces and Saudi - led coalition forces were both seen fighting Houthi rebels in the same battle . Revolution and aftermath ( edit ) Main articles : 2011 Yemeni revolution , 2014 -- 15 Yemeni coup d'état , Yemeni civil war ( 2015 -- present ) , Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen , and Famine in Yemen Protest in Sana'a , 3 February 2011 Controlled by Houthis and Saleh loyalists Controlled by Hadi loyalists Controlled by al - Qaeda and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant - affiliated Ansar al - Sharia The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed other Arab Spring mass protests in early 2011 . The uprising was initially against unemployment , economic conditions , and corruption , as well as against the government 's proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen so that Saleh 's son could inherit the presidency . In March 2011 , police snipers opened fire on the prodemocracy camp in Sana'a , killing more than 50 people . In May , dozens were killed in clashes between troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a . By this point , Saleh began to lose international support . In October 2011 , Yemeni human rights activist Tawakul Karman won the Nobel Peace Prize , and the UN Security Council condemned the violence and called for a transfer of power . On 23 November 2011 , Saleh flew to Riyadh , in neighbouring Saudi Arabia , to sign the Gulf Co-operation Council plan for political transition , which he had previously spurned . Upon signing the document , he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy , Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi . Hadi took office for a two - year term upon winning the uncontested presidential elections in February 2012 . A unity government -- including a prime minister from the opposition -- was formed . Al - Hadi will oversee the drafting of a new constitution , followed by parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014 . Saleh returned in February 2012 . In the face of objections from thousands of street protesters , parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution . Saleh 's son , General Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh , continues to exercise a strong hold on sections of the military and security forces . AQAP claimed responsibility for a February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace that killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in . AQAP was also behind a suicide bombing that killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later . In September 2012 , a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people , a day after a local al - Qaeda leader Said al - Shihri was reported killed in the south . By 2012 , there has been a `` small contingent of U.S. special - operations troops '' -- in addition to CIA and `` unofficially acknowledged '' U.S. military presence -- in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens . Many analysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the country . Following the election of new president Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi , the Yemeni military was able to push Ansar al - Sharia back and recapture the Shabwah Governorate . Saudi - led air strike on Sana'a , 12 June 2015 : Saudi Arabia is operating without a UN mandate . The central government in Sana'a remained weak , staving off challenges from southern separatists and Shia rebels as well as AQAP . The Shia insurgency intensified after Hadi took power , escalating in September 2014 as anti-government forces led by Abdul - Malik al - Houthi swept into the capital and forced Hadi to agree to a `` unity '' government . The Houthis then refused to participate in the government , although they continued to apply pressure on Hadi and his ministers , even shelling the president 's private residence and placing him under house arrest , until the government 's mass resignation in January 2015 . The following month , the Houthis dissolved parliament and declared that a Revolutionary Committee under Mohammed Ali al - Houthi was the interim authority in Yemen . Abdul - Malik al - Houthi , a cousin of the new acting president , called the takeover a `` glorious revolution . '' However , the `` constitutional declaration '' of 6 February 2015 was widely rejected by opposition politicians and foreign governments , including the United Nations . Hadi managed to flee from Sana'a to Aden , his hometown and stronghold in the south , on 21 February . He promptly gave a televised speech rescinding his resignation , condemning the coup , and calling for recognition as the constitutional president of Yemen . The following month , Hadi declared Aden Yemen 's `` temporary '' capital . The Houthis , however , rebuffed an initiative by the Gulf Cooperation Council and continued to move south toward Aden . All U.S. personnel were evacuated and President Hadi was forced to flee the country to Saudi Arabia . On 26 March , Saudi Arabia announced operation al - Hazm Storm and began airstrikes and announced its intentions to lead a military coalition against the Houthis , whom they claimed were being aided by Iran , and began a force buildup along the Yemeni border . The coalition included the United Arab Emirates , Kuwait , Qatar , Bahrain , Jordan , Morocco , Sudan , Egypt , and Pakistan . The United States announced that it was assisting with intelligence , targeting , and logistics . Saudi Arabia and Egypt would not rule out ground operations . After Hadi troops took control of Aden from Houthis , jihadist groups are active in the city , and some of terrorist incidents were linked to it such as Missionaries of Charity attack in Aden in 4 March 2016 . Geography ( edit ) Main article : Geography of Yemen A Haraaz landscape , Yemen A topographic map of Yemen Mountains of north Yemen Yemen is in Western Asia , in the southern half of the Arabian Peninsula , bordering the Arabian Sea , Gulf of Aden , and the Red Sea . It lies south of Saudi Arabia and west of Oman , between latitudes 12 and 19 ° N and longitudes 42 and 55 ° E. Yemen is at 15 ° N 48 ° E  /  15 ° N 48 ° E  / 15 ; 48 . Yemen is 527,970 km ( 203,850 sq mi ) in size . A number of Red Sea islands , including the Hanish Islands , Kamaran , and Perim , as well as Socotra in the Arabian Sea , belong to Yemen . Many of the islands are volcanic ; for example Jabal al - Tair had a volcanic eruption in 2007 and before that in 1883 . Yemen is a transcontinental country . Regions and Climate ( edit ) A water reservoir in Haraz , Yemen Yemen can be divided geographically into four main regions : the coastal plains in the west , the western highlands , the eastern highlands , and the Rub al Khali in the east . The Tihamah ( `` hot lands '' or `` hot earth '' ) form a very arid and flat coastal plain along Yemen 's entire Red Sea coastline . Despite the aridity , the presence of many lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malaria mosquitos . Extensive crescent - shaped sand dunes are present . The evaporation in the Tihamah is so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea , but they do contribute to extensive groundwater reserves . Today , these are heavily exploited for agricultural use . Near the village of Madar about 50 km ( 30 mi ) north of Sana'a , dinosaur footprints were found , indicating that the area was once a muddy flat . The Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands . This area , now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food , receives the highest rainfall in Arabia , rapidly increasing from 100 mm ( 3.9 in ) per year to about 760 mm ( 29.9 in ) in Taiz and over 1,000 mm ( 39.4 in ) in Ibb . Temperatures are hot in the day , but fall dramatically at night . Perennial streams occur in the highlands , but these never reach the sea because of high evaporation in the Tihamah . The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 m ( 6,562 ft ) in elevation . This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain - shadow influences , but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping . Water storage allows for irrigation and the growing of wheat and barley . Sana'a is in this region . The highest point in Yemen is Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb , at 3,666 m ( 12,028 ft ) . Yemen 's portion of the Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower , generally below 1,000 m ( 3,281 ft ) , and receives almost no rain . It is populated only by Bedouin herders of camels . The growing scarcity of water is a source of increasing international concern . See Water supply and sanitation in Yemen . Biodiversity ( edit ) Main article : Wildlife of Yemen Dracaena cinnabari at Socotra Island The flora of Yemen is a mixture of the tropical African , Sudanian plant geographical region and the Saharo - Arabian region . The Sudanian element -- characterized by relatively high rainfall -- dominates the western mountains and parts of the highland plains . The Saharo - Arabian element dominates in the coastal plains , eastern mountain , and the eastern and northern desert plains . A high percentage of Yemen plants belong to tropical African plants of Sudanian regions . Among the Sudanian element species , the following may be mentioned : Ficus spp. , Acacia mellifera , Grewia villosa , Commiphora spp. , Rosa abyssinica , Cadaba farinosa and others . Among the Saharo - Arabian species , these may be mentioned : Panicum turgidum , Aerva javanica , Zygophyllum simplex , Fagonia indica , Salsola spp. , Acacia tortilis , A. hamulos , A. ehrenbergiana , Phoenix dactylifera , Hyphaene thebaica , Capparis decidua , Salvadora persica , Balanites aegyptiaca , and many others . Many of the Saharo - Arabian species are endemic to the extensive sandy coastal plain ( the Tihamah ) . The characteristic genera of the Irano - Turanian in the eastern and northern east of the country are : Calligonum spp. , Cymbopogon jwarancusa , and Tamarix spp. and of the Mediterranean regions are : Teucrium , Lavandula , Juniperus , Brassica , and Diplotaxis spp . Politics ( edit ) Main article : Politics of Yemen The Yemeni government has been driven in two since 2014 , when a Shia group known as the Houthis seized control of the capital Sana'a . After months of tense coexistence , the Houthis made a constitutional declaration in early 2015 that placed them in de facto control of the government . President Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi fled the capital to the southern city of Aden , former capital of South Yemen , and eventually evacuated to Saudi Arabia . With the support of the Saudis and other Gulf states , Hadi remains the official leader of a provisional government based in Aden . The Houthis have struggled to achieve international legitimacy , with most countries continuing to recognize Hadi as Yemen 's president , despite the formation of a `` national salvation '' government in 2016 without the cooperation of the Hadi administration . De jure , Yemen is a republic with a bicameral legislature . Under the 1991 constitution , an elected President , an elected 301 - seat Assembly of Representatives , and an appointed 111 - member Shura Council share power . The President is the head of state , and the Prime Minister is the head of government . In Sana'a , a Supreme Political Council ( not recognized internationally ) forms the government . The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by at least 15 members of the Parliament . The prime minister , in turn , is appointed by the president and must be approved by two - thirds of the Parliament . The presidential term of office is seven years , and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years . Suffrage is universal for people age 18 and older , but only Muslims may hold elected office . President Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected president in reunified Yemen in 1999 ( though he had been president of unified Yemen since 1990 and president of North Yemen since 1978 ) . He was re-elected to office in September 2006 . Saleh 's victory was marked by an election that international observers judged was `` partly free , '' though the election was accompanied by violence , violations of press freedoms , and allegations of fraud . Parliamentary elections were held in April 2003 , and the General People 's Congress maintained an absolute majority . Saleh remained almost uncontested in his seat of power until 2011 , when local frustration at his refusal to hold another round of elections , as combined with the impact of the 2011 Arab Spring , resulted in mass protests . In 2012 , he was forced to resign from power , though he remains an important actor in Yemeni politics , allying with the Houthis during their takeover in the mid-2010s . The constitution calls for an independent judiciary . The former northern and southern legal codes have been unified . The legal system includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in Sana'a . Sharia is the main source of laws , with many court cases being debated according to the religious basis of law and many judges being religious scholars as well as legal authorities . The Prison Authority Organization Act , Republican decree no . 48 ( 1981 ) , and Prison Act regulations , provide the legal framework for management of the country 's prison system . Foreign relations ( edit ) Main article : Foreign relations of Yemen Former Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh at the Pentagon , 8 June 2004 The geography and ruling imams of North Yemen kept the country isolated from foreign influence before 1962 . The country 's relations with Saudi Arabia were defined by the Taif Agreement of 1934 , which delineated the northernmost part of the border between the two kingdoms and set the framework for commercial and other intercourse . The Taif Agreement has been renewed periodically in 20 - year increments , and its validity was reaffirmed in 1995 . Relations with the British colonial authorities in Aden and the south were usually tense . The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in 1958 and 1959 were the first important non-Muslim presences in North Yemen . Following the September 1962 revolution , the Yemen Arab Republic became closely allied with and heavily dependent upon Egypt . Saudi Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt to defeat the Republicans and did not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until 1970 . At the same time , Saudi Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes , which sometimes strained its official relations with the Yemeni Government . Saudi Arabia remained hostile to any form of political and social reform in Yemen and continued to provide financial support for tribal elites . In February 1989 , North Yemen joined Iraq , Jordan , and Egypt in forming the Arab Cooperation Council ( ACC ) , an organization created partly in response to the founding of the Gulf Cooperation Council and intended to foster closer economic cooperation and integration among its members . After unification , the Republic of Yemen was accepted as a member of the ACC in place of its YAR predecessor . In the wake of the Persian Gulf crisis , the ACC has remained inactive . Yemen is not a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council mainly for its republican government . Yemen is a member of the United Nations , the Arab League , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and also participates in the nonaligned movement . The Republic of Yemen accepted responsibility for all treaties and debts of its predecessors , the Yemen Arab Republic ( YAR ) and the People 's Democratic Republic of Yemen ( PDRY ) . Yemen has acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons . Ousted Yemeni President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry , 7 May 2015 Since the end of the 1994 civil war , tangible progress has been made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with Yemen 's neighbors . In the summer of 2000 , Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a 50 - year - old dispute over the location of the border between the two countries . Until the signing of the Yemen - Saudi Arabia peace treaty in July 2000 , Yemen 's northern border was undefined ; the Arabian Desert prevented any human habitation there . Yemen settled its dispute with Eritrea over the Hanish Islands in 1998 . The Saudi -- Yemen barrier was constructed by Saudi Arabia against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons . The Independent headed an article with `` Saudi Arabia , one of the most vocal critics in the Arab world of Israel 's `` security fence '' in the West Bank , is quietly emulating the Israeli example by erecting a barrier along its porous border with Yemen . '' Human Rights ( edit ) Main article : Human rights in Yemen The government and its security forces , often considered to suffer from rampant corruption , have been responsible for torture , inhumane treatment , and extrajudicial executions . There are arbitrary arrests of citizens , especially in the south , as well as arbitrary searches of homes . Prolonged pretrial detention is a serious problem , and judicial corruption , inefficiency , and executive interference undermine due process . Freedom of speech , the press , and religion are all restricted . Journalists critical of the government are often harassed and threatened by the police . Homosexuality is illegal , punishable by death . Since the start of the Shia insurgency , many people accused of supporting Al - Houthi have been arrested and held without charge or trial . According to the U.S. State Department International Religious Freedom Report 2007 , `` Some Zaydis reported harassment and discrimination by the Government because they were suspected of sympathizing with the al - Houthis . However , it appears the Government 's actions against the group were probably politically , not religiously , motivated . '' The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported several violations of refugee and asylum seekers ' rights in the organization 's 2008 World Refugee Survey . Yemeni authorities reportedly deported numerous foreigners without giving them access to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees , despite the UN 's repeated requests . Refugees further reported violence directed against them by Yemeni authorities while living in refugee camps . Yemeni officials reportedly raped and beat camp - based refugees with impunity in 2007 . Yemen is ranked last of 135 countries in the 2012 Global Gender Gap Report . Human Rights Watch reported on discrimination and violence against women as well as on the abolition of the minimum marriage age of fifteen for women . The onset of puberty ( interpreted by some to be as low as the age of nine ) was set as a requirement for marriage instead . Publicity about the case of ten - year - old Yemeni divorcee Nujood Ali brought the child marriage issue to the fore not only in Yemen but also worldwide . Human Trafficking ( edit ) Main article : Human trafficking in Yemen The United States Department of State 2013 Trafficking in Persons report classified Yemen as a Tier 3 country , meaning that its government does not fully comply with the minimum standards against human trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so . Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962 , but it is still being practiced . Military ( edit ) Main article : Military of Yemen Yemeni soldiers The armed forces of Yemen include the Yemen Army ( includes Republican Guard ) , Navy ( includes Marines ) , Yemeni Air Force ( Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Yamaniya ; includes Air Defense Force ) . A major reorganization of the armed forces continues . The unified air forces and air defenses are now under one command . The navy has concentration in Aden . Total armed forces manning numbers about 401,000 active personnel , including moreover especially conscripts . The Yemen Arab Republic and The People 's Democratic Republic of Yemen joined to form the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990 . The supreme commander of the armed forces is the President of the Republic of Yemen . The number of military personnel in Yemen is relatively high ; in sum , Yemen has the second largest military force on the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi Arabia . In 2012 total active troops were estimated as follows : army , 390,000 ; navy , 7,000 ; and air force , 5,000 . In September 2007 , the government announced the reinstatement of compulsory military service . Yemen 's defense budget , which in 2006 represented approximately 40 percent of the total government budget , is expected to remain high for the near term , as the military draft takes effect and internal security threats continue to escalate . By 2012 Yemen had 401,000 active personnel . Administrative divisions ( edit ) Main article : Governorates of Yemen Governorates of Yemen As of the end of 2004 , Yemen was divided into twenty governorates ( muhafazat -- the latest being Raymah Governorate , which was created during 2004 ) plus one municipality called `` Amanat Al - Asemah '' ( the latter containing the constitutional capital , Sana'a ) . An additional governorate ( Soqatra Governorate ) was created in December 2013 comprising Socotra Island ( bottom - right corner of map ) , previously part of Hadramaut Governorate . The governorates are subdivided into 333 districts ( muderiah ) , which are subdivided into 2,210 sub-districts , and then into 38,284 villages ( as of 2001 ) . In 2014 , a constitutional panel decided to divide the country into six regions -- four in the north , two in the south , and capital Sana'a outside of any region -- creating a federalist model of governance . This federal proposal was a contributing factor toward the Houthis ' subsequent coup d'état against the government . Saada Al Jawf Hadhramaut Al Mahrah Hajjah ' Amran Al Mahwit Amanat Al Asimah ( Sana'a City ) Sana'a Ma'rib Al Hudaydah Raymah Dhamar Ibb Dhale Al Bayda Shabwah Taiz Lahij Abyan Aden Socotra Economy ( edit ) Main article : Economy of Yemen Further information : Telecommunications in Yemen , Transportation in Yemen , and Internet usage in Yemen A proportional representation of Yemen 's exports Yemen as of 2013 had a GDP ( ppp ) of US $61.63 billion , with an income per capita of $2,500 . Services are the largest economic sector ( 61.4 % of GDP ) , followed by the industrial sector ( 30.9 % ) , and agriculture ( 7.7 % ) . Of these , petroleum production represents around 25 % of GDP and 63 % of the government 's revenue . Agriculture ( edit ) Agriculture previously represented 18 -- 27 % of the GDP , but its apportionment began changing due to emigration of rural labor , and structural changes within the sector . Principal agricultural commodities produced in the nation include grain , vegetables , fruits , pulses , qat , coffee , cotton , dairy products , fish , livestock ( sheep , goats , cattle , camels ) , and poultry . A coffee plantation in North Yemen Most Yemenis are employed in agriculture . Sorghum is the most common crop . Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown , with mangoes being the most valuable . A big problem in Yemen is the cultivation of Khat , a psychoactive plant that releases a stimulant when chewed , and accounts for up to 40 percent of the water drawn from the Sana'a Basin each year , and that figure is rising . Some agricultural practices are drying the Sana'a Basin and displaced vital crops , which has resulted in increasing food prices . Rising food prices , in turn , pushed an additional six percent of the country into poverty in 2008 alone . Efforts are being made by the Government and Dawoodi Bohra community at North Yemen to replace qat with coffee plantations . Industry ( edit ) Yemen 's industrial sector is centered on crude oil production and petroleum refining , food processing , handicrafts , small - scale production of cotton textiles and leather goods , aluminum products , commercial ship repair , cement , and natural gas production . As of 2013 , Yemen had an industrial production growth rate of 4.8 % . It also has large proven reserves of natural gas . Yemen 's first liquified natural gas plant began production in October 2009 . Labor force ( edit ) A Souq in Old Sana'a The labor force was 7 million workers in 2013 . Services , industry , construction and commerce together constitute less than 25 % of the labor force . The unemployment rate as of 2003 was 35 % . Export and import ( edit ) As of 2013 , exports from Yemen totaled $6.694 billion . The main export commodities are crude oil , coffee , dried and salted fish , liquefied natural gas . These products were mainly sent to China ( 41 % ) , Thailand ( 19.2 % ) , India ( 11.4 % ) , and South Korea ( 4.4 % ) . Imports as of 2013 total $10.97 billion . The main imported commodities are machinery and equipment , foodstuffs , livestock , and chemicals . These products were mainly imported from the EU ( 48.8 % ) , UAE ( 9.8 % ) , Switzerland ( 8.8 % ) , China ( 7.4 % ) , and India ( 5.8 % ) . State budget ( edit ) Drilling for oil in Yemen using a land rig As of 2013 , the Yemeni government 's budget consisted of $7.769 billion in revenues and $12.31 billion in expenditures . Taxes and other revenues constituted roughly 17.7 % of the GDP , with a budget deficit of 10.3 % . The public debt was 47.1 % of GDP . Yemen had reserves of foreign exchange and gold of around $5.538 billion in 2013 . Its inflation rate over the same period based on consumer prices was 11.8 % . Yemen 's external debt totaled $7.806 billion . International relations ( edit ) Beginning in the mid-1950s , the Soviet Union and China provided large - scale assistance . For example , China and the United States are involved with the expansion of the Sana'a International Airport . In the south , pre-independence economic activity was overwhelmingly concentrated in the port city of Aden . The seaborne transit trade , which the port relied upon , collapsed with the closure of the Suez Canal and Britain 's withdrawal from Aden in 1967 . Since the conclusion of the war , the government made an agreement with the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) to implement a structural adjustment program . Phase one of the program included major financial and monetary reforms , including floating the currency , reducing the budget deficit , and cutting subsidies . Phase two addresses structural issues , such as civil service reform . In early 1995 , the government of Yemen launched an economic , financial , and administrative reform program ( EFARP ) with the support of the World Bank and the IMF , as well as international donors . These programs had a positive impact on Yemen 's economy and led to the reduction of the budget deficit to less than 3 % of gross domestic product during the period 1995 -- 1999 and the correction of macro-financial imbalances . The real growth rate in the non-oil sector rose by 5.6 % from 1995 to 1997 . Water supply and sanitation ( edit ) Main article : Water supply and sanitation in Yemen A key challenge is severe water scarcity , especially in the Highlands , prompting The Times to write `` Yemen could become first nation to run out of water . '' A second key challenge is a high level of poverty , making it difficult to recover the costs of service provision . Access to water supply sanitation is as low as in some sub-Saharan African countries . Yemen is both the poorest country and the most water - scarce country in the Arab world . Third , the capacity of sector institutions to plan , build , operate and maintain infrastructure remains limited . Last but not least the security situation makes it even more difficult to improve or even maintain existing levels of service . The average Yemeni has access to only 140 cubic meters of water per year ( 101 gallons per day ) for all uses , while the Middle Eastern average is 1000 m / yr , and the internationally defined threshold for water stress is 1700 cubic meters per year . Yemen 's groundwater is the main source of water in the country but the water tables have dropped severely leaving Yemen without a viable source of water . For example , in Sana'a , the water table was 30 meters below surface in the 1970s but had dropped to 1200 meters below surface by 2012 . The groundwater has not been regulated by Yemen 's governments . Even before the revolution , Yemen 's water situation had been described as increasingly dire by experts who worried that Yemen would be the first country to run out of water . Agriculture in Yemen takes up about 90 % of water in Yemen even though it only generates 6 % of GDP . A large portion of Yemenis are dependent on small - scale subsistence agriculture . Half of agricultural water in Yemen is used to grow khat , a drug that many Yemenis chew . This means that in such a water - scarce country as Yemen , where half the population is food - insecure , 45 % of the water withdrawn from the ever - depleting aquifers is used to grow a crop that feeds nobody . Due to the 2015 Yemeni Civil War , the situation is increasingly dire . 80 % of Yemen 's population struggles to access water to drink and bathe . Bombing has forced many Yemenis to leave their homes for other areas , and so wells in those areas are under increasing pressure . Demographics ( edit ) Main article : Demographics of Yemen Yemen 's population ( 1961 -- 2008 ) . Yemen has a growth rate of 3.46 % ( 2008 est . ) Yemen 's population is 28 million by 2016 estimates , with 46 % of the population being under 15 years old and 2.7 % above 65 years . In 1950 , it was 4.3 million . By 2050 , the population is estimated to increase to about 60 million . Yemen has a high total fertility rate , at 4.45 children per woman . It is the 30th highest in the world . Sana'a 's population has increased rapidly , from roughly 55,000 in 1978 to nearly 2 million in the early 21st century . Ethnic groups ( edit ) Yemen 's tribal areas and Shia / Sunni regions . Shia Muslims predominant in the green area of Yemen 's West , with the rest of Yemen being Sunni Muslims . Yemeni ethnic groups are predominantly Arabs , followed by Afro - Arabs , South Asians and Europeans . When the former states of North and South Yemen were established , most resident minority groups departed . Yemen is a largely tribal society . In the northern , mountainous parts of the country , there are 400 Zaidi tribes . There are also hereditary caste groups in urban areas such as Al - Akhdam . There are also Yemenis of Persian origin . According to Muqaddasi , Persians formed the majority of Aden 's population in the 10th century . Yemenite Jews once formed a sizable minority in Yemen with a distinct culture from other Jewish communities in the world . Most emigrated to Israel in the mid-20th century , following the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries and Operation Magic Carpet . An estimated 100,000 people of Indian origin are concentrated in the southern part of the country , around Aden , Mukalla , Shihr , Lahaj , Mokha and Hodeidah . Most of the prominent Indonesians , Malaysians , and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami people with origins in southern Yemen in the Hadramawt coastal region . Today there are almost 10,000 Hadramis in Singapore . The Hadramis migrated to Southeast Asia , East Africa and the Indian subcontinent . The Maqil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who migrated westwards via Egypt . Several groups of Yemeni Arabs turned south to Mauritania , and by the end of the 17th century , they dominated the entire country . They can also be found throughout Morocco and in Algeria as well as in other North African Countries . Yemen is the only country in the Arabian Peninsula that is signatory to two international accords dating back to 1951 and 1967 governing the protection of refugees . Yemen hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 124,600 in 2007 . Refugees and asylum seekers living in Yemen were predominantly from Somalia ( 110,600 ) , Iraq ( 11,000 ) , Ethiopia ( 2,000 ) , and Syria . Additionally , more than 334,000 Yemenis have been internally displaced by conflict . The Yemeni diaspora is largely concentrated in neighbouring Saudi Arabia , where between 800,000 and 1 million Yemenis reside , and the United Kingdom , home to between 70,000 and 80,000 Yemenis . Languages ( edit ) Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of Yemen . Yemeni Arabic . In al Mahrah Governorate in the far east and the island of Socotra , several non-Arabic languages are spoken . Yemeni Sign Language is used by the deaf community . Yemen is part of homeland of the South Semitic languages . Mehri is the largest South Semitic language spoken in the nation , with more than 70,000 speakers . The ethnic group itself is called Mahra . Soqotri is another South Semitic language , with speakers on the island of Socotra isolated from the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland . According to the 1990 census in Yemen , the number of speakers there was 57,000 . Yemen was also home of the Old South Arabian languages . The Razihi language appears to be the only remaining Old South Arabian language . English is the most important foreign language , being widely taught and spoken mostly in the south , a former British colony . There are a significant number of Russian speakers , originating from Yemeni - Russian cross-marriages occurring mainly in the 1970s and 1980s . A small Cham - speaking community is found in the capital city of Sana'a , originating from refugees expatriated from Vietnam after the Vietnam War in the 1970s . Urban areas ( edit ) Main article : List of cities in Yemen Largest cities or towns in Yemen http://www.geonames.org/YE/largest-cities-in-yemen.html Rank Name Governorate Pop . Sana'a Al Hudaydah Sana'a San'a ' 1,937,451 Taiz Aden Al Hudaydah Al Hudaydah 617,871 Taiz Taiz 615,222 Aden Aden 548,433 5 Mukalla Hadhramaut 258,132 6 Ibb Ibb 234,837 7 Dhamar Dhamar 160,114 8 ' Amran ' Amran 90,792 9 Sayyan San'a ' 69,404 10 Zabid Al Hudaydah 52,590 Religion ( edit ) Religion in Yemen Sunni Islam 56.36 % Zaidiyyah ( Shia Islam ) 42.10 % Ismāʿīlism ( Shia Islam ) 1.51 % Salafism 0.03 % Other religion 0.01 % Main article : Religion in Yemen Saleh Mosque in Sana'a . Religion in Yemen consists primarily of two principal Islamic religious groups : About 56 % of the Muslim population is Sunni and 44 % is Shia , according to the International Religious Freedom Report . Sunnis are primarily Shafi'i but also include significant groups of Malikis and Hanbalis . Shias are primarily Zaidi and also have significant minorities of Ismaili and Twelver Shias . Meanwhile , it is said that Zaidi Shias of Yemen ( especially Al - houthis ) have near feeling in their beliefs and thoughts to Twelver Shia Muslims . The Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast . The Zaidis are predominantly in the north and northwest whilst the Ismailis are in the main centers such as Sana'a and Ma'rib . There are mixed communities in the larger cities . About . 5 percent of Yemenis are non-Muslim -- adhering to Christianity , Judaism , or Hinduism or having no religious affiliation . Estimates of the number of Christians in Yemen range from 25,000 to 41,000 . A 2015 study estimates 400 Christians from a Muslim background in the country . There are approximately 50 Jews left in Yemen . Some 200 Yemenite Jews were brought to Israel by the Jewish Agency circa 2016 . Culture ( edit ) Main article : Culture of Yemen The National Museum in Sana'a ‌ Typical Yemeni House Yemen is a culturally rich country with influence from many civilizations , such as the early civilization of Sheba . Media ( edit ) Main article : Media of Yemen Dance in Sa'dah , northwestern Yemen . Radio broadcasting in Yemen began in the 1940s when it was still divided into the South by the British and the North by the Imami ruling system . After the unification of Yemen in 1990 , the Yemeni government reformed its corporations and founded some additional radio stations that broadcast locally . However , it drew back after 1994 , due to destroyed infrastructure resulting from the civil war . Television is the most significant media platform in Yemen . Given the low literacy rate in the country , television is the main source of news for Yemenis . There are six free - to - air channels currently headquartered in Yemen , of which four are state - owned . The Yemeni film industry is in its early stages ; only two Yemeni films have been released as of 2008 . Theatre ( edit ) Main article : Theatre in Yemen The history of Yemeni theatre dates back at least a century , to the early 1900s . Both amateur and professional ( government - sponsored ) theatre troupes perform in the country 's major urban centers . Many of Yemen 's significant poets and authors , like Ali Ahmed Ba Kathir , Muhammad al - Sharafi , and Wajdi al - Ahdal , have written dramatic works ; poems , novels , and short stories by Yemeni authors like Mohammad Abdul - Wali and Abdulaziz Al - Maqaleh have also been adapted for the stage . There have been Yemeni productions of plays by Arab authors such as Tawfiq al - Hakim and Saadallah Wannous and by Western authors , including Shakespeare , Pirandello , Brecht , and Tennessee Williams . Historically speaking , the southern port city of Aden is the cradle of Yemeni theatre ; in recent decades the capital , Sana'a , has hosted numerous theatre festivals , often in conjunction with World Theatre Day . Sport ( edit ) Football is the most popular sport in Yemen . The Yemen Football Association is a member of FIFA and AFC . The Yemeni national football team participates internationally . The country also hosts many football clubs . They compete in the national and international leagues . Yemen 's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports , such as biking , rock climbing , trekking , hiking , and other more challenging sports , including mountain climbing . Mountain climbing and hiking tours to the Sarawat Mountains and the Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb , including the 3,000 m ( 9,800 ft ) peaks in the region , are seasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies . The coastal areas of Yemen and Socotra island also provide many opportunities for water sports , such as surfing , bodyboarding , sailing , swimming , and scuba diving . Socotra island is home to some of the best surfing destinations in the world . Camel jumping is a traditional sport that is becoming increasingly popular among the Zaraniq tribe on the west coast of Yemen in a desert plain by the Red Sea . Camels are placed side to side and victory goes to the competitor who leaps , from a running start , over the most camels . The jumpers train year round for competitions . Tribesmen ( women may not compete ) tuck their robes around their waists for freedom of movement while running and leaping . Yemen 's biggest sports event was hosting the 2010 Gulf Cup of Nations in Aden and Abyan in the southern part of the country on 22 November 2010 . Many thought Yemen was the strongest competitor , but it was defeated in the first three matches of the tournament . Internationally , Naseem Hamed , a world champion boxer , is the most well known Yemeni athlete . World Heritage sites ( edit ) Main article : Tourism in Yemen High - rise architecture at Shibam , Wadi Hadramawt ‌ Among Yemen 's natural and cultural attractions are four World Heritage sites . The Old Walled City of Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut , inscribed by UNESCO in 1982 , two years after Yemen joined the World Heritage Committee , is nicknamed `` Manhattan of the Desert '' because of its `` skyscrapers . '' Surrounded by a fortified wall made of mud and straw , the 16th - century city is one of the oldest examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction . The ancient Old City of Sana'a , at an altitude of more than 2,100 metres ( 7,000 ft ) , has been inhabited for over two and a half millennia and was inscribed in 1986 . Sana'a became a major Islamic centre in the 7th century , and the 103 mosques , 14 hammams ( traditional bath houses ) , and more than 6,000 houses that survive all date from before the 11th century . Close to the Red Sea Coast , the Historic Town of Zabid , inscribed in 1993 , was Yemen 's capital from the 13th to the 15th century , and is an archaeological and historical site . It played an important role for many centuries because of its university , which was a center of learning for the whole Arab and Islamic world . Algebra is said to have been invented there in the early 9th century by the little - known scholar Al - Jazari . The latest addition to Yemen 's list of World Heritage Sites is the Socotra Archipelago . Mentioned by Marco Polo in the 13th century , this remote and isolated archipelago consists of four islands and two rocky islets delineating the southern limit of the Gulf of Aden . The site has a rich biodiversity . Nowhere else in the world do 37 % of Socotra 's 825 plants , 90 % of its reptiles and 95 % of its snails occur . It is home to 192 bird species , 253 species of coral , 730 species of coastal fish , and 300 species of crab and lobster , as well as a range of Aloes and the Dragon 's Blood Tree ( Dracaena cinnabari ) . The cultural heritage of Socotra includes the unique Soqotri language . Education ( edit ) Main article : Education in Yemen New Sana'a University in Sana . The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 64 % . The government has committed to reduce illiteracy to less than 10 % by 2025 . Although Yemen 's government provides for universal , compulsory , free education for children ages six through 15 , the U.S. Department of State reports that compulsory attendance is not enforced . The government developed the National Basic Education Development Strategy in 2003 that aimed at providing education to 95 % of Yemeni children between the ages of six and 14 years and also at decreasing the gap between males and females in urban and rural areas . Literacy Rate of Yemen population plus15 1995 -- 2015 by UNESCO Institute of Statistics A seven - year project to improve gender equity and the quality and efficiency of secondary education , focusing on girls in rural areas , was approved by the World Bank in March 2008 . Following this , Yemen has increased its education spending from 5 % of GDP in 1995 to 10 % in 2005 . According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities , the top - ranking universities in the country are the Yemeni University of Science & Technology ( 6532nd worldwide ) , Al Ahgaff University ( 8930th ) and Sanaa University ( 11043rd ) . Health ( edit ) Main article : Health in Yemen See also : Famine in Yemen and 2016 -- 17 Yemen cholera outbreak A Yemeni doctor examines an infant in a USAID - sponsored health care clinic . According to 2009 estimates , life expectancy in Yemen is 63.27 years . Despite the significant progress Yemen has made to expand and improve its health care system over the past decade , the system remains severely underdeveloped . Total expenditures on health care in 2004 constituted 5 % of gross domestic product . In that same year , the per capita expenditure for health care was very low compared with other Middle Eastern countries -- US $34 per capita according to the World Health Organization . The number of doctors in Yemen rose by an average of more than 7 % between 1995 and 2000 . as of 2005 there were three doctors per 10,000 people . In 2005 Yemen had 6.1 hospital beds available per 10,000 persons . Health care services are particularly scarce in rural areas . 25 % of rural areas are covered by health services , compared with 80 % of urban areas . Most childhood deaths are caused by illnesses for which vaccines exist or that are otherwise preventable . Circa 2009 Sana'a may be the first capital city in the world to run out of drinking water . See also ( edit ) Geography portal Yemen portal Middle East portal Asia portal Book : Yemen Eduard Glaser Houthi insurgency in Yemen List of Yemen - related topics Outline of Yemen Carl Rathjens References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` World Population Prospects : The 2017 Revision '' . ESA.UN.org ( custom data acquired via website ) . United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs , Population Division . Retrieved 10 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Statistical Yearbook 2011 '' . Central Statistical Organisation . Retrieved 24 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Yemen '' . International Monetary Fund . 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The Republic of Yemen : Development Challenges in the 21st Century . CIIR . p. 13 . ISBN 1852872497 . Jump up ^ Karl R. DeRouen ; Uk Heo ( 2007 ) . Civil Wars of the World : Major Conflicts Since World War II , Volume 1 . ABC - CLIO . p. 810 . ISBN 1851099190 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen : World Bank Projects To Promote Water Conservation , Enhance Access To Infrastructure And Services For Poor '' . World Bank . Retrieved 15 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen Middle East and North Africa '' . UN OCHA . Archived from the original on 11 March 2017 . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Laura Etheredge ( 2011 ) . Saudi Arabia and Yemen . The Rosen Publishing Group . p. 137 . ISBN 1615303359 . Jump up ^ Burrowes , Robert . `` Why Most Yemenis Should Despise Ex-president Ali Abdullah Saleh '' . Yemen Times . Retrieved 20 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Transparency International 's 2009 corruption index : the full ranking of 180 countries '' . Transparency international . 17 November 2009 . Retrieved 2 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Ginny Hill , Peter Salisbury , Léonie Northedge and Jane Kinninmont ( 2013 ) . `` Yemen : Corruption , Capital Flight and Global Drivers of Conflict '' ( PDF ) . Chatham House . Retrieved 17 October 2014 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` The Islah Party '' . Islamopedia Online . 13 December 2012 . Retrieved 19 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Peter W. Wilson ( 1994 ) . Saudi Arabia : The Coming Storm . M.E. Sharpe . p. 129 . ISBN 9780765633477 . Jump up ^ Ginny Hill , Peter Salisbury , Léonie Northedge and Jane Kinninmont ( 2013 ) . `` Yemen : Corruption , Capital Flight and Global Drivers of Conflict '' ( PDF ) . Chatham House . Retrieved 17 October 2014 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ John R. Bradley ( 2012 ) . After the Arab Spring : How Islamists Hijacked The Middle East Revolts . Macmillan . p. 113 . ISBN 9780230393660 . Jump up ^ Bernard Haykel ( 14 June 2011 ) . `` Saudi Arabia 's Yemen Dilemma : How to Manage an Unruly Client State '' . Foreign Affairs . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Sarah Phillips ( 2008 ) . Yemen 's Democracy Experiment in Regional Perspective . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 99 . ISBN 9780230616486 . Jump up ^ James L. Gelvin ( 2012 ) . The Arab Uprisings : What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press . p. 68 . ISBN 019989177X . Jump up ^ Mareike Transfeld ( 2014 ) . `` Capturing Sanaa : Why the Houthis Were Successful in Yemen '' . Muftah . Retrieved 17 October 2014 . Jump up ^ STEVEN A. ZYCK ( 2014 ) . `` Mediating Transition in Yemen : Achievements and Lessons '' ( PDF ) . International Peace Institute . Retrieved 17 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Silvana Toska ( 26 September 2014 ) . `` Shifting balances of power in Yemen 's crisis '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Houthi leader vows to defend ' glorious revolution ' '' . Al Jazeera. 8 February 2015 . Retrieved 7 February 2015 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Bin Javaid , Osama ( 25 April 2017 ) . `` A cry for help : Millions facing famine in Yemen '' . Al - Jazeera . Retrieved 28 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` High - Level Meeting on the Humanitarian Situation in Yemen '' ( PDF ) . UN ( OCHA ) . 22 September 2017 . Retrieved 1 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Yemen . `` WHO EMRO Situation reports Yemen - infocus Yemen '' . www.emro.who.int . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Jawād ʻAlī ( 1968 ) ( Digitized 17 February 2007 ) . الـمـفـصـّل في تـاريـخ العـرب قبـل الإسـلام ( Detailed history of Arabs before Islam ) ( in Arabic ) . 1 . Dār al - ʻIlm li - l - Malāyīn . p. 171 . Jump up ^ Burrowes ( 2010 ) , p. 145 Jump up ^ Smith , William Robertson . Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia . p. 193 . ISBN 1117531937 . He was worshiped by the Madhij and their allies at Jorash ( Asir ) in Northern Yemen Jump up ^ Beeston , A.F.L. ; Ghul , M.A. ; Müller , W.W. ; Ryckmans , J. ( 1982 ) . Sabaic Dictionary . University of Sanaa , YAR . p. 168 . ISBN 2 - 8017 - 0194 - 7 . Jump up ^ Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov ( 2007 ) . Enemies from the East ? : V.S. Soloviev on Paganism , Asian Civilizations , and Islam . Northwestern University Press . p. 149 . Jump up ^ Edward Balfour ( 1873 ) . Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia , Commercial , Industrial and Scientific : Products of the Mineral , Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms , Useful Arts and Manufactures , Band 5 . Printed at the Scottish & Adelphi presses . p. 240 . Jump up ^ McLaughlin ( 2008 ) , p. 4 Jump up ^ Kenneth Anderson Kitchen ( 2003 ) . On the Reliability of the Old Testament . Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing . p. 594 . ISBN 0802849601 . Jump up ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley . The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . 4 . p. 254 . ISBN 0802837840 . Jump up ^ Nicholas Clapp ( 2002 ) . Sheba : Through the Desert in Search of the Legendary Queen . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . p. 204 . ISBN 0618219269 . Jump up ^ P.M. Holt ; Peter Malcolm Holt ; Ann K.S. Lambton ; Bernard Lewis ( 21 April 1977 ) . The Cambridge History of Islam . Cambridge University Press . p. 7 . Jump up ^ Korotayev , Andrey ( 1995 ) . Ancient Yemen : some general trends of evolution of the Sabaic language and Sabaean culture . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 922237 - 1 . Jump up ^ McLaughlin ( 2008 ) , p. 5 Jump up ^ Jerry R. Rogers ; Glenn Owen Brown ; Jürgen Garbrecht ( 1 January 2004 ) . Water Resources and Environmental History . ASCE Publications . p. 36 . ISBN 0784475504 . Jump up ^ Werner Daum ( 1987 ) . Yemen : 3000 Years of Art and Civilization in Arabia Felix . Pinguin - Verlag . p. 73 . ISBN 3701622922 . Jump up ^ `` The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia '' . British Museum . Archived from the original on 3 December 2013 . Retrieved 7 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Jawād ʻAlī ( 1968 ) ( Digitized 17 February 2007 ) . الـمـفـصـّل في تـاريـخ العـرب قبـل الإسـلام ( Detailed history of Arabs before Islam ) ( in Arabic ) . 2 . Dār al - ʻIlm lil - Malāyīn . p. 19 . Jump up ^ George Hatke ( 2013 ) . Aksum and Nubia : Warfare , Commerce , and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa . NYU Press . p. 19 . ISBN 0814762832 . Jump up ^ Teshale Tibebu ( 1995 ) . The making of modern Ethiopia : 1896 -- 1974 . Lawrenceville , NJ : Red Sea Press . p. xvii . ISBN 1569020019 . Jump up ^ Peter R. Schmidt ( 2006 ) . Historical Archaeology in Africa : Representation , Social Memory , and Oral Traditions . Rowman Altamira . p. 281 . ISBN 0759114153 . Jump up ^ Ali Aldosari ( 2007 ) . Middle East , Western Asia , and Northern Africa . Marshall Cavendish . p. 24 . ISBN 0761475710 . Jump up ^ D.T. Potts ( 2012 ) . A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East . John Wiley & Sons . p. 1047 . ISBN 1405189886 . Jump up ^ Avraham Negev ; Shimon Gibson ( 2005 ) . Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land . Continuum . p. 137 . ISBN 0826485715 . Jump up ^ Lionel Casson ( 2012 ) . The Periplus Maris Erythraei : Text with Introduction , Translation , and Commentary . Princeton University Press . p. 150 . ISBN 1400843200 . Jump up ^ Peter Richardson ( 1999 ) . Herod : King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans . Continuum . p. 230 . ISBN 0567086755 . Jump up ^ Hârun Yahya ( 1999 ) . Perished Nations . Global Yayincilik . p. 115 . ISBN 1897940874 . Jump up ^ Jan Retso ( 2013 ) . The Arabs in Antiquity : Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads . Routledge . p. 402 . ISBN 1136872825 . Jump up ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth ( 1989 ) . The Encyclopedia of Islam . 6 . Brill Archive . p. 561 . ISBN 9004090827 . Jump up ^ Stuart Munro - Hay ( 2002 ) . Ethiopia , the Unknown Land : A Cultural and Historical Guide . I.B. Tauris . p. 236 . ISBN 1860647448 . Jump up ^ G. Johannes Botterweck ; Helmer Ringgren ( 1979 ) . Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament . 3 . Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing . p. 448 . ISBN 0802823270 . Jump up ^ Jawād ʻAlī ( 1968 ) ( Digitized 17 February 2007 ) . الـمـفـصـّل في تـاريـخ العـرب قبـل الإسـلام ( Detailed history of Arabs before Islam ) ( in Arabic ) . 2 . Dār al - ʻIlm lil - Malāyīn . p. 482 . Jump up ^ Albert Jamme ( 1962 ) . Inscriptions From Mahram Bilqis ( Marib ) . Baltimore . p. 392 . Jump up ^ Dieter Vogel ; Susan James ( 1990 ) . Yemen . APA Publications . p. 34 . Jump up ^ Klaus Schippmann ( 2001 ) . Ancient South Arabia : from the Queen of Sheba to the advent of Islam . Markus Wiener Publishers . pp. 52 -- 53 . ISBN 1558762361 . Jump up ^ Francis E. Peters ( 1994 ) . Muhammad and the Origins of Islam . SUNY Press . p. 48 . ISBN 0791418758 . Jump up ^ Scott Johnson ( 1 November 2012 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . Oxford University Press . p. 265 . ISBN 0195336933 . ^ Jump up to : Shlomo Sand ( 2010 ) . The Invention of the Jewish People . Verso . p. 193 . ISBN 9781844676231 . Jump up ^ Y.M. Abdallah ( 1987 ) . The Inscription CIH 543 : A New Reading Based on the Newly - Found Original in C. Robin & M. Bafaqih ( Eds . ) Sayhadica : Recherches Sur Les Inscriptions De l'Arabie Préislamiques Offertes Par Ses Collègues Au Professeur A.F.L. Beeston . Paris : Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner S.A. pp. 4 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Raphael Patai ; Jennifer Patai ( 1989 ) . The Myth of the Jewish Race . Wayne State University Press . p. 63 . ISBN 0814319483 . Jump up ^ Uwidah Metaireek Al - Juhany ( 2002 ) . Najd before the Salafi reform movement : social , political and religious conditions during the three centuries preceding the rise of the Saudi state . Ithaca Press . p. 171 . ISBN 0863724019 . Jump up ^ Scott Johnson ( 1 November 2012 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . Oxford University Press . p. 266 . ISBN 0195336933 . ^ Jump up to : Scott Johnson ( 1 November 2012 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . Oxford University Press . p. 282 . ISBN 0195336933 . Jump up ^ Irfan Shahîd ( 1989 ) . Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century . Dumbarton Oaks . p. 65 . ISBN 0884021521 . ^ Jump up to : Ken Blady ( 2000 ) . Jewish Communities in Exotic Places . Jason Aronson . p. 9 . ISBN 146162908X . Jump up ^ Eric Maroney ( 2010 ) . The Other Zions : The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 94 . ISBN 1442200456 . Jump up ^ Joan Comay ; Lavinia Cohn - Sherbok ( 2 November 1995 ) . Who 's who in Jewish history after the period of the Old Testament . Oxford University Press . p. 391 . ISBN 0195210794 . Jump up ^ P. Yule ( 2013 ) . A Late Antique Christian king from Ḥimyar , southern Arabia , Antiquity , 87 . Antiquity Publications . p. 1134 . ISSN 0003 - 598X . ; D.W. Phillipson ( 2012 ) . Foundations of an African Civilisation : Aksum and the Northern Horn , 1000 BC -- AD 1300 . Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 204 . ISBN 1847010415 . ^ Jump up to : Angelika Neuwirth ; Nicolai Sinai ; Michael Marx ( 2010 ) . The Quran in Context : Historical and Literary Investigations Into the Quranic Milieu . BRILL . p. 49 . ISBN 9004176888 . ^ Jump up to : Scott Johnson ( 1 November 2012 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . Oxford University Press . p. 293 . ISBN 0195336933 . Jump up ^ Scott Johnson ( 1 November 2012 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . Oxford University Press . p. 285 . ISBN 0195336933 . Jump up ^ Scott Johnson ( 1 November 2012 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . Oxford University Press . p. 298 . ISBN 0195336933 . Jump up ^ Sabarr Janneh . Learning From the Life of Prophet Muhammad . AuthorHouse . p. 17 . ISBN 1467899666 . Jump up ^ Abd al - Muhsin Madʼaj M. Madʼaj The Yemen in Early Islam ( 9 - 233 / 630 - 847 ) : A Political History p. 12 Ithaca Press , 1988 ISBN 0863721028 Jump up ^ Wilferd Madelung The Succession to Muhammad : A Study of the Early Caliphate p. 199 Cambridge University Press , 15 October 1998 ISBN 0521646960 Jump up ^ Ṭabarī The History of al - Tabari Vol. 12 : The Battle of al - Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine A.D. 635 - 637 / A.H. 14 -- 15 p. 10 - 11 SUNY Press , 1992 ISBN 0791407330 Jump up ^ Idris El Hareir The Spread of Islam Throughout the World p. 380 UNESCO , 2011 ISBN 9231041533 Jump up ^ Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin The Druzes : A New Study of Their History , Faith , and Society BRILL , 1993 ISBN 9004097058 Jump up ^ Hugh Kennedy The Armies of the Caliphs : Military and Society in the Early Islamic State p. 33 Routledge , 17 June 2013 ISBN 1134531133 ^ Jump up to : Andrew Rippin The Islamic World p. 237 Routledge , 23 October 2013 ISBN 1136803432 ^ Jump up to : Paul Wheatley The Places Where Men Pray Together : Cities in Islamic Lands , Seventh Through the Tenth Centuries p. 128 University of Chicago Press , 2001 ISBN 0226894282 Jump up ^ Kamal Suleiman Salibi A History of Arabia p. 108 Caravan Books , 1980 OCLC Number : 164797251 Jump up ^ Paul Lunde , Alexandra Porter ( 2004 ) . Trade and travel in the Red Sea Region : proceedings of Red Sea project I held in the British Museum , October 2002 . Archaeopress . p. 20 . ISBN 1841716227 . in 976 -- 77 AD ( ... ) the then ruler of Yemen received slaves , as well as amber and leopard skins from the chief of the Dahlak islands ( off the coast from Massawa ) . Jump up ^ Stephen W. Day Regionalism and Rebellion in Yemen : A Troubled National Union p. 31 Cambridge University Press , 2012 ISBN 1107022150 Jump up ^ Gerhard Lichtenthäler Political Ecology and the Role of Water : Environment , Society and Economy in Northern Yemen p. 55 Ashgate Publishing , Ltd. 2003 ISBN 0754609081 Jump up ^ First Encyclopaedia of Islam : 1913 -- 1936 p. 145 BRILL , 1993 ISBN 9004097961 Jump up ^ E.J. Van Donzel Islamic Desk Reference p. 492 BRILL , 1994 ISBN 9004097384 Jump up ^ Muhammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 237 . Jump up ^ Henry Cassels Kay ( 1999 ) . Yaman its early medieval history . Adegi Graphics LLC . p. 14 . ISBN 1421264641 . Jump up ^ J.D. Fage , Roland Anthony Oliver The Cambridge History of Africa , Volume 3 p. 119 Cambridge University Press , 1977 ISBN 0521209811 Jump up ^ William Charles Brice An Historical Atlas of Islam ( cartographic Material ) P. 338 BRILL , 1981 ISBN 9004061169 Jump up ^ Farhad Daftary Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies : A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community p. 92 I.B. Tauris , 2005 ISBN 1845110919 Jump up ^ Farhad Daftary The Isma'ilis : Their History and Doctrines p. 199 Cambridge University Press , 2007 ISBN 1139465783 ^ Jump up to : Fatima Mernissi The Forgotten Queens of Islam p. 14 U of Minnesota Press , 1997 ISBN 0816624399 Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 237 . Jump up ^ Farhad Daftary Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies : A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community p. 93 I.B. Tauris , 2005 ISBN 1845110919 ^ Jump up to : Steven C. Caton Yemen p. 51 ABC - CLIO , 2013 ISBN 159884928X Jump up ^ Bonnie G. Smith ( 2008 ) . The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History ( in Arabic ) . 4 . Oxford University Press . p. 163 . ISBN 0195148908 . Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 414 . Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 303 . Jump up ^ Alexander Mikaberidze ( 2011 ) . Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World : A Historical Encyclopedia : A Historical Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . p. 159 . ISBN 1598843370 . Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 311 . Jump up ^ Farhad Daftary ( 2007 ) . The Isma'ilis : Their History and Doctrines . Cambridge University Press . p. 260 . ISBN 1139465783 . Jump up ^ Farhad Daftary ( 2007 ) . The Isma'ilis : Their History and Doctrines . Cambridge University Press . p. 260 . ISBN 1139465783 . Jump up ^ Josef W. Meri ( 2004 ) . Medieval Islamic Civilization . Psychology Press . p. 871 . ISBN 0415966906 . Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 350 . Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 354 . Jump up ^ Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 371 . ^ Jump up to : Mohammed Abdo Al - Sururi ( 1987 ) . الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة ( political life and aspects of civilization in Yemen during the reign of Independent States ) ( in Arabic ) . University of Sana'a . p. 407 . ^ Jump up to : Alexander D. Knysh ( 1999 ) . Ibn ' Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition : The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam . SUNY Press . p. 230 . ISBN 1438409427 . ^ Jump up to : Abdul Ali ( 1996 ) . Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East : State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 84 . ISBN 8175330082 . Jump up ^ Abdul Ali ( 1996 ) . Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East : State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 85 . ISBN 8175330082 . ^ Jump up to : Abdul Ali ( 1996 ) . Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East : State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 86 . ISBN 8175330082 . ^ Jump up to : Josef W. Meri ; Jere L. Bacharach ( 2006 ) . Medieval Islamic Civilization : L-Z , index . Taylor & Francis . p. 669 . ISBN 0415966922 . Jump up ^ David J Wasserstein ; Ami Ayalon ( 2013 ) . Mamluks and Ottomans : Studies in Honour of Michael Winter . Routledge . p. 201 . ISBN 1136579176 . ^ Jump up to : David J Wasserstein ; Ami Ayalon ( 2013 ) . Mamluks and Ottomans : Studies in Honour of Michael Winter . Routledge . p. 201 . ISBN 1136579176 . ^ Jump up to : Alexander D. Knysh ( 1999 ) . Ibn ' Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition : The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam . SUNY Press . p. 231 . ISBN 1438409427 . Jump up ^ Abdul Ali ( 1996 ) . slamic Dynasties of the Arab East : State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 94 . ISBN 8175330082 . Jump up ^ Jane Hathaway ( 2003 ) . A Tale of Two Factions : Myth , Memory , and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen . SUNY Press . ISBN 0791458830 . ^ Jump up to : ^ Daniel Martin Varisco ( 1993 ) . the Unity of the Rasulid State under al - Malik al - Muzaffar . Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée P. 21 Volume 67 Jump up ^ Halil İnalcık ; Donald Quataert ( 1994 ) . An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire , 1300 -- 1914 . Cambridge University Press . p. 320 . ISBN 0521343151 . Jump up ^ Halil İnalcık ; Donald Quataert ( 1994 ) . An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire , 1300 -- 1914 . Cambridge University Press . p. 320 . ISBN 0521343151 . ^ Jump up to : Steven C. Caton Yemen p. 59 ABC - CLIO , 2013 ISBN 159884928X Jump up ^ Abdul Ali ( 1996 ) . Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East : State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 94 . ISBN 8175330082 . Jump up ^ Bernard Haykel ( 2003 ) . Revival and Reform in Islam : The Legacy of Muhammad Al - Shawkani . Cambridge University Press . p. 30 . ISBN 0521528909 . Jump up ^ Nahrawālī , Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ( 2002 - 09 - 06 ) . البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني ( Lightning Over Yemen : A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen , 1569 -- 71 ) . Translated by Smith , Clive . I.B. Tauris . p. 2 . ISBN 9781860648366 . Jump up ^ Giancarlo Casale ( 2010 ) . The Ottoman Age of Exploration . Oxford University Press . p. 43 . ISBN 0199798796 . ^ Jump up to : Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 88 Jump up ^ Jane Hathaway ( 2012 ) . A Tale of Two Factions : Myth , Memory , and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen . SUNY Press . p. 83 . ISBN 0791486109 . ^ Jump up to : Robert W. Stookey ( 1978 ) . Yemen : the politics of the Yemen Arab Republic . Westview Press . p. 134 . ISBN 0891583009 . ^ Jump up to : Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 95 Jump up ^ R.B. Serjeant ; Ronald Lewcock ( 1983 ) . Sana : An Arabian Islamic City . World of Islam Festival Pub. Co. p. 70 . ISBN 0905035046 . ^ Jump up to : Halil İnalcık ; Donald Quataert ( 1984 ) . An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire , 1300 -- 1914 . Cambridge University Press . p. 333 . ISBN 0521343151 . ^ Jump up to : Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 132 Jump up ^ Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 134 ^ Jump up to : Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 180 ^ Jump up to : Abdul Ali ( 1996 ) . Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East : State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 103 . ISBN 8175330082 . ^ Jump up to : Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 198 Jump up ^ Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 200 Jump up ^ Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 208 Jump up ^ Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 210 Jump up ^ Nancy Um ( 2009 ) . The merchant houses of Mocha : trade and architecture in an Indian Ocean port . University of Washington Press . p. 19 . ISBN 0295989106 . Jump up ^ Robert W. Stookey ( 1978 ) . Yemen : the politics of the Yemen Arab Republic . Westview Press . p. 141 . ISBN 0891583009 . ^ Jump up to : Michel Tuchscherer . `` Chronologie du Yémen ( 1506 -- 1635 ) ' , Chroniques yémenites '' . Retrieved 3 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Harold F. Jacob ( 2007 ) . Kings of Arabia : The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovranty in the Arabian Peninsula . Garnet & Ithaca Press . p. 70 . ISBN 1859641989 . Jump up ^ Nahrawālī ( 2002 ) , p. 197 Jump up ^ ' Abd al - Samad al - Mawza'i ( 1986 ) . al - Ihsan fî dukhûl Mamlakat al - Yaman taht zill Adalat al - ' Uthman ( الإحسان في دخول مملكة اليمن تحت ظل عدالة آل عثمان ) ( in Arabic ) . New Generation Library . pp. 99 -- 105 . Jump up ^ Amira Maddah ( 1982 ). l - Uthmâniyyun wa - l - Imam al - Qasim b . Muhammad b . Ali fo - l - Yaman ( العثمانيون والإمام القاسم بن محمد في اليمن ) ( in Arabic ) . p. 839 . Jump up ^ Musflafâ Sayyid Salim ( 1974 ) . al - Fath al - ' Uthmani al - Awwal li - l - Yaman ( الفتح العثماني الأول لليمن ) ( in Arabic ) . p. 357 . ^ Jump up to : Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France . 2 . R. Faulder. 1789 . p. 75 . ^ Jump up to : Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France . 2 . R. Faulder. 1789 . p. 76 . Jump up ^ Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France . 2 . R. Faulder. 1789 . p. 78 . Jump up ^ Kjetil Selvik ; Stig Stenslie ( 2011 ) . Stability and Change in the Modern Middle East . I.B. Tauris . p. 90 . ISBN 1848855893 . Jump up ^ Anna Hestler ; Jo - Ann Spilling ( 2010 ) . Yemen . Marshall Cavendish . p. 23 . ISBN 0761448500 . Jump up ^ Richard N. Schofield ( 1994 ) . Territorial foundations of the Gulf states . UCL Press . p. 90 . ISBN 1857281217 . Jump up ^ Burrowes ( 2010 ) , p. 295 Jump up ^ Nelly Hanna ( 2005 ) . Society and Economy in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean , 1600 -- 1900 : Essays in Honor of André Raymond . American Univ in Cairo Press . p. 124 . ISBN 9774249372 . Jump up ^ Roman Loimeier ( 2013 ) . Muslim Societies in Africa : A Historical Anthropology . Indiana University Press . p. 193 . ISBN 0253007976 . Jump up ^ Marta Colburn ( 2002 ) . The Republic of Yemen : Development Challenges in the 21st Century . CIIR . p. 15 . ISBN 1852872497 . Jump up ^ Ari Ariel ( 2013 ) . Jewish - Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . BRILL . p. 24 . ISBN 9004265376 . Jump up ^ R.L. Playfair ( 1859 ) , A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen . Bombay ; R.B. Serjeant & R. Lewcock ( 1983 ) , San'a ' : An Araban Islamic City . London . ^ Jump up to : Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 120 . ISBN 1860647677 . Jump up ^ Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 124 . ISBN 1860647677 . Jump up ^ Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 121 . ISBN 1860647677 . Jump up ^ R.J. Gavin ( 1975 ) . Aden Under British Rule , 1839 -- 1967 . C. Hurst & Co . Publishers . p. 60 . ISBN 0903983141 . Jump up ^ Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 132 . ISBN 1860647677 . ^ Jump up to : Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 120 . ISBN 1860647677 . Jump up ^ Reeva S. Simon ; Michael Menachem Laskier ; Sara Reguer ( 2013 ) . The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times . Columbia University Press . p. 390 . ISBN 0231507593 . Jump up ^ Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 59 . ISBN 1860647677 . Jump up ^ Derryl N. Maclean ; Sikeena Karmali Ahmed ( 2012 ) . Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts : Perspectives from the Past . Edinburgh University Press . p. 54 . ISBN 0748644563 . ^ Jump up to : B.Z. Eraqi Klorman ( 1993 ) . The Jews of Yemen in the Nineteenth Century : A Portrait of a Messianic Community . BRILL . p. 11 . ISBN 9004096841 . Jump up ^ Ari Ariel ( 2013 ) . Jewish - Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . BRILL . p. 37 . ISBN 9004265376 . ^ Jump up to : Doğan Gürpınar ( 2013 ) . Ottoman / Turkish Visions of the Nation , 1860 -- 1950 . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 71 . ISBN 1137334215 . Jump up ^ Caesar E. Farah ( 2002 ) . The Sultan 's Yemen : 19th - Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule . I.B. Tauris . p. 96 . ISBN 1860647677 . Jump up ^ B.Z. Eraqi Klorman ( 1993 ) . The Jews of Yemen in the Nineteenth Century : A Portrait of a Messianic Community . BRILL . p. 12 . ISBN 9004096841 . Jump up ^ Eugene L. Rogan ( 2002 ) . Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire : Transjordan , 1850 -- 1921 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0521892236 . Jump up ^ Clive Leatherdale ( 1983 ) . Britain and Saudi Arabia , 1925 -- 1939 : The Imperial Oasis . Psychology Press . p. 140 . ISBN 0714632201 . Jump up ^ Nikshoy C. Chatterji ( 1973 ) . Muddle of the Middle East , Volume 1 . Abhinav Publications . p. 197 . ISBN 0391003046 . Jump up ^ Harold F. Jacob ( 2007 ) . Kings of Arabia : The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovereignty in the Arabian Peninsula . Garnet & Ithaca Press . p. 82 . ISBN 1859641989 . Jump up ^ James Minahan ( 2002 ) . Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations : A-C . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 195 . ISBN 0313321094 . Jump up ^ Bernard Reich ( 1990 ) . Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa : A Biographical Dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 508 . ISBN 0313262136 . ^ Jump up to : Paul Dresch ( 2000 ) . A History of Modern Yemen . Cambridge University Press . p. 34 . ISBN 052179482X . ^ Jump up to : Bernard Reich ( 1990 ) . Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa : A Biographical Dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 509 . ISBN 0313262136 . Jump up ^ Ameen Rihani ( 1960 ) . Kings of the Arabs ( Muluk al - Arab ) . Beirut : Dar al - Rihani . p. 214,215,216 . Jump up ^ Massimiliano Fiore ( 2010 ) . Anglo - Italian Relations in the Middle East , 1922 -- 1940 . Ashgate Publishing , Ltd. p. 21 . ISBN 0754697479 . ^ Jump up to : Madawi al - Rasheed ( 2002 ) . A History of Saudi Arabia . Cambridge University Press . p. 101 . ISBN 0521644127 . Jump up ^ Bernard Reich ( 1990 ) . Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa : A Biographical Dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 509 . ISBN 9780313262135 . ^ Jump up to : Madawi al - Rasheed . A History of Saudi Arabia . Cambridge University Press . p. 97 . ISBN 052176128X . Jump up ^ Raymond A. Hinnebusch ; Anoushiravan Ehteshami ( 2002 ) . The Foreign Policies of Middle East States . Lynne Rienner Publishers . p. 262 . ISBN 1588260208 . Jump up ^ Glen Balfour - Paul ( 1994 ) . The End of Empire in the Middle East : Britain 's Relinquishment of Power in Her Last Three Arab Dependencies . Cambridge University Press . p. 60 . ISBN 0521466369 . Jump up ^ Bernard Reich ( 1990 ) . Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa : A Biographical Dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 510 . ISBN 9780313262135 . ^ Jump up to : Kiren Aziz Chaudhry The Price of Wealth : Economies and Institutions in the Middle East p. 117 Jump up ^ Ulrike Freitag Indian Ocean Migrants and State Formation in Hadhramaut : Reform Jump up ^ Don Peretz The Middle East Today p. 490 Jump up ^ The Middle East Today By Don Peretz p. 491 Jump up ^ Human Rights Human Wrongs By M.S. Gill p. 48 Jump up ^ F. Gregory Gause ( 1990 ) . Saudi - Yemeni Relations : Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence . Books.google.com . Columbia University Press . p. 60 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 07044 - 7 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Dresch , Paul ( 2000 ) . A History of Modern Yemen . Books.google.com . Cambridge University Press . p. 115 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 79482 - 4 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Schmitthoff , Clive Macmillan , Clive M. Schmitthoff 's select essays on international trade law p. 390 ^ Jump up to : `` Yemen profile ( timeline ) '' . BBC . 26 October 2013 . Retrieved 14 December 2013 . 1978 -- Ali Abdallah Saleh named as president of YAR . Jump up ^ Dresch , Paul ( 2000 ) . A History of Modern Yemen . Cambridge University Press . pp. 120 -- 124 . ^ Jump up to : Nohlen , Dieter ; Grotz , Florian ; Hartmann , Christof , eds. ( 2001 ) . Elections in Asia : A data handbook , Volume I. Books.google.com . Oxford : Oxford University Press . pp. 309 -- 310 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 199 - 24958 - 9 . Retrieved 7 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Persian Gulf War , Desert Storm -- War with Iraqi '' . Laughtergenealogy.com . Archived from the original on 22 January 2004 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Country Profile : Yemen '' ( PDF ) . Library of Congress -- Federal Research Division . August 2008 . Retrieved 7 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Fighting al - Qaeda : The Role of Yemen 's President Saleh '' . Realclearworld.com. 17 December 2009 . Archived from the original on 9 February 2010 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Hill , Ginny ( 1 April 2009 ) . `` Yemen 's point of no return '' . London : The Guardian . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Civil war '' . Yca-sandwell.org.uk . Yementi Community Association in Sandwell . Retrieved 23 February 2013 . Jump up ^ U.S. Department of State . Background Notes : Mideast , March 2011 . InfoStrategist.com . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59243 - 126 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen timeline '' . BBC . 28 November 2012 . Retrieved 23 February 2013 . Jump up ^ John Pike ( 11 July 2011 ) . `` Yemeni Civil War ( 1990 -- 1994 ) '' . Global Security . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . ( Requires 3rd - party cookies ) Jump up ^ `` In eleventh - hour reversal , President Saleh announces candidacy '' . IRIN. 25 June 2006 . Retrieved 14 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Deadly blast strikes Yemen mosque '' . BBC News . 2 May 2008 . Retrieved 23 May 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Time running out for solution to Yemen 's water crisis '' . The Guardian , IRIN , quoting Jerry Farrell , country director of Save the Children in Yemen , and Ghassan Madieh , a water specialist for UNICEF in Yemen. 26 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` President Ali Abdullah Saleh Web Site '' . Presidentsaleh.gov.ye . Archived from the original on 19 December 2010 . Retrieved 18 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Saleh re-elected president of Yemen '' . Al Jazeera. 23 September 2006 . Retrieved 14 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Yemeni president takes constitutional oath for his new term '' . News.xinhaunet.com . Xinhua. 27 September 2006 . Retrieved 14 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Daniel Cassman . `` Al - Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula '' . Stanford University . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Regime and Periphery in Northern Yemen : The Huthi Phenomenon '' ( PDF ) . 17 September 2010 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Ross , Brian ; Esposito , Richard ; Cole , Matthew ; et al. ( 18 December 2009 ) . `` Obama Ordered U.S. Military Strike on Yemen Terrorists '' . ABC News . New York . Jump up ^ `` Losing Yemen : How this forgotten corner of the Arabian Peninsula became the most dangerous country in the world '' . Foreign Policy . Washington DC . 5 November 2012 . Archived from the original on 30 May 2013 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` In wake of airline incident : Drumbeat for US war in Yemen '' . The Intelligence Daily . 30 December 2009 . Archived from the original on 1 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Hakim Almasmari ( 31 January 2013 ) . `` US makes a drone attack a day in Yemen '' . The National . Abu Dhabi . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Siobhan Gorman ; Adam Entous ( 14 June 2011 ) . `` CIA Plans Drone Strikes in Yemen '' . Wall Street Journal . New York . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Adam Entous ; Siobhan Gorman ; Julian E. Barnes ( 26 April 2012 ) . `` U.S. Relaxes Drone Rules '' . Wall Street Journal . New York . Jump up ^ `` Memo on Drone Strikes Draws Scrutiny '' . Wall Street Journal . New York . 5 February 2013 . Archived from the original on 6 February 2013 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Wheaton , Sarah ( 10 January 2010 ) . `` Obama Plays Down Military Role in Yemen '' . New York Times . Retrieved 10 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Andrew Katz : U.S. Officials : Drone Strike That Hit Yemen Wedding Convoy Killed Militants , Not Civilians , 20 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Islamic State bomb attack on Houthi rebel leaders in Yemen leaves 28 dead '' . The Guardian . 30 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` War in Yemen Is Allowing Qaeda Group to Expand '' . The New York Times . 16 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Louisa Loveluck ( 30 June 2015 ) . `` Islamic State targets Houthi mourners in Yemen with car bomb '' . The Daily Telegraph . Jump up ^ `` US steps up arms for Saudi campaign in Yemen '' Al - Jazeera. 8 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Mark Perry . US generals : Saudi intervention in Yemen ' a bad idea ' , Al Jazeera. April 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Jihadis likely winners of Saudi Arabia 's futile war on Yemen 's Houthi rebels '' . The Guardian . 7 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen conflict : Al - Qaeda joins coalition battle for Taiz '' . BBC . 22 February 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lewis , Alexandra ( May 2012 ) . `` Changing Seasons : The Arab Spring 's Position Within the Political Evolution of the Yemeni State '' ( PDF ) . Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit Working Paper Series . 3 . Jump up ^ Ghosh , Bobby ( 17 September 2012 ) . `` The End of Al - Qaeda ? '' . Time . New York . Retrieved 24 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Whose Side Is Yemen On ? '' . Foreign Policy . Washington , D.C. 29 August 2012 . Archived from the original on 30 May 2013 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Yemeni Parties , Houthi Rebels Form Unity Government '' . Voice of America . 21 September 2014 . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen Swears In New Government Amid Crisis '' . The Huffington Post . 9 November 2014 . Archived from the original on 23 January 2015 . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Shiite rebels shell Yemen president 's home , take over palace '' . Newsday. 20 January 2015 . Archived from the original on 23 January 2015 . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Here is what 's happening in Yemen '' . The Washington Post . 22 January 2015 . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Rohan , Brian ( 22 February 2015 ) . `` Hadi , a once - quiet leader of a fractious Yemen , strikes defiant pose by reclaiming presidency '' . U.S. News and World Report . Retrieved 22 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen 's President Hadi declares new ' temporary capital ' '' . Deutsche Welle. 21 March 2015 . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` President Hadi says Aden is Yemen 's ' capital ' '' . Al Arabiya. 7 March 2015 . Retrieved 11 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Abdul Wali A. al - Khulaidi , Flora of Yemen , Sustainable Environmental Management Program ( YEM / 97 / 100 ) , Republic of Yemen , June 2000 , p. 7 Jump up ^ Hepper , F.N. ( July 1978 ) . `` Were There Forests in the Yemen ? '' . Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies . 9 ( 1979 ) : 65 -- 71 . JSTOR 41223217 . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` Al Qaida takes three Yemen towns days after US raid '' . Gulf News Yemen. 6 February 2017 . Retrieved 5 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Civilian death toll hits 10,000 in Yemen conflict , UN says '' . Daily Sabah. 18 January 2017 . Retrieved 5 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen '' . State.gov. 8 November 2005 . Retrieved 17 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Freedom in the World -- Yemen ( 2007 ) '' . Freedomhouse.org. 2007 . Retrieved 17 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen 's Saleh declares alliance with Houthis '' . Al Jazeera. 10 May 2015 . Retrieved 5 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Mangan , Fiona ( March 2015 ) . Prisons in Yemen . Washington , DC : United States Institute of Peace . p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Bidwell , Robin ( 1983 ) . The Two Yemens . Harlow : Longman and Westview Press . pp. 243 -- 244 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 865 - 31295 - 1 . Jump up ^ F. Gregory Gause . Saudi - Yemeni Relations : Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence . p. 26 Jump up ^ F. Gregory Gause . Saudi - Yemeni Relations : Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence . Columbia University Press p. 4 Jump up ^ `` The Yemeni - Saudi Border Treaty '' . Theestimate.com . June 2000 . Archived from the original on 15 April 2001 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . 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U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008 . Archived from the original on 19 October 2014 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 '' ( PDF ) . World Economic Forum. 2012 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` World Report 2001 on Yemen '' . Human Rights Watch . 2001 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Daragahi , Borzou ( 11 June 2008 ) . `` Yemeni bride , 10 , says I wo n't '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 16 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Walt , Vivienne ( 3 February 2009 ) . `` A 10 - Year - Old Divorcée Takes Paris '' . Time / CNN . Retrieved 16 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Madabish , Arafat ( 28 March 2009 ) . `` Sanaa 's first woman lawyer '' . Asharq Alawsat English edition . Archived from the original on 7 April 2013 . Retrieved 16 February 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Trafficking in Persons Report : Country Narratives T -- Z and Special Case '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Department of State . 2013 . Retrieved 19 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Tiers : Placement , Guide , and Penalties for Tier 3 Countries '' . U.S. Department of State . 2011 . Retrieved 19 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Slaves in Saudi '' . Naeem Mohaiemen . The Daily Star . 27 July 2004 . Jump up ^ `` Slaves in impoverished Yemen dream of freedom '' . Al Arabiya. 21 July 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Yemeni Military statistics '' . Nationmaster.com . Nation Master . Retrieved 23 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Ministry of Public Health & Population , Yemen . ^ Jump up to : `` Law establishing province of Socotra Archipelago issued '' . Presidenthadi-gov-ye.info. 18 December 2013 . Archived from the original on 22 February 2014 . Retrieved 15 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen to Become Six - Region Federation '' . Al - Jazeera. 10 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Al - Haj , Ahmed ( 3 January 2015 ) . `` Yemen 's Shiite rebels reject plan for federal system '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yemeni government quits in protest at Houthi rebellion '' . The Guardian . 22 January 2015 . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Greenfield , Danya ( 22 January 2015 ) . `` Yemen crisis : A coup in all but name '' . BBC News . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Yemen '' . Central Intelligence Agency . CIA World Factbook. 6 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The state of land and water resources in Yemen '' . Food and Agriculture Organization . Jump up ^ Adam Heffez ( 23 July 2013 ) . `` Water Problem due to cultivation of Qat '' . Foreign Affairs . Retrieved 27 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Entrepreneur tries to get Yemenis buzzing about coffee , not qat '' . CSMonitor.com. 2012 - 10 - 27 . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen '' . Encyclopaedia Britannica. 23 April 2013 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Yemen : Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper '' ( PDF ) . International Monetary Fund . December 2000 . Retrieved 21 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Yemen Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility Medium - Term Economic and Financial Policy Framework Paper 1999 -- 2001 '' . International Monetary Fund . 5 March 1999 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Evans , Judith ( 21 October 2009 ) . `` Yemen could become first nation to run out of water '' . The Times . Archived from the original on 11 March 2017 . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability '' . Archived from the original on 26 June 2015 . Retrieved 25 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` YEMEN : Time running out for solution to water crisis '' . IRIN. 13 August 2012 . Retrieved 17 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Mahr , Krista ( Dec 14 , 2010 ) . `` What If Yemen Is the First Country to Run Out of Water ? '' . TIME Magazine . Retrieved 17 April 2015 . Jump up ^ al - Mujahed , Ali ; Naylor , Hugh ( 23 July 2015 ) . `` In Yemen 's grinding war , if the bombs do n't get you , the water shortages will '' . Washington Post . Retrieved 20 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The World Factbook : Albania '' . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved 21 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The General Census of Population 2004 '' . Sabanews. 29 December 2004 ( Updated 13 December 2013 ) . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The population explosion on Europe 's doorstep '' . Times ( London ) . London . 18 May 2008 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` Yemen : Government planning to curb population growth '' . IRIN Middle East . 14 July 2008 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . ( for Arabic , read it here : ( 2 ) . ) Jump up ^ `` Country Comparison : Total fertility rate '' . Central Intelligence Agency . CIA World Factbook . Retrieved 23 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Eric Hansen ( January 2006 ) . `` Sana'a Rising '' . Saudi Aramco World . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Relations With Yemen '' . U.S. Department of State . 28 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Flamand , Annasofie ; Macleod , Hugh ( 5 December 2009 ) . `` The children of Yemen 's tribal war '' . The Herald Scotland . Glasgow . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Pike , John ( 5 July 2011 ) . `` Zaydi Islam '' . Globalsecurity.org . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . ( Requires 3rd - party cookies ) Jump up ^ Lehmann , Hermann ( 1954 ) . `` Distribution of the sickle cell trait '' ( PDF ) . Eugenics Review . 46 ( 2 ) : 101 -- 121 . PMC 2973326 . PMID 21260667 . Retrieved 5 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Lawrence G. Potter ( 2009 ) . The Persian Gulf in History . p. 7 . Jump up ^ Pirouz Mojtahed - Zadeh ( 2013 ) . Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf : A Maritime Political Geography . p. 64 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen '' . Jewish Virtual Library . 22 May 2012 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Jews of Yemen '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Indian Diaspora in Yemen '' . Indian Embassy in Sanaa . Archived from the original on 12 March 2011 . Retrieved 24 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The world 's successful diasporas '' . Management Today . London . 3 April 2007 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Ameen Ali Talib ( November 1995 ) . `` Hadramis in Singapore '' . Al-bab.com . Archived from the original on 12 December 2013 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` African connections in Yemeni music '' . Encyclopaedia Britannica . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Mauritania -- Arab invasions '' . Library of Congress Country Studies . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . ^ Jump up to : Jonathan Fowler ( 18 October 2014 ) . `` Red Sea drownings of Yemen - bound migrants hit new high '' . Your Middle East . Retrieved 19 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Poor and desperate , Syrian refugees beg on Yemen 's streets '' . Reuters. 26 September 2013 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Black , Ian ( 2 April 2013 ) . `` Saudi Arabia expels thousands of Yemeni workers '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 13 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` History of Islam in the UK '' . BBC . 7 September 2009 . Retrieved 21 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Woodard , Roger D. ( 10 April 2008 ) . The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas . Cambridge University Press . p. 228 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 68494 - 1 . Retrieved 23 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ethnologue entry for South Arabian languages '' . Ethnologue.com . Retrieved 21 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen -- Languages '' . Ethnologue. 1999 - 02 - 19 . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ Languages of Yemen Jump up ^ http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/images/maps/Yemen_Ethno_Religious_summary_lg.png Jump up ^ `` YEMEN 2012 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Department of State . ^ Jump up to : `` Yemen : The conflict in Saada Governorate -- analysis '' . UN High Commissioner for Refugees. 24 July 2008 . Retrieved 2 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Al - Zaidi , Hassan ( 22 October 2007 ) . `` The Twelve - Imam Shiite Sect '' . Yemen Times . Archived from the original on 22 October 2007 . Jump up ^ www.islamquest.net Jump up ^ `` Yemen 2012 International Religious Freedom Report '' ( PDF ) . United States Secretary of State . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen '' . Institut MEDEA . Retrieved 14 December 2013 . Jump up ^ United States Bureau of Democracy , Human Rights and Labor . Yemen : International Religious Freedom Report 2008 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Guide : Christians in the Middle East '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ Johnstone , Patrick ; Miller , Duane Alexander ( 2015 ) . `` Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background : A Global Census '' . IJRR. 11 : 17 . Retrieved 28 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Ben Zion , Ilan ( 21 March 2016 ) . `` 17 Yemenite Jews secretly airlifted to Israel in end to ' historic mission ' '' . Times of Israel . Retrieved 21 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The media in Yemen , short introduction to media in Yemen including broadcasting . Last revised on 21 February 2006 '' . Al-bab.com . Archived from the original on 27 March 2014 . Retrieved 15 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Arab Media Outlook 2011 -- 2015 '' ( PDF ) . 2012 . p. 217 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Sport of Camel Jumping '' . Smithsonianmag.com . September 2010 . Retrieved 7 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Yemenis open up about the Gulf Cup '' . Yemen Today . 7 January 2011 . Archived from the original on 10 May 2011 . Retrieved 8 February 2011 . Jump up ^ `` National adult literacy rates ( 15 + ) , youth literacy rates ( 15 -- 24 ) and elderly literacy rates ( 65 + ) '' . UNESCO Institute for Statistics . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Yemen , Ministry of Education Report 2008 . `` The Development of Education in the Republic of Yemen . '' '' ( PDF ) . 2008 . p. 3 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Republic of Yemen , Ministry of Education Report 2008 . '' The Development of Education in the Republic of Yemen. `` '' ( PDF ) . 2008 . p. 5 . Retrieved 13 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Yemen '' . Ranking Web of Universities . Retrieved 26 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Country Profile : Yemen , August 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Library of Congress . August 2008 . Retrieved 22 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Sweetland Edwards , Haley ( 11 October 2009 ) . `` Yemen water crisis builds '' . Los Angeles Times . External links ( edit ) Find more aboutYemenat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Yemen Government Official web site ( in Arabic ) Yemen Government official portal ( At the Wayback Machine , March 2009 ) ( in Arabic ) `` Yemen '' . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . 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give three reasons why the fynbos biome is so important to south africa and the world

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Fynbos&oldid=804464877

Fynbos - Wikipedia Fynbos Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Mountain fynbos on the Cape Peninsula A 360 degree photograph of fynbos in the Groot Winterhoek section of the Cape Fold Mountains about 18 months after a fire . New plants can be seen in various stages of growth following the fire . The infertile white soil that fynbos tends to grow in can also be clearly seen . Click here to see the photograph in 360 degrees . Fynbos ( / ˈfeɪnbɒs / ; Dutch pronunciation : ( ˈfɛi̯nbos ) meaning fine - leaved plants ) is a small belt of natural shrubland or heathland vegetation located on the Western Cape of South Africa . This area is predominantly winter rainfall coastal and mountainous areas with a Mediterranean climate . The fynbos ecoregion is within the Mediterranean forests , woodlands , and scrub biome . In fields related to biogeography , fynbos is known for its exceptional degree of biodiversity and endemism , consisting about 80 % ( 8,500 fynbos ) species of the Cape floral kingdom where nearly 6,000 of them are endemic . This land has faced severe threats and still does , but due to the many economic uses conservation efforts are being made to help restore it . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview and history 2 Cape Floral Kingdom 3 Flora 4 Ecoregions 5 Economic uses 6 Threats and conservation 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Overview and history ( edit ) The word fynbos is often confusingly said to mean `` fine bush '' in Afrikaans , as `` bos '' means `` bush '' . Typical fynbos foliage is ericoid rather than fine . The term , in its pre-Afrikaans , Dutch form , fynbosch , was recorded by Noble as being in casual use in the late 19th century . In the early 20th century , John Bews referred to : `` South - Western or Cape Region of Macchia or Fynbosch '' . He said : `` In this well - known region where the rain occurs in winter and the summers are more or less dry , the dominant vegetation is of a sclerophyllous type and there is little or no natural grassland , though there are many grasses ... '' He also refers to a high degree of endemism in the grasses in that region . Elsewhere he speaks of the term as `` ... applied by the inhabitants of the Cape to any sort of small woodland growth that does not include timber trees '' ; in the current vernacular , this still is the effective sense of the word . However , in the technical , ecological sense , the constraints are more demanding . In the latter half of the 20th century , `` fynbos '' gained currency as the term for the `` distinctive vegetation of the southwestern Cape '' . Cape floral kingdom ( edit ) The Cape Floral Kingdom ( Capensis ) is one of only 6 floristic kingdoms in the world . It is also the smallest and richest per unit of area . Main article : Cape Floristic Region Fynbos -- which grows in a 100 - to - 200 - km - wide coastal belt stretching from Clanwilliam on the West coast to Port Elizabeth on the Southeast coast -- forms part of the Cape floral kingdom , where it accounts for half of the surface area and 80 % of the plant species . The fynbos in the western regions is richer and more varied than in the eastern regions of South Africa . Of the world 's six floral kingdoms , this is the smallest and richest per unit of area . The Holarctic kingdom , in contrast , incorporates the whole of the Northern Hemisphere north of the tropics . The diversity of fynbos plants is extremely high , with over 9000 species of plants occurring in the area , around 6200 of which are endemic , i.e. growing nowhere else in the world . South Africa 's Western Cape has a level of botanic diversity that exceeds that of the richest tropical rainforest in South America , including the Amazon . Of the Ericas , over 600 occur in the fynbos kingdom , while only two or three dozen have been described in the rest of the world . This is in an area of 46,000 km -- by comparison , the Netherlands , with an area of 33,000 km , has 1400 species , none of them endemic . Table Mountain in Cape Town supports 2200 species , more than the entire United Kingdom . Thus , although the fynbos covers only 6 % of the area of southern Africa , it has half the species on the subcontinent -- and in fact has almost 1 in 5 of all African plant species so far described . Five main river systems traverse the Cape floral kingdom : the Oliphants River of the Western Cape ; the Berg River which drains the West Coast Forelands plain stretching from the Cape Flats to the Olifants ; the Breede , which is the largest river on the Cape ; the Olifants River ( Southern Cape ) ; Gourits and the Groot Rivers which drain the Little Karoo basin and the South Coast Forelands ; and the Baviaanskloof and Gamtoos Rivers to the east . Flora ( edit ) Peninsula Shale Fynbos flora on Devils Peak , Cape Town . Gladiolus alatus flowers in Cape fynbos . The most conspicuous components of the flora are evergreen sclerophyllous plants , many with ericoid leaves and gracile habit , as opposed to timber forest . Several plant families are conspicuous in fynbos ; the Proteaceae are prominent , with genera such as Protea , Leucospermum ( the `` pincushions '' ) , and Leucadendron ( the silver tree and `` cone bushes '' ) . Proteas are represented by many species and are prominent in the landscape , generally with large striking flowers , many of which are pollinated by birds , and others by small mammals . Most of these do not have anything like ericoid leaves , and nor do most Rhamnaceae , Fabaceae , or Geraniaceae . Fynbos Ericaceae include more species of Erica than all other regions combined . They are popularly called heaths and are generally smaller plants bearing many small , tubular or globular flowers and ericoid leaves . Restionaceae also occur in greater variety in fynbos than anywhere else ; their species are superficially grass - like . Many of them grow in wet areas such as seasonal marshes and spongy basins in the sources of mountain streams , but others grow in decidedly arid conditions . Depending on the locality and the aspects under discussion , several other families have equal claim to being characteristic , including Asteraceae , Rutaceae , and Iridaceae . More than 1400 bulb species occur among the fynbos , of which 96 are Gladiolus and 54 Lachenalia . Areas that are dominated by `` renosterbos '' , Elytropappus rhinocerotis , ( Asteraceae ) are known as Renosterveld ( Afrikaans for `` rhinoceros veld '' ) . Ecoregions ( edit ) The fynbos area has been divided into two very similar ecoregions : the lowland fynbos ( below 300 m above sea level ) on the sandy soil of the west coast , and the montane fynbos of the Cape Fold Belt . Lowland fynbos , in this case Hangklip Sand Fynbos on the Cape Peninsula Montane fynbos , in this case Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos on the Cape Peninsula Renosterveld , in this case Swartland Shale Renosterveld The Lowland Fynbos and Renosterveld experiences regular winter rainfall , especially to the west of Cape Agulhas . The ecoregion has been subdivided into 9 areas : the West Coast Forelands from the Cape Flats to the Olifants River ( Western Cape ) ; the Warm Bokkeveld basin around the town of Ceres ; the Elgin Valley around the town of Elgin ; the sandy Agulhas Plain on the coast ; the Breede River valley around the town of Worcester ; the South Coast Forelands from Caledon west to Mossel Bay ; the south - eastern end of the Little Karoo ; Langkloof valley ; and the Southeastern Coast Forelands west from Tsitsikamma to Port Elizabeth . The flora of the lowlands contains a high number of endemic species , and tends to favour larger plants than those growing on the hillier areas . They include the larger Restionaceae such as species of Elegia , Thamnochortus , and Willdenowia and proteas such as king protea ( Protea cynaroides ) and blushing bride ( Serruria florida ) . Particular types of lowland fynbos include the shrubs and herbs of the coastal sand dunes , the mixture of ericoids and restoids with thickets of shrubs such as Maytenus , and other Celastraceae , sideroxylons and other Sapotaceae , and Rhus and other Anacardiaceae on the coastal sands ; the classic fynbos of the sandplains of the West Coast Forelands , and the Agulhas Plain ; the grassy fynbos of the hillier and wetter areas of the South and South - Eastern Coast Forelands ; areas where fynbos and renosterveld are mixed ; coastal renosterveld on the West and South Coast Forelands ; and the inland renosterveld of the drier inland Little Karoo and Warm Bokkeveld . The area is also home to a large number of endemic creatures that have adapted to life in this area , such as the monkey beetles which pollinate Ixia viridiflora . Endemic species of fish in the five river systems occur in the area , too . Endemic reptiles and amphibians include a number of tortoises and the chameleon - like arum frog ( Hyperolius horstockii ) . The Montane Fynbos and Renosterveld is the area above 300 m , a total of 45,000 km of the Cape Fold Mountains . The same level of floral variety , including all three characteristic fynbos families , is found there , but ericas predominate . Because the higher and wetter areas are more protected and contain important water sources , the original flora is more intact than in the lowlands ; but agriculture and global warming are stll threats . The region includes the mountains in the west from the Cape Peninsula to the Kouebokkeveld Mountains , the south coast hinterland from Elgin to Port Elizabeth , the mountains north of the Little Karoo from Laingsburg to Willowmore , and the inselberg hills within the Little Karoo . About half of these areas are originally fynbos , and about half are renosterveld . Many different microclimates occur , so the flora changes from west to east , and also varies with altitude up the hillsides away from the coast and according to compass direction . Lower elevations are covered with protea fynbos , with ericas taking over further up . Plant species include pincushions ( Leucospermum ) . The wildlife includes a number of endemic bees , beetles , horseflies , and ants , and birds such as Cape sugarbirds and the orange - breasted sunbird . Many of these birds and insects are important and specific pollinators for the fynbos , such as the mountain pride butterfly ( Aeropetes tulbaghia ) which only visits red flowers such as Disa uniflora and pollinates 15 different species . Larger animals include antelopes , particularly Cape grysbok ( Raphicerus melanotis ) , common duiker ( Sylvicapra grimmia ) , and klipspringer ( Oreotragus oreotragus ) . The extinct blue antelope and quagga were also fynbos natives . Economic uses ( edit ) Rooibos ( Aspalathus linearis ) and honeybush ( Cyclopia intermedia ) are of economic importance , grown and harvested in large quantities in the Cederberg area , and providing important exports . Restios continue to be used for thatching , as they have for hundreds or even thousands of years . Proteas and other floral species are grown in many areas and their flowers harvested for export . In many areas with Mediterranean climates , fynbos species have become popular garden plants , in particular aloes and geraniums , and in cooler regions are used as window plants . A very large number of fynbos plant species are used in traditional medicine , and while only a tiny proportion have as yet been subjected to formal testing , many have already been identified as having medicinal properties . Threats and conservation ( edit ) The regrowth of fynbos species , from around the trunk of a fallen invasive pine tree . Cape Town . The fynbos is the region of South Africa most affected by invasive alien species which collectively cover around 10 % of the entire country . The most common invasive plants are wattles and hakeas , native to Australia , and pines native to Europe and the Californian coast of the United States . Pines had been introduced to South Africa by the 19th century and the wattles were imported into the mid-1870s to stabilize sand dunes . In 1997 it was estimated that invasion caused the fynbos region to decline in value by US $750 million per year . The Working for Water ( WfW ) program was started in 1995 by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry to control these invasive species which were shown to sequester 9.95 % of usable surface water runoff . Since then , over 1,000 , 00 hectares of land have been cleared of invasive species while providing jobs to around 20,000 people per year , most of which are women and unskilled workers . Systematic monitoring of WfW 's progress is lacking but there is anecdotal evidence that endemic silver peas have returned to Table Mountain after being thought extinct . Research and conservation Researchers in a relatively remote stretch of Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos Community conservation group for the critically endangered remnant of Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos at Harmony Flats , Cape Town . See also ( edit ) Heath ( habitat ) Shrubland References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Manning , John ( 2008 ) . Field Guide to Fynbos . Cape Town : Struik Publishers . ISBN 9781770072657 . Jump up ^ `` Lowland fynbos and renosterveld '' . Terrestrial Ecoregions . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 26 January 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fynbos , South Africa '' . panda.org . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Noble , John ( 1875 ) . Descriptive handbook of the Cape Colony : its condition and resources . www.archive.org . Juta . Jump up ^ Bews , John William ( 1918 ) . The grasses and grasslands of South Africa . www.archive.org . Pietermaritzburg , P. David & Sons , Ltd. , Printers . Jump up ^ `` Lowland fynbos and renosterveld '' . Terrestrial Ecoregions . World Wildlife Fund . Jump up ^ `` Working with fynbos - Fynbos Hub '' . fynboshub.co.za . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pig 's ears and buchu brandy : medicinal plants of the fynbos -- Table Mountain Aerial Cableway - Official Website '' . tablemountain.net . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Commercialization of South African Indigenous Crops : Aspects of Research and Cultivation of Products '' . purdue.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` STATUS OF INVASIVE TREE SPECIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA '' . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 27 . ^ Jump up to : `` Working for Water Programme '' . Department of Environmental Affairs . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 27 . ^ Jump up to : Balmford , Andrew ( 2012 ) . Wild Hope : On the Front Lines of Conservation Success . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press . pp. 67 -- 87 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 03601 - 4 . External links ( edit ) Media related to Fynbos at Wikimedia Commons Fynbos Paradise of South Africa Images of Fynbos Western Cape School Network on fynbos `` Protea Atlas Project '' with excellent information and images . Fauna & Flora International 's work on fynbos Fynbos Photography ( organized taxonomically ) Conservation and Land Restoration Project at TerraPi , SA `` Montane fynbos and renosterveld '' . Terrestrial Ecoregions . World Wildlife Fund . Data on invasive species in South Africa WfW Program official page Coordinates : 34 ° 10 ′ 0 '' S 18 ° 22 ′ 30 '' E  /  34.16667 ° S 18.37500 ° E  / - 34.16667 ; 18.37500 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fynbos&oldid=804464877 '' Categories : Fynbos Mediterranean forests , woodlands , and scrub Ecoregions of South Africa Flora of South Africa Ecoregions of Africa Afrotropic ecozone Hidden categories : Use South African English from February 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in South African English Use dmy dates from May 2013 Articles needing additional references from April 2008 All articles needing additional references Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Беларуская Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français हिन्दी Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 October 2017 , at 05 : 03 . 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2013677806126951373

indian tribes that walked the trail of tears

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Trail_of_Tears&oldid=843512328

Trail of Tears - wikipedia Trail of Tears Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Trail of Tears ( disambiguation ) . Trail of Tears The Trail of Tears memorial monument at the New Echota Historic Site in New Echota , Georgia , which honors the 4,000 Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears Date 1831 -- 1850 Location Southeastern United States and Indian Territory , present - day Oklahoma Participants U.S. Government , U.S. Army , state militias , Five Civilized Tribes of Cherokee , Muscogee , Seminole , Chickasaw , and Choctaw nations Outcome The forced relocation of most of the Five Civilized Tribes of the Southeastern United States to Indian Territory under the Indian Removal Act of 1830 signed by U.S. president Andrew Jackson clearing former Native American lands for white settlement . Deaths Cherokee ( 4,000 ) Creek Seminole ( 3,000 in Second Seminole War -- 1835 -- 1842 ) Chickasaw ( 3,500 ) Choctaw ( 2,500 -- 6,000 ) The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of Native American peoples from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States , to areas to the west ( usually west of the Mississippi River ) that had been designated as Indian Territory . The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830 . The relocated peoples suffered from exposure , disease , and starvation while en route to their new designated reserve , and many died before reaching their destinations . The forced removals included members of the Cherokee , Muscogee ( Creek ) , Seminole , Chickasaw , Choctaw , and Ponca nations . The phrase `` Trail of Tears '' originates from a description of the removal of many Native American tribes , including the infamous Cherokee Nation relocation in 1838 . Between 1830 and 1850 , the Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek , Seminole , and Cherokee people ( including mixed - race and black slaves who lived among them ) were forcibly removed from their traditional lands in the Southeastern United States , and relocated farther west . Those Native Americans who were relocated were forced to march to their destinations by state and local militias . The Cherokee removal in 1838 ( the last forced removal east of the Mississippi ) was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega , Georgia in 1828 , resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush . Approximately 2,000 -- 8,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perished along the way . Contents ( hide ) 1 Historical context 1.1 Jackson 's role 1.2 Terminology 2 Legal background 3 Choctaw removal 4 Seminole resistance 5 Creek dissolution 6 Chickasaw monetary removal 7 Cherokee forced relocation 7.1 Eastern Cherokee Restitution 8 Statistics 9 Landmarks and commerations 9.1 Trail of Tears outdoor historical drama , Unto These Hills 9.2 Commemorative medallion 9.3 In literature and oral history 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Documents 14 Documentary 15 External links Historical context ( edit ) Map of United States Indian Removal , 1830 -- 1838 . Oklahoma is depicted in light yellow - green . In 1830 , a group of Indians collectively referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes ( the Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Muscogee , and Seminole tribes ) were living as autonomous nations in what would be later called the American Deep South . The process of cultural transformation , as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox , was gaining momentum , especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw . American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast ; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands , while others wanted more land made available to white settlers . Although the effort was vehemently opposed by some , including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee , President Andrew Jackson was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , which authorized the government to extinguish Indian title to lands in the Southeast . In 1831 , the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed , and their removal served as the model for all future relocations . After two wars , many Seminoles were removed in 1832 . The Creek removal followed in 1834 , the Chickasaw in 1837 , and lastly the Cherokee in 1838 . However , some managed to evade the removals and remained in their ancestral homelands ; some Choctaw are living in Mississippi , Creek in Alabama and Florida , Cherokee in North Carolina , and Seminole in Florida ; a small group had escaped into the Everglades and were never defeated by the United States government . A small number of non-Native Americans who lived with the tribes , including some of African descent ( some as slaves , and others as spouses or freedmen ) , also accompanied the Indians on the trek westward . By 1837 , 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands , thereby opening 25 million acres ( 100,000 km ) for predominantly white settlement . Prior to 1838 , the fixed boundaries of these autonomous tribal nations , comprising large areas of the United States , were subject to continual cession and annexation , in part due to pressure from squatters and the threat of military force in the newly declared U.S. territories -- federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Native treaty claims . As these territories became U.S. states , state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders , which were independent of state jurisdiction , and to expropriate the land therein . These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South , with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands following the invention of the cotton gin . Jackson 's role ( edit ) Andrew Jackson 's support for removal of Native Americans began at least a decade before his presidency . Indian removal was Jackson 's top legislative priority upon taking office . The removals , conducted under both Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren , followed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , which provided the President with powers to exchange land with Native tribes and provide infrastructure improvements on the existing lands . The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West , should tribes choose to relocate . The law did not , however , allow the President to force tribes to move West without a mutually agreed - upon treaty . Referring to the Indian Removal Act , Martin Van Buren , Jackson 's vice president and successor is quoted as saying `` There was no measure , in the whole course of ( Jackson 's ) administration , of which he was more exclusively the author than this . '' In the years following the Act , the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia . Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court , the most influential being Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) . Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia without a license . Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling , arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands . The Court ruled in Worcester 's favor , declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia . Chief Justice Marshall argued , `` The Cherokee nation , then , is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force . The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation , is , by our constitution and laws , vested in the government of the United States . '' Andrew Jackson did not listen to the Supreme Court mandate barring Georgia from intruding on Cherokee lands . He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia , which would compound the ongoing crisis in South Carolina and lead to a broader civil war . Instead , he vigorously negotiated a land exchange treaty with the Cherokee . Political opponents Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams , who supported the Worcester decision , were outraged by Jackson 's refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia . Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture , declaring his support of the Worcester decision . Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal , and negotiated The Treaty of New Echota , on December 29 , 1835 , which granted Cherokee Indians two years to move to Indian Territory ( modern Oklahoma ) . Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily . The U.S. government , with assistance from state militias , forced most of the remaining Cherokees west in 1838 . The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee . In November , the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began the journey west . They endured heavy rains , snow , and freezing temperatures . When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota , they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $5 million payment from the federal government . Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal , and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of the treaty . By the end of the decade in 1840 , tens of thousands of Cherokee and other tribes had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River . The Creek , Choctaw , Seminole , and Chicksaw were also relocated under the Indian Removal Act of 1830 . One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as `` A Trail of Tears and Deaths '' , a devastating event that removed most of the Native population of the southeastern United States from their traditional homelands . Terminology ( edit ) The latter forced relocations have sometimes been referred to as `` death marches '' , in particular with reference to the Cherokee march across the Midwest in 1838 , which occurred on a predominantly land route . Indians who had the means initially provided for their own removal . Contingents that were led by conductors from the U.S. Army included those led by Edward Deas , who was claimed to be a sympathizer for the Cherokee plight . The largest death toll from the Cherokee forced relocation comes from the period after the May 23 , 1838 deadline . This was at the point when the remaining Cherokee were rounded into camps and pressed into oversized detachments , often over 700 in size ( larger than the populations of Little Rock or Memphis at that time ) . Communicable diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups , killing many . These contingents were among the last to move , but following the same routes the others had taken ; the areas they were going through had been depleted of supplies due to the vast numbers that had gone before them . The marchers were subject to extortion and violence along the route . In addition , these final contingents were forced to set out during the hottest and coldest months of the year , killing many . Exposure to the elements , disease and starvation , harassment by local frontiersmen , and insufficient rations similarly killed up to one - third of the Choctaw and other nations on the march . There exists some debate among historians and the affected tribes as to whether the term `` Trail of Tears '' should be used to refer to the entire history of forced relocations from the United States east of the Mississippi into Indian Territory ( as was the stated U.S. policy ) , or to the Five Tribes described above , to the route of the land march specifically , or to specific marches in which the remaining holdouts from each area were rounded up . Legal background ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The territorial boundaries claimed as sovereign and controlled by the Indian nations living in what were then known as the Indian Territories -- the portion of the early United States west of the Mississippi River not yet claimed or allotted to become Oklahoma -- were fixed and determined by national treaties with the United States federal government . These recognized the tribal governments as dependent but internally sovereign , or autonomous nations under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government . While retaining their tribal governance , which included a constitution or official council in tribes such as the Iroquois and Cherokee , many portions of the southeastern Indian nations had become partially or completely economically integrated into the economy of the region . This included the plantation economy in states such as Georgia , and the possession of slaves . These slaves were also forcibly relocated during the process of removal . A similar process had occurred earlier in the territories controlled by the Confederacy of the Six Nations in what is now upstate New York prior to the British invasion and subsequent U.S. annexation of the Iroquois nation . Under the history of U.S. treaty law , the territorial boundaries claimed by federally recognized tribes received the same status under which the Southeastern tribal claims were recognized ; until the following establishment of reservations of land , determined by the federal government , which were ceded to the remaining tribes by de jure treaty , in a process that often entailed forced relocation . The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishment of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi anticipated the establishment of the U.S. Indian reservation system . It was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century . The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) , that ( e.g. ) the Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation , and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court . However , in Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) , the court re-established limited internal sovereignty under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government , in a ruling that both opposed the subsequent forced relocation and set the basis for modern U.S. case law . While the latter ruling was defied by Jackson , the actions of the Jackson administration were not isolated because state and federal officials had violated treaties without consequence , often attributed to military exigency , as the members of individual Indian nations were not automatically United States citizens and were rarely given standing in any U.S. court . Jackson 's involvement in what became known as the Trail of Tears can not be ignored . In a speech regarding Indian removal , Jackson said , `` It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites ; free them from the power of the States ; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions ; will retard the progress of decay , which is lessening their numbers , and perhaps cause them gradually , under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels , to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting , civilized , and Christian community . '' According to Jackson , the move would be nothing but beneficial for all parties . His point of view garnered support from many Americans , many of whom would benefit economically from the removal . This was compounded by the fact that while citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation , individual U.S. states did not recognize tribal land claims , only individual title under State law , and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens , who often had limited standing in court ; and Indian removal was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction , often by state militias . As a result , individual Indians who could prove U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas . The military actions and subsequent treaties enacted by Jackson 's and Martin Van Buren 's administrations pursuant to the 1830 law , which Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett had unsuccessfully voted against , are widely considered to have directly caused the expulsion or death of a substantial part of the Indian population then living in the southeastern United States . Choctaw Removal ( edit ) Main article : Choctaw Trail of Tears George W. Harkins , Choctaw chief The Choctaw nation occupied large portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama , Mississippi , and Louisiana . After a series of treaties starting in 1801 , the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11,000,000 acres ( 45,000 km ) . The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded the remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831 . The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain . The chief of the Choctaw tribe , George W. Harkins , wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence : It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people , knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency ; and believing that your highly and well improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw . But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall , I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views , and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal ... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free , than live under the degrading influence of laws , which our voice could not be heard in their formation . -- George W. Harkins , George W. Harkins to the American People United States Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage the removals . Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in 1831 and ending in 1833 . The first was to begin on November 1 , 1831 with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg . A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods , sleet , and snow . Initially the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them . With food running out , the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned . Five steamboats ( the Walter Scott , the Brandywine , the Reindeer , the Talma , and the Cleopatra ) would ferry Choctaws to their river - based destinations . The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles ( 100 km ) to Arkansas Post . There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice , so there could be no travel for weeks . Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn , one turnip , and two cups of heated water per day . Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock . When they reached Little Rock , a Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a `` trail of tears and death '' . The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps . Alexis de Tocqueville , French political thinker and historian Alexis de Tocqueville , the French philosopher , witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis , Tennessee in 1831 : In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction , something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu ; one could n't watch without feeling one 's heart wrung . The Indians were tranquil , but sombre and taciturn . There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country . `` To be free , '' he answered , could never get any other reason out of him . We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples . -- Alexis de Tocqueville , Democracy in America Nearly 17,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma . About 2,500 -- 6,000 died along the trail of tears . Approximately 5,000 -- 6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the initial removal efforts . The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict , harassment , and intimidation . The Choctaws `` have had our habitations torn down and burned , our fences destroyed , cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged , manacled , fettered and otherwise personally abused , until by such treatment some of our best men have died '' . The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma . The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government . President Andrew Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi , and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined . When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements it was said the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty . Seminole resistance ( edit ) Main article : Seminole Wars The U.S. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams -- Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821 . In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne 's Landing on the Ocklawaha River . The treaty negotiated called for the Seminoles to move west , if the land were found to be suitable . They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe , who considered them deserters ; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other tribes . Those among the tribe who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians . The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832 . After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there , the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28 , 1833 that the new land was acceptable . Upon their return to Florida , however , most of the chiefs renounced the statement , claiming that they had not signed it , or that they had been forced to sign it , and in any case , that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation . The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded , however , and went west in 1834 . On December 28 , 1835 a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.S. Army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in Ocala , killing all but three of the 110 army troops . This came to be known as the Dade Massacre . Seminole warrior Tuko - see - mathla , 1834 As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in , Florida began preparing for war . The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets . Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call . Indian war parties raided farms and settlements , and families fled to forts , large towns , or out of the territory altogether . A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train , killing eight of its guards and wounding six others . Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later . Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed , with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles . Other warchiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee , Jumper , and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse continued the Seminole resistance against the army . The war ended , after a full decade of fighting , in 1842 . The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $20,000,000 on the war , at the time an astronomical sum , and equal to $507,172,414 today . Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi ; others retreated into the Everglades . In the end , the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 500 Seminoles in peace . However , other scholars state that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in the Everglades after the Seminole Wars . As a result of the Seminole Wars , the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the only federally recognized tribe which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States . In general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted . An article published by the Virginia Enquirer on January 26 , 1836 , called the `` Hostilities of the Seminoles '' , assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole 's resistance to the Seminoles themselves . The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word -- the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act . Creek dissolution ( edit ) Main article : Muscogee Selocta ( or Shelocta ) was a Muscogee chief who appealed to Andrew Jackson to reduce the demands for Creek lands at the signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson After the War of 1812 , some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia . The 1814 signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South . Friendly Creek leaders , like Selocta and Big Warrior , addressed Sharp Knife ( the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson ) and reminded him that they keep the peace . Nevertheless , Jackson retorted that they did not `` cut ( Tecumseh 's ) throat '' when they had the chance , so they must now cede Creek lands . Jackson also ignored Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations . Jackson opened this first peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks . That done , he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel . For their crime , he said , the entire Creek Nation must pay . He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting the war , which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres ( 93,000 km ) of land . -- Robert V. Remini , Andrew Jackson Eventually , the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense . Nevertheless , on February 12 , 1825 , McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs , which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia . After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty , McIntosh was assassinated on May 13 , 1825 , by Creeks led by Menawa . The Creek National Council , led by Opothle Yohola , protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent . President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic , and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement , the Treaty of Washington ( 1826 ) . The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote : `` The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again -- achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty . '' However , Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty . At first , President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops , but Troup called out the militia , and Adams , fearful of a civil war , conceded . As he explained to his intimates , `` The Indians are not worth going to war over . '' Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia , with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory , there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama . However , the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks . Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama ; when none was forthcoming , the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on March 24 , 1832 , which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments . Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the west , or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws . The Creeks were never given a fair chance to comply with the terms of the treaty , however . Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to do much to halt it . Further , as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of the events leading to removal , a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments , many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus , Georgia and Montgomery , Alabama , were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta . A portion of the beleaguered Creeks , many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors , struck back by carrying out occasional raids on area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence . Escalating tensions erupted into open war with the United States following the destruction of the village of Roanoke , Georgia , located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory , in May 1836 . During the so - called `` Creek War of 1836 '' Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River . With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and after as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time . 3,500 of those 15,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled . Chickasaw monetary Removal ( edit ) See also : Chickasaw Historic Marker in Marion , Arkansas , for the Trail of Tears Play media Fragment of the Trail of Tears still intact at Village Creek State Park , Arkansas ( 2010 ) The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River . In 1836 , the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five - year debate . They paid the Choctaws $530,000 ( equal to $11,810,970 today ) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land . The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1836 and was led by John M. Millard . The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July 4 , 1836 , with all of their assets -- belongings , livestock , and slaves . Once across the Mississippi River , they followed routes previously established by the Choctaws and the Creeks . Once in Indian Territory , the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation . Cherokee forced relocation ( edit ) Main article : Cherokee removal Cherokee Principal Chief John Ross , photographed before his death in 1866 By 1838 , about 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory ( present day Oklahoma ) . Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final order from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees . Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma . In the Cherokee language , the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ( `` the place where they cried '' ) or nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i ( the trail where they cried ) . The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota , an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , which exchanged Indian land in the East for lands west of the Mississippi River , but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people . The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure , and illegal settlements resulted . Long - simmering tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega , Georgia , in 1829 , resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush , the second gold rush in U.S. history . Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands , and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian land claims in the state of Georgia . When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830 , the matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court . In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) , the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation , and therefore refused to hear the case . However , in Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) , the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory , since only the national government -- not state governments -- had authority in Indian affairs . Worcester v Georgia is associated with Andrew Jackson 's famous , though apocryphal , quote `` John Marshall has made his decision ; now let him enforce it ! '' In reality , this quote did not appear until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic Horace Greeley . Elizabeth `` Betsy '' Brown Stephens ( 1903 ) , a Cherokee Indian who walked the Trail of Tears in 1838 Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia , Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia . He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with South Carolina ( i.e. the nullification crisis ) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war . With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties , exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River . Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty . The final treaty , passed in Congress by a single vote , and signed by President Andrew Jackson , was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren allowed Georgia , Tennessee , North Carolina , and Alabama an armed force of 7,000 militiamen , army regulars , and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to Cleveland , Tennessee . After the initial roundup , the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma . Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement . Most of the deaths during the journey were caused by disease , malnutrition , and exposure during an unusually cold winter . In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000 - mile ( 1,600 km ) march with scant clothing and most on foot without shoes or moccasins . The march began in Red Clay , Tennessee , the location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation . Because of the diseases , the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way ; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them . After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky , they arrived at the Ohio River across from Golconda in southern Illinois about the 3rd of December 1838 . Here the starving Indians were charged a dollar a head ( equal to $22.98 today ) to cross the river on `` Berry 's Ferry '' which typically charged twelve cents , equal to $2.76 today . They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under `` Mantle Rock '' , a shelter bluff on the Kentucky side , until `` Berry had nothing better to do '' . Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross . Several Cherokee were murdered by locals . The Cherokee filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Government through the courthouse in Vienna , suing the government for $35 a head ( equal to $804.34 today ) to bury the murdered Cherokee . As they crossed southern Illinois , on December 26 , Martin Davis , Commissary Agent for Moses Daniel 's detachment , wrote : `` There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere . The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches ( 20 or 30 cm ) thick . We are compelled to cut through the ice to get water for ourselves and animals . It snows here every two or three days at the fartherest . We are now camped in Mississippi ( River ) swamp 4 miles ( 6 km ) from the river , and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day . We have only traveled 65 miles ( 105 km ) on the last month , including the time spent at this place , which has been about three weeks . It is unknown when we shall cross the river ... '' A soldier from Georgia said : I fought through the War Between the States and have seen many men shot , but the Cherokee Removal was the cruelest work I ever knew . -- Georgian soldier who participated in the removal A Trail of Tears map of Southern Illinois from the USDA -- U.S. Forest Service It eventually took almost three months to cross the 60 miles ( 97 kilometres ) on land between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers . The trek through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered most of their deaths . However a few years before forced removal , some Cherokee who opted to leave their homes voluntarily chose a water - based route through the Tennessee , Ohio and Mississippi rivers . It took only 21 days , but the Cherokee who were forcibly relocated were weary of water travel . Removed Cherokees initially settled near Tahlequah , Oklahoma . When signing the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 Major Ridge said `` I have signed my death warrant . '' The resulting political turmoil led to the killings of Major Ridge , John Ridge , and Elias Boudinot ; of the leaders of the Treaty Party , only Stand Watie escaped death . The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded , and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian group in the United States . There were some exceptions to removal . Approximately 100 Cherokees evaded the U.S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states . Those Cherokees who lived on private , individually owned lands ( rather than communally owned tribal land ) were not subject to removal . In North Carolina , about 400 Cherokees , known as the Oconaluftee Cherokee , lived on land in the Great Smoky Mountains owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas ( who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy ) , and were thus not subject to removal . Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay in the Qualla Boundary after assisting the U.S. Army in hunting down and capturing the family of the old prophet , Tsali ( who faced a firing squad after capture ) . These North Carolina Cherokees became the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation . Eastern Cherokee restitution ( edit ) The United States Court of Claims ruled in favor of the Eastern Cherokee Tribe 's claim against the U.S. on May 18 , 1905 . This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million ( equal to $27,438,023.04 today ) to the Tribe 's eligible individuals and families . Interior Department employee Guion Miller created a list using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment for the distribution of funds , known as the Guion Miller Roll . The applications received documented over 125,000 individuals ; the court approved more than 30,000 individuals to share in the funds . Statistics ( edit ) Nation Population east of the Mississippi before removal treaty Removal treaty & year signed Years of major emigration Total number emigrated or forcibly removed Number stayed in Southeast Deaths during removal Deaths from warfare Choctaw 19,554 + white citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 black slaves Dancing Rabbit Creek ( 1830 ) 1831 -- 1836 12,500 7,000 2,000 -- 4,000 + ( Cholera ) none Creek 22,700 + 900 black slaves Cusseta ( 1832 ) 1834 -- 1837 19,600 100s 3,500 ( disease after removal ) ? ( Second Creek War ) Chickasaw 4,914 + 1,156 black slaves Pontotoc Creek ( 1832 ) 1837 -- 1847 over 4,000 100s 500 -- 800 none Cherokee 21,500 + 2,000 black slaves New Echota ( 1835 ) 1836 -- 1838 20,000 + 2,000 slaves 1,000 2,000 -- 8,000 Seminole 5,000 + fugitive slaves Payne 's Landing ( 1832 ) 1832 -- 1842 2,833 250 500 700 ( Second Seminole War ) Landmarks and commerations ( edit ) Map of National Historic trails In 1987 , about 2,200 miles ( 3,500 km ) of trails were authorized by federal law to mark the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people . Called the `` Trail of Tears National Historic Trail '' , it traverses portions of nine states and includes land and water routes . Trail of Tears outdoor Historical drama , Unto these Hills ( edit ) A historical drama based on the Trail of Tears , Unto These Hills written by Kermit Hunter , has sold over five million tickets for its performances since its opening on July 1 , 1950 , both touring and at the outdoor Mountainside Theater of the Cherokee Historical Association in Cherokee , North Carolina . Commemorative medallion ( edit ) Cherokee artist Troy Anderson was commissioned to design the Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion . The falling - tear medallion shows a seven - pointed star , the symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees . In literature and oral history ( edit ) Family Stories From the Trail of Tears is a collection edited by Lorrie Montiero and transcribed by Grant Foreman , taken from the Indian - Pioneer History Collection Walking the Trail ( 1991 ) is a book by Jerry Ellis describing his 900 - mile walk retracing of the Trail of Tears in reverse See also ( edit ) Ethnic cleansing and forced migration , modern terms for the forced relocation of a people Expulsion of the Acadians Hopkinsville , Kentucky Long Walk of the Navajo , a later forced removal Native American genocide Population transfer Potawatomi Trail of Death Timeline of Cherokee removal References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Trail of Tears - Native American History - HISTORY.com '' . History.com . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2017 . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` A Brief History of the Trail of Tears '' . www.cherokee.org . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2017 . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Trail of Tears '' . PBS . Archived from the original on June 27 , 2017 . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Minges , Patrick ( 1998 ) . `` Beneath the Underdog : Race , Religion , and the Trail of Tears '' . US Data Repository . Archived from the original on October 11 , 2013 . Retrieved January 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Indian removal '' . PBS . Archived from the original on April 18 , 2010 . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Inskeep , Steve ( 2015 ) . Jacksonland : President Jackson , Cherokee Chief John Ross , and a Great American Land Grab . New York : Penguin Press . pp. 332 -- 333 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59420 - 556 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Stannard 1993 , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Thornton , Russell ( 1991 ) . `` The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period : A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses '' . In William L. Anderson . Cherokee Removal : Before and After . pp. 75 -- 93 . ^ Jump up to : Curtis , Nancy C. ( 1996 ) . Black Heritage Sites . United States : ALA Editions . p. 543 . ISBN 0 - 8389 - 0643 - 5 . Jump up ^ Prucha , Francis Paul ( 1995 - 01 - 01 ) . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . U of Nebraska Press . pp. 241 note 58 . ISBN 0803287348 . Jump up ^ Ehle , John ( 2011 - 06 - 08 ) . Trail of Tears : The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation . Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group . pp. 390 -- 392 . ISBN 9780307793836 . Jump up ^ Carter , Samuel ( 1976 ) . Cherokee sunset : a nation betrayed : a narrative of travail and triumph , persecution and exile . Doubleday . p. 232 . ISBN 9780385067355 . Jump up ^ Perdue , Theda ( 2003 ) . `` Chapter 2 ' Both White and Red ' '' . Mixed Blood Indians : Racial Construction in the Early South . The University of Georgia Press . p. 51 . ISBN 0 - 8203 - 2731 - X . ^ Jump up to : `` Indian removal 1814 - 1858 '' . PBS . Archived from the original on April 18 , 2010 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Jahoda , Gloria ( 1975 ) . Trail of Tears : The Story of the American Indian Removal 1813 - 1855 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 517 - 14677 - 4 . Jump up ^ Wallace , Anthony ( 2011 ) . The Long , Bitter Trail : Andrew Jackson and the Indians . ^ Jump up to : Howe , Daniel Walker ( 2007 ) . What Hath God Wrought : The Transformation of America , 1815 - 1848 . Jump up ^ Morris , Michael ( 2007 ) . `` Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal '' . Georgia Historical Quarterly . 91 ( 4 ) : 403 -- 423 . Archived from the original on February 16 , 2018 . Retrieved February 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Coates , Julia . Trail of Tears . `` Worcester v. Georgia '' . Oyez . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2017 . Retrieved February 5 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Miles , Edwin A ( November 1973 ) . `` After John Marshall 's Decision : Worcester v Georgia and the Nullification Crisis '' . The Journal of Southern History . Jump up ^ Cave , Alfred . `` Abuse of Power : Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830 '' . Jump up ^ Frey , Rebecca Joyce ( 2009 ) . Genocide and International Justice . Infobase Publishing . pp. 128 -- 131 . ISBN 978 - 0816073108 . Retrieved December 16 , 2016 . Emerson , Ralph Waldo . `` Letter to Martin Van Buren President of the United States 1836 '' . www.cherokee.org/ . Archived from the original on June 17 , 2016 . Retrieved June 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ River , Charles . The Trail of Tears : Forced Removal of Five Civilized Tribes . ^ Jump up to : `` Trail of Tears '' . History Channel . Archived from the original on December 14 , 2014 . Retrieved December 15 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Baird , David ( 1973 ) . `` The Choctaws Meet the Americans , 1783 to 1843 '' . The Choctaw People . United States : Indian Tribal Series . p. 36 . ASIN B000CIIGTW . Jump up ^ Gilbert , Joan ( 1996 ) . `` The Cherokee Home in the East '' . The Trail of Tears Across Missouri . University of Missouri Press . p. 14 . ISBN 0 - 8262 - 1063 - 5 . Jump up ^ Groneman 2005 , p. 97 . Jump up ^ Harkins , George ( 1831 ) . `` 1831 - December - George W. Harkins to the American People '' . Archived from the original on May 27 , 2006 . Retrieved April 23 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Sandra Faiman - Silva ( 1997 ) . Choctaws at the Crossroads . University of Nebraska Press . p. 19 . ISBN 978 - 0803269026 . Jump up ^ de Tocqueville , Alexis ( 1835 -- 1840 ) . `` Tocqueville and Beaumont on Race '' . Archived from the original on May 13 , 2008 . Retrieved April 28 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Satz , Ronald ( 1986 ) . `` The Mississippi Choctaw : From the Removal Treaty of the Federal Agency '' . In Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tuby . After Removal : The Choctaw in Mississippi . University Press of Mississippi . p. 7 . ISBN 0 - 87805 - 289 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Walter , Williams ( 1979 ) . `` Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi '' . Southeastern Indians : Since the Removal Era . Athens , Georgia : University of Georgia Press . Jump up ^ Davis , Ethan . `` An Administrative Trail of Tears : Indian Removal '' . American Journal of Legal History 50 , no . 1 ( 2008 ) : 65 -- 68 . Accessed December 15 , 2014 . `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on February 23 , 2017 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Missall . pp. 83 - 85 . Jump up ^ Missall . pp. 93 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Covington , James W. 1993 . The Seminoles of Florida . Gainesville , Florida : University Press of Florida . ISBN 0 - 8130 - 1196 - 5 . pp. 145 -- 6 . Morris , Theodore. 2004 . Florida 's Lost Tribes . Universities Press of Florida State Universities , p. 63 Prucha , Francis Paul . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . Volume I. Lincoln , Nebraska : University of Nebraska Press , 1984 . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 3668 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` Hostilities of the Seminoles '' . Enquirer ( Richmond , Virginia ) 26 Jan. 1836 : n . pag . Print . ^ Jump up to : Remini , Robert ( 1998 ) ( 1977 ) . `` The Creek War : Victory '' . Andrew Jackson : The Course of American Empire , 1767 -- 1821 . Vol. 1 . Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 0801859115 . Jump up ^ Oklahoma State University Library . `` Indian Affairs : Laws and Treaties . Vol. 2 , Treaties '' . Digital.library.okstate.edu . Archived from the original on January 6 , 2009 . Retrieved January 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Indian Affairs : Laws and Treaties . Vol. 2 , Treaties . Oklahoma State University Library . Archived from the original on September 22 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hurt , R. Douglas ( 2002 ) . The Indian Frontier , 1763 -- 1846 ( Histories of the American Frontier ) . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press . p. 148 . ISBN 0 - 8263 - 1966 - 1 . Jump up ^ Oklahoma State University Library . `` Indian Affairs : Laws and Treaties . Vol. 2 , Treaties '' . Digital.library.okstate.edu . Archived from the original on January 8 , 2009 . Retrieved January 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Winn , William W . The Triumph of the Ecunnau - Nuxulgee : Land Speculators , George M. Troup , State Rights , and the Removal of the Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama , 1825 -- 38 . Macon : Mercer University Press , 2015 . 9780881465228 . Jump up ^ `` A Brief History of the Trail of Tears '' . www.cherokee.org . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hill , Sarah H. ( 2011 ) . `` ' To Overawe the Indians and Give Confidence to the Whites ' : Preparations for the Removal of the Cherokee Nation from Georgia '' . Georgia Historical Quarterly . 95 ( 4 ) : 465 -- 497 . Archived from the original on February 15 , 2018 . Retrieved February 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Remini , Andrew Jackson , p. 257 , Prucha , Great Father , p. 212 . Jump up ^ James Mooney . Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees . p. 130 . ^ Jump up to : Illinois General Assembly - HJR0142 . Jump up ^ Adams , Mattie Lorraine . Family Tree of Daniel and Rachel Davis . Duluth , Georgia : Claxton Printing Company , 1973 . Jump up ^ Remini , Robert ( 2000 ) . `` Invasion '' . The Earth Shall Weep : A History of Native America . Grove Press . p. 170 . ISBN 0 - 8021 - 3680 - X . Jump up ^ `` The Trail of Tears in Southern Illinois '' ( PDF ) . US Forest Service . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on September 24 , 2015 . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rush , Linda ( November 10 , 2011 ) . `` The Cherokee Nation in Southern Illinois '' . The Southern Illinoisan . Archived from the original on December 10 , 2015 . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Corlew , Robert Ewing ( 1990 ) . Tennessee : A Short History . University of Tennessee Press . p. 153 . ISBN 0 - 87049 - 647 - 6 . Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians . `` Cherokee Heritage Trails '' . Museum of the Cherokee Indian . Archived from the original on November 1 , 2010 . Retrieved August 16 , 2010 . Hooper , Ed . `` Chief John Ross '' . Tennessee History Magazine . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2010 . Retrieved August 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Top 25 American Indian Tribes for the United States : 1990 and 1980 '' . U.S. Bureau of the Census . August 1995 . Archived from the original on November 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ The Guion Miller Roll : Index to the Applications submitted for the Cherokee Roll . ISBN 978 - 1544972503 . Jump up ^ Grant Foreman ( 1972 ) . Indian Removal : The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians . University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 47 , note 10 ( 1830 census ) . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 1172 - 8 . Jump up ^ Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844 -- 49 ; Foreman , pp. 103 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Foreman , p. 111 ( 1832 census ) . Jump up ^ Remini 2001 , p. 272 . Jump up ^ Russell Thornton ( 1 June 1992 ) . `` The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period : A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses '' . In William L. Anderson . Cherokee Removal : Before and After . University of Georgia Press . p. 85 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8203 - 1482 - 2 . Jump up ^ Thornton , Russell ( 1991 ) . `` The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period : A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses '' . In William L. Anderson . Cherokee Removal : Before and After . pp. 75 -- 93 . Jump up ^ Prucha , Francis Paul ( 1995 - 01 - 01 ) . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . U of Nebraska Press . pp. 241 note 58 . ISBN 0803287348 . Jump up ^ Ehle , John ( 2011 - 06 - 08 ) . Trail of Tears : The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation . Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group . pp. 390 -- 392 . ISBN 9780307793836 . Jump up ^ Carter , Samuel ( 1976 ) . Cherokee sunset : a nation betrayed : a narrative of travail and triumph , persecution and exile . Doubleday . p. 232 . ISBN 9780385067355 . ^ Jump up to : Francis Paul Prucha ( 1 January 1995 ) . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . U of Nebraska Press . p. 233 . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 8734 - 8 . Jump up ^ Anthony Wallace ; Eric Foner ( July 1993 ) . The Long , Bitter Trail : Andrew Jackson and the Indians . Farrar , Straus and Giroux . pp. 100 -- 101 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8090 - 1552 - 8 . Jump up ^ Francis Paul Prucha ( 1995 ) . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . University of Nebraska Press . pp. 241 note 58 . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 8734 - 8 . Retrieved 16 February 2016 . John Ehle ( 1989 ) . Trials of Tears : The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation . Anchor Books . pp. 390 -- 392 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 23954 - 7 . Retrieved 16 February 2016 . William L. Anderson ( 1992 ) . Cherokee Removal : Before and After . University of Georgia Press . pp. 75 -- 93 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8203 - 1482 - 2 . Retrieved 16 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Trail of Tears : History & Culture '' . National Park Service . Archived from the original on February 27 , 2015 . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Geographic Resources Division '' . National Park Service . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Unto These Hills Drama - Cherokee Historical Association '' . www.cherokeehistorical.org . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cherokee Ancestry '' . www.aboutcherokee.com . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cherokees to Mark Anniversary of `` Trail of Tears '' to Oklahoma `` . News OK . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2015 . Retrieved March 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Montiero , Lorrie & Foreman , Grant ( Transcriber ) . Family Stories From the Trail of Tears . American Native Press Archives and Sequoyah Research Center . Archived from the original on July 3 , 2015 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Bibliography ( edit ) Anderson , William , ed. ( 1991 ) . Cherokee Removal : Before and After . Athens , Georgia : University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8203 - 1482 - 2 . Bealer , Alex W. ( 1996 ) ( 1972 ) . Only the Names Remain : The Cherokees and The Trail of Tears . Boston , Massachusetts : Little , Brown . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 08519 - 9 . Carter , Samuel ( 1976 ) . Cherokee Sunset : A Nation Betrayed . New York : Doubleday . ISBN 0 - 385 - 06735 - 6 . Ehle , John ( 1989 ) ( 1988 ) . Trail of Tears : The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation . New York : Anchor Books . ISBN 0 - 385 - 23954 - 8 . Fitzgerald , David ; King , Duane ( 2008 ) . The Cherokee Trail of Tears . Portland , Oregon : Graphic Arts Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 88240 - 752 - 4 . Foreman , Grant ( 1989 ) ( 1932 ) . Indian Removal : The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians ( 11 ed . ) . Norman , Oklahoma : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1172 - 0 . Gregg , Matthew T. and David M. Wishart . `` The price of Cherokee removal '' . Explorations in Economic History Volume 49 , Issue 4 , October 2012 , Pages 423 -- 442 Jahoda , Gloria ( 1995 ) ( 1975 ) . Trail of Tears : The Story of the American Indian Removal 1813 -- 1855 . Henry Holt & Co . ISBN 978 - 0 - 517 - 14677 - 4 . Mooney , James ( 2007 ) ( 1888 ) . King , Duane , ed . Myths of the Cherokee . New York : Barnes & Noble . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7607 - 8340 - 5 . Perdue , Theda ; Green , Michael ( 2008 ) ( 2007 ) . The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears . New York : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 311367 - 6 . Prucha , Francis ( 1984 ) . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . Lincoln , Nebraska : Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 3668 - 9 . Remini , Robert ( 2001 ) . Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars . New York : Viking . ISBN 0 - 670 - 91025 - 2 . Wallace , Anthony ( 1993 ) . The Long , Bitter Trail : Andrew Jackson and the Indians ( Hardback ed . ) . New York : Hill and Wang . ISBN 0 - 8090 - 6631 - 9 . Wilson , James ( 1998 ) . The Earth Shall Weep : A History of Native America . New York : Grove Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8021 - 3680 - 0 . Winn , William W. ( 2015 ) . The Triumph of the Ecunnau - Nuxulgee : Land Speculators , George M. Troup , State Rights , and the Removal of the Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama , 1825 - 38 . Macon : Mercer University Press . 9780881465228 . Documents ( edit ) U.S. Senate ( April 15 -- 17 , 1830 ) . Cherokee Indian Removal Debate . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2009 . Scott , Winfield ( May 10 , 1838 ) . Winfield Scott 's Address to the Cherokee Nation . Archived from the original on October 6 , 2008 . Gen. Winfield Scott 's Order to U.S. Troops Assigned to the Cherokee Removal . Cherokee Agency . May 17 , 1838 . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2008 . Documentary ( edit ) The Trail of Tears : Cherokee Legacy ( 2006 ) -- directed by Chip Richie ; narrated by James Earl Jones External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trail of Tears . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Appeal of the Cherokee Nation Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Trail of Tears . Trail of Tears List - a report to the U.S. Senate Remote Sensing Technology to Understanding the Choctaw Removals Trail of Tears National Historic Trail ( U.S. National Park Service ) Trail of Tears Association The North Little Rock Site : Interpretive Contexts Chickasaw Seminole Tribe of Florida History : Indian Resistance and Removal Muscogee ( Creek ) Removal Cherokee Heritage Documentation Center Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource Center Trail of Tears - The Dream We Dreamed Cherokee Indian Removal , Encyclopedia of Alabama The Trail of Tears and the Forced Relocation of the Cherokee Nation , a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places ( TwHP ) lesson plan Trail of Tears Roll , Access genealogy Maps of North America and the Trail of Tears ( omniatlas.com ) Trail of Tears historical marker Indian Removal Battles and military incidents ( chronologically ) Battle of Burnt Corn ( 1813 ) Fort Mims Massacre ( 1813 ) Battle of Horseshoe Bend ( 1814 ) Battle of Negro Fort ( 1816 ) Battle of Fowltown ( 1817 ) Scott Massacre ( 1817 ) Attack at Fort Hughes ( 1817 ) Battle of Ocheesee ( 1817 -- 1818 ) Seminole Wars Policies and laws Removal Act Termination Policy Georgia Land Lotteries Manifest destiny Worcester v. Georgia Removals ( chronologically ) Indian removals in Indiana Choctaw Trail of Tears ( 1831 -- 1833 ) Trail of Tears ( 1831 -- 1838 ) Cherokee removal ( 1836 -- 1839 ) Potawatomi Trail of Death ( 1838 ) Sandy Lake Tragedy ( 1850 ) Nome Cult Trail ( 1863 ) Long Walk of the Navajo ( 1864 ) Burt Lake burn - out ( 1900 ) American politicians and military officials John C. Calhoun Lewis Cass George Rockingham Gilmer Andrew Jackson Thomas Jefferson James Monroe Winfield Scott John Tipton David Wallace People who helped Indians or documented removals Robert C. Ambrister George Arbuthnot Benjamin Hawkins Edward Nicolls Benjamin Marie Petit George Winter Land cession treaties ( chronologically ) Fort Stanwix ( 1st ) ( 1768 ) Fort Stanwix ( 2nd ) ( 1784 ) Fort McIntosh ( 1785 ) Buffalo Creek ( 1st ) ( 1788 ) New York ( 1st ) ( 1790 ) New York ( 2nd ) ( 1796 ) Forbes Purchase ( 1804 -- 1811 ) Fort Jackson ( 1814 ) Creek Agency ( 1818 ) Doak 's Stand ( 1820 ) Indian Springs ( 1821 ) Prairie du Chien ( 1st ) ( 1825 ) Prairie du Chien ( 2nd ) ( 1829 ) Prairie du Chien ( 3rd ) ( 1829 ) Dancing Rabbit Creek ( 1830 ) Prairie du Chien ( 4th ) ( 1831 ) Cusseta ( 1832 ) Payne 's Landing ( 1832 ) Pontotoc Creek ( 1832 ) New Echota ( 1835 ) Buffalo Creek ( 2nd ) ( 1838 ) La Pointe ( 1st ) ( 1842 ) Buffalo Creek ( 3rd ) ( 1842 ) La Pointe ( 2nd ) ( 1854 ) Buffalo Creek ( 4th ) ( 1857 ) Landbases Arkansas Territory Indian Territory Oklahoma Territory Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma Republic of Texas State of Georgia Atlanta ( capital ) Topics Index Geology History Congressional delegations Government Law People Media Newspapers Radio TV Music Elections Geography State Parks Symbols Transportation Tourist Attractions Seal of Georgia Society Culture Crime Demographics Economy Education Politics Sports Regions Atlantic coastal plain Blue Ridge Central Georgia Cumberland Plateau Golden Isles Historic South Lower Coastal Plain Metro Atlanta North Georgia North Georgia Mountains Northeast Georgia Piedmont Ridge and Valley Sea Islands Southern Rivers Southeast Georgia Southwest Georgia Tennessee Valley Wiregrass Region Largest cities Albany Atlanta Athens Augusta Columbus Johns Creek Macon Marietta Roswell Sandy Springs Savannah Valdosta Warner Robins Counties Appling Atkinson Bacon Baker Baldwin Banks Barrow Bartow Ben Hill Berrien Bibb Bleckley Brantley Brooks Bryan Bulloch Burke Butts Calhoun Camden Candler Carroll Catoosa Charlton Chatham Chattahoochee Chattooga Cherokee Clarke Clay Clayton Clinch Cobb Coffee Colquitt Columbia Cook Coweta Crawford Crisp Dade Dawson Decatur DeKalb Dodge Dooly Dougherty Douglas Early Echols Effingham Elbert Emanuel Evans Fannin Fayette Floyd Forsyth Franklin Fulton Gilmer Glascock Glynn Gordon Grady Greene Gwinnett Habersham Hall Hancock Haralson Harris Hart Heard Henry Houston Irwin Jackson Jasper Jeff Davis Jefferson Jenkins Johnson Jones Lamar Lanier Laurens Lee Liberty Lincoln Long Lowndes Lumpkin Macon Madison Marion McDuffie McIntosh Meriwether Miller Mitchell Monroe Montgomery Morgan Murray Muscogee Newton Oconee Oglethorpe Paulding Peach Pickens Pierce Pike Polk Pulaski Putnam Quitman Rabun Randolph Richmond Rockdale Schley Screven Seminole Spalding Stephens Stewart Sumter Talbot Taliaferro Tattnall Taylor Telfair Terrell Thomas Tift Toombs Towns Treutlen Troup Turner Twiggs Union Upson Walker Walton Ware Warren Washington Wayne Webster Wheeler White Whitfield Wilcox Wilkes Wilkinson Worth ( Campbell ) ( Milton ) History of Oklahoma Prior to 19th century Cooper Bison Kill ( 11th millennium BCE ) Spiro Mounds ( 9th -- 15th century CE ) 19th century Louisiana Purchase Arkansas Territory ( 1819 − 1824 ) Comanche -- Mexico Wars ( 1821 -- 1870s ) Cutthroat Gap Massacre ( 1833 ) Indian Removal Indian Territory ( 1834 -- 1907 ) Antelope Hills Expedition ( 1858 ) Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) Washita Massacre ( 1868 ) Oklahoma Territory ( 1890 -- 1907 ) Land runs ( 1890s ) 20th century State of Sequoyah ( 1905 ) State of Oklahoma ( 1907 ) Crazy Snake Rebellion ( 1909 ) Green Corn Rebellion ( 1917 ) Osage Indian murders ( 1920s ) Tulsa race riot ( 1921 ) Dust Bowl ( 1930s ) Red River Bridge War ( 1931 ) Oklahoma City bombing ( 1995 ) 21st century OU Bombing ( 2005 ) Protected areas of Tennessee Federal National Parks Great Smoky Mountains National Park National Historical Parks & Sites Andrew Johnson National Historic Site Cumberland Gap National Historical Park Manhattan Project National Historical Park National Military Parks Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park Fort Donelson National Battlefield Fort Donelson National Cemetery Shiloh National Cemetery Shiloh National Military Park Stones River National Battlefield Stones River National Cemetery National Recreation Areas Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area National Trails System Appalachian National Scenic Trail Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail Trail of Tears National Historic Trail National Forests Cherokee National Forest National Wildlife Refuges Chickasaw Cross Creeks Hatchie Lake Isom Lower Hatchie Reelfoot Tennessee Wilderness Areas Bald River Gorge Big Frog Big Laurel Branch Citico Creek Cohutta Gee Creek Joyce Kilmer - Slickrock Little Frog Mountain Pond Mountain Sampson Mountain Unaka Mountain Other Protected Areas Foothills Parkway Gatlinburg Bypass Natchez Trace Parkway Obed Wild and Scenic River State East Tennessee State Parks Big Ridge Booker T. 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Davenport Refuge Wilson School Road Window Cliffs Other Catoosa Wildlife Management Area Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation ( web ) - Tennessee Department of Agriculture ( web ) Seminole Federally recognized tribes Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida Seminole Nation of Oklahoma Seminole Tribe of Florida Reservations Big Cypress Brighton Fort Pierce Hollywood Immokalee Miccosukee Tampa Languages Afro - Seminole Creole Mikasuki language Muscogee language Culture Ah - Tah - Thi - Ki Museum Alligator wrestling Black Seminoles Mascogos Chickee Fastachee Four Mothers Society Green Corn Ceremony Seminole music Stomp dance History Indigenous people of the Everglades region Seminole Wars Trail of Tears Green Corn Rebellion Politics and law List of chiefs Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States Seminole Nation v. 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what episode of family guy does meg get pregnant

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Peter%27s_Daughter&oldid=824030591

Peter 's Daughter - wikipedia Peter 's Daughter Jump to : navigation , search `` Peter 's Daughter '' Family Guy episode Episode no . Season 6 Episode 8 Directed by Zac Moncrief Written by Chris Sheridan Featured music `` Hello Darlin ' '' by Conway Twitty Production code 5ACX21 Original air date November 25 , 2007 Guest appearance ( s ) Damien Fahey as Michael Milano Tamera Mowry as Esther Episode chronology ← Previous `` Padre de Familia '' Next → `` McStroke '' Family Guy ( season 6 ) List of Family Guy episodes `` Peter 's Daughter '' is the eighth episode of the sixth season of Family Guy and originally aired November 25 , 2007 . When a flood hits Quahog , Meg winds up in the hospital in a coma , and an over-protective Peter vows he will take extra care of her . As a side plot , Stewie and Brian decide to renovate a wrecked house and sell it to get rich . The episode was written by Chris Sheridan and it was directed by Zac Moncrief . This is one of the episodes that did not have show creator Seth MacFarlane 's work in post-production because he was participating in the Writers Guild of America strike . The episode guest started Damien Fahey and Tamera Mowry . Recurring voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , Lori Alan , John Viener , Jeff Bergman , Lisa Wilhoit , Patrick Warburton and Mark Hentemann also made appearances . It received positive reviews from critics . The original episode is dedicated in memory of Paul B. Sheridan . On Adult Swim , the full version has an onscreen message that reads `` Dedicated to Paul B. Sheridan , 1940 -- 2007 '' that features a picture of him on a kayak . He was Chris Sheridan 's father . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot summary 2 Production 3 Cultural references 4 Reception 5 References 6 External links Plot summary ( edit ) When the house is flooded due to a flash flood , Peter orders Meg to get a case of beer , but she drowns . Peter saves her , and they find out that Meg has fallen into a coma , prompting Peter to rethink his constant cruel behavior towards her . When Meg recovers , Peter swears to become a better father . She starts dating a medical intern named Michael Milano , to whom she awoke at the hospital . Peter spies on them to make sure Michael will not hurt Meg ; however , this behavior ends up driving Michael away . Later , Meg shocks the family when she announces that she is pregnant . Peter concludes that the only thing to do is force Michael to marry her , and heads to his house with a shotgun ; however , after learning of Meg 's pregnancy , Michael turns out to be completely willing . Lois tells Meg `` There are other options , '' but Meg does n't want to get an abortion . Meg decides to go through with it , until the wedding ceremony , where she reveals to Lois that she just found out she is not actually pregnant , instead , she had her period and assumes she read the pregnancy test wrong . Lois suggests that Meg tell Michael the truth , and says that if Michael really cares about her , he will still understand and stay . When she tells him , however , Michael bails out completely without a word . The episode ends with Peter introducing a live action clip of Conway Twitty . Meanwhile , Stewie proposes to Brian that they buy and renovate a wrecked house and sell it to get rich . However , Brian is unable to cope with Stewie 's protocol , and they are unable to get the job done . In the end , the two go broke and the house begins to deteriorate beyond repair , so Stewie intentionally destroys it by lighting a tank of gasoline on fire . However , they realize too late that the explosion also accidentally killed the electrician ( whom they had forgotten was inside ) . Production ( edit ) Seth MacFarlane did not participate in the post-production of the episode . `` Peter 's Daughter '' was written by series veteran Chris Sheridan , who has been a part of the shows staff since its first season when he wrote the episode `` I Never Met the Dead Man '' . It was the last episode directed by Zac Moncrief , who has been directing episodes for the show since its fourth season episode `` Peter 's Got Woods '' . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdun acted as supervising directors for the episode . This is one of the episodes of Family Guy that was released after the show 's creator , Seth MacFarlane , joined Writers Guild of America strike . MacFarlane participated in the writing process and did record the voices of the characters he normally plays for the episode but he did not approve or participate in any post-production done to the episode . In addition to the regular cast , actor Damien Fahey and actress Tamera Mowry guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , Lori Alan , writer John Viener , Jeff Bergman , Lisa Wilhoit , Patrick Warburton and writer Mark Hentemann also made appearances . Cultural references ( edit ) The episode featured various references to the popular culture . The town of Quahog is going through a flood which has many similarities to the flood caused in New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina . Dean Cain was lampooned in the episode and in the episode he is wearing a shirt of the symbol of Superman . An alien from the film franchise of the same name appeared in the episode . Fred and Wilma Flintstone from the animated show The Flintstones are shown arguing . Since Peter ca n't find the traditional wedding cake figurines he uses a toy of The Iron Giant . Peter says that he has been a worse father than Abraham . When Stewie blows up the house he and Brian have been working on , the shot is repeated from several angles echoing the final scene from Zabriskie Point . The episode ends with `` Hello Darlin ' '' performed by Conway Twitty . Reception ( edit ) On the Fox network , the first airing of the episode received a 4.7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share . Ahsan Haque of IGN praised `` Peter 's Daughter '' , saying that it has `` the perfect blend of comedy and story '' , and `` thoroughly entertains from start to finish '' . He graded the episode 8.7 out of 10 . Brad Trechak of TV Squad gave the episode a positive review , stating that he enjoyed it `` much more than last week 's '' . However , Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club stated that the episode was `` pretty bland '' , though it had `` a handful of good laughs '' . She graded `` Peter 's Daughter '' B - . Robert Pierson from the TV Critic also gave the episode a positive review praising the writers for telling a plausible and logical story although he did feel that the jokes were hit and miss , he ended his review by giving the episode a 60 out of 100 . 9.60 million people watched this episode in the US on its first airing . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Family Guy : Peter 's Daughter '' . Yahoo !. Retrieved October 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Family Guy -- I Never Met the Dead Man Cast and Crew '' . Yahoo ! Inc . Retrieved October 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Family Guy : Peter 's Got Woods '' . Yahoo !. Retrieved October 5 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Haque , Ahsan ( November 26 , 2007 ) . `` Family Guy : `` Peter 's Daughter '' Review `` . IGN . Retrieved October 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Family Guy Episode : `` Peter 's Daughter '' `` . TV Guide . Retrieved September 29 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Trechak , Brad ( November 25 , 2007 ) . `` Family Guy : Peter 's Daughter '' . TV Squad . Retrieved October 5 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Pierson , Robin . `` Episode 7 -- Peter 's Daughter '' . The TV Critic . Retrieved September 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kissell , Rick ( November 27 , 2007 ) . `` ' Dancing ' dynamite on Monday '' . Variety . Jump up ^ Koski , Genevieve ( November 25 , 2007 ) . `` Tears Of An Inflatable Clown '' / `` Funeral For A Fiend '' / `` Peter 's Daughter '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved October 5 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Peter 's Daughter on IMDb `` Peter 's Daughter '' at TV.com ( hide ) Family Guy episodes Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Season 6 `` Blue Harvest '' `` Movin ' Out ( Brian 's Song ) '' `` Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air '' `` The Family Guy 100th Episode Special '' `` Stewie Kills Lois and Lois Kills Stewie '' `` Padre de Familia '' `` Peter 's Daughter '' `` McStroke '' `` Back to the Woods '' `` Play It Again , Brian '' `` The Former Life of Brian '' `` Long John Peter '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%27s_Daughter&oldid=824030591 '' Categories : Family Guy ( season 6 ) episodes 2007 American television episodes Television episodes about weddings Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 4 February 2018 , at 22 : 22 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what was the purpose for building the monuments in the horyu ji area

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=H%C5%8Dry%C5%AB-ji&oldid=835534039

Hōryū - ji - wikipedia Hōryū - ji Jump to : navigation , search Hōryū - ji 法隆寺 Basic information Location 1 - 1 Hōryū - ji Sannai , Ikaruga - chō , Ikoma - gun , Nara Prefecture Affiliation Shōtoku Deity Shaka Nyorai ( Śākyamuni ) Country Japan Website http://www.horyuji.or.jp/ Architectural description Founder Empress Suiko , Prince Shōtoku Completed 607 Part of a series on Buddhism in Japan Schools ( show ) Jōjitsu Hosso Sanron Kegon Ritsu Kusha Tendai Shingon Pure Land Zen Nichiren Founders ( show ) Saichō Kūkai Hōnen Shinran Dōgen Eisai Ingen Nichiren Sacred texts ( show ) Avataṃsaka Sūtra Lotus Sūtra Prajñāpāramitā Heart Sūtra Infinite Life Sūtra Mahāvairocana Sūtra Vajraśekhara Sūtra Glossary of Japanese Buddhism Hōryū - ji ( 法隆寺 , lit . Temple of the Flourishing Law ) is a Buddhist temple that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples , in Ikaruga , Nara Prefecture , Japan . Its full name is Hōryū Gakumonji ( 法 隆 学問 寺 ) , or Learning Temple of the Flourishing Law , the complex serving as both a seminary and monastery . The temple 's pagoda is widely acknowledged to be one of the oldest wooden buildings existing in the world , underscoring Hōryū - ji 's place as one of the most celebrated temples in Japan . In 1993 , Hōryū - ji was inscribed together with Hokki - ji as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū - ji Area . The Japanese government lists several of its structures , sculptures and artifacts as National Treasures . A 2001 study of its shinbashira , the central wooden column almost suspended inside the Tō , concluded the building to be a century older than previously thought . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Reconstruction controversy 2 Architecture 2.1 Present complex 2.2 Characteristics 2.3 Pagoda 2.4 Kondō 2.5 Yumedono ( Hall of Dreams ) 3 Treasures 3.1 Kudara Kannon 3.2 Murals 3.3 Shaka Triad 3.4 Tamamushi Shrine 3.5 Yakushi Nyorai 3.6 Yumedono ( Guze ) Kannon 4 Serving the needs of architectural research 5 Images 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) Shichidō garan The temple was originally commissioned by Prince Shōtoku ; at the time it was called Ikaruga - dera ( 斑鳩 寺 ) , a name that is still sometimes used . This first temple is believed to have been completed by 607 . Hōryū - ji was dedicated to Yakushi Nyorai , the Buddha of healing and in honor of the prince 's father . Excavations done in 1939 confirmed that Prince Shotoku 's palace , the Ikaruga - no - miya ( 斑鳩 宮 ) , occupied the eastern part of the current temple complex , where the Tō - in ( 東院 ) sits today . Also discovered were the ruins of a temple complex which was southwest of the prince 's palace and not completely within the present temple complex . The original temple , named by modern historians and archaeologists Wakakusa - garan ( 若草 伽藍 ) , was lost , probably burned to the ground after being hit by lightning in 670 . The temple was reconstructed but slightly reoriented in a northwest position , which is believed to have been completed by around 711 . The temple was repaired and reassembled in the early twelfth century , in 1374 , and 1603 . In 1950 the maintainers of the temple broke away from the Hossō sect . The owners currently call the temple the headquarters of the `` Shōtoku '' sect . Reconstruction controversy ( edit ) After the long controversy ignited by architecture historian Sekino in 1905 , the majority consensus view as of 2006 is that the current precinct is a reconstruction . The excavations in 1939 that uncovered the older temple site including architectural remains of a Kondō and a pagoda , are accepted as conclusive proof . The original complex , Wakakusa - garan , probably burned down , but there is still a debate as to whether a fire actually occurred in 670 , as recorded in the Nihon Shoki , or whether there was another reason . Architecture ( edit ) The Chūmon ( Inner Gate ) with its entasis columns Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū - ji Area Closer look of wooden carving in Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū - ji Area . Present complex ( edit ) The current temple is made up of two areas , the Sai - in ( 西院 ) in the west and the Tō - in ( 東院 ) in the east . The western part of the temple contains the Kondō ( 金堂 , sanctuary Hall ) and the temple 's five - story pagoda . The Tō - in area holds the octagonal Yumedono Hall ( 夢殿 , Hall of Dreams ) and sits 122 meters east of the Sai - in area . The complex also contains monk 's quarters , lecture halls , libraries , and dining halls . Characteristics ( edit ) The belfry of the East Precinct The reconstructed buildings embrace significant cultural influences from the Three Kingdoms of Korea , particularly those of Baekje , as well as from Eastern Han to Northern Wei of China . The Chinese influence comes via Baekje , since Baekje had permanent trading relation with China . With its origin dating back to early 7th century , the reconstruction has allowed Hōryū - ji to absorb and feature a unique fusion of early Asuka period style elements , added with some distinct ones only seen in Hōryū - ji . There are many features that suggest the current precinct of Hōryu - ji is entirely not related to the Asuka period style ( a style that seems nonexistent ) . Pagoda ( edit ) The pagoda has certain characteristics unique to Hōryū - ji The five - storey pagoda , located in Sai - in area , stands at 32.45 meters in height ( 122 feet ) and is approximately 20X20 in width and is one of the oldest wooden buildings in the world . The wood used in the center pillar of the pagoda is estimated through a dendrochronological analysis to have been felled in 594 . The central pillar rests three meters below the surface of the massive foundation stone , stretching into the ground . At its base is enshrined what is believed to be a fragment of one of Buddha 's bones . Around it , four sculpted scenes from the life of the Buddha face north , east , south and west . Although the pagoda is five - storied , there is no access to the interior ; it is rather designed to inspire people with its external view . Kondō ( edit ) The kondō The kondō , located side - by - side to the Pagoda in Sai - in , is another one of the oldest wood buildings extant in the world . The hall measures 18.5 meters by 15.2 meters . The hall is two storied , with roofs curved in the corners but only the first story has a double roof ( 裳 階 mokoshi ) . This was added later in the Nara period with extra posts to hold up the original first roof because it extended more than four meters past the building . Due to a fire that broke out on January 26 , 1949 , severe damage was caused to the building , mainly its first floor , and the murals . As a result of the restoration ( completed in 1954 ) , it is estimated that about fifteen to twenty percent of the original seventh century Kondo materials is left in the current building , while the charred members were carefully removed and rebuilt to a separate fireproof warehouse for future research . Through a recent dendrochronological analysis carried out using the materials preserved during the restorations done in the 1950s , it has turned out that some of them were felled prior to 670 , suggesting a possibility that the current kondō was already under construction when `` the fire in 670 '' , as recorded in the Nihon Shoki , burned the former Wakakusa - garan down . The hall holds the famous Shaka Triad , together with a bronze Yakushi and Amida Nyorai statues , and other national treasures . The wall paintings shown today in the Kondō are a reproduction from 1967 . Yumedono , a hall associated with Prince Shōtoku Yumedono ( hall of Dreams ) ( edit ) Yumedono is one of the main constructions in the Tō - in area , built on the ground which was once Prince Shōtoku 's private palace , Ikaruga no miya . The present incarnation of this hall was built in 739 to assuage the Prince 's spirit . The hall acquired its present - day common name in the Heian period , after a legend that says a Buddha arrived as Prince Shōtoku and meditated in a hall that existed here . The hall also contains the famous Yumedono Kannon ( also Kuse - , or Guze Kannon ) ; which is only displayed at certain times of the year . Treasures ( edit ) The treasures of the temple are considered to be a time capsule of Buddhist art from the sixth and seventh century . Much of the frescoes , statues , and other pieces of art within the temple , as well as the architecture of the temple 's buildings themselves show the strong cultural influence from China , Korea and India and demonstrated the international connection of the countries of East Asia . The Tokyo National Museum holds over 300 objects which were donated to the Imperial Household by Hōryu - ji in 1878 . Some of these items are on public display , and all are available for study as part of the museum 's digital collection . Kudara Kannon ( edit ) Kudara Kannon Kudara Kannon ( lit . Baekje Guanyin ) is one of the best representative Buddhist sculptures in the Asuka period , with Guze Kannon in Yumedono . Probably made in the early -- middle 7th century . It is 209cm in height and has a quite slim figure . While frontality is a prominent characteristic of the Shaka Triad by Tori Busshi , this statue intends to be seen rather from a side . Most parts of it are made of Cinnamomum camphora . Initially some parts , such as its bare body , were finished with lacquer , and colored vividly , but now severely damaged . The origin of the statue is veiled in mystery . Ancient catalogs for Hōryūji 's treasures , even one written in the late Kamakura period , never mention it . The first surviving record ( 法隆寺 諸 堂 仏 躰 数量 記 ) which referred to it , was from 1698 C.E. , and which implies that it was moved from somewhere sometime after the Kamakura period . The record calls it Kokūzō Bosatsu ( Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva ) , not Kannon Bosatsu ( Guanyin ) , and says `` it came from Baekje , but was made in India . '' At least in the Edo period , there remained no record anymore about which temple it came from , but only a somewhat made - up legend . Although it is called confusingly Kudara Kannon today , the name can not date back to before the early 20th century . All documents from the Edo period to the Meiji period left in Hōryūji , and its oral tradition had regarded it as Kokūzō Bosatsu . The research record made by the Japanese government in 1886 , however , named it in the Korean manner Kannon ( 朝鮮 風 観音 ) at the first time , which was probably suggested by Okakura Tenshin . In 1911 , the crown with the curved Amitabha , a typical attribute for Kannon , for this statue was found in a storehouse of Hōryūji , and thus it proved undoubtedly to be Kannon . The name Kudara Kannon firstly appeared in a book published in 1917 . It said it was `` A tradition of the temple to call the statue Kudara Kannon , '' although there was no such tradition was handed down in fact . Today it is widely accepted by the authorities that the statue was made in Japan . The chief reasons are , in the first place , it is made of Cinnamomum camphora , which was a very typical medium for Japanese Buddhist sculptures in the 7th century . On the other hand , there are no example made of this wood found in Korea . In the second place , the style of flower ornaments in the crown closely resemble those of Guze Kannon and the Four Devas in the Kondō . The origin of the style is still controversial and has no consensus . From the South dynasty ( Kobayashi , Mochizuki etc . ) , from Northern Qi , Northern Zhou or Sui dynasty ( Ueno , Machida etc . ) are all possibilities . The scantiness of surviving Chinese Buddhist sculptures makes it difficult . Murals ( edit ) Amidhaba paradise before fire The murals of the kondō comprise fifty walls ; four larger walls , eight mid-sized walls and thirty - eight small wall areas inside the building . The original murals were removed after the fire incident in 1949 and are kept in a non-public treasure house . Twenty small wall paintings , unscathed from the 1949 fire , are in their original places while reproductions replaced the parts that were removed due to damage . It is generally believed that the paintings on the large walls represent the Pure Land ( 浄土 jōdo ) with Shaka , Amida , Miroku and Yakushi Nyorai Buddhas . Some of the artistic choices , including the way the robes are modeled , are similar to murals found in Ajanta Caves ( India ) or Dunhuang ( China . ) Also observed are Tang and Indian flavors of the Bosatsu and Kannon drawn on the sides of the Amida . Judging from the early Tang influences , the present day consensus on the time of creation of the paintings is end of 7th century . Thus ruling out the possibilities of authorship by those early 7th century figures who were once believed to be the creator , e.g. Tori or Donchō , there is no clear or accepted author of this work . Shaka triad ( edit ) Tori Busshi is credited with the casting of this massive Buddhist statue . It is a triad and so Sakyamuni , the center Buddha , is attended by two other figures , Bhaisajyaguru to its right and Amitābha to its left . The statues are dated to 623 and the style originates in Northern Wei art . The style of the statue is also known as Tori style and is characterized by the two - dimensionality of the figure and the repetitive pattern - like depictions of the cloth the triad sits upon . At each corner of the triad stand four wooden Shitennō statues from the end of the Asuka period . They are the oldest examples of Shitennō statues in Japan . Tamamushi shrine ( edit ) The Tamamushi Shrine , Tamamushi - no - zushi , a miniature shrine once decorated with the iridescent wings of the tamamushi beetle ( Chrysochroa fulgidissima ) Further information : Tamamushi Shrine The Tamamushi Shrine is a common example of painting that derived from Baekje and provides important evidence for the Korean peninsula 's and the Chinese mainland 's strong cultural transfer to the Japanese islands . The shrine is named for the many wings of the tamamushi beetle that once adorned it but have since deteriorated . The paintings that cover building and dais are of Jataka tales , bodhisattvas , the Four Heavenly Kings , and other buddhist iconography . The front panels of the building show the Four Guardian Kings clad in armor with long flowing scarves . On the side doors are bodhisattvas holding lotus blossoms and forming a mudra . On the back is represented a sacred landscape with heights topped with pagodas . The dais shows on its front relics , seated monks making offerings , and apsara . On the back is depicted Mount Sumeru . The right side shows a scene from the Nirvana Sutra , where the Buddha offers his life in return for more of the sacred teachings , before being caught in his plummet by Indra . On the left panel of the dais is a scene from the Golden Light Sutra of a bodhisattva removing his upper garments before casting himself from a cliff to feed a hungry tigress and her cubs . Yakushi Nyorai ( edit ) The statue of Yakushi of the original temple was saved during the fire of 670 . While the temple was being rebuilt the Shaka Triad was commissioned or had been already cast . Yumedono ( Guze ) Kannon ( edit ) This Kannon is a statue that supposedly is the representation of Prince Shotoku . It is approximate six feet and one inch and some sources believe that Shotoku was that height . It is 197 centimeters in height . The kannon is made of gilded wood . It is suggested that the statue was made to assuage the dead prince 's spirit based on the fact that the halo was attached to the statue by a nail driven through the head . The statue bears a close resemblance to extant portraiture of the prince . The Kannon retains most of its gilt . It is in superb condition because it was kept in the Dream Hall and wrapped in five hundred meters of cloth and never viewed in sunlight . The statue was held to be sacred and was never seen until it was unwrapped at the demand of Ernest Fenollosa , who was charged by the Japanese government to catalogue the art of the state and later became a curator at the Boston Museum of Fine Art . Art historians suggest that this figure is based on the Tori Busshi style . Inscription on the halo of Bhaisajyaguru A replica of The Heart Sutra and Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra manuscript in Siddham script on palm - leaf in 609 CE . First page and the first line of second page is The Heart Sutra second page is Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra Hōryū - ji , Japan . The last line is a complete Sanskrit syllabary in Siddhaṃ script Serving the needs of architectural research ( edit ) The Nihon Shoki records the arrival of a carpenter and a buddhist sculptor in 577 , along with the monks , from Baekje to Japan , which is an underlying fact of importing the mainland expertise through this Korean kingdom with whom Japan enjoyed close relations , in order to build temples locally . These experts are recorded to have stationed in Naniwa , or present - day Osaka , where the Shitennō - ji was built . There is no record , on the other hand , as to who exactly were the people that have engaged in the constructing of Hōryū - ji , although the Nihon Shoki records the existence of 46 temples in 624 . The bracket work of Hōryū - ji resembles that of the partial remainder of a miniature Baekje gilt bronze pagoda . Images ( edit ) Kudarakan'nondō Kondō and pagoda Bronze lantern Yumedono roof decoration Guardian statue Reidō and the Cloister of Toin Onigawara roof tile Dragon ornaments on the roof The Horyu - ji complex Panoramic view See also ( edit ) Japan portal Buddhism portal Architecture portal Hokki - ji Masaoka Shiki Nanto Shichi Daiji , Seven Great Temples of Nanto . Buddhist temples in Japan Japanese architecture Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū - ji Area List of National Treasures of Japan ( crafts - others ) List of National Treasures of Japan ( sculptures ) List of National Treasures of Japan ( temples ) For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism , Japanese Buddhist art , and Japanese Buddhist temple architecture , see the Glossary of Japanese Buddhism . Tourism in Japan References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Buddhist Monuments in the Horyu - ji Area , UNESCO World Heritage '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : June Kinoshita ; Nicholas Palevsky ( 1998 ) . Gateway to Japan , `` A Japanese Prince and his temple '' . Kodansha International . ISBN 9784770020185 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : John Whitney Hall ( 1988 ) . The Cambridge history of Japan `` The Asuka Enlightenment '' p. 175 . Cambridge University . ISBN 9780521223522 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : Web Japan , sponsored by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , Japan . `` One hundred years older than supposed ? : World Heritage Pagoda '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ Marstein , Nils ; Knut Einar Larsen ( 2000 ) . Conservation of Historic Timber Structures : an ecological approach . Elsevier . p. 22 . ISBN 0 - 7506 - 3434 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Hōryū Temple '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved July 15 , 2017 . One of the Seven Great Temples of Nara , the Hōryū is also the centre of the Shōtoku sect of Buddhism . Jump up ^ Ryōshin Takada 高田 良信 ( 2007 ) . sekai bunka isan Horyuji o kataru 世界 文化 遺産 法隆寺 を 語る ( Horyuji , a World Heritage described ) . Yanagihara Shuppan 柳原 出版 . pp. 34 -- 37 . Jump up ^ http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/nara/horyujiindex.htm ^ Jump up to : Banister Fletcher , , Dan ( EDT ) Cruickshank ( 1996 ) . Banister Fletcher 's A History of Architecture , p731 . Architectural Press . ISBN 9780750622677 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Ryōshin Takada 高田 良信 ( 2007 ) . sekai bunka isan Horyuji o kataru 世界 文化 遺産 法隆寺 を 語る ( Horyuji , a World Heritage described ) . Yanagihara Shuppan 柳原 出版 . pp. 185 -- 190 . During the reconstruction of the pagoda in the 1950s , the reliquary was shortly removed from the hollow for restoration , then placed back . ^ Jump up to : Seiroku Noma ( 2003 ) . The Arts of Japan , p40 . John Rosenfeld ( Trans . ) . Kodansha International . ISBN 9784770029775 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : Crouch , Dora P ; Johnson , June G ( 2001 ) . ISBN 0195088913 p20 . ISBN 9780195088915 . Not retrievable on the web as of April 2nd , 2007 Jump up ^ Nils Marstein ; Knut Einar Larsen . Conservation of Historic Timber Structures : an ecological approach p21 . Elsevier . ISBN 9780750634342 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Niels Gutschow ; Siegfried RCT Enders ( 1998 ) . Hozon : architectural and urban conservation in Japan , p48 . Edition Axel Menges . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Find rekindles debate over Horyuji Temple '' . The Japan Times Ltd. 2004 - 07 - 20 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ Usually in spring and autumn , for about a month period each . Jump up ^ `` The Archeology of Korea and Cultural Features '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 07 - 13 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ John Whitney Hall ( 1988 ) . The Cambridge history of Japan `` The Asuka Enlightenment '' p. 176 . Cambridge University . ISBN 9780521223522 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` 東京 国立 博物館 - 展示 法隆寺 宝物 館 '' . Tnm.go.jp . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : 小泉 惠 英 ( 1998 ) , `` 百済 観音 ( Kudara Kannon ) '' , in 大橋 一 章 ( ed . ) `` 法隆寺 美術 論争 と 視点 ( The Art of Horyuji , the perspectives of controversy ) '' , グラフ 社 , pp. 121 - 150 . Jump up ^ James Huntley Grayson ( 2002 ) . Korea : A Religious History `` Early Korea '' p36 . Routledge . ISBN 9780700716050 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Takada , Ryoshin ( 1998 ) . Horyu - ji no nazo 法隆寺 の 謎 Mysteries of Horyu - ji . Shogakukan . pp. 131 -- 132 . ISBN 4 - 09 - 387265 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Tsuneko S. Sadao ; Stephanie Wada ( 2003 ) . Discovering the Arts of Japan : A Historical Overview , p42 . Kodansha International . ISBN 9784770029393 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Chatfield Pier , Garrett ( 2005 ) . Temple Treasures of Japan . Kessinger Publishing . p. 15 . ISBN 1 - 4179 - 6569 - X . Jump up ^ Hōryūji ( tourist brochure ) . Kyoto , Japan : Benrido Co. , Ltd. 2007 . pp. 11 -- 12 . ^ Jump up to : Mizuno Seiichi ( 1974 ) . Asuka Buddhist Art : Horyuji . Weatherhill . pp. 40 -- 52 . Jump up ^ `` Tamamushi no zushi '' . Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Sentaibutsu '' . Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Robert Treat Paine ( 1981 ) . The Art and Architecture of Japan , p300 . Yale University Press . ISBN 0300053339 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Kinoshita , June ; Nicholas Palevsky ( 1998 ) . Gateway to Japan . Kodansha . pp. 587 -- 588 . ISBN 4 - 7700 - 2018 - X . Jump up ^ `` Asian Historical Architecture , Horyuji Temple '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 02 . first1 = missing last1 = in Authors list ( help ) Jump up ^ Ryoshin Takada ( 2007 ) . 世界 文化 遺産 法隆寺 を 語る sekai bunka isan Horyuji o kataru '' ( Horyuji , a World Heritage described ) . Yanagihara Shoten . pp. 76 -- 77 . Jump up ^ Shin Young - hoon . `` Audio / Slide Program for Use in Korean Studies , ARCHITECTURE , Indiana University '' . Indiana University . Archived from the original on 2007 - 03 - 13 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to : Horyuji ( category ) Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Horyuji . 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what is the tax rate for lottery winnings in california

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=California_State_Lottery&oldid=844928454

California State Lottery - wikipedia California State Lottery California State Lottery The California State Lottery logo as of 2008 Formation November 6 , 1984 Type Lottery System Headquarters Sacramento , California , United States Website www.calottery.com A pair of the California Lottery 's original tickets , purchased October 3 , 1985 , that are unscratched The California State Lottery , also known as the California Lottery , began on November 6 , 1984 , after California voters passed Proposition 37 , the California State Lottery Act of 1984 , to authorize the creation of a lottery . The first tickets were purchased on October 3 , 1985 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Lottery Act 1.1 Commission 2 History 3 Current Draw games 3.1 In - house draw games 3.1. 1 Daily 3 3.1. 2 Daily 4 3.1. 3 Daily Derby 3.1. 4 Fantasy 5 3.1. 5 SuperLotto Plus 3.1. 6 Hot Spot 3.2 Multi-jurisdictional games 3.2. 1 Mega Millions 3.2. 2 Powerball 4 Former games 4.1 Draw games 4.2 Raffle 4.3 TV game shows 4.3. 1 The Big Spin 4.3. 2 Make Me a Millionaire 5 Scratchers 6 Claiming prizes 6.1 Claim period 6.2 Payment options 7 Unclaimed prizes 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Lottery Act ( edit ) The California State Lottery Act of 1984 was intended to provide more money to schools without imposing extra taxes . Accordingly , the Lottery was required to provide at least 34 % of its revenues to public education , supplementing ( not replacing ) other funds provided by California . Another 50 % of its revenues must be paid to the public in the form of prizes , making a mandated minimum of 84 % of all funds that must be given back to the public in the form of prizes or funds for public education . The remainder , a maximum of 16 % , was to be spent on administration , such as salaries and running the games . On April 8 , 2010 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed into law Bill 142 ( Hayashi , D - Hayward ) . Amending the Lottery Act , this bill reallocates Lottery revenues `` so as to maximize the amount of funding allocated to public education . '' As an urgency statute , this bill took effect immediately . The new allocation increased to at least 87 % the portion of Lottery revenue returned to the public , and correspondingly decreased to a maximum of 13 % the amount spent on administration . It then specified that `` not less than 50 % of the total annual Lottery revenues , in an amount to be determined by the commission , be returned to the public in the form of prizes . '' This leaves `` the commission to establish the percentage to be allocated to the benefit of public education at a level that maximizes the total net revenues allocated to the benefit of public education . '' It also imposed requirements `` to ensure continued growth in Lottery net revenues allocated to public education '' , with annual procedures that would , `` in any one of the first 5 full fiscal years after the enactment of this measure , ... provide for the repeal of the changes made by this measure on the following January 1 , and the prior law to be restored '' , if those requirements were not then met . This bill follows the practice of `` other large state lottery systems , including Texas , North Carolina , and Florida , which have shown an increase in revenue through similar changes . '' Commission ( edit ) The Lottery Act mandates a five - member commission , appointed by the governor , to `` oversee the Lottery and the Director '' and make quarterly reports `` to the Governor , the Attorney General , the Controller , the Treasurer , and the Legislature . '' Annually the commission selects a chairperson . Regular meetings of the commission are held at least quarterly and are open to the public . On January 29 , 1985 , Gov. George Deukmejian appointed the first Lottery commissioners : William Johnston , Laverta Montgomery , John Price , Howard Varner , and Kennard Webster . Deukmejian appointed the first director , Mark Michalko , formerly Ohio Lottery legal counsel , in May 1985 . On 12 March 2012 , Governor Jerry Brown appointed Gregory J. Ahern to the Commission , who was also elected as Sheriff of Alameda County in 2006 . History ( edit ) The California State Lottery began on November 6 , 1984 , when a majority ( 58 % ) of California voters passed Proposition 37 , the California State Lottery Act of 1984 , authorizing the creation of a lottery . On January 29 , 1985 , Gov. George Deukmejian appointed the first Lottery commissioners : William Johnston , Laverta Montgomery , John Price , Howard Varner , and Kennard Webster . The Lottery Act mandated an extremely tight timeline for establishing the Lottery and bringing it to operational status . To comply , the state government immediately built the Lottery 's original headquarters in only three months in the Richards neighborhood of Sacramento ( just north of downtown ) , where it has been located ever since . Governor Deukmejian appointed the Lottery 's first director , Mark Michalko , formerly Ohio Lottery legal counsel , in May 1985 . The first lottery games were Scratchers ; sales began on October 3 , 1985 . A weekly Lotto game began on October 14 , 1986 . In 1996 , as a result of a lawsuit by Indian tribes , the Supreme Court of California unanimously struck down the lottery 's implementation of keno , ruling that it was a house - banked game , not a lottery game , which at that time was illegal anywhere in California . In her opinion for the court , Associate Justice Kathryn Werdegar explained that the California Penal Code and case law interpreting the Penal Code have traditionally distinguished between a `` lottery '' and a `` banked game '' or `` banking game , '' and it was the intent of the state electorate in enacting the Lottery Act to allow only a `` lottery . '' In a true `` lottery '' , the players play against each other ; in a `` banked game '' , they play each other and against the house . The critical distinction between the two is that a bank in a `` banked game '' can be broken based purely upon whether each of the individual bets is won or lost ; the house unconditionally promises to pay prizes on all winning bets with no maximum ceiling . The high court explained that while this definition of a lottery does not prohibit fixed - prize lotteries , such lotteries are valid only if the total prize amount and the maximum number of fixed prizes to be won are fixed before the draw . Subsequently , California Attorney General Dan Lungren also ruled that Daily 3 , which at the time had fixed payouts , also was illegal because it created an interest on the part of the state that fewer people should win , contrary to a lottery where the operator has no stake in the outcome of the draw . In response to these rulings , the Lottery modified Keno and created Hot Spot , which has a pari - mutuel payout format , and modified Daily 3 to a pari - mutuel format where payouts vary depending on the number of individuals who picked the winning numbers . California joined Mega Millions on June 22 , 2005 ; it became the 12th jurisdiction to offer the game , and the last to join before the 2010 cross-sell expansion with MUSL . A Mega Millions drawing was held in Hollywood to commemorate the event . In September 2011 , the California Lottery moved into a new $58 million headquarters at 700 North 10th Street across the street from the old one , which it promptly demolished . Because it was built in a frantic 90 - day rush to comply with the Lottery Act , the original headquarters had numerous construction defects in the roof , foundation , and elevator , as well as a mold problem . California , while initially never desiring to offer Mega Millions 's rival Powerball , was briefly a member of the Multi-State Lottery Association ( MUSL ) because an `` international '' lottery game that would have included a number of US lotteries was planned ; however , the game never came to fruition . However , in February 2012 the California Lottery initiated an impact analysis of the Powerball game , in preparation for a recommendation in July 2012 . Subsequently , the Fiscal Year 2012 -- 2013 Business Plan included funding for a launch of Powerball within the fiscal year , with Powerball launching in California on April 8 , 2013 . As a result of the California Supreme Court 's decision , California is the only state with variable payouts for both games . Current draw games ( edit ) In - house draw games ( edit ) Daily 3 ( edit ) Playing Daily 3 involves picking three digits 0 through 9 and a playstyle . Bettors can choose Quick Pick to have the numbers picked randomly by computer . The playstyle choices are straight ( this is the default if the player does n't choose one ) box , or straight / box . The game costs $1 per play , per draw , and the Advance Play option allows up to 14 consecutive draws . There are two draws every day , televised at 1 : 29pm and 6 : 59pm . Daily 4 ( edit ) A `` pick 4 '' type game premiered on May 19 , 2008 . Each play costs $1 and drawings are held once per day . Playstyles , like `` Daily 3 '' . Daily Derby ( edit ) A Daily Derby is a mock horse racing game . Players choose three horses out of 12 , one each to finish first ( win ) , second ( place ) and third ( show ) ; players also choose a race time from 1 : 40 : 00 to 1 : 49 : 99 , by marking the last three digits of the time on the playslip . Alternately , players can select Quick Pick to have the computer choose the horses , the race time , or both . Daily Derby also offers Advance Play for up to 14 consecutive draws . The game costs $2 per play , per draw ; held daily at 6 : 35pm and televised at 6 : 59pm . Fantasy 5 ( edit ) Fantasy 5 players choose five numbers from 1 through 39 . A ticket includes up to five sets of numbers ; they can be played up to 12 drawings . Games cost $1 per play . Fantasy 5 is drawn evenings at 6 : 35pm and televised at 6 : 59pm . Jackpots begin at $65,000 . A player who bought a $5 Fantasy 5 ticket used to get a coupon to mail in for a `` second - chance '' drawing to be on the Make Me A Millionaire show , or to play the Dream Machine on the first TV show , The Big Spin . That drawing was cancelled in July 2010 and now players receive a `` second - chance '' coupon with a twenty digit code . Players can enter those codes at www.calottery.com/fan5 to be entered into a weekly drawing for a cash prize ranging from $1,000 to $10,000 . SuperLotto Plus ( edit ) SuperLotto Plus is a lotto game played in the style of Mega Millions . SuperLotto Plus is drawn every Wednesday and Saturday . The game began in 1986 as California Super Lotto . In 2000 , the name was changed to SuperLotto Plus . Its starting jackpot is $7 million ( annuitized ) ; a cash option is available for jackpot winners . While the cash option usually is chosen , the SuperLotto Plus annuity is graduated . As of the May 11 , 2013 drawing , the advertised annuity jackpot represents a 30 - payment graduated annuity stream , similar to that of Mega Millions , partly in response to low long - term interest rates . The cash value is now guaranteed . The graduated payments begin at 1.81 % of the jackpot amount and rise exponentially such that the final payout is 5.56 % ( more than triple that of the first payment ) of the advertised jackpot amount . Previously , the first payment was 2.5 % of the annuity value ( or share ) of the jackpot , with the second installment 2.7 % . The remaining 24 payments increased by 0.1 percentage point yearly , so that the final ( 26th ) installment represented 5.1 % of the annuity . Five numbers are selected from a set of 47 balls , while a Mega Number is chosen from a second set , of 27 balls . ( This Mega Number is not to be confused with the gold - colored ball in Mega Millions , which also is known as the Mega Number . ) The California Lottery has offered a number of jackpot games , beginning with its `` 6 - 49 '' game in 1986 , which became a 53 - number game ( drawing a seventh , `` bonus '' ball ) in 1990 , then changed again , to a 51 - number game . The current variant , 5 / 47 + 1 / 27 , began in 2000 . On February 16 , 2002 , the California Lottery 's then - highest payout of $193 million was split by three tickets . Other big jackpots include $72 million in 2007 and $56 million in 1995 . Hot Spot ( edit ) Hot Spot is a quick - draw keno style game . The game was updated on August 1 , 2011 , to allow players to choose to play any amount of `` spots '' from 1 through 10 from a pool of numbers from 01 through 80 . A new higher top prize of $100,000 was also offered for 10 spot play . Previously , players could only choose to play 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 or 8 spots . Wagering can be either $1 , $2 , $3 , $4 , $5 , $10 , or $20 , for a maximum of 100 consecutive draws . In addition , players can choose a Bulls - Eye wager for each draw , hoping to hit the 1 number out of the 20 numbers drawn that is selected as the bulls - eye number . Drawings occur every day and every four minutes from 6 : 00 am until 2 : 00 am . Lottery retailers have monitors that display Hot Spot drawings and recent results from other Lottery games . Fixed prizes are awarded . To meet the pari - mutuel requirements , a continuous `` wagered prize fund '' is created from 63 % of gross sales , which ensures that the fixed payouts are met under normal circumstances , and calls for reductions should an unusually large number of individuals win a particular prize . If the wagered prize fund exceeds $2.9 million , prize augmentation and promotions are created to distribute the excess funds . Multi-jurisdictional games ( edit ) Mega Millions ( edit ) Main article : Mega Millions In 2004 , Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger , as part of his redesign of California government , suggested that California join a multi-jurisdictional lottery . In June 2005 , the Lottery Commission voted to join Mega Millions . California is unique among the 45 Mega Millions participants in that all nine prize levels for Mega Millions within its borders are always parimutuel , rather than each non-jackpot prize having a set value . This leads to different prize amounts for equivalent winners sold in California when compared to those sold in the other 44 jurisdictions . For example , the `` advertised '' second prize in Mega Millions is $1,000,000 ; it is not unheard of for that prize level to pay over $1.9 million to a California second - prize winner . The second prize pool within California frequently rolls ; it is , in effect , a `` secondary jackpot '' . Unlike the other Mega Millions members , California currently does not offer the Megaplier , which is drawn in Texas by a random number generator . Powerball ( edit ) Main article : Powerball In February 2012 , as a response to declining sales and low per - capita revenue from the lottery , California Lottery management initiated a review of whether Powerball would be appropriate for the state . In September 2012 , the Lottery Commission approved management 's request to launch Powerball in April 2013 , citing a net increase in revenue of $90 to $120 million as a result of Powerball , desiring to avoid the launch of a $20 scratcher in fall 2013 . Since the Lottery Act requires that Lottery staff be present at all draws , two part - time employees audit the Powerball draws , which are held at a studio in Tallahassee , Florida . In November 2012 , California promulgated the regulations for Powerball in the state . Similar to Mega Millions , all non jackpot draws in the state are within an intrastate pool , with California sending its jackpot share ( 30 % of draw sales ) to MUSL for addition to the multi-state jackpot pool . This leads to different prize amounts for equivalent winners sold in California when compared to those sold in the other 44 jurisdictions . Each pool for a particular prize category will rollover , thus the `` pick 5 '' prize will create a secondary jackpot similar to the `` pick 5 '' payout in California 's implementation of Mega Millions . Also , as a result of the California Supreme Court ruling which mandates pari - mutuel payouts , California will not participate in the PowerPlay multiplier option . California launched Powerball on April 8 , 2013 , with the first drawing on April 10 , 2013 . The marketing budget was $8.4 million , and included experiential `` red balls '' placed at various locations within the state and television , radio , and online advertising . Former games ( edit ) Draw games ( edit ) Little Lotto : A pick 6 - out - of - 39 game with a fixed top prize of $500,000 . Decco : Played in a similar fashion as most US `` pick - 4 '' drawing games , except players had to match one playing card ( 2 through Ace ) in each of the four suits . Topper : Each SuperLotto Plus ticket automatically was printed with the names of three of California 's 100 then-most - populous - cities ( e.g. Los Angeles , San Diego , Sacramento ) . If the player wagered an additional $1 , they were eligible to win up to $25,000 in the Topper drawing , which was drawn by random number generator . Raffle ( edit ) The California Lottery offered two raffles ; March 17 , 2007 and one on January 1 , 2008 . The raffles offered the best chance to win a $1 million prize , as well as various smaller prizes , and were designed to respond to lottery players ' complaints that many million dollar prizes be offered instead of a few larger prizes . However , the raffles did not sell out , and were not repeated . TV game shows ( edit ) The California Lottery has had two TV game shows . The Big Spin ( edit ) The Big Spin , the California Lottery 's first game show , broadcast its final episode on January 10 , 2009 , ending its run as the longest - running lottery game show in the US . The Lottery had several methods for choosing contestants , including prizes in Scratchers games and `` second - chance '' drawings from other games . The top prize was fixed at $3 million ; the minimum guaranteed prize was $1,750 . While Big Spin Scratchers remained in circulation in 2009 , winners who would previously have spun the wheel on The Big Spin had the option to spin the wheel -- untelevised -- as an alternative to going to the Make Me a Millionaire show , which succeeded The Big Spin . Following the show 's ending in 2009 , the California Lottery commission deemed the wheel to be too historic to salvage , and decided to preserve The Big Spin wheel as part of a permanent exhibit at their headquarters in Sacramento . Guests are invited to spin the wheel for fun without cash prizes . Make Me a Millionaire ( edit ) Make Me a Millionaire , the California Lottery 's second TV game show , debuted on January 17 , 2009 , for an initial four - year run with host Mark L. Walberg and co-presenter Liz Hernandez . On May 4 , 2010 , the California Lottery announced the show 's cancellation due to poor ratings , with the last program telecast on July 3 , 2010 . The show will not be replaced ; money that was allocated for its production will be used for prizes for the Lottery 's Scratchers games . Players qualified for the Make Me a Millionaire show by winning in the `` Make Me a Millionaire '' Scratchers game , or by a Fantasy 5 second - chance drawing ; when the show began , winners from `` Big Spin '' Scratchers also qualified . After the TV show was canceled , winners of the `` Make Me a Millionaire '' Scratchers games , which were sold until June 25 , 2010 , had until December 22 , 2010 , to claim their opportunities to play and win prizes off the air . Similarly , Fantasy 5 second - chance draw coupons , which were discontinued on July 4 , 2010 , could be submitted by December 31 , 2010 . Five unaired episodes of Make Me A Millionaire were produced and made available for viewing on the Lottery 's YouTube channel . During the game play , each of the 12 contestants won at least $2,000 ; seven of the contestants were selected randomly to play four different games of chance with a top prize of at least $1 million . The first game , Lucky Penny , gave three players a minimum prize of $2,000 and the possibility of winning a car . The second game is Safe Cracker , in which two players competed for prizes ranging from $2,000 to $92,000 . Next is California Cool , with one player and prizes ranging from $5,000 to $200,000 . The last game is Millionaire , also for one player ; it guaranteed $10,000 with a jackpot that began at $1 million , increasing by $200,000 each week until won . Scratchers ( edit ) California sells scratch cards under the branding `` Scratchers '' . The prizes are smaller than other lottery games , but there are better odds ( averaging 1 : 5 ) . There are dozens of Scratchers games on sale at any time , and the selection of games changes frequently . Winners must be claimed within 180 days of the announced end - of - game date . Scratchers range in price from $1 to $10 . A $20 scratcher , `` $5 Million Jackpot '' , was introduced September 25 , 2013 . To commemorate the Lottery 's 30th anniversary , on August 24th , 2015 , a $30 Scratcher `` California Lottery 30th Anniversary '' was launched . Claiming prizes ( edit ) For each prize of less than $600 , players may collect from either a Lottery retailer or the Lottery itself . Prizes of $600 or more must be collected from the Lottery , via claim form . Claim period ( edit ) Almost all prizes must be claimed within 180 days of the draw or the announced end of the game . If the 180th day is a weekend or holiday , the final claim date is extended to the next business day . Any unclaimed prize money is transferred to the education fund in addition to the minimum 34 % that the Lottery is already obligated to transfer from income . Because many of the 44 Mega Millions participants have a one - year claim period , the California legislature changed the language in the Lottery Act . On April 23 , 2008 , Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Assembly Member Van Tran 's Assembly Bill 1251 , modifying California Government Code section 8880.321 to allow for a one - year claim period for a Mega Millions jackpot prize . This is the only prize in California that has a one - year claim period . All other prizes have the 180 - day claim period . This legislation affected Mega Millions drawings after July 5 , 2008 . Payment options ( edit ) All prizes for Fantasy 5 , Daily Derby , Daily 3 , Daily 4 , and non-jackpot SuperLotto Plus , Mega Millions , and Powerball prizes , are paid out in one payment , less 25 % or 33 % ( depending upon the winner 's tax documentation ) Federal withholding if the prize is over $5,000 . Merchandise prizes over $5,000 are subject to 33 % Federal withholding . Scratchers tickets are generally one - payment prizes ; however , some games have annuity options for payments each year , or per week . California does not tax California Lottery winnings , however it taxes lottery winnings from other jurisdictions . For SuperLotto Plus and Mega Millions jackpots , the player may choose a single cash payout for a floating percentage of the jackpot , or an annuity . The SuperLotto Plus , Mega Millions , and Powerball payment schedule are on a graduated basis over 30 annual payments . Until 2005 , when California joined Mega Millions , the payment choice on SuperLotto Plus had to be made when the ticket was bought . Since then , there is a 60 - day window after winning , in which the choice of cash or annuity is to be made . Unclaimed prizes ( edit ) Unclaimed prizes remaining after the claim period expires always go to supporting California 's public schools . As of the end of FY 2013 -- 14 , a total of $793.5 in unclaimed prizes have been awarded to education . See also ( edit ) Gambling in California References ( edit ) Jump up ^ 04 / 08 / 2010 Legislative Update , Press Releases , Office of the Governor , State of California Jump up ^ AB 142 ( Hayashi ) : California State Lottery . AroundTheCapitol . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 10 . Jump up ^ Bill Number : AB 142 , Bill Text and Legislative Counsel 's Digest , Official California Legislative Information , Legislative Counsel of California Jump up ^ Governor signs Hayashi 's bill to increase school funding from lottery proceeds , Jeb Bing , April 11 , 2010 , Pleasanton Weekly Jump up ^ California State Lottery Act , California Government Code Title 2 , Division 1 , Chapter 12.5 . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 04 . Jump up ^ Deukmejian Appoints Five to Run California 's Lottery Sales Not Expected ' Til Summer , Jan. 29 , 1985 , Los Angeles Times , found in L.A. Times Archives Jump up ^ DUKE DOWN TO 4 FINALISTS FOR LOTTERY CHIEF , April 20 , 1985 , Page A01 , The Sacramento Bee Jump up ^ Ohio Official Favored for State Lottery Director , John Hurst and Nancy Skelton , May 8 , 1985 , Los Angeles Times Jump up ^ Mark Michalko on LinkedIn.com ^ Jump up to : Collection Overview , Collection Number R181 , Inventory of the California State Lottery Commission Records , The Online Archive of California Jump up ^ Deukmejian Appoints Five to Run California 's Lottery Sales Not Expected ' Til Summer , Jan. 29 , 1985 , Los Angeles Times , found in L.A. Times Archives ^ Jump up to : Hurt , Suzanne ( 3 June 2010 ) . `` Lottery HQ below budget '' . Sacramento Press . Macer Media LLC . Retrieved 13 January 2016 . Jump up ^ DUKE DOWN TO 4 FINALISTS FOR LOTTERY CHIEF , April 20 , 1985 , Page A01 , The Sacramento Bee Jump up ^ Ohio Official Favored for State Lottery Director , John Hurst and Nancy Skelton , May 8 , 1985 , Los Angeles Times Jump up ^ Mark Michalko on LinkedIn.com ^ Jump up to : Western Telcon , Inc. v. California State Lottery , 13 Cal . 4th 475 , 53 Cal . Rptr . 2d 812 , 917 P. 2d 651 ( 1996 ) . Jump up ^ http://oag.ca.gov/system/files/opinions/pdfs/96-1003.pdf Jump up ^ http://articles.latimes.com/1996-09-06/news/mn-41050_1_state-lottery Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/commission-schedule/~/media/1104204EB74141CB867C45AD1774A104.ashx Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/commission-schedule/~/media/5557D8E2A5BC4355BEC90D983579B158.ashx Jump up ^ How To Play Daily 3 , California State Lottery Jump up ^ Televised Draw Results , California State Lottery Jump up ^ How To Play Daily Derby , California State Lottery Jump up ^ Make Me a Millionaire , California State Lottery Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/play/draw-games/superlotto-plus/SLP-jackpot-change-advisory Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/commission-schedule/~/media/0FC56CB28A7940A78451FCBDA591FF10.pdf Jump up ^ Draw Times & Dates California State Lottery . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/commission-schedule/~/media/B7C34ADC7ACE4997BC0DA17D48B6757E.pdf ^ Jump up to : Tran Bill Signed by Governor to Keep Education Dollars Flowing from State Lottery California Chronicle , April 23 , 2008 . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ http://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2014/03/18/numbers-drawn-for-400m-mega-millions-jackpot/ Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/meetings-archive/2012-meetings/~/media/1104204EB74141CB867C45AD1774A104.ashx Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/meetings-archive/2012-meetings/~/media/D94ED4631920443695B3FA2C884CDE58.pdf Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/meetings-archive/2012-meetings/~/media/1B46A261DC554507859EAFC41C71DC69.pdf Jump up ^ http://www.10news.com/money/consumer/powerball-tickets-go-on-sale-in-califonia-for-first-time-statewide04082013 Jump up ^ http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-powerball-generates-excitement-but-will-it-bring-california-cash-20130408,0,5555180.story Jump up ^ http://abclocal.go.com/kabc/story?section=news/local&id=5003754 Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/media/press-releases/press-release?Item=%7BFB15673A-7C55-4F8D-B9E0-59CE2BA3B22B%7D Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/about-us/lottery-commission/meetings-archive/2007-meetings/~/media/B5589136A85B42B6831E2271A1966CD9.ashx ^ Jump up to : `` 3 Ball takes chance on lottery game show '' The Hollywood Reporter , Nielsen Business Media , Inc. , January 7 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Commission Advisory , Videos of the Commission Meeting '' Archived 2009 - 03 - 15 at the Wayback Machine . of December 3 , 2008 , Agenda Item 7E , California State Lottery . Jump up ^ California Lottery cancels ' Make Me a Millionaire ' May 5 , 2010 , Sacramento Bee . ) Jump up ^ Lottery TV Show Archived 2009 - 01 - 20 at the Wayback Machine . California State Lottery . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Official California Lottery YouTube Channel . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 04 . ^ Jump up to : Claiming Prizes , California State Lottery Jump up ^ End of Game Information , California State Lottery Jump up ^ Assembly Bill No. 1251 Official California Legislative Information , the Legislative Counsel of California . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ Instructions for Schedule CA ( 540 ) , Page 4 , Line 21 , State of California Franchise Tax Board Jump up ^ http://www.calottery.com/sitecore/content/ARCHIVE/media/fact-sheets/unclaimed-prizes . Missing or empty title = ( help ) External links ( edit ) California State Lottery Official Site Superlotto Plus Results and News Superlotto Plus Results hide Lotteries in the United States US lotteries Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Missouri Montana Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas US Virgin Islands Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Multi-state games ( by number of jurisdictions ) Powerball ( 47 ) Mega Millions ( 46 ) Lucky for Life ( 25 ) Lotto America ( 13 ) Cash4Life ( 9 ) MegaHits ( 5 ) 2by2 ( 3 ) Tri-State Lottery ( 3 ) All or Nothing ( 2 ) Former multi-state games Cash4Life ( 1998 -- 2000 ) Daily Millions Decades of Dollars Hot Lotto Lotto * America ( 1988 - 1992 ) Lotto South Midwest Millions Monopoly Millionaires ' Club Wild Card Win for Life Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=California_State_Lottery&oldid=844928454 '' Categories : State lotteries of the United States Economy of California 1984 establishments in California Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Edit links This page was last edited on 8 June 2018 , at 04 : 29 . 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what does a high coefficient of thermal expansion mean

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Thermal expansion - wikipedia Thermal expansion This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Thermodynamics The classical Carnot heat engine Branches ( show ) Classical Statistical Chemical Quantum thermodynamics Equilibrium / Non-equilibrium Laws ( show ) Zeroth First Second Third Systems ( show ) State Equation of state Ideal gas Real gas State of matter Equilibrium Control volume Instruments Processes Isobaric Isochoric Isothermal Adiabatic Isentropic Isenthalpic Quasistatic Polytropic Free expansion Reversibility Irreversibility Endoreversibility Cycles Heat engines Heat pumps Thermal efficiency System properties ( show ) Note : Conjugate variables in italics Property diagrams Intensive and extensive properties Process functions Work Heat Functions of state Temperature / Entropy ( introduction ) Pressure / Volume Chemical potential / Particle number Vapor quality Reduced properties Material properties ( show ) Property databases Specific heat capacity c = ( \ displaystyle c = ) T ( \ displaystyle T ) ∂ S ( \ displaystyle \ partial S ) N ( \ displaystyle N ) ∂ T ( \ displaystyle \ partial T ) Compressibility β = − ( \ displaystyle \ beta = - ) 1 ( \ displaystyle 1 ) ∂ V ( \ displaystyle \ partial V ) V ( \ displaystyle V ) ∂ p ( \ displaystyle \ partial p ) Thermal expansion α = ( \ displaystyle \ alpha = ) 1 ( \ displaystyle 1 ) ∂ V ( \ displaystyle \ partial V ) V ( \ displaystyle V ) ∂ T ( \ displaystyle \ partial T ) Equations ( show ) Carnot 's theorem Clausius theorem Fundamental relation Ideal gas law Maxwell relations Onsager reciprocal relations Bridgman 's equations Table of thermodynamic equations Potentials ( show ) Free energy Free entropy Internal energy U ( S , V ) ( \ displaystyle U ( S , V ) ) Enthalpy H ( S , p ) = U + p V ( \ displaystyle H ( S , p ) = U + pV ) Helmholtz free energy A ( T , V ) = U − T S ( \ displaystyle A ( T , V ) = U-TS ) Gibbs free energy G ( T , p ) = H − T S ( \ displaystyle G ( T , p ) = H - TS ) History Culture ( show ) History General Heat Entropy Gas laws `` Perpetual motion '' machines Philosophy Entropy and time Entropy and life Brownian ratchet Maxwell 's demon Heat death paradox Loschmidt 's paradox Synergetics Theories Caloric theory Theory of heat Vis viva ( `` living force '' ) Mechanical equivalent of heat Motive power Key publications `` An Experimental Enquiry Concerning ... Heat '' `` On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances '' `` Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire '' Timelines Thermodynamics Heat engines Art Education Maxwell 's thermodynamic surface Entropy as energy dispersal Scientists ( show ) Bernoulli Boltzmann Carnot Clapeyron Clausius Carathéodory Duhem Gibbs von Helmholtz Joule Maxwell von Mayer Onsager Rankine Smeaton Stahl Thompson Thomson van der Waals Waterston Book : Thermodynamics Expansion joint in a road bridge used to avoid damage from thermal expansion . Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape , area , and volume in response to a change in temperature . Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance . When a substance is heated , the kinetic energy of its molecules increases . Thus , the molecules begin vibrating / moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation . Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual ; this effect is limited in size , and only occurs within limited temperature ranges ( see examples below ) . The relative expansion ( also called strain ) divided by the change in temperature is called the material 's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature . Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Predicting expansion 1.2 Contraction effects ( negative thermal expansion ) 1.3 Factors affecting thermal expansion 2 Coefficient of thermal expansion 2.1 General volumetric thermal expansion coefficient 3 Expansion in solids 3.1 Linear expansion 3.1. 1 Effects on strain 3.2 Area expansion 3.3 Volume expansion 3.3. 1 Isotropic materials 3.4 Anisotropic materials 4 Isobaric expansion in gases 5 Expansion in liquids 5.1 Apparent and absolute expansion of a liquid 6 Examples and applications 7 Thermal expansion coefficients for various materials 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Overview ( edit ) Predicting expansion ( edit ) If an equation of state is available , it can be used to predict the values of the thermal expansion at all the required temperatures and pressures , along with many other state functions . Contraction effects ( negative thermal expansion ) ( edit ) A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges ; this is usually called negative thermal expansion , rather than `` thermal contraction '' . For example , the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 ° C and then becomes negative below this temperature ; this means that water has a maximum density at this temperature , and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather . Also , fairly pure silicon has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvins . Factors affecting thermal expansion ( edit ) Unlike gases or liquids , solid materials tend to keep their shape when undergoing thermal expansion . Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy , which also has an effect on the melting point of solids , so , high melting point materials are more likely to have lower thermal expansion . In general , liquids expand slightly more than solids . The thermal expansion of glasses is higher compared to that of crystals . At the glass transition temperature , rearrangements that occur in an amorphous material lead to characteristic discontinuities of coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat . These discontinuities allow detection of the glass transition temperature where a supercooled liquid transforms to a glass . Absorption or desorption of water ( or other solvents ) can change the size of many common materials ; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal expansion . Common plastics exposed to water can , in the long term , expand by many percent . Coefficient of thermal expansion ( edit ) The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in temperature . Specifically , it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure . Several types of coefficients have been developed : volumetric , area , and linear . The choice of coefficient depends on the particular application and which dimensions are considered important . For solids , one might only be concerned with the change along a length , or over some area . The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient , and the most relevant for fluids . In general , substances expand or contract when their temperature changes , with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions . Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic . For isotropic materials , the area and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are , respectively , approximately twice and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient . Mathematical definitions of these coefficients are defined below for solids , liquids , and gases . General volumetric thermal expansion coefficient ( edit ) In the general case of a gas , liquid , or solid , the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion is given by α V = 1 V ( ∂ V ∂ T ) p ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( V ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( V ) ) \ , \ left ( ( \ frac ( \ partial V ) ( \ partial T ) ) \ right ) _ ( p ) ) The subscript p indicates that the pressure is held constant during the expansion , and the subscript V stresses that it is the volumetric ( not linear ) expansion that enters this general definition . In the case of a gas , the fact that the pressure is held constant is important , because the volume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well as temperature . For a gas of low density this can be seen from the ideal gas law . Expansion in solids ( edit ) When calculating thermal expansion it is necessary to consider whether the body is free to expand or is constrained . If the body is free to expand , the expansion or strain resulting from an increase in temperature can be simply calculated by using the applicable coefficient of Thermal Expansion . If the body is constrained so that it can not expand , then internal stress will be caused ( or changed ) by a change in temperature . This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero , through the stress / strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young 's modulus . In the special case of solid materials , external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes . Common engineering solids usually have coefficients of thermal expansion that do not vary significantly over the range of temperatures where they are designed to be used , so where extremely high accuracy is not required , practical calculations can be based on a constant , average , value of the coefficient of expansion . Linear expansion ( edit ) Change in length of a rod due to thermal expansion . Linear expansion means change in one dimension ( length ) as opposed to change in volume ( volumetric expansion ) . To a first approximation , the change in length measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a `` linear expansion coefficient '' . It is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change . Assuming negligible effect of pressure , we may write : α L = 1 L d L d T ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( L ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( L ) ) \ , ( \ frac ( dL ) ( dT ) ) ) where L ( \ displaystyle L ) is a particular length measurement and d L / d T ( \ displaystyle dL / dT ) is the rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change in temperature . The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to be : Δ L L = α L Δ T ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( \ Delta L ) ( L ) ) = \ alpha _ ( L ) \ Delta T ) This equation works well as long as the linear - expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T ) , and the fractional change in length is small Δ L / L ≪ 1 ( \ displaystyle \ Delta L / L \ ll 1 ) . If either of these conditions does not hold , the equation must be integrated . Effects on strain ( edit ) For solid materials with a significant length , like rods or cables , an estimate of the amount of thermal expansion can be described by the material strain , given by ε t h e r m a l ( \ displaystyle \ epsilon _ ( \ mathrm ( thermal ) ) ) and defined as : ε t h e r m a l = ( L f i n a l − L i n i t i a l ) L i n i t i a l ( \ displaystyle \ epsilon _ ( \ mathrm ( thermal ) ) = ( \ frac ( ( L_ ( \ mathrm ( final ) ) - L_ ( \ mathrm ( initial ) ) ) ) ( L_ ( \ mathrm ( initial ) ) ) ) ) where L i n i t i a l ( \ displaystyle L_ ( \ mathrm ( initial ) ) ) is the length before the change of temperature and L f i n a l ( \ displaystyle L_ ( \ mathrm ( final ) ) ) is the length after the change of temperature . For most solids , thermal expansion is proportional to the change in temperature : ε t h e r m a l ∝ Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ epsilon _ ( \ mathrm ( thermal ) ) \ propto \ Delta T ) Thus , the change in either the strain or temperature can be estimated by : ε t h e r m a l = α L Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ epsilon _ ( \ mathrm ( thermal ) ) = \ alpha _ ( L ) \ Delta T ) where Δ T = ( T f i n a l − T i n i t i a l ) ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T = ( T_ ( \ mathrm ( final ) ) - T_ ( \ mathrm ( initial ) ) ) ) is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains , measured in degrees Celsius or kelvins , and α L ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( L ) ) is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion in `` per degree Celsius '' or `` per kelvin '' , denoted by ° C or K , respectively . In the field of continuum mechanics , the thermal expansion and its effects are treated as eigenstrain and eigenstress . Area expansion ( edit ) The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material 's area dimensions to a change in temperature . It is the fractional change in area per degree of temperature change . Ignoring pressure , we may write : α A = 1 A d A d T ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( A ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( A ) ) \ , ( \ frac ( dA ) ( dT ) ) ) where A ( \ displaystyle A ) is some area of interest on the object , and d A / d T ( \ displaystyle dA / dT ) is the rate of change of that area per unit change in temperature . The change in the area can be estimated as : Δ A A = α A Δ T ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( \ Delta A ) ( A ) ) = \ alpha _ ( A ) \ Delta T ) This equation works well as long as the area expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T ) , and the fractional change in area is small Δ A / A ≪ 1 ( \ displaystyle \ Delta A / A \ ll 1 ) . If either of these conditions does not hold , the equation must be integrated . Volume expansion ( edit ) For a solid , we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material , and the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be written : α V = 1 V d V d T ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( V ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( V ) ) \ , ( \ frac ( dV ) ( dT ) ) ) where V ( \ displaystyle V ) is the volume of the material , and d V / d T ( \ displaystyle dV / dT ) is the rate of change of that volume with temperature . This means that the volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount . For example , a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the temperature is raised by 50 K . This is an expansion of 0.2 % . If we had a block of steel with a volume of 2 cubic meters , then under the same conditions , it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters , again an expansion of 0.2 % . The volumetric expansion coefficient would be 0.2 % for 50 K , or 0.004 % K . If we already know the expansion coefficient , then we can calculate the change in volume Δ V V = α V Δ T ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( \ Delta V ) ( V ) ) = \ alpha _ ( V ) \ Delta T ) where Δ V / V ( \ displaystyle \ Delta V / V ) is the fractional change in volume ( e.g. , 0.002 ) and Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T ) is the change in temperature ( 50 ° C ) . The above example assumes that the expansion coefficient did not change as the temperature changed and the increase in volume is small compared to the original volume . This is not always true , but for small changes in temperature , it is a good approximation . If the volumetric expansion coefficient does change appreciably with temperature , or the increase in volume is significant , then the above equation will have to be integrated : ln ⁡ ( V + Δ V V ) = ∫ T i T f α V ( T ) d T ( \ displaystyle \ ln \ left ( ( \ frac ( V+ \ Delta V ) ( V ) ) \ right ) = \ int _ ( T_ ( i ) ) ^ ( T_ ( f ) ) \ alpha _ ( V ) ( T ) \ , dT ) Δ V V = exp ⁡ ( ∫ T i T f α V ( T ) d T ) − 1 ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( \ Delta V ) ( V ) ) = \ exp \ left ( \ int _ ( T_ ( i ) ) ^ ( T_ ( f ) ) \ alpha _ ( V ) ( T ) \ , dT \ right ) - 1 ) where α V ( T ) ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( V ) ( T ) ) is the volumetric expansion coefficient as a function of temperature T , and T i ( \ displaystyle T_ ( i ) ) , T f ( \ displaystyle T_ ( f ) ) are the initial and final temperatures respectively . Isotropic materials ( edit ) For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is three times the linear coefficient : α V = 3 α L ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( V ) = 3 \ alpha _ ( L ) ) This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions . Thus , in an isotropic material , for small differential changes , one - third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis . As an example , take a cube of steel that has sides of length L. The original volume will be V = L 3 ( \ displaystyle V = L ^ ( 3 ) ) and the new volume , after a temperature increase , will be V + Δ V = ( L + Δ L ) 3 = L 3 + 3 L 2 Δ L + 3 L Δ L 2 + Δ L 3 ≈ L 3 + 3 L 2 Δ L = V + 3 V Δ L L . ( \ displaystyle V+ \ Delta V = ( L+ \ Delta L ) ^ ( 3 ) = L ^ ( 3 ) + 3L ^ ( 2 ) \ Delta L + 3L \ Delta L ^ ( 2 ) + \ Delta L ^ ( 3 ) \ approx L ^ ( 3 ) + 3L ^ ( 2 ) \ Delta L = V + 3V ( \ Delta L \ over L ) . ) So Δ V V = 3 Δ L L = 3 α L Δ T . ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( \ Delta V ) ( V ) ) = 3 ( \ Delta L \ over L ) = 3 \ alpha _ ( L ) \ Delta T . ) The above approximation holds for small temperature and dimensional changes ( that is , when Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T ) and Δ L ( \ displaystyle \ Delta L ) are small ) ; but it does not hold if we are trying to go back and forth between volumetric and linear coefficients using larger values of Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T ) . In this case , the third term ( and sometimes even the fourth term ) in the expression above must be taken into account . Similarly , the area thermal expansion coefficient is two times the linear coefficient : α A = 2 α L ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( A ) = 2 \ alpha _ ( L ) ) This ratio can be found in a way similar to that in the linear example above , noting that the area of a face on the cube is just L 2 ( \ displaystyle L ^ ( 2 ) ) . Also , the same considerations must be made when dealing with large values of Δ T ( \ displaystyle \ Delta T ) . Anisotropic materials ( edit ) Materials with anisotropic structures , such as crystals ( with less than cubic symmetry , for example martensitic phases ) and many composites , will generally have different linear expansion coefficients α L ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( ) ( ) ) \ alpha _ ( L ) ) in different directions . As a result , the total volumetric expansion is distributed unequally among the three axes . If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic , even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal changes . In such cases it is necessary to treat the coefficient of thermal expansion as a tensor with up to six independent elements . A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study the expansion by x-ray powder diffraction . Isobaric expansion in gases ( edit ) For an ideal gas , the volumetric thermal expansion ( i.e. , relative change in volume due to temperature change ) depends on the type of process in which temperature is changed . Two simple cases are constant pressure ( an isobaric process ) and constant volume ( an isochoric process ) . The derivative of the ideal gas law , P V = T ( \ displaystyle PV = T ) , is P d V + V d P = d T ( \ displaystyle PdV + VdP = dT ) where P ( \ displaystyle P ) is the pressure , V ( \ displaystyle V ) is the specific volume , and T ( \ displaystyle T ) is temperature measured in energy units . By definition of an isobaric thermal expansion , we have d P = 0 ( \ displaystyle dP = 0 ) , so that P d V = d T ( \ displaystyle PdV = dT ) , and the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient is α P = C t e ≡ 1 V ( d V d T ) = 1 V ( 1 P ) = 1 P V = 1 T ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( P = C ^ ( te ) ) \ equiv ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( V ) ) \ left ( ( \ frac ( dV ) ( dT ) ) \ right ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( V ) ) \ left ( ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( P ) ) \ right ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( PV ) ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( T ) ) ) . Similarly , if the volume is held constant , that is if d V = 0 ( \ displaystyle dV = 0 ) , we have V d P = d T ( \ displaystyle VdP = dT ) , so that the isochoric thermal expansion is α V = C t e ≡ 1 P ( d P d T ) = 1 P ( 1 V ) = 1 P V = 1 T ( \ displaystyle \ alpha _ ( V = C ^ ( te ) ) \ equiv ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( P ) ) \ left ( ( \ frac ( dP ) ( dT ) ) \ right ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( P ) ) \ left ( ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( V ) ) \ right ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( PV ) ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( T ) ) ) . Expansion in liquids ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( August 2010 ) Theoretically , the coefficient of linear expansion can be found from the coefficient of volumetric expansion ( α ≈ 3α ) . For liquids , α is calculated through the experimental determination of α . Liquids , unlike solids have no definite shape and they take the shape of the container . Consequently , liquids have no definite length and area , so linear and areal expansions of liquids have no significance . Liquids in general , expand on heating . However water is an exception to this general behaviour : Below 4 ° C it contracts on heating . For higher temperature it shows the normal positive thermal expansion . The thermal expansions of liquid is usually higher than in solids because of weak intermolecular forces present in liquids . Thermal expansion of solids usually shows little dependence on temperature ( except for low temperatures ) whereas liquids expand at different rates at different temperatures . Apparent and absolute expansion of a liquid ( edit ) The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container . When a liquid expands in a vessel , the vessel expands along with the liquid . Hence the observed increase in volume of the liquid level is not actual increase in its volume . The expansion of the liquid relative to the container is called as Apparent Expansion . the actual expansion of the liquid is called Real ( or ) Absolute expansion . The ratio of apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit rise of temperature to the original volume is called as coefficient of apparent expansion . For small and same rise in temperature the increase in volume ( real expansion ) of liquid is equal to the sum of apparent increase in volume ( apparent expansion ) of liquid and the increase in volume of the containing vessel . Thus a liquid has two coefficients of expansion . When measuring the expansion of a liquid , the measurement must account for the expansion of the container as well . For example , a flask that has been constructed with a long narrow stem filled with enough liquid that the stem itself is partially filled , when placed in a heat bath will initially show the column of liquid in the stem to drop followed by the immediate increase of that column until the flask - liquid - heat bath system has thermalized . The initial observation of the column of liquid dropping is not due to an initial contraction of the liquid but rather the expansion of the flask as it contacts the heat bath first . Soon after , the liquid in the flask is heated by the flask itself and begins to expand . Since liquids typically have a greater expansion over solids , the liquid in the flask eventually exceeds that of the flask , causing the column of liquid in the flask to rise . A direct measurement of the height of the liquid column is a measurement of the apparent expansion of the liquid . The absolute expansion of the liquid is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of the containing vessel . Examples and applications ( edit ) For applications using the thermal expansion property , see bimetallic strip and mercury - in - glass thermometer . Thermal expansion of long continuous sections of rail tracks is the driving force for rail buckling . This phenomenon resulted in 190 train derailments during 1998 -- 2002 in the US alone . The expansion and contraction of materials must be considered when designing large structures , when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys , when designing molds for casting hot material , and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected . Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another , e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft , then heating it until it fits over the shaft , and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft , thus achieving a ' shrink fit ' . Induction shrink fitting is a common industrial method to pre-heat metal components between 150 ° C and 300 ° C thereby causing them to expand and allow for the insertion or removal of another component . There exist some alloys with a very small linear expansion coefficient , used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures . One of these is Invar 36 , with α approximately equal to 0.6 × 10 K. These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur . Pullinger 's apparatus is used to determine the linear expansion of a metallic rod in the laboratory . The apparatus consists of a metal cylinder closed at both ends ( called a steam jacket ) . It is provided with an inlet and outlet for the steam . The steam for heating the rod is supplied by a boiler which is connected by a rubber tube to the inlet . The center of the cylinder contains a hole to insert a thermometer . The rod under investigation is enclosed in a steam jacket . One of its ends is free , but the other end is pressed against a fixed screw . The position of the rod is determined by a micrometer screw gauge or spherometer . Drinking glass with fracture due to uneven thermal expansion after pouring of hot liquid into the otherwise cool glass The control of thermal expansion in brittle materials is a key concern for a wide range of reasons . For example , both glass and ceramics are brittle and uneven temperature causes uneven expansion which again causes thermal stress and this might lead to fracture . Ceramics need to be joined or work in concert with a wide range of materials and therefore their expansion must be matched to the application . Because glazes need to be firmly attached to the underlying porcelain ( or other body type ) their thermal expansion must be tuned to ' fit ' the body so that crazing or shivering do not occur . Good example of products whose thermal expansion is the key to their success are CorningWare and the spark plug . The thermal expansion of ceramic bodies can be controlled by firing to create crystalline species that will influence the overall expansion of the material in the desired direction . In addition or instead the formulation of the body can employ materials delivering particles of the desired expansion to the matrix . The thermal expansion of glazes is controlled by their chemical composition and the firing schedule to which they were subjected . In most cases there are complex issues involved in controlling body and glaze expansion , adjusting for thermal expansion must be done with an eye to other properties that will be affected , generally trade - offs are required . Thermal expansion can have a noticeable effect in gasoline stored in above ground storage tanks which can cause gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in the winter time or less compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in the summer time . Expansion loop on heating pipeline Heat - induced expansion has to be taken into account in most areas of engineering . A few examples are : Metal framed windows need rubber spacers Rubber tires Metal hot water heating pipes should not be used in long straight lengths Large structures such as railways and bridges need expansion joints in the structures to avoid sun kink One of the reasons for the poor performance of cold car engines is that parts have inefficiently large spacings until the normal operating temperature is achieved . A gridiron pendulum uses an arrangement of different metals to maintain a more temperature stable pendulum length . A power line on a hot day is droopy , but on a cold day it is tight . This is because the metals expand under heat . Expansion joints that absorb the thermal expansion in a piping system . Precision engineering nearly always requires the engineer to pay attention to the thermal expansion of the product . For example , when using a scanning electron microscope small changes in temperature such as 1 degree can cause a sample to change its position relative to the focus point . Thermometers are another application of thermal expansion -- most contain a liquid ( usually mercury or alcohol ) which is constrained to flow in only one direction ( along the tube ) due to changes in volume brought about by changes in temperature . A bi-metal mechanical thermometer uses a bimetallic strip and bends due to the differing thermal expansion of the two metals . Metal pipes made of different materials are heated by passing steam through them . While each pipe is being tested , one end is securely fixed and the other rests on a rotating shaft , the motion of which is indicated with a pointer . The linear expansion of the different metals is compared qualitatively and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion is calculated . Thermal expansion coefficients for various materials ( edit ) Main article : Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements ( data page ) Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient for a semicrystalline polypropylene . Linear thermal expansion coefficient for some steel grades . This section summarizes the coefficients for some common materials . For isotropic materials the coefficients linear thermal expansion α and volumetric thermal expansion α are related by α = 3α . For liquids usually the coefficient of volumetric expansion is listed and linear expansion is calculated here for comparison . For common materials like many metals and compounds , the thermal expansion coefficient is inversely proportional to the melting point . In particular for metals the relation is : α ≈ 0.020 M P ( \ displaystyle \ alpha \ approx ( \ frac ( 0.020 ) ( M_ ( P ) ) ) ) for halides and oxides α ≈ 0.038 M P − 7.0 ⋅ 10 − 6 K − 1 ( \ displaystyle \ alpha \ approx ( \ frac ( 0.038 ) ( M_ ( P ) ) ) - 7.0 \ cdot 10 ^ ( - 6 ) \ , \ mathrm ( K ) ^ ( - 1 ) ) In the table below , the range for α is from 10 K for hard solids to 10 K for organic liquids . The coefficient α varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation ; see for example the variation vs. temperature of the volumetric coefficient for a semicrystalline polypropylene ( PP ) at different pressure , and the variation of the linear coefficient vs. temperature for some steel grades ( from bottom to top : ferritic stainless steel , martensitic stainless steel , carbon steel , duplex stainless steel , austenitic steel ) . The highest linear coefficient in a solid has been reported for a Ti - Nb alloy . ( The formula α ≈ 3α is usually used for solids . ) Material Linear coefficient α at 20 ° C ( 10 K ) Volumetric coefficient α at 20 ° C ( 10 K ) Notes Aluminium 23.1 69 Aluminium nitride 4.2 a-axis , 5.3 c - axis 13.7 AlN is anisotropic Benzocyclobutene 42 126 Brass 19 57 Carbon steel 10.8 32.4 CFRP -- 0.8 Anisotropic Fiber direction Concrete 12 36 Copper 17 51 Diamond Ethanol 250 750 Gallium ( III ) arsenide 5.8 17.4 Gasoline 317 950 Glass 8.5 25.5 Glass , borosilicate 3.3 9.9 matched sealing partner for tungsten , molybdenum and kovar . Glass ( Pyrex ) 3.2 Glycerine 485 Gold 14 42 Helium 36.65 Ice 51 Indium phosphide 4.6 13.8 Invar 1.2 3.6 Iron 11.8 35.4 Kapton 20 60 DuPont Kapton 200EN Lead 29 87 Macor 9.3 Magnesium 26 78 Mercury 61 182 Molybdenum 4.8 14.4 Nickel 13 39 Oak 54 Perpendicular to the grain Douglas - fir 27 75 radial Douglas - fir 45 75 tangential Douglas - fir 3.5 75 parallel to grain Platinum 9 27 PP 150 450 PVC 52 156 Quartz ( fused ( pure glass ) ) 0.59 1.77 alpha - Quartz 12 - 16 / 6 - 9 Parallel to a-axis / c - axis T = - 50 to 150 C Rubber disputed disputed see Talk Sapphire 5.3 Parallel to C axis , or ( 001 ) Silicon Carbide 2.77 8.31 Silicon 2.56 9 Silver 18 54 Sitall 0 ± 0.15 0 ± 0.45 average for − 60 ° C to 60 ° C Stainless steel 10.1 ~ 17.3 30.3 ~ 51.9 Steel 11.0 ~ 13.0 33.0 ~ 39.0 Depends on composition Titanium 8.6 26 Tungsten 4.5 13.5 Turpentine 90 Water 69 207 YbGaGe ≐ 0 ≐ 0 Refuted Zerodur ≈ 0.007 - 0.1 at 0 ... 50 ° C See also ( edit ) Negative thermal expansion Mie - Gruneisen equation of state Autovent Grüneisen parameter Apparent molar property Heat capacity Thermodynamic databases for pure substances Material properties ( thermodynamics ) Charles 's law References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tipler , Paul A. ; Mosca , Gene ( 2008 ) . Physics for Scientists and Engineers - Volume 1 Mechanics / Oscillations and Waves / Thermodynamics . New York , NY : Worth Publishers . pp. 666 -- 670 . ISBN 1 - 4292 - 0132 - 0 . Jump up ^ Bullis , W. Murray ( 1990 ) . `` Chapter 6 '' . In O'Mara , William C. ; Herring , Robert B. ; Hunt , Lee P. Handbook of semiconductor silicon technology . Park Ridge , New Jersey : Noyes Publications . p. 431 . ISBN 0 - 8155 - 1237 - 6 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Varshneya , A.K. ( 2006 ) . Fundamentals of inorganic glasses . Sheffield : Society of Glass Technology . ISBN 0 - 12 - 714970 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ojovan , M.I. ( 2008 ) . `` Configurons : thermodynamic parameters and symmetry changes at glass transition '' . Entropy. 10 ( 3 ) : 334 -- 364 . Bibcode : 2008Entrp ... 10 ... 334O . doi : 10.3390 / e10030334 . Jump up ^ Turcotte , Donald L. ; Schubert , Gerald ( 2002 ) . Geodynamics ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge . ISBN 0 - 521 - 66624 - 4 . Jump up ^ Ganot , A. , Atkinson , E. ( 1883 ) . Elementary treatise on physics experimental and applied for the use of colleges and schools , William and Wood & Co , New York , pp. 272 -- 73 . Jump up ^ Track Buckling Research . Volpe Center , U.S. Department of Transportation Jump up ^ Cost or savings of thermal expansion in above ground tanks . Artofbeingcheap.com ( 2013 - 09 - 06 ) . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Lateral , Angular and Combined Movements U.S. Bellows . Jump up ^ MIT Lecture Sheer and Thermal Expansion Tensors -- Part 1 Jump up ^ Bönisch , Matthias ; Panigrahi , Ajit ; Stoica , Mihai ; Calin , Mariana ; Ahrens , Eike ; Zehetbauer , Michael ; Skrotzki , Werner ; Eckert , Jürgen ( 10 November 2017 ) . `` Giant thermal expansion and α - precipitation pathways in Ti - alloys '' . Nature Communications . 8 : 1429 . Bibcode : 2017NatCo ... 8.1429 B . doi : 10.1038 / s41467 - 017 - 01578 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : `` Thermal Expansion '' . Western Washington University . Archived from the original on 2009 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` AlN thermal properties at Ioffe institute '' . Jump up ^ Ahmed , Ashraf ; Tavakol , Behrouz ; Das , Rony ; Joven , Ronald ; Roozbehjavan , Pooneh ; Minaie , Bob ( 2012 ) . Study of Thermal Expansion in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites . Proceedings of SAMPE International Symposium . Charleston , SC . Jump up ^ Young ; Geller . Young and Geller College Physics ( 8th ed . ) . ISBN 0 - 8053 - 9218 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Technical Glasses Data Sheet '' ( PDF ) . schott.com . ^ Jump up to : Raymond Serway ; John Jewett ( 2005 ) , Principles of Physics : A Calculus - Based Text , Cengage Learning , p. 506 , ISBN 0 - 534 - 49143 - X Jump up ^ `` DuPont TM Kapton ® 200EN Polyimide Film '' . matweb.com . Jump up ^ `` Macor data sheet '' ( PDF ) . corning.com . ^ Jump up to : `` Properties of Common Liquid Materials '' . Jump up ^ `` WDSC 340 . Class Notes on Thermal Properties of Wood '' . forestry.caf.wvu.edu . Archived from the original on 2009 - 03 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : Richard C. Weatherwax ; Alfred J. Stamm ( 1956 ) . The coefficients of thermal expansion of wood and wood products ( PDF ) ( Technical report ) . Forest Products Laboratory , United States Forest Service . 1487 . Jump up ^ Kosinski , J.A. ; Gualtieri , J.G. ; Ballato , A. ( 1991 ) . `` Thermal expansion of alpha quartz '' . Proceedings of the 45th Annual Symposium on Frequency Control 1991 . p. 22 . doi : 10.1109 / FREQ. 1991.145883 . ISBN 0 - 87942 - 658 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Sapphire '' ( PDF ) . kyocera.com . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2005 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Basic Parameters of Silicon Carbide ( SiC ) '' . Ioffe Institute . Jump up ^ Becker , P. ; Seyfried , P. ; Siegert , H. ( 1982 ) . `` The lattice parameter of highly pure silicon single crystals '' . Zeitschrift für Physik B. 48 : 17 . Bibcode : 1982ZPhyB ... 48 ... 17B . doi : 10.1007 / BF02026423 . Jump up ^ Nave , Rod . `` Thermal Expansion Coefficients at 20 C '' . Georgia State University . Jump up ^ `` Sitall CO-115M ( Astrositall ) '' . Star Instruments . Jump up ^ Thermal Expansion table Jump up ^ Salvador , James R. ; Guo , Fu ; Hogan , Tim ; Kanatzidis , Mercouri G. ( 2003 ) . `` Zero thermal expansion in YbGaGe due to an electronic valence transition '' . Nature . 425 ( 6959 ) : 702 -- 5 . Bibcode : 2003Natur. 425 ... 702S . doi : 10.1038 / nature02011 . PMID 14562099 . Jump up ^ Janssen , Y. ; Change , S. ; Cho , B.K. ; Llobet , A. ; Dennis , K.W. ; McCallum , R.W. ; Mc Queeney , R.J. ; Canfeld , P.C. ( 2005 ) . `` YbGaGe : normal thermal expansion '' . Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 389 : 10 -- 13 . arXiv : cond - mat / 0407683 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jallcom. 2004.08. 012 . Jump up ^ `` Schott AG '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 10 - 04 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thermal expansion . Glass Thermal Expansion Thermal expansion measurement , definitions , thermal expansion calculation from the glass composition Water thermal expansion calculator DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package on Thermal Expansion and the Bi-material Strip Engineering Toolbox -- List of coefficients of Linear Expansion for some common materials Article on how α is determined MatWeb : Free database of engineering properties for over 79,000 materials USA NIST Website -- Temperature and Dimensional Measurement workshop Hyperphysics : Thermal expansion Understanding Thermal Expansion in Ceramic Glazes Thermal Expansion Calculators Thermal expansion via density calculator Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermal_expansion&oldid=855310564 '' Categories : Thermodynamics Heat transfer Physical quantities Building defects Hidden categories : CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Articles needing additional references from September 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles to be expanded from August 2010 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Commons category without a link on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 17 August 2018 , at 11 : 09 ( UTC ) . 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-5182527068386462986

what is the atomic mass and atomic number

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mass_number&oldid=850115943

Mass number - wikipedia Mass number The mass number ( symbol A , from the German word Atomgewichte ( atomic weight ) , also called atomic mass number or nucleon number , is the total number of protons and neutrons ( together known as nucleons ) in an atomic nucleus . It determines the atomic mass of atoms . Because protons and neutrons both are baryons , the mass number A is identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the whole atom or ion . The mass number is different for each different isotope of a chemical element . This is not the same as the atomic number ( Z ) which denotes the number of protons in a nucleus , and thus uniquely identifies an element . Hence , the difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons ( N ) in a given nucleus : N = A − Z ( \ displaystyle N = A-Z ) . The mass number is written either after the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element 's symbol . For example , the most common isotope of carbon is carbon - 12 , or , which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons . The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number ( Z ) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number : C . This is technically redundant , as each element is defined by its atomic number , so it is often omitted . Mass number changes in radioactive decay ( edit ) Different types of radioactive decay are characterized by their changes in mass number as well as atomic number , according to the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy . For example , uranium - 238 usually decays by alpha decay , where the nucleus loses two neutrons and two protons in the form of an alpha particle . Thus the atomic number and the number of neutrons each decrease by 2 ( Z : 92 → 90 , N : 146 → 144 ) , so that the mass number decreases by 4 ( A = 238 → 234 ) ; the result is an atom of thorium - 234 and an alpha particle ( He ) : U → Th + He On the other hand , carbon - 14 naturally decays by radioactive beta decay , whereby one neutron is transmuted into a proton with the emission of an electron and an anti-neutrino . Thus the atomic number increases by 1 ( Z : 6 → 7 ) and the mass number remains the same ( A = 14 ) , while the number of neutrons decreases by 1 ( N : 8 → 7 ) . The resulting atom is nitrogen - 14 , with seven protons and seven neutrons : C → + + ν Another type of radioactive decay without change in mass number is emission of a gamma ray from a nuclear isomer or metastable excited state of an atomic nucleus . Since all the protons and neutrons remain in the nucleus unchanged in this process , the mass number is also unchanged . Mass number and isotopic mass ( edit ) The mass number gives an estimate of the isotopic mass measured in atomic mass units ( u ) . For C the isotopic mass is exactly 12 , since the atomic mass unit is defined as 1 / 12 of the mass of C. For other isotopes , the isotopic mass is usually within 0.1 u of the mass number . For example , Cl ( 17 protons and 18 neutrons ) has a mass number of 35 and an isotopic mass of 34.96885 . The difference between mass number of an atom and its isotopic mass is known as the mass excess . Mass excess should not be confused with mass defect which is the difference between the mass of an atom and its constituent particles ( namely protons , neutrons and electrons ) . There are two reasons for mass defect / excess : The neutron is slightly heavier than the proton . This increases the mass of nuclei with more neutrons than protons relative to the atomic mass unit scale based on C with equal numbers of protons and neutrons . The nuclear binding energy varies between nuclei . A nucleus with greater binding energy has a lower total energy , and therefore a lower mass according to Einstein 's mass - energy equivalence relation E = mc . For Cl the isotopic mass is less than 35 so this must be the dominant factor . Relative atomic mass of an element ( edit ) The mass number should also not be confused with the standard atomic weight ( also called atomic weight ) of an element , which is the ratio of the average atomic mass of the different isotopes of that element ( weighted by abundance ) to the unified atomic mass unit . The atomic weight is an actual mass ( made relative , i.e. , a ratio ) , while the mass number is a counted number ( and so an integer ) . This weighted average can be quite different from the near - integer values for individual isotopic masses . For instance , there are two main isotopes of chlorine : chlorine - 35 and chlorine - 37 . In any given sample of chlorine that has not been subjected to mass separation there will be roughly 75 % of chlorine atoms which are chlorine - 35 and only 25 % of chlorine atoms which are chlorine - 37 . This gives chlorine a relative atomic mass of 35.5 ( actually 35.4527 g / mol ) . Moreover , the weighted average mass can be near - integer , but at the same time not corresponding to the mass of any natural isotope . For example , bromine has only two stable isotopes , Br and Br , naturally present in approximately equal fractions , which leads to the standard atomic mass of bromine close to 80 ( 79.904 g / mol ) , even though the isotope Br with such mass is unstable . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jensen , William B. ( 2005 ) . The Origins of the Symbols A and Z for Atomic Weight and Number . J. Chem. Educ. 82 : 1764 . link . Jump up ^ `` How many protons , electrons and neutrons are in an atom of krypton , carbon , oxygen , neon , silver , gold , etc ... ? '' . Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Elemental Notation and Isotopes '' . Science Help Online . Archived from the original on 2008 - 09 - 13 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 27 . Jump up ^ Suchocki , John . Conceptual Chemistry , 2007 . Page 119 . Jump up ^ Curran , Greg ( 2004 ) . Homework Helpers . Career Press . pp. 78 -- 79 . ISBN 1 - 56414 - 721 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` IUPAC Definition of Relative Atomic Mass '' . International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements '' . NIST . Further reading ( edit ) Bishop , Mark . `` The Structure of Matter and Chemical Elements ( ch. 3 ) '' . An Introduction to Chemistry . Chiral Publishing . p. 93 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9778105 - 4 - 3 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 08 . 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3560498347527160821

when do dawson and joey's first kiss

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Joey_Potter&oldid=843389732

Joey Potter - wikipedia Joey Potter Joey Potter Dawson 's Creek character Katie Holmes as Josephine Potter First appearance `` Pilot '' ( episode 1.01 ) Last appearance `` ... Must Come to an End '' ( episode 6.24 ) Created by Kevin Williamson Portrayed by Katie Holmes Information Full name Josephine Lillian Potter Nickname ( s ) Joey ( by everyone ) Jo , Potter Occupation Junior editor and writer High school student ( at Capeside High ; graduated ) Waitress ( at the Yacht Club ) Waitress ( at the Ice house ) College student ( at Worthington ; graduated ) Family Mike Potter ( father ) Lillian Potter ( mother ; deceased ) Bessie Potter ( sister ) Significant other ( s ) Pacey Witter ( husband ) Dawson Leery ( ex-boyfriend ) Christopher ( ex-boyfriend ) Eddie Doling ( ex-boyfriend ) Charlie Todd ( fling ) Jack McPhee ( ex-boyfriend ) A.J. Moller ( ex-boyfriend ) Drue Valentine ( kiss ) Professor Wilder ( kiss ) Relatives Bodie Wells ( brother - in - law ) Alexander Wells ( nephew , via Bessie ) Hometown Capeside , Massachusetts Residence New York City , New York Formerly : Boston , Massachusetts Josephine Lillian `` Joey '' Potter ( born September , 1983 ) is a fictional character and de facto lead role from the WB television drama Dawson 's Creek , portrayed by Katie Holmes . Joey appeared in all episodes of the series , which ran from 1998 -- 2003 . Contents 1 Fictional biography 1.1 Background 1.2 Season 1 1.3 Season 2 1.4 Season 3 1.5 Season 4 1.6 Season 5 1.7 Season 6 1.7. 1 Series finale 2 Notable relationships 3 Holmes ' thoughts on Joey Potter 4 Reception 5 Notes 6 References Fictional biography ( edit ) Background ( edit ) Joey has been friends with Dawson Leery since they were very young . She lives with her older sister , Bessie , Bessie 's son Alexander and ( sometimes ) boyfriend , Bodie . Her father Mike , is in and out of prison for drug trafficking . Her mother , Lillian , died of breast cancer when Joey was thirteen . Joey is also the only character to appear in every episode of the series . Season 1 ( edit ) In season one , Joey is the `` girl next door . '' She is confused by her growth into a teenager and her developing feelings for her longtime best friend Dawson , who she also admitted is her soulmate . She immediately becomes jealous when Jen Lindley arrives and steals Dawson away from her . She is intimidated by Jen , who grew up in New York and does not know how to compete . She lives with her pregnant sister Bessie , and she works for her at the Ice House , the Potter family restaurant . She is frustrated with having to deal with work and taking care of her sister along with significant helpings of teenage angst . Nonetheless , Joey manages to be helpful with the birth of Bessie 's son , Alexander , as does their critical neighbor , Evelyn Ryan . One day she is convinced to compete in the beauty pageant , which she does so that she can win the cash prize . But instead of winning the contest , she wins Dawson 's heart , as he finally sees past his best friend image , and realizes that he has strong romantic feelings towards her . At the end of the season , she finds herself with the opportunity of going to Paris for a year , but rejects it in favor of staying in Capeside with Dawson after she and Dawson kiss . Season 2 ( edit ) At the start of the season , she and Dawson are a couple and things start out well , but Joey begins to think that she is losing her identity , as she ca n't see where Dawson ends and she begins . During a full moon , the new guy in town , Jack McPhee , kisses her . Dawson finds out during a school dance . After a huge argument , Joey decides to break up with him , even though for the first time they both say that they love each other . She says that she wants to `` find herself , '' and so she breaks up with him . Joey and Jack begin dating afterward but the relationship ends just as quickly when Jack realizes that he 's gay . Joey 's father is released from prison and comes back into her life . At first this change is uneasy , but they heal the rift between them and she gets back together with Dawson . However , Dawson finds out that Joey 's father is dealing cocaine . After a fire at the restaurant which was started by rivals of Joey 's father , Dawson tells his parents who advise him he needs to go to the police . He tells Joey instead . He convinces her to wear a wire , and get a confession from her father so that nothing like the fire will happen again . She gets the confession from her father and shows him the wire . Knowing that she had betrayed her father , she is understandably heartbroken and angry with Dawson . She breaks up with him and tells him she does n't even want to know him and that she will never forgive him . Season 3 ( edit ) After Dawson returns from visiting his mom over the summer , Joey offers herself to him but Dawson rejects her . Joey flees and Dawson asks Pacey Witter to keep an eye on her . As the season progresses , it becomes obvious that Pacey and Joey 's friendship evolves into something deeper . Joey has a brief relationship with a college student , A.J. Moller ( Robin Dunne ) . This relationship makes Pacey jealous and forces him to confront his true feelings for Joey . After months of build up , Pacey finally kisses Joey after she confides in him that he and Dawson are the only ones to `` have ever known her in a way that no one else does . '' Joey initially is angry when Pacey kisses her ; however , later she comes to realize that she may also have feelings for him , as well . Joey took a job at a Logan 's Marina , where she received unwanted sexual advances from her supervisor , Rob Logan . During a trip to the home of Dawson 's aunt , Gwen ( Gail 's sister ) , Joey and Pacey confront their feelings for one another . Joey confesses that being around Pacey makes her feel more alive resulting in Pacey kissing her again . Pacey tells Joey she needs to figure out what she wants and leaves . Joey stops him and pulls Pacey into a kiss , having made her choice , but Dawson 's aunt Gwen sees this happen . After this realization , they begin a secret romantic relationship . When Dawson finds out about Joey and Pacey 's relationship , he is furious , and the friendship between the three is never the same again . Dawson gives Joey an ultimatum - him or Pacey . Joey stupidly pulls back from Pacey in an effort to mend his and her friendship with Dawson . Dawson , however , sees Pacey as his enemy and opponent in winning Joey 's heart . Dawson tries his best to win Joey back , including throwing an alternative prom with Joey as his date . However , Dawson witnesses Joey and Pacey share a romantic dance before the night is over . In the season finale , Joey comes to realize that while she 's just fearful of losing her oldest friend , Dawson , she has fallen in love with Pacey . With Dawson 's urging , Joey rushes off to tell Pacey that she loves him before he departs for a summer at sea on his boat . She joins Pacey on his boat and the two then sail off into the sunset . Season 4 ( edit ) Joey and Pacey return to Capeside from their summer at sea in the fourth season , and are quickly brought back to reality when they must confront the events of the past year and the subsequent fallout . Joey is eager to mend fences , though Dawson is still hurt by what happened . Pacey 's relationship with Dawson never quite recovers until the end of the series , though the two are civil and acknowledge a shared history and group of friends . Joey and Dawson get chosen as class couple as a practical joke by Drue Valentine . Also , Pacey has returned to academic probation while Joey dreams of admittance to the prestigious Worthington College in Boston . On a ski trip with the senior class , Pacey and Joey finally sleep together for the first time . However , when Dawson questions her , she lies about losing her virginity . Pacey finds out about the lie and is unsettled . He is further disturbed when Joey accepts money from Dawson to attend Worthington . After Joey returns from New York with Jen , she discovers from Gretchen that Pacey was arrested for public drunkness and that she also believes she may be pregnant . Bessie soon finds out that Joey believes she may be pregnant at Gail 's baby shower , and Bessie argues with her about not being ready to have a baby , and having an immature boyfriend who would never cope with a child . Joey later defends herself by saying that whatever happens in her life will be different . Joey later does a test and finds out she is not pregnant , but the situation draws the sisters close together . When Joey finally reaches Pacey on the phone , she lies about the pregnancy scare and is disappointed that Pacey did n't tell her about his arrest . Pacey soon begins to feel insecure about Joey 's success and their relationship despite her insistence that her future lies with him , believes that he is n't good enough for her , and that their futures are worlds apart . At their senior prom , Pacey breaks up with Joey , who is devastated . The season ends with Joey headed to Worthington and Pacey to another summer at sea . At the end of the season , as Dawson is preparing to leave Capeside for Los Angeles , in a scene reminiscent of Season One 's ending , Dawson and Joey share a kiss . Season 5 ( edit ) In season five , Joey attends Worthington University in Boston , where she meets and befriends her roommate Audrey Liddell . Joey is studying English Literature , and for a time starts seeing her college professor , David Wilder . Throwing everyone for a loop , Mitch is killed in a car accident leaving Gail , Dawson and baby Lily behind . Having been a witness to her mother 's painful last days , Joey thinks that she can help Dawson through the process of grieving for his father . She attends Mitch 's funeral , but is rejected when she tries to help Dawson deal with his whirl of emotions . Upon returning to her dorm room in Boston , a crying Joey is comforted by Audrey . While Jen convinces Dawson to go to counseling , Joey catches Jack in a ' bid ' to get one of his frat brothers in bed with Audrey during the fraternity 's Winter Formal . Joey later joins the band , Aggressive Mediocrity , as lead singer with Jen 's cheating ex , Charlie Todd ( Chad Michael Murray ) . They embark on a whirlwind romance before she tells him to leave to pursue his dream of being a touring musician . She has an unforgettable run - in with a mugger , who luckily for her , gets hit by a car shortly after robbing her at gunpoint . However , when she is requested to be at his side in the hospital , Joey discovers that the mugger is also a drug addict , and has a young daughter , Sammie , with his wife , Grace . When the mugger dies with Joey at his side , she returns to the waiting room , all of her belongings returned , including the money . Thinking of Sammie , whose situation reminds her of the relationship she has with her own father , Joey leaves all the money hidden in Grace 's backpack . At the end of the season she returns to Capeside , and Dawson confesses to her that he wants to be with her . She rejects him saying that all those feelings were in the past , but in the last episode she rushes to the airport , to declare her true feelings for Dawson . She catches him , and they kiss . Joey tells Dawson to go to Los Angeles as that is his destiny , and that they 'll meet up after the summer . As she goes to get a refund , she is offered the chance to go to Paris , and the audience is left hanging . Season 6 ( edit ) In the beginning of the sixth season , it is revealed that Joey did n't end up going to Paris , but went home to Capeside . After not talking all summer , she and Dawson meet up and have a one - night stand in her dorm room . The next day it is revealed that Dawson has a girlfriend in California . Joey breaks things off with him . She takes a job as a waitress at Hell 's Kitchen , with the help of aspiring drummer , Emma Jones . Joey eventually falls for the bartender , Eddie Doling ( Oliver Hudson ) . They both have a love for writing and literature , but it turns out that he is not officially a student at Worthington , as his family was too poor to afford the tuition . After Christmas , Eddie disappears without telling Joey , going back to Worcester to live with his parents . In trying to find him , Joey gets some help from Harley Hetson -- the 15 - year - old , alienated , headstrong daughter of her snobbish and somewhat misogynist English professor , Greg Hetson ( Roger Howarth ) , whom Joey clashes with several times during the entire season . Harley lies , telling Eddie that Joey was pregnant with his child in order to lure him back to Boston . Joey and Pacey begin to rekindle their romance after sharing a kiss at his apartment . After being locked overnight in a K - Mart together , they discuss their past and current relationship . Each admits that they miss the other . They briefly reunite , but when Eddie reappears in Joey 's life , she breaks it off with Pacey ( ironically Pacey and Joey break up at another high school dance resembling the prom ) . After Pacey and Dawson have another falling out after Pacey 's stocks tank and Dawson loses his entire investment , Joey decides that it 's time they worked things out for themselves without her in the middle because it `` is not her fight '' and that it never has been , and never will be . After a heart to heart with Pacey on the dock , Joey brings everyone together to help Dawson make his movie . Joey finally goes to Paris and the final episode of the season ends with her standing before the famous Eiffel Tower . Series finale ( edit ) The final two episodes are set approximately five years after the season finale . Joey is a junior editor living in New York with her writer boyfriend , Christopher ( Jeremy Sisto ) . During this double episode , the five friends return to Capeside for Gail Leery 's third wedding ( but second husband ) . Although she had originally planned to spend the weekend with Christopher , Joey runs scared after finding an engagement ring hidden in the couple 's dresser while she is packing for the trip . The five friends reunite at Pacey 's restaurant to reminisce about the past . Afterwards , Joey drops by Dawson 's house , and the two reestablish their friendship . During Gail 's wedding reception , Joey and Pacey kiss ( reigniting lingering feelings between the two ) , but the moment is interrupted when Jen collapses . It is later discovered that Jen has a deadly heart condition . At the same time , Joey ends her relationship with Christopher and chooses between Dawson and Pacey . Though she loves Dawson , she acknowledges that he is her soulmate who is tied to her childhood , a love that is pure and eternally innocent . She also can not deny she is still in love with Pacey . After Jen 's death , she decides to stop running and confront her feelings for Pacey . In the midst of their romantic entanglements , Joey , Dawson , Jack , and Pacey are brought together at the Ice House , now owned by Pacey , to say goodbye to Jen , who dies from pulmonary congestion . In the epilogue , Joey and Pacey watch Dawson 's semi-autobiographical television series The Creek in their apartment before calling up Dawson together , where they discover he is going to meet his hero , Steven Spielberg . They have renewed their romantic relationship , and the series ends with them as a couple living together in New York . Notable relationships ( edit ) Anderson Crawford Fling Beginning : `` Kiss '' ( 1.03 ) Broke Up : `` Kiss '' ( 1.03 ) Reason : They did n't continue because she lied about who she was . Dawson Leery Kiss `` Detention '' ( 1.07 ) Reason : They were dared to kiss each other despite him being with Jen . Boyfriend First Relationship : Beginning : `` Decisions '' ( 1.13 ) End : `` The Dance '' ( 2.06 ) Reason : After Jack kisses her , she gets confused about who she really is and what she wants . Second Relationship : Beginning : `` A Perfect Wedding '' ( 2.18 ) End : `` Parental Discretion Advised '' ( 2.22 ) Reason : Dawson convinced her to get her father to confess to burning down the ice house and his drug use while she wore a wire . Third Relationship Beginning : Coda '' ( 4.23 ) End : `` High Anxiety '' ( 5.06 ) Reason : Dawson shuts Joey out when his dad dies and eventually tells her it made him lose all interest in getting back with her . Fourth Relationship : Beginning : `` The Kids Are Alright '' ( 6.01 ) End : `` The Song Remains The Same '' ( 6.02 ) Reason : After they sleep together , she finds out he had a girlfriend . Jack McPhee Kiss `` Full Moon Rising '' ( 2.05 ) Reason : She was still with Dawson . Boyfriend Beginning : `` The Reluctant Hero '' ( 2.08 ) Broke Up : `` ... That Is The Question '' ( 2.15 ) Reason : He finds out after writing a poem that he 's gay A.J. Moller Boyfriend Beginning : `` Northern Lights '' ( 3.13 ) Broke Up : `` Cinderella Story '' ( 3.17 ) Reason : Did n't continue to be a couple because she finds out his best friend loves him and he loves her but does n't know it yet . Pacey Witter Kissed `` Double Date '' ( 1.10 ) Reason : She did n't feel the same way and he knew that she liked Dawson and Dawson liked her even though he was still hung up on Jen . Kissed `` Cinderella Story '' ( 3.17 ) `` Neverland '' ( 3.18 ) Reason : She did n't fully realize that she liked him yet . Boyfriend First Relationship : Beginning : `` Stolen Kisses '' ( 3.19 ) End : `` The Longest Day '' ( 3.20 ) Reason : She feels guilty when Dawson finds out about their relationship and ends things with him Second Relationship : Beginning : `` True Love '' ( 3.23 ) End : `` Promicide '' ( 4.20 ) Reason : They realize that they are different and it seemed like she had a bright future ahead of her while he felt like he was being left behind . Third Relationship : Beginning : Castaways '' ( 6.15 ) End : `` Love Bites '' ( 6.18 ) Reason : Eddie comes back . Fourth Relationship : Beginning : ... Must Come To An End '' ( 6.24 ) Note : Jen tells Joey her final wish is for Joey to choose between Dawson and Pacey . She chooses Pacey . Drue Valentine Kissed Beginning : `` The Tao of Dawson '' ( 4.11 ) End : `` The Tao of Dawson '' ( 4.11 ) note : they got locked in a storage locker together , he caught her when she fell and kissed her . She pushed him away immediately , and punched him . She was in a relationship with Pacey . Charlie Todd Kissed Beginning : `` Something wild '' ( 5.11 ) Broke Up : `` Something wild '' ( 5.11 ) Reason : Because he cheated on Jen . Fling Beginning : `` 100 Light Years From Home '' ( 5.19 ) Broke Up : `` Separate Ways ( Worlds Apart ) '' ( 5.20 ) Reason : She tells him to go off and fulfill his dream of being a musician Elliot Almost Fling but never kissed Beginning : `` Sleeping Arrangements '' ( 5.12 ) Broke Up : `` Guerrilla Filmmaking '' ( 5.14 ) Reason : She met him when she was n't over Dawson . Then she thought he slept with Audrey , and after finding out he never slept with her , she gives him another second chance . But she later bails on a date with him ( by claiming she was sick ) to go to a thing with Wilder who she later kissed and the next day tells him she ca n't go out with him off - screen . Professor David Wilder Kissed / Almost Fling Beginning : `` Something Wilder '' ( 5.13 ) Broke Up : `` In A Lonely Place '' ( 5.16 ) Reason : Joey inadvertently stands David up after getting mugged . This gives him the time to reflect upon the relationship and he realizes that he ca n't have an affair with a student . Eddie Doling First Kiss : `` Instant Karma ! '' ( 6.04 ) Eddie thinks she only kissed him to get back at Dawson ; so it does n't lead to anything until later episodes . Boyfriend First Relationship : Beginning : `` Ego Tripping At The Gates Of Hell '' ( 6.07 ) Broke Up : `` Rock Bottom '' ( 6.13 ) Reason : He left without telling her Second Relationship : Beginning : `` Love Bites '' ( 6.18 ) Broke Up : `` Catch - 22 '' ( 6.20 ) Reason : They did n't see a future with each other Christopher Boyfriend Beginning : About a year or two before `` All Good Things ... '' ( 6.23 ) End : `` ... Must Come To An End '' ( 6.24 ) Reason : Joey breaks up with him over the phone after having found a ring in his drawer back in New York . Holmes ' thoughts on Joey Potter ( edit ) `` I 'm a lot like Joey , '' said Holmes . `` I think they saw that . I come from a small town . I was a tomboy . Joey tries to be articulate and deny that she does n't have a lot of experience in life . Her life parallels mine , which is all about new everything -- relationships , personal perceptions -- and about being guarded . '' Holmes filmed the pilot of Dawson 's Creek in Wilmington , North Carolina , during spring break of her senior year of high school in 1997 . When the show was picked up by The WB , Holmes moved to Wilmington , where the show filmed . Dawson 's Creek ran from 1998 to 2003 , and Holmes was the only actor to appear in all 128 episodes . `` It was very difficult for me to leave Wilmington , to have my little glass bubble burst and move on . I hate change . On the other hand it was refreshing to play someone else , '' she said in 2004 . Holmes confirmed that , as often happens on soaps , the character was a caricature of the actor : `` I miss her spirit , and her spunk , and I miss her anxiety . She always had these long speeches about her fears and her future and love . It was a great tool for me personally because I got to get it all out . I was able to psychoanalyze all of it everyday ( sic ? ) with her and then I would n't have to do it on my own . So much of me is in Joey and it really felt like I grew up on television . '' Reception ( edit ) Katie Holmes received high acclaim during second season and has since been referred to as the series ' central character by the media . `` Joey Potter is a headstrong , vibrant , wily , sultry , and determined go - getter . And yet , in a gloriously contradictory manner , in spite of her tough - as - nails exterior demeanor , Joey 's also a frail , sometimes uncertain , emotionally sensitive , in - need - of - love person '' , said the show 's official book . Joey , named for Jo in Little Women , for years had been climbing in Dawson 's bedroom window and platonically sharing his bed . Joey 's mother had died from cancer when Joey was thirteen and her father , Mike ( Gareth Williams ) , was in prison for `` conspiracy to traffic in marijuana in excess of 10,000 pounds . '' Her harried , unmarried , and very pregnant sister , Bessie ( Nina Repeta ) , about ten years older than Joey , was raising her while running the Ice House restaurant , where Joey worked as a waitress . GQ described Joey as `` kind of an uptight fussbudget -- one who 's always twisted up over doing the right thing and bungling - up ways to hook up with her crush and across the creek neighbor , Dawson . '' The 5 ft 9 in ( 1.75 m ) tall brunette enchanted the press , writers of both sexes commenting how Holmes was the sort of girl one wants to bring home to meet the parents and to marry . `` The Audrey Hepburn of her generation '' , was one typical comment . Time called her `` impossibly lovely '' and Entertainment Weekly said she was `` next up for idolhood . '' Variety , reviewing the pilot , said Holmes `` is a confident young performer who delivers her lines with slyness and conviction . '' Holmes made such an impression in Hollywood , The New York Times Magazine claimed everyone was seeking to cast a `` Katie Holmes type '' , who , the reporter claimed , `` is a throwback to the 1950s : she is a smart girl next door ( as opposed to the babe - o-rama blondes ) '' -- the sort represented by her Dawson 's Creek co-star Michelle Williams . But her `` type '' was no less attractive , Arena magazine declaring her `` the most coquettishly sexy woman on television . Anywhere . '' Holmes was soon on the covers of magazines such as Seventeen , TV Guide , and Rolling Stone . Jancee Dunn , an editor at Rolling Stone said she was chosen for the cover because `` every time you mention Dawson 's Creek you tend to get a lot of dolphin - like shrieks from teenage girls . The fact that she is drop - dead gorgeous did n't hurt either . '' Reviews were mixed . The Blade said the characters `` just talk like they came from a planet ruled by Manhattan psychologists , one where small talk is punishable by death . '' Holmes herself needed help with the dialogue . `` Sometimes before we read a script , I have to get my dictionary and call people to make sure I 'm pronouncing some of the words correctly . '' The show brought her national attention and many fans back home ; Toledo 's Thanksgiving Day parade in November 1998 had record attendance when Holmes was named grand marshal . `` As Joey '' , said Life magazine , `` Holmes has had seismic influences on teen life ... Through it all , Joey has managed to hang on to her integrity ... The show -- and Katie 's character in particular -- has touched a nerve . '' Her relationship with Pacey was included in TV Guide 's list of `` The Best TV Couples of All Time '' . Flavorwire chose the show 's other central pairing , Joey and Dawson , in its list of `` TV 's Best ' 90s Teen Power Couples '' . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Dawson 's Creek , Season 2 , confirmed Bessie was in high school when Joey was in kindergarten References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Season 6 , Episode 1 `` The Kids Are Alright '' and Episode 2 `` The Song remains the Same '' Jump up ^ Cohen . Jump up ^ Nancy Mills . `` A ' First ' for Katie : President 's daughter is Holmes , grown . '' Archived June 29 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . New York Daily News . September 23 , 2004 . 45 . Jump up ^ Graber . `` Holmes Sweet Holmes . '' Jump up ^ Darren Crosdale . Dawson 's Creek : The Official Companion . Kansas City , Missouri : Andrews McMeel , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 7407 - 0725 - 6 . 77 -- 78 . ^ Jump up to : Adam Rapoport . `` Girl , You 'll Be A Woman Soon . '' 200 times GQ. April 2002 . 141 + . Jump up ^ Leslie Graber . `` Holmes Sweet Holmes '' Cosmopolitan . v. 237 , n . 4 . October 2004 . 58 + . Jump up ^ Judith Newman . `` The Last Girl Scout . '' Allure . v. 13 , n . 6 . June 2003 . 182 -- 189 . Jump up ^ Jay Mathews . `` Dawson 's Peek : Teen TV Fans Hit Wilmington , N.C. '' The Washington Post . July 4 , 1999 . E1 . Jump up ^ Michael Krantz . `` The bard of Gen - Y . '' Time . December 15 , 1997 . 105 Jump up ^ Chris Nashawaty . `` Teen Steam '' . Entertainment Weekly . Issue 405 . November 14 , 1997 . 24 . Jump up ^ Ray Richmond . Review of Dawson 's Creek . Variety . January 19 , 1998 . 71 . Jump up ^ Lynn Hirschberg . `` Desperate to Seem 16 . '' The New York Times Magazine . September 5 , 1999 . 42 + . Jump up ^ Richard Galpin . `` Special K . '' Arena . Issue 127 . October 2002 . 170 -- 176 . Jump up ^ Christopher Borrelli . `` Toledoan Captures Coveted Cover of the Rolling Stone . '' The Blade . August 27 , 1998 . Living , 31 . Jump up ^ Christopher Borrelli . `` ' Dawson 's Creek ' Runs Too Smoothly : Characters Have Typical Woes But Adult Vocabularies . '' The Blade . January 18 , 1998 . TV Week section . Jump up ^ Christopher Borrelli . `` Katie Holmes for the Holiday : She Left Toledo With a Big Dream and Returns a Big Star . '' The Blade . November 22 , 1998 . G1 Jump up ^ Vanessa Winans . `` TV Star Home for Holiday Event : Record Crowd Steps Up for Parade . '' The Blade . November 29 , 1998 . A1 Jump up ^ Vanessa Winans and David Patch . `` Biggest Hit of the Day ? Katie Holmes ( And Her Mom ) . '' The Blade . November 29 , 1998 . A11 . Jump up ^ Marilyn Johnson and Andrew Southam . `` Nice Girls Finish First : So what does it mean that a very nice girl playing a very thoughtful girl has become TV 's teen idol ? Consider it a good sign . '' Life . March 1999 . Jump up ^ `` Couples Pictures , Dawson 's Creek Photos -- Photo Gallery : The Best TV Couples of All Time '' . TV Guide . Retrieved June 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Jennifer ( January 3 , 2012 ) . `` TV 's Best ' 90s Teen Power Couples '' . Flavorwire . Retrieved January 26 , 2013 . Dawson 's Creek Characters Dawson Leery Joey Potter Gail Leery Episodes `` True Love '' Releases List of Dawson 's Creek home video releases Related Young Americans Songs from Dawson 's Creek Songs from Dawson 's Creek -- Volume 2 `` I Do n't Want to Wait '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joey_Potter&oldid=843389732 '' Categories : Fictional characters from Massachusetts Dawson 's Creek characters Fictional writers Fictional characters introduced in 1998 Teenage characters in television Hidden categories : All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from July 2011 Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from June 2014 Pages using deprecated image syntax Articles using Infobox character with multiple unlabeled fields All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Italiano Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2018 , at 20 : 53 ( UTC ) . 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Household income in the United States - Wikipedia Household income in the United States For information on the income of individuals , see Personal income in the United States . This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( March 2015 ) U.S. real median household income ( 1984 -- 2016 ) Map of states by median household income in 2015 . Darker blue indicates higher income ; the detail is included in the image page . Household income is an economic measure that can be applied to one household , or aggregated across a large group such as a county , city , or the whole country . It is commonly used by the United States government and private institutions to describe a household 's economic status or to track economic trends in the US . One key measure is the real median level , meaning half of households have income above that level and half below , adjusted for inflation . According to the Census , this measure was $59,039 in 2016 , a record high . This was the largest two year percentage increase on record . The distribution of U.S. household income has become more unequal since around 1980 , with the income share received by the top 1 % trending upward from around 10 % or less over the 1953 -- 1981 period to over 20 % by 2007 . After falling somewhat due to the Great Recession in 2008 and 2009 , inequality rose again during the economic recovery , a typical pattern historically . Contents 1 Definition 2 Recent trends 3 Uses 4 Median inflation - adjusted ( `` real '' ) household income 4.1 CBO income growth study 5 Mean household income 6 Mean vs. median household income 7 Aggregate income distribution 8 Household income and demographics 8.1 Racial and ethnic groups 8.2 Education and gender 8.3 Age of householder 8.4 Household size 8.5 Geography 8.5. 1 Income by state 9 Social class 10 Distribution of household income 10.1 Distribution of household income in 2014 according to US Census data 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Definition ( edit ) A household 's income can be calculated various ways but the US Census as of 2009 measured it in the following manner : the income of every resident of that house that is over the age of 15 , including wages and salaries , as well as any kind of governmental entitlement such as unemployment insurance , disability payments or child support payments received , along with any personal business , investment , or other recurring sources of income . The residents of the household do not have to be related to the head of the household for their earnings to be considered part of the household 's income . As households tend to share a similar economic context , the use of household income remains among the most widely accepted measures of income . That the size of a household is not commonly taken into account in such measures may distort any analysis of fluctuations within or among the household income categories , and may render direct comparisons between quintiles difficult or even impossible . Recent trends ( edit ) U.S. economic growth is not translating into higher median family incomes . Real GDP per household has typically increased since the year 2000 , while real median income per household was below 1999 levels until 2016 , indicating a trend of greater income inequality . Total compensation 's share of GDP has declined by 4.5 percentage points from 1970 to 2016 . This implies that the share attributed to capital increased in that period . U.S. real wages ( i.e. production ) for ordinary ( i.e. non-supervisory ) workers remain slightly below their 1970s peak . The U.S. Census Bureau reported in September 2017 that real median household income was $59,039 in 2016 , exceeding any previous year . This was the fourth consecutive year with a statistically significant increase by their measure . Changes in median income reflect several trends : the aging of the population , changing patterns in work and schooling , and the evolving makeup of the American family , as well as long - and short - term trends in the economy itself . For instance , the retirement of the Baby Boom generation should push down overall median income , as more persons enter lower - income retirement . However , analysis of different working age groups indicate a similar pattern of stagnating median income as well . Journalist Annie Lowrey wrote in September 2014 : `` The root causes ( of wage stagnation ) include technological change , the decline of labor unions , and globalization , economists think , though they disagree sharply on how much to weight each factor . But foreign - produced goods became sharply cheaper , meaning imports climbed and production moved overseas . And computers took over for humans in many manufacturing , clerical , and administrative tasks , eroding middle - class jobs growth and suppressing wages . '' Another line of analysis , known as `` total compensation , '' presents a more complete picture of real wages . The Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a study in 2013 which shows that employer contributions to employee healthcare costs went up 78 % from 2003 to 2013 . The marketplace has made a trade - off : expanding benefits packages vs. increasing wages . Measured relative to GDP , total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970 . This indicates a shift in income from labor ( persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries ) to capital ( persons who derive income via ownership of businesses , land and assets ) . This trend is common across the developed world , due in part to globalization . Wages and salaries have fallen from approximately 51 % GDP in 1970 to 43 % GDP in 2013 . Total compensation has fallen from approximately 58 % GDP in 1970 to 53 % GDP in 2013 . However , as indicated by the charts below , household income has still increased significantly since the late 1970s and early 80s in real terms , partly due to higher individual median wages , and partly due to increased opportunities for women . According to the CBO , between 1979 and 2011 , gross median household income , adjusted for inflation , rose from $59,400 to $75,200 , or 26.5 % . However , once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective , real median household income grew 46 % , representing significant growth . Uses ( edit ) Use of individual household income : The government and organizations may look at one particular household 's income to decide if a person is eligible for certain programs , such as nutrition assistance or need - based financial aid , among many others . Use at the aggregate level : Summaries of household incomes across groups of people - often the entire country - are also studied as part of economic trends like standard of living and distribution of income and wealth . Household income as an economic measure can be represented as a median , a mean , a distribution , and other ways . Household income can be studied across time , region , education level , race / ethnicity , and many other dimensions . As an indicator of economic trends , it may be studied along with related economic measures such as disposable income , debt , household net worth ( which includes debt and investments , durable goods like cars and houses ) , wealth , and employment statistics . Median inflation - adjusted ( `` real '' ) household income ( edit ) Median inflation - adjusted ( `` real '' ) household income generally increases and decreases with the business cycle , declining in each year during the periods 1979 through 1983 , 1990 through 1993 , 2000 through 2004 and 2008 through 2012 , while rising in each of the intervening years . Extreme poverty in the United States , meaning households living on less than $2 per person per day before government benefits , more than doubled from 636,000 to 1.46 million households ( including 2.8 million children ) between 1996 and 2011 , with most of this increase occurring between late 2008 and early 2011 . US county household median income 2012 . CBO income growth study ( edit ) The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office conducted a study analyzing household income throughout the income distribution , by combining the Census and IRS income data sources . Unlike the Census measure of household income , the CBO showed income before and after taxes , and by also taking into account household size . Also , the CBO definition of income is much broader , and includes in kind transfers as well as all monetary transfers from the government . The Census ' official definition of money income excludes food stamps and the EITC , for example , while CBO includes it . Between 1979 and 2011 , gross median household income , adjusted for inflation , rose from $59,400 to $75,200 , or 26.5 % . This compares with the Census ' growth of 10 % . However , once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective , real median household income grew 46 % , representing significant growth . While median gross household income showed much stronger growth than depicted by the Census , inequality was shown to still have increased . The top 10 % saw gross household income grow by 78 % , versus 26.5 % for the median . The bottom 10 % , using the same measure , saw higher growth than the median ( 40 % ) . Mean household income ( edit ) Another common measurement of personal income is the mean household income . Unlike the median household income , which divides all households in two halves , the mean income is the average income earned by American households . In the case of mean income , the income of all households is divided by the number of all households . The mean income is usually more affected by the relatively unequal distribution of income which tilts towards the top . As a result , the mean tends to be higher than the median income , with the top earning households boosting it . Overall , the mean household income in the United States , according to the US Census Bureau 2014 Annual Social and Economic Supplement , was $72,641 . The US Census Bureau also provides a breakdown by self - identified ethnic groups as follows ( as of March 2014 ) : Mean household income by ethnicity Ethnic category Mean household income Asian alone $90,752 White alone $79,340 Hispanic or Latino $54,644 Black $49,629 Mean vs. median household income ( edit ) Median income is the amount which divides the income distribution into two equal groups , half having income above that amount , and half having income below that amount . Mean income ( average ) is the amount obtained by dividing the total aggregate income of a group by the number of units in that group . The means and medians for households and families are based on all households and families . Means and medians for people are based on people 15 years old and over with income . -- US Census Bureau , Frequently Asked Question , published by First Gov . Aggregate income distribution ( edit ) Sadly , all the data in this section is for 2007 . It needs updating . The aggregate income measures the combined income earned by all persons in a particular income group . In 2007 , all households in the United States earned roughly $7.723 trillion . One half , 49.98 % , of all income in the US was earned by households with an income over $100,000 , the top twenty percent . Over one quarter , 28.5 % , of all income was earned by the top 8 % , those households earning more than $150,000 a year . The top 3.65 % , with incomes over $200,000 , earned 17.5 % . Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $75,000 , 18.2 % of households , earned 16.5 % of all income . Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $95,000 , 28.1 % of households , earned 28.8 % of all income . The bottom 10.3 % earned 1.06 % of all income . Household income and demographics ( edit ) Racial and ethnic groups ( edit ) Main article : List of ethnic groups in the United States by household income personal and household income in the United States Census in 2005 White Americans made up roughly 75.1 % of all people in 2000 , 87.93 % of all households in the top 5 % were headed by a person who identified as being White alone . Only 4.75 % of all household in the top 5 % were headed by someone who identified as Hispanic or Latino of any race , versus 12.5 % of persons identifying themselves as Hispanic or Latino in the general population . Overall , 86.01 % of all households in the top two quintiles with upper - middle range incomes of over $55,331 were headed by someone identifying as White alone , while 7.21 % were being headed by someone who identified as Hispanic and 7.37 % by someone who identified as African American or Black . Overall , households headed by Hispanics and African Americans were underrepresented in the top two quintiles and overrepresented in the bottom two quintiles . Households headed by people who identified as being Asian alone were also overrepresented among the top two quintiles . In the top five percent the percentage of Asians was nearly twice as high as the percentage of Asians among the general population . Whites were relatively even distributed throughout the quintiles only being underrepresented in the lowest quintile and slightly overrepresented in the top quintile and the top five percent . In terms of race in 2010 data , Asian American households had the highest median household income of $57,518 , European - American households ranked second with $48,977 , Hispanic or Latino households ranked third with $34,241 . African - American or Black households had the lowest median household income of all races with $30,134 . Ethnic group All households Lowest fifth Second fifth Middle fifth Fourth fifth Highest fifth Top 5 % White alone Number in 1000s 92,702 16,940 18,424 18,978 19,215 19,721 5,029 Percentage 81.93 % 74.87 % 81.42 % 83.87 % 84.92 % 87.16 % 87.93 % Asian alone Number in 1000s 4,140 624 593 786 871 1,265 366 Percentage 3.65 % 2.76 % 2.26 % 3.47 % 3.84 % 5.59 % 6.46 % Black Number in 1000s 13,792 4,474 3,339 2,637 2,053 1,287 236 Percentage 12.19 % 19.77 % 14.75 % 11.65 % 9.07 % 5.69 % 4.17 % Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) Number in 1000s 12,838 3,023 3,130 2,863 1,931 1,204 269 Percentage 11.33 % 13.56 % 13.83 % 12.20 % 8.53 % 5.89 % 4.75 % Source : US Census Bureau , 2004 Education and gender ( edit ) Median annual household income in accordance with the householder 's educational attainment . The data only applies to household with a householder over the age of twenty - five . Household income as well as per capita income in the United States rise significantly as the educational attainment increases . In 2005 graduates with a Master 's in Business Administration ( MBA ) who accepted job offers were expected to earn a base salary of $88,626 . They were also expected to receive an `` average signing bonus of $17,428 . '' According to the US Census Bureau persons with doctorates in the United States had an average income of roughly $81,400 . The average for an advanced degree was $72,824 , with men averaging $90,761 and women averaging $50,756 annually . Year - round full - time workers with a professional degree had an average income of $109,600 while those with a master 's degree had an average income of $62,300 . Overall , `` ... ( a ) verage earnings ranged from $18,900 for high school dropouts to $25,900 for high school graduates , $45,400 for college graduates and $99,300 for workers with professional degrees ( M.D. , D.P.T. , D.P.M. , D.O. , J.D. , Pharm. D. , D.D.S. , or D.V.M. ) . Individuals with graduate degrees have an average per capita income exceeding the median household income of married couple families among the general population ( $63,813 annually ) . Higher educational attainment did not , however , help close the income gap between the genders as the life - time earnings for a male with a professional degree were roughly forty percent ( 39.59 % ) higher than those of a female with a professional degree . The lifetime earnings gap between males and females was the smallest for those individuals holding an associate degrees with male life - time earnings being 27.77 % higher than those of females . While educational attainment did not help reduce the income inequality between men and women , it did increase the earnings potential of individuals of both sexes , enabling many households with one or more graduate degree householders to enter the top household income quintile . These data were not adjusted for preferential differences among men and women whom attend college . For example , men often study fields of engineering while women often pursue social sciences . Household income also increased significantly with the educational attainment of the householder . The US Census Bureau publishes educational attainment and income data for all households with a householder who was aged twenty - five or older . The biggest income difference was between those with some college education and those who had a Bachelor 's degree , with the latter making $23,874 more annually . Income also increased substantially with increased post-secondary education . While the median annual household income for a household with a householder having an associate degree was $51,970 , the median annual household income for householders with a bachelor 's degree or higher was $73,446 . Those with doctorates had the second highest median household with a median of $96,830 ; $18,289 more than that for those at the master 's degree level , but $3,170 lower than the median for households with a professional degree holding householder . Criteria Overall Less than 9th grade Some high school High school graduate Some college Associate degree Bachelor 's degree Bachelor 's degree or more Master 's degree Professional degree Doctoral degree Median annual individual income Male , age 25 + $33,517 $15,461 $18,990 $28,763 $35,073 $39,015 $50,916 $55,751 $61,698 $88,530 $73,853 Female , age 25 + $19,679 $9,296 $10,786 $15,962 $21,007 $24,808 $31,309 $35,125 $41,334 $48,536 $53,003 Median annual household income $45,016 $18,787 $22,718 $36,835 $45,854 $51,970 $68,728 $73,446 $78,541 $100,000 $96,830 SOURCE : US Census Bureau , 2003 Median household income in 2003 dollars according to educational attainment . The change in median personal and household since 1991 also varied greatly with educational attainment . The following table shows the median household income according to the educational attainment of the householder . All data is in 2003 dollars and only applies to householders whose householder is aged twenty - five or older . The highest and lowest points of the median household income are presented in bold face . Since 2003 , median income has continued to rise for the nation as a whole , with the biggest gains going to those with associate degrees , bachelor 's degree or more , and master 's degrees . High - school dropouts fared worse with negative growth . Year Overall Median Less than 9th grade Some high school High school graduate Some college Associate degree Bachelor 's degree Bachelor 's degree or more Master 's degree Professional degree Doctoral degree 1991 $40,873 $17,414 $23,096 $37,520 $46,296 $52,289 $64,150 $68,845 $72,669 $102,667 $92,614 $40,324 $17,450 $22,523 $35,979 $44,153 $49,622 $64,537 $70,349 $75,645 $109,900 $93,712 1995 $42,235 $18,031 $21,933 $37,609 $44,537 $50,485 $63,357 $69,584 $77,865 $98,302 $95,899 $43,648 $17,762 $22,688 $38,607 $45,734 $51,726 $67,487 $72,338 $77,850 $105,409 $99,699 1999 $46,236 $19,008 $23,977 $39,322 $48,588 $54,282 $70,925 $76,958 $82,097 $110,383 $107,217 $42,900 $18,830 $24,162 $37,468 $47,605 $53,166 $69,796 $75,116 $81,993 $103,918 $96,442 2003 $45,016 $18,787 $22,718 $36,835 $45,854 $56,970 $68,728 $73,446 $78,541 $100,000 $96,830 Average $43,376 $18,183 $23,013 $37,620 $46,109 $51,934 $66,997 $72,376 $78,094 $104,368 $94,487 SOURCE : US Census Bureau , 2003 Age of householder ( edit ) U.S. family pre-tax income and net worth distribution for 2013 and 2016 , from the Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances . Household income in the United States varies substantially with the age of the person who heads the household . Overall , the median household income increased with the age of householder until retirement age when household income started to decline . The highest median household income was found among households headed by working baby - boomers . Households headed by persons between the ages of 45 and 54 had a median household income of $61,111 and a mean household income of $77,634 . The median income per member of household for this particular group was $27,924 . The highest median income per member of household was among those between the ages of 54 and 64 with $30,544 ( The reason this figure is lower than the next group is because pensions and Social Security add to income while a portion of older individuals also have work - related income . ) . The group with the second highest median household income , were households headed by persons between the ages 35 and 44 with a median income of $56,785 , followed by those in the age group between 55 and 64 with $50,400 . Not surprisingly the lowest income group was composed of those households headed by individuals younger than 24 , followed by those headed by persons over the age of 75 . Overall , households headed by persons above the age of seventy - five had a median household income of $20,467 with the median household income per member of household being $18,645 . These figures support the general assumption that median household income as well as the median income per member of household peaked among those households headed by middle aged persons , increasing with the age of the householder and the size of the household until the householder reaches the age of 64 . With retirement income replacing salaries and the size of the household declining , the median household income decreases as well . Household size ( edit ) While median household income has a tendency to increase up to four persons per household , it declines for households beyond four persons . For example , in the state of Alabama in 2004 , two - person households had a median income of $39,755 , with $48,957 for three - person households , $54,338 for four - person households , $50,905 for five - person households , $45,435 for six - person households , with seven - or - more - person households having the second lowest median income of only $42,471 . Geography ( edit ) Considering other racial and geographical differences in regards to household income , it should come as no surprise that the median household income varies with race , size of household and geography . The state with the highest median household income in the United States as of the US Census Bureau 2009 is Maryland with $69,272 , followed by New Jersey , Connecticut and Alaska , making the Northeastern United States the wealthiest area by income in the entire country . Regionally , in 2010 , the Northeast reached a median income of $53,283 , the West , $53,142 , the South , $45,492 , and the Midwest , $48,445 . Each figure represents a decline from the previous year . Income by state ( edit ) In 2010 , the median household income by state ranged from $35,693 in Mississippi to $66,334 in Maryland . Despite having the highest median home price in the nation and home prices that far outpaced incomes , California ranked only ninth in income , with a median household income of $61,021 . While California 's median income was not near enough to afford the average California home or even a starter home , West Virginia , which had one of the nation 's lowest median household incomes , also had the nation 's lowest median home price . By Census Bureau Region , of the 15 states with the highest median household income , only Minnesota is located in the Mid-West , while eight are in the Northeast ( New Jersey , Connecticut , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Maryland , Delaware , Virginia , and New York ) and the other six ( Alaska , Hawaii , California , Washington , Colorado and Utah ) are in the West . The southern states had , on average , the lowest median household income , with nine of the country 's fifteen poorest states located in the South . However , most of the poverty in the South is located in rural areas . Metropolitan areas such as Atlanta , Nashville , Charlotte , Raleigh , Birmingham , Dallas , Houston , and Miami are areas within the southern states that have above average income levels . Overall , median household income tended to be the highest in the nation 's most urbanized northeastern , upper midwestern and west coast states , while rural areas , mostly in the southern and mountain states ( like New Mexico , Montana and Idaho ) , had the lowest median household income . As of 2015 , the median household income ranged from $40,037 in Mississippi to $76,805 in Maryland . Rank State 2015 2009 2008 2007 2004 -- 2006 Maryland $76,805 $77,491 $78,641 $78,808 $77,548 New Hampshire $75,675 $60,567 $63,731 $62,369 $60,489 Alaska $75,112 $66,953 $68,460 $64,333 $57,639 Connecticut $72,889 $67,034 $68,595 $65,967 $59,972 5 District of Columbia $70,071 $59,290 $57,936 $54,317 $47,221 6 Minnesota $68,730 $55,616 $57,288 $55,082 $57,363 7 New Jersey $68,357 $68,342 $70,378 $67,035 $64,169 8 Massachusetts $67,861 $64,081 $65,401 $62,365 $56,236 9 Washington $67,243 $56,548 $58,078 $55,591 $53,439 10 Colorado $66,596 $55,430 $56,993 $55,212 $54,039 11 Utah $66,258 $55,117 $56,633 $55,109 $55,179 12 Hawaii $64,514 $64,098 $67,214 $63,746 $60,681 13 California $63,636 $58,931 $61,021 $59,948 $53,770 14 Virginia $61,486 $59,330 $61,233 $59,562 $55,108 15 Wyoming $60,925 $52,664 $53,207 $51,731 $47,227 16 Iowa $60,855 $48,044 $48,980 $47,292 $47,489 17 Oregon $60,834 $48,457 $50,169 $48,730 $45,485 18 Nebraska $60,747 $47,357 $49,693 $47,085 $48,126 19 Illinois $60,413 $53,966 $56,235 $54,124 $49,280 20 Pennsylvania $60,389 $49,520 $50,713 $48,576 $47,791 21 Vermont $59,494 $51,618 $52,104 $49,907 $51,622 22 Missouri $59,196 $45,229 $46,867 $45,114 $44,651 23 New York $58,005 $54,659 $56,033 $53,514 $48,201 24 Delaware $57,756 $56,860 $57,989 $54,610 $52,214 25 North Dakota $57,415 $47,827 $45,685 $43,753 $43,753 26 Texas $56,473 $48,259 $50,043 $47,548 $43,425 27 Rhode Island $55,701 $54,119 $55,701 $53,568 $52,003 28 Wisconsin $55,425 $49,993 $52,094 $50,578 $48,874 29 South Dakota $55,065 $45,043 $46,032 $43,424 $44,624 30 Kansas $54,865 $47,817 $50,177 $47,451 $44,264 31 Michigan $54,203 $45,255 $48,591 $47,950 $47,064 32 Ohio $53,301 $45,395 $47,988 $46,597 $45,837 33 Arizona $52,248 $48,745 $50,958 $49,889 $46,729 34 Nevada $52,008 $53,341 $56,361 $55,062 $50,819 35 Indiana $51,983 $45,424 $47,966 $47,448 $44,806 36 Idaho $51,624 $44,926 $47,576 $46,253 $46,395 37 Montana $51,395 $42,322 $43,654 $43,531 $38,629 38 North Carolina $50,797 $43,674 $46,549 $44,670 $42,061 39 Georgia $50,768 $47,590 $50,861 $49,136 $46,841 40 Maine $50,756 $45,734 $46,581 $45,888 $45,040 41 Florida $48,825 $44,736 $47,778 $47,804 $44,448 42 Tennessee $47,330 $41,725 $43,614 $42,367 $40,676 43 Oklahoma $47,077 $41,664 $42,822 $41,567 $40,001 44 South Carolina $46,360 $44,625 $43,329 $40,822 $39,454 45 Louisiana $45,922 $42,492 $43,733 $40,926 $37,943 46 New Mexico $45,119 $43,028 $43,508 $41,452 $40,827 47 Alabama $44,509 $40,489 $42,666 $40,554 $38,473 48 West Virginia $42,824 $37,435 $37,989 $37,060 $37,227 49 Arkansas $42,798 $40,489 $41,393 $42,229 $41,679 50 Kentucky $42,387 $40,072 $41,538 $40,267 $38,466 51 Mississippi $40,037 $36,646 $37,790 $36,338 $35,261 The median personal income per person , after adjusting for costs of living with local regional price parities and the national PCE price index , averaged $44,255 in 2015 ( in 2009 chained dollars ) . Median adjusted personal income per capita varied from $36,814 in Mississippi to $57,520 in Connecticut ( and $57,943 in the District of Columbia ) . The states closest to the national average were California and Texas , at $44,269 and $44,173 respectively . Social class ( edit ) Main article : Social class in the United States Household income is one of the most commonly used measures of income and , therefore , also one of the most prominent indicators of social class . Household income and education do not , however , always reflect perceived class status correctly . Sociologist Dennis Gilbert acknowledges that `` ... the class structure ... does not exactly match the distribution of household income '' with `` the mismatch ( being ) greatest in the middle ... '' ( Gilbert , 1998 : 92 ) As social classes commonly overlap , it is not possible to define exact class boundaries . According to Leonard Beeghley a household income of roughly $95,000 would be typical of a dual - earner middle class household while $60,000 would be typical of a dual - earner working class household and $18,000 typical for an impoverished household . William Thompson and Joseph Hickey see common incomes for the upper class as those exceeding $500,000 with upper middle class incomes ranging from the high 5 - figures to most commonly in excess of $100,000 . They claim the lower middle class ranges from $35,000 to $75,000 ; $16,000 to $30,000 for the working class and less than $2,000 for the lower class . Academic class models Dennis Gilbert , 2002 William Thompson & Joseph Hickey , 2005 Leonard Beeghley , 2004 Class Typical characteristics Class Typical characteristics Class Typical characteristics Capitalist class ( 1 % ) Top - level executives , high - rung politicians , heirs . Ivy League education common . Upper class ( 1 % ) Top - level executives , celebrities , heirs ; income of $500,000 + common . Ivy league education common . The super-rich ( 0.9 % ) Multi-millionaires whose incomes commonly exceed $350,000 ; includes celebrities and powerful executives / politicians . Ivy League education common . Upper middle class ( 15 % ) Highly - educated ( often with graduate degrees ) , most commonly salaried , professionals and middle management with large work autonomy . Upper middle class ( 15 % ) Highly - educated ( often with graduate degrees ) professionals & managers with household incomes varying from the high 5 - figure range to commonly above $100,000 . The rich ( 5 % ) Households with net worth of $1 million or more ; largely in the form of home equity . Generally have college degrees . Middle class ( plurality / majority ? ; ca . 46 % ) College - educated workers with considerably higher - than - average incomes and compensation ; a man making $57,000 and a woman making $40,000 may be typical . Lower middle class ( 30 % ) Semi-professionals and craftsmen with a roughly average standard of living . Most have some college education and are white - collar . Lower middle class ( 32 % ) Semi-professionals and craftsmen with some work autonomy ; household incomes commonly range from $35,000 to $75,000 . Typically , some college education . Working class ( 30 % ) Clerical and most blue - collar workers whose work is highly routinized . Standard of living varies depending on number of income earners , but is commonly just adequate . High school education . Working class ( 32 % ) Clerical , pink - and blue - collar workers with often low job security ; common household incomes range from $16,000 to $30,000 . High school education . Working class ( ca . 40 -- 45 % ) Blue - collar workers and those whose jobs are highly routinized with low economic security ; a man making $40,000 and a woman making $26,000 may be typical . High school education . Working poor ( 13 % ) Service , low - rung clerical and some blue - collar workers . High economic insecurity and risk of poverty . Some high school education . Lower class ( ca . 14 -- 20 % ) Those who occupy poorly - paid positions or rely on government transfers . Some high school education . Underclass ( 12 % ) Those with limited or no participation in the labor force . Reliant on government transfers . Some high school education . The poor ( ca . 12 % ) Those living below the poverty line with limited to no participation in the labor force ; a household income of $18,000 may be typical . Some high school education . References : Gilbert , D. ( 2002 ) The American Class Structure : In An Age of Growing Inequality . Belmont , CA : Wadsworth , ISBN 0534541100 . ( see also Gilbert Model ) ; Thompson , W. & Hickey , J. ( 2005 ) . Society in Focus . Boston , MA : Pearson , Allyn & Bacon ; Beeghley , L. ( 2004 ) . The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States . Boston , MA : Pearson , Allyn & Bacon . The upper middle class may also be referred to as `` Professional class '' Ehrenreich , B. ( 1989 ) . The Inner Life of the Middle Class . NY , NY : Harper - Collins . Distribution of household income ( edit ) See also : Income inequality in the United States Distribution of household income in 2014 according to US Census data ( edit ) Percentage of persons and households in each of the income groups shown . The percent of households with six figure incomes and individuals with incomes in the top 10 % , exceeding $77,500 . US Census Bureau figures for 2014 Income of Household Number ( thousands ) Percentage Percentile Mean Income Mean number of earners Mean size of household Total 124,587 -- -- $75,738 1.28 2.54 Under $5,000 4571 3.67 % 0 $1,080 0.20 1.91 $5,000 to $9,999 4320 3.47 % 3.67 th $7,936 0.34 1.78 $10,000 to $14,999 6766 5.43 % 7.14 th $12,317 0.39 1.71 $15,000 to $19,999 6779 5.44 % 12.57 th $17,338 0.54 1.90 $20,000 to $24,999 6865 5.51 % 18.01 th $22,162 0.73 2.07 $25,000 to $29,999 6363 5.11 % 23.52 th $27,101 0.82 2.19 $30,000 to $34,999 6232 5.00 % 28.63 th $32,058 0.94 2.27 $35,000 to $39,999 5857 4.70 % 33.63 th $37,061 1.04 2.31 $40,000 to $44,999 5430 4.36 % 38.33 th $41,979 1.15 2.40 $45,000 to $49,999 5060 4.06 % 42.69 th $47,207 1.24 2.52 $50,000 to $54,999 5084 4.08 % 46.75 th $51,986 1.32 2.54 $55,000 to $59,999 4220 3.39 % 50.83 th $57,065 1.41 2.56 $60,000 to $64,999 4477 3.59 % 54.22 th $62,016 1.46 2.64 $65,000 to $69,999 3709 2.98 % 57.81 th $67,081 1.51 2.67 $70,000 to $74,999 3737 3.00 % 60.79 th $72,050 1.57 2.73 $75,000 to $79,999 3484 2.80 % 63.79 th $77,023 1.60 2.79 $80,000 to $84,999 3142 2.52 % 66.58 th $81,966 1.63 2.79 $85,000 to $89,999 2750 2.21 % 69.11 th $87,101 1.77 2.90 $90,000 to $94,999 2665 2.14 % 71.31 th $92,033 1.82 2.96 $95,000 to $99,999 2339 1.88 % 73.45 th $97,161 1.81 2.97 $100,000 to $104,999 2679 2.15 % 75.33 th $101,921 1.79 3.01 $105,000 to $109,999 2070 1.66 % 77.48 th $107,187 1.88 3.01 $110,000 to $114,999 1922 1.54 % 79.14 th $112,069 1.93 3.12 $115,000 to $119,999 1623 1.30 % 80.68 th $117,133 1.98 3.14 $120,000 to $124,999 1863 1.50 % 81.99 th $122,127 1.93 3.09 $125,000 to $129,999 1452 1.17 % 83.48 th $127,166 1.99 3.12 $130,000 to $134,999 1512 1.21 % 84.65 th $131,863 2.00 3.18 $135,000 to $139,999 1219 0.98 % 85.86 th $137,284 1.98 3.11 $140,000 to $144,999 1290 1.04 % 86.84 th $142,199 1.97 3.03 $145,000 to $149,999 1024 0.82 % 87.87 th $147,130 2.01 3.11 $150,000 to $154,999 1146 0.92 % 88.70 th $151,940 1.85 3.12 $155,000 to $159,999 848 0.68 % 89.62 th $157,177 2.08 3.15 $160,000 to $164,999 875 0.70 % 90.30 th $162,019 2.02 3.13 $165,000 to $169,999 786 0.63 % 91.00 th $167,101 2.10 3.16 $170,000 to $174,999 717 0.58 % 91.63 th $172,169 2.17 3.21 $175,000 to $179,999 607 0.49 % 92.21 th $177,187 2.19 3.28 $180,000 to $184,999 619 0.50 % 92.69 th $182,055 2.03 3.19 $185,000 to $189,999 556 0.45 % 93.19 th $187,299 2.03 3.20 $190,000 to $194,999 485 0.39 % 93.64 th $192,241 2.19 3.29 $195,000 to $199,999 436 0.35 % 94.03 th $197,211 2.23 3.27 $200,000 to $249,999 3249 2.61 % 94.38 th $220,267 2.08 3.24 $250,000 and over 3757 3.02 % 96.98 th $402,476 See also ( edit ) List of countries by average wage Wikimedia Commons has media related to Income distribution in the United States . 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National Poverty Center ( 28 ) . ^ Jump up to : `` The Distribution of Household Income and Federal Taxes , 2011 '' ( PDF ) . Congressional Budget Office . ^ Jump up to : `` U.S. Census Bureau FAQs : What is the difference between a median and a mean ? '' . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on 2006 - 09 - 22 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` US Census Bureau on the nature the median in determining wealth '' ( PDF ) . May 2003 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` US Census Bureau , Income Distribution to $250,000 or More for Households : 2013 '' . Census.gov . May 2014 . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` US Census 2007 Economic Survey , income data '' . US Census Bureau . May 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` US Census Bureau , 2000 Census racial data '' . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` US Census Bureau 2005 Economic survey , racial income distribution '' . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2006 . Retrieved June 29 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` US Census Bureau , median household income according to certain demographic characteristics '' . August 30 , 2005 . Archived from the original on 2006 - 06 - 18 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` Educational attainment and median household income '' . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2006 . Retrieved September 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` US Census Bureau , Income by education and sex '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 04 - 11 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Wall Street Journal on MBA salary base '' . 2006 . Archived from the original on March 18 , 2007 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : `` US Census Bureau on Education and Income '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Infoplease , median household income '' . Infoplease.com . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` Personal income and educational attainment , US Census Bureau '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 09 - 07 . Retrieved 2006 - 09 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` The Fed - Survey of Consumer Finances ( SCF ) '' . ^ Jump up to : `` US Census Bureau median household income by age of householder '' . Archived from the original on May 28 , 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` US Census Bureau , median family income by family size '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 06 - 26 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` US Census Bureau , median household income by state '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 06 - 28 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 29 . Jump up ^ DeNavas - Walt , Carmen ; Proctor , Bernadette D. ; Smith , Jessica C. ( September 2011 ) . Income , Poverty , and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States : 2010 ( PDF ) . U.S. Census Bureau . ^ Jump up to : `` Median home price by state '' . Clevelandfed.org . November 2005 . Archived from the original on June 14 , 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` The State of the Nation 's Housing 2002 '' ( PDF ) . Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 11 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : `` US Census Bureau , median household income by state 2004 '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 06 - 28 . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : `` Median Annual Household Income '' . The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation . Retrieved December 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Table H - 8 . Median Household Income by State : 1984 to 2015 ( Microsoft Excel ) , United States Census Bureau , September 13 , 2016 Jump up ^ Bureau of Economic Analysis : Regional Data . RPI1 Real Personal Income by state . U.S. Department of Commerce . Updated September 26 , 2017 . Retrieved April 7 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` '' Income Distribution to $250,000 or More for Households : 2014 `` '' . US Census Bureau . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : `` '' Selected Characteristics of Households , by Total Money Income in 2014 `` '' ( XLS ) . US Census Bureau . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 21 . External links ( edit ) Income , Poverty , and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States : 2003 Reynolds , Alan ( January 8 , 2007 ) . `` Has U.S. Income Inequality Really Increased ? '' . Policy Analysis . Cato Institute ( 586 ) . 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what episode did jimmy get shot in degrassi

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Time_Stands_Still_(Degrassi:_The_Next_Generation)&oldid=809042294

Time stands still ( Degrassi : the next Generation ) - Wikipedia Time stands still ( Degrassi : the next Generation ) Jump to : navigation , search `` Time Stands Still '' Degrassi : The Next Generation episode A humiliated Rick getting revenge with a gun trying to shoot Emma . Episode no . Season 4 Episode 7 & 8 Directed by Stefan Sciani Production code 407 & 408 Original air date 5 & 12 October 2004 ( Canada ) 3 & 10 December 2004 ( US ) Guest appearance ( s ) Ephraim Ellis as Rick Murray Episode chronology ← Previous `` Islands in the Stream '' Next → `` Back in Black '' Degrassi : The Next Generation ( season 4 ) List of Degrassi : The Next Generation episodes `` Time Stands Still '' is a two - part episode of the Canadian teen drama Degrassi : The Next Generation . It aired near the beginning of the fourth season , and originally aired on 5 and 12 October 2004 in Canada , on the CTV Television Network . Despite being a two - part episode , many events were still unresolved until later in the season . The American teen network , The N , which aired first run episodes , was airing episodes two months later at the time . Part two of the episode earned director Stefan Sciani , an award for `` Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series -- Family '' at the Directors Guild of Canada Awards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Synopsis 2.1 Summary 2.1. 1 Part One 2.1. 2 Part Two 2.2 Extended Overview 2.2. 1 Sub-plot 2.2. 2 Part One 2.2. 3 Part Two 3 Absences 4 Ratings 5 References 6 External links Background ( edit ) Executive producer Aaron Martin wanted to deal with this subject since Degrassi : The Next Generation started . He said , `` It was n't an issue when the original Degrassi was on , and it 's become much more of an issue in the last 10 years . And with any teen shows , there are only so many issues you can cover , and new ones are harder and harder to find . '' The producers enlisted bullying expert Barbara Coloroso , who worked with the families of survivors of the Columbine High School shooting . `` She gave us amazing insights into how ( bullies ) work and how this cycle of violence keeps happening over and over again '' , they said . The N aired public service announcements to warn of the episode 's content . Synopsis ( edit ) Summary ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Time Stands Still Part one ( edit ) The episode starts out with best friends Spinner Mason and Jimmy Brooks bullying Rick , then throwing him into a dumpster . This bullying has been going on since Rick came back to Degrassi a year after putting his then - girlfriend Terri into a coma , with the students disapproving , and showing their disapproval by bullying him . Rick , however , has made friends with Toby and Emma , even developing a crush on her later . He 's even on a popular quiz show `` Whack Your Brain '' with Toby and Emma . However , the bullying by others continue . Rick gets revenge on Spinner for throwing him in the dumpster the next day , when he spray paints an ' X ' on the door of Spinner 's car . He also does this on Jay 's , another one of his bullies , car . Spinner , Jay , Jay 's girlfriend Alex , and their friend Sean meet up and discuss the incident . Spinner says how he 's going to tell Mr. Raditch , the principal , though Sean reminds him that if they tell him , he 's going to want to know why Rick sprayed their cars . Spinner changes his mind on telling Mr. Raditch and assures his revenge on Rick . Due to his intelligence , especially in sports , Jimmy is placed on the `` Whack Your Brain '' team after one of the contestants got sick with mono . Both Jimmy and Rick detest his decision , and Rick tried to go to Mr. Raditch to tell him to get Jimmy off the team . However , he is quickly dismissed by Mr. Raditch who says he ca n't force Jimmy to be friends with him , and for Rick to try to make a better relationship with him . Rick is discouraged by this , but he and Jimmy soon start to get along . Jimmy even defends him when Spinner , Jay , and Alex tried to bully him . Because of this , Rick mocks them and reminds them it was him who sprayed their cars . Spinner and Jay vow for their revenge . The next day , Toby meets up with Rick at Rick 's house , where Rick informs his mother how he , Toby , Emma , and Jimmy are inseparable , and how they will soon rule the school . Toby , however , does not believe him , but nevertheless hesitantly agrees with him . At school , Rick talks with Emma and compliments her encouraging words , hinting his crush on her . He then meets up with Jimmy and the two playfully talk about the upcoming quiz show . Paige , a popular girl and one of Rick 's bullies since he was going out with Terri , insults his outfit , but with his new confidence , he brushes her aside . At the quiz show , the Degrassi team is neck - to - neck with another school named Northern , but they soon win , mostly due to the help of Rick . For the final round , the team chooses Rick to go up . A short break follows , and Jimmy and Rick head to the bathroom . In the bathroom , Jimmy compliments Rick 's intelligence and they talk . Spinner and Jay enter and also compliment Rick , telling him how they 're cool with him now . However , when Rick and Jimmy leave , Spinner and Jay talk about their prank they will put on Rick , Jay saying how Alex will set it up easily with no suspicion , since she is Student Council Vice-President . In the final round , Rick gets most of the answers correct and beats Northern , thus winning the game . Emma , Toby , and Jimmy compliment him . However , while on stage , the prank including a bucket of yellow paint and feathers fall on Rick , and he is drenched with it . The audience laughs , and Rick stands there , frozen . While leaving the school still in shock , Emma runs up to him to hand him the trophy . He says how the pranksters ( unknown to anyone at the time ) are life runners , but Emma assures him he 's the smartest guy in school and how no one will forget that . Rick then kisses Emma to her disapproval , and she states she was only friends with him because she felt sorry for him , and for him to get a clue . Rick stands alone , stunned . Rick goes home and discovers his parents are not there . He then pulls out a box from a drawer , opens it , and finds his father 's gun . He takes off his glasses , shakes , and intently stares at it . Part two ( edit ) Part two picks up where it left off in part one where Rick opens the box and finds his father 's gun , takes off his glasses , shakes , and intently stares at it . Rick comes back to school , still coated in the feathers and paint , after being humiliated during the `` Whack Your Brain '' contest . He has become the laughing stock of many people in the school , including JT and Danny . Toby Isaacs and Mr. Raditch tell him to take the afternoon off , but Rick chooses to stay . Having plans to get revenge on his bullies , he goes after Paige first . However , Paige encounters him , and right when Rick was about to pull the gun out to shoot her , she tells him that she thought the prank was sickening and that she was sorry . Because of this , Rick does not take out the gun to shoot her , he apologizes for hurting Terri and leaves . This , supposedly , was to end his rage , and he was not going to shoot anyone . However , while trying to clean himself up in the bathroom , Spinner and Jay trick Rick into thinking the prank was Jimmy 's idea , and he recommits to revenge . He sees Jimmy in a now empty hallway afterwards and shoots him in the back , though Jimmy was unaware that Rick thought he set up the prank . The bullet in Jimmy 's back severed his spine which paralyzes him . Rick then sees Toby , Emma , and Sean , and is mad at Emma because she admits she never had feelings for him . He tells her that he thought she loved him , but she just played him , and that she `` made his list '' . Sean tries to talk him out of shooting her , but to no avail . He points the gun at Emma , but Sean attacks him and tries to point the gun away . However , he accidentally shoots and kills Rick in the process . The school is put on a lockdown , though the students are unaware of what happened . In Paige , Ellie , and Hazel 's classroom , it 's discovered that there was a shooting . Right after this , Hazel is pulled out of class and is informed that Jimmy , her boyfriend , was shot . After a while , the lockdown ends and students are released from school . Jay assures Alex that they will be fine and that nobody will find out , though Alex is very regretful of her involvement . Spinner meets up with them and is filled with guilt and regret , telling Jay they need to know who did it , and how they could have killed Jimmy . Jay tells him not to tell anyone , and that it would be all right . Toby and Emma leave the school and are greeted by their parents , and Toby finds out that Rick had died . They meet up at Emma 's house and watch the news about the shooting , and Toby is so distraught by the fact that his friend shot someone and was going to shoot more people , so he goes to a candlelight vigil for Jimmy at Degrassi with Emma . The two tearfully embrace , and the episode ends . Extended overview ( edit ) Sub-plot ( edit ) Part One : The sub-plot starts with Joey , in his home , being told by his Realtor that his open house is the day after tomorrow and that he has to clean . He is desperate to sell his house , asking his realtor Helen , what else he can do besides clean to ensure the sale . While they 're discussing the sale , Craig Manning walks down the stairs and says he is too sick for school . Joey agrees and tells Helen that their meeting 's gone on too long and that he has to go to work . Helen seems upset that they did n't get to finish discussing the sale and Joey seems frustrated that Helen ca n't just get the house sold . After work , Joey comes home to find his ex-girlfriend , Sydney at his house as a result of Craig calling her . Craig has told her about their money problems and Sydney wants to help Joey sell his home . Sydney ends up leaving since Joey seems practically speechless and somewhat upset about her being there suddenly . The next day , Craig is just as sick but decides to go to school after Joey yells at him for calling Sydney . Joey feels embarrassed about his financial situation . Craig tells Joey that he called Sydney because she would at least sell the house for good money . Sydney comes back to Joey 's house after Joey decides that Craig was right about taking Sydney 's help . Joey apologizes about how things ended with them . Sydney brushes his apology off and suggests he make an atmosphere for the open house using music and maybe baking a pie in the oven . Her expertise in real estate is already evident . While cleaning up the house for the open house , Caitlin comes back from Africa and asks why Sydney 's name is on his lawn . Part one ( edit ) The episode opens with Rick being bullied by Spinner and Jimmy who toss him into a dumpster . Following the opening credits , Spinner pulls up to school in his car and heads inside as the bell rings . Rick comes out from hiding with spray paint and vandalizes Spinner 's car . Heading to class , Rick literally runs into Jimmy rounding a corner . They exchange words which Snake Simpson is witness to . Seizing an opportunity , Snake asks Jimmy to name the world 's three longest rivers in order and asks a question about the NBA championships . Jimmy answers correctly and , as a result , is now one of Rick 's team members for a trivia show called `` Whack Your Brain '' . Heather Sinclair was supposed to be on the team but , according to Snake , she came down with mono . Later in the day , Emma Nelson runs up to Toby and Rick who are walking together . She has index cards to study from for the contest and is about to quiz Rick on them when he announces that he 's quitting . Emma replies that the finals are tomorrow and they discuss the fact that Jimmy has now joined the team . Toby encourages Rick to talk to Snake about the bullying , like he 's said before , and to ask Snake to reconsider . But Rick does n't want Jimmy to guess that it was him who got him kicked off the team . Emma encourages Rick to work with Jimmy on the team since Rick said he came back to Degrassi to show people 's he 's changed . Rick is not convinced but Emma tells him that they need him on the team and smiles at him before leaving . Rick seems very flattered by this and smiles to himself . Rick , encouraged by Emma and Toby , tries to talk to Mr. Raditch , the principal , about the fact that Jimmy is harassing him . Mr. Raditch does not take Rick seriously and seems to think that Rick is only upset that Jimmy is less - than - friendly toward him , even though this is not the first time Rick 's approached him about it . Mr. Raditch tells Rick he needs to put effort into making friends with Jimmy and asks him to come back if anything serious happens . Throughout this talk , Mr. Raditch does not give Rick much room to tell him what 's really happening but Rick is not being forward about it either . In the parking lot , Spinner and Sean Cameron find the damage done to Spinner 's car and Jay and Alex pull up in Jay 's also - vandalized car . They guess that the damage was done by Rick and Spinner wants to tell Mr. Raditch about it . Sean retorts that Mr. Raditch will want to know why Rick did it and Jay agrees . They decide to leave the principal out of it and to get Rick back another way . While drinking at a water fountain , Toby is approached by Spinner , Alex , and Jay , who ask him where they can find Rick . Toby refuses to tell them and Jay pushes his head into the fountain head causing his lip to bleed . Arriving at the preparation for `` Whack Your Brain '' , Toby is confronted by Snake about why he 's bleeding but Toby brushes it off as a skateboard accident . Rick and Jimmy argue about who hurt Toby 's lip , and Jimmy tells Rick to back off . Rick says he 's been suffering for weeks and that no one deserves that . Jimmy seems affected by his words . As they practice for the contest , Rick is answering all of the questions Snake throws at them until a sports question comes up . He puts his hand over his bell but does n't answer , to let Jimmy answer the question instead . While leaving practice , Rick and Jimmy exchange compliments about their trivia skills . Alex , Spinner , and Jay approach them and pick on Rick . Jimmy stands up for Rick , telling them to give it a rest . While Rick , Emma , Jimmy , and Toby walk away , Rick turns around and makes an X with his arms , taunting Alex , Jay , and Spinner with what he did . Toby comes over to Rick 's house after school where Rick seems overjoyed over the events of the day . Rick 's mom says that Rick told her that him , Jimmy , Emma , and Toby have become practically inseparable . Toby seems confused but goes along with it . Rick is feeling confident about winning Jimmy over . The next day , Rick approaches Emma and thanks her for her advice about Jimmy , adding that she is his guide . Emma seems uncomfortable but smiles and replies that she 's glad things worked out for him . Rick has a friendly talk with Jimmy about the competition when he comes into school and brushes off a tease about his suit from Paige Michalchuk . During the `` Whack Your Brain '' contest , Rick answers a sports question that causes them to tie the game . Celebrating their tie , Rick hold Emma 's hand too long for it to just be friendly . Emma yanks her hand away but Rick brushes it off . In the bathroom during the break before the tie breaker , Jimmy compliments Rick about knowing so much and Rick asks Jimmy why he did n't answer the sports question . Jimmy says he had a brain fart and that golf is not a sport anyway . While they 're about to leave the bathroom , Spinner and Jay come into the bathroom and compliment Rick about how much he knows , asking if Rick will do the lightning round ( aka the tie breaker ) . Rick replies that he will , seeming confident but hesitates as he 's about to walk between the two to leave . They tell Rick that things are cool between them now . Once Rick and Jimmy are gone , Spinner asks whether Alex will be able to set up the prank that they 've planned for sure . Jay assures him she will have no problem . Before playing his part of the lightning round , Rick whispers to Emma that it 's all for her . Emma , once again , feels uncomfortable . Rick answers enough of the questions to beat the other team and win the game for Degrassi . The crowd cheers and Rick looks like his life is turning around , but while still in the center of the stage , yellow paint and feather drop down on him . The audience cheers turn silent and then turn into laughs . Rick seems mortified . After the game , Emma approaches him to comfort him about what happened , saying that it just makes the other people look childish and telling him that he 's the smartest person in Degrassi and no one will forget that . Already thinking Emma liked him , Rick grabs the back of Emma 's head and tries to kiss Emma with more force than necessary . Emma is shocked and ends up telling him she only pitied him . Rick returns home to an empty house and takes out a wooden box . Inside the box , lying in padding is what is presumed to be his father 's gun . He removes his glasses and looks up before the episode ends . Part two ( edit ) Rick heads to Degrassi , backpack in hand , despite being given permission to go home until everybody has calmed down and the issue has been resolved . Toby tells him this fact , but he responds that this is the one day he wants to be here . Mr. Raditch , the principal , also tells him he can go home . Seeing Paige , he reaches for the gun in his bag until Paige tells him that she thought that the prank was sickening , childish , and out of line . He puts the gun away , apologizes for hurting Terri , and leaves the cafeteria . Rick decides to forget his plans and places the gun in his locker . Still covered in paint , he goes into a restroom and begins to clean up . When Spinner and Jay walk into the same restroom , Rick hides and Spinner and Jay begin talking about the event . Noticing Rick is in one of the stalls , Jay turns the blame from themselves to Jimmy , and Spinner goes along with it , both of them implying the prank would have been impossible without Jimmy . Rick approaches Jimmy , backpack back in his arms . He is unaware that Jimmy intends to find whoever did that and bring them to the Principal . Jimmy asks Rick how he 's holding up and says he has Rick 's back if anyone bothers him again . Rick replies , `` You stabbed me in the back . '' Jimmy is confused , especially as Rick pulls the gun out of his bag . With the gun pointed at him , Jimmy freezes for a second , and backs away slowly . Jimmy turns to run away when Rick turned his head before firing . The bullet hits Jimmy in the back , knocking him to the ground . As other students are running away , Craig walks down the hall to see Jimmy lying on the floor . Rick finds Emma with Toby and Sean , and says that he is sorry he kissed Emma , the gun in his hand at his side . They turn to run away but Rick demands that they do n't turn away from him . Rick starts saying how Emma flirted with him and made him think she care when really it was a lie . Sean calmly tries to reason with Rick , and tells Rick that it 's just going to make his life worse , but Rick replies that it is too late because he already shot somebody . He lifts the gun , pointing it straight at Emma , but Sean gets in front of her and grabs the gun . While Rick and Sean wrestle with it , the gun goes off . Jimmy , Sean , and Rick are taken to the hospital . Toby 's stepmother , Kate Kerwin , ( also Ashley Kerwin 's mother ) , rushes to Degrassi and is allowed into the school to look for Toby and Ashley and is shocked at the sight of Jimmy as she had been entering the building at the time as Jimmy was being taken out . Snake and Mr. Raditch argue that Rick 's bullying was not taken seriously enough , while Spike comforts Emma . Emma says that she was horrified that Rick pointed the gun right at her head . Meanwhile , Joey and Caitlin rush over to Degrassi to look for Craig . In class , Ashley , Paige , Hazel and Ellie remain confused and unnotified about the incident . Paige gets a phone call from her mother saying that she heard that there was a school shooting . Paige informs Ellie , Ashley and Hazel . Hazel glances at Jimmy 's empty chair and notices that he is missing . Ms. Sauve suddenly arrives and asks to speak with Hazel . They go into the hall and she tells her that Jimmy had been shot and Hazel starts to panic and says that she needs to go . Ms. Sauve tells her not to leave and that the lockdown will be over soon , while Hazel cries on her shoulder . Jay , Alex , and a clearly guilt ridden Spinner are in the halls talking about what happened with Jay telling Spinner that he thought it might have been him . Spinner responds that it was Jimmy , and knowing that someone will find out he wants to go tell . But Jay stops him and tells him that he needs to shut up . Into which Spinner responds that Jimmy 's is his best friend . Jay tells him that if Jimmy lives or dies he was Spinner 's best friend . Spinner tells Jay that they might have killed Jimmy and Rick . Sean is eventually released with one of his arms in a sling , while Jimmy 's condition is unknown . Toby is confronted by a news reporter as he tries to leave Degrassi and , upset about Rick 's actions , he responds that he wishes he never met Rick and that there was nothing that he could have done . Not wavering , the reporter asks if Rick said anything before he died . Toby is shocked and has not yet discovered that Rick has died . Later at their home , Ashley Kerwin , very upset about Jimmy being in the hospital , ends a conversation about Rick with , `` ... so who is this guy , if not some psycho ? ! '' Toby is upset by this but is still torn between having been friends with Rick and the fact that Rick did something so horrible . Emma stands up for Toby saying that Toby and Rick were friends . As appeared , Ashley remains upset that Jimmy has been shot , as does Craig . Kate , Spike , Snake , Joey and Caitin all seem to be in horror due to the previous events , Paige and Hazel are distraught as they look at Jimmy in the hospital bed from the window in the hospital . Also , Toby and Emma are upset but mostly shocked , Sean is honored as a hero but feels guilty and shocked , Ellie 's feelings are unspecified , but it can be assumed that she is shocked as well , as she is later seen comforting Sean while they watch the news , Darcy Edwards is unseen in either episode therefore her feelings are unclear as well , seeing as she never knew why so many picked on Rick in the first place . JT and Danny are not seen after the shooting , just prior to it , so their reactions are unclear , Jay does not appear to be affected at all , Alex 's feelings towards the event are not revealed yet , however , she tells Jay and Spinner that she should never have gotten involved in this , and Spinner is guilt - ridden for Jimmy , as he is seen crying many times . A service organized by the students is held with candles and pictures of Jimmy and Rick , including a few pictures of Jimmy and Rick together . One picture is a collage of pictures of Jimmy and Rick with a one word statement `` Why ? , '' which states the feelings of why any student would shoot another one , and subtly asks why would a student shoot one of his friends . The episode ends with Toby and Emma staring at the collages and crying . Absences ( edit ) The following characters did not appear in either episodes , despite being regular characters that season . Sarah Barrable - Tishauer as Liberty Van Zandt Cassie Steele as Manny Santos Adamo Ruggiero as Marco Del Rossi Ratings ( edit ) Part I was rated TV - PG - V in the United States , and Part II was rated TV - 14 - VL . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` ' Degrassi ' to Address School Violence '' . FoxNews.com. 3 December 2004 . Retrieved 21 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Rodman , Sarah ( 1 December 2004 ) . `` Tragedy 101 : ` Degrassi ' pushes limits with school - shooting episode '' . Degrassi Online . Retrieved 21 August 2013 . External links ( edit ) Degrassi : The Next Generation ; Time Stands Still : Part 1 on IMDb Degrassi : The Next Generation ; Time Stands Still : Part 2 on IMDb ( hide ) Degrassi franchise The Kids of Degrassi Street Ida Makes a Movie Degrassi Junior High Degrassi High Characters Joey Jeremiah Caitlin Ryan Episodes Degrassi Talks School 's Out Degrassi : The Next Generation Degrassi Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Episodes `` Mother and Child Reunion '' `` Accidents Will Happen '' `` Time Stands Still '' `` High Fidelity '' `` Paradise City '' `` The Rest of My Life '' `` My Body Is a Cage '' Films Degrassi Goes Hollywood Degrassi Takes Manhattan See also Characters J.T. Yorke Soundtracks Degrassi : Next Class Episodes Season Characters See also Awards and nominations Locations De Grassi Street Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Time_Stands_Still_(Degrassi:_The_Next_Generation)&oldid=809042294 '' Categories : Degrassi : The Next Generation episodes Television episodes about bullying 2004 television episodes Works about the Columbine High School massacre Television episodes in multiple parts Hidden categories : Use Canadian English from June 2015 All Wikipedia articles written in Canadian English Pages using deprecated image syntax All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015 Use dmy dates from September 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 6 November 2017 , at 20 : 03 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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why does context influence the way we understand text

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Context_effect&oldid=840750606

Context effect - wikipedia Context effect hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article uses first - person ( `` I '' ; `` we '' ) or second - person ( `` you '' ) inappropriately . Please rewrite it to use a more formal , encyclopedic tone . ( December 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article contains instructions , advice , or how - to content . The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts , not to train . Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how - to content or by moving it to Wikiversity , Wikibooks or Wikivoyage . ( December 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` THE CAT '' is a classic example of context effect . We have little trouble reading `` H '' and `` A '' in their appropriate contexts , even though they take on the same form in each word . A context effect is an aspect of cognitive psychology that describes the influence of environmental factors on one 's perception of a stimulus . The impact of context effects is considered to be part of top - down design . The concept is supported by the theoretical approach to perception known as constructive perception . Context effects can impact our daily lives in many ways such as word recognition , learning abilities , memory , and object recognition . It can have an extensive effect on marketing and consumer decisions . For example , research has shown that the comfort level of the floor that shoppers are standing on while reviewing products can affect their assessments of product 's quality , leading to higher assessments if the floor is comfortable and lower ratings if it is uncomfortable . Because of effects such as this , context effects are currently studied predominantly in marketing . Contents 1 Cognitive principles of context effects 2 Impact 2.1 Marketing 3 References Cognitive principles of context effects ( edit ) Context effects employ top - down design when analyzing information . Top down design fuels understanding of an image by using prior experiences and knowledge to interpret a stimulus . This process helps us analyze familiar scenes and objects when encountering them . During perception of any kind , people generally use either sensory data ( bottom - up design ) or prior knowledge of the stimulus ( top - down design ) when analyzing the stimulus . Individuals generally use both types of processing to examine stimuli . The use of both sensory data and prior knowledge to reach a conclusion is a feature of optimal probabilistic reasoning , known as Bayesian inference ; cognitive scientists have shown mathematically how context effects can emerge from the Bayesian inference process . When context effects occur , individuals are using environmental cues perceived while examining the stimuli in order to help analyze it . In other words , individuals often make relative decisions that are influenced by the environment or previous exposure to objects . These decisions may be greatly influenced by these external forces and alter the way individuals view an object . For example , research has shown that people rank television commercials as either good or bad in relation to their enjoyment levels of the show during which the commercials are presented . The more they like or dislike the show the more likely they are to rate the commercials shown during the show more positively or negatively ( respectively ) . Another example shows during sound recognition a context effect can use other sounds in the environment to change the way we categorize a sound . Context effects can come in several forms , including configural superiority effect which demonstrates varying degrees of spatial recognition depending on if stimuli are present in an organized configuration or present in isolation . For example , one may recognize a fully composed object faster than its individual parts ( object - superiority effect ) . Impact ( edit ) Context effects can have a wide range of impacts in daily life . In reading difficult handwriting context effects are used to determine what letters make up a word . This helps us analyze potentially ambiguous messages and decipher them correctly . It can also affect our perception of unknown sounds based on the noise in the environment . For example , we may fill in a word we can not make out in a sentence based on the other words we could understand . Context can prime our attitudes and beliefs about certain topics based on current environmental factors and our previous experiences with them . Context effects can be nullified if we are made consciously aware of the outside stimulus or past history that may influence our decision . For example , a study conducted by Norbert Schwarz and Gerald Clore showed that when asked to rate their overall life satisfaction on either sunny or rainy days , people expressed greater satisfaction on sunny days and less satisfaction on rainy days . However , when people were reminded of the weather their satisfaction rating returned to an almost even distribution . This study demonstrates the effect the environment can have on perception , and that when pointed out , context effects can be nullified . Context effects also affect memory . We are often better able to recall information in the location in which we learned it or studied it . For example , while studying for a test it is better to study in the environment that the test will be taken in ( i.e. classroom ) than in a location where the information was not learned and will not need to be recalled . This phenomenon is called transfer - appropriate processing . Marketing ( edit ) `` READ '' is a good example of the `` context effects '' role in the word superiority effect by having us assume that the E and the A behind the ink blot are completed . Perhaps the greatest amount of research concerning context effects comes from marketing research . Context effects can influence consumers ' choice behavior . There are three main context effects that are researched in marketing . The first , the compromise effect , states that objects that are priced in the middle of choice sets are looked on more favorably . The middle choice seems like a good compromise between choices that may be viewed as too extreme . For example , if there are bikes on sale at the local store ranging from $50 to $75 ; the average shopper , not looking for a luxury bicycle , would normally opt to choose the $60 bike because it is average and matches their level of expertise . However , when adding a $100 bike to the sale , most average shoppers would opt to select the higher $75 bike . This demonstrates the compromise effect of choosing a bike to match their expectations regarding middle prices . The attractiveness effect , the second contextual effect on consumer behavior , maintains that one item will increase the attractiveness of another item that is similar , but superior to it . By showing that an item is superior to a similar one the likability and possible purchasing power of the superior item increases . The similarity effect , the third contextual effect on consumers ' behavior , states that an item will hurt a similar item more in sales than it will a dissimilar item . With two or more similar items competing for attention they will only detract from each other in the marketplace . Firms looking to increase product resale can use these context effects to construct more profitable marketing strategies . The idea of these context effects in the marketing industry is to allow for more profitable items a boost in optional sharing ; a productivity boost based on contextual effects for and against certain items . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Meyers ‐ Levy , Joan ; Zhu , Rui ( Juliet ) ; Jiang , Lan ( 1 June 2010 ) . `` Context Effects from Bodily Sensations : Examining Bodily Sensations Induced by Flooring and the Moderating Role of Product Viewing Distance '' . Journal of Consumer Research . 37 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14 . doi : 10.1086 / 649028 . Jump up ^ Cavanagh , P. `` Whats up with Top Down Processing ? '' ( PDF ) . Cambridge University Press . Retrieved 4 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Borenstein , E. ; Ullman , S. ( 1 December 2008 ) . `` Combined Top - Down / Bottom - Up Segmentation '' . IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence . 30 ( 12 ) : 2109 -- 2125 . doi : 10.1109 / TPAMI. 2007.70840 . Jump up ^ Lloyd , K. ; Leslie , D.S. ( 20 February 2013 ) . `` Context - dependent decision - making : a simple Bayesian model '' . Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 10 ( 82 ) : 20130069 -- 20130069 . doi : 10.1098 / rsif. 2013.0069 . PMC 3627089 . Jump up ^ Goldreich , Daniel ; Peterson , Mary A. ( 2012 ) . `` A Bayesian Observer Replicates Convexity Context Effects in Figure -- Ground Perception '' . Seeing and Perceiving. 25 ( 3 ) : 365 -- 395 . doi : 10.1163 / 187847612X634445 . PMID 22564398 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Marvin E. ; Gorn , Gerald J. ( 1 December 1987 ) . `` Happy and Sad TV Programs : How They Affect Reactions to Commercials '' . Journal of Consumer Research . 14 ( 3 ) : 387 . doi : 10.1086 / 209122 . Jump up ^ Cavanaugh , edited by William J. ; Tocci , Gregory C. ; Wilkes , Joseph A. ( 2010 ) . Architectural acoustics : principles and practice ( 2nd ed . ) . Hoboken , N.J. : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0470190523 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Pomerantz , J.R. ( 2003 ) . Perception : Overview . Encyclopedia of cognitive science . 3 : 527 - 537 . Jump up ^ McClelland , James L. ; Rumelhart , David E. ( 1 January 1981 ) . `` An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception : I. An account of basic findings '' . Psychological Review . 88 ( 5 ) : 375 -- 407 . doi : 10.1037 / 0033 - 295X. 88.5. 375 . Jump up ^ Moore , Brian C.J ( 1 July 2003 ) . `` Temporal integration and context effects in hearing '' . Journal of Phonetics. 31 ( 3 - 4 ) : 563 -- 574 . doi : 10.1016 / S0095 - 4470 ( 03 ) 00011 - 1 . Jump up ^ Tourangeau , Roger ; Rasinski , Kenneth A. ( 1 January 1988 ) . `` Cognitive processes underlying context effects in attitude measurement '' . Psychological Bulletin . 103 ( 3 ) : 299 -- 314 . doi : 10.1037 / 0033 - 2909.103. 3.299 . Jump up ^ Higgins , ed. by Arie W. Kruglanski ; E. Tory ( 2007 ) . Social psychology : handbook of basic principles ( 2 . ed . ) . New York ( u.a. ) : Guilford Press . ISBN 1 - 57230 - 918 - 0 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Tulving , Endel ; Thomson , Donald M. ( 1 January 1973 ) . `` Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory '' . Psychological Review . 80 ( 5 ) : 352 -- 373 . doi : 10.1037 / h0020071 . Jump up ^ Rooderkerk , Robert P ; Van Heerde , Harald J ; Bijmolt , Tammo H.A ( 1 August 2011 ) . `` Incorporating Context Effects Into a Choice Model '' . Journal of Marketing Research . 48 ( 4 ) : 767 -- 780 . doi : 10.1509 / jmkr. 48.4. 767 . Jump up ^ Simonson , Itamar ( 1 September 1989 ) . `` Choice Based on Reasons : The Case of Attraction and Compromise Effects '' . Journal of Consumer Research . 16 ( 2 ) : 158 . doi : 10.1086 / 209205 . Jump up ^ Wernerfelt , Birger ( March 1995 ) . `` A Rational Reconstruction of the Compromise Effect : Using Market Data to Infer Utilities '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Consumer Research . 21 ( 4 ) : 627 -- 33 . doi : 10.1086 / 209423 . Retrieved 25 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Hedgcock , William ; Rao , Akshay R ( 1 February 2009 ) . `` Trade - Off Aversion as an Explanation for the Attraction Effect : A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study '' . Journal of Marketing Research . 46 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 13 . doi : 10.1509 / jmkr. 46.1. 1 . Jump up ^ Rooderkerk , Robert P ; Van Heerde , Harald J ; Bijmolt , Tammo H.A ( 1 August 2011 ) . `` Incorporating Context Effects Into a Choice Model '' . Journal of Marketing Research . 48 ( 4 ) : 767 -- 780 . doi : 10.1509 / jmkr. 48.4. 767 . Jump up ^ Rooderkerk , Robert P ; Van Heerde , Harald J ; Bijmolt , Tammo H.A ( 1 August 2011 ) . `` Incorporating Context Effects Into a Choice Model '' . Journal of Marketing Research . 48 ( 4 ) : 767 -- 780 . doi : 10.1509 / jmkr. 48.4. 767 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Context_effect&oldid=840750606 '' Categories : Cognitive psychology Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Wikipedia articles needing style editing from December 2012 All articles needing style editing Articles needing cleanup from December 2012 All pages needing cleanup Articles containing how - to sections Articles with multiple maintenance issues Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 11 May 2018 , at 22 : 47 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia

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what determines the distancea beam bridge can span

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Beam_bridge&oldid=831525079

Beam bridge - wikipedia Beam bridge Jump to : navigation , search This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Beam Bridge Multispan plate girder bridge deck on concrete piers . Ancestor Log bridge Descendant Box girder bridge , Plate girder bridge , trestle , truss bridge Carries Pedestrians , automobiles , trucks , light rail , heavy rail Span range Short Material Timber , iron , steel , reinforced concrete , prestressed concrete Movable No Design effort Low Falsework required No unless cast - in - place reinforced concrete is used Beam bridges , also known as stringer bridges , are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans supported by an abutment or pier at each end . No moments are transferred throughout the support , hence their structural type is known as simply supported . The simplest beam bridge could be a log ( see log bridge ) , a wood plank , or a stone slab ( see clapper bridge ) laid across a stream . Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete , or a combination of both . The concrete elements may be reinforced , prestressed or post-tensioned . Such modern bridges include girder , plate girder , and box girder bridges , all types of beam bridges . Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with a deck across the top of them , to a main beam either side supporting a deck between them . The main beams could be I - beams ( also known as H - beams ) , trusses , or box girders . They could be half - through , or braced across the top to create a through bridge . A footbridge using beams over a stream in Dordogne , France Because no moments are transferred , thrust , as from an arch bridge , can not be accommodated , so leading to innovative designs , such as lenticular trusses & bow string arches , which contain the horizontal forces within the superstructure . Beam bridges are not limited to a single span . Some viaducts such as the Feiyunjiang Bridge in China have multiple simply supported spans supported by piers . This is opposed to viaducts using continuous spans over the piers . Beam bridges are often only used for relatively short distances because , unlike truss bridges , they have no built in supports . The only supports are provided by piers . The farther apart its supports , the weaker a beam bridge gets . As a result , beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet ( 80 m ) . This does n't mean beam bridges are n't used to cross great distances , it only means that a series of beam bridges must be joined together , creating what 's known as a continuous span . References ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beam bridges . Bridge - related articles Structural types Arch bridge Bascule bridge Beam bridge Box girder bridge Bridge -- tunnel Burr truss Cable - stayed bridge Canopy bridge Cantilever bridge Cantilever spar cable - stayed bridge Covered bridge Crib bridge Extradosed bridge Log bridge Moon bridge Moveable bridge Navigable aqueduct Pile bridge Pontoon bridge ( Vlotbrug ) Suspension bridge ( types ) Tilt bridge Timber bridge Through arch bridge Transporter bridge Truss bridge Tubular bridge Viaduct Visual index to various types Lists of bridges by type List of bridges List of road -- rail bridges List of bridge -- tunnels List of bascule bridges List of multi-level bridges List of toll bridges List of cantilever bridges Lists of bridges by size By length Suspension bridges Cable - stayed bridges Cantilever bridges Continuous truss bridges Arch bridges Masonry arch bridges Highest Tallest Additional lists Bridge failures Bridge to nowhere Commons WikiProject Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beam_bridge&oldid=831525079 '' Categories : Beam bridges Bridges by structural type Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from June 2017 Articles lacking sources from June 2017 All articles lacking sources All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011 Talk About Wikipedia Dansk Eesti Español Esperanto Estremeñu Lietuvių Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe 中文 8 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 March 2018 , at 01 : 09 . About Wikipedia

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how did the venus flytrap get its name

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Venus_flytrap&oldid=818996661

Venus flytrap - wikipedia Venus flytrap Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the plant . For other uses , see Venus Flytrap ( disambiguation ) . Venus flytrap Leaf Conservation status Vulnerable ( IUCN 2.3 ) Scientific classification Kingdom : Plantae Clade : Angiosperms Clade : Eudicots Order : Caryophyllales Family : Droseraceae Genus : Dionaea Sol . ex J. Ellis 1768 Species : D. muscipula Binomial name Dionaea muscipula J. Ellis Distribution Synonyms Dionea Raf. , spelling variant Dionaea corymbosa ( Raf . ) Steud. ( 1840 ) Dionaea crinita Sol. ( 1990 ) as synonym Dionaea dentata D'Amato ( 1998 ) name published without description Dionaea heterodoxa D'Amato ( 1998 ) nom. nud . Dionaea muscicapa St. Hil. ( 1824 ) sphalm. typogr . Dionaea sensitiva Salisb. ( 1796 ) Dionaea sessiliflora ( Raf . ) Steud. ( 1840 ) Dionaea uniflora ( Raf . ) Steud. ( 1840 ) Drosera corymbosa Raf. ( 1833 ) Drosera sessiliflora Raf. ( 1833 ) Drosera uniflora Raf. ( 1833 ) The Venus flytrap ( also referred to as Venus 's flytrap or Venus ' flytrap ) , Dionaea muscipula , is a carnivorous plant native to subtropical wetlands on the East Coast of the United States in North Carolina and South Carolina . It catches its prey -- chiefly insects and arachnids -- with a trapping structure formed by the terminal portion of each of the plant 's leaves , which is triggered by tiny hairs on their inner surfaces . When an insect or spider crawling along the leaves contacts a hair , the trap prepares to close , snapping shut only if another contact occurs within approximately twenty seconds of the first strike . The requirement of redundant triggering in this mechanism serves as a safeguard against wasting energy by trapping objects with no nutritional value , and the plant will only begin digestion after five more stimuli to ensure it has caught a live bug worthy of consumption . Dionaea is a monotypic genus closely related to the waterwheel plant ( Aldrovanda vesiculosa ) and sundews ( Drosera ) , all of which belong to the family Droseraceae . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 Etymology 3 Carnivory 3.1 Prey selectivity 3.2 Mechanism of trapping 3.3 Digestion 4 Evolution 4.1 Proposed evolutionary history 5 Habitat 6 Cultivation 6.1 Cultivars 7 Conservation 8 In alternative medicine 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Description In 1760 , the North Carolina colonial governor , Arthur Dobbs , penned the first written description of the plant in a letter to English botanist Peter Collinson It was dated Brunswick , Jan. 24 , 1760 . `` The great wonder of the vegetable kingdom is a very curious unknown species of Sensitive . It is a dwarf plant . The leaves are like a narrow segment of a sphere , consisting of two parts , like the cap of a spring purse , the concave part outwards , each of which falls back with indented edges ( like an iron spring fox - trap ) ; upon anything touching the leaves , or falling between them , they instantly close like a spring trap , and confine any insect or anything that falls between them . It bears a white flower . To this surprising plant I have given the name of Fly trap Sensitive . '' -- Arthur Dobbs This seems to be the earliest notice of the plant and is before the letters of John Ellis on the subject . The Venus flytrap is a small plant whose structure can be described as a rosette of four to seven leaves , which arise from a short subterranean stem that is actually a bulb - like object . Each stem reaches a maximum size of about three to ten centimeters , depending on the time of year ; longer leaves with robust traps are usually formed after flowering . Flytraps that have more than seven leaves are colonies formed by rosettes that have divided beneath the ground . Illustration from Curtis 's Botanical Magazine by William Curtis ( 1746 -- 1799 ) The leaf blade is divided into two regions : a flat , heart - shaped photosynthesis - capable petiole , and a pair of terminal lobes hinged at the midrib , forming the trap which is the true leaf . The upper surface of these lobes contains red anthocyanin pigments and its edges secrete mucilage . The lobes exhibit rapid plant movements , snapping shut when stimulated by prey . The trapping mechanism is tripped when prey contacts one of the three hair - like trichomes that are found on the upper surface of each of the lobes . The mechanism is so highly specialized that it can distinguish between living prey and non-prey stimuli , such as falling raindrops ; two trigger hairs must be touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other or one hair touched twice in rapid succession , whereupon the lobes of the trap will snap shut , typically in about one - tenth of a second . The edges of the lobes are fringed by stiff hair - like protrusions or cilia , which mesh together and prevent large prey from escaping . These protrusions , and the trigger hairs ( also known as sensitive hairs ) are likely homologous with the tentacles found in this plant 's close relatives , the sundews . Scientists have concluded that the snap trap evolved from a fly - paper trap similar to that of Drosera . The holes in the meshwork allow small prey to escape , presumably because the benefit that would be obtained from them would be less than the cost of digesting them . If the prey is too small and escapes , the trap will usually reopen within 12 hours . If the prey moves around in the trap , it tightens and digestion begins more quickly . Speed of closing can vary depending on the amount of humidity , light , size of prey , and general growing conditions . The speed with which traps close can be used as an indicator of a plant 's general health . Venus flytraps are not as humidity - dependent as are some other carnivorous plants , such as Nepenthes , Cephalotus , most Heliamphora , and some Drosera . The Venus flytrap exhibits variations in petiole shape and length and whether the leaf lies flat on the ground or extends up at an angle of about 40 -- 60 degrees . The four major forms are : ' typica ' , the most common , with broad decumbent petioles ; ' erecta ' , with leaves at a 45 - degree angle ; ' linearis ' , with narrow petioles and leaves at 45 degrees ; and ' filiformis ' , with extremely narrow or linear petioles . Except for ' filiformis ' , all of these can be stages in leaf production of any plant depending on season ( decumbent in summer versus short versus semi-erect in spring ) , length of photoperiod ( long petioles in spring versus short in summer ) , and intensity of light ( wide petioles in low light intensity versus narrow in brighter light ) . Flowering venus flytrap showing its long flower stem Closeup of flower ( c. 20 mm in diameter ) The species produces small , shiny black seeds Etymology The plant 's common name refers to Venus , the Roman goddess of love . The genus name , Dionaea ( `` daughter of Dione '' ) , refers to the Greek goddess Aphrodite , while the species name , muscipula , is Latin for `` mousetrap '' . Historically , the plant was also known by the slang term `` tipitiwitchet '' or `` tippity twitchet '' , possibly an oblique reference to the plant 's resemblance to human female genitalia . Carnivory A closing trap Prey selectivity Play media A time lapse showing Venus flytrap catching prey Most carnivorous plants selectively feed on specific prey . This selection is due to the available prey and the type of trap used by the organism . With the Venus flytrap , prey is limited to beetles , spiders and other crawling arthropods . In fact , the Dionaea diet is 33 % ants , 30 % spiders , 10 % beetles , and 10 % grasshoppers , with fewer than 5 % flying insects . Given that Dionaea evolved from an ancestral form of Drosera ( carnivorous plants that use a sticky trap instead of a snap trap ) the reason for this evolutionary branching becomes clear . Whilst Drosera consume smaller , aerial insects , Dionaea consume larger terrestrial bugs . Dionaea are able to extract more nutrients from these larger bugs . This gives Dionaea an evolutionary advantage over their ancestral sticky trap form . Mechanism of trapping Closeup of one of the hinged trigger hairs The Venus flytrap is one of a very small group of plants capable of rapid movement , such as Mimosa pudica , the Telegraph plant , sundews and bladderworts . The mechanism by which the trap snaps shut involves a complex interaction between elasticity , turgor and growth . The trap only shuts when there have been two stimulations of the trigger hairs ; this is to avoid inadvertent triggering of the mechanism by dust and other wind - borne debris . In the open , untripped state , the lobes are convex ( bent outwards ) , but in the closed state , the lobes are concave ( forming a cavity ) . It is the rapid flipping of this bistable state that closes the trap , but the mechanism by which this occurs is still poorly understood . When the trigger hairs are stimulated , an action potential ( mostly involving calcium ions -- see calcium in biology ) is generated , which propagates across the lobes and stimulates cells in the lobes and in the midrib between them . It is hypothesized that there is a threshold of ion buildup for the Venus flytrap to react to stimulation . After closing , the flytrap counts additional stimulations of the trigger hairs , to five total , to start the production of digesting enzymes . The acid growth theory states that individual cells in the outer layers of the lobes and midrib rapidly move H ( hydrogen ions ) into their cell walls , lowering the pH and loosening the extracellular components , which allows them to swell rapidly by osmosis , thus elongating and changing the shape of the trap lobe . Alternatively , cells in the inner layers of the lobes and midrib may rapidly secrete other ions , allowing water to follow by osmosis , and the cells to collapse . Both of these mechanisms may play a role and have some experimental evidence to support them . Digestion If the prey is unable to escape , it will continue to stimulate the inner surface of the lobes , and this causes a further growth response that forces the edges of the lobes together , eventually sealing the trap hermetically and forming a `` stomach '' in which digestion occurs . Release of the digestive enzymes is controlled by the hormone jasmonic acid , the same hormone that triggers the release of toxins as an anti-herbivore defense mechanism in non-carnivorous plants . ( See Evolution below ) Once the digestive glands in the leaf lobes have been activated , digestion is catalysed by hydrolase enzymes secreted by the glands . Oxidative protein modification is likely to be a pre-digestive mechanism used by Dionaea muscipula . Aqueous leaf extracts have been found to contain quinones such as the naphthoquinone plumbagin that couples to different NADH - dependent diaphorases to produce superoxide and hydrogen peroxide upon autoxidation . Such oxidative modification could rupture animal cell membranes . Plumbagin is known to induce apoptosis , associated with the regulation of the Bcl - 2 family of proteins . When the Dionaea extracts were pre-incubated with diaphorases and NADH in the presence of serum albumin ( SA ) , subsequent tryptic digestion of SA was facilitated . Since the secretory glands of Droseraceae contain proteases and possibly other degradative enzymes , it may be that the presence of oxygen - activating redox cofactors function as extracellular pre-digestive oxidants to render membrane - bound proteins of the prey ( insects ) more susceptible to proteolytic attacks . Digestion takes about ten days , after which the prey is reduced to a husk of chitin . The trap then reopens , and is ready for reuse . Evolution Drosera falconeri , with short , wide , sticky leaf traps Carnivory in plants is a very specialized form of foliar feeding , and is an adaptation found in several plants that grow in nutrient - poor soil . Carnivorous traps were naturally selected to allow these organisms to compensate for the nutrient deficiencies of their harsh environments by supplementing ordinary photosynthate with animal proteins . The `` snap trap '' mechanism characteristic of Dionaea is shared with only one other carnivorous plant genus , Aldrovanda . For most of the 20th century , this relationship was thought to be coincidental , more precisely an example of convergent evolution . Some phylogenetic studies even suggested that the closest living relatives of Aldrovanda were the sundews . It was not until 2002 that a molecular evolutionary study , by analyzing combined nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences , indicated that Dionaea and Aldrovanda were closely related and that the snap trap mechanism evolved only once in a common ancestor of the two genera . A 2009 study presented evidence for the evolution of snap traps of Dionaea and Aldrovanda from a flypaper trap like Drosera regia , based on molecular data . The molecular and physiological data imply that Dionaea and Aldrovanda snap traps evolved from the flypaper traps of a common ancestor with Drosera . Pre-adaptations to the evolution of snap traps were identified in several species of Drosera , such as rapid leaf and tentacle movement . The model proposes that plant carnivory by snap trap evolved from the flypaper traps , driven by increasing prey size . Bigger prey provides greater nutritional value , but large insects can easily escape the sticky mucilage of flypaper traps ; the evolution of snap traps would therefore prevent escape and kleptoparasitism ( theft of prey captured by the plant before it can derive benefit from it ) , and would also permit a more complete digestion . In 2016 , a study of the expression of genes in the plant 's leaves as they captured and digested prey was published in the journal , Genome Research . The gene activation observed in the leaves of the plants gives support to the hypothesis that the carnivorous mechanisms present in the flytrap are a specially adapted version of mechanisms used by non-carnivorous plants to defend against herbivorous insects . In many non-carnivorous plants , jasmonic acid serves as a signaling molecule for the activation of defense mechanisms , such as the production of hydrolases , which can destroy chitin and other molecular components of insect and microbial pests . In the Venus flytrap , this same molecule has been found to be responsible for the activation of the plant 's digestive glands . A few hours after the capture of prey , another set of genes is activated inside the glands , the same set of genes that is active in the roots of other plants , allowing them to absorb nutrients . The use of similar biological pathways in the traps as non-carnivorous plants use for other purposes indicates that somewhere in its evolutionary history , the Venus flytrap repurposed these genes for the purpose of carnivory . Proposed evolutionary history Carnivorous plants are generally herbs , and their traps the result of primary growth . They generally do not form readily fossilizable structures such as thick bark or wood . As a result , there is no fossil evidence of the steps that might link Dionaea and Aldrovanda , or either genus with their common ancestor , Drosera . Nevertheless , it is possible to infer an evolutionary history based on phylogenetic studies of both genera . Researchers have proposed a series of steps that would ultimately result in the complex snap - trap mechanism : Larger insects usually walk over the plant , instead of flying to it , and are more likely to break free from sticky glands alone . Therefore , a plant with wider leaves , like Drosera falconeri , must have adapted to move the trap and its stalks in directions that maximized its chance of capturing and retaining such prey -- in this particular case , longitudinally . Once adequately `` wrapped '' , escape would be more difficult . Evolutionary pressure then selected for plants with shorter response time , in a manner similar to Drosera burmannii or Drosera glanduligera . The faster the closing , the less reliant on the flypaper model the plant would be . As the trap became more and more active , the energy required to `` wrap '' the prey increased . Plants that could somehow differentiate between actual insects and random detritus / rain droplets would have an advantage , thus explaining the specialization of inner tentacles into trigger hairs . Ultimately , as the plant relied more on closing around the insect rather than gluing them to the leaf surface , the tentacles so evident in Drosera would lose their original function altogether , becoming the `` teeth '' and trigger hairs -- an example of natural selection utilizing pre-existing structures for new functions . Completing the transition , the plant eventually developed the depressed digestive glands found inside the trap , rather than using the dews in the stalks , further differentiating it from genus Drosera . Habitat Map of the original distribution of the Venus flytrap The Venus flytrap is found in nitrogen - and phosphorus - poor environments , such as bogs and wet savannahs . Small in stature and slow - growing , the Venus flytrap tolerates fire well , and depends on periodic burning to suppress its competition . Fire suppression threatens its future in the wild . It survives in wet sandy and peaty soils . Although it has been successfully transplanted and grown in many locales around the world , it is native only to the coastal bogs of North and South Carolina in the United States , specifically within a 60 - mile radius of Wilmington , North Carolina . One such place is North Carolina 's Green Swamp . There also appears to be a naturalized population of Venus flytraps in northern Florida as well as an introduced population in western Washington . The nutritional poverty of the soil is the reason that the plant relies on such elaborate traps : insect prey provide the nitrogen for protein formation that the soil can not . The Venus flytrap is not a tropical plant and can tolerate mild winters . In fact , Venus flytraps that do not go through a period of winter dormancy will weaken and die after a period of time . Cultivation Dionaea muscipula ' Akai Ryu ' , Japanese for ' Red Dragon ' , in cultivation Plants can be propagated by seed , taking around four to five years to reach maturity . More commonly , they are propagated by clonal division in spring or summer . Venus flytraps can also be propagated in vitro using plant tissue culture . Most Venus flytraps found for sale in nurseries garden centers have been produced using this method , as this is the most cost - effective way to propagate them on a large scale . Regardless of the propagation method used , the plants will live for 20 to 30 years if cultivated in the right conditions . Cultivars Main article : List of Venus flytrap cultivars Venus flytraps are by far the most commonly recognized and cultivated carnivorous plant , and they are frequently sold as houseplants . Various cultivars ( cultivated varieties ) have come into the market through tissue culture of selected genetic mutations , and these plants are raised in large quantities for commercial markets . Conservation The species is classified as `` vulnerable '' by the National Wildlife Federation . In 2015 , there were estimated to be fewer than 33,000 plants in the wild , all within 75 miles ( 121 km ) of the city of Wilmington , North Carolina , and all on sites owned by The Nature Conservancy , the North Carolina state government , or the US military . In 2014 , the state of North Carolina passed Senate Bill 734 which classifies the theft of naturally growing Venus flytraps in the state as a felony . Tougher sanctions and penalties for the theft were also enacted in December 1 , 2014 in accordance with legislation . In alternative medicine Venus flytrap extract is available on the market as an herbal remedy , sometimes as the prime ingredient of a patent medicine named `` Carnivora '' . According to the American Cancer Society , these products are promoted in alternative medicine as a treatment for a variety of human ailments including HIV , Crohn 's disease and skin cancer , but `` available scientific evidence does not support the health claims made for Venus flytrap extract '' . See also Carnivorous plants of North America List of ineffective cancer treatments References Jump up ^ Schnell , D. ; Catling , P. ; Folkerts , G. ; Frost , C. ; Gardner , R. ; et al. ( 2000 ) . `` Dionaea muscipula '' . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Version 2006 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 11 May 2006 . Listed as Vulnerable ( VU A1acd , B1 + 2c v2. 3 ) Jump up ^ Schlauer , J. ( N.d. ) Dionaea muscipula . Carnivorous Plant Database . Jump up ^ Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families Jump up ^ Hortus Collinsonianus . An account of the plants cultivated by the late Peter Collinson - By Lewis Weston DILLWYN , Peter COLLINSON Jump up ^ Gardeners Chronicle & New Horticulturist - Volumes 3 - 4 Jump up ^ The Nature Conservancy - Venus Flytrap Jump up ^ Directions for Bringing over Seeds and Plants , from the East Indies and Other Distant Countries , in a State of Vegetation : Together with a Catalogue of Such Foreign Plants as Are Worthy of Being Encouraged in Our American Colonies , for the Purposes of Medicine , Agriculture , and Commerce . To Which is Added , the Figure and Botanical Description of a New Sensitive Plant , Called Dionæa muscipula : or , Venus 's Fly - trap - ( London , printed and sold by L. Davis , 1770 ) . Jump up ^ `` Venus flytraps '' . The Carnivorous Plant FAQ . Retrieved 2005 - 06 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : Raven , Peter H. ; Evert , Ray Franklin ; Eichhorn , Susan E. ( 2005 ) . Biology of Plants ( 7th ed . ) . W.H. Freeman and Company . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 1007 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Forterre , Yoël ; Skotheim , Jan M. ; Dumais , Jacques ; Mahadevan , L. ( 27 January 2005 ) . `` How the Venus flytrap snaps '' ( PDF ) . Nature . 433 ( 7024 ) : 421 -- 425 . doi : 10.1038 / nature03185 . PMID 15674293 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2 December 2007 . Jump up ^ Cameron , Kenneth M. ; Wurdack , Kenneth J. ; Jobson , Richard W. ( 2002 ) . `` Molecular evidence for the common origin of snap - traps among carnivorous plants '' . American Journal of Botany. 89 ( 9 ) : 1503 -- 1509 . doi : 10.3732 / ajb. 89.9. 1503 . PMID 21665752 . ^ Jump up to : `` Background Information on Venus Fly Traps -- Venus Fly Trap naming and history '' . FlyTrapCare.com. 2008 - 04 - 04 . Archived from the original on 17 December 2008 . Jump up ^ Rice , Barry ( January 2007 ) . `` How did the Venus flytrap get its name ? '' . The Carnivorous Plant FAQ . Jump up ^ Ellison , DM ; Gotelli , NJ ( 2009 ) . `` Energetics and the evolution of carnivorous plants -- Darwin 's ' Most Wonderful plants in the world ' '' . Journal of Experimental Botany. 60 ( 1 ) : 19 -- 42 . doi : 10.1093 / jxb / ern179 . PMID 19213724 . Jump up ^ Gibson , TC ; Waller , DM ( 2009 ) . `` Evolving Darwin 's ' most wonderful ' plant : ecological steps to a snap - trap '' . New Phytologist. 183 ( 1 ) : 575 -- 587 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1469 - 8137.2009. 02935. x . PMID 19573135 . Jump up ^ Hodick , Dieter ; Sievers , Andreas ( 1989 ) . `` The action potential of Dionaea muscipula Ellis '' . Planta. 174 ( 1 ) : 8 -- 18 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00394867 . Jump up ^ `` Press release : The Trap Snaps Shut '' ( PDF ) . Wiley ChemBioChem . January 2010 . doi : 10.1002 / ( issn ) 1439 - 7633 / asset / homepages / press / 201001press. pdf . ^ Jump up to : Böhm , J. ; Scherzer , S. ; Krol , E. ; Kreuzer , I. ; von Meyer , K. ; Lorey , C. ; Mueller , T.D. ; Shabala , L. ; Monte , I. ; Solano , R. ; Al - Rasheid , K.A.S. ; Rennenberg , H. ; Shabala , S. ; Neher , E. ; Hedrich , R. ( 2016 ) . `` The Venus Flytrap Dionaea muscipula Counts Prey - Induced Action Potentials to Induce Sodium Uptake '' . Current Biology . 26 : 286 -- 295 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cub. 2015.11. 057 . ISSN 0960 - 9822 . PMC 4751343 . PMID 26804557 . Jump up ^ Williams , S.E. 2002 . Comparative physiology of the Droseraceae sensu stricto -- How do tentacles bend and traps close ? Proceedings of the 4th International Carnivorous Plant Society Conference . Tokyo , Japan . pp. 77 -- 81 . Jump up ^ Hodick , Dieter ; Sievers , Andreas ( 1988 ) . `` On the mechanism of closure of Venus flytrap ( Dionaea muscipula Ellis ) '' . Planta. 179 ( 1 ) : 32 -- 42 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00395768 . PMID 24201419 . ^ Jump up to : Bemm , Felix ; Becker , Dirk ; Larisch , Christina ; Kreuzer , Ines ; Escalante - Perez , Maria ; Schulze , Waltraud X. ; Ankenbrand , Markus ; Weyer , Anna - Lena Van de ; Krol , Elzbieta ; Al - Rasheid , Khaled A. ; Mithöfer , Axel ; Weber , Andreas P. ; Schultz , Jörg ; Hedrich , Rainer ( 4 May 2016 ) . `` Venus flytrap carnivorous lifestyle builds on herbivore defense strategies '' . Genome Research . 26 : 812 -- 825 . doi : 10.1101 / gr. 202200.115 . ISSN 1088 - 9051 . PMC 4889972 . PMID 27197216 . Retrieved 26 May 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Galek H , Osswald WF , Elstner EF ( 1990 ) . `` Oxidative protein modification as predigestive mechanism of the carnivorous plant Dionaea muscipula : an hypothesis based on in vitro experiments '' . Free Radic Biol Med. 9 ( 5 ) : 427 -- 34 . doi : 10.1016 / 0891 - 5849 ( 90 ) 90020 - J. PMID 2292436 . Jump up ^ Hsu YL , Cho CY , Kuo PL , Huang YT , Lin CC ( Aug 2006 ) . `` Plumbagin ( 5 - Hydroxy - 2 - methyl - 1 , 4 - naphthoquinone ) Induces Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in A549 Cells through p53 Accumulation via c - Jun NH2 - Terminal Kinase - Mediated Phosphorylation at Serine 15 in Vitro and in Vivo '' . J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 318 ( 2 ) : 484 -- 94 . doi : 10.1124 / jpet. 105.098863 . PMID 16632641 . Jump up ^ Produced by Neil Lucas ( 2009 - 12 - 07 ) . `` Plants '' . Life . BBC . BBC One . Jump up ^ AM Ellison ( 2006 ) . `` Nutrient limitation and stoichiometry of carnivorous plants '' ( PDF ) . Biology . 8 : 740 -- 747 . doi : 10.1055 / s - 2006 - 923956 . ^ Jump up to : Gibson , T.C. ; Waller , D.M. ( 2009 ) . `` Evolving Darwin 's ' most wonderful ' plant : ecological steps to a snap - trap '' ( PDF ) . New Phytologist. 183 ( 3 ) : 575 -- 587 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1469 - 8137.2009. 02935. x . PMID 19573135 . ^ Jump up to : Cameron , K.M. ; Wurdack , K.J. ; Jobson , R.W. ( 2002 ) . `` Molecular evidence for the common origin of snap - traps among carnivorous plants '' . American Journal of Botany. 89 ( 9 ) : 1503 -- 1509 . doi : 10.3732 / ajb. 89.9. 1503 . PMID 21665752 . Jump up ^ Rivadavia , F. ; K. Kondo ; M. Kato & M. Hasebe ( 2003 ) . `` Phylogeny of the sundews , Drosera ( Droseraceae ) , based on chloroplast rbcL and nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA Sequences '' . American Journal of Botany. 90 ( 1 ) : 123 -- 130 . doi : 10.3732 / ajb. 90.1. 123 . PMID 21659087 . Jump up ^ Stokstad , E. ( 12 May 2016 ) . `` How the Venus flytrap acquired its taste for meat '' . Science . 352 ( 6287 ) : 756 -- 756 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 352.6287. 756 . PMID 27174967 . Retrieved 26 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Turner , John G. ; Ellis , Christine ; Devoto , Alessandra ( 1 May 2002 ) . `` The Jasmonate Signal Pathway '' . The Plant Cell. 14 ( suppl 1 ) : S153 -- S164 . doi : 10.1105 / tpc. 000679 . ISSN 1532 - 298X . PMC 151253 . PMID 12045275 . Retrieved 26 May 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Venus flytrap origins uncovered '' . BBC News . 2009 . Jump up ^ W. Schulze ; E.D. Schulze ; I. Schulze & R. Oren ( 2001 ) . `` Quantification of insect nitrogen utilization by the venus fly trap Dionaea muscipula catching prey with highly variable isotope signatures '' . Journal of Experimental Botany. 52 ( 358 ) : 1041 -- 1049 . doi : 10.1093 / jexbot / 52.358. 1041 . PMID 11432920 . Jump up ^ Leege , Lissa . `` How does the Venus flytrap digest flies ? '' . Scientific American . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Darwin , C.R. 1875 . Insectivorous Plants . Jump up ^ Schnell , D.E. ( 2002 ) . Carnivorous Plants of the United States and Canada ( 2nd ed . ) . Timber Press . ISBN 0 - 88192 - 540 - 3 . Jump up ^ Giblin , D. Nd . Dionaea muscipula . Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture . Jump up ^ `` International Carnivorous Plant Society '' . Carnivorousplants.org . Archived from the original on 28 July 2014 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 26 . Jump up ^ Jang , Gi - Won ; Kim , Kwang - Soo ; Park , Ro - Dong ( 2003 ) . `` Micropropagation of Venus fly trap by shoot culture '' . Plant Cell , Tissue and Organ Culture . 72 ( 1 ) : 95 -- 98 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1021203811457 . Retrieved 19 May 2016 . Jump up ^ D'Amato , Peter ( 1998 ) . The Savage Garden : Cultivating Carnivorous Plants . Berkeley , California : Ten Speed Press . ISBN 0 - 89815 - 915 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Venus Flytrap '' . National Wildlife Federation . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 10 . Jump up ^ John R. Platt ( 2015 - 01 - 22 ) . `` Venus Flytraps Risk Extinction in the Wild at the Hands of Poachers '' . Scientific American . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 10 . Jump up ^ Evans , Jon ( September 18 , 2014 ) . `` Stealing Venus Flytrap plants now a felony '' . www.wect.com . Retrieved July 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Venus Flytrap '' . American Cancer Society . November 2008 . Archived from the original on 18 February 2015 . Retrieved 22 September 2013 . External links Wikispecies has information related to Dionaea muscipula Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dionaea muscipula . Images and movies of the Venus flytrap ( Dionaea muscipula ) at ARKive Venus Flytrap Growing Guide and Distribution Map The Carnivorous Plant FAQ : Flytraps Venus flytrap origins uncovered - BBC The CP Photo Finder : `` Dionaea '' Dionaea muscipula - The Venus flytrap at Botanical Society of America Criminal Podcast Episode Five : Dropping Like Flies ( hide ) Carnivorous and protocarnivorous plants Carnivorous genera ( † extinct ) Aldrovanda † Archaeamphora Brocchinia Byblis Catopsis Cephalotus Darlingtonia Dionaea Drosera † Droserapites † Droserapollis † Droseridites Drosophyllum † Fischeripollis Genlisea Heliamphora Nepenthes † Palaeoaldrovanda Philcoxia Pinguicula Roridula Sarracenia † Saxonipollis Triphyophyllum Utricularia Protocarnivorous genera Aracamunia Capsella Colura Dipsacus Drymocallis Geranium Ibicella Lathraea Paepalanthus Passiflora Plumbago Proboscidea Stylidium See also International Carnivorous Plant Society Insectivorous Plant Society List of carnivorous plants List of carnivorous plant periodicals Pitcher plant Taxon identifiers Wd : Q155825 ARKive : dionaea - muscipula EoL : 584643 FNA : 220004158 GBIF : 5421410 GRIN : 405268 iNaturalist : 52666 IPNI : 275898 - 2 ITIS : 22008 IUCN : 39636 NCBI : 4362 PalDat : Dionaea_muscipula Plant List : kew - 62109 PLANTS : DIMU4 Species+ : 21371 Tropicos : 11400032 WCSP : 62109 NDL : 00907781 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venus_flytrap&oldid=818996661 '' Categories : IUCN Red List vulnerable species Carnivorous plants of North America Dionaea Plants described in 1768 Vulnerable plants Flora of North Carolina Flora of South Carolina Plant cognition Hidden categories : Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Articles with ' species ' microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2008 Use dmy dates from October 2010 Articles containing video clips Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikispecies Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Български Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย ᏣᎳᎩ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2018 , at 20 : 25 . 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where is cancer constellation located in the sky

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cancer_(constellation)&oldid=800326163

Cancer ( constellation ) - wikipedia Cancer ( constellation ) Jump to : navigation , search Cancer Constellation List of stars in Cancer Abbreviation Cnc Genitive Cancri Pronunciation / ˈkænsər / , genitive / ˈkæŋkraɪ / Symbolism the Crab Right ascension 07 55 19.7973 -- 09 22 35.0364 Declination 33.1415138 ° -- 6.4700689 ° Area 506 sq. deg . ( 31st ) Main stars 5 Bayer / Flamsteed stars 76 Stars with planets 10 Stars brighter than 3.00 0 Stars within 10.00 pc ( 32.62 ly ) Brightest star β Cnc ( Altarf ) ( 3.53 ) Messier objects Meteor showers Delta Cancrids Bordering constellations Lynx Gemini Canis Minor Hydra Leo Leo Minor ( corner ) Visible at latitudes between + 90 ° and − 60 ° . Best visible at 21 : 00 ( 9 p.m. ) during the month of March . Cancer is one of the twelve constellations of the zodiac . Its name is Latin for crab and it is commonly represented as one . Its astrological symbol is ( Unicode ♋ ) . Cancer is a medium - size constellation with an area of 506 square degrees and its stars are rather faint , its brightest star Beta Cancri having an apparent magnitude of 3.5 . It contains two stars with known planets , including 55 Cancri , which has five : one super-earth and four gas giants , one of which is in the habitable zone and as such has expected temperatures similar to Earth . Located at the center of the constellation is Praesepe ( Messier 44 ) , one of the closest open clusters to Earth and a popular target for amateur astronomers . Contents ( hide ) 1 Characteristics 2 Features 2.1 Stars 2.2 Deep - sky objects 3 History 4 Illustrations 5 Names 6 Mythology 6.1 Astrology 7 Equivalents 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Characteristics ( edit ) Cancer is a medium - sized constellation that is bordered by Gemini to the west , Lynx to the north , Leo Minor to the northeast , Leo to the east , Hydra to the south , and Canis Minor to the southwest . The three - letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Cnc ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 10 sides ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 07 55 19.7973 and 09 22 35.0364 , while the declination coordinates are between 33.1415138 ° and 6.4700689 ° . Covering 506 square degrees or 0.921 % of the sky , it ranks 31st of the 88 constellations in size . It can be seen at latitudes between + 90 ° and - 60 ° and is best visible at 9 p.m. during the month of March . Features ( edit ) Stars ( edit ) See also : List of stars in Cancer Cancer is the dimmest of the zodiacal constellations , having only two stars above the fourth magnitude . The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Omega to label the most prominent stars in the constellation , followed by the letter A , then lowercase b , c and d . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 104 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5 . The constellation Cancer as it can be seen by the naked eye . Also known as Altarf , Beta Cancri is the brightest star in Cancer at apparent magnitude 3.5 . Located 290 ± 30 light - years from Earth , it is a binary star system , its main component an orange giant of spectral type K4III that is varies slightly from a baseline magnitude of 3.53 -- dipping by 0.005 magnitude over a period of 6 days . An aging star , it has expanded to around 50 times the Sun 's diameter and shines with 660 times its luminosity . It has a faint magnitude 14 red dwarf companion located 29 arcseconds away that takes 76,000 years to complete an orbit . Altarf represents a part of Cancer 's body . At magnitude 3.9 is Delta Cancri , also known as Asellus Australis . Located 131 ± 1 light - years from Earth , it is an orange - hued giant star that has swollen and cooled off the main sequence to become an orange giant with a radius 11 times and luminosity 53 times that of the Sun . Its common name means `` southern donkey '' . The star also holds a record for the longest name , `` Arkushanangarushashutu , '' derived from ancient Babylonian language , which translates to `` the southeast star in the Crab . '' Delta Cancri also makes it easy to find X Cancri , the reddest star in the sky . Known as Asellus Borealis `` northern donkey '' , Gamma Cancri is a white - hued A-type subgiant of spectral type A1IV and magnitude 4.67 , that is 35 times as luminous as of the Sun . It is located 181 ± 2 light - years from Earth . Iota Cancri is a wide double star . The primary is a yellow - hued G - type bright giant star of magnitude 4.0 , located 330 ± 20 light - years from Earth . It spent much of its stellar life as a B - type main sequence star before expanding and cooling to its current state as it spent its core hydrogen . The secondary is a white main sequence star of spectral type A3V and magnitude 6.57 . Despite having different distances when measured by the HIPPARCOS satellite , the two stars share a common proper motion and appear to be a natural binary system . Located 181 + or - 2 light - years from Earth , Alpha Cancri ( Acubens ) is a multiple star with a primary component an apparent white main sequence star of spectral type A5 and magnitude 4.26 . The secondary is of magnitude 12.0 and is visible in small amateur telescopes . Its common name means `` the claw '' . The primary is actually two very similar white main sequence stars that are 5.3 AU distant from each other and the secondary is two small main sequence stars , most likely red dwarfs , that are 600 AU from the main pair . Hence the system is a quadruple one . Zeta Cancri or Tegmine ( `` the shell '' ) is a multiple star system that contains at least four stars located 83 light - years from Earth . The two brightest components are a binary star with an orbital period of 1100 years ; the brighter component is a yellow - hued binary pair and the dimmer component is a yellow - hued star of magnitude 6.2 . The brighter component is itself a binary star with a period of 59.5 years ; its primary is of magnitude 5.6 and its secondary is of magnitude 6.0 . This pair will be at its greatest separation in 2018 . Ten star systems have been found to have planets . Rho - 1 Cancri or 55 Cancri is a binary star approximately 40.9 light - years distant from Earth . 55 Cancri consists of a yellow dwarf and a smaller red dwarf , with five planets orbiting the primary star ; one low - mass planet that may be either a hot , water - rich world or a carbon planet and four gas giants . 55 Cancri A , classified as a rare `` super metal - rich '' star , is one of the top 100 target stars for NASA 's Terrestrial Planet Finder mission , ranked 63rd on the list . The red dwarf 55 Cancri B , a suspected binary , appears to be gravitationally bound to the primary star , as the two share common proper motion . YBP 1194 is a sunlike star in the open cluster M67 that has been found to have three planets . Deep - sky objects ( edit ) Cancer is best known among stargazers as the home of Praesepe ( Messier 44 ) , an open cluster also called the Beehive Cluster , located right in the centre of the constellation . Located 577 light - years from Earth , it is one of the nearest open clusters to our Solar System . M 44 contains about 50 stars , the brightest of which are of the sixth magnitude . Epsilon Cancri is the brightest member at magnitude 6.3 . Praesepe is also one of the larger open clusters visible ; it has an area of 1.5 square degrees , or three times the size of the full Moon . It is most easily observed when Cancer is high in the sky . North of the Equator , this period stretches from February to May . Ptolemy described the Beehive Cluster as `` the nebulous mass in the breast of Cancer . '' It was one of the first objects Galileo observed with his telescope in 1609 , spotting 40 stars in the cluster . Today , there are about 1010 high - probability members , most of them ( 68 percent ) red dwarfs . The Greeks and Romans identified the nebulous object as a manger from which two donkeys , represented by the neighbouring stars ( 1213 ) Asellus Borealis and ( 1210 ) Asellus Australis , were eating . The stars represent the donkeys that the god Dionysus and his tutor Silenus rode in the war against the Titans . The ancient Chinese interpreted the object as a ghost or demon riding in a carriage , calling it a `` cloud of pollen blown from under willow catkins . '' The smaller , denser open cluster Messier 67 can also be found in Cancer , 2500 light - years from Earth . It has an area of approximately 0.5 square degrees , the size of the full Moon . It contains approximately 200 stars , the brightest of which are of the tenth magnitude . QSO J0842 + 1835 is a quasar used to measure the speed of gravity in VLBI experiment conducted by Edward Fomalont and Sergei Kopeikin in September 2002 . OJ 287 is a BL Lacertae object located 3.5 billion light years away that has produced quasi-periodic optical outbursts going back approximately 120 years , as first apparent on photographic plates from 1891 . It was first detected at radio wavelengths during the course of the Ohio Sky Survey . Its central supermassive black hole is among the largest known , with a mass of 18 billion solar masses , more than six times the value calculated for the previous largest object . History ( edit ) Cancer is said to have been the place for the Akkadian Sun of the South , perhaps from its position at the summer solstice in very remote antiquity . But afterwards it was associated with the fourth month Duzu ( June -- July in the modern western calendar ) , and was known as the Northern Gate of Sun . Showing but few stars , and its brightest stars being of only 4th magnitude , Cancer was often considered the `` Dark Sign '' , quaintly described as black and without eyes . Dante , alluding to this faintness and position of heavens , wrote in Paradiso : `` Then a light among them brightened , So that , if Cancer one such crystal had , Winter would have a month of one sole day . '' Cancer was the location of the Sun 's most northerly position in the sky ( the summer solstice ) in ancient times , though this position now occurs in Taurus due to the precession of the equinoxes , around June 21 . This is also the time that the Sun is directly overhead at 23.5 ° N , a parallel now known as the Tropic of Cancer . In Greek mythology , Cancer is identified with the crab that appeared while Hercules was fighting the many - headed Hydra . The crab bit Hercules on the foot , Hercules crushed it and then the goddess Hera , a sworn enemy of Hercules , placed the crab among the stars . Illustrations ( edit ) Cancer as depicted in Urania 's Mirror , a set of constellation cards published in London c. 1825 . The modern symbol for Cancer represents the pincers of a crab , but Cancer has been represented as many types of creatures , usually those living in the water , and always those with an exoskeleton . In the Egyptian records of about 2000 BC it was described as Scarabaeus ( Scarab ) , the sacred emblem of immortality . In Babylonia the constellation was known as MUL. AL. LUL , a name which can refer to both a crab and a snapping turtle . On boundary stones , the image of a turtle or tortoise appears quite regularly and it is believed that this represents Cancer since a conventional crab has not so far been discovered on any of these monuments . There also appears to be a strong connection between the Babylonian constellation and ideas of death and a passage to the underworld , which may be the origin of these ideas in later Greek myths associated with Hercules and the Hydra . In the 12th century , an illustrated astronomical manuscript shows it as a water beetle . Albumasar writes of this sign in Flowers of Abu Ma'shar . A 1488 Latin translation depicts cancer as a large crayfish , which also is the constellation 's name in most Germanic languages . Jakob Bartsch and Stanislaus Lubienitzki , in the 17th century , described it as a lobster . Names ( edit ) Richard Allen , in Star - names and Their Meanings , lists names for the constellation as follows : In Ancient Greece , Aratus called the crab Καρκινος ( Karkinos ) , which was followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy . The Alfonsine tables called it Carcinus , a Latinized form of the Greek word . Eratosthenes extended this as Καρκινος , Ονοι , και Φατνη ( Karkinos , Onoi , kai Fatne ) : the Crab , Asses , and Crib . In Ancient Rome , Manilius and Ovid called the constellation Litoreus ( shore - inhabiting ) . Astacus and Cammarus appear in various classic writers , while it is called Nepa in Cicero 's De Finibus and the works of Columella , Plautus , and Varro ; all of these words signify crab , lobster , or scorpion . Athanasius Kircher said that in Coptic Egypt it was Κλαρια ( Klaria ) , the Bestia seu Statio Typhonis ( the Power of Darkness ) . Jérôme Lalande identified this with Anubis , one of the Egyptian divinities commonly associated with Sirius . The Indian language Sanskrit shares a common ancestor with Greek , and the Sanskrit name of Cancer is Karka and Karkata . In Telugu it is `` Karkatakam '' , in Kannada `` Karkataka '' or `` Kataka '' , in Tamil Karkatan , and in Sinhalese Kagthaca . The later Hindus knew it as Kulira , from the Greek Κολουρος ( Kolouros ) , the term originated by Proclus . The Filipino language Tagalog they commonly called this as Alimasag and Alimango . Mythology ( edit ) Hercules attacked by Karkinos ( bottom ) and the Lernaean Hydra , under the aid of Athena . White - ground Ancient Greek Attic lekythos , ca . 500 -- 475 BC . Louvre Museum , Paris . The creation of the constellation is explained in Greek mythology by the short - lived association of the crab Karkinos with one of the Twelve Labors of Hercules , in which Hercules battled the multi-headed Lernaean Hydra . Hera had sent Karkinos to distract Hercules and put him at a disadvantage during the battle , but Hercules quickly dispatched the crab by kicking it with such force that it was propelled into the sky . Other accounts had Karkinos grabbing onto Hercules ' toe with its claws , but Hercules simply crushed the crab under his foot . Hera , grateful for Karkinos 's effort , gave it a place in the sky . Some scholars have suggested that Karkinos was a late addition to the myth of Hercules in order to make the Twelve Labors correspond to the twelve signs of the Zodiac . Astrology ( edit ) Main article : Cancer ( astrology ) As of 2002 , the Sun appears in the constellation Cancer from July 21 to August 9 . In tropical astrology , the Sun is considered to be in the sign Cancer from June 21 to July 22 , and in sidereal astrology , from July 16 to August 15 . Equivalents ( edit ) In Chinese astronomy , the stars of Cancer lie within the Vermilion Bird of the South ( 南方 朱雀 , Nán Fāng Zhū Què ) . See also ( edit ) Cancer ( Chinese astronomy ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Objects of magnitude 6.5 are among the faintest visible to the unaided eye in suburban - rural transition night skies . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Ridpath 2001 , pp. 94 -- 95 ^ Jump up to : `` Cancer , constellation boundary '' . The Constellations . International Astronomical Union . Retrieved 14 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Russell , Henry Norris ( 1922 ) . `` The New International Symbols for the Constellations '' . Popular Astronomy . 30 : 469 -- 71 . Bibcode : 1922PA ... 30 ... 469R . Jump up ^ Wagman 2003 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Bortle , John E. ( February 2001 ) . `` The Bortle Dark - Sky Scale '' . Sky & Telescope . Retrieved 28 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Ridpath , Ian . `` Constellations : Andromeda -- Indus '' . Star Tales . self - published . Retrieved 26 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kaler , James B. `` Al Tarf ( Beta Cancri ) '' . Stars . University of Illinois . Retrieved 20 March 2014 . ^ Jump up to : van Leeuwen , F. ( 2007 ) . `` Validation of the New Hipparcos Reduction '' . Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 ( 2 ) : 653 -- 64 . Bibcode : 2007A&A ... 474 ... 653V . arXiv : 0708.1752 . doi : 10.1051 / 0004 - 6361 : 20078357 . Jump up ^ Watson , Christopher ( 3 May 2013 ) . `` NSV 3973 '' . AAVSO Website . American Association of Variable Star Observers . Retrieved 20 March 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Kaler , James B. ( 14 May 2010 ) . `` Asellus Australis ( Delta Cancri ) '' . Stars . University of Illinois . Retrieved 7 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Gamma + Cancri '' . SIMBAD . Retrieved 8 April 2015 . Jump up ^ McDonald , I. ; Zijlstra , A.A. ; Boyer , M.L. ( 2012 ) . `` Fundamental Parameters and Infrared Excesses of Hipparcos Stars '' . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 427 ( 1 ) : 343 -- 57 . Bibcode : 2012MNRAS. 427 ... 343M . arXiv : 1208.2037 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2966.2012. 21873. x . ^ Jump up to : Kaler , James B. `` Iota Cancri '' . Stars . University of Illinois . Retrieved 29 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Kaler , James B. `` Acubens '' . Stars . University of Illinois . Retrieved 29 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Valtonen , M.J. ; Lehto , H.J. ; Nilsson , K. ; Heidt , J. ; Takalo , L.O. ; Sillanpää , A. ; Villforth , C. ; Kidger , M. ; Poyner , G. ; Pursimo , T. ; Zola , S. ; Wu , J. - H. ; Zhou , X. ; Sadakane , K. ; Drozdz , M. ; Koziel , D. ; Marchev , D. ; Ogloza , W. ; Porowski , C. ; Siwak , M. ; Stachowski , G. ; Winiarski , M. ; Hentunen , V. - P. ; Nissinen , M. ; Liakos , A. ; Dogru , S. ( 2008 ) . `` A massive binary black - hole system in OJ 287 and a test of general relativity '' ( PDF ) . Nature . 452 ( 7189 ) : 851 -- 853 . Bibcode : 2008Natur. 452 ... 851V . PMID 18421348 . arXiv : 0809.1280 . doi : 10.1038 / nature06896 . Jump up ^ Shiga , David ( 10 January 2008 ) . `` Biggest black hole in the cosmos discovered '' . NewScientist.com news service . Jump up ^ White 2008 , pp. 79 -- 82 Jump up ^ `` Flowers of Abu Ma'shar '' . World Digital Library . 1488 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : Allen 1899 , pp. 107 -- 108 Jump up ^ `` Cancer '' . Dibonsmith.com . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 16 . Jump up ^ ( in Chinese ) AEEA ( Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy ) 天文 教育 資訊 網 2006 年 5 月 27 日 Cited texts Allen , Richard Hinckley ( 1899 ) , `` Cancer , the Crab '' , Star - names and Their Meanings , G.E. Stechert , pp. 107 -- 114 Reprinted as Allen , Richard Hinckley ( 1963 ) . Star Names : Their Lore and Meaning . Dover Publications . ISBN 0 - 486 - 21079 - 0 . Ridpath , Ian ( 2001 ) , Stars and Planets Guide , Wil Tirion ( 3rd ed . ) , Princeton University Press , ISBN 0 - 691 - 08913 - 2 Ridpath , Ian ( 2007 ) , Stars and Planets Guide , Wil Tirion ( 4th ed . ) , Princeton University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 13556 - 4 Liungman , Carl G. , Dictionary of Symbols , W.W. Norton & Company , ISBN 0 - 393 - 31236 - 4 White , Gavin ( 2008 ) , Babylonian Star - lore , Solaria Pubs Wagman , Morton ( 2003 ) . Lost Stars : Lost , Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer , Nicholas Louis de Lacaille , John Flamsteed , and Sundry Others . Blacksburg , Virginia : The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 939923 - 78 - 6 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to : Cancer ( constellation ) ( category ) The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations : Cancer Star Tales -- Cancer Warburg Institute Iconographic Database ( over 300 medieval and early modern images of Cancer ) Cancer constellation Stars ( list ) Bayer α ( Acubens ) β ( Al Tarf ) γ ( Asellus Borealis ) δ ( Asellus Australis ) ε ζ ( Tegmine ) η θ ι κ λ μ μ ν ξ ο ο π π ρ ( Copernicus ) ρ σ σ σ τ υ υ φ φ χ ψ ψ ω Flamsteed 4 ( ω ) 5 7 8 11 12 15 20 ( d ) 21 24 25 ( d ) 27 28 29 34 35 36 ( c ) 37 38 39 40 42 44 45 ( A ) 46 49 ( b ) 50 ( A ) 52 53 54 57 60 61 66 67 68 70 71 75 78 79 80 83 1 LMi 2 LMi 3 LMi 4 LMi Variable U V X RS RU RX RZ SS SY TT TU TW TX UU VZ WY YZ AC AD AH AK AR AT AZ BN BQ BR BS BU BW BX CC CU CY DW DX EG EP ES EV EW EX FZ GY HU HV HR 3104 3115 3125 3127 3158 3164 3198 3201 3222 3228 3231 3252 3264 3306 3376 3380 3394 3395 3424 3428 3504 3558 3567 3599 3606 3617 3620 3635 3657 3689 3707 HD 67542 69629 72115 73534 74721 76908 79498 Other ADS 7284 G 9 - 38 HAT - P - 31 LHS 2090 PSR B0823 + 26 RX J0806. 3 + 1527 YBP 1194 Star clusters Open Beehive Cluster Messier 67 NGC 2664 NGC 2678 Nebulae Planetary Abell 30 Galaxies NGC 2503 2507 2512 2513 2514 2522 2526 2530 2535 2536 2540 2545 2553 2554 2556 2557 2558 2560 2562 2563 2565 2569 2570 2572 2575 2576 2577 2581 2582 2592 2593 2594 2595 2596 2598 2599 2604 2604B 2607 2608 2611 2619 2620 2621 2622 2623 2624 2625 2628 2647 2648 2651 2657 2661 2667 2672 2673 2677 2679 2680 2711 2720 2725 2728 2730 2731 2734 2735 2735A 2737 2738 2741 2743 2744 2744A 2745 2747 2749 2750 2751 2752 2753 2761 2764 2766 2773 2774 2775 2777 2783 2783B 2786 2789 2790 2791 2794 2795 2796 2797 2801 2802 2803 2804 2807 2807A 2809 2812 2813 2819 2824 2843 Other B2 0827 + 243 3C 190 3C 191 3C 192 3C 207 3C 212 3C 215 4C + 29.30 Mrk 704 OI 090.4 OJ 287 QSO B0820 + 225 QSO B0839 + 187 Galaxy clusters Abell 671 Cancer Cluster Musket Ball Cluster Other GRB 021211 SN 1999aa SN 2002lt The 88 modern constellations Andromeda Antlia Apus Aquarius Aquila Ara Aries Auriga Boötes Caelum Camelopardalis Cancer Canes Venatici Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Carina Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Chamaeleon Circinus Columba Coma Berenices Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Crux Cygnus Delphinus Dorado Draco Equuleus Eridanus Fornax Gemini Grus Hercules Horologium Hydra Hydrus Indus Lacerta Leo Leo Minor Lepus Libra Lupus Lynx Lyra Mensa Microscopium Monoceros Musca Norma Octans Ophiuchus Orion Pavo Pegasus Perseus Phoenix Pictor Pisces Piscis Austrinus Puppis Pyxis Reticulum Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Sculptor Scutum Serpens Sextans Taurus Telescopium Triangulum Triangulum Australe Tucana Ursa Major Ursa Minor Vela Virgo Volans Vulpecula Lists of constellations Constellation history The 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy after 150 AD Andromeda Aquarius Aquila Ara Argo Navis Aries Auriga Boötes Cancer Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Cygnus Delphinus Draco Equuleus Eridanus Gemini Hercules Hydra Leo Lepus Libra Lupus Lyra Ophiuchus Orion Pegasus Perseus Pisces Piscis Austrinus Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Serpens Taurus Triangulum Ursa Major Ursa Minor Virgo The 41 additional constellations added in the 16th and 17th centuries Vespucci or Corsalius early 16c : Crux Triangulum Australe Vopel 1536 : Coma Berenices Keyser & de Houtman 1596 : Apus Chamaeleon Dorado Grus Hydrus Indus Musca Pavo Phoenix Tucana Volans Plancius 1613 : Camelopardalis Columba Monoceros Habrecht 1621 : Reticulum Hevelius 1683 : Canes Venatici Lacerta Leo Minor Lynx Scutum Sextans Vulpecula de Lacaille 1763 : Antlia Caelum Carina Circinus Fornax Horologium Mensa Microscopium Norma Octans Pictor Puppis Pyxis Sculptor Telescopium Vela Obsolete constellations ( including Ptolemy 's Argo Navis ) Anser Antinous Apes Argo Navis Asterion Cancer Minor Cerberus Chara Custos Messium Felis Frederici Honores / Gloria Frederici Gallus Globus Aerostaticus Jordanus Lilium Lochium Funis Machina Electrica Malus Mons Maenalus Musca Borealis Noctua Officina Typographica Polophylax Psalterium Georgianum / Harpa Georgii Quadrans Muralis Ramus Pomifer Robur Carolinum Sceptrum Brandenburgicum Sceptrum et Manus Iustitiae Solarium Rangifer / Tarandus Taurus Poniatovii Telescopium Herschelii Testudo Tigris Triangulum Minus Turdus Solitarius Vespa Vultur cadens Vultur volans obsolete constellation names Apis Phoenicopterus Serpentarius Xiphias The Zodiac Astrological signs Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Virgo Libra Scorpio Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius Pisces Alternative signs Ophiuchus Cetus Western astrology House Triplicity Mode Cardinal Fixed Mutable Binary Positive Negative Related Astronomy Axial precession Constellations of the Ecliptic Ecliptic coordinate system Planets in astrology Zodiacal light Coordinates : 09 00 00 , + 20 ° 00 ′ 00 '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cancer_(constellation)&oldid=800326163 '' Categories : Cancer ( constellation ) Constellations Western astrology Northern constellations Constellations listed by Ptolemy Hidden categories : Articles with Chinese - 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where did australian troops go and fight after gallipoli

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_I&oldid=795331768

Military History of Australia during World war I - Wikipedia Military History of Australia during World war I Jump to : navigation , search Soldiers from the 4th Division near Chateau Wood , Ypres , in 1917 In Australia , the outbreak of World War I was greeted with considerable enthusiasm . Even before Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914 , the nation pledged its support alongside other states of the British Empire and almost immediately began preparations to send forces overseas to participate in the conflict . The first campaign that Australians were involved in was in German New Guinea after a hastily raised force known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force was dispatched from Australia to seize German possessions in the Pacific in September 1914 . At the same time another expeditionary force , initially consisting of 20,000 men and known as the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , was raised for service overseas . The AIF departed Australia in November 1914 and , after several delays due to the presence of German naval vessels in the Indian Ocean , arrived in Egypt , where they were initially used to defend the Suez Canal . In early 1915 , however , it was decided to carry out an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula with the goal of opening up a second front and securing the passage of the Dardanelles . The Australians and New Zealanders , grouped together as the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , went ashore on 25 April 1915 and for the next eight months the Anzacs , alongside their British , French and other allies , fought a costly and ultimately unsuccessful campaign against the Turks . The force was evacuated from the peninsula in December 1915 and returned to Egypt , where the AIF was expanded . In early 1916 it was decided that the infantry divisions would be sent to France , where they took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Most of the light horse units remained in the Middle East until the end of the war , carrying out further operations against the Turks in Egypt and Palestine . Small numbers of Australians served in other theatres of war . While the main focus of the Australian military 's effort was the ground war , air and naval forces were also committed . Squadrons of the Australian Flying Corps served in the Middle East and on the Western Front , while elements of the Royal Australian Navy carried out operations in the Atlantic , North Sea , Adriatic and Black Sea , as well as the Pacific and Indian Oceans . By the end of the war , Australians were far more circumspect . The nation 's involvement cost more than 60,000 Australian lives and many more were left unable to work as a result of their injuries . The impact of the war was felt in many other areas as well . Financially it was very costly , while the effect on the social and political landscape was considerable and threatened to cause serious divides in the nation 's social fabric . Conscription was possibly the most contentious issue and ultimately , despite having conscription for home service , Australia was one of only two combatants not to use conscripts in the fighting . Nevertheless , for many Australians the nation 's involvement in World War I and the Gallipoli campaign was seen as a symbol of its emergence as an international actor , while many of the notions of the Australian character and nationhood that exist today have their origins in the war and Anzac Day is commemorated as a national holiday . Contents ( hide ) 1 Outbreak of the war 2 German New Guinea 3 First Australian Imperial Force 4 Gallipoli 4.1 Background 4.2 Landing at Anzac Cove 4.3 Krithia 4.4 Turkish counter-attack 4.5 August offensive 4.6 Evacuation 5 Egypt and Palestine 5.1 Reorganisation in Egypt 5.2 Fighting the Senussi Arabs 5.3 Battle of Romani 5.4 Battle of Magdhaba 5.5 Battle of Rafa 5.6 Fighting around Gaza , 1917 5.7 Fighting advance 5.8 Jerusalem 5.9 Transjordan operations 5.10 Final offensive 6 Western Front 6.1 Transfer to Europe 6.2 Battle of the Somme , 1916 6.3 Battle of Bullecourt 6.4 Battle of Messines 6.5 Third Battle of Ypres 6.6 German Spring Offensive , 1918 6.7 Hundred Days Offensive 7 Other theatres 8 Australian Flying Corps 8.1 Formation 8.2 Mesopotamian Half Flight 8.3 Operations in the Middle East 8.4 Fighting on the Western Front 8.5 Legacy 9 Royal Australian Navy operations 10 Home front 10.1 Australian Military Forces on home service 10.2 Conscription 10.3 Internment , censorship and other special measures 10.4 Economy 11 After the war 11.1 Repatriation and demobilisation 11.2 Legacy 12 Statistics 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Outbreak of the war ( edit ) Men in Melbourne collecting recruitment papers . Following Britain 's declaration of war on Germany on 4 August 1914 , Australia and the other members of the British Empire became automatically involved , with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August 1914 that `` ... when the Empire is at war , so also is Australia . '' Given the predominantly British heritage of most Australians at the time , there was considerable support from all corners of the country and large numbers of young Australian men reported to recruiting centres around the country to enlist in the following months . When Prime Minister Andrew Fisher 's Labor Party came to power in September 1914 , he reiterated Cook 's statement saying , `` Should the worst happen ... '' , Australia would `` ... rally to the Mother Country ... to help and defend her to our last man and our last shilling . '' Within days , plans for an Australian expeditionary force were completed by Brigadier General William Throsby Bridges and his staff officer , Major Cyril Brudenell Bingham White . White proposed a force of 18,000 men ( 12,000 Australians and 6,000 New Zealanders ) . This proposal was approved by Prime Minister Cook but he increased the offer to the British to 20,000 men to serve in any destination desired by the Home Government . On 6 August 1914 , London cabled its acceptance of the force and asked that it be sent as soon as possible . Recruiting offices opened on 10 August 1914 and by the end of 1914 , 52,561 volunteers had been accepted , although strict physical fitness guidelines were put in place . German New Guinea ( edit ) The raising of the Australian flag on 16 December 1914 in Angorum , New Guinea Main article : Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force In 1884 , Germany had colonised the north eastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups . By the outbreak of the war , the Germans had been using the colony as a wireless radio base , and supporting the German East Asia Squadron which threatened merchant shipping in the region . As a consequence , Britain required the wireless installations to be destroyed . Shortly after the outbreak of war -- following a request by the British government on 6 August 1914 -- the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN&MEF ) began forming . The objectives of the force were the German stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands , Nauru and at Rabaul , New Britain . The AN&MEF comprised one battalion of infantry ( 1,023 men ) enlisted in Sydney , 500 naval reservists and ex-sailors organised into six companies who would serve as infantry and a further 500 men from the Kennedy Regiment , a Queensland militia battalion that had volunteered for overseas service and had been sent to garrison Thursday Island . Together , these forces were placed under the command of Colonel William Holmes , an officer in the militia who was at the time commander of the 6th Brigade and secretary of the Sydney Water and Sewerage Board . The task force sailed from Sydney on 19 August 1914 , and hove to off Port Moresby where they waited for their escorts to arrive . While they were at Port Moresby , Holmes decided to disembark the Queensland militia soldiers due to concerns about their preparedness for action . Escorted by the cruiser Sydney and the battlecruiser Australia , the task force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and found that the port was free of German forces . Sydney and the destroyer HMAS Warrego landed small parties of naval reservists at the settlements of Kabakaul and the German gubernatorial capital Herbertshöhe on Neu - Pommern , south - east of Rabaul . These parties were reinforced first by sailors from HMAS Warrego and HMAS Yarra and later by infantry from the transport HMAS Berrima . The submarine AE1 with other Australian ships off Rossel Island on 9 September 1914 . On 14 September it inexplicably disappeared during a patrol off Rabaul . A small 25 - man force of naval reservists was subsequently landed at Kabakaul Bay and continued inland to capture the radio station believed to be in operation at Bita Paka , 4 miles ( 7 km ) to the south . The Australians were resisted by a mixed force of German reservists and Melanesian native police , who forced them to fight their way to the radio station . By nightfall , the radio station was reached and it was found to have been abandoned , the mast dropped but its instruments and machinery intact . During the Battle of Bita Paka six Australians were killed and five wounded , while the defenders lost one German non-commissioned officer ( NCO ) and about 30 Melanesians killed , and one German and ten Melanesians wounded . Later it was alleged that the heavy losses among the Melanesian troops was the result of the Australians bayoneting all those they had captured during the fighting . As a result of this engagement , Able Seaman W.G.V. Williams became the first Australian fatality of the war . The first Army fatality was a medical officer , Captain B.C.A. Pockley , who died the same day . At nightfall on 12 September , the Berrima landed the AN&MEF infantry battalion at Rabaul . The following afternoon , although the governor had not yet surrendered the territory , a ceremony was carried out to signal the British occupation of New Britain . The German administration had withdrawn inland to Toma and at dawn on 14 September , and HMAS Encounter subsequently bombarded a ridge near the town , while half a battalion advanced towards the town supported by a field gun . The show of firepower was sufficient to start negotiations , ending the Siege of Toma following the surrender of the remaining garrison of 40 Germans and 110 native police . The German territory surrendered on 17 September 1914 . Although successful the operation was arguably not well managed , and the Australians had been effectively delayed by a half - trained native force . Regardless the Australians had prevailed not least of all because of their unexpected ability to fight in close terrain , while the outflanking of the German positions had unnerved their opponents . The losses of the AN&MEF were light in the context of later operations but were sufficiently heavy given the relatively modest gain . These losses were further compounded by the unexplained disappearance of the Australian submarine HMAS AE1 during a patrol off Rabaul on 14 September , with 35 men aboard . Following the capture of German possessions in the region , the AN&MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . On 9 January 1915 , Holmes handed over command of the AN&MEF to Brigadier General Sir Samuel Pethebridge , the former Secretary of the Department of Defence . Holmes returned to Australia and re-enlisted in the AIF , as did most of his men . They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion , known as the `` Tropical Force '' because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics . Pethebridge established the administrative structures that remained through the period of military occupation . Although required by international law to follow the German forms of government , the territory gradually acquired the appearance of a British colony . First Australian Imperial force ( edit ) Soldiers of 11th Battalion , AIF , posing on the Great Pyramid of Giza on 10 January 1915 , before the landing at Gallipoli . Main article : First Australian Imperial Force At the start of the war , Australia 's military forces were focused upon the militia and what Regular forces existed were mostly serving in the artillery or engineers and were assigned in most part to the task of coastal defence . Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 , which precluded sending conscripts overseas , upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate , all volunteer force would need to be raised . This force was known as the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . The AIF began forming shortly after the outbreak of war and was the brain child of Bridges and White . Upon formation , the AIF consisted of only one infantry division , the 1st Division , and the 1st Light Horse Brigade . The 1st Division was made up of the 1st Infantry Brigade under Colonel Henry MacLaurin ; the 2nd , under Colonel James Whiteside McCay , an Australian politician and former Minister for Defence ; and the 3rd , under Colonel Ewen Sinclair - Maclagan , a British regular officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war . The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel , an Australian regular , while the divisional artillery was commanded by Colonel Talbot Hobbs . In the early stages of mobilisation the men of the AIF were selected under some of the toughest criterion of any army in World War I and it is believed that roughly 30 per cent of men that applied were rejected on medical grounds . In order to enlist , men had to be aged between 18 and 35 years of age ( although it is believed that men as old as 70 and as young as 14 managed to enlist ) , and they had to be at least five foot six inches tall ( 168 centimetres ) , with a chest measurement of at least 34 inches ( 86 centimetres ) . Many of these strict requirements were lifted later in the war , however , as the need for replacements grew . Indeed , casualties among the initial volunteers were so high , that of the 32,000 original soldiers of the AIF only 7,000 would survive to the end of the war . The initial response was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades . The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash , a prominent Melbourne civil engineer and businessman . The AIF continued to grow through the war , eventually numbering five infantry divisions , two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units . A sixth infantry division , the 6th Division , was partially formed in the United Kingdom February 1917 . Casualties from the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Battle of Messines caused the disbandment of the partially formed unit to allow the other five divisions to be brought back up to strength . Gallipoli ( edit ) Main article : Gallipoli Campaign Background ( edit ) The light cruiser HMAS Sydney ( 1912 ) in 1915 . In November 1914 , it engaged and defeated the German cruiser Emden off the Cocos Islands The 1st Division departed Australia from Albany , Western Australia on 1 November 1914 in convoy of 10 transports escorted by several British , Australian and Japanese warships . Initially bound for British - controlled Egypt , with a stopover in Ceylon , the convoy had been delayed several times due to fears of interception by German warships in the area . These fears later proved valid when the German cruiser Emden was sighted off Cocos Island . As the convoy steered to avoid the threat , the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney , engaged the Emden with her heavier guns and after an engagement that lasted only twenty - five minutes , the Sydney emerged victorious . The threat of the German Squadron neutralised , the convoy was able to continue its voyage unmolested . Upon their arrival in Egypt in November , the 1st Division moved to Camp Mena , near Cairo , where they were used to defend the Suez Canal against Turkey who had declared war on 29 October . During this time , the Australians commenced a period of training to prepare them for combat on the Western Front as it was still expected that they would be sent to England for deployment in the European theatre . As they waited , however , the Australian and New Zealand forces in Egypt at the time were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) under the command of Lieutenant General William Birdwood , and consisting of the Australian 1st Division and the composite New Zealand and Australian Division ( NZ&A ) . Overcrowding and shortages of equipment in England meant that it was decided to keep the Anzacs in Egypt during the European winter , during which time they would undertake further training in order to prepare them for their eventual use in the trenches in France . Despite this , however , the training that the Australians and New Zealanders received in this time could only be considered very rudimentary in nature , and despite popular opinion at the time , it did little to prepare them for what was to come . Australian troops at Mena Camp , Egypt , December 1914 , looking towards the Pyramids . Many Australian units brought kangaroos and other Australian animals with them to Egypt , and some were given to the Cairo Zoological Gardens when the units went to Gallipoli . In the background , though , moves were being made to commit the Australians and New Zealanders elsewhere . Later in November , Winston Churchill , in his capacity as First Lord of the Admiralty , put forward his first plans for a naval attack on the Dardanelles . A plan for an attack and invasion of the Gallipoli peninsula was eventually approved by the British cabinet in January 1915 . It was decided that the Australian and New Zealand troops would take part in the operation , although they were outnumbered by the British , Indian and French contingents , a fact which is often overlooked today by many Australians and New Zealanders . The objective of the invasion was to open up another front against the Central Powers and to open the Black Sea 's only entrance to the Mediterranean , via the Dardanelles and Bosphorus , to allow shipping to Russia all year round . After the failure of naval attacks , it was decided that ground forces were necessary to eliminate the Turkish mobile artillery and allow minesweepers to clear the waters for larger vessels . The British Secretary of State for War , Field Marshal Lord Kitchener , appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) that was to carry out the mission . The MEF consisted of Birdwood 's ANZAC , British 29th Division , British Royal Naval Division and the French Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient . Some 40,000 Russian troops would participate in the capture or occupation of Constantinople . Landing at Anzac cove ( edit ) Main article : Landing at Anzac Cove The invasion plan was for the 29th Division to land at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir . The Anzacs were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast from where they could advance across the peninsula and prevent retreat from or reinforcement of Kilitbahir . The Anzac assault force , the 3rd Brigade of the Australian 1st Division , began to go ashore shortly before dawn at 4 : 30 am on 25 April 1915 . The intended landing zone was a broad front centred about a mile north of Gaba Tepe , however , possibly due to navigational error or an unexpected current , the landing went awry and the boats concentrated about a mile and a half further north than intended in a shallow , nameless cove between Ari Burnu to the north and Hell Spit to the south . Since 1985 , the cove has been officially known as Anzac Koyu ( Anzac Cove ) . The Anzacs were confronted by a treacherous , confusing tangle of ravines and spurs that descended from the heights of the Sarı Baır range to the sea . The landing was only lightly opposed by scattered Turkish units until Mustafa Kemal , commanding the 19th Division and perceiving the threat posed by the landings , rushed reinforcements to the area in what became a race for the high ground . The contest for the heights was decided on the second ridge line where the Anzacs and Turks fought over a knoll called Baby 700 . The position changed hands a number of times on the first day before the Turks , having the advantage of the higher ground on Battleship Hill , took final possession of it . Once the Anzac advance was checked , the Turks counter-attacked , trying to force the invaders back to the shore , but failed to dislodge them from the foothold they had gained . A trench perimeter quickly developed and a bloody stalemate ensued until August . Krithia ( edit ) Main article : Second Battle of Krithia In May 1915 , Hamilton decided to concentrate his resources in the Helles sector . Birdwood withdrew Colonel McCay 's 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and they moved by sea to Cape Helles on 6 May . During the subsequent Second Battle of Krithia the two brigades suffered 1,827 casualties , including McCay , in an ill - advised daylight advance over open ground that could have been occupied after dark without loss . During May Turkish snipers were particularly active in Monash Valley . On 15 May , one shot and fatally wounded Major General Bridges . His body was returned to Australia and buried on the hill overlooking Royal Military College , Duntroon in Canberra . The Australian government sent Major General James Gordon Legge from Australia to replace him . Turkish counterattack ( edit ) On 19 May 1915 , the Turkish launched an assault against the Anzac perimeter . Forewarned by naval reconnaissance aircraft , the troops were on alert and the position was reinforced by the return of the 2nd and New Zealand Infantry Brigades from Cape Helles and the arrival of the 1st Light Horse Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade from Egypt . Along most of the line , the attack met with immediate disaster , with the Turkish attackers swept away by the rifle and machine gun fire of the Anzac defenders . At Courtney 's Post , one of the most exposed parts of the perimeter , the Turks managed to enter the trenches but there they encountered Lance Corporal Albert Jacka and others , who drove them out again . For his action , Jacka became the first Australian to win the Victoria Cross in the war . August offensive ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Sari Bair The Charge of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek , 7 August 1915 by George Lambert , 1924 The repeated failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to pursue an imaginative new plan for the campaign . On the night of 6 August a fresh landing of two infantry divisions was to be made at Suvla , 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of Anzac . Meanwhile , at Anzac a strong assault would be made on the Sari Bair range by breaking out through thinly defended sector at the north of the Anzac perimeter . The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversionary assaults at Helles and Anzac . At Helles , the diversion at Krithia Vineyard became another futile battle with no gains and heavy casualties for both sides . At Anzac , an attack on the Turkish trenches at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division was a rare victory for the ANZACs . At a cost of over 2,000 men , the Australians inflicted 7,000 casualties on the Turks . Because it was an effective attack on a vital position , it was the most effective diversionary attack carried out by the Australians of the war , drawing in the Turkish reserves . However , the main assault aimed at the peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 was less successful . The force striking for the nearer peak of Chunuk Bair comprised the New Zealand Infantry Brigade . It came within 500 metres ( 1,600 ft ) of the peak by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning . This delay had fatal consequences for another supporting attack on the morning of 7 August , that of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek which was to coincide with the New Zealanders attacking back down from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Turkish defences . The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before relief was provided by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments . A massive Turkish counter-attack , led in person by Mustafa Kemal , swept these two battalions from the heights . Meanwhile , the landing at Suvla Bay was only lightly opposed but the British commander , Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Stopford , had so diluted his early objectives that little more than the beach was seized . Again the Turks were able to win the race for the high ground of the Anafarta Hills thereby rendering the Suvla front another case of static trench warfare . The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the British 53rd and 54th Divisions along with the British 10th Division from Kitchener 's New Army divisions plus the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division . The unfortunate 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla for one more push . The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August with attacks at Scimitar Hill and Hill 60 . Control of these hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts , but neither battle achieved success . When fighting at Hill 60 ceased on 29 August , the battle for the Sari Bair heights , and indeed the battle for the peninsula , was effectively over . Evacuation ( edit ) After eight months of bloody fighting it was decided to evacuate the entire force on the Gallipoli peninsula . Troop numbers were progressively reduced from 7 December and cunning ruses were performed to fool the Turks and to prevent them from discovering the Allies that were departing . At Anzac , the troops would maintain utter silence for an hour or more until the curious Turks would venture out to inspect the trenches , whereupon the Anzacs would open fire . As the numbers in the trenches were thinned , rifles were rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger . In what was ironically the best planned operation of the campaign , the evacuation was completed by dawn on 20 December 1915 , without a single casualty . Ultimately the Gallipoli campaign was a disastrous failure . It did not achieve any of the objectives that had been given as a justification for it , and due to the inexperience of high commanders and mismanagement there were an unacceptably high number of casualties amongst the participating troops , not only from as a result of combat , but also due to widespread disease that resulted from poor sanitation and hygiene in the front lines and a breakdown in the casualty clearance and resupply and logistics systems . It has been estimated that over the course of the campaign there were 26,111 Australian casualties with 8,141 killed . Other Allied casualties -- killed and wounded -- included : 7,571 New Zealanders , 120,000 British and 27,000 French . After the war , the bad conditions and high casualties amongst the Anzac troops resulted in a reasonably prevalent view in Australia that these had been due to the incompetence of British officers commanding the Australian troops and their disregard for the casualties that resulted from poorly planned or ill - conceived attacks . Whether these claims are valid or not , there can be little doubt that the entire campaign was poorly conducted , and as a result there were many military lessons learnt that were to be applied in later campaigns . Despite this , for Australians and New Zealanders the Gallipoli campaign has come to symbolise an important milestone in the emergence of both nations as independent actors on the world stage and the development of a sense of national identity . Today , the date of the initial landings , 25 April , is a public holiday known as Anzac Day in Australia and New Zealand and every year thousands of people gather at memorials in both nations , and indeed in Turkey , to honour the bravery and sacrifice of the original Anzacs , and of all those who have subsequently lost their lives in war . Egypt and Palestine ( edit ) Main article : Sinai and Palestine Campaign Reorganisation in Egypt ( edit ) Australian light horsemen on Walers After the Gallipoli Campaign , Australian troops returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion , which involved the raising of another three infantry divisions -- the 3rd , 4th and 5th -- and the establishment of the Anzac Mounted Division . In March 1916 , the infantry began to move to France while the cavalry units stayed in the area and fought Turkish troops and the Senussi Arab tribes that were threatening British control of Egypt . Mounted troops were particularly important in the defence of Egypt and Australian troops of the Anzac Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the campaign , first seeing combat in the Battle of Romani . Apart from the horsemen , the mounted troops included the 1st Imperial Camel Corps Brigade . This was organised as a mounted infantry brigade . Of its four battalions , the 1st and 3rd were composed of Australians , the 2nd was British , and the 4th was half Australian and half New Zealand . The cameliers participated in most of the fighting in Egypt and Palestine until the brigade was disbanded in July 1918 . The Australian and New Zealand components then traded their camels for horses and became the 5th Light Horse Brigade . Fighting the Senussi Arabs ( edit ) Main article : The Senussi Uprising In response to the growing threat from a pro-Turkish Islamic Arab sect known as the Senussi , a composite British force -- the `` Western Frontier Force '' -- under the command of the British Indian Army officer Major General Alexander Wallace , was sent into the Libyan Desert to Mersa Matruh in late - November 1915 . This force included a composite regiment of Australian light horse and the horse transport of the 1st Division . A series of sharp battles against the Arabs ensued at Um Rakhum , Gebel Medwa and Halazin during December and January . British casualties were comparatively light , although many were killed or wounded , including Australians . Arab losses were much higher however , with hundreds killed during the fighting . Meanwhile , a number of the Australian Light Horse units returning from Gallipoli were sent further south to guard the edge of the Nile Valley against the Senussi . The 1st Armoured Car Section was also involved in guarding the Western Desert until it was sent to Palestine as the 1st Light Car Patrol at the end of 1916 . Battle of Romani ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Romani The Battle of Romani took place near the Egyptian town of Romani , 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of the Suez Canal , on 3 -- 5 August 1916 . The goal of the Turkish and German army was to control or destroy the Suez Canal , thereby denying the use of the waterway to the Allies and in doing so aiding the Central Powers . Both the Anzac Mounted Division , under Major General Harry Chauvel , and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division saw action against the German and Turkish force . Since first making contact with the advancing German and Turkish force on 20 July they had been harassed alternately by the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades . During the night of 3 -- 4 August , the day before the battle commenced , both brigades were involved in fighting . By about midday on 4 August , the Turkish and German force had pushed the two Australian brigades back to a point where the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , in their trenches , were able to attack the Turkish right flank , and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and British 5th Mounted Brigade arrived from their deployment protecting the Suez Canal , to extend the Australians ' line on the left flank . The Turkish and German advance was stopped by the fire brought to bear on them by the combined British infantry and Australian , British and New Zealand mounted forces and the deep sand , the midday summer heat , and thirst . In these extremely tough conditions , the British infantry were unable to move effectively against the retreating German and Turkish force in the following days . Alone , the Anzac Mounted Division was unable to stop the retreating force withdrawing to Katia and eventually back to their base at Bir el Abd . This base was abandoned the day after it was attacked by the Anzac Mounted Division , on 12 August 1916 , ending any threat to the Suez Canal for the remainder of the war . The battle cost the Allies 1,202 casualties of which 222 were killed , 71 died of wounds and 909 were wounded ; half of these were Australians . Battle of Magdhaba ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Magdhaba Following the victory at Romani the Anzac Mounted Division pushed the German and Turkish Army back across the Sinai Peninsula . The German and Turkish forces had been put on the defensive and retreated from Bir el Abd on 12 August 1916 towards the Egyptian -- Turkish frontier , the day after being attacked by the Anzac Mounted Division . A Turkish rearguard action was fought at Bir el Mazar before the German and Turkish force retired to El Arish in September . In the Maghara Hills in October 1916 a strongly defended position was attacked by an Allied force based on the Suez Canal . Both Bir el Mazar and Maghara Hills positions were subsequently abandoned . During November , an aerial bombing raid by 5 B.E.s and a Martinsyde , the largest air attack yet organised in the East was carried out on Beersheba . By the beginning of December the railway had reached Bir el Mazar and with the development of lines of communications , garrisons , support and services , it became possible to plan for an advance to El Arish . On 21 December , after a night march of 30 miles ( 48 km ) the Anzac Mounted Division , commanded by Chauvel , entered El Arish , which had been abandoned by the German and Turkish force who had retreated to Madghaba where the mounted force won a fierce daylong engagement against strong well constructed defences manned by determined defenders . Situated on the British right flank , the Egyptian outpost of Magdhaba was some 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the south - south - east into the Sinai desert , from El Arish on the Mediterranean coast . With Turkish forces on the defensive , Madghaba , along with another position at Rafa , were the last main obstacles standing in the way of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's advance into Palestine . Chauvel , with the agreement of Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode commanding the Desert Column who had arrived earlier that day , set out to attack the Turkish forces at Magdhaba with the Anzac Mounted Division . Leaving at about midnight on 22 December , the Anzac Mounted Division was in a position by 03.50 am on 23 December to see enemy fires still some miles away at Magdhaba . An Australian soldier firing a Lewis Gun during the Battle of Magdhaba . With the 1st Light Horse Brigade in reserve , Chauvel sent the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade to move on Magdhaba by the north and north - east to cut off the possibility of retreat while the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade followed the telegraph line straight to Magdhaba . The 1st Light Horse Brigade advanced mounted to the attack but fierce shrapnel fire forced them to advance up the wadi bed . By midday all three brigades and the Camel Brigade , despite support from machine - guns and artillery , were hotly engaged . Aerial reconnaissance from Australian and British aircraft , which scouted out the Turkish positions , greatly assisted the attack , although the Turkish positions were obscured by the effect of a mirage and dust clouds . When the fighting began the going was tough and by 1.00 pm , after hearing that the Turkish defenders still had possession of most of the water in the area , Chauvel decided to call off the attack . However , the message reached the commander of the 1st Light Horse Brigade just as the Australians were preparing to assault the main redoubt , and the message was deliberately misplaced until the attacked had commenced . Both the 1st Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigades made progress capturing about 100 prisoners and by 3.30 pm the Turkish defenders began to surrender . By 4.30 pm , the entire Turkish garrison had surrendered , having suffered heavy casualties , and the town was captured . The victory cost the Australians 22 dead and 121 wounded . Battle of Rafa ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Rafa Two and a half weeks later , on the evening of 8 January 1917 the mounted units of the Desert Column commanded by Chetwode rode out of El Arish towards Rafa where a 2,000 - strong Turkish garrison was based . The attacking force comprised the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade , 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the Anzac Mounted Division under the command of Chauvel , the 5th Mounted Brigade and three battalions of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade . After a long night march , the Egyptian Expeditionary Force attacked the strongly entrenched position at El Magruntein . A fierce day - long battle resulted in the mounted troops ( fighting dismounted ) capturing the town around nightfall with the loss of 71 killed and 415 wounded . The Turkish garrison suffered heavily , with 200 killed and another 1,600 taken prisoner . Fighting around Gaza , 1917 ( edit ) The 4th Light Horse Brigade at Beersheeba In early 1917 , the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and two British mounted brigades . The division first saw service during the First Battle of Gaza , which occurred in southern Gaza on 26 March 1917 . At around noon two mounted brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division attacked Gaza from the north and east . At 6.00 pm the Turkish position had become perilous with the ring closing tightly around Gaza . However , in a decision that dismayed most of their soldiers the British commanders decided to call off the attack and retreat , delivering victory to the Turks . A second attempt was made to capture Gaza on 19 April by which time the Turkish defences were even more formidable and the task confronting the British even more difficult . This battle became known as the Second Battle of Gaza . The Anzac Mounted Division played only a minor role in this battle suffering only 105 casualties out of the 5,917 suffered . The second battle of Gaza was a disastrous defeat for the Allied forces . In June 1917 , the Imperial Mounted Division was renamed as the Australian Mounted Division . In August 1917 Chauvel was placed in command of the Desert Mounted Corps , which included the two Australian mounted divisions , as well as the British Yeomanry Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade . Chauvel became the first Australian to command a corps , as well as the first to achieve the rank of lieutenant general . With the failure of the Second Battle of Gaza a third assault was launched on Gaza between 31 October and 7 November 1917 . Units from the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part in the battle . The battle was a complete success for the Allies . The Gaza -- Beersheba line was completely overrun and 12,000 Turkish soldiers were captured or surrendered . The critical moment of the battle was the capture of the town of Beersheba on the first day by Australian light horsemen . The Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade , under Brigadier General William Grant , charged more than 4 miles ( 6.4 km ) at the Turkish trenches , overran them and captured the wells at Beersheba . In the capture of Beersheba , the Australians lost 31 men killed . A further 32 were wounded , while 80 horses were lost . On the Turkish side , more than 500 men were killed and 1,500 captured as well as nine artillery pieces and a number of machine guns and other pieces of equipment . Fighting advance ( edit ) Main articles : Battle of Mughar Ridge and Battle of Ayun Kara From 1 to 7 November , strong Turkish rearguards at Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills , at Hareira and Sheria on the maritime plain and at Sausage Ridge and Gaza close to the Mediterranean coast , held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting . During this time the Turkish Army was able to withdraw in good order . The rearguard garrisons themselves were also able to retire under cover of darkness , during the night of 6 / 7 or 7 / 8 November . On 7 and 8 November , the surviving units of the 7th and 8th Turkish armies further delayed the advance of Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Chauvel and the XXI Corps 's 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the 75th Yeomanry Division . All other units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force had come to the end of their lines of communication . These units were the XXI Corps ' 54th ( East Anglian ) Division resting at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun . Also in the rear was the whole of Chetwode 's XX Corps which had transferred its transport to XXI Corps . Its 53rd ( Welsh ) Division and corps cavalry , together with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , were deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe , in the Judean Hills north of Beersheba . While its 60th ( London ) Infantry Division was resting at Huj , its 10th ( Irish ) Division and 74th Infantry Division were both resting back at Karm . The Desert Mounted Corps and the two infantry divisions of XX Corps became involved in a series of engagements during the days leading up to the battle and on the day after . These began on 10 November when one brigade of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor successfully pushed across the Nahr Sukereir to establish a bridgehead on the Turkish right flank . Three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division under the command of Major General Henry West Hodgson ran into the Turkish rearguard 's left flank around the village of Summeil . The mounted troops occupied the village on 11 November but were unable to advance further due to intense Turkish artillery fire which continued throughout the day . On 12 November Allenby made preparations for battle the following day . He ordered an attack by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Turkish Army 's right flank . Reinforced with two additional brigades , he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Turkish counterattack . This counterattack forced the mounted division to concede the territory gained during the day , before fighting the Turkish Army to a standstill in front of Summeil . On the morning after the battle at Mughar Ridge , Junction Station was occupied and during the following days other villages in the area were found to have been abandoned . Later in the morning of 14 November New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ran into a determined and well entrenched Turkish rearguard near Ayun Kara , which they attacked . Fierce close quarter fighting against the Turkish 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon . Although severely threatened , the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and went on to occupy Jaffa two days later . The Battle of Mughar Ridge was fought on 13 November by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the 75th Division in the centre , with the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank and the Anzac Mounted Division and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry 's left flank . The battle was divided into two stages with a pause for artillery to be brought forward . Following the Yeomanry 's successful charge up onto El Mughar ridge , two crucial fortified villages were captured by elements of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . This victory resulted in the subsequent occupation of Junction Station , a vital railway station on the Turk 's lines of communication between Jaffa and Jerusalem . Jerusalem ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Jerusalem ( 1917 ) The Australian mounted troops took part the Capture of Jerusalem in late 1917 . These operations included two battles fought in the Judean Hills ; the Battle of Nebi Samwil from 17 to 24 November and the Defence of Jerusalem from 26 to 30 December and another fought on the maritime plain ; the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa on 21 -- 22 December 1917 . This series of battles involved the British Empire 's XX Corps , XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps fighting the Turkish 7th Army in the Judean Hills and the 8th Army north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast . After the failure of widespread and determined Turkish counterattacks fought from 27 November to 1 December by the 7th Turkish Army they evacuated Jerusalem . Troops from the Australian Mounted Division were the first mounted troops to enter Jerusalem in December 1917 . Towards the end of December the British Empire forces at the Battle of Jaffa and the Defence of Jerusalem succeeded in pushing the Turkish armies north . A strong British defensive line was established which remained in place until mid September 1918 . The line stretched across from well north of the Nahr el Auja on the Mediterranean coast in the west to north and east of Jerusalem . It was extended during the middle of February 1918 when Jericho in the Jordan Valley was captured and the eastern end of the line was secured on the Dead Sea . Transjordan operations ( edit ) Main article : First Transjordan attack on Amman ( 1918 ) In March and April 1918 , Australian and New Zealand mounted troops and British infantry took part in two raids east across the Jordan River to Amman and Es Salt , a village in Palestine 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) west of Amman . Although these raids were unsuccessful , they encouraged Turkish commanders to believe that the main British effort would be launched across the Jordan when it would be launched along the coastal plain . Before these operations could commence it was necessary to capture the country east of Jerusalem and into the Jordan Valley to Jericho . The attack on the Turkish 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions was made by the 60th ( London ) and the Anzac Mounted Divisions on 19 February . Talat ed Dumm , on the road from Jerusalem , was captured the next day and in the evening the Wady Fara and Nebi Musa were also captured . On 21 February Jericho was occupied by the two divisions of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . Final offensive ( edit ) During the final offensive in September 1918 , the two divisions of Australian mounted troops , as well as the 1st Light Car Patrol and No. 1 Squadron AFC , took part in Battle of Megiddo on 28 September 1918 , a decisive British victory in which 70,000 Turkish soldiers were taken prisoner . The Desert Mounted Corps attacked across the Golan Heights , cutting off the north and north - west exits to Damascus on 29 September . On 30 September , the head of a column of 20,000 Turkish and German troops was annihilated by the Australian light horsemen as it attempted to withdraw west through the Barada Gorge . Australian troops were the first to enter Damascus , which fell on 1 October . Following an advance of 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) , Aleppo was captured on 25 October . The Turkish government signed an armistice on 28 October 1918 and surrendered outright two days later . Following the armistice , the Australian Mounted Division went into camp at Tripoli while the Anzac Mounted Division , having borne the brunt of the entire campaign , suffered heavily from malaria and influenza in the Jordan Valley . Australia 's role in the Sinai and Palestine campaign was later acknowledged by Field Marshal Edmund Allenby , who had been commander - in - chief of the Allied forces in the Middle East , as having been considerable . Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4,851 , including 1,374 dead . Western Front ( edit ) Main article : Western Front ( World War I ) Transfer to Europe ( edit ) A Platoon from the 29th Battalion , AIF , being addressed by their commanding officer in August 1918 . The third man from left appears to be carrying a Lewis Gun . In March 1916 , the infantry units of the AIF were transferred from Egypt to Europe for service on the Western Front . Initially they were organised into I Anzac Corps and II Anzac Corps alongside the New Zealand Division . The 2nd Division was the first to arrive in France , followed by the 1st Division , while the 4th and 5th left Egypt later in June 1916 . The 3rd Division was the last to arrive , having been formed in Australia in March 1916 , and moving to England for training in July 1916 , before being sent to France in December 1916 . For the next two and a half years the constant rotations in and out of the line were punctuated by a number of major battles , during which the Australians earned for themselves a formidable reputation . On 1 November 1917 the Australian divisions were re-grouped together to form the Australian Corps . When the 1st Division arrived , it was reunited with its mechanical transport . In September 1914 , the Army had decided to supply mechanical transport for the 1st Division and formed a company in New South Wales and one in Victoria . These were the first ever mechanical transport units in the Australian Army . Nearly 200 vehicles were purchased and the two units departed Melbourne for Egypt on 22 December 1914 . Unfortunately , vehicles over 5 long tons ( 5.1 t ) were prohibited in Cairo as most bridges could not hold their weight , whereas they possessed vehicles weighing up to 7 long tons ( 7.1 t ) . It was therefore arranged for them to continue to England where they arrived on 15 February 1915 . There they lived in tents on Salisbury Plain and hauled gravel for roads before being sent to France in July 1915 . Australian gunners about to load a shell into a 9.2 - inch howitzer . They were not the first Australians to serve on the Western Front . An Australian Voluntary Hospital had been formed in England in August 1914 from Australian expatriates . All medical practitioners in the unit were Australians and although women were not allowed to serve as doctors , Australian nurses were accepted . The unit left for France in August 1914 and from October was based at Wimereux , where the 2nd General Hospital joined it in June 1916 . In July 1916 , the Australian Voluntary Hospital was absorbed into the British Army . Another group of Australians had also arrived in France before I Anzac Corps . In June 1915 , the 1st Siege Artillery Brigade was formed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Walter Adams Coxen , the Australian Army 's Director of Artillery , for service on the Western Front . About half the men in the unit were permanent gunners of the Garrison Artillery . The brigade departed Melbourne for England on 17 July 1915 and landed in France on 27 February 1916 . Its 54th Siege Battery was equipped with 8 inch howitzers and its 55th Siege Battery with 9.2 inch howitzers . With the move of the majority of the AIF to France , the base organisation was transferred to the United Kingdom . Most of the training units moved to the Salisbury Plain , establishing depots at Perham Down , Rollestone , Larkhill and Tidworth . When it arrived , the 3rd Division also moved into camps in this area . Command Depots , where men returning from hospitals were sent before being returned to their units , were established at Perham Down , Weymouth , Wool , Dorset and Worgret . Depots for men moving from the United Kingdom to France were established at Étaples . In June 1917 , these were swapped with the Canadians for depots around Le Havre , thereby reducing travelling time from the Salisbury Plain . AIF Headquarters was established at Horseferry Road in London and Colonel R.M. McC . Anderson , a businessman , was appointed as its commandant . Anderson negotiated a new method of payment for services provided by the British Army as a per capita per diem payment . Battle of the Somme , 1916 ( edit ) The `` Gibraltar '' pillbox , Pozières , in late August . A fatigue party laden with sandbags heads for the fighting at Mouquet Farm . On 7 April 1916 , I Anzac Corps took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentières , known as the `` Nursery '' . The Australians were spared from participating in the disastrous first day on the Somme , nevertheless within three weeks of the beginning of the Allied offensive , four divisions of the AIF had been committed to the battle . Only the 3rd Division did not take part , having only just recently arrived in England from Australia . The 5th Division , positioned on the left flank of the salient , was the first to see action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916 , suffering a staggering 5,533 casualties in a single day . The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July 1916 , taking part in the assault on Pozières . Initially they succeeded in carrying the German positions with relatively small losses , however , once the Germans had recovered they directed an intense artillery barrage upon the town which resulted in heavy losses . By the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July , they had suffered 5,286 casualties . Two days after taking over the line , the 2nd Division was thrown into a hastily planned attack that resulted in further casualties when the Germans spotted the Australians forming up and once again subjected them to the weight of their artillery and machine guns . Another attack was launched on 4 August which , although it met with success , resulted again in such heavy casualties -- almost 7,000 -- that the division was relieved the next day . Following the attack on Pozières the Australians were called upon to attack Mouquet Farm in August . All three divisions of I Anzac Corps were committed in an effort to force a breach in the German lines behind Thiepval , to the north of Pozières . The task of the initial advance fell to the 4th Division on 10 August , which had already suffered 1,000 casualties resisting the final German counter-attack , but in the ensuing battle it would lose a further three times that number as the Australians once again suffered at the hands of the German artillery , finding themselves squeezed into a frontage of less than 1.5 kilometres ( 0.93 mi ) against which the Germans were able to concentrate the weight of their defence . Three more attacks were made over the course of the next three weeks as the Australians fought their way across the shell - pocked countryside to the farm , only to be forced out again shortly after by the concentration of German artillery . The other two divisions of I Anzac fared only slightly better in these attacks and at the end of the engagement , Australian casualties at Mouquet Farm totalled 6,300 men . As that battle on the Somme dragged on , the Canadian Corps was brought up and the AIF was withdrawn from the line to re-organise and reform , having suffered almost 23,000 casualties over the course of the 45 days that they had been involved . The 5th Division had been so badly mauled , having been incapacitated by the losses they had suffered at Fromelles , that it was not until October that the 5th Division finally returned to the line and joined the 1st , 2nd and 4th Divisions on the Somme near Flers . Battle of Bullecourt ( edit ) An Australian 18 - pounder gun during the Battle of Bullecourt In March 1917 two ' flying columns ' from the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the German back to the Hindenburg Line , capturing the town of Bapaume . On 11 April , the 4th Division , consisting of the 4th and 12th Brigades , assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the First Battle of Bullecourt . The battle was a disaster , with over 3,000 casualties and 1,170 taken prisoner by the Germans . On 15 April the 1st and 2nd Divisions were struck by a German counterattack at dawn near the town of Lagnicourt , by a force of up to 23 battalions as the Germans attempted to take advantage of the weakness that had developed in the Allied line following the British offensive at Arras . The Australians were initially forced to abandon the town to the Germans and in the process several artillery batteries were lost , however , at 7 : 00 am a successful counterattack was launched by four Australian battalions , resulting in the town being recaptured and the guns reclaimed . Later , on 3 May two brigades of the 2nd Division -- the 5th and the 6th -- took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , where they succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and eventually managed to hold most these gains until they were relieved by the 1st Division . On 7 May the 5th Division was committed to relieve the 1st , remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid May . While the battle resulted in a victory for the Allies , the effort cost the AIF some 7,482 casualties and ultimately ended plans to expand the AIF to a sixth division . Battle of Messines ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Messines ( 1917 ) A dummy tree used as an observation post on Hill 63 by Australian troops during the battle of Messines in June 1917 On 7 June 1917 , along with two British corps , the II Anzac Corps , consisting of the Australian 3rd Division , the British 25th Division and the New Zealand Division , with the Australian 4th Division attached , launched an operation in the Flanders region of southern Belgium , near Messines The objective was to eliminate a salient that had developed in the line south of Ypres , enclosing the Wytschaete -- Messines ridge and thus providing the Germans with good observation and fields of fire that could threaten the major offensive that the British planned to launch around Ypres later in the year . The attack commenced with the detonation of 1,000,000 pounds ( 450,000 kg ) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge in 19 separate tunnels , completely destroying the German trenches . Following the explosions , the Allied advance was virtually unopposed as the Germans were too stunned and demoralised to put up much resistance . However , not everything went the Australians ' way . The 3rd Division , under Major General John Monash , suffered heavy casualties when they were shelled by phosgene gas and shrapnel shells while moving towards the line of departure , nevertheless the division still managed to get into position for the start of the attack . Strong German counterattacks were launched the next day , once again supported by concentrated artillery fire ; however , the advance was able to continue on through the mess of concrete blockhouses the Germans had erected and continued on until all the objectives had been taken . Australian casualties amounted to nearly 6,800 men . On 2 July 1917 , Major General Holmes was mortally wounded by a German shellburst while surveying the Messines battlefield with the Premier of New South Wales , William Holman . Third Battle of Ypres ( edit ) Menin Gate at Midnight by Will Longstaff ( 1927 ) Between September and November 1917 , I Anzac Corps took part in a number of actions around Ypres in Belgium as the Allies launched a campaign in order to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau in Belgium . Collectively these actions have come to be known as the Third Battle of Ypres , of which they were a part , although to Australians they are more commonly known by the names of the places where the individual actions took place -- Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle and Passchendaele . I Anzac Corps was committed six weeks after the start of the battle and on 16 September , having marched through Ypres the night before , the 1st and 2nd Divisions took up a position in the trenches on the main ridge at Glencorse Wood . The first attack came on 20 September at Menin Road , where the Australians experienced success making considerable gains against the enemy for the loss of about 5,000 casualties . On 26 September , the 4th and 5th Divisions attacked and captured Polygon Wood , while later on 4 October , another successful attack was made on the main ridge at Broodseinde , where the four Australian divisions involved fought side by side , as they clashed head on with a German counterattack that had been launched at the same time the Australians had risen to carry out their assault . The result was a rout by the Australians , as the German line broke and following further attacks against German pillboxes , the ridge was captured . The first two attacks had been successful and as Allied commanders began to believe that a breakthrough was possible further attacks were made at Poelcappelle on 9 October and at Passchendaele on 12 October despite heavy rain that turned the ground into a muddy quagmire . Both attacks were ultimately doomed to failure , with heavy casualties , as the attacks foundered in the mud and as the battle petered out , it was decided that it was time for the Australians to be withdrawn from the line . This was completed by 14 November 1917 . Over the course of the eight weeks they had been involved in the fighting around Ypres , they had suffered 38,000 casualties . German Spring offensive , 1918 ( edit ) On 21 March 1918 , having been buoyed by the capitulation of Tsarist Russia , the German Army launched their Spring Offensive against the Allies with a staggering 63 divisions over a front of 70 miles ( 110 km ) . As the Allies began to fall back against the tremendous weight of this offensive , on 25 March the Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens from where they had been holding the line at Messines . The German offensive lasted with varying intensity for the next five months and during this time , all five divisions of the AIF in France were involved in the fighting as they attempted to stem the tide of the German advance , which achieved large territorial gains and at one stage looked like it might ultimately secure a remarkable victory for the Germans as they pushed to within 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Paris late in May . During this time , the Australians were involved in a number of actions at Dernacourt , Morlancourt , Villers - Bretonneux , Hangard Wood , Hazebrouck , and Hamel . Of these actions , the last one , at Hamel on 4 July 1918 , is perhaps the most notable . Even though the action was relatively minor in terms of the scale of previous operations mounted on the Western Front , it is notable because it was the first ' set - piece ' operation planned and carried out by the newly appointed commander of the Australian Corps , Lieutenant General John Monash and it has since been used as the model of how to successfully carry out a combined arms attack . Using aircraft , artillery and armour in effective combination with infantry , the attack was over in the space of 93 minutes ; although Monash had planned for a 90 - minute operation . It achieved its objectives of straightening the Allied line and taking the town of Hamel . The Australians had advanced the line almost 2 kilometres ( 1.2 mi ) across a front of 6.5 kilometres ( 4.0 mi ) and in the process taken roughly 1,600 German prisoners as well as over 200 machine guns , trench mortars and anti-tank weapons . Against this the Australians suffered 1,062 casualties . Hundred days offensive ( edit ) Men of the 6th Brigade during the Battle of Mont St Quentin The last - ditched effort by the Germans to win the war came to a grinding halt in mid-July and after that there followed a brief period of lull , during which time the Australians undertook a series of small unit actions aimed at capturing parts of the German line with limited support . These actions became known as Peaceful Penetrations and were essentially a cross between trench raids and patrolling . Their success relied heavily upon the leadership and initiative of junior commanders and the ability of soldiers to employ principles of fire and manouevre . This lull did not last long , however , as the Allies were soon ready to launch their own offensive , known as the Hundred Days Offensive , which would ultimately bring about an end to the war . The offensive began on 8 August 1918 when 20 Allied divisions , including four Australian , struck at Amiens on the Somme . Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel , the Allies achieved territorial gains that had been unheard of since the start of the war . In the Australian sector , the 4th and 5th Divisions had initially spearheaded the advance , before the 2nd and 3rd Divisions had advanced another three kilometres to secure the secondary objectives . The attack had been so successful that it was later described by German General Erich Ludendorff as a `` black day '' for the German Army . Following that the Allied offensive continued for the next four months , right up until the end of the war . During the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons , Etinehem , Proyart , Chuignes , and Mont St Quentin , before taking part in their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain . Australian casualties during these battles were very high and coupled with the drying up of reinforcements from Australia , the rejection of the proposal to introduce conscription and the granting of home leave to men who been serving since 1914 meant that by the end of the war the AIF was severely stretched to the limit . Consequently , during the height of the offensive it was decided to disband three battalions -- the 36th , 47th and 52nd -- in order to reinforce other units . The engagement at Montbrehain was the Australian Corps ' last contribution to the war and they were out of the line training when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181,000 , including 46,000 of whom died . Another 114,000 men were wounded , 16,000 gassed , and approximately 3,850 were taken prisoners of war . Other theatres ( edit ) When the war ended , there were 92,000 Australian soldiers in France , 60,000 in England and 17,000 in Egypt , Palestine and Syria . Small numbers were serving in other theatres . Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign . They participated in a number of battles , including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year . Meanwhile , following the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army . A special force , known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Dunsterville , was formed from hand - picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees . Australian nurses also staffed four British hospitals in Salonika , and another 10 in India . Australian Flying Corps ( edit ) Main article : Australian Flying Corps Formation ( edit ) Members of the Half Flight gather around a Short 827 seaplane . The Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) was formed in March 1914 and it was soon deployed to German New Guinea , with one BE2c aircraft and crew dispatched with the AN&MEF , although the colonies surrendered before the plane was even unpacked . The first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915 , when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq . The Corps later saw action in Egypt , Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of the war . Organised into four operational squadrons in France and the Middle East and another four training squadrons in England , the AFC remained part of the AIF . Mesopotamian half Flight ( edit ) Main article : Mesopotamian Half Flight The Mesopotamian Half - Flight -- also known as the Australian Half - Flight -- was the first AFC unit to see active service . On 8 February 1915 , the Australian Government had received a request for air assistance from the Viceroy of India for assistance fighting the Turks . The AFC was still forming and could provide enough aircrew and ground staff for only half a flight : the unit therefore became known as the Mesopotamian Half - Flight and Captain Henry Petre was appointed commander . The AFC contingent sailed for Bombay , and on 20 April 1915 it left for Basra , arriving at the end of May . Flying underpowered and unreliable aircraft such as the Caudron , Maurice Farman Longhorn and Martinsyde , the Half - Flight suffered a high attrition rate , losing two killed and six captured out of its strength of just nine pilots . The arrival of reinforcements allowed the formation of a squadron , ( No. 30 Squadron RFC ) , however by November 1915 only one of the original pilots remained . The squadron was mainly involved in unarmed reconnaissance , although later small 9 pounds ( 4.1 kg ) bombs were added to the aircraft . In October , three Australian aircraft bombed an Arab tribe known to be hostile in an unsuccessful attempt to bring them to surrender . During the Siege of Kut the last Australian pilot in Mesopotamia , Captain Petre , dropped supplies to the garrison . When Kut surrendered , the AFC ground crewmen located in the city were captured , seven of them later dying in captivity . Petre flew the only remaining Shorthorn to Egypt on 7 December 1915 , where he rendezvoused with No. 1 Squadron AFC , effectively marking the end of the Half - Flight 's service . Operations in the Middle East ( edit ) By late 1915 the AFC began forming complete squadrons . At British request No. 1 Squadron was dispatched to Egypt with 28 officers and 195 other ranks , where they were equipped with British aircraft including BE2c and Martinsyde G100 . The squadron operated from Heliopolis , Palestine and Syria over the next two years , supporting ground forces in all the major battles of the Palestine campaign against the Turks . Missions included aerial reconnaissance , bombing enemy positions , communications and artillery spotting . They were also involved in many air - to - air battles with German aircraft , while it was in this theatre that the Australians first encountered anti-aircraft fire . The squadron was re-equipped in 1917 with BE2a , RE8 and Martinsyde G102 aircraft , while by 1918 these types were replaced with Bristol F. 2 Fighters . Notably during this time Lieutenant Frank McNamara was awarded the Victoria Cross for rescuing another Australian pilot who had been shot down by ground fire and forced to land close to Turkish positions on 20 March 1917 . No. 1 Squadron also took part in the actions at Wadi Fara on 21 September 1918 as part of the Battle of Megiddo , which witnessed the destruction of the bulk of the Turkish Seventh Army by British airpower . Fighting on the Western Front ( edit ) No. 1 Squadron , Australian Flying Corps next to their Bristol fighters , at Mejdel in February 1918 . The officer in the foreground ( with stick ) is Lieutenant Colonel Richard Williams , DSO , commanding . Additional AFC squadrons began forming in Australia for service on the Western Front , with No. 2 , 3 and 4 Squadrons arriving in France between August and December 1917 . No. 2 Squadron , equipped with DH5s , was subsequently involved in the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November 1917 , conducting patrol duties , ground strafing and bombing enemy troops and positions . Casualties were high with 7 of the squadrons 18 aircraft shot down , and 2 pilots lost . No. 3 Squadron , equipped with RE8s , was supporting the final phase of the Battle of Passchendaele in Flanders , conducting mainly artillery spotting duties . No. 4 Squadron , equipped with Sopwith Camels , was the last to arrive in France , and was assigned to the First Army around Lens . Notably during March 1918 the squadron was engaged in aerial combat with aircraft commanded by Manfred von Richthofen -- known as the ' Red Baron ' -- shooting down two German aircraft for the loss of one of their own . The Lens sector had been relatively quiet until 21 March 1918 when the Germans launched a major offensive , with No. 4 Squadron heavily engaged in low - level bombing to support the 4th Australian Division . The Australian squadrons played a limited role in the allied advance from Amiens on 8 August 1918 , with No. 3 Squadron engaged in reconnaissance and contact patrols to help identify the locations of forward troops . They also undertook extensive aerial photography to aid in remapping and the locating of German artillery positions . During this period Nos. 2 and 4 Squadrons were in the Ypres -- Arras area and were involved in patrols and raids on the railways in the vicinity of Lille . With the Germans in retreat during September 1918 , the squadrons felt considerable pressure just keeping up . Regardless , No. 4 Squadron took part in , perhaps its most spectacular action , in the very last weeks of the war . On 29 October , 15 Australian Sopwith Snipes encountered more than 60 German Fokkers , in an action which became one of the largest air battles of the war . The Australians gained the upper hand and 10 Fokkers were shot down for the loss of one Snipe , and the damage of several others . During their time on the Western Front , No. 2 and No 4 . Squadrons had been used mainly in the fighter role , while No. 3 Squadron was primarily used for reconnaissance . No. 4 Squadron became the most successful fighter squadron in France , accounting for 199 enemy aircraft , while No. 2 Squadron was credited with the destruction of 185 . The total AFC casualties on the Western Front included 78 killed , 68 wounded and 33 taken prisoner . Following the end of the war on 11 November 1918 , No. 4 Squadron was the only Australian unit assigned to the British Army of Occupation , arriving in Germany in December and being based in Cologne . The three AFC squadrons subsequently handed over their equipment to the RAF in February 1919 and returned to Australia where they disbanded . Legacy ( edit ) Members of the 7th Squadron in Tetbury England Despite Australian military aviation being in its infancy , the AFC 's identity as a separate national force was considered important , not to mention unusual . Thousands of aircrew from the other Dominions -- such as New Zealand and Canada -- flew with the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service , and their unified successor force after 1 April 1918 , the Royal Air Force during the war , without gaining the benefits of command and the administrative experience which came with an independent air service . By the end of the war , four squadrons had seen active service , 460 officers and 2,234 other ranks had served in the AFC , and another 200 men had served as aircrew in the British flying services . Casualties included 175 dead , 111 wounded , 6 gassed and 40 captured . The AFC was subsequently disbanded after the war in 1919 being replaced by the Australian Air Corps , which became the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921 . Royal Australian Navy operations ( edit ) Main article : History of the Royal Australian Navy A broadside view of the wrecked German raider Emden At the outbreak of war the Royal Australian Navy consisted of the battlecruiser HMAS Australia , the light cruisers Sydney , Melbourne and Brisbane ( under construction ) , the destroyers Parramatta , Yarra and Warrego , and the submarines AE1 and AE2 . Three more destroyers were also under construction . The Squadron was under the command of Rear Admiral Sir George E. Patey , a British admiral who was knighted on the deck of the Australia before it departed England in 1913 . The first naval operation of the war was in support of the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force during the occupation of German New Guinea . The naval portion of the force included the Australia , Melbourne , Sydney , Warrego , Encounter , and submarine AE1 . The only loss during the New Guinea Campaign occurred when the AE1 disappeared on 14 September 1914 , taking three officers and 32 men with it . The first major RAN victory of the war occurred when the cruiser , HMAS Sydney sank the German light cruiser , SMS Emden off the Cocos Islands in the Indian Ocean on 9 November 1914 . Four Australians were killed in the engagement and another 12 were wounded . Ships of the RAN helped provide naval cover for the ambitious landings at Gallipoli , and the submarine AE2 broke the blockade of the Dardanelles to harass Turkish shipping but was later sunk and her crew captured in the Sea of Marmara . HMAS Melbourne operating with the Grand Fleet in 1918 . She is carrying a Sopwith Camel on her forward six - inch gun turret . In 1915 the light cruisers Melbourne and Sydney were deployed to the Atlantic where they worked alongside the Royal Navy 's North American and West Indies Squadrons , which were engaged in surveillance operations on the large number of German ships that had taken refuge in neutral American ports when the war had broken out . This continued until September 1916 when both cruisers were moved to the North Sea where they joined Australia , which had been assisting the Royal Navy in its blockade of the German High Seas Fleet . During this time the RAN also continued to carry out operations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans . By 1915 there were up to 74 German ships which had taken refuge in ports in the Netherlands East Indies . The presence of these ships close to Australia and the sea lanes that connected the nation to the United Kingdom and the Middle East was a cause of concern to the Navy and so in the middle of 1915 the cruiser HMAS Psyche and the sloop Fantome were sent to the Bay of Bengal to conduct patrol operations . Later in the year , in October , a force of three destroyers , a yacht and the cruiser Encounter were sent into the Macassar Strait to search for a German munitions base that had been reported in the area . Nothing was found , although the patrol served to interrupt German efforts to carry out subversive activities in a number of British possessions . In May 1917 the British government requested assistance from the Australian government in dealing with the increasing threat posed by German U-boats . Six destroyers -- the Warrego , Parramatta , Yarra , Swan , Torrens and Huon -- were sent in response to this request , and undertook anti-submarine operations in the Adriatic , working out of Brindisi , Italy as part of the Otranto Barrage . The most decorated RAN unit of the war was the Bridging Train . A reserve unit commanded by Lieutenant Commander Leighton Bracegirdle , it supported the British at Suvla Bay during the Gallipoli Campaign by constructing piers and harbours in the bay . Afterwards it served in Egypt and Palestine , taking part in an amphibious assault in El Arish and the First Battle of Gaza before it was disbanded in 1917 . A number of members later went on to serve with the AIF and RAN . During the war the RAN lost 171 men killed , including 15 officers and 156 sailors , of which six officers and 57 sailors had been on loan from the Royal Navy . Home Front ( edit ) Main articles : Home front during World War I § Australia , and World War I defences of Australia Australian military forces on home service ( edit ) A six - inch gun at Fort Nepean in August 1914 . This gun fired Australia 's first shot of the war when the German merchant ship SS Pfalz attempted to escape from Port Philip Bay on 5 August 1914 . Although the main focus of Australia 's military during World War I was overseas in Europe and the Middle East , there was still a necessity to maintain troops in Australia on home service to carry out a number of essential tasks . As the AIF was otherwise engaged these duties out of necessity fell to the soldiers of the militia and a small number of regular soldiers . In the early stages of mobilisation a number of militia infantry battalions were called out to carry out guard duties upon infrastructure that was considered important to the war effort , such as munitions factories , communications facilities , ammunition dumps and transportation centres. 500 men from the Kennedy Regiment were sent to Thursday Island from Townsville to garrison the island in response to a possible threat from German forces in the Pacific . Additionally , militia troops were used to establish and guard internment camps and garrison artillery and engineer units from the militia were also mobilised to assist the regular units that were manning coastal defences . By the end of 1914 the naval situation in the Pacific had eased to a large extent due to the sinking of the Emden , and it was decided that there was no longer a need to maintain guards on many of the less important facilities , and instead it was decided to concentrate the home defence network upon maintaining the coastal defences and on guarding ships while they were in port . Nevertheless , in the larger seaports these precautions required the commitment of considerable resources , requiring several hundred men to provide security . The requirement for the militia to undertake these duties was eased , however , when a special corps was raised from men that had been rejected for service with the AIF , to which a corps of garrison military police that had served in the AIF was added later . The militia garrison artillery and engineers were required throughout the war , however , to man the coastal defences . Despite the fact that after 1915 it was decided that only small garrisons were required on active service , the militia was ordered to maintain their readiness in case they were required to be called out and such was the importance placed upon their role that to a large extent they were barred from joining the AIF for overseas service . In February 1916 a large - scale effort by militia artillerymen to enlist in the artillery units that were being raised for the 3rd Division was prevented when they were called out to man the coastal defences due to the threat posed by a German commerce raider that was believed to be in the Pacific . This mobilisation lasted until April 1916 , when the garrisons were again reduced and the ban on men serving in militia artillery and engineer units volunteering for overseas service was lifted . In April 1918 the militia artillery was again mobilised , although this time only for a month , when news that the German commerce raiders Wolf and Seeadler had entered Australian waters the previous year . In June 1918 the number of troops actively employed on home service was 9,215 , of which 2,476 were regulars . At this time the Navy took over the task of providing guards for ships in harbour and communications facilities , thus allowing for many of the militia troops to be released for further training , and as such it was decided to increase the period of camp training for the militia from eight days to 24 . Conscription ( edit ) Main article : World War I conscription in Australia An anti-conscription handbill poem issued before the 1917 plebiscite Throughout World War I the Australian forces deployed overseas were all volunteers , however , on the home front there was considerable debate about the issue of conscription . Conscription had been a contentious issue ever since Federation and when the AIF was initially raised in 1914 it had been decided that it would be an all - volunteer force due to the provisions of the Defence Act that precluded sending conscripts overseas . Nevertheless , as the war progressed , casualties amongst the deployed forces began to reach alarming rates and as the flow of reinforcements and recruits for the AIF began to drop in 1916 , the issue of conscription rose once more . In Australia , however , public opinion about the matter was divided with many Australians opposed to the issue on moral grounds , feeling that the situation was not desperate enough to require such a drastic measure , while others felt it necessary in order to achieve final victory . The Hughes Labor government decided to hold a plebiscite on the matter and on 28 October 1916 the matter was decided by a narrow margin of 51 per cent to 49 per cent , with the no vote prevailing . Despite the result , the issue split the Labor Party and the pro-conscription prime minister , Billy Hughes , ultimately left the party and joined with members of the opposition that supported conscription to form a new party , known as the Nationalist Party . As manpower shortages on the Western Front began to become acute , a second plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917 . This time it was defeated by an even greater margin of 94,152 votes . This effectively put an end to plans to expand the AIF in France and ultimately led to severe manpower shortages that the AIF in France experienced in 1917 and 1918 . As a result , plans to expand the force to a 6th Division were shelved and its manpower distributed amongst the other five divisions , while the five divisions were amalgamated together under the banner of the Australian Corps , thus effectively allowing the 4th Division , which was struggling to maintain its numbers to act as a depot formation within the Corps with the other three divisions providing most of the combat power . As the war continued , the manpower shortages continued . Wounded men were being pressed back into service , and there were cases of `` combat refusal '' by the 1st and 59th Battalions . On 23 September 1918 , Monash ordered the breakup of some under - strength battalions to reinforce others . In the AIF the battalion was the source of pride and identification for the men , rather than the regiment as in the British Army , so in some cases this order was defied -- some men , who were not eligible to draw rations as their unit no longer officially existed , lived by stealing food or sharing with other units . Monash rescinded the order for a while but eventually `` the Heads '' ( as Australians called their senior officers ) enforced the change by marching off companies by night into different battalions . The change ultimately proved unnecessary as the war ended shortly after . Internment , censorship and other special measures ( edit ) The global nature of the war meant that many functions that were previously vested in the individual Australian state governments had to be placed under the control of the Commonwealth government . Additionally , the exigencies of the war meant that the government required the power to enact certain laws that under the Constitution it would not normally be able to do . In order to enable this to occur , the War Precautions Act 1914 was introduced in October 1914 , providing the Commonwealth government with wide - ranging powers for a period of up to six months after the duration of the war . The main provisions of the Act were focused upon allowing the Commonwealth to enact legislation that was required for the smooth prosecution of the war . The main areas in which legislation was enacted under the War Precautions Act were : the prevention of trade with hostile nations , the creation of loans to raise money for the war effort , the introduction of a national taxation scheme , the fixing of the prices of certain goods , the internment of people considered a danger to the war effort , the compulsory purchase of strategic goods , and the censorship of the media . At the outbreak of the war there were about 35,000 people who had been born in either Germany or Austria - Hungary living in Australia . Due to large - scale German migration in the late 19th century , there were also an inestimable number of people of German origin , many of whom maintained an affinity for their ancestral roots . Many of these were naturalised Australians , and indeed it is believed that many men of German origin enlisted in the AIF . However , due to concerns about the loyalties of some members of the German and Austrian communities , internment camps were set up where those suspected of unpatriotic acts were sent . In total it is believed that 4,500 people were interned under the provisions of the War Precautions Act , of which 700 were naturalised Australians and 70 Australian - born . Following the end of the war , 6,150 were deported . There was a considerable public backlash to the way in which some of the provisions of the War Precautions Act were applied , particularly in relation to certain sections of the community such as trade unions and other sections of the community that were for various reasons not as sympathetic to the British cause as the wider community . Indeed , in 1917 , following the suppression of a prominent trade union and the jailing of 12 of its members on charges of sedition and sabotage , it seemed as if Australia 's war effort might have been in danger of breaking down . After the war , the continued operation of the War Precautions Act led to considerable social and political unrest in late 1918 and into 1919 and a number of violent incidents broke out . The most notable of these was the so - called Red Flag Riots in Brisbane , in 1919 . Economy ( edit ) The Australian Honour Flag , awarded to subscribers of the Australian Government 's 7th War Loan in 1918 At the outset of the war , Australia 's economy had been quite small and dependent largely upon agriculture and the resources industries for export earnings , while most manufactured products were imported from overseas . Almost immediately uncertainty over the continuation of foreign trade led to a rise in unemployment , indeed it was estimated that after only a couple of days of Britain having declared war , that up to 15,000 men had been retrenched in New South Wales alone due to concerns about the continued availability of foreign markets for Australian produce . These initial concerns , however , were short lived , at least in the beginning as the British government provided assurances that it would underwrite a large amount of the war risk insurance for shipping in order to allow trade amongst the Commonwealth to continue . Shortly thereafter the wartime direction of trade began when the British asked the Australian government to place certain restrictions upon overseas trade in order to secure resources vital to the war effort and to limit the ability of the Central Powers from obtaining these goods from Commonwealth nations via neutral third parties . To an extent these restrictions served to reduce the ability of Australian producers to find buyers for their products , at least initially , however , in many cases the British stepped in to buy these goods , thus alleviating Australian concerns about a significant reduction in the standard of living . This understanding proved particularly beneficial for the wool and wheat industries , where the British government undertook to buy Australian products even though the shortage of shipping meant that there was no chance that they would ever receive them . On the whole Australian commerce was expanded due to the war , although the cost of the war was quite considerable and the Australian government had to borrow considerably from overseas to fund the war effort . In terms of value , Australian exports rose almost 45 per cent , while the number of Australians employed in the manufacturing industry increased over 11 per cent . This was due in the most part to the reduced ability of traditional sources to continue supplying Australia with manufactured products , which out of necessity stimulated the development of the Australian manufacturing industry . In terms of goods produced indigenously , it was estimated that due to the inability of traditional suppliers to deliver manufactured goods because of trade embargoes and shipping shortages up to 400 new articles were produced in Australian factories as a result of the war . This was not an insignificant number , although the transformation of the Australian economy as a result of World War I was by no means as significant as that which occurred during World War II . The expansion of the steel industry that occurred during this time laid the foundation for future industrialisation . Despite this increase in the domestic manufacturing industry there was still a significant shortfall in many items . In part this was due to the priority that military consumption and production necessarily had over civilian , however , there was also a considerable scarcity of raw materials and other components required for manufacturing . This was due both to the lack of shipping available from the United Kingdom , as well as the limitations placed upon the flow of such goods from Britain due to their own increased requirements . The result of this was inflationary . Domestic prices went up , while the cost of exports was deliberately kept lower than market value in an effort to prevent further inflationary pressures worldwide . As a result , the cost of living for many average Australians was increased considerably . An increase in the trade union movement was an inevitable corollary of this and during the war years there was a considerable increase in the membership of the various unions . Despite the considerable rises in the costs of many basic items , the government sought to maintain wages largely as they were . Although the average weekly wage during the war was increased by between 8 -- 12 per cent , it was not enough to keep up with inflation and as a result there was considerable discontent amongst workers , to the extent that industrial action followed . Not all of these disputes were due to economic factors , and indeed in some part they were the result of violent opposition to the issue of conscription , which many trade unionists were opposed to . Nevertheless , the result was very disruptive and it has been estimated that between 1914 and 1918 there were 1,945 industrial disputes , resulting in 8,533,061 working days lost and £ 4,785,607 in lost wages . Overall , the war had a significantly negative impact on the Australia economy . Real aggregate Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) declined by 9.5 per cent over the period 1914 to 1920 , while the mobilization of personnel resulted in a 6 per cent decline in civilian employment . Meanwhile , although population growth continued during the war years , it was only half that of the prewar rate . Per capita incomes also declined sharply , falling by 16 per cent . After the war ( edit ) Repatriation and Demobilisation ( edit ) AIF troops just landed at Weymouth in England from France entraining for repatriation depots in April 1919 . Following the end of hostilities in Europe the Australian government decided against contributing Australian forces to the occupation forces that were sent to Germany as part of the post war settlement so that it could begin the repatriation of the AIF early . Lieutenant General Sir John Monash was appointed Director - General of Repatriation and Demobilisation and oversaw the process in Britain , while Lieutenant General Henry Chauvel took charge of the efforts in the Middle East . Rather than employing a system that returned men by units , or by employment categories , it was decided to utilise an egalitarian system that saw men who had been away for the longest period of time being returned first . Due to the size of the forces deployed overseas -- roughly 167 , 000 personnel in France , Britain and Egypt -- and the logistical requirements of bringing them home the process was nevertheless a lengthy one and as such it became important to occupy the troops while they waited . In order to achieve this and to prepare the men for a return to civilian employment , a vocational education scheme was set up by George Long and troops in Britain were offered educational courses and civilian work placement opportunities and although these programs were not as successful as hoped , several thousand soldiers took advantage of them . Some Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army and went on to serve in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War , although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign . HMAS Yarra , Torrens , Swan and Parramatta served in the Black Sea during the same conflict . Elsewhere , in Egypt in early 1919 , a number of Australian light horse units were used to quell a nationalist uprising while they were waiting for passage back to Australia . Despite shortages in shipping , the process of returning the soldiers to Australia was completed faster than expected and by September 1919 there were 10,000 men still left in Britain waiting for repatriation . The last of the main transports conveying Australian troops left England on 23 December 1919 , arriving in Australia in early 1920 . A year later , on 1 April 1921 , the AIF was officially disbanded . The process of repatriation did not end there , though . Upon their return to Australia the effort shifted towards placing the returned soldiers into employment , or education and taking care of those that were too badly injured to work . In order to meet these needs the Commonwealth established the Repatriation Department , tasked with managing the placement of returned soldiers into employment , training , education , housing . Eventually this also included the colossal task of managing the provision of war pensions , managing repatriation hospitals and convalescent homes and administering the Soldier Settlement Scheme . The total cost of these provisions was considerable , and in June 1935 it was estimated to have cost approximately £ 238,000,000 which was more than the total amount spent on defence during the war . In order to advocate for the many thousands of returned servicemen and women many ex-services organisations sprang up . The most prominent of these was probably the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia which had been established in 1916 by representatives from many state - based organisations already in existence . Following the war this organisation grew in its political influence as its numbers grew and was very active in the repatriation process , advocating for financial entitlements for veterans and securing concessions for soldiers returning to civilian employment . By 1919 it was estimated to have 150,000 members although this fell dramatically in the mid-1920s . Legacy ( edit ) The war affected Australia in many ways , although arguably not as greatly as it did the many European nations that were more directly involved . Economically the war had a number of significant impacts , although the Great Depression would later prove far more significant and Australian industry was not as greatly transformed as it would be following World War II . The political landscape was also transformed due to the rifts that resulted from the issue of conscription , while to a smaller extent the role of women in society also evolved as more women entered the workforce . Indeed , between 1914 and 1918 there had been a 13 per cent increase in the employment of women ; however , this was mainly in areas were women were traditionally employed . Equally , although around 2,000 women were employed as nurses in the AIF , there was no great involvement of women in the military during the war . Another legacy was the manner in which it led to the emergence -- albeit only fleetingly -- of an independence in Australian foreign affairs . Although previously Australian foreign interests had been largely handled by Britain , as a combatant Australia sent its own delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 , while it also began to take a more assertive role in regional affairs in the Pacific . At the peace conference Prime Minister Hughes pushed aggressively for reparations and an Australian mandate over German New Guinea ; a stance which conflicted with the liberal internationalist inspired Fourteen Points put forward by American President Woodrow Wilson . Regardless , following the war there was little real change in Imperial relations and Dominion affairs , and as a result the war arguably did not lead to any significant change in Australia 's perception of its role in the world . Indeed , profound change would only occur following the Japanese crisis of 1942 , which ultimately saw Australia pursue a foreign policy more independent of Britain , and an alliance with the United States . Perhaps the greatest effect of the war was a psychological one . The heavy losses deeply affected many directly , and war memorials were built all over the country as people sought to remember those that had been killed . However , despite the size of Australia 's contribution to the fighting , there were many Australians who had had no actual experience of it . Realising this , and having witnessed the impact of the war first hand , Charles Bean , who was instrumental in editing and writing the official history of Australia 's involvement in the war , advocated the need for a national memorial and was one of the main architects in establishing the Australian War Memorial in Canberra . The experience of the war also perpetuated many notions about the Australian character and national identity that endure to this day . For many Australians the performance of their soldiers -- particularly during the failed Gallipoli campaign -- served to highlight the nation 's emergence as a member of the international community , while bringing to the fore a belief in Australians ' natural ability as soldiers . The attitudes of many Australians towards war itself were also greatly affected . There was a widespread revulsion at the large - scale destruction and loss of life that had occurred and a desire that it should never occur again . In many regards this led to a general complacency towards defence and military matters after the war and arguably led to the nation 's lack of preparedness for the next major conflict , while it may still be evident in Australian strategic behaviour to this day . Statistics ( edit ) During World War I over 421,809 Australians served in the military with 331,781 serving overseas . Over 60,000 Australians lost their lives and 137,000 were wounded . As a percentage of forces committed , this equalled a casualty rate of almost 65 per cent , one of the highest casualty rates amongst the British Empire forces . The financial cost of the war to the Australian government was £ 188,480,000 . See also ( edit ) Australian Army battle honours of World War I List of Australian diarists of World War I Notes ( edit ) Footnotes Jump up ^ The AIF raised for World War I service has subsequently been called the First AIF in order to distinguish it from the Second AIF which was raised during World War II . Jump up ^ A further 142 casualties were suffered by the Australian 15th Brigade who launched a diversionary attack , while there were also 176 casualties amongst the 10 companies of Americans that were also involved in the operation . Jump up ^ The battle is cited as an early example of the destructive potential of airpower and involved seven British squadrons ( including No. 1 Squadron AFC ) . The Turkish Seventh Army was caught in Wadi Fara and was unable to escape due to the steep hills and cliffs which forced them to use the road . The attack began at 6 : 30 am and continued non-stop until 12 : 00 , with No. 1 Squadron alone dropping three tonnes of bombs and expending nearly 24,000 rounds . When British ground forces reached the area the following day they found 87 artillery pieces and nearly 1,000 vehicles abandoned or destroyed . Casualties among the estimated 7,000 Turkish troops caught in the attacks were not established but were believed to have been high . Jump up ^ Between 1914 and 1919 the number of Australian workers who were members of various trade unions rose by 104,314 . Jump up ^ Such notions remain common in Australian society today , although their impact upon the formulation of defence policy may have been limited by the development of a standing , professional force after World War II . Evans 2005 provides a discussion of the impact of the conflict between traditional Australian notions of social nationalism and military professionalism , as well as the way in which the ideals of ANZAC have led to Australian strategic complacency . Jump up ^ These casualties can be broken down as follows : 53,993 battle - related deaths ; 7,727 non-battle related deaths ; 137,013 wounded in action ; 16,496 gassed ; 3,647 prisoners of war and 109 prisoner of war deaths . Citations Jump up ^ Odgers 1994 , p. 58 . Jump up ^ MacDougall 1991 , p. 30 . Jump up ^ Grey 2008 , p. 86 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , pp. 25 -- 35 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 87 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , pp. 24 -- 25 . ^ Jump up to : Odgers 1994 , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , pp. 53 -- 58 . ^ Jump up to : Coulthard - Clark 1998 , p. 97 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , p. 58 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , p. 59 . ^ Jump up to : Bean 1946 , p. 36 . Jump up ^ Grey 1999 , p. 83 . Jump up ^ MacDougall 1991 , p. 32 . ^ Jump up to : Mackenzie 1941 , p. 189 . ^ Jump up to : Mackenzie 1941 , pp. 154 -- 155 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , p. 342 . Jump up ^ Mackenzie 1941 , p. 364 . Jump up ^ Scott 1941 , pp. 191 -- 235 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 85 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 88 . ^ Jump up to : MacDougall 1991 , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Scott 1941 , pp. 211 -- 212 . Jump up ^ Bean 1921 , pp. 38 -- 41 . Jump up ^ Bean 1921 , p. 137 . ^ Jump up to : Mallett , Ross . `` First AIF Order of Battle 1914 -- 1918 '' . Australian Defence Force Academy . Archived from the original on 28 February 2015 . Retrieved 27 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Odgers 1994 , p. 116 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 91 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 92 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 93 . ^ Jump up to : Grey 2008 , p. 94 . Jump up ^ Bean 1921 , pp. 191 -- 195 . Jump up ^ Bean 1921 , p. 220 . Jump up ^ Bean 1921 , p. 252 . Jump up ^ Grey 2008 , p. 95 . Jump up ^ Taylor & Cupper 1989 , p. 158 . 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Jump up ^ Wahlert 2008 , p. 28 . Jump up ^ `` The ANZAC Day tradition '' . Australian War Memorial . Retrieved 2 May 2008 . Jump up ^ `` 15,000 attend dawn service '' . The Age . 25 April 2004 . Retrieved 10 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Grey 2008 , pp. 115 -- 117 . Jump up ^ Coulthard - Clark 2001 , p. 112 . Jump up ^ Mallett , Ross . `` Anzac Mounted Division '' . First AIF Order of Battle 1914 -- 1918 . Australian Defence Force Academy . Archived from the original on 28 February 2015 . Retrieved 27 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Gullett 1941 , p. 211 . Jump up ^ Gullett 1941 , pp. 640 -- 641 . ^ Jump up to : Bean 1946 , p. 188 . Jump up ^ Coulthard - Clark 2001 , pp. 112 -- 116 . Jump up ^ Bean 1929 , pp. 965 -- 967 . Jump up ^ Wright , Edward ( 2 September 1916 ) . `` The Turkish Rout at Romani '' . The War Illustrated . Retrieved 3 May 2009 . Jump up ^ Keogh 1955 , pp. 54 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Powles 1922 , pp. 29 -- 35 . Jump up ^ Woodward 2006 , pp. 48 -- 49 . 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The Official Names of the Battles and Other Engagements Fought by the Military Forces of the British Empire during the Great War , 1914 -- 1919 , and the Third Afghan War , 1919 : Report of the Battles Nomenclature Committee as Approved by The Army Council Presented to Parliament by Command of His Majesty . London : Government Printer. 1922 . OCLC 29078007 . Aspinall - Oglander , C.F. ( 1932 ) . Military Operations : Gallipoli . History of the Great War . Volume II May 1915 to the Evacuation . London : Imperial War Museum . ISBN 0 - 901627 - 84 - 4 . Baker , Chris ( 2008 ) . `` Fromelles 1916 : Is the Australian Official History more ' truthful ' than the British ? '' ( PDF ) . United Service . Royal United Services Institute of New South Wales . 49 ( 4 ) : 12 -- 16 . Retrieved 3 May 2009 . Bean , Charles ( 1921 ) . The Story of ANZAC from the Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign , May 4 , 1915 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume I ( 11th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 40934988 . Bean , Charles ( 1926 ) . The Story of ANZAC from 4 May 1915 , to the Evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume II ( 11th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 220051990 . Bean , Charles ( 1929 ) . The Australian Imperial Force in France : 1916 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume III ( 12th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 458675355 . Bean , Charles ( 1933 ) . The Australian Imperial Force in France : 1917 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume IV ( 11th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 17648490 . Bean , Charles ( 1937 ) . The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Main German Offensive , 1918 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume V ( 8th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 493141496 . Bean , Charles ( 1946 ) . Anzac to Amiens . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . ISBN 0 - 14 - 016638 - 6 . Beaumont , Joan , ed. ( 1995 ) . Australia 's War , 1914 -- 1918 . St Leonards , New South Wales : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 - 86373 - 461 - 9 . Beaumont , Joan , ed. ( 2001 ) . Australian Defence : Sources and Statistics . South Melbourne , Victoria : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 554118 - 9 . Beaumont , Joan ( 2013 ) . Broken Nation : Australians in the Great War . Crows Nest , New South Wales : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 9781741751383 . Bruce , Anthony ( 2002 ) . The Last Crusade The : Palestine Campaign in the First World War . London : John Murray . ISBN 0 - 7195 - 5432 - 2 . Coulthard - Clark , Chris ( 1998 ) . Where Australians Fought : The Encyclopaedia of Australia 's Battles ( 1st ed . ) . St Leonards , New South Wales : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 - 86448 - 611 - 2 . Coulthard - Clark , Chris ( 2001 ) . The Encyclopaedia of Australia 's Battles ( 2nd ed . ) . Crows Nest , New South Wales : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1865086347 . Cutlack , Frederic Morley ( 1941 ) . The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War , 1914 -- 1918 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume VIII . Melbourne , Victoria : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 54337370 . Dennis , Peter ; Grey , Jeffrey ; Morris , Ewan ; Robin Prior ( 1995 ) . The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History ( 1st ed . ) . Melbourne , Victoria : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 553227 - 9 . Downes , Rupert M. ( 1938 ) . `` The Campaign in Sinai and Palestine '' . In Butler , Arthur Graham . Gallipoli , Palestine and New Guinea . Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services , 1914 -- 1918 . Volume 1 Part II ( 2nd ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . pp. 547 -- 780 . OCLC 220879097 . Evans , Mark , ed. ( 2005 ) . The Tyranny of Dissonance : Australia 's Strategic Culture and Way of War 1901 -- 2005 . Study Paper No. 306 . Canberra : Land Warfare Studies Centre . ISBN 0 - 642 - 29607 - 3 . Falls , Cyril ; MacMunn , G. ( 1930 ) . Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the Outbreak of war with Germany to June 1917 . Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence . Volume 1 . London : HM Stationery Office . OCLC 610273484 . Grainger , John D. ( 2006 ) . The Battle for Palestine , 1917 . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84383 - 263 - 8 . Grey , Jeffrey ( 1999 ) . A Military History of Australia ( 2nd ed . ) . Melbourne , Victoria : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 64483 - 6 . Grey , Jeffrey ( 2008 ) . A Military History of Australia ( 3rd ed . ) . Melbourne , Victoria : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 69791 - 0 . Gullett , Henry ( 1941 ) . The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine , 1914 -- 1918 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume VII ( 10th ed . ) . Canberra . OCLC 220901683 . Hart , Peter ( 2008 ) . 1918 , A Very British Victory . London : Phoenix Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7538 - 2689 - 8 . Horner , David ( 1995 ) . The Gunners : A History of Australian Artillery . St Leonards , New South Wales : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 - 86373 - 917 - 3 . Jose , Arthur ( 1941 ) . The Royal Australian Navy , 1914 -- 1918 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume IX ( 9th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 271462423 . Keogh , E.G. ( 1955 ) . Suez to Aleppo . Melbourne , Victoria : Directorate of Military Training . OCLC 220029983 . McLean , Ian W. ( 2013 ) . Why Australia Prospered : The Shifting Sources of Economic Growth . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 15467 - 1 . MacDougall , Anthony ( 1991 ) . ANZACs : Australians At War . Balgowlah , New South Wales : Reed Books . ISBN 0730103595 . Mackenzie , Seaforth ( 1941 ) . The Australians at Rabaul : The Capture and Administration of the German Possessions in the South Pacific . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume X ( 10th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 12752502 . Neillands , Robin ( 2004 ) . The Great War Generals on the Western Front 1914 -- 1918 ( 2nd ed . ) . London : Magpie Books . ISBN 1 - 84119 - 863 - 3 . Odgers , George ( 1994 ) . Diggers : The Australian Army , Navy and Air Force in Eleven Wars . Volume 1 . London : Lansdowne . ISBN 1 - 86302 - 385 - 2 . Perry , Roland ( 2009 ) . The Australian Light Horse . Sydney , New South Wales : Hachette Australia . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7336 - 2272 - 4 . Powles , C. ( 1922 ) . The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine . Official History New Zealand 's Effort in the Great War . Volume III . Auckland , New Zealand : Whitcombe & Tombs . OCLC 2959465 . Preston , R.M.P. ( 1921 ) . The Desert Mounted Corps : An Account of the Cavalry Operations in Palestine and Syria 1917 -- 1918 . London : Constable & Co . OCLC 3900439 . Ray , Pam ( July 1991 ) . `` A Photographic Record of an Australian Nursing Sister '' . Journal of the Australian War Memorial . Canberra : Australian War Memorial ( 18 ) : 63 -- 65 . ISSN 1327 - 0141 . Scott , Ernest ( 1941 ) . Australia During the War . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume XI ( 7th ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 271462433 . Stephens , Alan ( 2006 ) . The Royal Australian Air Force : A History . London : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 555541 - 4 . Taylor , Phil ; Cupper , Pam ( 1989 ) . Gallipoli : A Battlefield Guide . Kenthurst , New South Wales : Kangaroo Press . ISBN 0 - 86417 - 241 - 9 . Wahlert , Glenn ( 2008 ) . Exploring Gallipoli : An Australian Army Battlefield Guide . Canberra : Army History Unit . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9804753 - 5 - 7 . Wavell , Field Marshal Earl ( 1968 ) ( 1933 ) . `` The Palestine Campaigns '' . In Sheppard , Eric William . A Short History of the British Army ( 4th ed . ) . London : Constable & Co . OCLC 35621223 . Woodward , David ( 2006 ) . Hell in the Holy Land : World War I in the Middle East . Lexington , Kentucky : The University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 0 - 8131 - 2383 - 6 . Further reading ( edit ) Library resources about Military history of Australia during World War I Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Bean , Charles ( 1942 ) . The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Allied Offensive , 1918 . Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 -- 1918 . Volume VI ( 1st ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 41008291 . Beaumont , Joan ( 2013 ) . Broken Nation : Australians in the Great War . Crows Nest , New South Wales : Allen and Unwin . ISBN 9781741751383 . Carlyon , Les ( 2001 ) . Gallipoli . Sydney , New South Wales : Pan Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 553 - 81506 - 1 . Carver , Field Marshal Lord ( 2003 ) . The National Army Museum Book of The Turkish Front 1914 -- 1918 : The Campaigns at Gallipoli , in Mesopotamia and in Palestine . London : Pan Macmillan . ISBN 0 - 330 - 49108 - 3 . Connor , John ; Stanley , Peter ; Yule , Peter ( 2015 ) . The War at Home . Centenary History of Australia and the Great War . Volume IV . South Melbourne , Victoria : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195576788 . Grey , Jeffrey ( 2015 ) . The War with the Ottoman Empire . Centenary History of Australia and the Great War . Volume II . South Melbourne , Victoria : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195576764 . Meaney , Neville ( 2010 ) . Australia and World Crisis , 1914 -- 1923 : A History of Australian Defence and Foreign Policy 1901 -- 1923 . Volume 2 . Sydney , New South Wales : Sydney University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 920899 - 17 - 2 . Molkentin , Michael ( 2014 ) . Australia and the War in the Air . Centenary History of Australia and the Great War . Volume I. South Melbourne , Victoria : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195576795 . Monash , John ( 1920 ) . The Australian Victories in France in 1918 . London : Hutchinson . OCLC 563884172 . Pederson , Peter ( 1985 ) . Monash as Military Commander . Melbourne , Victoria : Melbourne University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 522 - 84267 - 8 . Stevenson , Robert ( 2015 ) . The War with Germany . Centenary History of Australia and the Great War . Volume III . South Melbourne , Victoria : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195576771 . Serle , Geoffrey ( 1982 ) . John Monash , A Biography . Australia 's Finest General . Melbourne , Victoria : Melbourne University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 522 - 84239 - 5 . Travers , Tim ( 2001 ) . Gallipoli 1915 . Gloucestershire : Tempus . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 2551 - X . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Australia in World War I . 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who is the author of the analects of confucius

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Analects - wikipedia Analects Jump to : navigation , search Analects 論語 A page from the Analects Author Disciples of Confucius Language Classical Chinese Analects `` Analects '' in ancient seal script ( top ) , Traditional ( middle ) , and Simplified ( bottom ) Chinese characters Traditional Chinese 論語 Simplified Chinese 论语 Literal meaning `` Edited Conversations '' ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lúnyǔ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Luenyeu Wade -- Giles Lun - yü IPA ( lwə̌n. ỳ ) Wu Romanization Lén - nyû Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Lèuhn - yúh IPA ( lɵ̏n. jy̬ː ) Jyutping Leon - jyu Southern Min Hokkien POJ Lūn - gú Middle Chinese Middle Chinese lwin - ngjó Old Chinese Baxter -- Sagart ( 2014 ) * run ŋraʔ The Analects ( Chinese : 論 語 ; Old Chinese : * run ŋ ( r ) aʔ ; pinyin : lúnyǔ ; literally : `` Edited Conversations '' ) , also known as the Analects of Confucius , is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries , traditionally believed to have been compiled and written by Confucius 's followers . It is believed to have been written during the Warring States period ( 475 -- 221 BC ) , and it achieved its final form during the mid-Han dynasty ( 206 BC -- 220 AD ) . By the early Han dynasty the Analects was considered merely a `` commentary '' on the Five Classics , but the status of the Analects grew to be one of the central texts of Confucianism by the end of that dynasty . During the late Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) the importance of the Analects as a philosophy work was raised above that of the older Five Classics , and it was recognized as one of the `` Four Books '' . The Analects has been one of the most widely read and studied books in China for the last 2,000 years , and continues to have a substantial influence on Chinese and East Asian thought and values today . Confucius believed that the welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people , beginning from the nation 's leadership . He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate an all - encompassing sense of virtue through ren , and that the most basic step to cultivating ren was devotion to one 's parents and older siblings . He taught that one 's individual desires do not need to be suppressed , but that people should be educated to reconcile their desires via rituals and forms of propriety , through which people could demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society . He taught that a ruler 's sense of virtue was his primary prerequisite for leadership . His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well - cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity , speak correctly , and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Creation of the text 1.2 Importance within Confucianism 1.3 Commentaries 2 Contents 2.1 Social philosophy 2.2 Political philosophy 2.3 Education 2.4 Chapters 3 Notable translations 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Footnotes 5.2 Works cited 6 Further reading 7 External links History ( edit ) Creation of the text ( edit ) Portrait of Confucius , giving a lecture The Analects of Confucius , from Östasiatiska Museet , Stockholm According to Ban Gu , writing in the Book of Han , the Analects originated as individual records kept by Confucius 's disciples of conversations between the Master and them , which were then collected and jointly edited by the disciples after Confucius 's death in 479 BC . The work is therefore titled Lunyu meaning `` edited conversations '' or `` selected speeches '' ( i.e. analects ) . This broadly forms the traditional account of the genesis of the work accepted by later generations of scholars , for example the Song dynasty neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi stated that Analects is the records of Confucius 's first - and second - generation pupils . The view however was challenged by Qing dynasty philologist Cui Shu ( 崔 述 , 1740 -- 1816 ) who argued on linguistic ground that the last five books are much later than the rest of the work . Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years , with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings . Because no texts of the Analects have been discovered earlier , and because the Analects was not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han dynasty , some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140 BC for the text 's compilation . Regardless of how early the text of the Analects existed , most Analects scholars believe that , by the early Han dynasty ( 206 BC -- 220 AD ) the book was widely known and transmitted throughout China in a mostly complete form , and the book acquired its final , complete form during Han dynasty . A Han dynasty writer Wang Chong however claimed that the Analects that existed during the Han dynasty was incomplete and formed only a part of a much larger work . A larger collection of Confucius 's teachings existed in the Warring States period than has been preserved directly in the Analects : 75 % of Confucius 's sayings cited by his second - generation student , Mencius , do not exist in the received text of the Analects . According to the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang , there were two versions of the Analects that existed at the beginning of the Han dynasty : the `` Lu version '' and the `` Qi version '' . The Lu version contained twenty chapters , and the Qi version contained twenty - two chapters , including two chapters not found in the Lu version . Of the twenty chapters that both versions had in common , the Lu version had more passages . Each version had its own masters , schools , and transmitters . In the reign of Emperor Jing of Han ( r . 157 -- 141 BC ) , a third version ( the `` Old Text '' version ) was discovered hidden in a wall of the home then believed to be Confucius 's when the home was in the process of being destroyed by King Gong of Lu ( r . 153 -- 128 BC ) in order to expand the king 's palace . The new version did not contain the two extra chapters found in the Qi version , but it split one chapter found in the Lu and Qi versions in two , so it had twenty - one chapters , and the order of the chapters was different . The old text version got its name because it was written in characters not used since the earlier Warring States period ( i.e. before 221 BC ) , when it was assumed to have been hidden . According to the Han dynasty scholar Huan Tan , the old text version had four hundred characters different from the Lu version ( from which the received text of the Analects is mostly based ) , and it seriously differed from the Lu version in twenty - seven places . Of these twenty - seven differences , the received text only agrees with the old text version in two places . Over a century later , the tutor of the Analects to Emperor Cheng of Han , Zhang Yu ( d . 5 BC ) , synthesized the Lu and Qi versions by taking the Lu version as authoritative and selectively adding sections from the Qi version , and produced a composite text of the Analects known as the `` Zhang Hou Lun '' . This text was recognized by Zhang Yu 's contemporaries and by subsequent Han scholars as superior to either individual version , and is the text that is recognized as the Analects today . The Qi version was lost for about 1800 years but re-found during the excavation of the tomb of Marquis of Haihun that was found 2011 . No complete copies of either the Lu version or the old text version of the Analects exist today , though fragments of the old text version were discovered at Dunhuang . Before the late twentieth century the oldest existing copy of the Analects known to scholars was found in the `` Stone Classics of the Xinping Era '' , a copy of the Confucian classics written in stone in the old Eastern Han dynasty capital of Luoyang around 175 AD . Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of the Analects that were written around 50 BC , during the Western Han dynasty . They are known as the `` Dingzhou Analects '' , and the `` Pyongyang Analects '' , after the location of the tombs in which they were found . The Dingzhou Analects was discovered in 1973 , but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997 . The Pyongyang Analects was discovered in 1992 . Academic access to the Pyongyang Analects has been highly restricted , and no academic study on it was published until 2009 . The Dingzhou Analects was damaged in a fire shortly after it was entombed in the Han dynasty . It was further damaged in an earthquake shortly after it was recovered , and the surviving text is just under half the size of the received text of the Analects . Of the sections that survive , the Dingzhou Analects is shorter than the received Analects , implying that the text of the Analects was still in the process of expansion when the Dingzhou Analects was entombed . There was evidence that `` additions '' may have been made to the manuscript after it had been completed , indicating that the writer may have become aware of at least one other version of the Analects and included `` extra '' material for the sake of completeness . The content of the Pyongyang Analects is similar to the Dingzhou Analects ; but , because of the secrecy and isolationism of the North Korean government , only a very cursory study of it has been made available to international scholars , and its contents are not completely known outside of North Korea . Scholars do not agree about whether either the Dingzhou Analects or the Pyongyang Analects represent the Lu version , the Qi version , the old text version , or a different version that was independent of these three traditions . Importance within Confucianism ( edit ) During most of the Han period the Analects was not considered one of the principal texts of Confucianism . During the reign of Han Wudi ( 141 -- 87 BC ) , when the Chinese government began promoting Confucian studies , only the Five Classics were considered by the government to be canonical ( jing ) . They were considered Confucian because Confucius was assumed to have partially written , edited , and / or transmitted them . The Analects was considered secondary as it was thought to be merely a collection of Confucius 's oral `` commentary '' ( zhuan ) on the Five Classics . The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout the Han dynasty , and by the Eastern Han the Analects was widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy , and often read before the Five Classics themselves . During the Eastern Han , the heir apparent was provided a tutor specifically to teach him the Analects . The growing importance of the Analects was recognized when the Five Classics was expanded to the `` Seven Classics '' : the Five Classics plus the Analects and the Classic of Filial Piety , and its status as one of the central texts of Confucianism continued to grow until the late Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) , when it was identified and promoted as one of the Four Books by Zhu Xi and generally accepted as being more insightful than the older Five Classics . Commentaries ( edit ) A copy of He Yan 's commentary on the Analects , with a sub-commentary by Xing Bing , printed during the Ming dynasty Since the Han dynasty , Chinese readers have interpreted the Analects by reading scholars ' commentaries on the book . There have been many commentaries on the Analects since the Han dynasty , but the two which have been most influential have been the Collected Explanations of the Analects ( Lunyu Jijie ) by He Yan ( c. 195 -- 249 ) and several colleagues , and the Collected Commentaries of the Analects ( Lunyu Jizhu ) by Zhu Xi ( 1130 -- 1200 ) . In his work , He Yan collected , selected , summarized , and rationalized what he believed to be the most insightful of all preceding commentaries on the Analects which had been produced by earlier Han and Wei dynasty ( 220 -- 265 AD ) scholars . His personal interpretation of the Lunyu was guided by his belief that Daoism and Confucianism complemented each other , so that by studying both in a correct manner a scholar could arrive at a single , unified truth . Arguing for the ultimate compatibility of Daoist and Confucian teachings , he argued that `` Laozi ( in fact ) was in agreement with the Sage '' ( sic ) . The Explanations was written in 248 AD , was quickly recognized as authoritative , and remained the standard guide to interpreting the Analects for nearly 1,000 years , until the early Yuan dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) . It is the oldest complete commentary on the Analects that still exists . He Yan 's commentary was eventually displaced as the definitive , standard commentary by Zhu Xi 's commentary . Zhu Xi 's work also brought together the commentaries of earlier scholars ( mostly from the Song dynasty ) , along with his own interpretations . Zhu 's work took part in the context of a period of renewed interest in Confucian studies , in which Chinese scholars were interested in producing a single `` correct '' intellectual orthodoxy that would `` save '' Chinese traditions and protect them from foreign influences , and in which scholars were increasingly interested in metaphysical speculation . In his commentary Zhu made a great effort to interpret the Analects by using theories elaborated in the other Four Books , something that He Yan had not done . Zhu attempted to give an added coherence and unity to the message of the Analects , demonstrating that the individual books of the Confucian canon gave meaning to the whole , just as the whole of the canon gave meaning to its parts . In his preface , Zhu Xi stated , `` ( T ) he Analects and the Mencius are the most important works for students pursuing the Way ( ... ) The words of the Analects are all inclusive ; what they teach is nothing but the essentials of preserving the mind and cultivating ( one 's ) nature . '' From the first publication of the Commentaries , Zhu continued to refine his interpretation for the last thirty years of his life . In the fourteenth century , the Chinese government endorsed Zhu 's commentary , and until 1905 it was read and memorized along with the Analects by all Chinese aspiring to literacy and employment as government officials . Contents ( edit ) Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides that of the Analects . The principal biography available to historians is included in Sima Qian 's Shiji , but , because the Shiji contains a large amount of ( possibly legendary ) material not confirmed by extant sources , the biographical material on Confucius found in the Analects makes the Analects arguably the most reliable source of biographical information about Confucius . Confucius viewed himself as a `` transmitter '' of social and political traditions originating in the early Zhou dynasty ( c. 1000 -- 800 BC ) , and claimed not to have originated anything ( Analects 7.1 ) , but Confucius 's social and political ideals were not popular in his time . Social philosophy ( edit ) Confucius 's discussions on the nature of the supernatural ( Analects 3.12 ; 6.20 ; 11.11 ) indicate that he believed while `` ghosts '' and `` spirits '' should be respected , they are best kept at a distance . Instead human beings should base their values and social ideals on moral philosophy , tradition , and a natural love for others . Confucius 's social philosophy largely depended on the cultivation of ren by every individual in a community . Later Confucian philosophers explained ren as the quality of having a kind manner , similar to the English words `` humane '' , `` altruistic '' , or `` benevolent '' , but , of the sixty instances in which Confucius discusses ren in the Analects , very few have these later meanings . Confucius instead used the term ren to describe an extremely general and all - encompassing state of virtue , one which no living person had attained completely . ( This use of the term ren is peculiar to the Analects . ) Throughout the Analects , Confucius 's students frequently request that Confucius define ren and give examples of people who embody it , but Confucius generally responds indirectly to his students ' questions , instead offering illustrations and examples of behaviours that are associated with ren and explaining how a person could achieve it . According to Confucius , a person with a well - cultivated sense of ren would speak carefully and modestly ( Analects 12.3 ) ; be resolute and firm ( Analects 12.20 ) , courageous ( Analects 14.4 ) , free from worry , unhappiness , and insecurity ( Analects 9.28 ; 6.21 ) ; moderate their desires and return to propriety ( Analects 12.1 ) ; be respectful , tolerant , diligent , trustworthy and kind ( Analects 17.6 ) ; and love others ( Analects 12.22 ) . Confucius recognized his followers ' disappointment that he would not give them a more comprehensive definition of ren , but assured them that he was sharing all that he could ( Analects 7.23 ) . To Confucius , the cultivation of ren involved depreciating oneself through modesty while avoiding artful speech and ingratiating manners that would create a false impression of one 's own character ( Analects 1.3 ) . Confucius said that those who had cultivated ren could be distinguished by their being `` simple in manner and slow of speech '' . He believed that people could cultivate their sense of ren through exercising the Golden Rule : `` Do not do to others what you would not like done to yourself '' ; `` a man with ren , desiring to establish himself , helps others establish themselves ; desiring to succeed himself , helps others to succeed '' ( Analects 12.2 ; 6.28 ) . He taught that the ability of people to imagine and project themselves into the places of others was a crucial quality for the pursuit of moral self - cultivation ( Analects 4.15 ; see also 5.12 ; 6.30 ; 15.24 ) . Confucius regarded the exercise of devotion to one 's parents and older siblings as the simplest , most basic way to cultivate ren . ( Analects 1.2 ) . Confucius believed that ren could best be cultivated by those who had already learned self - discipline , and that self - discipline was best learned by practicing and cultivating one 's understanding of li : rituals and forms of propriety through which people demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society ( Analects 3.3 ) . Confucius said that one 's understanding of li should inform everything that one says and does ( Analects 12.1 ) . He believed that subjecting oneself to li did not mean suppressing one 's desires , but learning to reconcile them with the needs of one 's family and broader community . By leading individuals to express their desires within the context of social responsibility , Confucius and his followers taught that the public cultivation of li was the basis of a well - ordered society ( Analects 2.3 ) . Confucius taught his students that an important aspect of li was observing the practical social differences that exist between people in daily life . In Confucian philosophy these `` five relationships '' include : ruler to ruled ; father to son ; husband to wife ; elder brother to younger brother ; and friend to friend . Ren and li have a special relationship in the Analects : li manages one 's relationship with one 's family and close community , while ren is practiced broadly and informs one 's interactions with all people . Confucius did not believe that ethical self - cultivation meant unquestioned loyalty to an evil ruler . He argued that the demands of ren and li meant that rulers could oppress their subjects only at their own peril : `` You may rob the Three Armies of their commander , but you can not deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion '' ( Analects 9.26 ) . Confucius said that a morally well - cultivated individual would regard his devotion to loving others as a mission for which he would be willing to die ( Analects 15.8 ) . Political philosophy ( edit ) Confucius 's political beliefs were rooted in his belief that a good ruler would be self - disciplined , would govern his subjects through education and by his own example , and would seek to correct his subjects with love and concern rather than punishment and coercion . `` If the people be led by laws , and uniformity among them be sought by punishments , they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame . If they are led by virtue , and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety , they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord '' ( Analects 2.3 ; see also 13.6 ) . Confucius 's political theories were directly contradictory to the Legalistic political orientations of China 's rulers , and he failed to popularize his ideals among China 's leaders within his own lifetime . Confucius believed that the social chaos of his time was largely due to China 's ruling elite aspiring to , and claiming , titles of which they were unworthy . When the ruler of the large state of Qi asked Confucius about the principles of good government , Confucius responded : `` Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler , the minister being a minister , the father being a father , and the son being a son '' ( Analects 12.11 ) . Confucius 's analysis of the need to raise officials ' behavior to reflect the way that they identify and describe themselves is known as the rectification of names , and he stated that the rectification of names should be the first responsibility of a ruler upon taking office ( Analects 13.3 ) . Confucius believed that , because the ruler was the model for all who were under him in society , the rectification of names had to begin with the ruler , and that afterwards others would change to imitate him ( Analects 12.19 ) . Confucius judged a good ruler by his possession of de ( `` virtue '' ) : a sort of moral force that allows those in power to rule and gain the loyalty of others without the need for physical coercion ( Analects 2.1 ) . Confucius said that one of the most important ways that a ruler cultivates his sense of de is through a devotion to the correct practices of li . Examples of rituals identified by Confucius as important to cultivate a ruler 's de include : sacrificial rites held at ancestral temples to express thankfulness and humility ; ceremonies of enfeoffment , toasting , and gift exchanges that bound nobility in complex hierarchical relationships of obligation and indebtedness ; and , acts of formal politeness and decorum ( i.e. bowing and yielding ) that identify the performers as morally well - cultivated . Education ( edit ) The importance of education and study is a fundamental theme of the Analects . For Confucius , a good student respects and learns from the words and deeds of his teacher , and a good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of antiquity ( Analects 7.22 ) . Confucius emphasized the need to find balance between formal study and intuitive self - reflection ( Analects 2.15 ) . When teaching he is never cited in the Analects as lecturing at length about any subject , but instead challenges his students to discover the truth through asking direct questions , citing passages from the classics , and using analogies ( Analects 7.8 ) . He sometimes required his students to demonstrate their understanding of subjects by making intuitive conceptual leaps before accepting their understanding and discussing those subjects at greater levels of depth . ( Analects 3.8 ) His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well - cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity , speak correctly , and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things ( Analects 12.11 ; see also 13.3 ) . He was willing to teach anyone regardless of social class , as long as they were sincere , eager , and tireless to learn ( Analects 7.7 ; 15.38 ) . He is traditionally credited with teaching three thousand students , though only seventy are said to have mastered what he taught . He taught practical skills , but regarded moral self - cultivation as his most important subject . Chapters ( edit ) In China The traditional titles given to each chapter are mostly an initial two or three incipits . In some cases a title may indicate a central theme of a chapter , but it is inappropriate to regard a title as a description or generalization of the content of a chapter . Chapters in the Analects are grouped by individual themes , but the chapters are not arranged in a way as to carry a continuous stream of thoughts or ideas . The themes of adjacent chapters are completely unrelated to each other . Central themes recur repeatedly in different chapters , sometimes in exactly the same wording and sometimes with small variations . Chapter 10 contains detailed descriptions of Confucius 's behaviors in various daily activities . Voltaire and Ezra Pound believed that this chapter demonstrated how Confucius was a mere human . Simon Leys , who recently translated the Analects into English and French , said that the book may have been the first in human history to describe the life of an individual , historic personage . Elias Canetti wrote : `` Confucius 's Analects is the oldest complete intellectual and spiritual portrait of a man . It strikes one as a modern book ; everything it contains and indeed everything it lacks is important . '' Within these incipits a large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ziyue , `` The Master said , '' but without punctuation marks in classical Chinese , this does not confirm whether what follows ziyue is direct quotation of actual sayings of Confucius , or simply to be understood as `` the Master said that ... '' and the paraphrase of Confucius by the compilers of the Analects . ( show ) Book Title Translation Notes 1 . Xue Er 學 而 Studying and Practicing 2 . Wei Zheng 為政 The practice of government This chapter explores the theme that political order is best gained through the non-coercive influence of moral self - cultivation rather than through force or excessive government regulation . 3 . Ba Yi 八 佾 Eight lines of eight dancers apiece Ba Yi was a kind of ritual dance practiced in the court of the Zhou king . In Confucius ' time , lesser nobles also began staging these dances for themselves . The main themes of this chapter are : criticism of ritual impropriety ( especially among China 's political leadership ) , and the need to combine learning with nature in the course moral self - cultivation . Chapters 3 -- 9 may be the oldest in the Analects . 4 . Li Ren 里仁 Living in brotherliness This chapter explores the theme of ren , its qualities , and the qualities of those who have it . A secondary theme is the virtue of filial piety . 5 . Gongye Chang 公 冶 長 Gongye Chang The main theme of this chapter is Confucius ' examination of others ' qualities and faults in order to illustrate the desirable course of moral self - cultivation . This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples of Zigong , a student of Confucius . Gongye Chang was Confucius ' son - in - law . 6 . Yong Ye 雍也 There is Yong Yong is Ran Yong , also called Zhou Gong , a student of Confucius . 7 . Shu Er 述 而 Transmission Transmission , not invention ( of learning ) . 8 . Taibo 泰 伯 Taibo Wu Taibo was the legendary founder of the state of Wu . He was the oldest son of King Tai and the great - grandfather of King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty . 9 . Zi Han 子 罕 The Master shunned Confucius seldom spoke of advantage . 10 . Xiang Dang 鄉 黨 Among the Xiang and the Dang A `` xiang '' was a group of 12,500 families ; a `` dang '' a group of 500 families . This chapter is a collection of maxims related to ritual . 11 . Xian Jin 先進 Those of former eras The former generations . This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples of Min Ziqian , also known as Min Sun , a student of Confucius . 12 . Yan Yuan 顏淵 Yan Yuan Yan Hui was a common name of Zi Yuan , a favorite disciple of Confucius . 13 . Zilu 子路 Zilu Zilu was a student of Confucius . 14 . Xian Wen 憲 問 Xian asked This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples of Yuan Xian , also called both Yuan Si and Zisi , a student of Confucius . 15 . Wei Ling Gong 衛 靈 公 Duke Ling of Wey Duke Ling ruled from 534 -- 493 BC in the state of Wey . 16 . Ji Shi 季 氏 Chief of the Ji Clan Ji Sun was an official from one of the most important families in Lu . This chapter is generally believed to have been written relatively late ; possibly compiled from the extra chapters of the Qi version of the Analects . 17 . Yang Huo 陽 貨 Yang Huo Yang was an official of the Ji clan , an important family in Lu . 18 . Weizi 微 子 Weizi Weizi was the older half - brother of Zhou , the last king of the Shang dynasty , and was founder of the state of Song . The writer of this chapter was critical of Confucius . 19 . Zizhang 子 張 Zizhang Zizhang was a student of Confucius . This chapter consists entirely of sayings by Confucius ' disciples . 20 . Yao Yue 堯 曰 Yao spoke Yao was one of the traditional Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors of ancient China . Notable translations ( edit ) Legge , James , trans . ( 1861 ) . Confucian Analects , the Great Learning , and the Doctrine of the Mean . The Chinese Classics . I. London : Trübner . Revised second edition ( 1893 ) , Oxford : Clarendon Press , reprinted by Cosimo in 2006 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60520 - 643 - 1 Lyall , Leonard A. , trans . ( 1909 ) . The Sayings of Confucius . London : Longmans , Green and Co . OCLC 1435673 . Soothill , William Edward , trans . ( 1910 ) . The Analects of Confucius . Yokohama : Fukuin Printing . ; rpt . London : Oxford University Press ( 1937 ) . Couvreur , Séraphin , trans . ( 1930 ) . Entretiens de Confucius ( Conversations of Confucius ) . Les Quatre Livres ( in French ) ( 3rd ed . ) . Sien Hsien : Mission Catholique . Waley , Arthur , trans . ( 1938 ) . The Analects . London : George Allen and Unwin . Rpt. ( 2000 ) , New York : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 - 0 - 375 - 41204 - 2 ( in Japanese ) Yoshikawa , Kōjirō 吉川 幸次郎 ( 1978 ) . Rongo 論語 ( Lunyu ) , 3 vols . Tokyo : Asahi Shinbun . Rpt. 2 vols , Asahi Shinbun ( 1996 ) . Lau , D.C. , trans . ( 1979 ) . Confucius , The Analects ( Lun yü ) . Harmondsworth : Penguin Books . ; rpt . with Chinese text , Hong Kong : Chinese University Press ( 1979 ) . Cheng , Anne , trans . ( 1981 ) . Entretiens de Confucius ( Conversations of Confucius ) ( in French ) . Paris : Éditions du Seuil . Ryckmans , Pierre , trans . ( 1987 ) . Les Entretiens de Confucius ( The Conversations of Confucius ) ( in French ) . Paris : Gallimard . English version published as Simon Leys , trans . ( 1997 ) , The Analects of Confucius ( New York : W.W. Norton ) . Huang , Chi - chung , trans . ( 1997 ) . The Analects of Confucius . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0195112764 . Brooks , E. Bruce ; Brooks , Taeko , trans . ( 2001 ) . The Original Analects : Sayings of Confucius and His Followers . New York : Columbia University Press . ISBN 978 - 0231104302 . Watson , Burton , trans . ( 2007 ) . The Analects of Confucius . New York : Columbia University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 14164 - 2 . See also ( edit ) China portal Kongzi Jiayu , sayings of Confucius not included in the Analects Chinese classic texts Sacred text Virtue jurisprudence Disciples of Confucius Hadith Mahāvākyas The Maxims of Ptahhotep References ( edit ) Footnotes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Knechtges & Shih ( 2010 ) , p. 645 . Jump up ^ wiktionary : Appendix : Baxter - Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction Jump up ^ Kim & Csikszentmihalyi ( 2010 ) , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Kim & Csikszentmihalyi ( 2013 ) , p. 26 . Jump up ^ Bryan W. Van Norden ( 2002 ) . Confucius and the Analects : New Essays . Oxford University Press . p. 13 . ISBN 9780195350821 . Jump up ^ Slingerland ( 2003 ) , pp. xiii - xiv . Jump up ^ Lee Dian Rainey ( 2010 ) . Confucius and Confucianism : The Essentials . Wiley - Blackwell . p. 10 . ISBN 9781444323603 . Jump up ^ Robert Eno ( 2015 ) . `` The Analects of Confucius '' ( PDF ) . Indiana University . Jump up ^ Els 21 -- 23 Jump up ^ Kim & Csikszentmihalyi ( 2010 ) , pp. 25 -- 26 . Jump up ^ Waley 23 ^ Jump up to : Gardner 7 , 15 -- 16 ^ Jump up to : Els 20 ^ Jump up to : Waley 24 Jump up ^ `` Qi version of ' Analects of Confucius ' discovered in Haihunhou tomb '' . The Institute of Archaeology . Archived from the original on 16 January 2017 . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Els 1 -- 2 Jump up ^ Els 6 , 10 -- 11 , 20 -- 21 Jump up ^ Gardner 7 Jump up ^ Gardner 8 , 18 -- 19 Jump up ^ Gardner 8 , 13 -- 14 Jump up ^ Gardner 18 -- 20 , 46 Jump up ^ Gardner 7 -- 8 , 21 , 46 Jump up ^ Lau ix ^ Jump up to : Riegel `` 2 . Confucius ' Social Philosophy '' Jump up ^ Waley 27 -- 29 Jump up ^ Gardner 52 -- 53 Jump up ^ Slingerland 34 ^ Jump up to : Riegel `` 3 . Confucius ' Political Philosophy '' ^ Jump up to : Riegel 4 `` Confucius and Education '' Jump up ^ Slingerland 19 -- 20 Jump up ^ Canetti 173 Jump up ^ Roger T. Ames The Analects of Confucius : A Philosophical Translation 2010 p. 285 `` A large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ziyue 子 曰 , `` The Master said , '' but because there are no punctuation marks in classical Chinese , we must ask if whatever follows ziyue is a literal transcription of speech , or a paraphrase of it , or a method of transmitting ideas in a written language which existed in important ways independently of the spoken language . '' Jump up ^ Slingerland 8 Jump up ^ Slingerland 17 ^ Jump up to : Waley 21 Jump up ^ Slingerland 29 Jump up ^ Slingerland 39 ^ Jump up to : Legge 16 Jump up ^ Legge 119 Works cited ( edit ) Canetti , Elias . The Conscience of Words . Trans . Joachim Neugroschel . Publisher : Farrar Straus Giroux. 1984 . ISBN 0374518815 . Cheng , Anne ( 1993 ) . `` Lun yü 論語 '' . In Loewe , Michael . Early Chinese Texts : A Bibliographical Guide . Berkeley : Society for the Study of Early China ; Institute for East Asian Studies , University of California , Berkeley . pp. 313 -- 23 . ISBN 1 - 55729 - 043 - 1 . Gardner , Daniel K. Zhu Xi 's Reading of the Analects : Canon , Commentary , and the Classical Tradition . New York : Columbia University Press . 2003 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 12865 - 0 Els , Paul van . `` Confucius ' sayings entombed : On Two Han Dynasty Analects Manuscripts '' . Analects Studies . Leiden : Brill. 2012 . Retrieved July 15 , 2012 . Kern , Martin ( 2010 ) . `` Early Chinese literature , Beginnings through Western Han '' . In Owen , Stephen . The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature , Volume 1 : To 1375 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 1 -- 115 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 11677 - 0 . Knechtges , David R. ; Shih , Hsiang - ling ( 2010 ) . `` Lunyu 論語 '' . In Knechtges , David R. ; Chang , Taiping . Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature : A Reference Guide , Part One . Leiden : Brill . pp. 645 -- 50 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 19127 - 3 . Lau , D.C. `` Introduction '' . In The Analects . Trans . D.C. Lau . Hong Kong : The Chinese University Press . 2002 . ISBN 962 - 201 - 980 - 3 . Retrieved June 26 , 2012 . Legge , James . `` Prolegomena '' . In The Confucian Analects , The Great Learning , and The Doctrine of the Mean . Trans . James Legge . New York , NY : Cosimo. 2009 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60520 - 644 - 8 . Retrieved June 28 , 2012 . Riegel , Jeffrey . `` Confucius '' , The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Ed . Edward N. Zalta . Spring 2012 . Retrieved June 28 , 2012 . Kim , Tae Hyun ; Csikszentmihalyi , Mark ( 2013 ) . `` Chapter 2 '' . In Olberding , Amy . Dao Companion to the Analects . Springer . pp. 21 -- 36 . ISBN 9400771126 . Slingerland , Edward ( 2003 ) . Analects : With Selections from Traditional Commentaries . Indianapolis : Hackett . ISBN 9781603843454 . Waley , Arthur . `` Terms '' . In The Analects of Confucius . Trans . Arthur Waley . New York : Vintage Books . 1938 . Further reading ( edit ) Van Norden , Bryan W. Confucius and the Analects : New Essays . Oxford University Press , 2001 . ISBN 0195350820 , ISBN 978 - 0195350821 . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : The Analects Wikiquote has quotations related to : Analects Look up analects in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article : 論語 The Analects of Confucius public domain audiobook at LibriVox Bilingual excerpts and children 's audio in Chinese and Japanese . Chinese - English bilingual text ( Legge 's translation ) with links to Zhu Xi 's commentary , at Chinese Text Project . English translation by A. Charles Muller , with Chinese text . English translation at Confucius.org , one page per verse . English translation at MIT Classics Latin Translation ( Zottoli , 1879 ) Legge 's English translation from the University of Adelaide Library ( no section numbers ) Multilingual edition of the Analects in Chinese , English and French Translations of the Analects in over 20 languages , with footnotes . Confucian texts Four Books Great Learning Doctrine of the Mean Analects Mencius Five Classics Classic of Poetry Book of Documents Book of Rites I Ching Spring and Autumn Annals Three Commentaries Commentary of Zuo Commentary of Gongyang Commentary of Guliang Thirteen Classics Classic of Poetry Book of Documents Rites of Zhou Etiquette and Rites Book of Rites I Ching Commentary of Zuo Commentary of Gongyang Commentary of Guliang Analects Erya Classic of Filial Piety Mencius Others Classic of Music School Sayings of Confucius Xunzi Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analects&oldid=832918339 '' Categories : Confucian texts Chinese philosophy Chinese classic texts Philosophy books Secularism Public domain books Zhou dynasty texts 1st - millennium BC books Hidden categories : Articles containing Chinese - language text Articles containing traditional Chinese - language text CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) Articles with Japanese - language external links Articles with LibriVox links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Asturianu Bân - lâm - gú Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 吴语 粵語 中文 32 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2018 , at 17 : 49 . 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where does doctor strange get his powers from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Doctor_Strange&oldid=856834500

Doctor Strange - wikipedia Doctor Strange Not to be confused with Doc Strange , Doctor Stranger , Doc Savage , Dr. Strangelove , or Hugo Strange . For other uses , see Doctor Strange ( disambiguation ) . Doctor Strange Textless cover of Doctor Strange # 2 ( January 2016 ) . Art by Alex Ross . Publication information Publisher Marvel Comics First appearance Strange Tales # 110 ( July 1963 ) Created by Stan Lee Steve Ditko In - story information Full name Stephen Vincent Strange Team affiliations Avengers Defenders Illuminati Infinity Watch Midnight Sons New Avengers The Order Partnerships Clea Wong Ancient One Notable aliases Sorcerer Supreme Master of the Mystic Arts Captain Universe Stephen Sanders Vincent Stevens Abilities Mastery of magic Utilizes mystical artifacts , such as the Cloak of Levitation and the Eye of Agamotto Genius - level intellect Trained physician Skilled martial artist Doctor Stephen Vincent Strange is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . Created by artist Steve Ditko and writer Stan Lee , the character first appeared in Strange Tales # 110 ( cover - dated July 1963 ) . Doctor Strange serves as the Sorcerer Supreme , the primary protector of Earth against magical and mystical threats . Inspired by stories of black magic and Chandu the Magician , Strange was created during the Silver Age of Comic Books to bring a different kind of character and themes of mysticism to Marvel Comics . The character 's origin story relates that he was once a brilliant but egotistical surgeon . After a car accident severely damages his hands and hinders his ability to perform surgery , he searches the globe for a way to repair them and encounters the Ancient One . After becoming one of the old Sorcerer Supreme 's students , he becomes a practitioner of both the mystical arts as well as martial arts . Along with studying many powerful spells . He has a suit consisting of two main relics . One being the Cloak of Levitation and the Eye of Agamotto -- which give him added powers . Strange is aided along the way by his friend and valet , Wong , and a large assortment of mystical objects . He takes up residence in a mansion called the Sanctum Sanctorum , located in New York City . Later , Strange takes the title of Sorcerer Supreme to help to defend the world against future threats . In 2008 , Doctor Strange was ranked 83rd in Wizard 's `` 200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time '' list , and in 2012 was ranked 33rd in IGN 's list of `` The Top 50 Avengers '' . He was also ranked 38th on IGN 's list of `` Top 100 Comic Book Heroes '' . The character was first portrayed in live - action by Peter Hooten in the 1978 television film Dr. Strange . Benedict Cumberbatch stars as the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , first appearing in the role in the 2016 film Doctor Strange . He reprised the role in the 2017 film Thor : Ragnarok , the 2018 film Avengers : Infinity War , and will return in the fourth Avengers film in 2019 . Contents 1 Publication history 1.1 Creation 1.2 20th century 1.2. 1 Early years 1.2. 2 1980s 1.2. 3 1990s 1.3 21st century 1.3. 1 2000s 1.3. 2 2010s 2 Fictional character biography 3 Powers and abilities 3.1 Powers and skills 3.2 Artifacts and technology 3.2. 1 Book of the Vishanti 3.2. 2 Cloak of Levitation 3.2. 3 Eye of Agamotto 3.2. 4 Orb of Agamotto 4 Other versions 5 In other media 5.1 Television 5.2 Film 5.3 Video games 5.4 Novels 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Publication History ( edit ) Creation ( edit ) Artist Steve Ditko and writer Stan Lee have described the character as having been originally the idea of Ditko , who wrote in 2008 , `` On my own , I brought in to Lee a five - page , penciled story with a page / panel script of my idea of a new , different kind of character for variety in Marvel Comics . My character wound up being named Dr. Strange because he would appear in Strange Tales . '' In a 1963 letter to Jerry Bails , Lee called the character Ditko 's idea , saying : Well , we have a new character in the works for Strange Tales ( just a 5 - page filler named Dr. Strange ) Steve Ditko is gon na draw him . It has sort of a black magic theme . The first story is nothing great , but perhaps we can make something of him -- ' twas Steve 's idea and I figured we 'd give it a chance , although again , we had to rush the first one too much . Little sidelight : Originally decided to call him Mr. Strange , but thought the `` Mr . '' bit too similar to Mr. Fantastic -- now , however , I remember we had a villain called Dr. Strange just recently in one of our mags , hope it wo n't be too confusing ! 20th century ( edit ) Early years ( edit ) Doctor Strange debuted in Strange Tales # 110 ( July 1963 ) , a split book shared with the feature `` The Human Torch '' . Doctor Strange appeared in issues # 110 -- 111 and # 114 before the character 's eight - page origin story in # 115 ( December 1963 ) . Scripter Lee 's take on the character was inspired by the Chandu the Magician radio program that aired on the Mutual Broadcasting System in the 1930s . He had Doctor Strange accompany spells with elaborate incantations , such as the `` Eye of Agamotto '' , the `` Wand of Watoomb '' , and `` Hoary Hosts of Hoggoth '' ; though these often referenced established mythological figures , Lee has said he never had any idea what the incantations meant and used them simply because they sounded mystical and mysterious . Ditko showcased surrealistic mystical landscapes and increasingly vivid visuals that helped make the feature a favorite of college students at the time . Comics historian Mike Benton wrote : Splash page , Strange Tales # 110 ( July 1963 ) , the character 's debut . Art by Steve Ditko The Dr. Strange stories of the 1960s constructed a cohesive cosmology that would have thrilled any self - respecting theosophist . College students , minds freshly opened by psychedelic experiences and Eastern mysticism , read Ditko and Lee 's Dr. Strange stories with the belief of a recent Hare Krishna convert . Meaning was everywhere , and readers analyzed the Dr. Strange stories for their relationship to Egyptian myths , Sumerian gods , and Jungian archetypes . `` People who read Doctor Strange thought people at Marvel must be heads ( i.e. , drug users ) , '' recalled then - associate editor and former Doctor Strange writer Roy Thomas in 1971 , `` because they had had similar experiences high on mushrooms . But I do n't use hallucinogens , nor do I think any artists do . '' Originating in the early 1960s , the character was a predictor of counter-cultural trends in art prior to them becoming more established in the later 1960s . As historian Bradford W. Wright described : Doctor Strange # 177 ( February 1969 ) , the debut of Strange 's short - lived new look . Cover art by Gene Colan and Tom Palmer . Steve Ditko contributed some of his most surrealistic work to the comic book and gave it a disorienting , hallucinogenic quality . Dr. Strange 's adventures take place in bizarre worlds and twisting dimensions that resembled Salvador Dalí paintings . Inspired by the pulp - fiction magicians of Stan Lee 's childhood as well as by contemporary Beat culture , Dr. Strange remarkably predicted the youth counterculture 's fascination with Eastern mysticism and psychedelia . Never among Marvel 's more popular or accessible characters , Dr. Strange still found a niche among an audience seeking a challenging alternative to more conventional superhero fare . As co-plotter and later sole plotter in the Marvel Method , Ditko took Strange into ever - more - abstract realms . In a 17 - issue story arc in Strange Tales # 130 - 146 ( March 1965 -- July 1966 ) , Ditko introduced the cosmic character Eternity , who personified the universe and was depicted as a silhouette filled with the cosmos . Golden Age artist / writer Bill Everett succeeded Ditko as artist with issues # 147 - 152 , followed by Marie Severin through # 160 and Dan Adkins through # 168 , the final issue before the Nick Fury feature moved to its own title and Strange Tales was renamed Doctor Strange . Expanded to 20 pages per issue , the Doctor Strange solo series ran 15 issues , # 169 - 183 ( June 1968 -- November 1969 ) , continuing the numbering of Strange Tales . Thomas wrote the run of new stories , joined after the first three issues by the art team of penciler Gene Colan and inker Tom Palmer through the end . After plans were announced for a never - realized split book series featuring Doctor Strange and Iceman , each in solo adventures , Strange next appeared in the first three issues ( December 1971 -- June 1972 ) of the quarterly showcase title Marvel Feature . He appeared in both the main story detailing the formation of superhero `` non-team '' the Defenders , and the related back - up story . The character then starred in a revival solo series in Marvel Premiere # 3 - 14 ( July 1972 -- March 1974 ) . This arc marked the debut of another recurring foe , the entity Shuma - Gorath , created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Frank Brunner , who took over as the regular creative team starting with Marvel Premiere # 10 . Englehart and Brunner collaborated closely on the stories , meeting over dinner every two months to discuss the series , and their run became known for its psychedelic visuals and plots . In issues # 8 - 10 ( May -- September 1973 ) , Strange is forced to shut down the Ancient One 's mind , causing his mentor 's physical death . Strange then assumes the title of Sorcerer Supreme . Englehart and Brunner created another multi-issue storyline featuring sorcerer Sise - Neg ( `` Genesis '' spelled backward ) going back through history , collecting all magical energies , until he reaches the beginning of the universe , becomes all - powerful and creates it anew , leaving Strange to wonder whether this was , paradoxically , the original creation . Stan Lee , seeing the issue after publication , ordered Englehart and Brunner to print a retraction saying this was not God but a god , to avoid offending religious readers . The writer and artist concocted a fake letter from a fictitious minister praising the story , and mailed it to Marvel from Texas . Marvel unwittingly printed the letter and dropped the retraction . Due to the growing number of Doctor Strange readers , the Marvel Premiere series segued to the character 's second ongoing title , Doctor Strange : Master of the Mystic Arts , also known as Doctor Strange vol. 2 , which ran 81 issues ( June 1974 -- February 1987 ) . Doctor Strange # 14 featured a crossover story with The Tomb of Dracula # 44 , another series which was being drawn by Gene Colan at the time . In Englehart 's final story , he sent Dr. Strange back in time to meet Benjamin Franklin . 1980s ( edit ) Strange met his allies Topaz in # 75 ( Feb , 1986 ) and Rintrah in # 80 ( December 1986 ) . The series ended with a cliffhanger as his home , the Sanctum Sanctorum , was heavily damaged during a battle . Among the losses was Doctor Strange 's entire collection of mystic books and other important artifacts . As a consequence , Strange was now considerably weaker and several spells designed to protect humanity from vampires and the evil serpent god Set expired . The title was discontinued so that the character 's adventures could be transferred to another split book format series . Strange Tales vol. 2 , # 1 - 19 ( April 1987 -- October 1988 ) was shared with street heroes Cloak and Dagger . This new Doctor Strange series resolved Strange 's quest to reclaim his power and missing artifacts , as well as resurrecting the Defenders , who had died in the last issue of that team 's title . 1990s ( edit ) Strange was returned to his own series , this time titled Doctor Strange : Sorcerer Supreme , which ran 90 issues ( November 1988 -- June 1996 ) . The initial creative team was writer Peter B. Gillis and artists Richard Case and Randy Emberlin , with storylines often spanning multiple issues . Strange lost the title of `` Sorcerer Supreme '' in issues # 48 - 49 ( December 1992 -- January 1993 ) when he refused to fight a war on behalf of the Vishanti , the mystical entities that empower his spells . During this time the series became part of the `` Midnight Sons '' group of Marvel 's supernatural comics . Doctor Strange found new sources of magical strength in the form of chaos magic , as well as a magic construct he used as a proxy . He would form the Secret Defenders with a rotating roster of heroes , and reunite with the original Defenders . Strange regained his title in Doctor Strange : Sorcerer Supreme # 80 ( August 1995 ) . Strange appeared with the Human Torch and the Thing in the one - shot publication Strange Tales vol. 3 , # 1 ( November 1994 ) . The character was featured in several limited series . The first was Doctor Strange : The Flight of Bones # 1 - # 4 ( February -- May 1999 ) , with a series of spontaneous combustions by criminals instigated by old foe Dormammu . Strange was the catalyst for the creation of a trio of sorceresses in Witches # 1 - # 4 ( August -- November 2004 ) . The Strange limited series ( November 2004 -- July 2005 ) by writers J. Michael Straczynski and Samm Barnes updated the character 's origin . Another limited series , Doctor Strange : The Oath # 1 - 5 ( December 2006 -- April 2007 ) , written by Brian K. Vaughan and illustrated by Marcos Martin , focused on Strange 's responsibilities as sorcerer and doctor . Doctor Strange has appeared in four graphic novels : Doctor Strange : Into Shamballa ( 1986 ) ; Doctor Strange & Doctor Doom : Triumph and Torment ( 1989 ) ; Spider - Man / Dr. Strange : The Way to Dusty Death ( 1992 ) ; and Dr. Strange : What Is It That Disturbs You , Stephen ? ( 1997 ) . 21st century ( edit ) 2000s ( edit ) Strange appeared as a supporting character for the bulk of the 2000s . He appeared regularly in The Amazing Spider - Man under J. Michael Straczynski , before being cast into a time loop by Baron Mordo . He later appeared on and off in The New Avengers , where he was stated as being part of the secret group known as the Illuminati to deal with future threats to Earth . Ultimately Strange joined the team and allowed them to use his home as a base after the events of Civil War , which he sat out . Doctor Strange was critical of the federal Superhuman Registration Act and aided the anti-registration Avengers team led by Luke Cage . During the Bendis run , Doctor Doom attacked the Avengers and manipulated the Scarlet Witch into eliminating most of the mutant population . Doctor Strange 's failure to recognize Doom 's hand in the former and to stop the latter caused him to start to doubt his abilities . After he was forced to use dark magic to confront an enraged Hulk , followed by further use of dark spells to save the New Avengers from the Hood 's supervillain army , Strange renounced his status as Sorcerer Supreme , as he felt that he was no longer worthy of it . The Eye of Agamotto passed the mantle on to Brother Voodoo . He was also featured in The Order , which spun out of the 2000 Defenders revival , and the Indefensible Defenders mini-series . 2010s ( edit ) Doctor Strange appeared as a regular character throughout the 2010 - 2013 The New Avengers series . Brother Voodoo , now newly appointed Sorcerer Supreme Doctor Voodoo , sacrifices himself in order to stop the powerful mystical entity Agamotto from reclaiming the Eye . A guilt - ridden Strange rejoins the New Avengers , and offers the team his valet Wong to act as their housekeeper . Strange eventually regains his position of Sorcerer Supreme , but is possessed by a demon and becomes leader of the Black Priests . After the various Marvel universes merge into one , Doctor Strange acts as righthand man of Doctor Doom , who has become the ruler of this world after erasing all recollection of the previous separate realities that existed . Circumstances force Strange to open a pod that releases the surviving heroes of the original Marvel continuity , known as Earth - 616 . Doom kills Doctor Strange . In 2015 , Jason Aaron and Chris Bachalo teamed up for the fourth volume of Doctor Strange . A new character , reluctant librarian Zelma Stanton , agrees to reorganize Strange 's magical library . Brother Voodoo returns , and the series and a spinoff , Dr. Strange : Last Days of Magic , sees such characters as Medico Mistico , Magik , Scarlet Witch , Mahatma Doom , Professor Xu , Monako , and Alice Gulliver . With the laws of magic fundamentally altered , and with the loss of his former resources , Doctor Strange is forced to depend on his own physical skills and inventive use of his few functional spells . He eventually no longer has access to most of his former spells or his levitating cape . During the `` Infinity Countdown '' storyline , Doctor Strange goes on a space mission . He encounters Super-Skrull who has the Time Gem . After defeating Super-Skrull , Doctor Strange claims the Time Gem . Doctor Strange then tracks down the Mind Gem and finds it in Turk Barrett 's possession as Turk managed to evade him . When Black Widow 's clone arrives seeking out Doctor Strange where she wants to dispose of the Space Stone , he did not want to take it as he knows what would happen if they are in the same proximity . Using a magic spell , Doctor Strange spoke to the holders of the Infinity Gems and requested a parley to reform the Infinity Watch . He states to Adam Warlock , Black Widow 's clone , Captain Marvel , Star - Lord , and Turk Barrett that they need to safeguard them from such calamities even if one of them is Thanos . Fictional character biography ( edit ) This section is incomplete . ( June 2015 ) Stephen Strange , M.D. , PhD is a selfish doctor who only cares about wealth from his career . The bones in his hands are shattered in a car accident , leading to extensive nerve damage that causes his hands to tremble uncontrollably and renders him unable to perform the fine motor actives required for surgery . Too vain to take on a teaching job , Strange desperately searches for a way to restore his hands . After he exhausts his funds , he becomes a drifter . Depressed and still searching , Strange , while walking near the docks , overhears two sailors talking about a hermit called the Ancient One ( who is actually the Earth 's Sorcerer Supreme ) in the Himalayas , who can cure any ailment . Strange uses the last of his funds to seek out the aged mystic . The Ancient One refuses to help Strange because of his arrogance , but senses a good side that he attempts to bring to the surface . He fails , but Strange 's heroism appears when he discovers the Ancient One 's disciple , Baron Mordo , attempting to kill the old man . After a confrontation with Mordo leads to him being shackled with restraining spells preventing him from either attacking Mordo or warning the Ancient One , Strange desperately and selflessly accepts the Ancient One 's offer to become his apprentice to have some hope of helping the old man . The Ancient One , pleased at Strange 's sincere change of heart , accepts the westerner and promptly frees him from the restraining spells while explaining he was aware of Mordo 's treachery all along . Strange soon becomes Mordo 's most enduring enemy , as the Ancient One teaches the doctor the mystic arts . After completing his training , Strange returns to New York City and takes up residence within the Sanctum Sanctorum , a townhouse located in Greenwich Village , and is soon assisted by his personal assistant Wong . As the Ancient One 's disciple , Strange encounters the entity Nightmare , and other mystical foes before meeting Dormammu , a warlord from an alternate dimension called the `` Dark Dimension '' . Strange is aided by a nameless girl , later called Clea , who is eventually revealed to be Dormammu 's niece . When Strange helps a weakened Dormammu drive off the rampaging Mindless Ones and return them to their prison , he is allowed to leave unchallenged . In The Unbelievable Gwenpool # 3 , Strange encounters Gwendolyn Poole , who explains herself to be from a reality where all Marvel characters are fictional characters in comic books . As Strange helps her locate her home reality in order to create a fake background for her in the Marvel Universe so that she can get a Social Security number , driver 's license and other essential documents , he discovers that Benedict Cumberbatch has been cast to play him in Gwen 's universe , remarking that he `` could see that '' . Powers and abilities ( edit ) Powers and skills ( edit ) Doctor Strange is a practicing magician who draws his powers from mystical entities such as Agamotto , Cyttorak , Ikonn , Oshtur , Raggadorr , and Watoomb , who lend their energies for spells . Strange also wields mystical artifacts including the Cloak of Levitation which enables him to fly ; the Eye of Agamotto , an amulet whose light is used to negate evil magic ; the Book of the Vishanti , a grimoire which contains knowledge of white magic ; and the Orb of Agamotto , a crystal ball which is used for clairvoyance . In addition to his magical abilities , Strange is trained in several martial arts disciplines , including Judo , and has shown proficiency with numerous magically conjured weapons including swords and axes . Strange was a skilled neurosurgeon before nerve damage impaired his hands . Doctor Strange is described as `` the mightiest magician in the cosmos '' and `` more powerful by far than any of your fellow humanoids '' by Eternity , the sentience of the Marvel Universe . He holds the title of Sorcerer Supreme from 1973 ( with the death of the Ancient One ) to the present , except during an interruption from 1992 to 1995 . He relinquishes the title once again in 2009 , but reclaims it in 2012 when he proves himself willing to protect the world even without the title . Artifacts and technology ( edit ) Book of the Vishanti ( edit ) hide This section has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience . Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information , and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia 's inclusion policy . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Book of the Vishanti is portrayed as being written by unknown authors , is closely associated with Doctor Strange , and is the greatest known source of white magical knowledge on Earth . The Book of the Vishanti contains spells of defensive magic and is indestructible . Its counterpart , the Darkhold , contains all the knowledge of black magic in the Marvel Universe , and is likewise indestructible . It is possible to destroy single pages of either book , but the balancing spell in the other book is destroyed as well to maintain a mystical balance . A collective of the three powerful magical beings - Agamotto , Oshtur and Hoggoth , known as the Vishanti - must allow the spell to be destroyed . Even though the book is a tome of benevolent magic , the spells within can still be dangerous when used improperly . This is proven when a young , inexperienced Strange tried to use the Book of the Vishanti to resurrect his dead brother Victor , but the spell , known as the Vampiric Verses , caused Victor to become the vampire Baron Blood years later . Apart from spells and mystical knowledge , the book also contains information about persons and events . It is unknown how the book is able to contain up to date and recent information even though it was written thousands of years ago . The first known owner of the book was the Atlantean sorcerer Varnae from around 18,500 BC . The next known owner was the Babylonian god Marduk Kurios . Marduk set a griffin to guard the Book . The sorcerer known as the Ancient One traveled back in time to c. 4000 BC and defeated the griffin and returned to the 20th century . The Ancient One would remain the book 's owner , despite a brief loss when the dark wizard Kaluu returned the Book to the Griffin , until he deemed his student , Doctor Strange , worthy of taking it . Doctor Strange keeps the book in his town house library in New York City 's Greenwich Village . He briefly lost the book when he destroyed his home to prevent the alien wizard Urthona from taking his magical artifacts , but the book was saved by Agamotto , who transported it to his realm and returned it to Strange some time later . Cloak of Levitation ( edit ) Main article : Cloak of Levitation Eye of Agamotto ( edit ) Main article : Eye of Agamotto Orb of Agamotto ( edit ) hide This section has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This section describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( July 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience . Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information , and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia 's inclusion policy . ( October 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Orb of Agamotto is a fictional magical item in the Marvel Comics universe . It is a powerful scrying crystal ball owned and used by Doctor Strange . It can also be used to detect magic in use anywhere in the world and provide Strange with a location and visual . The orb rests in Doctor Strange 's Sanctum Sanctorum in a room called the Chamber of Shadows . It usually is inside a display case with three curved legs . When summoned , the glass covering rises and the ball levitates . While powerful , the Orb has been blocked by exceptionally powerful mystic forces ( such as Umar ) who do not want their exact location known . On at least one occasion , it has been used to open a dimensional portal to the realm of Agamotto . Other versions ( edit ) Main article : Alternative versions of Doctor Strange The character has starred in several alternate universe titles . In the miniseries Marvel 1602 # 1 - # 8 ( November 2003 -- June 2004 ) , Sir Stephen Strange is both the court physician and magician to Queen Elizabeth I . The title Spider - Man 2099 introduced a female version of Strange who shares her body with a demon in issue # 33 ( 1995 ) . The miniseries Strange # 1 - # 6 ( November 2004 -- April 2005 ) , written by J. Michael Straczynski and Samm Barnes , with artwork by Brandon Peterson , reimagined the character 's origin , allies and enemies in a contemporary setting . In the miniseries Marvel Zombies # 1 - # 5 ( February -- June 2006 ) , Strange is infected with a zombie virus along with many other heroes . He reappears in the second sequel , Marvel Zombies 3 # 1 - # 4 ( December 2008 -- March 2009 ) In the alternate future universe of the Marvel imprint MC2 , Doctor Strange is no longer the Sorcerer Supreme , the title there held by Doc Magnus . Doctor Strange uses his remaining power to reform the superhero team the Defenders in A-Next # 3 ( 1998 ) and to fight the Norse god of mischief , Loki , Last Hero Standing # 4 ( February 2005 ) . The Ultimate Marvel title Ultimate Marvel Team - Up introduced a version of the character called `` Stephen Strange , Jr . '' , the son of the original Doctor Strange , in Ultimate Marvel Team - Up # 12 ( July 2002 ) . The character was killed in battle by the Ultimate Marvel version of Dormammu in the miniseries Ultimatum # 1 - # 5 ( January -- September 2009 ) . Two months before the debut of the sorcerer - hero Doctor Strange , Stan Lee ( editor and story - plotter ) , Robert Bernstein ( scripter , under the pseudonym `` R. Berns '' ) , and Jack Kirby ( artist ) introduced a criminal scientist and Ph. D. with the same surname ( called `` Carl Strange '' ) . Making his sole appearance in the Iron Man story `` The Stronghold of Dr. Strange '' in Tales of Suspense # 41 ( 1963 ) , the character gained mental powers in a freak lightning strike . In other media ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Television ( edit ) Doctor Strange as seen in Spider - Man : The Animated Series ( 1994 ) . Dr. Strange appeared in Spider - Man and His Amazing Friends . In the episode `` 7 Little Superheroes '' , he alongside Spider - Man , Iceman , Firestar , Captain America , Namor and Shanna the She - Devil are invited to the Chameleon 's house on Wolf Island so that the heroes could be gotten rid of . Doctor Strange had a cameo appearance in the 1990s X-Men animated series . He was seen in the episode `` The Dark Phoenix Saga ( Part 3 ) '' . Doctor Strange appears in his self - titled episode of Spider - Man : The Animated Series , voiced by John Vernon . He and Wong help Spider - Man rescue Mary Jane Watson from Baron Mordo and Dormammu 's clutches , and retrieve the Wand of Watoomb . After Spider - Man leaves , Doctor Strange detects the presence of Madame Web . Doctor Strange appeared in The Incredible Hulk episode `` Mind Over Anti-Matter , '' voiced by Maurice LaMarche . He helps She - Hulk at the time when an unnamed evil entity has possessed the Hulk into the Dark Hulk . Doctor Strange appears in The Super Hero Squad Show , voiced by Roger Rose . He appears in the episodes `` Enter Dormammu '' , `` A Brat Walks Among Us '' , `` Night in the Sanctorum '' , `` Invader from the Dark Dimension '' , and `` Election of Evil '' . Doctor Strange has made appearances in the Marvel animated shows on Disney XD , voiced initially by Jack Coleman , and later by Liam O'Brien . These shows include Ultimate Spider - Man , Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. , and Avengers Assemble . Doctor Strange appeared in several episodes of Marvel Disk Wars : The Avengers , voiced by Yasunori Masutani . Doctor Strange appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes - Black Panther : Trouble in Wakanda , voiced again by Liam O'Brien . Film ( edit ) Peter Hooten starred as Dr. Stephen Strange in the live - action TV movie Dr. Strange , which premiered on September 6 , 1978 . In this film , Stephen Strange was a psychiatry resident rather than an experienced neurosurgeon . John Mills appeared as Thomas Lindmer , whom director - writer Philip DeGuere added to the story as a stand - in for the Ancient One . The 1992 film Doctor Mordrid began development as a Doctor Strange adaptation , but the studio 's license expired before production began . The project was rewritten to change the main character 's name and slightly alter his origin . In the direct - to - DVD animated film Doctor Strange : The Sorcerer Supreme , released August 14 , 2007 , Doctor Strange ( voiced by Bryce Johnson ) travels to Tibet , seeking to heal his hands after a car accident . Training with the Ancient One and his pupils , Strange faces the emergence of Dormammu . Its broadcast premiere occurred November 1 , 2008 on Cartoon Network . Doctor Strange has a brief non-speaking cameo in the 2010 animated film Planet Hulk . He and the members of the Illuminati regretfully inform Hulk of the decisions made to ensure his removal from Earth . Benedict Cumberbatch as Doctor Strange from the 2016 film Doctor Strange The character appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . He is first referenced as merely `` Stephen Strange '' in dialogue by Agent Sitwell in the 2014 film Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and first appears in the 2016 film Doctor Strange , in which he is portrayed by Benedict Cumberbatch . Cumberbatch reprises the role in the films Thor : Ragnarok and Avengers : Infinity War , and will appear again in the untitled sequel to Avengers : Infinity War . Doctor Strange appears in the 2016 animated film Hulk : Where Monsters Dwell , voiced by Liam O'Brien . Video Games ( edit ) Doctor Strange acts as Spider - Man 's advisor in cutscenes in The Amazing Spider - Man vs. The Kingpin , on the Sega Master System and Sega Game Gear . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel : Ultimate Alliance , voiced by James Horan . Doctor Strange appears in Hsien - Ko 's ending in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds . He later appears as a playable character in the updated version Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , voiced by Rick Pasqualone . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online , voiced by Charlie Adler . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in the Facebook game Marvel : Avengers Alliance . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in the 2012 fighting game Marvel Avengers : Battle for Earth , voiced by Chris Cox . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes , voiced by Nick Jameson . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes , with James Horan reprising the role . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions for iOS and Android beginning in March 2015 . Doctor Strange is a playable character in Lego Marvel 's Avengers , voiced by Wally Wingert while Jack Coleman voices the version that appears in the `` All - New , All - Different Doctor Strange '' DLC . Doctor Strange is a playable character in the iOS and Android game Marvel Future Fight . There are two playable versions of Doctor Strange ( as `` Stephen Strange '' and `` Sorcerer Supreme '' respectively ) in the match - three mobile game Marvel Puzzle Quest . He was added to the game in November 2016 . Doctor Strange appears as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom : Infinite , reprised by Liam O'Brien . Novels ( edit ) In 1979 , Pocket Books published Doctor Strange , Master of the Mystic Arts : Nightmare , by William Rotsler . In the 1968 book The Electric Kool - Aid Acid Test , Tom Wolfe writes about Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters ' interest in comics and specifically refers to Doctor Strange . In the 2006 novel Spider - Man : The Darkest Hours by author Jim Butcher , Strange appears briefly as a fellow superhero from whom Spider - Man seeks assistance when struggling against three vengeful siblings of Morlun . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The blue `` student '' version first appeared in Strange Tales # 110 ( July 1963 ) , with the red `` master '' version first appearing in Strange Tales # 127 ( December 1964 ) . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Reisman , Abraham ( November 16 , 2016 ) . `` The Creator of Doctor Strange Will Not See You Now '' . New York . Archived from the original on November 17 , 2016 . Creeping conflict became apparent a few months after Spider - Man 's debut , when Lee first announced the impending debut of their next co-creation , a magician named Doctor Strange . Jump up ^ `` Wizard 's 200 Greatest Comic Characters of All Time '' . Razorfine.com . Archived from the original on May 30 , 2008 . Retrieved May 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Top 50 Avengers '' . IGN. April 30 , 2012 . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2015 . Retrieved July 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Dr. Strange - # 38 Top Comic Book Heroes - IGN '' . IGN . Retrieved 30 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Ditko , Steve ( w ) . `` '' Toyland `` : `` Martin Goodman / Stan Lee '' '' The Avenging Mind ( April 2008 ) , Robin Snyder and Steve Ditko Jump up ^ `` The Marvel Age of Comics , A letter written by Stan Lee to super-fan Dr '' . 2014 - 04 - 09 . Archived from the original on 2014 - 04 - 09 . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 23 . Jump up ^ Brevoort , Tom ; DeFalco , Tom ; Manning , Matthew , eds. ( 2008 ) . Marvel Chronicle : A Year by Year History . London , United Kingdom : Dorling Kindersley . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7566 - 4123 - 8 . DeFalco in `` 1960s '' Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 93 `` When Dr. Strange first appeared in Strange Tales # 110 , it was only clear that he dabbled in black magic and had the ability to project his consciousness into an astral form that could leave his physical body . '' Jump up ^ Daniels , Les ( 1991 ) . Marvel : Five Fabulous Decades of the World 's Greatest Comics . New York , New York : Harry N. Abrams . p. 114 . ISBN 9780810938212 . Inspired by the Mutual Network radio show Chandu the Magician , which ( Stan ) Lee had enjoyed during his childhood , Dr. Strange was in fact a more impressive character than Chandu . Jump up ^ Thomas , Roy ( August 2011 ) . `` Stan Lee 's Amazing Marvel Interview ! '' . Alter Ego . Raleigh , North Carolina : TwoMorrows Publishing ( 104 ) : 7 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Benton , Mike ( 1991 ) . Superhero Comics of the Silver Age : The Illustrated History . Dallas , Texas : Taylor Publishing Company . p. 63 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87833 - 746 - 0 . Jump up ^ Green , Robin ( September 16 , 1971 ) . `` Face Front ! Clap Your Hands , You 're on the Winning Team ! '' . Rolling Stone . No. 91 . via fan site Green Skin 's Grab - Bag . p. 31 . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2010 . Retrieved September 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wright , Bradford ( September 18 , 2003 ) . Comic Book Nation : The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . Baltimore , Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press . p. 213 . ISBN 978 - 0801874505 . Jump up ^ `` Strange Tales # 134 '' . Grand Comics Database . `` Indexer notes : Part 5 of 17 . First mention of Eternity . Strange would finally find it in Strange Tales # 138 ( November 1965 ) . '' ^ Jump up to : DeFalco in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 128 `` Hailing 1968 as the beginning of the ' Second Age of Marvel Comics , ' and with more titles to play with , editor Stan Lee discarded his split books and gave more characters their own titles ... Strange Tales # 168 ( was followed ) by Dr. Strange # 169 . '' Jump up ^ Doctor Strange at the Grand Comics Database Jump up ^ `` Marvel News '' . Marvelmania Magazine . No. 5 . 1970 . p. 30 . Jump up ^ Sanderson , Peter in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 151 `` ( Roy ) Thomas and artist Ross Andru reunited ( Doctor ) Strange , the Hulk , and Namor as a brand new Marvel superhero team -- the Defenders . '' Jump up ^ Sanderson `` 1970s '' Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 156 `` Dr. Strange began a new series of solo adventures . He got off to an impressive start with ( a ) story scripted by Stan Lee and illustrated by Barry Windsor - Smith . '' ^ Jump up to : Brennaman , Chris ( April 2014 ) . `` Marvel Premiere '' . Back Issue ! . Raleigh , North Carolina : TwoMorrows Publishing ( 71 ) : 22 -- 23 . ^ Jump up to : Englehart , Steve ( w ) , Brunner , Frank ( p ) , Crusty Bunkers ( i ) . `` Finally , Shuma - Gorath ! '' Marvel Premiere 10 ( September 1973 ) Jump up ^ Cronin , Brian ( December 22 , 2005 ) . `` Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed # 30 '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on February 4 , 2012 . Retrieved December 26 , 2008 . We cooked up this plot -- we wrote a letter from a Reverend Billingsley in Texas , a fictional person , saying that one of the children in his parish brought him the comic book , and he was astounded and thrilled by it , and he said , ' Wow , this is the best comic book I 've ever read . ' And we signed it ' Reverend so - and - so , Austin Texas ' -- and when Steve was in Texas , he mailed the letter so it had the proper postmark . Then , we got a phone call from Roy , and he said , ' Hey , about that retraction , I 'm going to send you a letter , and instead of the retraction , I want you to print this letter . ' And it was our letter ! We printed our letter ! Jump up ^ Doctor Strange vol. 2 ' at the Grand Comics Database Jump up ^ Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Colan , Gene ( p ) , Palmer , Tom ( i ) . `` His Name Is Doctor Strange '' The Tomb of Dracula 44 ( May 1976 ) Englehart , Steve ( w ) , Colan , Gene ( p ) , Palmer , Tom ( i ) . `` The Tomb of Dr. Strange ! '' Doctor Strange v2 , 14 ( May 1976 ) Sanderson `` 1970s '' in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 175 `` The great Marvel artist Gene Colan was doing superb work illustrating both Doctor Strange and The Tomb of Dracula . So it made sense for Strange writer Steve Englehart and Tomb author Marv Wolfman to devise a crossover story . '' Jump up ^ Sanderson `` 1970s '' in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 174 `` The year 1976 was the 200th anniversary of the United States ' Declaration of Independence . So it was appropriate that several of the major events in Marvel history that year dealt with political themes ... In September , just before departing from Marvel for DC Comics , writer Steve Englehart sent Dr. Strange back through time to meet one of the men responsible for the Declaration of Independence , Benjamin Franklin . '' Jump up ^ Doctor Strange , Sorcerer Supreme at the Grand Comics Database Jump up ^ Doctor Strange : Sorcerer Supreme # 60 ( December 1993 ) to # 68 ( August 1994 ) Jump up ^ Christiansen , Jeff ( August 27 , 2015 ) . `` Midnight Sons '' . The Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe . Archived from the original on October 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Doctor Strange : Sorcerer Supreme # 80 - 90 ( August 1995 -- June 1996 ) Jump up ^ Doctor Strange : Sorcerer Supreme # 60 ( December 1993 ) to # 75 ( March 1995 ) Jump up ^ Manning , Matthew K. `` 1990s '' in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 262 Writer Roy Thomas and penciller Andre Coates created this new series that ran until 1995 . Jump up ^ Strange Tales one - shot ' at the Grand Comics Database Jump up ^ Manning `` 2000s '' Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 323 Scribes J. Michael Straczynski and Samm Barnes , with artist Brandon Peterson , retold Dr. Strange 's mystical origin for a new generation of fans in this six - issue limited series . Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) , Yu , Leinil Francis ( p ) , Yu , Leinil Francis ( i ) . `` Revolution Part One '' The New Avengers 27 ( April 2007 ) Jump up ^ Pak , Greg ( w ) , Romita Jr. , John ( p ) , Janson , Klaus ( i ) . World War Hulk 3 ( October 2007 ) Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) , Pagulayan , Carlo ( p ) , Huet , Jeff ( i ) . New Avengers Annual 2 ( 2008 ) ^ Jump up to : Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) , Tan , Billy ( p ) , Banning , Matt ( i ) . `` You should n't be here , Jericho '' The New Avengers 54 ( August 2009 ) Jump up ^ `` New Avengers ( 2013 - Present ) '' . Marvel Comics. 2013 . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) , Immonen , Stuart ( p ) , Von Grawbadger , Wade ( i ) . `` Um ... Sshh ! We are ready '' The New Avengers v2 , 6 ( January 2011 ) Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) , Adams , Neal ( p ) , Pamer , Tom ( i ) . `` Look at me , Norman '' The New Avengers v2 , 16.1 ( November 2011 ) ^ Jump up to : Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) , Deodato , Mike ( p ) , Deodato , Mike ( i ) . The New Avengers v2 , 34 ( January 2013 ) Jump up ^ Hickman , Jonathan ( w ) , Kudranski , Szymon ( p ) , Kudranski , Szymon ( i ) . `` Triage '' The New Avengers v3 , 27 ( January 2015 ) Jump up ^ Hickman , Jonathan ( w ) , Ribić , Esad ( p ) , Ribić , Esad ( i ) . `` The Eye of Doom '' Secret Wars 3 ( August 2015 ) Jump up ^ Stroz , Casey . `` Doctor Strange - Last Days of Magic Conjures Up New Characters ! '' . BadCoyoteFunky . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Doctor Strange vol. 4 , # 1 Jump up ^ Dr. Strange : Last Days of Magic # 1 Jump up ^ Doctor Strange vol. 4 , # 10 Jump up ^ Doctor Strange Vol. 5 # 1 - 3 . Marvel Comics . Jump up ^ Infinity Countdown # 5 . Marvel Comics . Jump up ^ DeFalco `` 1960s '' in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 93 Dr. Strange 's archenemy , Baron Mordo , was introduced in Strange Tales # 111 . ^ Jump up to : Lee , Stan ( w ) , Ditko , Steve ( p ) , Ditko , Steve ( i ) . `` The Origin of Dr. Strange '' Strange Tales 115 ( December 1963 ) ^ Jump up to : Lee , Stan ( w ) , Ditko , Steve ( p ) , Ditko , Steve ( i ) . `` Dr. Strange Master of Black Magic ! '' Strange Tales 110 ( July 1963 ) Jump up ^ DeFalco `` 1960s '' in Brevoort , DeFalco & Manning 2008 , p. 103 Clea , Dr. Strange 's longtime girlfriend from the Dark Dimension , debuted in Strange Tales # 126 . Jump up ^ Stern , Roger ( w ) , Smith , Paul ( p ) , Smith , Paul ( i ) . `` Secret Origin '' Doctor Strange v2 , 72 ( August 1985 ) Jump up ^ Lee , Stan ( w ) , Ditko , Steve ( p ) , Ditko , Steve ( i ) . `` The Domain of the Dread Dormammu ! '' Strange Tales 126 ( November 1964 ) Jump up ^ Meagan Damore ( 2016 - 06 - 23 ) . `` Benedict Cumberbatch Receives the Real Doctor Strangeâ € TM s Seal of Approval '' . CBR . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 01 . Jump up ^ Thomas , Roy & Dann ( December 1991 ) . Doctor Strange ( Issue 36 ed . ) . Marvel Comics . pp. 12 , 13 , 16 , and 17 . Jump up ^ Lee , Stan ( w ) , Ditko , Steve ( p ) , Ditko , Steve ( i ) . `` Return to the Nightmare World ! '' Strange Tales 116 ( January 1964 ) ^ Jump up to : Sanderson , Peter ( 2007 ) . The Marvel Comics Guide to New York City ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Pocket Books . ISBN 1416531416 . Jump up ^ Lee , Stan ( w ) , Ditko , Steve ( p ) , Ditko , Steve ( i ) . `` The Possessed ! '' Strange Tales 118 ( March 1964 ) Jump up ^ Stern , Roger ( 2011 ) . This Old House ( Marvel Vault One Shot : Doctor Strange ed . ) . Marvel Comics . p. 15 . Jump up ^ Strange Tales vol. 1 # 140 ( January 1966 ) Jump up ^ Gillis , Peter B. ( October 1986 ) . Doctor Strange ( Issue 79 ed . ) . Marvel Comics . p. 11 . Jump up ^ Englehart , Steve ( w ) , Buscema , Sal ( p ) , Bolle , Frank ( i ) . The Defenders 11 ( December 1973 ) Jump up ^ Simonson , Walt ( w ) , Gibbons , Dave ( p ) , Gibbons , Dave ( i ) . `` ... Perchance to Dream '' Marvel Fanfare 41 ( December 1988 ) Jump up ^ Kaminski , Len ( w ) , Isherwood , Geof ( p ) , Petrecca , Bob ; Hudson , Don ( i ) . `` To Serve in Heaven '' Doctor Strange , Sorcerer Supreme 48 ( December 1992 ) Jump up ^ Ellis , Warren ( w ) , Buckingham , Mark ( p ) , Sutherland , Kev F. ( i ) . `` Earthquake Logic '' Doctor Strange , Sorcerer Supreme 80 ( August 1995 ) Jump up ^ Christiansen , Jeff ( May 11 , 2002 ) . `` Doctor Strange '' . The Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe . Archived from the original on March 3 , 2013 . Retrieved March 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Comics Continuum '' . Comics Continuum . July 28 , 2009 . Archived from the original on March 3 , 2013 . Retrieved September 13 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Listings - Marvel 's Hulk And The Agents Of S.M.A.S.H. On Disney Xd '' . The Futon Critic . n.d. Archived from the original on November 30 , 2014 . Retrieved March 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Fausett , Dan ( director ) ; Auman , Brandon ( writer ) ( March 30 , 2014 ) . `` Stranger in a Strange Land '' . Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. Season 1 . Episode 20 . Disney XD . Jump up ^ `` Miles From Home '' . Ultimate Spider - Man . Season 4 . Episode 3 . February 28 , 2016 . Disney XD . Jump up ^ https://news.marvel.com/tv/89419/okoye-works-to-help-save-shuri-in-new-lego-marvel-super-heroes-black-panther-trouble-in-wakanda-short/ Jump up ^ Ryan , Mike ( June 4 , 2014 ) . `` The Bizarre Case of the 1978 Doctor Strange Movie '' . ScreenCrush . Archived from the original on October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Pauls , J.B. `` The Rewind : Doctor Mordrid '' . Living Myth Magazine . Archived from the original on July 17 , 2014 . Retrieved May 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Fischer , Dennis ( 2011 ) . Science Fiction Film Directors , 1895 - 1998 . Jefferson , North Carolina : McFarland & Company . p. 88 . ISBN 9780786485055 . Jump up ^ `` The Doctor is In : Doctor Strange DVD and Blu - Ray in Stores Now '' . Marvel Comics . August 14 , 2007 . Archived from the original on March 3 , 2013 . Retrieved March 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Strom , Marc ( December 4 , 2014 ) . `` Benedict Cumberbatch to play Doctor Strange '' . Marvel.com . Archived from the original on December 4 , 2014 . Retrieved December 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Breznican , Anthony ( November 5 , 2016 ) . `` Doctor Strange revelations : Secrets and Easter eggs from the new Marvel movie '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on November 5 , 2016 . Retrieved November 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Simpson , George ( September 26 , 2016 ) . `` Benedict Cumberbatch 's Doctor Strange CONFIRMED for Avengers : Infinity War '' . Daily Express . London , United Kingdom . Archived from the original on September 26 , 2016 . Retrieved September 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Collis , Clark ( October 13 , 2016 ) . `` Doctor Strange will play a ' very , very important ' role in the MCU , Marvel Studios president says '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2016 . Retrieved October 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wickline , Dan ( October 7 , 2016 ) . `` Where Monsters Dwell -- Hulk Gets New Animated Feature With Dr Strange And The Howling Commandos '' . Bleeding Cool . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Denick , Thom ( 2006 ) . Marvel Ultimate Alliance : Signature Series Guide . Indianapolis , Indiana : Brady Games . pp. 44 -- 45 . ISBN 0 - 7440 - 0844 - 1 . Jump up ^ Sinclair , Brendan ( July 20 , 2011 ) . `` Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 roster leaked '' . Gamespot.com . Archived from the original on March 3 , 2013 . Retrieved March 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Baker , Chris ( October 31 , 2011 ) . `` Doctor Strange is voiced by Rick Pasqualone '' . Twitter . Archived from the original on November 30 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dr. Strange has joined Marvel Heroes '' . MarvelHeroes.com . Gazillion Entertainment . March 28 , 2014 . Archived from the original on May 10 , 2014 . Retrieved October 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Voice Of Doctor Strange - Marvel Heroes '' . Behind The Voice Actors . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2016 . Retrieved October 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` LEGO Marvel Super Heroes : Stan Lee sera jouable ... '' ( in French ) . Brick Heroes . July 20 , 2013 . Archived from the original on July 9 , 2014 . Retrieved August 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` News Marvel.com '' . News.marvel.com. 2016 - 10 - 28 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 06 . Jump up ^ Capcom . Marvel vs. Capcom : Infinite . Capcom . Scene : Credits , `` Cast '' . Jump up ^ Weiner , Robert G. ( 2008 ) . Marvel Graphic Novels and Related Publications : An Annotated Guide to Comics , Prose Novels , Children 's Books , Articles , Criticism and Reference Works , 1965 - 2005 . Jefferson , North Carolina : McFarland & Company . p. 280 . ISBN 978 - 0786425006 . Jump up ^ Christiansen , Jeff ( n.d. ) . `` Marvel Novels '' . The Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe . Archived from the original on May 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Duncan , Randy ; Smith , Matthew J. ( 2009 ) . Power of Comics : History , Form and Culture . London , United Kingdom : Continuum International Publishing Group . p. 52 . ISBN 978 - 0826429353 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Doctor Strange Wikimedia Commons has media related to Doctor Strange . Doctor Strange at Marvel.com Doctor Strange at Don Markstein 's Toonopedia . Archived from the original on April 4 , 2016 . 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where would a commercial quantity of cobalt-60 be produced

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cobalt-60&oldid=835987187

Cobalt - 60 - wikipedia Cobalt - 60 Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the nuclide cobalt - 60 . For other uses , see Cobalt - 60 ( disambiguation ) . Cobalt - 60 Complete table of nuclides General Name , symbol Cobalt - 60 , Co Neutrons 33 Protons 27 Nuclide data Natural abundance trace Half - life 5.27 years Isotope mass 59.9338222 u Spin 5 + Decay mode Decay energy β ( beta decay ) 0.31 MeV γ ( gamma - rays ) 1.1732 , 1.3325 MeV γ - ray spectrum of cobalt - 60 Cobalt - 60 , Co , is a synthetic radioactive isotope of cobalt with a half - life of 5.2714 years . It is produced artificially in nuclear reactors . Deliberate industrial production depends on neutron activation of bulk samples of the monoisotopic and mononuclidic cobalt isotope Co . Measurable quantities are also produced as a by - product of typical nuclear power plant operation and may be detected externally when leaks occur . In the latter case ( in the absence of added cobalt ) the incidentally produced Co is largely the result of multiple stages of neutron activation of iron isotopes in the reactor 's steel structures via the creation of Co precursor . The simplest case of the latter would result from the activation of Fe . Co decays by beta decay to the stable isotope nickel - 60 ( Ni ) . The activated nickel nucleus emits two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV , hence the overall nuclear equation of the reaction is Co + n → Co → Ni + e + ν + gamma rays . Contents ( hide ) 1 Activity 2 Decay 3 Applications 4 Occurrence 5 Safety 5.1 Steel contamination 5.2 Incidents involving medical radiation sources 6 Parity 7 Suppliers 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Activity ( edit ) Corresponding to its half - life the radioactive activity of one gram of Co is 44 T Bq ( about 1100 curies ) . The absorbed dose constant is related to the decay energy and time . For Co it is equal to 0.35 mSv / ( GBq h ) at one meter from the source . This allows calculation of the equivalent dose , which depends on distance and activity . Example : a Co source with an activity of 2.8 GBq , which is equivalent to 60 μg of pure Co , generates a dose of 1 mSv at one meter distance within one hour . The swallowing of Co reduces the distance to a few millimeters , and the same dose is achieved within seconds . Test sources , such as those used for school experiments , have an activity of < 100 kBq . Devices for nondestructive material testing use sources with activities of 1 TBq and more . The high γ - energies result in a significant mass difference between Ni and Co of 0.003 u . This amounts to nearly 20 watts per gram , nearly 30 times larger than that of Pu . Decay ( edit ) The decay scheme of Co and Co . The diagram shows a ( simplified ) decay scheme of Co and Co . The main β - decay transitions are shown . The probability for population of the middle energy level of 2.1 MeV by β - decay is 0.0022 % , with a maximum energy of 665.26 keV . Energy transfers between the three levels generate six different gamma - ray frequencies . In the diagram the two important ones are marked . Internal conversion energies are well below the main energy levels . Co is a nuclear isomer of Co with a half - life of 10.467 minutes . It decays by internal transition to Co , emitting 58.6 keV gamma rays , or with a low probability ( 0.22 % ) by β - decay into Ni . Applications ( edit ) Security screening of cars at the Super Bowl using Co gamma - ray scanner Prototype irradiator for food irradiation to prevent spoilage , 1984 . The Co is in the central pipes The main advantage of Co is that it is a high intensity gamma - ray emitter with a relatively long half - life , 5.27 years , compared to other gamma ray sources of similar intensity . The β - decay energy is low and easily shielded ; however , the gamma - ray emission lines have energies around 1.3 MeV , and are highly penetrating . The main uses for Co are : As a tracer for cobalt in chemical reactions Sterilization of medical equipment . Radiation source for medical radiotherapy . Cobalt therapy , using beams of gamma rays from Co teletherapy machines to treat cancer . Radiation source for industrial radiography . Radiation source for leveling devices and thickness gauges . Radiation source for pest insect sterilization . As a radiation source for food irradiation and blood irradiation . Cobalt has been discussed as a `` salting '' element to add to nuclear weapons , to produce a cobalt bomb , an extremely `` dirty '' weapon which would contaminate large areas with Co nuclear fallout , rendering them uninhabitable . In one hypothetical design , the tamper of the weapon would be made of Co . When the bomb exploded , the excess neutrons from the nuclear fission would irradiate the cobalt and transmute it into Co . No nation is known to have done any serious development of this type of weapon . Co needle implanted in tumors for radiotherapy , around 1955 . Co teletherapy machine for cancer radiotherapy , early 1950s . Brookhaven plant mutation experiment using Co source in the pipe , center . Co source for sterilizing screwflies in the 1959 Screwworm Eradication Program . Occurrence ( edit ) There is no natural Co in existence ; thus , synthetic Co is created by bombarding a Co target with a slow neutron source . Californium - 252 , moderated through water , can be used for this purpose , as can the neutron flux in a nuclear reactor . The CANDU reactors can be used to activate Co , by substituting the stainless steel control rods with cobalt rods . In the United States , it is now being produced in a BWR at Hope Creek Nuclear Generating Station . The cobalt targets are substituted here for a small number of fuel assemblies . Co + n → Co Safety ( edit ) After entering a living mammal ( such as a human being ) , some of the Co is excreted in feces . The remainder is taken up by tissues , mainly the liver , kidneys , and bones , where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer . Over time , the absorbed cobalt is eliminated in urine . Steel contamination ( edit ) Cobalt is an element used to make steel . Uncontrolled disposal of Co in scrap metal is responsible for the radioactivity found in several iron - based products . In August 2012 , Petco recalled several models of steel pet food bowls after US Customs and Border Protection determined that they were emitting low levels of radiation . The source of the radiation was determined to be Co that had contaminated the steel . In May 2013 a batch of metal - studded belts sold by online retailer ASOS were confiscated and held in a US radioactive storage facility after testing positive for Co . Incidents involving medical radiation sources ( edit ) In 2000 , a disused radiotherapy head containing a Co source was stored at an unsecured location in Bangkok , Thailand and then accidentally sold to scrap collectors . Unaware of the dangers , a junkyard employee dismantled the head and extracted the source , which remained unprotected for a period of days at the junkyard . Ten people , including the scrap collectors and workers at the junkyard , were exposed to high levels of radiation and became ill . Three of the junkyard workers subsequently died as a result of their exposure , which was estimated to be over 6 Gy . Afterward , the source was safely recovered by the Thai authorities . In December 2013 , a truck carrying a disused 111 TBq Co teletherapy source from a hospital in Tijuana to a radioactive waste storage center was hijacked at a gas station near Mexico City . The truck was recovered shortly after , but it was discovered that the thieves had removed the source from its shielding . It was found abandoned and intact in a field close by . Despite early reports with lurid headlines asserting that the thieves were `` likely doomed '' , the radiation sickness was mild enough that the suspects were quickly released to police custody , and no one is known to have died from the incident . Parity ( edit ) Main article : Wu experiment In 1957 , Chien - Shiung Wu et al. discovered the β - decay process violated parity , implying nature has a handedness . In the Wu experiment her group aligned radioactive Co nuclei by cooling the source to low temperatures in a magnetic field . Wu 's observation was that more β - rays were emitted in the opposite direction to the nuclear spin . This asymmetry violates parity conservation . Suppliers ( edit ) Argentina , Canada and Russia are the largest suppliers of cobalt - 60 in the world . See also ( edit ) Cobalt bomb Harold E. Johns References ( edit ) Jump up ^ National Institute of Standards and Technology . `` Radionuclide Half - Life Measurements '' . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ Malkoske , G.R. Cobalt - 60 production in CANDU power reactors Jump up ^ US EPA ( http://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclides/cobalt.html#wheredoes Radiation Protection : Cobalt Jump up ^ `` Table of Isotopes decay data '' . Retrieved April 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Table of Isotopes decay data '' . Retrieved April 16 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gamma Irradiators For Radiation Processing ( PDF ) . IAEA. 2005 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cobalt Radiation Protection US EPA '' . EPA . Retrieved April 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Croatia fruit farmers fight flies Jump up ^ Isotope Production : Dual Use Power Plants Jump up ^ PSEG Nuclear 's Hope Creek reactor back on line , begins production of Cobalt - 60 Jump up ^ radioactive contamination of steel Jump up ^ `` Lessons Learned The Hard Way '' . IAEA Bulletin 47 - 2 . International Atomic Energy Agency . Archived from the original on 18 July 2010 . Retrieved 16 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Petco Recalls Some Stainless Steel Pet Bowls Due to Cobalt - 60 Contamination '' . Retrieved 21 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Asos Belts Seized Over Radioactive Studs '' . Sky News . 2013 - 05 - 28 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 05 . Jump up ^ The Radiological Accident in Samut Prakarn ( PDF ) . IAEA. 2002 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Truck with dangerous radioactive materials hijacked in Mexico - IAEA -- RT News '' . RT . 2013 - 12 - 04 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Mexico Informs IAEA of Theft of Dangerous Radioactive Source '' . IAEA . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mexico Says Stolen Radioactive Source Found in Field '' . IAEA. 2013 - 12 - 05 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 05 . Jump up ^ Will Grant ( 2013 - 12 - 05 ) . `` BBC News - Mexico radioactive material found , thieves ' lives ' in danger ' '' . BBC . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 05 . Jump up ^ Gabriela Martinez , and Joshua Partlow ( 6 December 2013 ) . `` Thieves who stole lethal radioactive cobalt - 60 in Mexico likely doomed '' . Los Angeles Daily News . Retrieved 12 March 2015 . Jump up ^ M. Alex Johnson ( 6 December 2013 ) . `` Six released from Mexican hospital but detained in theft of cobalt - 60 '' . NBC News . Retrieved 12 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Mary Cuddehe ( 13 November 2014 ) . `` What Happens When A Truck Carrying Radioactive Material Gets Robbed In Mexico '' . BuzzFeed . Retrieved 12 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Wu , C.S. ; Ambler , E ; Hayward , R.W. ; Hoppes , D.D. ; Hudson , R.P. ( 1957 ) . `` Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay '' . Physical Review . 105 ( 4 ) : 1413 -- 1415 . Bibcode : 1957PhRv ... 105.1413 W . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 105.1413 . External links ( edit ) Cobalt - 60 , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . NLM Hazardous Substances Databank -- Cobalt , Radioactive Beta decay of Cobalt - 60 , HyperPhysics , Georgia State University . Dr. Henry Kelly ( March 6 , 2002 ) . `` Cobalt - 60 as a Dirty Bomb '' . Federation of American Scientists . Archived from the original on April 5 , 2002 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cobalt-60&oldid=835987187 '' Categories : Isotopes of cobalt Radioactive contamination Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Català Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Interlingua Italiano Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Русский Suomi தமிழ் Türkçe Українська 中文 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2018 , at 00 : 17 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where do guinea pigs sleep in the wild

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Guinea pig - wikipedia Guinea pig Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the small rodent species . For the domestic pig breed , see Guinea hog . For other uses , see Guinea pig ( disambiguation ) . Domestic guinea pig Two adult guinea pigs Conservation status Domesticated Scientific classification Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Mammalia Order : Rodentia Family : Caviidae Genus : Cavia Species : C. porcellus Binomial name Cavia porcellus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) Synonyms Mus porcellus Cavia cobaya Cavia anolaimae Cavia cutleri Cavia leucopyga Cavia longipilis The guinea pig or domestic guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus ) , also known as cavy or domestic cavy , is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia . Despite their common name , these animals are not in the pig family Suidae , nor do they come from Guinea in Africa ; they originated in the Andes of South America and studies based on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are domestic , not wild , descendants of a closely related species of cavy such as C. tschudii . The domestic guinea pig plays an important role in folk culture for many indigenous Andean groups , especially as a food source , but also in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies . Guinea pigs are a culinary staple in the Andes Mountains , where they are known as cuy , a name also given to large animals , the result of a breeding program , that ended up in southern California . Since the 1960s , efforts have been made to increase consumption of the animal outside South America . In Western societies , the domestic guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a household pet , a type of pocket pet , ever since its introduction by European traders in the 16th century . Their docile nature ; friendly , even affectionate responsiveness to handling and feeding ; and the relative ease of caring for them continue to make guinea pigs a popular choice of pet . Organizations devoted to competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide , and many specialized breeds with varying coat colors and textures are selected by breeders . Biological experimentation on guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century . The animals were frequently used as model organisms in the 19th and 20th centuries , resulting in the common epithet `` guinea pig '' for a test subject , but have since been largely replaced by other rodents such as mice and rats . They are still used in research , primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes , tuberculosis , scurvy , and pregnancy complications . Contents ( hide ) 1 Name 2 History 3 Traits and environment 3.1 Natural habitat 3.2 Domestic habitat 3.3 Behavior 4 Reproduction 5 Diet 6 Health problems 7 As pets 7.1 Handling , temperament and socialization 7.2 Appearance , coat and grooming 7.3 Clubs and associations 7.4 Allergies to guinea pigs 8 In popular culture and media 8.1 In children 's literature 8.2 In film and television 9 In scientific research 10 As food 10.1 South America 10.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 11 See also 12 References 13 Sources 14 External links Name The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus , with porcellus being Latin for `` little pig '' . Cavia is New Latin ; it is derived from cabiai , the animal 's name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana . Cabiai may be an adaptation of the Portuguese çavia ( now savia ) , which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá , meaning rat . Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo ( plural cuyes , cuyos ) in the Spanish of Ecuador , Peru , and Bolivia . Ironically , breeders tend to use the more formal `` cavy '' to describe the animal , while in scientific and laboratory contexts , it is far more commonly referred to by the more colloquial `` guinea pig '' . How the animals came to be called `` pigs '' is not clear . They are built somewhat like pigs , with large heads relative to their bodies , stout necks , and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence ; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs , and they also spend a large amount of time eating . They can survive for long periods in small quarters , like a ' pig pen ' , and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe . The animal 's name alludes to pigs in many European languages . The German word for them is Meerschweinchen , literally `` little sea pig '' , which has been translated into Polish as świnka morska , into Hungarian as tengerimalac , and into Russian as морская свинка . This derives from the Middle High German name merswin . This originally meant `` dolphin '' and was used because of the animals ' grunting sounds ( which were thought to be similar ) . Many other , possibly less scientifically based explanations of the German name exist . For example , sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs , which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat . The French term is cochon d'Inde ( Indian pig ) or cobaye ; the Dutch call it Guinees biggetje ( Guinean piglet ) or cavia ( while in some Dutch dialects it is called Spaanse rat ) ; and in Portuguese , the guinea pig is variously referred to as cobaia , from the Tupi word via its Latinization , or as porquinho da Índia ( little Indian pig ) . This is not universal ; for example , the common word in Spanish is conejillo de Indias ( little rabbit of the Indies ) . The Chinese refer to them as 豚鼠 ( túnshǔ , ' pig mouse ' ) , and sometimes as Netherlands pig ( 荷蘭 豬 , hélánzhū ) or Indian mouse ( 天竺鼠 , tiānzhúshǔ ) . The Japanese word for guinea pig is `` モルモット '' ( morumotto ) , which derives from the name of another mountain - dwelling rodent , the marmot ; this is what guinea pigs were called by the Dutch traders who first brought them to Nagasaki in 1843 . The origin of `` guinea '' in `` guinea pig '' is harder to explain . One proposed explanation is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea , leading people to think they had originated there . `` Guinea '' was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far - off , unknown country , so the name may simply be a colorful reference to the animal 's exotic appeal . Another hypothesis suggests the `` guinea '' in the name is a corruption of `` Guiana '' , an area in South America . A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold for the price of a guinea coin ; this hypothesis is untenable , because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663 , and William Harvey used the term `` Ginny - pig '' as early as 1653 . Others believe `` guinea '' may be an alteration of the word coney ( rabbit ) ; guinea pigs were referred to as `` pig coneys '' in Edward Topsell 's 1607 treatise on quadrupeds . History The guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America ( the present - day southern part of Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , and Bolivia ) , some thousands of years after the domestication of the South American camelids . Statues dating from circa 500 BC to 500 AD that depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador . The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art . From about 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532 , selective breeding resulted in many varieties of domestic guinea pigs , which form the basis for some of the modern domestic breeds . They continue to be a food source in the region ; many households in the Andean highlands raise the animal , which subsists on the family 's vegetable scraps . Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs are numerous ; they are exchanged as gifts , used in customary social and religious ceremonies , and frequently referenced in spoken metaphors . They also play a role in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors , or curanderos , who use the animals to diagnose diseases such as jaundice , rheumatism , arthritis , and typhus . They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick , and are seen as a supernatural medium . Black guinea pigs are considered especially useful for diagnoses . The animal also may be cut open and its entrails examined to determine whether the cure was effective . These methods are widely accepted in many parts of the Andes , where Western medicine is either unavailable or distrusted . Spanish , Dutch , and English traders brought guinea pigs to Europe , where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among the upper classes and royalty , including Queen Elizabeth I . The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547 , in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo ; because cavies are not native to Hispaniola , the animal was earlier believed to have been introduced there by Spanish travelers . However , based on more recent excavations on West Indian islands , the animal must have been introduced by ceramic - making horticulturalists from South America to the Caribbean around 500 BC , and it was present in the Ostionoid period , for example , on Puerto Rico , long before the advent of the Spaniards . The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner . Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777 ; it is an amalgam of Pallas ' generic designation ( 1766 ) and Linnaeus ' specific conferral ( 1758 ) . The earliest known illustration of a domestic guinea pig is a painting ( artist unknown ) in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery in London , dated to 1580 , which shows a girl in typical Elizabethan dress holding a tortoise - shell guinea pig in her hands ; she is flanked by her two brothers , one of whom holds a pet bird . The picture dates from the same period as the oldest recorded guinea pig remains in England , which are a partial cavy skeleton found at Hill Hall , an Elizabethan manor house in Essex , and dated to around 1575 . Traits and environment Main article : List of guinea pig breeds Two parti - colored Abyssinian guinea pigs Guinea pigs are large for rodents , weighing between 700 and 1,200 g ( 1.5 and 2.6 lb ) , and measuring between 20 and 25 cm ( 8 and 10 in ) in length . Modern breeding of cuy guinea pigs has resulted in animals weighing 2,700 grams ( 6.0 lb ) . They live an average of four to five years , but may live as long as eight years . According to the 2006 Guinness World Records , the longest living guinea pig survived 14 years , 10.5 months . In the 1990s , a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs , such as guinea pigs , chinchillas , and degus , are not rodents and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals ( similar to lagomorphs ) . Subsequent research using wider sampling restored the consensus among mammalian biologists regarding the current classification of rodents as monophyletic . Natural habitat C. porcellus is not found naturally in the wild ; it is likely descended from closely related species of cavies , such as C. aperea , C. fulgida , and C. tschudii , which are still commonly found in various regions of South America . Studies from 2007 -- 2010 applied molecular markers and studied the skull and skeletal morphology of current and mummified animals , thereby revealing the ancestor to most likely be Cavia tschudii . Some species of cavy identified in the 20th century , such as C. anolaimae and C. guianae , may be domestic guinea pigs that have become feral by reintroduction into the wild . Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of cattle . They are social , living in the wild in small groups that consist of several females ( sows ) , a male ( boar ) , and the young ( which , in a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature , are called `` pups '' not `` piglets '' ) . They move together in groups ( herds ) eating grass or other vegetation , and do not store food . While they do not burrow themselves or build nests , they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals , as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation . They tend to be most active during dawn and dusk ( crepuscular ) , when it is harder for predators to spot them . Domestic habitat Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more ; groups of sows , or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations , but boars can sometimes live together . Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual pigs , and testing of boars shows their neuroendocrine stress response is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female when compared to the presence of unfamiliar females . Groups of boars may also get along , provided their cage has enough space , they are introduced at an early age , and no females are present . Domestic guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts , and have longer periods of activity followed by short periods of sleep in between . Activity is scattered randomly throughout the day ; aside from an avoidance of intense light , no regular circadian patterns are apparent . This cat has accepted a pair of guinea pigs . However , the success of interspecies interaction like this depends on the individual animals involved . Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages , although some owners of large numbers of guinea pigs dedicate entire rooms to their pets . Cages with solid or wire mesh floors are used , although wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot ( ulcerative pododermatitis ) . `` Cubes and Coroplast '' ( C&C ) style cages are now a common choice . Cages are often lined with wood shavings or a similar material . Bedding made from red cedar ( Eastern or Western ) and pine , both softwoods , were commonly used in the past , but these materials are now believed to contain harmful phenols ( aromatic hydrocarbons ) and oils . Safer bedding materials made from hardwoods ( such as aspen ) , paper products , and corn cob materials are other alternatives . Guinea pigs tend to be messy within their cages ; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them , and their urine sometimes crystallizes on cage surfaces , making it difficult to remove . After its cage has been cleaned , a guinea pig typically urinates and drags its lower body across the floor of the cage to mark its territory . Male guinea pigs may also mark their territory in this way when they are taken out of their cages . Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species . Housing guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections , and such rodents may act aggressively toward the guinea pig . Larger animals may regard guinea pigs as prey , though some ( such as dogs or cats ) can be trained to accept them . Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and domestic rabbits . Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing a cage . However , as lagomorphs , rabbits have different nutritional requirements , so the two species can not be fed the same food . Rabbits may also harbor diseases ( such as respiratory infections from Bordetella and Pasteurella ) , to which guinea pigs are susceptible . Even a dwarf rabbit is much stronger than a guinea pig and may cause intentional or inadvertent injury . Behavior Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food , and can accurately remember a learned path for months . Their strongest problem - solving strategy is motion . While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles , most of them are poor climbers , and are not particularly agile . They startle extremely easily , and either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid , darting motions when they sense danger . Larger groups of startled guinea pigs `` stampede '' , running in haphazard directions as a means of confusing predators . When happily excited , guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air ( known as `` popcorning '' ) , a movement analogous to the ferret 's war dance . They are also good swimmers . Guinea pigs `` social groom '' Like many rodents , guinea pigs sometimes participate in social grooming , and they regularly self - groom . A milky - white substance is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process . Groups of boars often chew each other 's hair , but this is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group , rather than a social gesture . Dominance is also established through biting ( especially of the ears ) , piloerection , aggressive noises , head thrusts , and leaping attacks . Non-sexual simulated mounting for dominance is also common among same - sex groups . Guinea pig eyesight is not as good as that of a human in terms of distance and color , but they have a wider angle of vision ( about 340 ° ) and see in partial color ( dichromacy ) . They have well - developed senses of hearing , smell , and touch . Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members of the species . These are the most common sounds made by the guinea pig : A `` wheek '' is a loud noise , the name of which is onomatopoeic , also known as a whistle . An expression of general excitement , it may occur in response to the presence of its owner or to feeding . It is sometimes used to find other guinea pigs if they are running . If a guinea pig is lost , it may wheek for assistance . listen ( help info ) A bubbling or purring sound is made when the guinea pig is enjoying itself , such as when being petted or held . It may also make this sound when grooming , crawling around to investigate a new place , or when given food . listen ( help info ) A rumbling sound is normally related to dominance within a group , though it can also come as a response to being scared or angry . In the case of being scared , the rumble often sounds higher and the body vibrates shortly . While courting , a male usually purrs deeply , swaying and circling the female in a behavior called `` rumblestrutting '' . A low rumble while walking away reluctantly shows passive resistance . listen ( help info ) Chutting and whining are sounds made in pursuit situations , by the pursuer and pursuee , respectively . listen ( help info ) A chattering sound is made by rapidly gnashing the teeth , and is generally a sign of warning . Guinea pigs tend to raise their heads when making this sound . Squealing or shrieking is a high - pitched sound of discontent , in response to pain or danger . listen ( help info ) Chirping , a less - common sound , likened to bird song , seems to be related to stress or discomfort , or when a baby guinea pig wants to be fed . Very rarely , the chirping will last for several minutes . listen ( help info ) Reproduction Pregnant sow one week before delivering three pups Males reach sexual maturity in 3 -- 5 weeks , while females can be fertile as early as 4 weeks old , and can carry litters before they are adults . The female guinea pig is able to breed year - round , with spring being the peak . A sow can have as many as five litters in a year , but six is theoretically possible . Unlike the offspring of most rodents , which are altricial at birth , newborn cavy pups are well - developed with hair , teeth , claws , and partial eyesight . The pups are immediately mobile and begin eating solid food immediately , though they continue to suckle . Females can once again become pregnant 6 -- 48 hours after giving birth , but it is not healthy for a female to be constantly pregnant . The gestation period lasts from 59 days ( 1.9 months ) to 72 days ( 2.4 months ) , with an average of 63 -- 68 days . Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups , pregnant females may become large and eggplant - shaped , although the change in size and shape varies depending upon the size of the litter . Litter size ranges from one to six , with three being the average ; the largest recorded litter size is 17 . The guinea pig mother only has two nipples , but she can readily raise the more average - sized litters of 2 to 4 pups . In smaller litters , difficulties may occur during labour due to oversized pups . Large litters result in higher incidences of stillbirth , but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development , lack of access to the mother 's milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns . Cohabitating females assist in mothering duties if lactating ; guinea pigs practice alloparental care , in which a female may adopt the pup ( s ) of another . This might take place if the original parents die or are for some reason separated from them . This behavior is common and is seen in many other animal species such as the elephant . Toxemia of pregnancy ( hypertension ) is a common problem and kills many pregnant females . Signs of toxemia include : anorexia , lack of energy , excessive salivation , a sweet or fruity breath odor due to ketones , and seizures in advanced cases . Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates . Other serious complications during pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus , hypocalcaemia , and mastitis . Guinea pig pup at eight hours old Females that do not give birth may develop an irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis , a joint in the pelvis , due to calcification which may occur between 6 and 10 months of age . If they become pregnant after this has happened , the birth canal will probably not widen sufficiently and this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth . Calcification of the female 's pubic symphysis if not bred is greatly overstated . The reason for potential calcification is a metabolic disease , like ochronosis . A healthy , normal female guinea pig 's pubic symphysis does not calcify . Male and female guinea pigs do not differ in appearance apart from general size , with the male being about 30 % larger . The position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes . Female genitals are distinguished by a Y - shaped configuration formed from a vulvar flap . While male genitals may look similar , with the penis and anus forming a similar shape , the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair . The male 's testes may also be visible externally from scrotal swelling . Diet A silver agouti guinea pig eating grass A short - haired guinea pig eating a piece of apple The guinea pig 's natural diet is grass ; their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter and grow continuously throughout their life . Most mammals that graze are large and have a long digestive tract ; guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents , but they must also supplement their diet by eating their feces ( coprophagy ) . However , they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately , but produce special soft pellets , called cecotropes ( or caecal pellets ) , which recycle B vitamins , fiber , and bacteria required for proper digestion . The cecotropes are eaten directly from the anus , unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese . They share this behaviour with rabbits . In geriatric boars or sows ( rarely in young ones ) , the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus can become weak . This creates a condition known as `` anal impaction '' , which prevents the animal from redigesting cecotropes even though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass . The condition may be temporarily alleviated by a human carefully removing the impacted feces from the anus . Guinea pigs benefit from a diet of fresh grass hay , such as timothy hay , in addition to food pellets which are often based on timothy hay . Alfalfa hay is also a popular food choice and most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it , though some controversy exists over offering alfalfa to adult guinea pigs . Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that , as a legume rather than a grass hay , alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity , as well as bladder stones from the excess calcium in all animals except for pregnant and very young guinea pigs . However , published scientific sources mention alfalfa as a food source that can replenish protein , amino acids , and fiber . Like humans , but unlike most other mammals , guinea pigs can not synthesize their own vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food . If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C , they can suffer from potentially fatal scurvy . Guinea pigs require about 10 mg of vitamin C daily ( 20 mg if pregnant ) , which can be obtained through fresh , raw fruits and vegetables ( such as broccoli , apple , cabbage , carrot , celery , and spinach ) or through dietary supplements or by eating fresh pellets designed for guinea pigs , if they have been handled properly . Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium , magnesium , phosphorus , potassium , and hydrogen ions ; but adequate amounts of vitamins A , D , and E are also necessary . Poor diets for guinea pigs have been associated with muscular dystrophy , metastatic calcification , difficulties with pregnancy , vitamin deficiencies , and teeth problems . Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables after having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume , and their eating habits may be difficult to change after maturity . They do not respond well to sudden changes in their diet and they may stop eating and starve rather than accept new food types . A constant supply of hay is generally recommended , as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop bad habits if food is not present , such as chewing on their hair . Because their teeth grow constantly ( as do their nails , like humans ) , they routinely gnaw on things , lest their teeth become too large for their jaw ( a common problem in rodents ) . Guinea pigs chew on cloth , paper , plastic , and rubber , if they are available . A number of plants are poisonous to guinea pigs , including bracken , bryony , buttercup , charlock , deadly nightshade , foxglove , hellebore , hemlock , lily of the valley , mayweed , monkshood , privet , ragwort , rhubarb , speedwell , toadflax ( both Linaria vulgaris and Linaria dalmatica ) , and wild celery . Additionally , any plant which grows from a bulb ( e.g. , tulip or onion ) is normally considered poisonous , as well as ivy and oak tree leaves . A guinea pig may or may not eat poisonous material . Health problems A parti - colored guinea pig suffering from torticollis , or wry neck Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory tract infections , diarrhea , scurvy ( vitamin C deficiency , typically characterized by sluggishness ) , abscesses due to infection ( often in the neck , due to hay embedded in the throat , or from external scratches ) , and infections by lice , mites , or fungus . Mange mites ( Trixacarus caviae ) are a common cause of hair loss , and other symptoms may also include excessive scratching , unusually aggressive behavior when touched ( due to pain ) , and , in some instances , seizures . Guinea pigs may also suffer from `` running lice '' ( Gliricola porcelli ) , a small , white insect which can be seen moving through the hair ; their eggs , which appear as black or white specks attached to the hair , are sometimes referred to as `` static lice '' . Other causes of hair loss can be due to hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts . Foreign bodies , especially small pieces of hay or straw , can become lodged in the eyes of guinea pigs , resulting in excessive blinking , tearing , and in some cases an opaque film over the eye due to corneal ulcer . Hay or straw dust can also cause sneezing . While it is normal for guinea pigs to sneeze periodically , frequent sneezing may be a symptom of pneumonia , especially in response to atmospheric changes . Pneumonia may also be accompanied by torticollis and can be fatal . Because the guinea pig has a stout , compact body , it more easily tolerates excessive cold than excessive heat . Its normal body temperature is 101 -- 104 ° F ( 38 -- 40 ° C ) , so its ideal ambient air temperature range is similar to a human 's , about 65 -- 75 ° F ( 18 -- 24 ° C ) . Consistent ambient temperatures in excess of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) have been linked to hyperthermia and death , especially among pregnant sows . Guinea pigs are not well suited to environments that feature wind or frequent drafts , and respond poorly to extremes of humidity outside of the range of 30 -- 70 % . Guinea pigs are prey animals whose survival instinct is to mask pain and signs of illness , and many times health problems may not be apparent until a condition is severe or in its advanced stages . Treatment of disease is made more difficult by the extreme sensitivity guinea pigs have to most antibiotics , including penicillin , which kill off the intestinal flora and quickly bring on episodes of diarrhea and in some cases , death . Similar to the inherited genetic diseases of other breeds of animal ( such as hip dysplasia in canines ) , a number of genetic abnormalities of guinea pigs have been reported . Most commonly , the roan coloration of Abyssinian guinea pigs is associated with congenital eye disorders and problems with the digestive system . Other genetic disorders include `` waltzing disease '' ( deafness coupled with a tendency to run in circles ) , palsy , and tremor conditions . As pets See also : List of guinea pig breeds Handling , temperament and socialization If handled correctly early in life , guinea pigs become amenable to being picked up and carried , and seldom bite or scratch . They are timid explorers and often hesitate to attempt an escape from their cage even when an opportunity presents itself . Still , they show considerable curiosity when allowed to walk freely , especially in familiar and safe terrain . Guinea pigs that become familiar with their owner will whistle on the owner 's approach ; they will also learn to whistle in response to the rustling of plastic bags or the opening of refrigerator doors , where their food is most commonly stored . In Switzerland , owning a single guinea pig is considered harmful to its well - being and forbidden by law . Appearance , coat and grooming Black - haired Silkie Guinea pig Domesticated guinea pigs occur in many breeds , which have been developed since their introduction to Europe and North America . These varieties vary in hair and color composition . The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair ( also known as the American ) , which have a short , smooth coat , and the Abyssinian , whose coat is ruffled with cowlicks , or rosettes . Also popular among breeders are the Peruvian and the Sheltie ( or Silkie ) , both straight longhair breeds , and the Texel , a curly longhair . Grooming of guinea pigs is primarily accomplished using combs or brushes . Shorthair breeds are typically brushed weekly , while longhair breeds may require daily grooming . Clubs and associations Cavy clubs and associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide . The American Cavy Breeders Association , an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders ' Association , is the governing body in the United States and Canada . The British Cavy Council governs cavy clubs in the United Kingdom . Similar organizations exist in Australia ( Australian National Cavy Council ) and New Zealand ( New Zealand Cavy Council ) . Each club publishes its own standard of perfection and determines which breeds are eligible for showing . Allergies to guinea pigs Allergic symptoms , including rhinitis , conjunctivitis , and asthma , have been documented in laboratory animal workers who come into contact with guinea pigs . Allergic reactions following direct exposure to guinea pigs in domestic settings have also been reported . Two major guinea pig allergens , Cav p I and Cav p II , have been identified in guinea pig fluids ( urine and saliva ) and guinea pig dander . People who are allergic to guinea pigs are usually allergic to hamsters and gerbils , as well . Allergy shots can successfully treat an allergy to guinea pigs , although treatment can take up to 18 months . In popular culture and media A lilac , orange , and white Satin Peruvian guinea pig ( show - length coat ) As a result of their widespread popularity , especially in households with children , guinea pigs have shown a presence in culture and media . Some noted appearances of the animal in literature include the short story `` Pigs Is Pigs '' by Ellis Parker Butler , which is a tale of bureaucratic incompetence . Two guinea pigs held at a railway station breed unchecked while humans argue as to whether they are `` pigs '' or `` pets '' for the purpose of determining freight charges . Butler 's story , in turn , inspired the Star Trek : The Original Series episode `` The Trouble With Tribbles '' , written by David Gerrold . In the Golden Hamster Saga books , two guinea pigs named Enrico and Caruso are modern - day thespians ( named after Enrico Caruso ) who serve as secondary characters , and often irritate the main character , Freddy Auratus , who strongly dislikes their acting antics . In children 's literature The Fairy Caravan , a novel by Beatrix Potter , and Michael Bond 's Olga da Polga series for children , both feature guinea pigs as the protagonist . Another appearance is in The Magician 's Nephew by C.S. Lewis : in the first ( chronologically ) of his The Chronicles of Narnia series , a guinea pig is the first creature to travel to the Wood between the Worlds . In Ursula Dubosarsky 's Maisie and the Pinny Gig , a little girl has a recurrent dream about a giant guinea pig , while guinea pigs feature significantly in several of Dubosarsky 's other books , including the young adult novel The White Guinea Pig and The Game of the Goose . In film and television Guinea pigs have also been featured in film and television . In the TV movie Shredderman Rules , the main character and the main character 's crush both have guinea pigs which play a minor part in the plot . A guinea pig named Rodney , voiced by Chris Rock , was a prominent character in the 1998 film Dr. Dolittle , and Linny the Guinea pig is a co-star on Nick Jr. 's Wonder Pets . Guinea pigs were used in some major advertising campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s , notably for Egg Banking plc , Snapple , and Blockbuster Video . The Blockbuster campaign is considered by some guinea pig advocates to have been a factor in the rise of caging guinea pigs and rabbits together . In the South Park season 12 episode `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' , giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes rampage over the Earth . The 2009 Walt Disney Pictures movie G - Force features a group of highly intelligent guinea pigs trained as operatives of the U.S. government . A video game based on the movie was also released . A guinea pig named Bugsy appears in the 2008 film Bedtime Stories . A guinea pig named Cashew features prominently in the second season of the U.S. adaptation of House of Cards . In scientific research A guinea pig being examined by a veterinary medical officer for a study on leptospirosis . The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the 17th century , when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures . In 1780 , Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter , a device used to measure heat production . The heat from the guinea pig 's respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter , showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion , similar to a candle burning . Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century , through the experiments of Louis Pasteur , Émile Roux , and Robert Koch . Guinea pigs have been launched into orbital space flight several times , first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9 , 1961 -- with a successful recovery . China also launched and recovered a biosatellite in 1990 which included guinea pigs as passengers . In English , the term `` guinea pig '' is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation , or any experiment or test in modern times . This dates back to the early 20th century ; the Oxford English Dictionary notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913 . In 1933 , Consumers Research founders F.J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs , extending the metaphor to consumer society . The book became a national bestseller in the United States , thus further popularizing the term , and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement . During World War II , the plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe established the Guinea Pig Club at Queen Victoria Hospital , East Grinstead , Sussex , England as a social club and mutual support network for his patients , who were undergoing previously - untested reconstruction procedures . The negative connotation of the term was later employed in the novel The Guinea Pigs ( 1970 ) by Czech author Ludvík Vaculík as an allegory for Soviet totalitarianism . Guinea pigs remained popular laboratory animals until the later 20th century : about 2.5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s , but that total decreased to about 375,000 by the mid-1990s . As of 2007 , they constitute about 2 % of the current total of laboratory animals . In the past , they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents ; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions , or anaphylaxis . Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation . Since the middle 20th century , they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats . This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents , although geneticists W.E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study , especially regarding coat color . In 2004 , the U.S. 's National Human Genome Research Institute announced plans to sequence the genome of the domestic guinea pig . The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases . Common uses included identification of brucellosis , Chagas disease , cholera , diphtheria , foot - and - mouth disease , glanders , Q fever , Rocky Mountain spotted fever , and various strains of typhus . They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis , since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria . Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which , like humans and other primates , can not synthesize vitamin C , but must obtain it from their diet , they are ideal for researching scurvy . From the accidental discovery in 1907 that scurvy could be induced in guinea pigs , to their use to prove the chemical structure of the `` ascorbutic factor '' in 1932 , the guinea pig model proved a crucial part of vitamin C research . Complement , an important component for serology , was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig . Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation , and are a suitable species for the generation of anti-insulin antibodies . Present at a level 10 times that found in other mammals , the insulin in guinea pigs may be important in growth regulation , a role usually played by growth hormone . Additionally , guinea pigs have been identified as model organisms for the study of juvenile diabetes and , because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia , of pre-eclampsia in human females . Their placental structure is similar to that of humans , and their gestation period can be divided into trimesters that resemble the stages of fetal development in humans . Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains . Aside from the common American or English stock , the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin - Hartley ; these English strains are albino , although pigmented strains are also available . Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research , such as immune system molecular biology . Of the inbred strains that have been created , the two still used with any frequency are , following Sewall Wright 's designations , `` Strain 2 '' and `` Strain 13 '' . Hairless breeds of guinea pigs have been used in scientific research since the 1980s , particularly for dermatological studies . A hairless and immunodeficient breed was the result of a spontaneous genetic mutation in inbred laboratory strains from the Hartley stock at the Eastman Kodak Company in 1979 . An immunocompetent hairless breed was also identified by the Institute Armand Frappier in 1978 , and Charles River Laboratories has reproduced this breed for research since 1982 . Cavy fanciers then began acquiring hairless breeds , and the pet hairless varieties are referred to as `` skinny pigs '' . As food Traditional preparation of a grilled cuy in Quito , Ecuador . Dish from Ecuador called cuy Cuy being raised at home in the traditional Andean fashion South America Guinea pigs ( called cuy , cuye , or curí ) were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes . Traditionally , the animal was reserved for ceremonial meals by indigenous people in the Andean highlands , but since the 1960s , it has become more socially acceptable for consumption by all people . It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia , particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands ; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador ( mainly in the Sierra ) and Colombia . Because guinea pigs require much less room than traditional livestock and reproduce extremely quickly , they are a more profitable source of food and income than many traditional stock animals , such as pigs and cattle ; moreover , they can be raised in an urban environment . Both rural and urban families raise guinea pigs for supplementary income , and the animals are commonly bought and sold at local markets and large - scale municipal fairs . Guinea pig meat is high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol , and is described as being similar to rabbit and the dark meat of chicken . The animal may be served fried ( chactado or frito ) , broiled ( asado ) , or roasted ( al horno ) , and in urban restaurants may also be served in a casserole or a fricassee . Ecuadorians commonly consume sopa or locro de cuy , a soup dish . Pachamanca or huatia , a process similar to barbecueing , is also popular , and is usually served with corn beer ( chicha ) in traditional settings . Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year , and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Cusco shows Christ and the 12 disciples dining on guinea pig . The animal remains an important aspect of certain religious events in both rural and urban areas of Peru . A religious celebration known as jaca tsariy ( `` collecting the cuys '' ) is a major festival in many villages in the Antonio Raimondi province of eastern Peru , and is celebrated in smaller ceremonies in Lima . It is a syncretistic event , combining elements of Catholicism and pre-Columbian religious practices , and revolves around the celebration of local patron saints . The exact form the jaca tsariy takes differs from town to town ; in some localities , a sirvinti ( servant ) is appointed to go from door to door , collecting donations of guinea pigs , while in others , guinea pigs may be brought to a communal area to be released in a mock bullfight . Meals such as cuy chactado are always served as part of these festivities , and the killing and serving of the animal is framed by some communities as a symbolic satire of local politicians or important figures . In the Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces of central Ecuador , guinea pigs are employed in the celebrations surrounding the feast of Corpus Christi as part of the Ensayo , which is a community meal , and the Octava , where castillos ( greased poles ) are erected with prizes tied to the crossbars , from which several guinea pigs may be hung . The Peruvian town of Churin has an annual festival which involves dressing guinea pigs in elaborate costumes for a competition . Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat , and some ethnic restaurants in major United States cities serve cuy as a delicacy . Peruvian research universities , especially La Molina National Agrarian University , began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger - sized guinea pigs . Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America , to make the raising of guinea pigs as livestock more economically sustainable . In the 1990s and 2000s , the university began exporting the larger breed guinea pigs to Europe , Japan , and the United States in the hope of increasing human consumption outside of these countries in northern South America . Sub-saharan Africa Many efforts have also been made to promote guinea pig husbandry in developing countries of West Africa , where they occur more widely than generally known because they are usually not covered by livestock statistics . However , it has not been known when and where the animals have been introduced to Africa . In Cameroon , they are widely distributed . In the Democratic Republic of the Congo , they can be found both in peri-urban environments as well as in rural regions , for example , in South Kivu . They are also frequently held in rural households in Iringa Region of southwestern Tanzania . See also Mammals portal Kurloff cell Peter Gurney Save the Newchurch Guinea Pigs References ^ Jump up to : Weir , Barbara J. ( 1974 ) . `` Notes on the Origin of the Domestic Guinea - Pig '' . In Rowlands , I.W. ; Weir , Barbara J. The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents . Academic Press . pp. 437 -- 446 . ISBN 0 - 12 - 613333 - 6 . Jump up ^ Nowak , Ronald M. ( 1999 ) . Walker 's Mammals of the World , 6th edition . Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 5789 - 9 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 . 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( 2005 ) . `` Order Rodentia '' . In Wilson , Don E. ; Reeder , DeeAnn M. Mammal Species of the World . 2 ( 3rd ed . ) . Johns Hopkins University Press . p. 745 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 4 . Jump up ^ Huchon , D. ; et al. ( 2007 ) . `` Multiple molecular evidences for a living mammalian fossil '' . PNAS. 104 ( 18 ) : 7495 -- 7499 . Bibcode : 2007PNAS ... 104.7495 H . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0701289104 . PMC 1863447 . PMID 17452635 . Jump up ^ Spotorno , A.E. , Marín , J.C. , Manríquez , G. , Valladares , J.P. , Rico , E. and Rivas , C. ( 2006 ) . `` Ancient and modern steps during domestication of guinea pigs ( Cavia porcellus L . ) '' . Journal of Zoology : 060606025751032 -- -- . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1469 - 7998.2006. 00117. x . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Dunnum , Jonathan L. ; Salazar - Bravo , Jorge ( 2010 ) . `` Molecular systematics , taxonomy and biogeography of the genus Cavia ( Rodentia : Caviidae ) '' . 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Jump up ^ According to the `` Commentary Mini '' for the episode , the `` costumes '' for the guinea pigs were not created by South Park Studios , but rather had been ordered on line from a woman who makes them . `` Commentary Mini '' for Episode 11 , Season 12 : Pandemic 2 : the Startling Jump up ^ Guerrini , Anita ( 2003 ) . Experimenting with Humans and Animals . Johns Hopkins . p. 42 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 7196 - 4 . Jump up ^ Buchholz , Andrea C ; Schoeller , Dale A. ( 2004 ) . `` Is a Calorie a Calorie ? '' . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 79 ( 5 ) : 899S -- 906S . PMID 15113737 . Retrieved 2007 - 03 - 12 . Jump up ^ Guerrini , Anita ( 2003 ) . Experimenting with Humans and Animals . Johns Hopkins . pp. 98 -- 104 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 7196 - 4 . Jump up ^ Gray , Tara ( 1998 ) . `` A Brief History of Animals in Space '' . National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Timeline : China 's Space Quest '' . CNN.com. 2004 - 01 - 05 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 21 . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Guinea - pig '' . Oxford English Dictionary online ( subscription access required ) . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 22 . Jump up ^ Kallet , Arthur ; Schlink , F.J. ( 1933 ) . 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs : Dangers in Everyday Foods , Drugs , and Cosmetics . Vanguard Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 405 - 08025 - 8 . Jump up ^ McGovern , Charles ( 2004 ) . `` Consumption '' . In Whitfield , Stephen J. A Companion to 20th - Century America . Blackwell . p. 346 . ISBN 0 - 631 - 21100 - 4 . Jump up ^ Vaculík , Ludvík ( 1973 ) . The Guinea Pigs . Third Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89388 - 060 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Gad , Shayne C. ( 2007 ) . Animal Models in Toxicology ( 2nd ed . ) . Taylor & Francis . pp. 334 -- 402 . ISBN 0 - 8247 - 5407 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Reid , Mary Elizabeth ( 1958 ) . The Guinea Pig in Research . Human Factors Research Bureau . pp. 62 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Wagner & Manning 1976 , p. 100 . 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Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , pp. xxvi , 4 , 32 . ^ Jump up to : Nuwanyakpa , M. ; et al. ( November 1997 ) . `` The current stage and future prospects of guinea pig production under smallholder conditions in West Africa '' . Livestock Research for Rural Development . 9 ( 5 ) . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 16 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , pp. 32 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Chip ( 2006 - 11 - 01 ) . `` Guinea Pig : It 's What 's for Dinner '' . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved 2007 - 03 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : Morales , pp. 48 -- 67 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , pp. 3 , 101 -- 112 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , pp. 119 -- 126 . Jump up ^ `` Peruvians Pig - Out '' . ITN. 2007 - 07 - 26 . Archived from the original on 2009 - 05 - 25 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 29 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , pp. xvii , 133 -- 134 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Morales 1995 , pp. 16 -- 17 . Jump up ^ Blench , R.M. 2000 . African minor livestock species . In : Blench , R.M. and MacDonald , K.C. The origins and development of African livestock : Archaeology , genetics , linguistics and enthnography . University College London Press , London , UK ; pp. 314 -- 338 ISBN 1 - 84142 - 018 - 2 . Jump up ^ Manjeli , Y ; Tchoumboue , J ; Njwe , RM ; Teguia , A ( 1998 ) . `` Guinea - pig productivity under traditional management '' . Tropical animal health and production . 30 ( 2 ) : 115 -- 22 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1005099818044 . PMID 9719838 . Jump up ^ Ngou - Ngoupayou , J.D. , Kouonmenioc , J. , Fotso Tagny , J.M. , Cicogna , M. , Castroville , C. , Rigoni , M. and Hardouin , J. 1995 . Possibilités de développement de l'élevage du cobaye en Afrique subsaharienne : le cas du Cameroun . World Animal Review ( FAO / AGA ) 83 ( 2 ) : 21 -- 28 Jump up ^ Bindelle , J ; Ilunga , Y ; Delacollette , M ; Kayij , MM ; Di m'Balu , JU ; Kindele , E ; Buldgen , A ( 2007 ) . `` Voluntary intake , chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of fresh forages fed to guinea pigs in periurban rearing systems of Kinshasa ( Democratic Republic of Congo ) '' . Tropical animal health and production . 39 ( 6 ) : 419 -- 26 . doi : 10.1007 / s11250 - 007 - 9036 - y . PMID 17966272 . Jump up ^ Maass , B.L. , Katunga - Musale , D. , Chiuri , W.L. , Zozo , R. and Peters , M. ( 2010 ) Livelihoods of smallholders in South Kivu depend on small livestock : the case of the `` cobaye '' . Jump up ^ Metre , T.K. ( 2011 ) . `` Small , healthy , high - yielding '' ( PDF ) . Rural21 -- The International Journal for Rural Development . 45 ( 1 ) : 40 -- 42 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ BACAS ( Bureau for Agricultural Consultancy and Advisory Service ) . 2007 . Analysis of the extent of human pressures and impact on natural forests of UNILEVER Tea Tanzania Limited ( UTT ) Archived 2011 - 09 - 28 at the Wayback Machine ... Final Report , BACAS , Sokoine University of Agriculture , Morogoro , Tanzania Jump up ^ Matthiesen et al. ( 2011 ) Importance of guinea pig husbandry for the livelihood of rural people in Tanzania : A case study in Iringa Region . Tropentag , October 5 -- 7 , 2011 , Bonn . Sources Morales , Edmundo ( 1995 ) . The Guinea Pig : Healing , Food , and Ritual in the Andes . University of Arizona Press . ISBN 0 - 8165 - 1558 - 1 . Richardson , V.C.G. ( 2000 ) . Diseases of Domestic Guinea Pigs ( 2nd ed . ) . Blackwell . ISBN 0 - 632 - 05209 - 0 . Terril , Lizabeth A. ; Clemons , Donna J. ( 1998 ) . The Laboratory Guinea Pig . CRC Press . ISBN 0 - 8493 - 2564 - 1 . Vanderlip , Sharon ( 2003 ) . The Guinea Pig Handbook . Barron 's . ISBN 0 - 7641 - 2288 - 6 . Wagner , Joseph E. ; Manning , Patrick J ( 1976 ) . The Biology of the Guinea Pig . Academic Press . ISBN 0 - 12 - 730050 - 3 . External links The dictionary definition of guinea pig at Wiktionary Data related to Cavia porcellus at Wikispecies Media related to Cavia porcellus at Wikimedia Commons Animal Care / Guinea pig at Wikibooks ACBA -- American Cavy Breeders ' Association View the guinea pig genome on Ensembl Extant species of family Caviidae ( Cavies ) Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Mammalia Order : Rodentia Suborder : Hystricomorpha Caviinae Galea ( Yellow - toothed cavies ) Yellow - toothed Cavy ( Galea flavidens ) Common Yellow - toothed Cavy ( Galea musteloides ) Spix 's Yellow - toothed Cavy ( Galea spixii ) Muenster Yellow - toothed Cavy ( Galea monasteriensis ) Microcavia ( Mountain cavies ) Southern Mountain Cavy ( Microcavia australis ) Andean Mountain Cavy ( Microcavia niata ) Shipton 's Mountain Cavy ( Microcavia shiptoni ) Cavia ( Guinea pigs ) Brazilian Guinea Pig ( Cavia aperea ) Shiny Guinea Pig ( Cavia fulgida ) Santa Catarina ́ s Guinea Pig ( Cavia intermedia ) Greater Guinea Pig ( Cavia magna ) Guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus ) Montane Guinea Pig ( Cavia tschudii ) Dolichotinae Dolichotis ( Maras ) Patagonian Mara ( Dolichotis patagonum ) Chacoan Mara ( Dolichotis salinicola ) Hydrochaerinae Hydrochoerus Capybara ( Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris ) Lesser Capybara ( Hydrochoerus isthmius ) Kerodon ( Rock cavies ) Rock Cavy ( Kerodon rupestris ) Acrobatic cavy ( Kerodon acrobata ) Meat Main articles Entomophagy Fish Game Livestock Meat Poultry Seafood Poultry and game Alligator Bear Chicken Crocodile Duck Goose Grouse Kangaroo Monkey Ostrich Partridge Pheasant Bat Pigeon Quail Rabbit Seal Snake Turkey Turtle Venison Livestock and minilivestock Beef Bison Black soldier fly maggots Buffalo Camel Cat Crickets Dog Elephant Frog Goat Grasshoppers Guinea pig Horse Lamb and mutton Llama Mealworm Silkworm Mopane worm Palm grub Pork Veal Yak Fish and seafood Abalone Anchovy Basa Bass Calamari Carp Catfish Cod Crab Crappie Crayfish Dolphin Eel Flounder Grouper Haddock Halibut Herring Kingfish Lobster Mackerel Mahi Mahi Marlin Milkfish Mussel Octopus Orange roughy Oyster Pacific saury Perch Pike Pollock Salmon Sardine Scallop Shark Shrimp / prawn Sole Swai Swordfish Tilapia Trout Tuna Sea urchin Walleye Whale Cuts and preparation Aged Bacon Barbecued Braised Burger Charcuterie Chop Corned Cured Cutlet Dried Dum Fillet / Supreme Fried Ground Ham Kebab Liver Luncheon meat Marinated Meatball Meatloaf Offal Pickled Poached Roasted Salt - 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where does the phrase getting cold feet come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cold_feet&oldid=781161744

Cold feet - wikipedia Cold feet Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Cold feet ( disambiguation ) . This article 's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents . To comply with Wikipedia 's lead section guidelines , please consider modifying the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article 's key points in such a way that it can stand on its own as a concise version of the article . ( discuss ) . ( February 2014 ) Contents ( hide ) 1 Definitions ( psychological ) 2 Origin and history 3 Common uses 3.1 Marriage 4 References 5 External links Definitions ( psychological ) ( edit ) Apprehension or doubt strong enough to prevent a planned course of action . A loss or lack of courage or confidence ; an onset of uncertainty or fear . To `` have cold feet '' is to be too fearful to undertake or complete an action . A wave of timidity or fearfulness . Loss or lack of courage or confidence . Timidity that prevents the continuation of a course of action . Origin and history ( edit ) The origin of the term itself has been largely attributed to American author Stephen Crane , who added the phrase , in 1896 , to the second edition of his short novel , Maggie : A Girl of the Streets . Crane writes , `` I knew this was the way it would be . They got cold feet . '' The term is present in `` Seed Time and Harvest '' by Fritz Reuter published in 1862 . Kenneth McKenzie , a former professor of Italian at Princeton University attributed the first use of the phrase to the play Volpone produced by Ben Jonson in 1605 . The true origin and first usage of the phrase remains debated and unconfirmed as exemplified above . Common uses ( edit ) Marriage ( edit ) A common use of the phrase is when people fear the commitment of marriage and get `` cold feet '' before a wedding ceremony . This pre-marital doubt or fear may manifest for a variety of reasons and sometimes cause the bride or groom to back out of a planned marriage . Original research on the `` cold feet '' phenomenon is very limited and warrants further studies . However , a four - year study conducted by UCLA researchers found feelings of pre-marital doubt or uncertainty about an impending marriage were associated with future marital problems and a viable predictor of divorce . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Cold feet - Definition '' . Merriam - Webster Dictionary . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet '' . Dictionary.com . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet definition '' . The American Heritage ® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy , Third Edition . Houghton Mifflin Company . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Spears , Richard . `` cold feet '' . Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions . McGraw Hill . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet '' . Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition . William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet '' . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Barnhart , David K. ( 1997 ) . America in So Many Words : Words That Have Shaped America . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . p. 191 . ^ Jump up to : Engber , Daniel . `` When Did We Get `` Cold Feet '' ? The Germans had ' em first ! `` . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Zoulas , Peter . `` Take Our Word For It , Issue 77 '' . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Reuter , Fritz . `` Seed - time and Harvest '' . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Tony Mathews ( 2003 ) , There 's More Than One Color in the Pew ^ Jump up to : Hutson , Matthew . `` Brides and Grooms : Cold Feet '' . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bride 's `` Cold feet '' May Predict Divorce `` . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Lavner , Justin ; Benjamin Karney ; Thomas Bradbury ( 2012 ) . `` Do Cold Feet Warn of Trouble Ahead ? Premarital Uncertainty and Four - Year Marital Outcomes '' . Journal of Family Psychology . 26 ( 6 ) : 1012 -- 1017 . doi : 10.1037 / a0029912 . External links ( edit ) Look up cold feet in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . `` Expert Advice on Cold Feet '' -- Article from Brides Magazine `` Cold Feet Common in Brides - to - Be '' ABC News Good Morning America , May 1 , 2005 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_feet&oldid=781161744 '' Categories : Human behavior Metaphors referring to body parts Hidden categories : Wikipedia introduction cleanup from February 2014 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from February 2014 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from February 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 19 May 2017 , at 13 : 36 . About Wikipedia

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what does the prime minister of france do

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Prime_Minister_of_France&oldid=803634728

Prime Minister of France - Wikipedia Prime Minister of France Jump to : navigation , search Prime Minister of France Premier ministre français Incumbent Édouard Philippe since 15 May 2017 Style His / Her Excellency Member of Cabinet Council of State Reports to President of the Republic and to Parliament Residence Hôtel Matignon Seat Paris , France Appointer President of the Republic Term length No fixed term Remains in office while commanding the confidence of the National Assembly and the President of the Republic Constituting instrument Constitution of 4 October 1958 Precursor Several incarnations since the Ancien Régime Formation 1958 First holder Michel Debré Salary 14,910 euro / month Website www.gouvernement.fr France This article is part of a series on the politics and government of France Republic ( show ) Fifth Republic Constitution Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Executive ( show ) President ( list ) Emmanuel Macron Prime Minister ( list ) Édouard Philippe Government Philippe II Legislature ( show ) National Assembly President : François de Rugy Senate President : Gérard Larcher Congress of the French Parliament Judiciary ( show ) Constitutional Council Council of State Court of Cassation Court of Audit Cour de Justice de la République Administrative divisions ( show ) Regions Departments Elections ( show ) Presidential Legislative Municipal Political parties Foreign relations ( show ) Africa Americas Asia France and the United Nations Foreign alliances Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs Related topics ( show ) Human rights Political scandals France portal Other countries Atlas The French Prime Minister ( French : Premier ministre français ) in the Fifth Republic is the head of government and of the Council of Ministers of France . During the Third and Fourth Republics , the head of government position was called President of the Council of Ministers ( French : Président du Conseil des Ministres ) , generally shortened to President of the Council ( French : Président du Conseil ) . The Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers to the President of the Republic . Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister , like almost all executive decisions , are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system . Few decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State ( French : Conseil d'État ) . All prime ministers defend the programs of their ministry , and make budgetary choices . The extent to which those decisions lie with the Prime Minister or President depends upon whether they are of the same party . Manuel Valls was appointed to lead the government in a cabinet reshuffle in March 2014 , after the ruling Socialists suffered a bruising defeat in local elections . However , he resigned on 6 December 2016 , to stand in the French Socialist Party presidential primary , 2017 and Bernard Cazeneuve was appointed as Prime Minister later that day by President François Hollande . Cazeneuve resigned on 10 May 2017 . Édouard Philippe was named his successor on 15 May 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Nomination 2 Role 3 History 4 Present 5 Fifth Republic records 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Nomination ( edit ) The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic , who can select whomever they want . While prime ministers are usually chosen from amongst the ranks of the National Assembly , on rare occasions the President has selected a non-officeholder because of their experience in bureaucracy or foreign service , or their success in business management -- Dominique de Villepin , for example , served as Prime Minister from 2005 to 2007 without ever having held an elected office . On the other hand , while the Prime Minister does not have to ask for vote of confidence after cabinet 's formation and they can depend their legitimacy on the President 's assignment as Prime Minister and approval of the cabinet , because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the cabinet by motion of no confidence , the choice of Prime Minister must reflect the will of the majority in the Assembly . For example , right after the legislative election of 1986 , President François Mitterrand had to appoint Jacques Chirac Prime Minister although Chirac was a member of the RPR ( Rally for the Republic ) and therefore a political opponent of Mitterrand . Despite the fact that Mitterrand 's own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly , it did not have an absolute majority . The RPR had an alliance with the UDF , which gave them a majority . Such a situation , where the President is forced to work with a Prime Minister who is an opponent , is called a cohabitation . Édith Cresson is the only woman to have held the position of Prime Minister . Aristide Briand holds the record for number of cabinet formations as Prime Minister with 11 times . He served between 1909 and 1929 with some terms as short as 26 days . Role ( edit ) According to article 21 of the Constitution , the Prime Minister `` shall direct the actions of the Government '' ; in addition , article 20 stipulates that the Government `` shall determine and conduct the policy of the Nation '' . Other members of Government are appointed by the President `` on the recommendation of the Prime Minister '' . In practice the Prime Minister acts on the impulse of the President to whom he is a subordinate , except when there is a cohabitation in which case his responsibilities are akin to those of a prime minister in a parliamentary system . The Prime Minister can `` engage the responsibility '' of his or her Government before the National Assembly . This process consists of placing a bill before the Assembly , and either the Assembly overthrows the Government , or the bill is passed automatically ( article 49 ) . In addition to ensuring that the Government still has support in the House , some bills that might prove too controversial to pass through the normal Assembly rules are able to be passed this way . The Prime Minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council ( article 61 ) . Before he is allowed to dissolve the Assembly , the President has to consult the Prime Minister and the presidents of both Houses of Parliament ( article 12 ) . History ( edit ) Official reception at Hôtel Matignon . The office of the prime minister , in its current form , dates from the formation of the French Third Republic . Under the French Constitutional Laws of 1875 , the position was imbued with the same powers as his British counterpart . In practice , however , the prime minister was a fairly weak figure , serving as little more than the cabinet 's `` primus inter pares '' . Most notably , the legislature had the power to force the entire cabinet out of office by a vote of censure . As a result , cabinets were often toppled twice a year , and there were long stretches where France was left with only a caretaker government . The 1958 Constitution includes several provisions intended to strengthen the prime minister 's position . For instance , restrictions were placed on votes of censure . Present ( edit ) The current prime minister is Édouard Philippe , who was appointed on 15 May 2017 . Fifth Republic records ( edit ) Length of the successive governments of the french Fifth Republic The only person to serve as Prime Minister more than once under the Fifth Republic was Jacques Chirac ( 1974 -- 1976 and 1986 -- 1988 ) . The youngest appointed Prime Minister was Laurent Fabius , on 17 July 1984 . He was 37 years old . The oldest appointed Prime Minister was Pierre Bérégovoy , on 2 April 1992 . He was 66 years old . The only woman who was appointed at the head of government is Edith Cresson , Prime minister from 1991 to 1992 . Two Prime Ministers were mayor of Bordeaux , and at the same time prime minister , Jacques Chaban - Delmas ( 1969 -- 1972 ) and Alain Juppé ( 1995 -- 1997 ) . The longest - serving Prime Minister was Georges Pompidou , 6 years , 2 months and 26 days , from 1962 to 1968 . The shortest - serving Prime Minister was Bernard Cazeneuve , 5 months and 4 days , from 2016 to 2017 . Three Prime Ministers were born abroad : Édouard Balladur in İzmir , Turkey , Dominique de Villepin in Rabat , Morocco and Manuel Valls in Barcelona , Spain . See also ( edit ) Hôtel Matignon First Minister of State List of Prime Ministers of France References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Constitutional Council -- Constitution of 4 October 1958 Jump up ^ Britannica Mobile -- iPhone Edition ^ Jump up to : Welcome to the english website of the French National Assembly -- Assemblée nationale External links ( edit ) www.gouvernement.fr Heads of state and government of Europe Heads of state UN members and observers Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City Partially recognised Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Unrecognised states Artsakh Transnistria Former countries Czechoslovakia East Germany Serbia and Montenegro Soviet Union Yugoslavia Heads of government UN members and observers Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City Partially recognised Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Unrecognised states Artsakh Transnistria Former countries Czechoslovakia Irish Free State East Germany Serbia and Montenegro Soviet Union Yugoslavia 1 . Partially or entirely in Asia , depending on geographical definition . 2 . Recognised by at least one United Nations member . 3 . Not recognised by any United Nations members . Heads of government of France ( list ) Restoration Talleyrand Richelieu Dessolles Decazes Richelieu Villèle Martignac Polignac July Monarchy V. de Broglie Laffitte Perier Soult Gérard Maret Mortier V. de Broglie Thiers Molé Soult Thiers Soult Guizot Molé Second Republic Dupont de l'Eure Arago Cavaignac Barrot Hautpoul Faucher Second Empire Ollivier Cousin - Montauban Interregnum Trochu Third Republic Dufaure A. de Broglie Cissey Buffet Dufaure Simon A. de Broglie Rochebouët Dufaure Waddington Freycinet Ferry Gambetta Freycinet Duclerc Fallières Ferry Brisson Freycinet Goblet Rouvier Floquet Tirard Freycinet Loubet Ribot Dupuy Casimir - Perier Dupuy Ribot Bourgeois Méline Brisson Dupuy Waldeck - Rousseau Combes Rouvier Sarrien Clemenceau Briand Monis Caillaux Poincaré Briand Barthou Doumergue Ribot Viviani Briand Ribot Painlevé Clemenceau Millerand Leygues Briand Poincaré François - Marsal Herriot Painlevé Briand Herriot Poincaré Briand Tardieu Chautemps Tardieu Steeg Laval Tardieu Herriot Paul - Boncour Daladier Sarraut Chautemps Daladier Doumergue Flandin Bouisson Laval Sarraut Blum Chautemps Blum Daladier Reynaud Pétain Vichy France Pétain Laval Flandin Darlan Laval Provisional Government De Gaulle Gouin Bidault Blum Fourth Republic Ramadier Schuman Marie Schuman Queuille Bidault Queuille Pleven Queuille Pleven Faure Pinay Mayer Laniel Mendès France Faure Mollet Bourgès - Maunoury Gaillard Pflimlin De Gaulle Fifth Republic De Gaulle Debré Pompidou Couve de Murville Chaban - Delmas Messmer Chirac Barre Mauroy Fabius Chirac Rocard Cresson Bérégovoy Balladur Juppé Jospin Raffarin Villepin Fillon Ayrault Valls Cazeneuve Philippe Prime minister Prime Ministers by country Abkhazia Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Armenia Artsakh Aruba Australia Azerbaijan Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Bermuda Bhutan Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Congo ( Kinshasa ) Cook Islands Croatia Cuba Curaçao Northern Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica East Timor Egypt Equatorial Guinea Estonia Faroe Islands Fiji Finland France Ghana Georgia Greece Greenland Grenada Guinea Guyana Haiti Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya North Korea South Korea Kosovo Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malaysia Malta Mauritius Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Myanmar ( Burma ) Nagorno - Karabakh Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Niue Norway Pakistan Papua New Guinea Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa São Tomé and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Singapore Sint Maarten Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Ossetia Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Swaziland Sweden Syria Taiwan ( Republic of China ) Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkmenistan Turkey Turks and Caicos Islands Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Uzbekistan Vanuatu Vietnam Yemen Western Sahara Zambia Zimbabwe Politics of France portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prime_Minister_of_France&oldid=803634728 '' Categories : Prime Ministers of France Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from May 2017 Articles containing French - language text Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Brezhoneg Català Dansk Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Lëtzebuergesch Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Română Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2017 , at 18 : 27 . 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which industry provides the largest employment in india

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Economy_of_India&oldid=846587463

Economy of India - Wikipedia Economy of India Economy of India Mumbai , Maharashtra the financial center of India Currency Indian rupee ( INR ) ₹ 1 = 100 Paise Fiscal year 1 April -- 31 March Trade organisations WTO , WCO , WFTU , G - 20 , BIS , AIIB , ADB , WCO Statistics GDP $2.848 trillion ( nominal ; 2018 est ) $10.385 trillion ( PPP ; 2018 est ) GDP rank 7th ( nominal ) 3rd ( PPP ) GDP growth 7.7 % ( Q4 , 2017 - 18 ) ( MOSPI ) GDP per capita $2,134 ( nominal ; 2018 est ) $7,783 ( PPP ; 2018 est ) GDP per capita rank 139th ( nominal ) 122nd ( PPP ) GDP by sector Agriculture : 17.32 % Industry : 29.02 % Services : 53.66 % ( 2016 est . ) Inflation ( CPI ) 4.28 % ( March 2018 ) Base borrowing rate 6.25 % ( as on 25 May 2018 ) Population below poverty line 21.2 % live less than $1.90 / day ( 2011 ) ( World bank estimate ) Gini coefficient 33.9 ( 2013 ) Human Development Index 0.624 ( 2015 ) medium ( 131st ) Labour force 520.2 million ( 2017 est . ) Labour force by occupation Agriculture : 47 % Industry : 22 % Services : 31 % ( FY 2014 est . ) Unemployment 8.8 % ( 2017 est . ) Average net salary ₹ 82,269 / $1,284 annually ( 2016 - 17 ) Main industries Textiles chemicals food processing steel cement mining petroleum machinery software pharmaceuticals transportation equipment Ease - of - doing - business rank 100 ( 2017 ) External Exports $302.8 billion ( 2017 ) Export goods Agricultural products 13.2 % Fuels and mining products 15.7 % Manufacturers 68.4 % Others 2.7 % Main export partners European Union 17.6 % United States 16.1 % United Arab Emirates 11.5 % Hong Kong 5.1 % China 3.4 % Other 46.3 % Imports $459.8 billion ( 2017 ) Import goods Agricultural products 7.1 % Fuels and mining products 33.1 % Manufacturers 47.8 % Other 12 % Main import partners China 17 % European Union 11.3 % United States 5.7 % United Arab Emirates 5.4 % Saudi Arabia 5.2 % Other 55.5 % FDI stock Inward : $377.68 billion Outward : $155.34 billion ( 2017 ) Current account 0.7 % of GDP ( 2016 -- 17 ) Gross external debt $513.4 billion ( 31 December 2017 ) Net international investment position - $429.7 billion ( Dec. 2017 ) Public finances Public debt 67.7 % of GDP ( 2017 ) Budget balance - ₹ 12.25 trillion ( US $180 billion ) ( 2018 ) Revenues ₹ 39.86 trillion ( US $590 billion ) ( 2018 ) Expenses ₹ 52.11 trillion ( US $780 billion ) ( 2018 ) Economic aid $2.68 billion ( 2016 ) Credit rating Standard & Poor 's : BBB − ( Domestic ) BBB − ( Foreign ) BBB+ ( T&C Assessment ) Outlook : Stable Moody 's : Baa2 Outlook : Stable Fitch : BBB − Outlook : Stable Foreign reserves $426.082 billion ( 13 April 2018 ) ( 7th ) Main data source : CIA World Fact Book All values , unless otherwise stated , are in US dollars . The economy of India is a developing mixed economy . It is the world 's seventh - largest economy by nominal GDP and the third - largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . The country ranks 139th in per capita GDP ( nominal ) with $2,134 and 122nd in per capita GDP ( PPP ) with $7,783 as of 2018 . After 1991 economic liberalisation , India achieved 6 - 7 % average GDP growth annually . In FY 2015 and 2018 India 's economy became the world 's fastest growing major economy , surpassing China . The long - term growth prospective of the Indian economy is positive due to its young population , corresponding low dependency ratio , healthy savings and investment rates , and increasing integration into the global economy . India topped the World Bank 's growth outlook for the first time in fiscal year 2015 -- 16 , during which the economy grew 7.6 % . Despite previous reforms , economic growth is still significantly slowed by bureaucracy , poor infrastructure , and inflexible labor laws ( especially the inability to lay off workers in a business slowdown ) . India has one of the fastest growing service sectors in the world with an annual growth rate above 9 % since 2001 , which contributed to 57 % of GDP in 2012 -- 13 . India has become a major exporter of IT services , Business Process Outsourcing ( BPO ) services , and software services with $154 billion revenue in FY 2017 . This is the fastest - growing part of the economy . The IT industry continues to be the largest private - sector employer in India . India is the third - largest start - up hub in the world with over 3,100 technology start - ups in 2014 -- 15 The agricultural sector is the largest employer in India 's economy but contributes to a declining share of its GDP ( 17 % in 2013 -- 14 ) . India ranks second worldwide in farm output . The industry ( manufacturing ) sector has held a steady share of its economic contribution ( 26 % of GDP in 2013 -- 14 ) . The Indian automobile industry is one of the largest in the world with an annual production of 21.48 million vehicles ( mostly two and three - wheelers ) in 2013 -- 14 . India had $600 billion worth of retail market in 2015 and one of world 's fastest growing e-commerce markets . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Ancient and medieval eras 1.1. 1 Indus Valley Civilisation 1.1. 2 West Coast 1.1. 3 Silk Route 1.2 Mughal era ( 1526 -- 1793 ) 1.3 British era ( 1793 -- 1947 ) 1.4 Pre-liberalisation period ( 1947 -- 1991 ) 1.5 Post-liberalisation period ( since 1991 ) 2 Sectors 3 Agriculture 4 Manufacturing 4.1 Petroleum products and Chemicals 4.2 Pharmaceuticals 4.3 Engineering 4.4 Gems and jewellery 4.5 Textile 4.6 Defence 4.7 Pulp and paper 5 Services 5.1 Aviation 5.1. 1 Nationalisation 5.1. 2 De-regulation 5.2 Banking and financial services 5.3 Financial technology 5.4 Information technology 5.5 Insurance 5.6 Electricity sector 5.7 Infrastructure 5.8 Retail 5.9 Tourism 5.10 Education 5.11 Entertainment industry 5.12 Healthcare 5.13 Logistics 5.14 Printing 5.15 Telecommunications 6 Mining and Construction 6.1 Mining 6.2 Iron and steel 6.3 Construction 7 Foreign trade and investment 7.1 Foreign trade 7.2 Balance of payments 7.3 Foreign direct investment 7.3. 1 Outflows 7.4 Remittances 7.5 Mergers and Acquisitions 8 Currency 9 Income and consumption 9.1 Poverty 10 Employment 11 Economic trends and issues 11.1 Agriculture 11.2 Corruption 11.3 Education 11.4 Economic disparities 12 Security markets 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links History Main articles : Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of the Indian subcontinent The combination of protectionist , import - substitution , Fabian socialism , and social democratic - inspired policies governed India for sometime after the end of British rule . The economy was then characterised by extensive regulation , protectionism , public ownership of large monopolies , pervasive corruption and slow growth . Since 1991 , continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country towards a market - based economy . By 2008 , India had established itself as one of the world 's faster - growing economies . Ancient and medieval eras Indus valley Civilisation The citizens of the Indus Valley Civilisation , a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC , practised agriculture , domesticated animals , used uniform weights and measures , made tools and weapons , and traded with other cities . Evidence of well - planned streets , a drainage system and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning , which included the first - known urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government . The spice trade between India and Europe was the main catalyst for the Age of Discovery . For a continuous duration of nearly 1700 years from the year 1 AD , India is the top most economy constituting 35 to 40 % of world GDP . West coast Maritime trade was carried out extensively between South India and Southeast and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century AD . Both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BC , used for import and export as well as transit points between the Mediterranean region and southeast Asia . Over time , traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage . Historians Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib claim this state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century AD , when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi , Jewish , Syrian Christian and Muslim communities , initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast . Silk route Atashgah is a temple built by Indian traders before 1745 , west of the Caspian Sea . The inscription shown is in Sanskrit ( above ) and Persian . Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries . During this period , Indian traders settled in Surakhani , a suburb of greater Baku , Azerbaijan . These traders built a Hindu temple , which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century . Further north , the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade , and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river - borne commerce . Most overland trade was carried out via the Khyber Pass connecting the Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia . Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins , barter was prevalent . Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers , while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services . Silver coin of the Maurya Empire , 3rd century BC . Silver coin of the Gupta dynasty , 5th century AD . Mughal era ( 1526 -- 1793 ) Main article : Mughal economy See also : Muslin trade in Bengal and Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore The Indian economy was large and prosperous under the Mughal Empire , up until the 18th century . Sean Harkin estimates China and India may have accounted for 60 to 70 percent of world GDP in the 17th century . The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of coined currency , land revenue and trade . Gold , silver and copper coins were issued by the royal mints which functioned on the basis of free coinage . The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralised administration under the Mughals , coupled with a well - developed internal trade network , ensured that India -- before the arrival of the British -- was to a large extent economically unified , despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of subsistence agriculture , with 64 % of the workforce in the primary sector ( including agriculture ) , but with 36 % of the workforce also in the secondary and tertiary sectors , higher than in Europe , where 65 -- 90 % of its workforce were in agriculture in 1700 and 65 -- 75 % were in agriculture in 1750 . Agricultural production increased under Mughal agrarian reforms , with Indian agriculture being advanced compared to Europe at the time , such as the widespread use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in European agriculture , and higher per - capita agricultural output and standards of consumption . A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin , 18th century . The Mughal Empire had a thriving industrial manufacturing economy , with India producing about 25 % of the world 's industrial output up until 1750 , making it the most important manufacturing center in international trade . Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world . Key industries included textiles , shipbuilding , and steel , and processed exports included cotton textiles , yarns , thread , silk , jute products , metalware , and foods such as sugar , oils and butter . Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire , which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time , with 15 % of its population living in urban centres , higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century . In early modern Europe , there was significant demand for products from Mughal India , particularly cotton textiles , as well as goods such as spices , peppers , indigo , silks , and saltpeter ( for use in munitions ) . European fashion , for example , became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks . From the late 17th century to the early 18th century , Mughal India accounted for 95 % of British imports from Asia , and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40 % of Dutch imports from Asia . In contrast , there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India , which was largely self - sufficient . Indian goods , especially those from Bengal , were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets , such as Indonesia and Japan . At the time , Mughal Bengal was the most important center of cotton textile production and shipbuilding . In the early 18th century , the Mughal Empire declined , as it lost western , central and parts of south and north India to the Maratha Empire , which integrated and continued to administer those regions . The decline of the Mughal Empire led to decreased agricultural productivity , which in turn negatively affected the textile industry . The subcontinent 's dominant economic power in the post-Mughal era was the Bengal Subah in the east. , which continued to maintain thriving textile industries and relatively high real wages . However , the former was devastated by the Maratha invasions of Bengal and then British colonization in the mid-18th century . After the loss at the Third Battle of Panipat , the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states , and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country -- although this was mitigated by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms . By the late eighteenth century , the British East India Company had entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers . This marked a determinative shift in India 's trade , and a less - powerful impact on the rest of the economy . British era ( 1793 -- 1947 ) Main articles : Economy of India under Company rule and Economy of India under the British Raj There is no doubt that our grievances against the British Empire had a sound basis . As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown , India 's share of world income collapsed from 22.6 % in 1700 , almost equal to Europe 's share of 23.3 % at that time , to as low as 3.8 % in 1952 . Indeed , at the beginning of the 20th century , `` the brightest jewel in the British Crown '' was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income . -- Manmohan Singh The global contribution to world 's GDP by major economies from 1 CE to 2003 CE according to Angus Maddison 's estimates . Up until the 18th century , China and India were the two largest economies by GDP output . From the beginning of the 19th century , the British East India Company 's gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies , which tended to promote commercialisation of agriculture with a focus on trade , resulting in decreased production of food crops , mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers , and in the short term , led to numerous famines . The economic policies of the British Raj caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and handloom sectors , due to reduced demand and dipping employment . After the removal of international restrictions by the Charter of 1813 , Indian trade expanded substantially with steady growth . The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to England , which , due to the colonial policies of the British , led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy . Estimated GDP per capita of India and United Kingdom during 1700 -- 1950 in 1990 US $ according to Maddison . However , Maddison 's estimates for 18th - century India have been criticized as gross underestimates , Bairoch estimates India had a higher GDP per capita in the 18th century , and Parthasarathi 's findings show higher real wages in 18th - century Bengal and Mysore . But there is consensus that India 's per capita GDP and income stagnated during the colonial era , starting in the late 18th century . Under British rule , India 's share of the world economy declined from 24.4 % in 1700 down to 4.2 % in 1950 . India 's GDP ( PPP ) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule . India 's share of global industrial output declined from 25 % in 1750 down to 2 % in 1900 . At the same time , the United Kingdom 's share of the world economy rose from 2.9 % in 1700 up to 9 % in 1870 . The British East India Company , following their conquest of Bengal in 1757 , had forced open the large Indian market to British goods , which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties , compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed , while in Britain protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there , whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market . British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India 's large market and cotton resources . India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods . British territorial expansion in India throughout the 19th century created an institutional environment that , on paper , guaranteed property rights among the colonisers , encouraged free trade , and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates , standardised weights and measures and capital markets within the company - held territories . It also established a system of railways and telegraphs , a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference , a common - law and an adversarial legal system . This coincided with major changes in the world economy -- industrialisation , and significant growth in production and trade . However , at the end of colonial rule , India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world , with industrial development stalled , agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population , a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force , and extremely inadequate infrastructure . The 1872 census revealed that 91.3 % of the population of the region constituting present - day India resided in villages . This was a decline from the earlier Mughal era , when 85 % of the population resided in villages and 15 % in urban centers under Akbar 's reign in 1600 . Urbanisation generally remained sluggish in British India until the 1920s , due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation . Subsequently , the policy of discriminating protection ( where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state ) , coupled with the Second World War , saw the development and dispersal of industries , encouraging rural -- urban migration , and in particular the large port cities of Bombay , Calcutta and Madras grew rapidly . Despite this , only one - sixth of India 's population lived in cities by 1951 . The impact of British rule on India 's economy is a controversial topic . Leaders of the Indian independence movement and economic historians have blamed colonial rule for the dismal state of India 's economy in its aftermath and argued that financial strength required for industrial development in Britain was derived from the wealth taken from India . At the same time , right - wing historians have countered that India 's low economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration . Several economic historians have argued that real wage decline occurred in the early 19th century , or possibly beginning in the very late 18th century , largely as a result of British imperialism . Economic historian Prasannan Parthasarathi presented earnings data which showed real wages and living standards in 18th century Bengal and Mysore being higher than in Britain , which in turn had the highest living standards in Europe . Mysore 's average per - capita income was five times higher than subsistence level , i.e. five times higher than $400 ( 1990 international dollars ) , or $2,000 per capita . In comparison , the highest national per - capita incomes in 1820 were $1,838 for the Netherlands and $1,706 for Britain . It has also been argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire . Pre-liberalisation period ( 1947 -- 1991 ) Main article : Licence Raj Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience , which was seen as exploitative by Indian leaders exposed to British social democracy and the planned economy of the Soviet Union . Domestic policy tended towards protectionism , with a strong emphasis on import substitution industrialisation , economic interventionism , a large government - run public sector , business regulation , and central planning , while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal . Five - Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union . Steel , mining , machine tools , telecommunications , insurance , and power plants , among other industries , were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s . Change in per capita GDP of India , 1820 -- 2015 . Figures are inflation - adjusted to 1990 International Geary - Khamis dollars . Never talk to me about profit , Jeh , it is a dirty word . -- Nehru , India 's Fabian Socialism - inspired first prime minister to industrialist J.R.D. Tata , when Tata suggested state - owned companies should be profitable Jawaharlal Nehru , the first prime minister of India , along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis , formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country 's independence . They expected favourable outcomes from their strategy , involving the rapid development of heavy industry by both public and private sectors , and based on direct and indirect state intervention , rather than the more extreme Soviet - style central command system . The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital - and technology - intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual , low - skill cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman , who thought it would waste capital and labour , and retard the development of small manufacturers . The rate of growth of the Indian economy in the first three decades after independence was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth by economists , because of the unfavourable comparison with growth rates in other Asian countries . I can not decide how much to borrow , what shares to issue , at what price , what wages and bonus to pay , and what dividend to give . I even need the government 's permission for the salary I pay to a senior executive . -- J.R.D. Tata , on the Indian regulatory system , 1969 Since 1965 , the use of high - yielding varieties of seeds , increased fertilisers and improved irrigation facilities collectively contributed to the Green Revolution in India , which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity , improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry . However , it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort , resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming , ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities . Subsequently , the Emergency and Garibi Hatao concept under which income tax levels at one point rose to a maximum of 97.5 % -- a world record for non-communist economies -- started diluting the earlier efforts . In the late 1970s , the government led by Morarji Desai eased restrictions on capacity expansion for incumbent companies , removed price controls , reduced corporate taxes and promoted the creation of small - scale industries in large numbers . Post-liberalisation period ( since 1991 ) Main articles : Economic liberalisation in India and Economic development in India The GDP is exponential and almost double every 5 years . Indian GDP growth rate from 1985 to 2016 in red , compared to that of China in green . The collapse of the Soviet Union , which was India 's major trading partner , and the Gulf War , which caused a spike in oil prices , resulted in a major balance - of - payments crisis for India , which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans . India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , which in return demanded de-regulation . In response , the Narasimha Rao government , including Finance Minister Manmohan Singh , initiated economic reforms in 1991 . The reforms did away with the Licence Raj , reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies , allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors . Since then , the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same , although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers , on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies . By the turn of the 21st century , India had progressed towards a free - market economy , with a substantial reduction in state control of the economy and increased financial liberalisation . This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy , literacy rates and food security , although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents . While the credit rating of India was hit by its nuclear weapons tests in 1998 , it has since been raised to investment level in 2003 by Standard & Poor 's ( S&P ) and Moody 's . India experienced high growth rates , averaging 9 % from 2003 to 2007 . Growth then moderated in 2008 due to the global financial crisis . In 2003 , Goldman Sachs predicted that India 's GDP in current prices would overtake France and Italy by 2020 , Germany , UK and Russia by 2025 and Japan by 2035 , making it the third - largest economy of the world , behind the US and China . India is often seen by most economists as a rising economic superpower which will play a major role in the 21st - century global economy . Starting in 2012 , India entered a period of reduced growth , which slowed to 5.6 % . Other economic problems also became apparent : a plunging Indian rupee , a persistent high current account deficit and slow industrial growth . Hit by the US Federal Reserve 's decision to taper quantitative easing , foreign investors began rapidly pulling money out of India -- though this reversed with the stock market approaching its all - time high and the current account deficit narrowing substantially . India started recovery in 2013 -- 14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4 % from the previous year 's 5.5 % . The acceleration continued through 2014 - 15 and 2015 -- 16 with growth rates of 7.5 % and 8.0 % respectively . For the first time since 1990 , India grew faster than China which registered 6.9 % growth in 2015 . However the growth rate subsequently decelerated , to 7.1 % and 6.6 % in 2016 - 17 and 2017 - 18 respectively , partly because of the disruptive effects of 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax ( India ) . India is ranked 100th out of 190 countries in the World Bank 's 2018 ease of doing business index , up 30 points from the last year 's 130 . This is first time in history where India got into the top 100 rank . In terms of dealing with construction permits and enforcing contracts , it is ranked among the 10 worst in the world , while it has a relatively favourable ranking when it comes to protecting minority investors or getting credit . The strong efforts taken by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion ( DIPP ) to boost ease of doing business rankings at the state level is said to impact the overall rankings of India . Sectors Percent labour employment in India by economic sectors ( 2010 ) . Contribution to GDP of India by economic sectors of Indian economy have evolved between 1951 and 2013 , as its economy has diversified and developed . Historically , India has classified and tracked its economy and GDP in three sectors : agriculture , industry and services . Agriculture includes crops , horticulture , milk and animal husbandry , aquaculture , fishing , sericulture , aviculture , forestry and related activities . Industry includes various manufacturing sub-sectors . India 's definition of services sector includes its construction , retail , software , IT , communications , hospitality , infrastructure operations , education , health care , banking and insurance , and many other economic activities . Agriculture Rice fields near Puri , Odisha on India 's east coast Main articles : Agriculture in India , Forestry in India , Animal husbandry in India , Fishing in India , and Natural resources in India India ranks second worldwide in farm output . Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry , logging and fishing accounted for 17 % of the GDP and employed 49 % of its total workforce in 2014 . Agriculture accounted for 23 % of GDP , and employed 59 % of the country 's total workforce in 2016 . As the Indian economy has diversified and grown , agriculture 's contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2011 , yet it is still the country 's largest employment source and a significant piece of its overall socio - economic development . Crop - yield - per - unit - area of all crops has grown since 1950 , due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five - year plans and steady improvements in irrigation , technology , application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India . However , international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30 % to 50 % of the highest average yield in the world . The states of Uttar Pradesh , Punjab , Haryana , Madhya Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh , Telangana , Bihar , West Bengal , Gujarat and Maharashtra are key contributors to Indian agriculture . India receives an average annual rainfall of 1,208 millimetres ( 47.6 in ) and a total annual precipitation of 4000 billion cubic metres , with the total utilisable water resources , including surface and groundwater , amounting to 1123 billion cubic metres . 546,820 square kilometres ( 211,130 sq mi ) of the land area , or about 39 % of the total cultivated area , is irrigated . India 's inland water resources and marine resources provide employment to nearly six million people in the fisheries sector . In 2010 , India had the world 's sixth - largest fishing industry . Amul Dairy Plant at Anand was a highly successful co-operative started during the green revolution in the 1960s India exports more than 100,000 tonnes of processed cashew kernels every year . There are more than 600 cashew processing units in Kollam alone . India is the largest producer of milk , jute and pulses , and has the world 's second - largest cattle population with 170 million animals in 2011 . It is the second - largest producer of rice , wheat , sugarcane , cotton and groundnuts , as well as the second - largest fruit and vegetable producer , accounting for 10.9 % and 8.6 % of the world fruit and vegetable production , respectively . India is also the second - largest producer and the largest consumer of silk , producing 77,000 tons in 2005 . India is the largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid ( CNSL ) . Foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during 2011 -- 12 reached ₹ 4,390 crore ( ₹ 43.9 billion ) based on statistics from the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India ( CEPCI ) . 131,000 tonnes of kernels were exported during 2011 -- 12 . There are about 600 cashew processing units in Kollam , Kerala . India 's foodgrain production remained stagnant at approximately 252 million tonnes ( MT ) during both the 2015 -- 16 and 2014 -- 15 crop years ( July -- June ) . India exports several agriculture products , such as Basmati rice , wheat , cereals , spices , fresh fruits , dry fruits , buffalo beef meat , cotton , tea , coffee and other cash crops particularly to the Middle East , Southeast and East Asian countries . About 10 percent of its export earnings come from this trade . Manufacturing Industry accounts for 26 % of GDP and employs 22 % of the total workforce . According to the World Bank , India 's industrial manufacturing GDP output in 2015 was 6th largest in the world on current US dollar basis ( $559 billion ) , and 9th largest on inflation - adjusted constant 2005 US dollar basis ( $197.1 billion ) . The industrial sector underwent significant changes due to the 1991 economic reforms , which removed import restrictions , brought in foreign competition , led to the privatisation of certain government - owned public - sector industries , liberalised the foreign direct investment ( FDI ) regime , improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast - moving consumer goods . Post-liberalisation , the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic and foreign competition , including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports . It has since handled the change by squeezing costs , revamping management , and relying on cheap labour and new technology . However , this has also reduced employment generation , even among smaller manufacturers who previously relied on labour - intensive processes . Petroleum products and chemicals Main article : Oil and gas industry in India Petroleum products and chemicals are a major contributor to India 's industrial GDP , and together they contribute over 34 % of its export earnings . India hosts many oil refinery and petrochemical operations , including the world 's largest refinery complex in Jamnagar that processes 1.24 million barrels of crude per day . By volume , the Indian chemical industry was the third - largest producer in Asia , and contributed 5 % of the country 's GDP . India is one of the five - largest producers of agrochemicals , polymers and plastics , dyes and various organic and inorganic chemicals . Despite being a large producer and exporter , India is a net importer of chemicals due to domestic demands . The chemicals manufacturing industry contributed $141 billion ( 6 % of GDP ) and employed 17.33 million people ( 4 % of the workforce ) in 2016 . Pharmaceuticals Main article : Pharmaceutical industry in India The Indian pharmaceutical industry has grown in recent years to become a major manufacturer of health care products to the world . India produced about 8 % of the global pharmaceutical supply in 2011 by value , including over 60,000 generic brands of medicines . The industry grew from $6 billion in 2005 to $36.7 billion in 2016 , a compound annual growth rate ( CAGR ) of 17.46 % . It is expected to grow at a CAGR of 15.92 % to reach $55 billion in 2020 . India is expected to become the sixth - largest pharmaceutical market in the world by 2020 . It is one of the fastest - growing industrial sub-sectors and a significant contributor of India 's export earnings . The state of Gujarat has become a hub for the manufacture and export of pharmaceuticals and active pharmaceutical ingredients ( APIs ) . Engineering See also : Automotive industry in India and Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India Mahindra XUV 500 is one of the several indigenously designed and manufactured vehicles Engineering is the largest sub-sector of India 's industrial sector , by GDP , and the third - largest by exports . It includes transport equipment , machine tools , capital goods , transformers , switchgears , furnaces , and cast and forged parts for turbines , automobiles and railways . The industry employs about four million workers . On a value - added basis , India 's engineering subsector exported $67 billion worth of engineering goods in the 2013 -- 14 fiscal year , and served part of the domestic demand for engineering goods . The engineering industry of India includes its growing car , motorcycle and scooters industry , and productivity machinery such as tractors . India manufactured and assembled about 18 million passenger and utility vehicles in 2011 , of which 2.3 million were exported . India is the largest producer and the largest market for tractors , accounting for 29 % of global tractor production in 2013 . India is the 12th - largest producer and 7th - largest consumer of machine tools . The automotive manufacturing industry contributed $79 billion ( 4 % of GDP ) and employed 6.76 million people ( 2 % of the workforce ) in 2016 . Gems and jewellery Many famous stones such as the Koh - i - noor and Hope Diamond ( above ) , came from India . India is one of the largest centres for polishing diamonds and gems and manufacturing jewellery ; it is also one of the two largest consumers of gold . After crude oil and petroleum products , the export and import of gold , precious metals , precious stones , gems and jewellery accounts for the largest portion of India 's global trade . The industry contributes about 7 % of India 's GDP , employs millions , and is a major source of its foreign - exchange earnings . The gems and jewellery industry , in 2013 , created ₹ 251,000 crore ( US $37 billion ) in economic output on value - added basis . It is growing sector of Indian economy , and A.T. Kearney projects it to grow to ₹ 500,000 crore ( US $75 billion ) by 2018 . The gems and jewellery industry has been economically active in India for several thousand years . Until the 18th century , India was the only major reliable source of diamonds . Now , South Africa and Australia are the major sources of diamonds and precious metals , but along with Antwerp , New York , and Ramat Gan , Indian cities such as Surat and Mumbai are the hubs of world 's jewellery polishing , cutting , precision finishing , supply and trade . Unlike other centres , the gems and jewellery industry in India is primarily artisan - driven ; the sector is manual , highly fragmented , and almost entirely served by family - owned operations . The particular strength of this sub-sector is in precision cutting , polishing and processing small diamonds ( below one carat ) . India is also a hub for processing of larger diamonds , pearls and other precious stones . Statistically , 11 out of 12 diamonds set in any jewellery in the world are cut and polished in India . It is also a major hub of gold and other precious - metal - based jewellery . Domestic demand for gold and jewellery products is another driver of India 's GDP . Textile Main article : Textile industry in India Textile industry contributes about 4 per cent to the country 's GDP , 14 per cent of the industrial production , and 17 per cent to export earnings . India 's textile industry has transformed in recent years from a declining sector to a rapidly developing one . After freeing the industry in 2004 -- 2005 from a number of limitations , primarily financial , the government permitted massive investment inflows , both domestic and foreign . From 2004 to 2008 , total investment into the textile sector increased by 27 billion dollars . Ludhiana produces 90 % of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India . Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery , knitted garments , casual wear and sportswear . Expanding textile centres such as Ichalkaranji enjoy one of the highest per - capita incomes in the country . India 's cotton farms , fibre and textile industry provides employment to 45 million people in India , including some child labour ( 1 % ) . The sector is estimated to employ around 400,000 children under the age of 18 . Defence Main article : Defence industry of India With strength of over 1.3 million active personnel , India has the third - largest military force and the largest volunteer army . The total budget sanctioned for the Indian military for the financial year 2017 was ( US $53.5 billion ) . Defence spending is expected to rise to US $62 billion by 2022 . Pulp and paper Main article : Pulp and paper industry in India Services Hyderabad is a major IT services centre . The services sector has the largest share of India 's GDP , accounting for 57 % in 2012 , up from 15 % in 1950 . It is the seventh - largest services sector by nominal GDP , and third largest when purchasing power is taken into account . The services sector provides employment to 27 % of the work force . Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest - growing sectors , having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6 % between fiscal years 1997 -- 98 and 2002 -- 03 , and contributing to 25 % of the country 's total exports in 2007 -- 08 . Aviation Main articles : Aviation in India and Civil aviation in India India is the fourth - largest civil aviation market in the world recording an air traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016 . The market is estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020 . which would account for 4.3 per cent of global volumes . Civil aviation in India traces its beginnings to 18 February 1911 , when Henri Pequet , a French aviator , carried 6,500 pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from Allahabad to Naini . Later on 15 October 1932 , J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport . His airline later became Air India and was the first Aiasn airline to cross Atlantic Ocean as well as first Asian airline to fly jets. . Nationalisation In March 1953 , the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act to streamline and nationalise the then existing privately owned eight domestic airlines into Indian Airlines for domestic services and the Tata group owned Air India for international services. . The International Airports Authority of India ( IAAI ) was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986 . The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the crash of Air India Flight 182 . Deregulation the government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991 when the government allowed private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the ' Air Taxi ' Scheme until 1994 , when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate scheduled services . Private airlines including Jet Airways , Air Sahara , Modiluft , Damania Airways and NEPC Airlines commenced domestic operations during this period . The aviation industry experienced a rapid transformation following deregulation . Several low - cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004 -- 05 . Major new entrants included Air Deccan , Air Sahara , Kingfisher Airlines , SpiceJet , GoAir , Paramount Airways and IndiGo . Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth US $ 3 billion . However , Indian aviation would struggle due to an economic slowdown and rising fuel and operation costs . This led to consolidation , buy outs and discontinuations . In 2007 , Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines respectively . Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and Kingfisher shut down in 2012 . Etihad Airways agreed to acquire a 24 % stake in Jet Airways in 2013 . AirAsia India , a low - cost carrier operating as a joint venture between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014 . As of 2013 -- 14 , only IndiGo and GoAir were generating profits . Banking and financial services Main articles : Banking in India and Finance in India The financial services industry contributed $809 billion ( 37 % of GDP ) and employed 14.17 million people ( 3 % of the workforce ) in 2016 , and the banking sector contributed $407 billion ( 19 % of GDP ) and employed 5.5 million people ( 1 % of the workforce ) in 2016 . The Indian money market is classified into the organised sector , comprising private , public and foreign - owned commercial banks and cooperative banks , together known as ' scheduled banks ' ; and the unorganised sector , which includes individual or family - owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies . The unorganised sector and microcredit are preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas , especially for non-productive purposes such as short - term loans for ceremonies . Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969 , followed by six others in 1980 , and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40 % of their net credit to priority sectors including agriculture , small - scale industry , retail trade and small business , to ensure that the banks fulfilled their social and developmental goals . Since then , the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period . The total bank deposits increased from ₹ 59.1 billion ( US $880 million ) in 1970 -- 71 to ₹ 38,309.22 billion ( US $570 billion ) in 2008 -- 09 . Despite an increase of rural branches -- from 1,860 or 22 % of the total in 1969 to 30,590 or 42 % in 2007 -- only 32,270 of 500,000 villages are served by a scheduled bank . India 's gross domestic savings in 2006 -- 07 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.8 % . More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land , houses , cattle , and gold . The government - owned public - sector banks hold over 75 % of total assets of the banking industry , with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2 % and 6.5 % respectively . Since liberalisation , the government has approved significant banking reforms . While some of these relate to nationalised banks -- such as reforms encouraging mergers , reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness -- other reforms have opened the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign companies . Financial technology Main article : FinTech in India According to the report of The National Association of Software and Services Companies ( NASSCOM ) , India has a presence of around 400 companies in the fintech space , with an investment of about $420 million in 2015 . The NASSCOM report also estimated the fintech software and services market to grow 1.7 times by 2020 , making it worth $8 billion . The Indian fintech landscape is segmented as follows -- 34 % in payment processing , followed by 32 % in banking and 12 % in the trading , public and private markets . Information technology Main articles : Information technology in India and Business process outsourcing in India The information technology ( IT ) industry in India consists of two major components : IT services and business process outsourcing ( BPO ) . The sector has increased its contribution to India 's GDP from 1.2 % in 1998 to 7.5 % in 2012 . According to NASSCOM , the sector aggregated revenues of US $ 147 billion in 2015 , where export revenue stood at US $ 99 billion and domestic at US $ 48 billion , growing by over 13 % . The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation , and an availability of a large pool of low - cost , highly skilled , fluent English - speaking workers -- matched by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India 's service exports , or looking to outsource their operations . The share of the Indian IT industry in the country 's GDP increased from 4.8 % in 2005 -- 06 to 7 % in 2008 . In 2009 , seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world . The business process outsourcing services in the outsourcing industry in India caters mainly to Western operations of multinational corporations . As of 2012 , around 2.8 million people work in the outsourcing sector . Annual revenues are around $11 billion , around 1 % of GDP . Around 2.5 million people graduate in India every year . Wages are rising by 10 -- 15 percent as a result of skill shortages . Insurance Main article : Insurance in India India became the tenth - largest insurance market in the world in 2013 , rising from 15th in 2011 . At a total market size of US $66.4 billion in 2013 , it remains small compared to world 's major economies , and the Indian insurance market accounts for 2 % of the world 's insurance business . India 's life and non-life insurance industry has been growing at 20 % , and double - digit growth is expected to continue through 2021 . The market retains about 360 million active life - insurance policies , the most in the world . Of the 52 insurance companies in India , 24 are active in life - insurance business . The life - insurance industry is projected to increase at double - digit CAGR through 2019 , reaching US $1 trillion annual notional values by 2021 . The industry reported a growth rate of around 10 % from 1996 -- 97 to 2000 -- 01 . After opening the sector , growth rates averaged 15.85 % from 2001 -- 02 to 2010 -- 11 . Specialised insurers Export Credit Guarantee Corporation and Agriculture Insurance Company ( AIC ) offer credit guarantee and crop insurance , respectively . AIC , which initially offered coverage under the National Agriculture Insurance Company ( NAIS ) , has now started providing crop insurance on commercial line as well . It has introduced several innovative products such as weather insurance and insurance related to specific crops . The premium underwritten by the non-life insurers during 2010 -- 11 was ₹ 42,576 crore ( ₹ 425 billion ) against ₹ 34,620 crore ( ₹ 346 billion ) in 2009 -- 10 . The growth was satisfactory , particularly given across - the - broad cuts in the tariff rates . The private insurers underwrote premiums of ₹ 17,424 crore ( ₹ 174 billion ) against ₹ 13,977 crore ( ₹ 140 billion ) in 2009 -- 10 . Public sector insurers underwrote premiums of ₹ 25,151.8 crore ( ₹ 252 billion ) in 2010 -- 11 against ₹ 20,643.5 crore ( ₹ 206 billion ) in 2009 -- 10 , a growth of 21.8 % against 14.5 % in 2009 -- 10 . The Indian insurance business had been under - developed with low levels of insurance penetration . Post liberalisation , the sector has succeeded in raising penetration from 2.3 ( life 1.8 and non-life 0.7 ) in 2000 to 5.1 ( life 4.4 and non-life 0.7 ) in 2010 . Electricity sector Main articles : Electricity sector in India and Energy policy of India NTPC 's Ramagudam Super Thermal Power Station Primary energy consumption of India is the third - largest after China and the US with 5.3 % global share in the year 2015 . Coal and crude oil together account for 85 % of the primary energy consumption of India . India 's oil reserves meet 25 % of the country 's domestic oil demand . As of April 2015 , India 's total proven crude oil reserves are 763.476 million metric tons , while gas reserves stood at 1,490 billion cubic metres ( 53 trillion cubic feet ) . Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Bombay High , Krishna Godavari Basin and the Cauvery Delta , and onshore mainly in the states of Assam , Gujarat and Rajasthan . India is the fourth - largest consumer of oil and net oil imports were nearly ₹ 820,000 crore ( US $120 billion ) in 2014 -- 15 , which had an adverse effect on the country 's current account deficit . The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation ( ONGC ) , Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited ( HPCL ) , Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited ( BPCL ) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited ( IOCL ) . There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited ( RIL ) which operates the world 's largest oil refining complex . India became the world 's third - largest producer of electricity in 2013 with a 4.8 % global share in electricity generation , surpassing Japan and Russia . By the end of calendar year 2015 , India had an electricity surplus with many power stations idling for want of demand . The utility electricity sector had an installed capacity of 303 GW as of May 2016 of which thermal power contributed 69.8 % , hydroelectricity 15.2 % , other sources of renewable energy 13.0 % , and nuclear power 2.1 % . India meets most of its domestic electricity demand through its 106 billion tonnes of proven coal reserves . India is also rich in certain alternative sources of energy with significant future potential such as solar , wind and biofuels ( jatropha , sugarcane ) . India 's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years . Recent discoveries in the Tummalapalle belt may be among the top 20 natural uranium reserves worldwide , and an estimated reserve of 846,477 metric tons ( 933,081 short tons ) of thorium -- about 25 % of world 's reserves -- are expected to fuel the country 's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long - run . The Indo - US nuclear deal has also paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries . Infrastructure Vizag Sea Port , Visakhapatnam Port in Bay of Bengal Main articles : Indian road network , Indian Railways , Ports in India , and Transport in India India 's infrastructure and transport sector contributes about 5 % of its GDP . India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilometres ( 3,400,233 mi ) as of 31 March 2015 , the third - largest road network in the world behind United States and China . At 1.66 km of roads per square kilometre of land ( 2.68 miles per square mile ) , the quantitative density of India 's road network is higher than that of Japan ( 0.91 ) and the United States ( 0.67 ) , and far higher than that of China ( 0.46 ) , Brazil ( 0.18 ) or Russia ( 0.08 ) . Qualitatively , India 's roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow , unpaved roads , and are being improved . As of 31 March 2015 , 61.05 % of Indian roads were paved . India has the lowest kilometre - lane road density per 100,000 people among G - 27 countries , leading to traffic congestion . It is upgrading its infrastructure . As of May 2014 , India had completed over 22,600 kilometres ( 14,000 mi ) of 4 - or 6 - lane highways , connecting most of its major manufacturing , commercial and cultural centres . India 's road infrastructure carries 60 % of freight and 87 % of passenger traffic . Indian Railways is the fourth - largest rail network in the world , with a track length of 114,500 kilometres ( 71,100 mi ) and 7,172 stations . This government - owned - and - operated railway network carried an average of 23 million passengers a day , and over a billion tonnes of freight in 2013 . India has a coastline of 7,500 kilometres ( 4,700 mi ) with 13 major ports and 60 operational non-major ports , which together handle 95 % of the country 's external trade by volume and 70 % by value ( most of the remainder handled by air ) . Nhava Sheva , Mumbai is the largest public port , while Mundra is the largest private sea port . The airport infrastructure of India includes 125 airports , of which 66 airports are licensed to handle both passengers and cargo . Retail Main article : Retailing in India Neighbourhood grocery shops handle much of retail trade in India . The retail industry , excluding wholesale , contributed $482 billion ( 22 % of GDP ) and employed 249.94 million people ( 57 % of the workforce ) in 2016 . The industry is the second largest employer in India , after agriculture . The Indian retail market is estimated to be US $600 billion and one of the top - five retail markets in the world by economic value . India has one of the fastest - growing retail markets in the world , and is projected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2020 . India 's retail industry mostly consists of local mom - and - pop stores , owner - manned shops and street vendors . Retail supermarkets are expanding , with a market share of 4 % in 2008 . In 2012 , the government permitted 51 % FDI in multi-brand retail and 100 % FDI in single - brand retail . However , a lack of back - end warehouse infrastructure and state - level permits and red tape continue to limit growth of organised retail . Compliance with over thirty regulations such as `` signboard licences '' and `` anti-hoarding measures '' must be made before a store can open for business . There are taxes for moving goods from state to state , and even within states . According to The Wall Street Journal , the lack of infrastructure and efficient retail networks cause a third of India 's agriculture produce to be lost from spoilage . Tourism Main article : Tourism in India Kerala became a major tourist destination after the state government promoted its natural coastline . The World Travel & Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated ₹ 15.24 lakh crore ( US $230 billion ) or 9.4 % of the nation 's GDP in 2017 and supported 41.622 million jobs , 8 % of its total employment . The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.9 % to ₹ 32.05 lakh crore ( US $480 billion ) by 2028 ( 9.9 % of GDP ) . Over 10 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2017 compared to 8.89 million in 2016 , recording a growth of 15.6 % . India earned $21.07 billion in foreign exchange from tourism receipts in 2015 . International tourism to India has seen a steady growth from 2.37 million arrivals in 1997 to 8.03 million arrivals in 2015 . The United States is the largest source of international tourists to India , while European Union nations and Japan are other major sources of international tourists . Less than 10 % of international tourists visit the Taj Mahal , with the majority visiting other cultural , thematic and holiday circuits . Over 12 million Indian citizens take international trips each year for tourism , while domestic tourism within India adds about 740 million Indian travellers . India has a fast - growing medical tourism sector of its health care economy , offering low - cost health services and long - term care . In October 2015 , the medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US $3 billion . It is projected to grow to $7 -- 8 billion by 2020 . In 2014 , 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment . Education Main article : Education in India Entertainment industry Main article : Entertainment industry in India See also : Gambling in India Healthcare Main article : Healthcare in India India 's healthcare sector is expected to grow at a CAGR of 29 % between 2015 and 2020 , to reach US $280 billion , buoyed by rising incomes , greater health awareness , increased precedence of lifestyle diseases , and improved access to health insurance . Logistics The logistics industry in India was worth over $160 billion in 2016 , and grew at a CAGR of 7.8 % in the previous five - year period . The industry employs about 22 million people . India was ranked 35th out of 160 countries in the World Bank 's 2016 Logistics Performance Index . Printing Main article : Printing industry in India Telecommunications Main article : Telecommunications in India The telecommunication sector generated ₹ 2.20 lakh crore ( US $33 billion ) in revenue in 2014 -- 15 , accounting for 1.94 % of total GDP . India is the second - largest market in the world by number of telephone users ( both fixed and mobile phones ) with 1.053 billion subscribers as of 31 August 2016 . It has one of the lowest call - tariffs in the world , due to fierce competition among telecom operators . India has the world 's third - largest Internet user - base . As of 31 March 2016 , there were 342.65 million Internet subscribers in the country . Industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers in India as of 2012 . India is the largest direct - to - home ( DTH ) television market in the world by number of subscribers . As of May 2016 , there were 84.80 million DTH subscribers in the country . Mining and construction Mining Main article : Mining in India Mining contributed $63 billion ( 3 % of GDP ) and employed 20.14 million people ( 5 % of the workforce ) in 2016 . India 's mining industry was the fourth - largest producer of minerals in the world by volume , and eighth - largest producer by value in 2009 . In 2013 , it mined and processed 89 minerals , of which four were fuel , three were atomic energy minerals , and 80 non-fuel . The government - owned public sector accounted for 68 % of mineral production by volume in 2011 -- 12 . Nearly 50 % of India 's mining industry , by output value , is concentrated in eight states : Odisha , Rajasthan , Chhattisgarh , Andhra Pradesh , Telangana , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka . Another 25 % of the output by value comes from offshore oil and gas resources . India operated about 3,000 mines in 2010 , half of which were coal , limestone and iron ore . On output - value basis , India was one of the five largest producers of mica , chromite , coal , lignite , iron ore , bauxite , barites , zinc and manganese ; while being one of the ten largest global producers of many other minerals . India was the fourth - largest producer of steel in 2013 , and the seventh - largest producer of aluminium . India 's mineral resources are vast . However , its mining industry has declined -- contributing 2.3 % of its GDP in 2010 compared to 3 % in 2000 , and employed 2.9 million people -- a decreasing percentage of its total labour . India is a net importer of many minerals including coal . India 's mining sector decline is because of complex permit , regulatory and administrative procedures , inadequate infrastructure , shortage of capital resources , and slow adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies . Iron and steel Main article : Iron and steel industry in India In fiscal year 2014 -- 15 , India was the third - largest producer of raw steel and the largest producer of sponge iron . The industry produced 91.46 million tons of finished steel and 9.7 million tons of pig iron . Most iron and steel in India is produced from iron ore . Construction Main article : Construction industry of India The construction industry contributed $288 billion ( 13 % of GDP ) and employed 60.42 million people ( 14 % of the workforce ) in 2016 . Foreign trade and investment A map showing the global distribution of Indian exports in 2006 as a percentage of the top market ( US at $20.9 billion ) . Further information : Globalisation in India Foreign trade Main article : Foreign trade of India Further information : List of the largest trading partners of India India 's exports ( top ) and imports ( bottom ) , by value , in 2013 -- 14 . Until the liberalisation of 1991 , India was largely and intentionally isolated from world markets , to protect its economy and to achieve self - reliance . Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs , export taxes and quantitative restrictions , while foreign direct investment ( FDI ) was restricted by upper - limit equity participation , restrictions on technology transfer , export obligations and government approvals ; these approvals were needed for nearly 60 % of new FDI in the industrial sector . The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985 and 1991 ; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid , commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians . India 's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence , due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period ; imports in the same period , with early industrialisation , consisted predominantly of machinery , raw materials and consumer goods . Since liberalisation , the value of India 's international trade has increased sharply , with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16 % in 1990 -- 91 to 47 % in 2009 -- 10 . Foreign trade accounted for 48.8 % of India 's GDP in 2015 . Globally , India accounts for 1.44 % of exports and 2.12 % of imports for merchandise trade and 3.34 % of exports and 3.31 % of imports for commercial services trade . India 's major trading partners are the European Union , China , the United States and the United Arab Emirates . In 2006 -- 07 , major export commodities included engineering goods , petroleum products , chemicals and pharmaceuticals , gems and jewellery , textiles and garments , agricultural products , iron ore and other minerals . Major import commodities included crude oil and related products , machinery , electronic goods , gold and silver . In November 2010 , exports increased 22.3 % year - on - year to ₹ 850.63 billion ( US $13 billion ) , while imports were up 7.5 % at ₹ 1,251.33 billion ( US $19 billion ) . The trade deficit for the same month dropped from ₹ 468.65 billion ( US $7.0 billion ) in 2009 to ₹ 400.7 billion ( US $6.0 billion ) in 2010 . India is a founding - member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) and its successor , the WTO . While participating actively in its general council meetings , India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world . For instance , India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of labour , environmental issues and other non-tariff barriers to trade in WTO policies . Balance of payments Cumulative current account balance 1980 -- 2008 based on IMF data Since independence , India 's balance of payments on its current account has been negative . Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s , precipitated by a balance - of - payment crisis , India 's exports rose consistently , covering 80.3 % of its imports in 2002 -- 03 , up from 66.2 % in 1990 -- 91 . However , the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of imports drop to 61.4 % in 2008 -- 09 . India 's growing oil import bill is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit , which rose to $118.7 billion , or 11.11 % of GDP , in 2008 -- 09 . Between January and October 2010 , India imported $82.1 billion worth of crude oil . The Indian economy has run a trade deficit every year from 2002 to 2012 , with a merchandise trade deficit of US $189 billion in 2011 -- 12 . Its trade with China has the largest deficit , about $31 billion in 2013 . India 's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy , and the debt service ratio decreased from 35.3 % in 1990 -- 91 to 4.4 % in 2008 -- 09 . In India , external commercial borrowings ( ECBs ) , or commercial loans from non-resident lenders , are being permitted by the government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates . The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India ( RBI ) under the Foreign Exchange Management Act of 1999 . India 's foreign exchange reserves have steadily risen from $5.8 billion in March 1991 to $318.6 billion in December 2009 . In 2012 , the United Kingdom announced an end to all financial aid to India , citing the growth and robustness of Indian economy . India 's current account deficit reached an all - time high in 2013 . India has historically funded its current account deficit through borrowings by companies in the overseas markets or remittances by non-resident Indians and portfolio inflows . From April 2016 to January 2017 , RBI data showed that , for the first time since 1991 , India was funding its deficit through foreign direct investment inflows . The Economic Times noted that the development was `` a sign of rising confidence among long - term investors in Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's ability to strengthen the country 's economic foundation for sustained growth '' . Foreign direct investment This section needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( October 2015 ) Main article : Foreign direct investment in India Share of top five investing countries in FDI inflows ( 2000 -- 2010 ) Rank Country Inflows ( million US $ ) Inflows ( % ) Mauritius 50,164 42.00 Singapore 11,275 9.00 US 8,914 7.00 UK 6,158 5.00 5 Netherlands 4,968 4.00 As the third - largest economy in the world in PPP terms , India has attracted foreign direct investment ( FDI ) . During the year 2011 , FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5 billion , 51.1 % higher than the 2010 figure of $24.15 billion . India has strengths in telecommunication , information technology and other significant areas such as auto components , chemicals , apparels , pharmaceuticals , and jewellery . Despite a surge in foreign investments , rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance . Over time , India has adopted a number of FDI reforms . India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise . The size of the middle - class population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market . India liberalised its FDI policy in 2005 , allowing up to a 100 % FDI stake in ventures . Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements , removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and investment . The upward growth curve of the real - estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime . In March 2005 , the government amended the rules to allow 100 % FDI in the construction sector , including built - up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing , commercial premises , hospitals , educational institutions , recreational facilities , and city - and regional - level infrastructure . Between 2012 and 2014 , India extended these reforms to defence , telecom , oil , retail , aviation , and other sectors . From 2000 to 2010 , the country attracted $178 billion as FDI . The inordinately high investment from Mauritius is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages -- double taxation is avoided due to a tax treaty between India and Mauritius , and Mauritius is a capital gains tax haven , effectively creating a zero - taxation FDI channel . FDI accounted for 2.1 % of India 's GDP in 2015 . As the government has eased 87 foreign investment direct rules across 21 sectors in the last three years , FDI inflows hit $60.1 billion between 2016 and 2017 in India . Outflows Since 2000 , Indian companies have expanded overseas , investing FDI and creating jobs outside India . From 2006 to 2010 , FDI by Indian companies outside India amounted to 1.34 per cent of its GDP . Indian companies have deployed FDI and started operations in the United States , Europe and Africa . The Indian company Tata is the United Kingdom 's largest manufacturer and private - sector employer . Remittances Main article : Remittances to India In 2015 , a total of US $68.91 billion was made in remittances to India from other countries , and a total of US $8.476 billion was made in remittances by foreign workers in India to their home countries . The UAE , the US , and Saudi Arabia were the top sources of remittances to India , while Bangladesh , Pakistan and Nepal were the top recipients of remittances from India . Remittances to India accounted for 3.32 % of the country 's GDP in 2015 . Mergers and Acquisitions Between 1985 and 2018 20,846 deals have been announced in , into ( inbound ) and out of ( outbound ) India . This cumulates to a value of 618 bil . USD . In terms of value , 2010 has been the most active year with deals worth almost 60 bil . USD . Most deals have been conducted in 2007 ( 1,510 ) . Here is a list of the top 10 deals with Indian companies participating : Acquiror Name Acquiror Mid Industry Acquiror Nation Target Name Target Mid Industry Target Nation Value of Transaction ( $ mil ) Petrol Complex Pte Ltd Oil & Gas Singapore Essar Oil Ltd Oil & Gas India 12,907.25 Vodafone Grp Plc Wireless United Kingdom Hutchison Essar Ltd Telecommunications Services India 12,748.00 Vodafone Grp PLC - Vodafone Asts Wireless India Idea Cellular Ltd - Mobile Bus Wireless India 11,627.32 Bharti Airtel Ltd Wireless India MTN Group Ltd Wireless South Africa 11,387.52 Bharti Airtel Ltd Wireless India Zain Africa BV Wireless Nigeria 10,700.00 BP PLC Oil & Gas United Kingdom Reliance Industries Ltd - 21 Oil Oil & Gas India 9,000.00 MTN Group Ltd Wireless South Africa Bharti Airtel Ltd Wireless India 8,775.09 Shareholders Other Financials India Reliance Inds Ltd - Telecom Bus Telecommunications Services India 8,063.01 Oil & Natural Gas Corp Ltd Oil & Gas India Hindustan Petro Corp Ltd Petrochemicals India 5,784.20 Reliance Commun Ventures Ltd Telecommunications Services India Reliance Infocomm Ltd Telecommunications Services India 5,577.18 Currency The RBI 's headquarters in Mumbai , Maharashtra Main articles : Indian rupee and Reserve Bank of India Year INR ₹ per US $ ( average annual ) 9.4058 1980 7.8800 1985 12.3640 17.4992 1995 32.4198 2000 44.9401 2005 44.1000 45.7393 2015 64.05 2016 67.09 2017 64.14 The Indian rupee ( ₹ ) is the only legal tender in India , and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan , both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee . The rupee is divided into 100 paisas . The highest - denomination banknote is the ₹ 2,000 note ; the lowest - denomination coin in circulation is the 50 paise coin . Since 30 June 2011 , all denominations below 50 paise have ceased to be legal currency . India 's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India ( RBI ) , the country 's central bank . Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949 , the RBI serves as the nation 's monetary authority , regulator and supervisor of the monetary system , banker to the government , custodian of foreign exchange reserves , and as an issuer of currency . It is governed by a central board of directors , headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India . The benchmark interest rates are set by the Monetary Policy Committee . The rupee was linked to the British pound from 1927 to 1946 , and then to the US dollar until 1975 through a fixed exchange rate . It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies : the British pound , the US dollar , the Japanese yen and the Deutsche mark . In 1991 , after the collapse of its largest trading partner , the Soviet Union , India faced the major foreign exchange crisis and the rupee was devalued by around 19 % in two stages on 1 and 2 July . In 1992 , a Liberalized Exchange Rate Mechanism ( LERMS ) was introduced . Under LERMS , exporters had to surrender 40 percent of their foreign exchange earnings to the RBI at the RBI - determined exchange rate ; the remaining 60 % could be converted at the market - determined exchange rate . In 1994 , the rupee was convertible on the current account , with some capital controls . After the sharp devaluation in 1991 and transition to current account convertibility in 1994 , the value of the rupee has been largely determined by market forces . The rupee has been fairly stable during the decade 2000 -- 2010 . In September 2013 , the rupee touched an all - time low 68.27 to the US dollar . Income and consumption Main article : Income in India Gini index of India compared to other countries per World Bank data tables as of 2014 . India 's gross national income per capita had experienced high growth rates since 2002 . It tripled from ₹ 19,040 in 2002 -- 03 to ₹ 53,331 in 2010 -- 11 , averaging 13.7 % growth each of these eight years , with peak growth of 15.6 % in 2010 -- 11 . However growth in the inflation - adjusted per - capita income of the nation slowed to 5.6 % in 2010 -- 11 , down from 6.4 % in the previous year . These consumption levels are on an individual basis . The average family income in India was $6,671 per household in 2011 . According to 2011 census data , India has about 330 million houses and 247 million households . The household size in India has dropped in recent years , the 2011 census reporting 50 % of households have four or fewer members , with an average 4.8 members per household including surviving grandparents . These households produced a GDP of about $1.7 trillion . Consumption patterns note : approximately 67 % of households use firewood , crop residue or cow - dung cakes for cooking purposes ; 53 % do not have sanitation or drainage facilities on premises ; 83 % have water supply within their premises or 100 metres ( 330 ft ) from their house in urban areas and 500 metres ( 1,600 ft ) from the house in rural areas ; 67 % of the households have access to electricity ; 63 % of households have landline or mobile telephone service ; 43 % have a television ; 26 % have either a two - or four - wheel motor vehicle . Compared to 2001 , these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements . One report in 2010 claimed that high - income households outnumber low - income households . Per capita gross national income of India in 2013 compared to other countries , on purchasing power parity basis , per World Bank data . New World Wealth publishes reports tracking the total wealth of countries , which is measured as the private wealth held by all residents of a country . According to New World Wealth , India 's total wealth increased from $3,165 billion in 2007 to $8,230 billion in 2017 , a growth rate of 160 % . India 's total wealth rose by 25 % from $6.2 trillion in 2016 to $8.23 trillion in 2017 , making it the sixth wealthiest nation in the world . There are 20,730 multimillionaires ( 7th largest in the world ) and 119 billionaires in India ( 3rd largest in the world ) . With 330,400 high net - worth individuals ( HNWI ) , India is home to the 9th highest number of HNWIs in the world . Mumbai is the wealthiest Indian city and the 12th wealthiest in the world , with a total net worth of $950 billion in 2017 . Twenty - eight billionaires reside in the city . As of December 2016 , the next wealthiest cities in India were Delhi ( $450 billion ) , Bangalore ( $320 billion ) , Hyderabad ( $310 billion ) , Kolkata ( $290 billion ) , Chennai ( $150 billion ) and Gurgaon ( $110 billion ) . Poverty Main article : Poverty in India In May 2014 , the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions to its poverty calculation methodology of 2005 and purchasing - power - parity basis for measuring poverty . According to the revised methodology , the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line , of which 179.6 million lived in India . With 17.5 % of total world 's population , India had a 20.6 % share of world 's poorest in 2013 . According to a 2005 -- 2006 survey , India had about 61 million children under the age of 5 who were chronically malnourished . A 2011 UNICEF report stated that between 1990 and 2010 , India achieved a 45 percent reduction in under age 5 mortality rates , and now ranks 46th of 188 countries on this metric . Since the early 1960s , successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty , under central planning , that have met with partial success . In 2005 , the government enacted the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act ( MGNREGA ) , guaranteeing 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India . In 2011 , it was widely criticised and beset with controversy for corrupt officials , deficit financing as the source of funds , poor quality of infrastructure built under the programme , and unintended destructive effects . Other studies suggest that the programme has helped reduce rural poverty in some cases . Yet other studies report that India 's economic growth has been the driver of sustainable employment and poverty reduction , though a sizeable population remains in poverty . Employment See also : Labour in India , Indian labour law , Child labour in India , and Unemployment in India Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 52.1 % of the total workforce in 2009 -- 10 . While agriculture employment has fallen over time in percentage of labour employed , services which includes construction and infrastructure have seen a steady growth accounting for 20.3 % of employment in 2012 -- 13 . Of the total workforce , 7 % is in the organised sector , two - thirds of which are in the government - controlled public sector . About 51.2 % of the workforce in India is self - employed . According to a 2005 -- 06 survey , there is a gender gap in employment and salaries . In rural areas , both men and women are primarily self - employed , mostly in agriculture . In urban areas , salaried work was the largest source of employment for both men and women in 2006 . Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic ( disguised ) unemployment . Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment -- which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled people into urban areas in search of livelihoods -- attempt to solve the problem by providing financial assistance for starting businesses , honing skills , setting up public sector enterprises , reservations in governments , etc . The decline in organised employment , due to the decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation , has further underlined the need for focusing on better education and created political pressure for further reforms . India 's labour regulations are heavy , even by developing country standards , and analysts have urged the government to abolish or modify them in order to make the environment more conducive for employment generation . The 11th five - year plan has also identified the need for a congenial environment to be created for employment generation , by reducing the number of permissions and other bureaucratic clearances required . Inequalities and inadequacies in the education system have been identified as an obstacle , which prevents the benefits of increased employment opportunities from reaching all sectors of society . Child labour in India is a complex problem that is rooted in poverty . Since the 1990s , the government has implemented a variety of programs to eliminate child labour . These have included setting up schools , launching free school lunch programs , creating special investigation cells , etc . Author Sonalde Desai stated that recent studies on child labour in India have found some pockets of industries in which children are employed , but overall , relatively few Indian children are employed . Child labour below the age of 10 is now rare . In the 10 -- 14 age group , the latest surveys find only 2 % of children working for wage , while another 9 % work within their home or rural farms assisting their parents in times of high work demand such as sowing and harvesting of crops . India has the largest diaspora around the world , an estimated 16 million people , many of whom work overseas and remit funds back to their families . The Middle East region is the largest source of employment of expat Indians . The crude oil production and infrastructure industry of Saudi Arabia employs over 2 million expat Indians . Cities such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in United Arab Emirates have employed another 2 million Indians during the construction boom in recent decades . In 2009 -- 10 , remittances from Indian migrants overseas stood at ₹ 2,500 billion ( US $37 billion ) , the highest in the world , but their share in FDI remained low at around 1 % . Economic trends and issues Commercial office buildings in Gurgaon With 1.27 billion people and the world 's third - largest economy in terms of purchasing power , India 's recent growth and development has been one of the most significant achievements of our times . Over the six and half decades since independence , the country has brought about a landmark agricultural revolution that has transformed the nation from chronic dependence on grain imports into a global agricultural powerhouse that is now a net exporter of food . Life expectancy has more than doubled , literacy rates have quadrupled , health conditions have improved . India will soon have the largest and youngest workforce the world has ever seen . At the same time , the country is in the midst of a massive wave of urbanization as some 10 million people move to towns and cities each year in search of jobs and opportunity . It is the largest rural - urban migration of this century . Massive investments will be needed to create the jobs , housing , and infrastructure to meet soaring aspirations and make towns and cities more livable and green . -- World Bank : India Country Overview 2013 Agriculture Main article : Agriculture in India Agriculture is an important part of the Indian economy . At around 1,530,000 square kilometres ( 590,000 sq mi ) , India has the second - largest amount of arable land , after the US , with 52 % of total land under cultivation . Although the total land area of the country is only slightly more than one third of China or the US , India 's arable land is marginally smaller than that of the US , and marginally larger than that of China . However , agricultural output lags far behind its potential . The low productivity in India is a result of several factors . According to the World Bank , India 's large agricultural subsidies are distorting what farmers grow and hampering productivity - enhancing investment . Over-regulation of agriculture has increased costs , price risks and uncertainty , and governmental intervention in labour , land , and credit are hurting the market . Infrastructure such as rural roads , electricity , ports , food storage , retail markets and services remain inadequate . The average size of land holdings is very small , with 70 % of holdings being less than one hectare ( 2.5 acres ) in size . Irrigation facilities are inadequate , as revealed by the fact that only 46 % of the total cultivable land was irrigated as of 2016 , resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall , specifically the monsoon season , which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country . In an effort to bring an additional two crore hectares ( 20 million hectares ; 50 million acres ) of land under irrigation , various schemes have been attempted , including the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme ( AIBP ) which was provided ₹ 80,000 crore ( ₹ 800 billion ) in the union budget . Farming incomes are also hampered by lack of food storage and distribution infrastructure ; a third of India 's agricultural production is lost from spoilage . Corruption Corruption Perceptions Index for India compared to other countries , 2015 Main articles : Corruption in India and Indian black money Corruption has been a pervasive problem in India . A 2005 study by Transparency International ( TI ) found that more than half of those surveyed had first - hand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year . A follow - up study in 2008 found this rate to be 40 percent . In 2011 , TI ranked India at 95th place amongst 183 countries in perceived levels of public sector corruption . By 2016 , India saw a reduction in corruption and its ranking improved to 79th place . In 1996 , red tape , bureaucracy and the Licence Raj were suggested as a cause for the institutionalised corruption and inefficiency . More recent reports suggest the causes of corruption include excessive regulations and approval requirements , mandated spending programs , monopoly of certain goods and service providers by government - controlled institutions , bureaucracy with discretionary powers , and lack of transparent laws and processes . Computerisation of services , various central and state vigilance commissions , and the 2005 Right to Information Act -- which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action -- have considerably reduced corruption and opened avenues to redress grievances . In 2011 , the Indian government concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients , as the large and inefficient bureaucracy consumes budgets . India 's absence rates are among the worst in the world ; one study found that 25 % of public sector teachers and 40 % of government - owned public - sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace . Similarly , there are many issues facing Indian scientists , with demands for transparency , a meritocratic system , and an overhaul of the bureaucratic agencies that oversee science and technology . India has an underground economy , with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks . This would amount to 13 times the country 's total external debt . These allegations have been denied by the Swiss Banking Association . James Nason , the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association , suggested `` The ( black money ) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles , and circulated as gospel truth . However , this story was a complete fabrication . The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report . Anyone claiming to have such figures ( for India ) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them . '' A recent step taken by Prime Minister Modi , on 8 November 2016 , involved the demonetization of all 500 and 1000 rupee bank notes ( replaced by new 500 and 2000 rupee notes ) in order to return black money into the economy . Education Main article : Education in India India has made progress increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three - fourths of the population . India 's literacy rate had grown from 52.2 % in 1991 to 74.04 % in 2011 . The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the eighty - sixth Amendment of 2002 , and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children . However , the literacy rate of 74 % is lower than the worldwide average and the country suffers from a high drop - out rate . Literacy rates and educational opportunities vary by region , gender , urban and rural areas , and among different social groups . Economic disparities Main articles : Economic disparities in India and Poverty in India Economic disparities among the states and union territories of India , on GDP per capita , PPP basis in 2011 Poverty rates in India 's poorest states are three to four times higher than those in the more advanced states . While India 's average annual per capita income was $1,410 in 2011 -- placing it among the poorest of the world 's middle - income countries -- it was just $436 in Uttar Pradesh ( which has more people than Brazil ) and only $294 in Bihar , one of India 's poorest states . -- World Bank : India Country Overview 2013 A critical problem facing India 's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India 's different states and territories in terms of poverty , availability of infrastructure and socio - economic development . Six low - income states -- Assam , Chhattisgarh , Nagaland , Madhya Pradesh , Odisha and Uttar Pradesh -- are home to more than one - third of India 's population . Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income , literacy rates , life expectancy and living conditions . The five - year plans , especially in the pre-liberalisation era , attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states . The results have been discouraging as these measures increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth . The more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from liberalisation , with well - developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce , which attract the manufacturing and service sectors . Governments of less - advanced states have tried to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land , and focused on sectors like tourism which can develop faster than other sectors . India 's income Gini coefficient is 33.9 , according to the United Nations Development Program ( UNDP ) , indicating overall income distribution to be more uniform than East Asia , Latin America and Africa . There is a continuing debate on whether India 's economic expansion has been pro-poor or anti-poor . Studies suggest that the economic growth has been pro-poor and has reduced poverty in India . Security markets Bombay Stock Exchange in Mumbai The development of Indian security markets began with the launch of the Bombay Stock Exchange ( BSE ) in July 1875 and Ahmedabad Stock exchange in 1894 . Since then , 22 other exchanges have traded in Indian cities . In 2014 , India 's stock exchange market became the 10th largest in the world by market capitalisation , just above those of South Korea and Australia . India 's two major stock exchanges , BSE and National Stock Exchange of India , had a market capitalisation of US $1.71 trillion and US $1.68 trillion as of February 2015 , according to World Federation of Exchanges . The initial public offering ( IPO ) market in India has been small compared to NYSE and NASDAQ , raising US $300 million in 2013 and US $1.4 billion in 2012 . Ernst & Young stated that the low IPO activity reflects market conditions , slow government approval processes and complex regulations . Before 2013 , Indian companies were not allowed to list their securities internationally without first completing an IPO in India . In 2013 , these security laws were reformed and Indian companies can now choose where they want to list first : overseas , domestically , or both concurrently . Further , security laws have been revised to ease overseas listings of already - listed companies , to increase liquidity for private equity and international investors in Indian companies . 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Joshi , Mitali Sen , Abusaleh Shariff and Reeve Vanneman ( 201 ) India Human Development in India : Challenges for a Society in Transition Archived 16 May 2015 at WebCite , Oxford University Press , page 131 Jump up ^ `` India has largest diaspora population in world '' . Times of India . Jump up ^ Leone Lakhani , Dubai 's expat Indians : The world 's most productive foreign workers CNN ( 19 May 2014 ) Jump up ^ Banerjee , Ajay ( 9 January 2011 ) . `` NRIs do n't invest as much as they remit , says Montek '' . The Tribune . India . Retrieved 13 January 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` India Country Overview 2013 '' . World Bank . 2014 . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Sengupta , Somini ( 22 June 2008 ) . `` The Food Chain in Fertile India , Growth Outstrips Agriculture '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 29 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` India : Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development '' . World Bank . Retrieved 8 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Panagariya 2008 , p. 318 Jump up ^ Datt & Sundharam 2009 , p. 502 Jump up ^ `` Agriculture production to double with Rs 80000 crore irrigation scheme , others : Nitin Gadkari '' . Daily News and Analysis . Retrieved 22 June 2016 . Jump up ^ India : Potential for a Parliamentary Budget Office . Social Science Research Network ( SSRN ) . Accessed 18 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Transparency International India . `` India Corruption Study 2005 '' ( PDF ) . Centre for Media Studies . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 15 April 2007 . Retrieved 14 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` India Corruption Study -- 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Transparency International . 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Corruption Perceptions Index 2011 '' . Transparency International . Retrieved 9 July 2012 . Jump up ^ e.V. , Transparency International . `` Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 '' . www.transparency.org . Retrieved 18 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Drèze & Sen 1996 , p. 180 Jump up ^ `` Survey on Bribery and Corruption -- Impact on Economy and Business Environment '' ( PDF ) . KPMG. 2011 . Jump up ^ Debroy and Bhandari ( 2011 ) . `` Corruption in India '' . The World Finance Review . Jump up ^ `` Corruption in India -- A rotten state '' . The Economist. 10 March 2011 . Jump up ^ `` India 's civil service : Battling the babu raj '' . The Economist. 6 March 2008 . Retrieved 8 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Muralidharan , Karthik . `` Teachers and Medical Worker Incentives in India '' ( PDF ) . University of California . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 March 2009 . Retrieved 21 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Basu , Kaushik ( 29 November 2004 ) . `` Combating India 's truant teachers '' . BBC . Retrieved 9 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Jayaraman , K.S. ( 9 November 2009 ) . `` Report row ousts top Indian scientist '' . Nature . Retrieved 19 June 2012 . Jump up ^ Kuldip Nayar ( 4 February 2011 ) . `` Laundering black money '' . Deccan Herald . India . Retrieved 6 February 2011 . Jump up ^ V. Venkateswara Rao ( 13 August 2010 ) . `` Black , bold and bountiful '' . The Hindu Business Line . Retrieved 6 February 2011 . Jump up ^ `` No ' black money ' statistics exist : Swiss banks '' . The Times of India . 13 September 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Banking secrecy spices up Indian elections '' . SWISSINFO -- A member of Swiss Broadcasting Corporation . 14 May 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Education in India '' . World Bank . Retrieved 13 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Economic Survey 2010 , pp. 280 -- 281 . Jump up ^ `` A special report on India : An elephant , not a tiger '' . The Economist. 11 December 2008 . Retrieved 17 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Drèze & Sen 1996 , pp. 114 -- 115 Jump up ^ Ranking of states and union territories by lireacy rate : 2011 Census of India , Ministry of Home Affairs , Government of India ( 2013 ) Jump up ^ Datt & Sundharam 2009 , pp. 474 -- 475 Jump up ^ `` Country Strategy for India ( CAS ) 2009 -- 2012 '' ( PDF ) . World Bank . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 January 2009 . Retrieved 21 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Drèze & Sen 1996 , pp. 45 -- 46 Jump up ^ Panagariya 2008 , pp. 164 -- 165 Jump up ^ Sachs , D. Jeffrey ; Bajpai , Nirupam ; Ramiah , Ananthi ( 2002 ) . `` Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India '' ( PDF ) . Working paper 88 . Harvard University . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 1 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Kurian , N.J. `` Regional disparities in india '' . Planning Commission of India . Retrieved 6 August 2005 . ^ Jump up to : Datt & Ravallion ( 2011 ) , Has India 's economic growth become more pro-poor in the wake of economic reforms ? , The World Bank Economic Review , 25 ( 2 ) , pp 157 - 189 Jump up ^ Tripathi , Sabyasachi ( December 2013 ) , Has urban economic growth in Post-Reform India been pro-poor between 1993 - 94 and 2009 - 10 ? Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations , MPRA Paper No. 52336 , Ludwig Maximilians Universität München Jump up ^ `` ' Modi Mania ' propels India 's stock market into world 's top 10 '' . The Financial Times . 22 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` BSE Ltd . ( Bombay Stock Exchange ) - Live Stock Market Updates for S&P BSE SENSEX , Stock Quotes & Corporate Information '' . www.BSEIndia.com . Retrieved 2 November 2017 . Jump up ^ WFE Archived 17 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : EY Global IPO Trends Global IPO Trends Q4 2013 Ernst & Young ( 2014 ) Jump up ^ `` Listing abroad sans domestic IPO set to be a reality soon '' . Business Standard . 28 July 2013 . Further reading Books Datt , Ruddar ; Sundharam , K.P.M. ( 2009 ) . Indian Economy . New Delhi : S. Chand Group . p. 976 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 219 - 0298 - 4 . Drèze , John ; Sen , Amartya ( 1996 ) . India : Economic Development and Social Opportunity . Oxford University Press . p. 292 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 564082 - 3 . Kumar , Dharma ( 2005 ) . The Cambridge Economic History of India , Volume II : c. 1757 -- 2003 . New Delhi : Orient Longman . p. 1115 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 250 - 2710 - 2 . Nehru , Jawaharlal ( 1946 ) . The Discovery of India . Penguin Books . ISBN 0 - 14 - 303103 - 1 . Panagariya , Arvind ( 2008 ) . India : The Emerging Giant . Oxford University Press . p. 514 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 531503 - 5 . Raychaudhuri , Tapan ; Habib , Irfan ( 2004 ) . The Cambridge Economic History of India , Volume I : c. 1200 -- c. 1750 . New Delhi : Orient Longman . p. 543 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 250 - 2709 - 6 . Roy , Tirthankar ( 2006 ) . The Economic History of India 1857 -- 1947 . Oxford University Press . p. 385 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 568430 - 8 . Alamgir , Jalal ( 2008 ) . India 's Open - Economy Policy . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 77684 - 4 . Bharadwaj , Krishna ( 1991 ) . `` Regional differentiation in India '' . In Sathyamurthy , T.V. Industry & agriculture in India since independence . Oxford University Press . pp. 189 -- 199 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 564394 - 1 . Papers and reports Bahl , R. , Heredia - Ortiz , E. , Martinez - Vazquez , J. , & Rider , M. ( 2005 ) . India : Fiscal Condition of the States , International Experience , and Options for Reform : Volume 1 ( No. paper05141 ) . International Center for Public Policy , Andrew Young School of Policy Studies , Georgia State University . `` Economic reforms in India : Task force report '' ( PDF ) . University of Chicago . p. 32 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 February 2009 . `` Economic Survey 2009 -- 10 '' . Ministry of Finance , Government of India . p. 294 . Articles `` Growth of India '' . Archived from the original on 15 June 2013 . Retrieved 10 August 2005 . `` Milton Friedman on the Nehru / Mahalanobis Plan '' . Retrieved 16 July 2005 . `` Infrastructure in India : Requirements and favourable climate for foreign investment '' . Archived from the original on 13 July 2005 . Retrieved 14 August 2005 . Bernardi , Luigi ; Fraschini , Angela ( 2005 ) . `` Tax System And Tax Reforms in India '' . Working paper n . 51 . Centre for Media Studies ( 2005 ) . `` India Corruption Study 2005 : To Improve Governance Volume -- I : Key Highlights '' ( PDF ) . Transparency International India . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 March 2009 . Retrieved 21 June 2009 . Ghosh , Jayati . `` Bank Nationalisation : The Record '' . Macroscan . Archived from the original on 23 October 2005 . Retrieved 5 August 2005 . Gordon , Jim ; Gupta , Poonam ( 2003 ) . `` Understanding India 's Services Revolution '' ( PDF ) . 12 November 2003 . Retrieved 21 June 2009 . Panagariya , Arvind ( 2004 ) . `` India in the 1980s and 1990s : A Triumph of Reforms '' . Sachs , D. Jeffrey ; Bajpai , Nirupam ; Ramiah , Ananthi ( 2002 ) . `` Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India '' ( PDF ) . Working paper 88 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 1 July 2007 . Srinivasan , T.N. ( 2002 ) . `` Economic Reforms and Global Integration '' ( PDF ) . 17 January 2002 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 March 2009 . Retrieved 21 June 2009 . Kurian , N.J. `` Regional disparities in india '' . Retrieved 6 August 2005 . Kaur , Ravinder ( 2012 ) . `` India Inc. and its Moral Discontent '' . Economic and Political Weekly . Kaur , Ravinder ( 2015 ) . `` Good Times , Brought to you by Brand Modi '' ( PDF ) . News Ravi S Jha . `` India , the Goliath , Falls with a Thud '' . Archived from the original on 9 May 2013 . `` India says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax '' . Daily Times . 25 March 2005 . Archived from the original on 16 January 2009 . `` Economic structure '' . The Economist. 6 October 2003 . Archived from the original on 6 April 2008 . a `` Regional stock exchanges -- Bulldozed by the Big Two '' . Retrieved 10 August 2005 . `` FinMin considers three single - brand retail FDI proposals '' . Archived from the original on 21 October 2012 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Economy of India . 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how many views does blood sweat and tears have

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Blood_Sweat_%26_Tears_(song)&oldid=854466117

Blood Sweat & Tears ( song ) - wikipedia Blood Sweat & Tears ( song ) `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' Japanese single cover Single by BTS from the album Wings Released October 10 , 2016 Format CD digital download streaming Length 3 : 37 Label Big Hit Universal Japan Virgin Def Jam Songwriter ( s ) KM - Markit , Pdogg BTS singles chronology `` Save Me '' ( 2016 ) `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' ( 2016 ) `` Spring Day '' ( 2017 ) BTS Japanese singles chronology `` Run '' ( 2016 ) `` Chi , Ase , Namida '' ( 2017 ) `` MIC Drop / DNA / Crystal Snow '' ( 2017 ) `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' ( Hangul : 피 땀 눈물 ; RR : Pi ttam nunmul ; Japanese : 血 、 汗 、 涙 ; Hepburn : Chi , ase , namida ) is a song recorded by South Korean boy group BTS for their second studio album , Wings ( 2016 ) . The original Korean version was released by Big Hit on October 10 , 2016 in South Korea . The Japanese single version was released on May 10 , 2017 under Universal Music Japan and Virgin Music - Def Jam Recordings . In 2018 , Billboard ranked it number 16 on their list of the `` 100 Greatest Boy Band Songs of All Time '' . Contents 1 Background 2 Music video 3 Editions 4 Commercial performance 5 Track listings and formats 6 Credits and Personnel 7 Charts 7.1 Weekly charts 7.2 Year - end charts 8 Sales and certifications 9 Awards and nominations 9.1 Music program awards 10 Release history 11 References 12 External links Background ( edit ) The group held a press conference for the release of their album on the 10th of October 2016 . Asked about their new concept and its meaning , leader RM explained , `` The harder a temptation is to resist , the more you think about it and vacillate . That uncertainty is part of the process of growing . Blood Sweat & Tears is a song that shows how one thinks , chooses , and grows . '' Music video ( edit ) On October 6 of 2016 , they released a teaser for the song . At 12 : 00 KST , October 10 , 2016 , the official music video was released . The six minute video features RM reciting from a passage of Hermann Hesse 's Demian , which was an inspiration for the album Wings concept , and does not appear on the album version of the song . Billboard K - Town 's Tamar Herman described the music video as `` a haunting ( one ) that explores ideas of fate , reality , life and death , and falling from grace . '' The MV was directed by Choi Yongseok and Ko Yoojeong of Lumpens . Additional notable players of production include Nam Hyunwoo of GDW as director of photography , Kim Gyeungseok of Sunny as gaffer , Lee Moonyoung of Myllab as art director , and Shin Yunkyun of DnD line for special effects . Choreography was created by Keone Madrid & Quick Style Crew and supervised by Son Sungdeuk . Within 24 hours of the music video 's release , it reached 6.3 million views , setting a new record . Also on October 13 , it was reported that `` Blood , Sweat & Tears '' had become the fastest K - pop music video by a group to reach 10 million views . According to reports , this was achieved in less than 42 hours - almost half the amount of time taken for their previous record `` Fire '' , which took 72 hours . On February 20 , 2017 the music video became the third music video by BTS to pass the milestone of 100 million views on YouTube , at the time becoming the second fastest music video by a K - pop group , passing the milestone in less than 134 days after its release . The music video became the third BTS music video to pass 200 million views on October 29 , 2017 . Editions ( edit ) The Korean edition of the single did not have a physical release . The Japanese release included two B - side songs , the Japanese versions of `` Not Today '' and `` Spring Day '' . Four editions were made available : a standard edition , and three limited editions , Type A , Type B , and Type C , which excluded `` Spring Day '' . Photocards were not included in the individual editions , but a special seven - piece photoset was available for a limited time with the complete boxed set offered by Universal Music Japan . Standard edition ( UICV - 5063 ) : This edition includes the Japanese version of `` Spring Day '' . Limited edition type A ( UICV - 9243 ) : This edition includes a DVD containing `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' Japanese and Korean music videos . Limited edition type B ( UICV - 9244 ) : This edition includes a DVD containing `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' making - of videos . Limited edition type C ( UICV - 9245 ) : This edition includes a 36 - page photo booklet . Commercial performance ( edit ) In South Korea , the song became the group 's first domestic number one hit on Gaon Digital Chart , selling 198,987 in the first week and having 3,184,355 streams . The song sold 362,171 in total in October 2016 , and charted 6 on the monthly chart . In May 2017 , the song become the first song from the group to sell over 1 million copies in South Korea . As of December 2017 , the song became the longest charting single by a boy group on a Korean chart , breaking a record that was ten years old . In United States and Canada , BTS became the third K - pop act to chart on the Canadian Hot 100 , ranking at number 86 , a new best for a K - pop group . BTS also topped Billboard 's World Digital Songs chart for the week of October 29 . They also charted on YouTube Music Global Top 100 - 17th on the video chart , and 14th on the tracks chart . In Japan , the Korean version charted 18 in Billboard Japan Hot 100 , and selling 4,156 On May 10 , 2017 , the Japanese version was released , selling 144,234 in the first day , and charting first on Oricon daily chart , and 223,082 according to SoundScan Japan . The song charted 1st on Oricon weekly single chart , Billboard Japan Hot 100 , & top singles sales , selling 310,276 copies in the first week according to SoundScan Japan . Track listings and formats ( edit ) Korean edition No . Title Lyrics Music Length 1 . `` 피 땀 눈물 '' ( Blood Sweat & Tears ) Pdogg , RM , Suga , J - Hope , `` Hitman '' Bang , Kim Do - hoon Pdogg 3 : 37 Total length : 3 : 37 Japanese edition No . Title Lyrics Music Length 1 . `` Chi , Ase , Namida '' ( Japanese ver . ) KM - Markit Pdogg 3 : 35 2 . `` Not Today '' ( Japanese ver . ) KM - Markit Pdogg 3 : 52 3 . `` Spring Day '' ( Japanese ver . ) Pdogg , RM , ADORA , Bang Sihyuk , Arlissa Ruppert , Peter Ibsen , Suga Pdogg 4 : 34 Total length : 12 : 01 Credits and personnel ( edit ) The Korean credits are adapted from the CD liner notes of Blood , Sweat , & Tears . Production : Pdogg , RM , Suga , J - Hope , `` hitman '' bang , Kim Doohyon Keyboard : Pdogg Synthesizer : Pdogg Chorus : Jungkook , Jimin Vocal & Rap Arrangement : Pdogg Recording Engineers : Pdogg @ Dogg Bounce Mix Engineer James F. Reynolds @ Schmuzik Studios Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2016 -- 17 ) Peak position Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 86 France ( SNEP ) 167 Japan ( Billboard Japan Hot 100 ) Japan ( Billboard Top Single Sales ) Japan ( Oricon ) New Zealand Heatseeker Singles ( RMNZ ) 7 Philippines ( Billboard Philippine Hot 100 ) 82 South Korea ( Gaon Singles Chart ) US World Digital Songs ( Billboard ) Year - end charts ( edit ) Chi , Ase , Namida ( Japanese Version ) Chart ( 2017 ) Position Japan Hot 100 ( Billboard ) 27 Sales and certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales South Korea ( Gaon ) N / A 1,575,357 Japan ( RIAJ ) Platinum 310,276 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Awards and nominations ( edit ) Year Award - Giving Body Category Result Ref 2016 18th Mnet Asian Music Awards HotelsCombined Song of the Year Nominated Best Dance Performance - Male Group Won Best Music Video Nominated Melon Popularity Award Weekly Popularity Award ( October 17 ) Won Weekly Popularity Award ( October 24 ) Won KBS MV Bank MV Best 5 Best Music Video Boy Group 3rd K - Ville Music Awards Music Video of the Year Won 2017 Seoul Music Awards Best Music Video Award Won Gaon Chart Music Awards Song of the Year -- October Nominated Music program awards ( edit ) Song Program Date `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' Show Champion ( MBC Music ) October 19 , 2016 M Countdown ( Mnet ) October 20 , 2016 Music Bank ( KBS2 ) October 21 , 2016 October 28 , 2016 Inkigayo ( SBS ) October 23 , 2016 The Show ( SBS MTV ) October 25 , 2016 Release history ( edit ) Country Release date Format Label Ref . Worldwide October 10 , 2016 Digital download streaming Big Hit Japan May 10 , 2017 Digital download streaming CD DVD Universal Music Japan Def Jam Recordings References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` 血 、 汗 、 涙 '' ( in Japanese ) . Oricon . Retrieved May 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The 100 Greatest Boy Band Songs of All Time : Critics ' Picks '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Park , Jeong - seon ( October 10 , 2016 ) . ( 현장 is ) `` 대상 받고 싶어요 '' ... 4 년차 방탄 소년단 의 성장 ( 종합 ) . TV / Daily Sports ( in Korean ) . Jump up ^ `` More Details On BTS ' ' WINGS ' Revealed ; Each Member To Have Solo Track '' . iTech Post . Retrieved October 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Big Hit Entertainment ( October 6 , 2016 ) . `` 방탄 소년단 ( BTS ) ' 피 땀 눈물 ( Blood Sweat & Tears ) ' MV Teaser '' . YouTube . Retrieved October 8 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Big Hit Entertainment ( October 9 , 2016 ) . `` 방탄 소년단 ( BTS ) ' 피 땀 눈물 ( Blood Sweat & Tears ) ' MV '' . YouTube . Retrieved October 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Herman , Tamar . `` BTS Soar to New Heights With ' Blood Sweat & Tears ' : Listen '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Omar , Aref ( October 14 , 2016 ) . `` OMG ! Korean hip hop group BTS has every K - pop fan wanting to be their BFF '' . New Straits Times . Retrieved October 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BTS Breaks Records With ' Blood , Sweat & Tears ' -- Big Hit Entertainment K - Pop Group Earns Second Fastest Time In Reaching 10 Million Views For Music Video ( Music Video ) '' . The Inquisitr News . Retrieved October 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BTS 's `` Blood , Sweat & Tears '' MV Hits 100 Million Views Soompi `` . www.soompi.com . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BTS 's `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' Becomes Their 3rd MV To Hit 200 Million Views Soompi `` . www.soompi.com . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 血 、 汗 、 涙 ( 4 形態 セット ) ( UNIVERSAL MUSIC STORE オリジナル 特典 ( 生 写真 メンバー 別 7 枚 セット & 三方 背 BOX ) 付き ) '' ( Blood , Sweat , Tears ( 4 piece set ) ) . store.universal-music.co.jp ( in Japanese ) . Retrieved May 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Blood Sweat & Tears ( TYPE A ) ( SINGLE + DVD ) ( First Press Limited Edition ) ( Japan Version ) '' . yesasia.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . `` Blood Sweat & Tears ( TYPE B ) ( SINGLE + DVD ) ( First Press Limited Edition ) ( Japan Version ) '' . yesasia.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . `` Blood Sweat & Tears ( TYPE C ) ( SINGLE + PHOTOBOOK ) ( First Press Limited Edition ) ( Japan Version ) '' . yesasia.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . `` Blood Sweat & Tears ( Normal Edition ) ( Japan Version ) '' . yesasia.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Kim , Bora ( October 20 , 2016 ) . 방탄 소년단 , 가온 주간 차트 5 관왕 ' 음원 최강자 ' . Osen ( in Korean ) . Retrieved October 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ 2016 년 42 주차 Digital Chart , 1 . `` 피 땀 눈물 '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved October 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 Weekly Download Chart - Week 42 '' . Gaon Chart . Retrieved October 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 Weekly Streaming Chart - Week 42 '' . Gaon Chart . Retrieved October 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 Monthly Download Chart - October '' . Gaon Chart . Retrieved October 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 Monthly Streaming Chart - October '' . Gaon Chart . Retrieved October 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Another record bites the dust : BTS hit new milestone on the Melon charts '' . sbs.com . Retrieved December 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Benjamin , Jeff ( October 24 , 2016 ) . `` BTS Extend Chart Dominance : ' Wings ' Spends 2nd Week on Billboard 200 , ' Blood Sweat & Tears ' Debuts on Canadian Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Retrieved October 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 방탄 소년단 , 빌보드 3 개 차트 1 위 ... '' 월드 와이드 , 윙스 `` '' ( BTS , # 1 on 3 Billboard charts ... `` Worldwide , Wings '' ) . Naver ( in Korean ) . October 19 , 2016 . Retrieved May 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 방탄 소년단 , 유튜브 뮤직 톱 100 트랙 아티스트 차트 인 성공 '' ( BTS , YouTube Music Top 100 Track Artist Chart Success ) . mydaily.co.kr ( in Korean ) . October 20 , 2016 . Retrieved May 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Sales of the Korean version of `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' : `` Japan Hot 100 - 2016 / 10 / 24 '' . Billboard Japan . Retrieved March 29 , 2017 . `` Japan Hot 100 - 2016 / 10 / 31 '' . Billboard Japan . Retrieved March 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' . Billboard Japan . Retrieved October 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ デイリー CD シングル ランキング 2017 年 05 月 09 日付 ( CD single daily ranking from May 9 , 2017 ) ( in Japanese ) . Oricon . Archived from the original on May 10 , 2017 . Retrieved May 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ 방탄 소년단 日 싱글 ' 피 땀 눈물 ' , 오리콘 1 위 + 20 만장 돌파 ( Bulletproof Boysscout 's Single ' Blood Sweat Tears ' , Oricon No. 1 + 200,000 Breakthrough ) ( in Korean ) . Naver . Archived from the original on May 10 , 2017 . Retrieved May 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ ( ビル ボード ) 防弾 少年 団 『 血 、 汗 、 涙 』 が 310,276 枚 を 売り上げ 、 シングル ・ セールス ・ チャート を 大差 で 首位 獲得 ( BTS ' bs&t sold 310,276 copies ascending to the top , making a big gap in the singles sales chart ) ( in Japanese ) . Billboard Japan . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2017 . Retrieved May 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 血 、 汗 、 涙 < 通常 盤 / 初回 限定 仕様 > '' . Tower Japan ( in Japanese ) . Retrieved May 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ You Never Walk Alone . Big Hit . February 13 , 2017 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Canadian Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Retrieved November 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` SNEP - BLOOD SWEAT & TEARS '' . Jump up ^ `` Japan Hot 100 : Chi. Ase. Namida ( 血 、 汗 、 涙 ) '' . Billboard Japan . Retrieved May 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top Single Sales : Chi. Ase. Namida ( 血 、 汗 、 涙 ) '' . Billboard Japan . Retrieved May 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Oricon Single Chart : Chi. Ase. Namida ( 血 、 汗 、 涙 ) '' . Oricon Chart . Retrieved May 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NZ Heatseeker Singles -- Blood Sweat & Tears '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved October 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BillboardPH Hot 100 '' . Billboard Philippines . August 7 , 2017 . Retrieved August 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' . Billboard . October 29 , 2016 . Retrieved October 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Japan Hot 100 - Year - End 2017 '' . Billboard . Retrieved January 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ UNSUPPORTED OR EMPTY REGION : South Korea ( Gaon ) . Jump up ^ Cumulative sales of `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' : `` Gaon 2016 년 10 월 Download Chart ( see # 7 ) '' . Gaon Music Chart ( in Korean ) . Retrieved January 12 , 2018 . `` Gaon 2016 년 11 월 Download Chart ( see # 29 ) '' . Gaon Music Chart ( in Korean ) . Retrieved January 12 , 2018 . `` Gaon 2016 년 12 월 Download Chart ( see # 47 ) '' . Gaon Music Chart ( in Korean ) . Retrieved January 12 , 2018 . `` Gaon 2017 년 Download Chart ( see # 71 ) '' . Gaon Music Chart ( in Korean ) . Retrieved January 12 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Japanese single certifications -- BTS -- Blood Sweat & Tears '' ( in Japanese ) . Recording Industry Association of Japan . Retrieved February 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` NOMINEES '' . mama.mwave.me . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2016 . Retrieved February 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tamar Herman ( December 2 , 2016 ) . `` 8 Ca n't - Miss Performances From the Mnet Asian Music Awards '' . billboard.com . Retrieved February 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` MelOn Popularity Award '' . MelOn . December 4 , 2016 . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 뮤비 뱅크 스타 더스트 2 - 2016 뮤비 뱅크 MV Best 보이 그룹 부문 - 1 위 방탄 소년단. 20161227 '' . KBS Entertainment . Retrieved December 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` THE 2016 K - VILLE MUSIC AWARDS - WINNER 'S ANNOUNCEMENT '' . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` ' 서가 대 ' 엑소 , 4 년 연속 대상 ... 방탄 은 앨범 트 와이스 는 음원 상 ( 종합 ) '' ( in Korean ) . Naver . January 19 , 2017 . Retrieved March 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BTS , EXO , GOT7 & TWICE Are Big Winners at 2017 Gaon Chart K - Pop Awards '' . Billboard . February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Wings by BTS '' . Itunes . Retrieved May 12 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Blood , Sweat & Tears Korean M / V on YouTube Blood , Sweat , Tears Japanese M / V on YouTube BTS Jin Suga J - Hope RM Jimin V Jungkook Studio albums Korean Dark & Wild Wings Love Yourself : Tear Japanese Wake Up Youth Face Yourself Extended plays O ! RUL8 , 2 ? Skool Luv Affair The Most Beautiful Moment in Life , Part 1 The Most Beautiful Moment in Life , Part 2 Love Yourself : Her Compilation albums The Most Beautiful Moment in Life : Young Forever Love Yourself : Answer Single albums 2 Cool 4 Skool Singles `` I Need U '' `` Run '' `` Blood Sweat & Tears '' `` Spring Day '' `` DNA '' `` Mic Drop '' `` Do n't Leave Me '' `` Fake Love '' `` Idol '' Concert tours 2015 BTS Live Trilogy Episode II : The Red Bullet 2017 BTS Live Trilogy Episode III : The Wings Tour BTS World Tour : Love Yourself Campaigns and projects Love Myself BT21 Related articles Discography Awards and nominations Videography Tours Big Hit Entertainment iriver Inc Kakao M Pony Canyon Universal Music Def Jam Japan Columbia Records RED Distribution Category Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blood_Sweat_%26_Tears_(song)&oldid=854466117 '' Categories : 2016 singles 2017 singles Korean - language songs Japanese - language songs BTS ( band ) songs Oricon Weekly number - one singles Japan Hot 100 number - one singles Gaon Digital Chart number - one singles Songs written by Bang Si - hyuk Hidden categories : CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) CS1 uses Korean - language script ( ko ) CS1 Korean - language sources ( ko ) Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Cite certification used with missing parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing Korean - language text Articles containing Japanese - language text Certification Table Entry usages for unsupported region Certification Table Entry usages for Japan Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français 한국어 日本 語 Polski Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2018 , at 15 : 35 ( UTC ) . 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why did carter boycott the 1980 olympics in moscow

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott&oldid=848649628

1980 Summer Olympics boycott - wikipedia 1980 Summer Olympics boycott Countries that boycotted the 1980 Games are shaded blue The 1980 Summer Olympics boycott was one part of a number of actions initiated by the United States to protest the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . The Soviet Union , which hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics , and other countries would later boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . Contents 1 Background 1.1 Responses by country and continent 1.2 Athletes and sportspeople competing without national flags or anthems 2 Non-participating countries 3 Altered participation 3.1 Nations that did not participate in the Opening Ceremony 3.2 National teams represented at the Opening Ceremony by Chef de Mission 3.3 Nations under the Olympic Flag by their own athletes 3.4 Nations that competed under their respective NOC flag 4 Alternative events 5 Effects 6 See also 7 References Background ( edit ) Western governments first considered the idea of boycotting the Moscow Olympics in response to the situation in Afghanistan at the 20 December 1979 meeting of NATO representatives , a fortnight after the invasion of Afghanistan . The idea was not completely new : since 1975 / 1976 proposals for an Olympic boycott circulated widely among human rights activists and groups as a sanction for Soviet violations of human rights . At that moment , not many of the member governments were interested in the proposal . The idea began to gain popularity in early January 1980 when Russian dissident Andrei Sakharov called for a boycott . On 14 January 1980 , the Carter Administration joined Sakharov 's appeal and set a deadline by which the Soviet Union must pull out of Afghanistan or face the consequences , including an international boycott of the games . On 26 January 1980 , Canadian Prime Minister Joe Clark announced that Canada , like the US , would boycott the Olympic Games if Soviet forces did not leave Afghanistan by 20 February 1980 . When the deadline passed a month later without any change to the situation in Central Asia , Carter pushed U.S. allies to pull their Olympic teams from the upcoming games . In late January the Soviet regime prepared to face down this `` hostile campaign '' . As Central Committee documents show , in addition to its own propaganda efforts it was relying on the International Olympic Committee and its 89 member committees to behave as in the past ( e.g. after Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968 ) , and not give in to pressure from national governments . It noted that the government and National Olympic Committee of France had already stated a willingness to participate . After its 24 April meeting , the head of the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) Robert Kane told the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) that the USOC would be willing to send a team to Moscow if there were a `` spectacular change in the international situation '' in the coming weeks . In an attempt to save the Games Lord Killanin , then president of the IOC , arranged to meet and discuss the boycott with Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev , before the new 24 May deadline . Killanin insisted that the Games should continue as scheduled , while President Carter reaffirmed the US position . viz. to boycott the Games unless the USSR withdrew from Afghanistan . Several interventions at the late April 1980 Bilderberg meeting in Aachen included discussion of the implications of the boycott . The world would perceive a boycott , it was argued , as little more than a sentimental protest , not a strategic act . An African representative at the Bilderberg meeting voiced a different view : whether there was additional support outside the US or not , he believed , a boycott would be an effective symbolic protest and be dramatically visible to those within the Soviet Union . Some Russian dissidents expressed an opinion that boycott would be a strong message to the Soviets who breached the Olympic rules to achieve their political goals . The Carter administration brought considerable pressure to bear on other NATO Member - States to support the boycott . Their support was not universal . The International Olympics Federations protested that the pressures by the US and other supporting countries for the boycott was an inappropriate means to achieve a political end , and the victims of this action would be the athletes . German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt said that the American attitude that the allies `` should simply do as they are told '' was unacceptable , although West Germany did join the boycott . Responses by country and continent ( edit ) Boxer Muhammad Ali was dispatched by the US administration to Tanzania , Nigeria , and Senegal to convince their leaders to join the boycott . He also successfully convinced the Kenyan government to do that . Many countries ultimately joined the US in a full boycott of the Games . These included Japan and West Germany where Chancellor Schmidt was able to convince the National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) to support the boycott . China , the Philippines , Chile , Argentina and Canada also boycotted the Games entirely . Some of these countries competed at the alternative `` Liberty Bell Classic '' or Olympic Boycott Games held in Philadelphia that same year . The governments of the United Kingdom , France , and Australia supported the boycott , but left any final decision over the participation of their country 's athletes to their respective NOCs and the decision of their individual athletes . The United Kingdom and France sent a much smaller athletic delegation than would have originally been possible . The British associations that governed equestrian sports , hockey , and yachting completely boycotted the 1980 summer Olympics . Spain , Italy , Sweden , Iceland and Finland were other principal nations representing western Europe at the Games . All these countries participated under a neutral flag with the Olympic anthem played in any ceremony . Italian athletes serving in its military corps could not attend the Games , however , because of the national government 's official support of the boycott . Many events were affected by the loss of participants and some US - born athletes who were citizens of other countries , such as Italy and Australia , did compete in Moscow . A firm enemy of the United States under Ayatollah Khomeini 's new theocracy , Iran also boycotted the Moscow Games after Khomeini joined the condemnation by the United Nations and the Islamic Conference of the invasion of Afghanistan . Independently of the United States , the Islamic Conference urged a boycott of Moscow after the invasion ; the Ayatollah meanwhile accused Moscow of arming the Baluchis against his regime . Many teams were avoided by Soviet television at the Games during the opening and closing ceremonies because their national governments officially supported the boycott . Their national colors could not be flown nor could their anthems be played ( Australia , Andorra , Belgium , Denmark , France , United Kingdom , Ireland , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Portugal , Puerto Rico , San Marino , Spain , and Switzerland ) . Athletes and sportspeople competing without national flags or anthems ( edit ) Lord Killanin permitted NOC - qualified athletes to compete at the Games without their national flags or anthems ( which allowed NOCs to send athletes in a non-national context ) but this did not allow other individuals lacking NOC sanction to participate in the Games as this was perceived by the IOC as a potential weakening of their authority . Four competitors ( including one athlete ) from New Zealand competed independently and marched under their NOC flag because the government officially supported the boycott . The athletes of 16 countries did not fly their national flags . Instead Olympic flags were raised and the Olympic Anthem replaced their national anthems at the medal ceremonies . There was one awards ceremony where three Olympic flags were raised . Other modifications were made in the Games activities , such as when the Boycott prevented Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau from attending the Moscow Games . Sandra Henderson and Stéphane Préfontaine , the final torchbearers at the previous games , were sent in his stead to participate in the Antwerp Ceremony at the opening ceremony , and at the closing ceremony , the Los Angeles city flag ( rather than the United States flag ) was raised to symbolize the next host of the Olympic Games . The Antwerp flag was received by an IOC member from the USA instead of the mayor of Los Angeles , Tom Bradley ; there was no handover to Los Angeles ceremony at the closing . Non-participating countries ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` We will go to the Olympics '' , Anti-boycott sticker , published by the Communist Youth Federation of Spain . Sixty - six countries that were invited to participate in the 1980 Olympics did not do so for various reasons including support for the boycott and economic reasons . Qatar could not be invited until IOC recognition which occurred in 1980 but too late to be invited . Taiwan refused to participate as a result of the 1979 Nagoya Resolution , in which the People 's Republic of China agreed to participate in IOC activities if Taiwan was referred to as `` Chinese Taipei '' . However , China boycotted the 1980 Moscow Games as well . Albania Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Bermuda Bolivia Canada Cayman Islands Central African Republic Chad Chile China Egypt El Salvador Fiji Gabon The Gambia Ghana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong Indonesia Iran Israel Ivory Coast Japan Kenya South Korea Liberia Liechtenstein Malawi Malaysia Mauritania Mauritius Monaco Morocco Netherlands Antilles Niger Norway Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Somalia Sudan Suriname Swaziland Chinese Taipei Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Virgin Islands West Germany Zaire Altered participation ( edit ) The sixteen nations that follow participated in the Games under some adjustment to full conventional participation in the Games activities . Nations that did not participate in the opening ceremony ( edit ) Seven countries participated in the Games without taking part in the Opening Ceremony : Belgium France Italy Luxembourg Netherlands San Marino Switzerland National teams represented at the opening ceremony by Chef de Mission ( edit ) Two nations sent one representative each ( Chef de Mission ) who entered the Olympic stadium during the Opening Ceremony under the Olympic flag ; for each country this was a token gesture , as their governments allowed athletes to take part in the Games if they chose to do so . Ireland also competed under the Olympic flag , rather than its own . Great Britain -- Richard Palmer Ireland -- Ken Ryan Nations under the Olympic flag by their own athletes ( edit ) At least 5 national teams participated at the Games under the Olympic flag rather than their respective National or NOC flags , as doing the latter would have denoted that their participation was officially sanctioned by their respective nations . Australia Andorra Denmark Puerto Rico Ireland Nations that competed under their respective NOC flag ( edit ) Spain Portugal New Zealand Alternative events ( edit ) Events were staged separately in several sports , including the Liberty Bell Classic for track and field and the USGF International Invitational for gymnastics . At the U.S. Swimming Nationals , the split and finishing times from the corresponding Olympic events the previous week were displayed on the scoreboards so that a virtual comparison of medals `` won '' by U.S. swimmers could be kept . Effects ( edit ) American athletes are still affected by the boycott today ; a University of Alabama media guide gave the history of all former students who were Olympic athletes . See also ( edit ) Olympics portal Soviet Union portal Cold War portal 1980 Summer Olympics 1984 Summer Olympics boycott 1986 Asian Games References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Smothers , Ronald ( July 19 , 1996 ) . `` OLYMPICS ; Bitterness Lingering Over Carter 's Boycott '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ U. Tulli , `` Bringing Human Rights In : The Campaign Against the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games and the Origins of the Nexus Between Human Rights and the Olympic Games '' , in The Intenrational Journal of the History of Sport , Vol. 33 , Issue 16 ( 2016 - 2017 ) https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09523367.2017.1315104 Jump up ^ `` Birth of Wayne Gretzky - Historica Canada '' . www.historicacanada.ca . Jump up ^ `` The Olympic Boycott , 1980 '' . U.S. Department of State Archive . Jump up ^ Smith , Terence ( January 20 , 1980 ) . `` The President Said Nyet '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Secretariat : Planning a response to the hostile campaign against participation in the Moscow Olympics , 29 January 1980 , St 195 / 3 , The Bukovsky Archives : Communism on Trial . ^ Jump up to : American Embassy Memorandum to Secretary of State , `` Olympics : Lausanne IOC EXCOM Meeting '' , 23 April 1980 , US Department of State , FOIA Jump up ^ Secretary of State Memorandum to All Diplomatic and Consular Posts Immediate , `` Olympics : Mid-May Update '' , 16 May 1980 , US Department of State , FOIA Jump up ^ Bilderberg meeting report Aachen , 1980 . Retrieved 16 June 2009 . Archived 19 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` How the Russians break the Olympic rules '' . The Christian Science Monitor . Jump up ^ `` The Soviet Doping Plan : Document Reveals Illicit Approach to ' 84 Olympics '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ American Embassy Memorandum to Secretary of State and White House , `` Olympics : IOC Message to Mr. Cutler '' , April 27 , 1980 , US Department of State , FOIA Jump up ^ Sarantakes , Nicholas Evan ( 2010 ) . Dropping the Torch : Jimmy Carter , the Olympic Boycott , and the Cold War . New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 1139788566 . p. 121 . Jump up ^ Sarantakes . Dropping the Torch , pp. 115 -- 118 . Jump up ^ Honey , Martha ( 4 February 1980 ) . `` Ali Spars With Second Thoughts As Africans Argue Boycott Issue '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 10 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Ezra , Michael ( June 5 , 2016 ) . `` Muhammad Ali 's Strange , Failed Diplomatic Career '' . POLITICO Magazine . Retrieved 10 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Cuddihy , Martin ( June 9 , 2016 ) . `` Muhammad Ali : Africa remembers the boxing legend '' . ABC News ( Australia ) . Retrieved September 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Associated Press ( April 23 , 1980 ) . `` Governments slapped for boycott pressure '' . The Spokesman - Review . Spokane , Washington . p . C1 . Retrieved August 8 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : 1980 Summer Olympics Official Report from the Organizing Committee Archived June 22 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine. , vol. 2 , p. 190 . ^ Jump up to : Golan , Galia ; Soviet Policies in the Middle East : From World War Two to Gorbachev ; p. 193 ISBN 9780521358590 Jump up ^ Freedman , Robert O. ; Moscow and the Middle East : Soviet Policy since the Invasion of Afghanistan , p. 78 ISBN 0 - 521 - 35976 - 7 Jump up ^ 1980 Moscow . olympic.org.nz ^ Jump up to : `` Partial Boycott -- New IOC President '' . Keesing 's Record of World Events. 26 : 30599 . December 1980 . Jump up ^ Fimrite , Ron ( July 28 , 1980 ) . `` Only The Bears Were Bullish '' . SI Vault ; CNN . Retrieved August 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Olympics chief feared protests '' . Belfasttelegraph.co.uk . December 30 , 2010 . Retrieved August 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Neff , Craig ( 28 July 1980 ) . `` ... and meanwhile in Philadelphia '' . Sports Illustrated . 53 ( 5 ) : 18 . Retrieved 3 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Marshall , Joe ( 11 August 1980 ) . `` All that glitter was not gold '' . Sports Illustrated . 53 ( 7 ) : 32 . Retrieved 3 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Nafziger , James ( 1980 ) . `` Diplomatic Fun and Games : A Commentary on the United States Boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics '' . Willamette Law Reviewq. 1 : 67 -- 82 . Jump up ^ Caraccioli , Tom ( 2008 ) . Boycott : Stolen Dream of the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games . Washington D.C. : New Chapter Press . Olympic Games scandals and controversies By year 2008 ( summer ) 2010 ( winter ) 2012 ( summer ) 2014 ( winter ) 2016 ( summer ) 2018 ( winter ) 2020 ( summer ) 2022 ( winter ) Boycotts 1936 1956 1964 1976 1980 1984 Alternative competitions People 's Olympiad ( 1936 ) Games of the New Emerging Forces ( 1963 ) Liberty Bell Classic ( 1980 ) Friendship Games ( 1984 ) Goodwill Games ( 1986 -- 2001 ) Events Football match between Peru and Austria ( 1936 ) `` Blood in the Water '' water polo match ( 1956 ) Tlatelolco massacre ( 1968 ) Black Power salute ( 1968 ) Munich massacre ( 1972 ) Basketball gold medal match controversy ( 1972 ) Kozakiewicz 's gesture ( 1980 ) Centennial Olympic Park bombing ( 1996 ) Winter Olympic bid scandal ( 1998 ) Figure - skating judging scandal ( 2002 ) Underage gymnasts controversy ( 2008 ) Death of Nodar Kumaritashvili ( 2010 ) One minute of silence campaign ( 2012 ) LGBT rights protests ( 2014 ) Sochi Ladies ' singles judging controversy ( 2014 ) Russian doping scandal ( 2015 -- present ) Ireland Summer Olympics ticket scandal ( 2016 ) Death of Bahman Golbarnezhad ( 2016 ) Lochtegate ( 2016 ) Rule 40 ( 2016 ) List of stripped Olympic medals Doping at the Olympic Games Apartheid - era South Africa and the Olympics Cold War USA USSR ANZUS NATO Non-Aligned Movement SEATO Warsaw Pact Cold War II 1940s Morgenthau Plan Hukbalahap Rebellion Jamaican conflict Dekemvriana Percentages agreement Yalta Conference Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Forest Brothers Operation Priboi Operation Jungle Occupation of the Baltic states Cursed soldiers Operation Unthinkable Operation Downfall Potsdam Conference Gouzenko Affair Division of Korea Operation Masterdom Operation Beleaguer Operation Blacklist Forty Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Baruch Plan Corfu Channel incident Turkish Straits crisis Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference May 1947 Crises Marshall Plan Comecon 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état Tito -- Stalin Split Berlin Blockade Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Chinese Civil War ( Second round ) Malayan Emergency Albanian Subversion 1950s Papua conflict Bamboo Curtain Korean War McCarthyism Algerian War 1952 Egyptian coup d'état 1953 Iranian coup d'état Uprising of 1953 in East Germany Dirty War ( Mexico ) Bricker Amendment 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Partition of Vietnam Vietnam War First Taiwan Strait Crisis Geneva Summit ( 1955 ) Bandung Conference Poznań 1956 protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Suez Crisis `` We will bury you '' Ifni War Operation Gladio Arab Cold War Syrian Crisis of 1957 1958 Lebanon crisis Iraqi 14 July Revolution Sputnik crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 1959 Tibetan uprising Cuban Revolution Kitchen Debate Sino - Soviet split 1960s Congo Crisis Simba rebellion 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion 1960 Turkish coup d'état Soviet -- Albanian split Berlin Crisis of 1961 Berlin Wall Portuguese Colonial War Angolan War of Independence Guinea - Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence Cuban Missile Crisis El Porteñazo Sino - Indian War Communist insurgency in Sarawak Iraqi Ramadan Revolution Eritrean War of Independence Sand War North Yemen Civil War Aden Emergency 1963 Syrian coup d'état Vietnam War Shifta War Guatemalan Civil War Colombian conflict Nicaraguan Revolution 1964 Brazilian coup d'état Dominican Civil War South African Border War Transition to the New Order ( Indonesia ) Domino theory ASEAN Declaration Laotian Civil War 1966 Syrian coup d'état Argentine Revolution Korean DMZ Conflict Greek military junta of 1967 -- 74 Years of Lead ( Italy ) USS Pueblo incident Six - Day War War of Attrition Dhofar Rebellion Al - Wadiah War Nigerian Civil War Protests of 1968 French May Tlatelolco massacre Cultural Revolution Prague Spring 1968 Polish political crisis Communist insurgency in Malaysia Invasion of Czechoslovakia Iraqi Ba'athist Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état Goulash Communism Sino - 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5536148021381977498

where is wernickes area located in the brain

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Wernicke%27s_area&oldid=840973836

Wernicke 's area - wikipedia Wernicke 's area Jump to : navigation , search Wernicke 's area Approximate location of Wernicke 's area highlighted in grey Identifiers MeSH D065813 NeuroNames 1233 NeuroLex ID nlx_144087 FMA 242178 Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy ( edit on Wikidata ) Wernicke 's area ( / ˈvɛərnɪkə / or / ˈvɛərnɪki / ; German : ( ˈvɛʁnɪkə ) ) , also called Wernicke 's speech area , is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech ( the other is Broca 's area ) . It is involved in the comprehension or understanding of written and spoken language ( in contrast to Broca 's area that is involved in the production of language ) . It is traditionally thought to be in Brodmann area 22 , which is located in the superior temporal lobe in the dominant cerebral hemisphere ( which is the left hemisphere in about 95 % of right handed individuals and 60 % of left handed individuals ) . Damage caused to Wernicke 's area results in receptive , fluent aphasia . This means that the person with aphasia will be able to fluently connect words , but the phrases will lack meaning . This is unlike non-fluent aphasia , in which the person will use meaningful words , but in a non-fluent , telegraphic manner . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 2 Function 2.1 Right homologous area 2.2 Modern views 3 Clinical significance 3.1 Aphasia 4 References Structure ( edit ) Wernicke 's area is classically located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus ( STG ) in the ( most commonly ) left cerebral hemisphere . This area encircles the auditory cortex on the lateral sulcus ( the part of the brain where the temporal lobe and parietal lobe meet ) . This area is neuroanatomically described as the posterior part of Brodmann area 22 . However , there is an absence of consistent definitions as to the location . Some identify it with the unimodal auditory association in the superior temporal gyrus anterior to the primary auditory cortex ( the anterior part of BA 22 ) . This is the site most consistently implicated in auditory word recognition by functional brain imaging experiments . Others include also adjacent parts of the heteromodal cortex in BA 39 and BA40 in the parietal lobe . While previously thought to connect Wernicke 's area and Broca 's area , new research demonstrates that the arcuate fasciculus instead connects to posterior receptive areas with premotor / motor areas , and not to Broca 's area . Consistent with the word recognition site identified in brain imaging , the uncinate fasciculus connects anterior superior temporal regions with Broca 's area . Function ( edit ) Right homologous area ( edit ) Research using Transcranial magnetic stimulation suggests that the area corresponding to the Wernicke 's area in the non-dominant cerebral hemisphere has a role in processing and resolution of subordinate meanings of ambiguous words -- such as ' ' river ' ' when given the ambiguous word `` bank . '' In contrast , the Wernicke 's area in the dominant hemisphere processes dominant word meanings ( ' ' teller ' ' given ' ' bank ' ' ) . Modern views ( edit ) Neuroimaging suggests the functions earlier attributed to Wernicke 's area occur more broadly in the temporal lobe and indeed happen also in Broca 's area . `` There are some suggestions that middle and inferior temporal gyri and basal temporal cortex reflect lexical processing ... there is consensus that the STG from rostral to caudal fields and the STS constitute the neural tissue in which many of the critical computations for speech recognition are executed ... aspects of Broca 's area ( Brodmann areas 44 and 45 ) are also regularly implicated in speech processing . ... the range of areas implicated in speech processing go well beyond the classical language areas typically mentioned for speech ; the vast majority of textbooks still state that this aspect of perception and language processing occurs in Wernicke 's area ( the posterior third of the STG ) . '' Support for a broad range of speech processing areas was furthered by a recent study done at University of Rochester in which American Sign Language native speakers were subject to MRIs while interpreting sentences that identified a relationship using either syntax ( relationship is determined by the word order ) or inflection ( relationship is determined by physical motion of `` moving hands through space or signing on one side of the body '' ) . Distinct areas of the brain were activated with the frontal cortex ( associated with ability to put information into sequences ) being more active in the syntax condition and the temporal lobes ( associated with dividing information into its constituent parts ) being more active in the inflection condition . However , these areas are not mutually exclusive and show a large amount of overlap . These findings imply that while speech processing is a very complex process , the brain may be using fairly basic , preexisting computational methods . Clinical significance ( edit ) Human brain with Wernicke 's area highlighted in red Aphasia ( edit ) Wernicke 's area is named after Carl Wernicke , a German neurologist and psychiatrist who , in 1874 , hypothesized a link between the left posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus and the reflexive mimicking of words and their syllables that associated the sensory and motor images of spoken words . He did this on the basis of the location of brain injuries that caused aphasia . Receptive aphasia in which such abilities are preserved is also known as Wernicke 's aphasia . In this condition there is a major impairment of language comprehension , while speech retains a natural - sounding rhythm and a relatively normal syntax . Language as a result is largely meaningless ( a condition sometimes called fluent or jargon aphasia ) . While neuroimaging and lesion evidence generally support the idea that malfunction of or damage to Wernicke 's area is common in people with receptive aphasia , this is not always so . Some people may use the right hemisphere for language , and isolated damage of Wernicke 's area cortex ( sparing white matter and other areas ) may not cause severe receptive aphasia . Even when patients with Wernicke 's area lesions have comprehension deficits , these are usually not restricted to language processing alone . For example , one study found that patients with posterior lesions also had trouble understanding nonverbal sounds like animal and machine noises . In fact , for Wernicke 's area , the impairments in nonverbal sounds were statistically stronger than for verbal sounds . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Aphasia : Signs & Symptoms '' . American Speech - Language - Hearing Association . Jump up ^ Kennison , Shelia ( 2013 ) . Introduction to language development . Los Angeles : Sage . ^ Jump up to : Bogen JE , Bogen GM ( 1976 ) . `` Wernicke 's region -- Where is it ? '' . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences . 280 : 834 -- 43 . Bibcode : 1976NYASA. 280 ... 834B . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1749 - 6632.1976. tb25546. x . PMID 1070943 . Jump up ^ Nakai , Y ; Jeong , JW ; Brown , EC ; Rothermel , R ; Kojima , K ; Kambara , T ; Shah , A ; Mittal , S ; Sood , S ; Asano , E ( 2017 ) . `` Three - and four - dimensional mapping of speech and language in patients with epilepsy '' . Brain . 140 : 1351 -- 1370 . doi : 10.1093 / brain / awx051 . PMID 28334963 . Jump up ^ Démonet JF , Chollet F , Ramsay S , Cardebat D , Nespoulous JL , Wise R , Rascol A , Frackowiak R ( December 1992 ) . `` The anatomy of phonological and semantic processing in normal subjects '' . Brain . 115 ( Pt 6 ) : 1753 -- 68 . doi : 10.1093 / brain / 115.6. 1753 . PMID 1486459 . Jump up ^ DeWitt I , Rauschecker JP ( 2012 ) . `` Phoneme and word recognition in the auditory ventral stream '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 109 ( 8 ) : E505 -- E514 . Bibcode : 2012PNAS ... 109E. 505D . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1113427109 . PMC 3286918 . PMID 22308358 . Jump up ^ DeWitt I , Rauschecker JP ( 2013 ) . `` Wernicke 's area revisited : parallel streams and word processing '' . Brain Lang . 127 ( 2 ) : 181 -- 91 . doi : 10.1016 / j. bandl. 2013.09. 014 . PMC 4098851 . PMID 24404576 . Jump up ^ Mesulam MM ( June 1998 ) . `` From sensation to cognition '' . Brain . 121 ( Pt 6 ) : 1013 -- 52 . doi : 10.1093 / brain / 121.6. 1013 . PMID 9648540 . Jump up ^ Bernal B , Ardila A ( September 2009 ) . `` The role of the arcuate fasciculus in conduction aphasia '' . Brain . 132 ( Pt 9 ) : 2309 -- 16 . doi : 10.1093 / brain / awp206 . PMID 19690094 . Jump up ^ Saur D , Kreher BW , Schnell S , Kümmerer D , Kellmeyer P , Vry MS , Umarova R , Musso M , Glauche V , Abel S , Huber W , Rijntjes M , Hennig J , Weiller C ( November 2008 ) . `` Ventral and dorsal pathways for language '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 105 ( 46 ) : 18035 -- 18040 . Bibcode : 2008PNAS ... 10518035S . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0805234105 . PMC 2584675 . PMID 19004769 . Jump up ^ Harpaz Y , Levkovitz Y , Lavidor M ( October 2009 ) . `` Lexical ambiguity resolution in Wernicke 's area and its right homologue '' . Cortex. 45 ( 9 ) : 1097 -- 103 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cortex. 2009.01. 002 . PMID 19251255 . Jump up ^ Poeppel D , Idsardi WJ , van Wassenhove V ( March 2008 ) . `` Speech perception at the interface of neurobiology and linguistics '' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 363 ( 1493 ) : 1071 -- 86 . doi : 10.1098 / rstb. 2007.2160 . PMC 2606797 . PMID 17890189 . Jump up ^ Newman AJ , Supalla T , Hauser P , Newport EL , Bavelier D ( 2010 ) . `` Dissociating neural subsystems for grammar by contrasting word order and inflection '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 107 ( 16 ) : 7539 -- 44 . Bibcode : 2010PNAS ... 107.7539 N . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1003174107 . PMC 2867749 . PMID 20368422 . Jump up ^ Wernicke K. ( 1995 ) . `` The aphasia symptom - complex : A psychological study on an anatomical basis ( 1875 ) '' . In Paul Eling . Reader in the History of Aphasia : From sasi ( Franz Gall to ) . 4 . Amsterdam : John Benjamins Pub Co. pp. 69 -- 89 . ISBN 90 - 272 - 1893 - 5 . Jump up ^ Dronkers NF. ; Redfern B B. ; Knight R T. ( 2000 ) . `` The neural architecture of language disorders '' . In Bizzi , Emilio ; Gazzaniga , Michael S . The New cognitive neurosciences ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge , Massachusetts : MIT Press . pp. 949 -- 58 . ISBN 0 - 262 - 07195 - 9 . Jump up ^ Saygin AP , Dick F , Wilson SM , Dronkers NF , Bates E ( 2003 ) . `` Neural resources for processing language and environmental sounds : evidence from aphasia '' . Brain . 126 ( Pt 4 ) : 928 -- 45 . doi : 10.1093 / brain / awg082 . PMID 12615649 . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wernicke 's area . ( hide ) Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain Frontal lobe Superolateral Prefrontal Superior frontal gyrus 6 8 Middle frontal gyrus 9 10 46 Inferior frontal gyrus : 11 47 - Pars orbitalis Broca 's area 44 - Pars opercularis 45 - Pars triangularis Superior frontal sulcus Inferior frontal sulcus Precentral Precentral gyrus Precentral sulcus Medial / inferior Prefrontal Superior frontal gyrus 6 Medial frontal gyrus 8 9 Paraterminal gyrus / Paraolfactory area 12 Straight gyrus 11 Orbital gyri / Orbitofrontal cortex 10 11 12 Ventromedial prefrontal cortex 10 Subcallosal area 25 Olfactory sulcus Orbital sulcus Precentral Paracentral lobule Paracentral sulcus Both Primary motor cortex Premotor cortex 6 Supplementary motor area 6 Supplementary eye field 6 Frontal eye fields 8 Parietal lobe Superolateral Superior parietal lobule 5 7 Inferior parietal lobule 40 - Supramarginal gyrus 39 - Angular gyrus Parietal operculum 43 Intraparietal sulcus Medial / inferior Paracentral lobule 5 Precuneus 7 Marginal sulcus Both Postcentral gyrus / Primary somatosensory cortex Secondary somatosensory cortex 5 Posterior parietal cortex 7 Occipital lobe Superolateral Occipital pole of cerebrum Lateral occipital gyrus 18 19 Lunate sulcus Transverse occipital sulcus Medial / inferior Visual cortex 17 Cuneus Lingual gyrus Calcarine sulcus Temporal lobe Superolateral Transverse temporal gyrus / Auditory cortex 41 42 Superior temporal gyrus 38 22 / Wernicke 's area Middle temporal gyrus 21 Superior temporal sulcus Medial / inferior Fusiform gyrus 37 Medial temporal lobe 27 28 34 35 36 Inferior temporal gyrus 20 Inferior temporal sulcus Interlobar sulci / fissures Superolateral Central ( frontal + parietal ) Lateral ( frontal + parietal + temporal ) Parieto - occipital Preoccipital notch Medial / inferior Longitudinal fissure Cingulate ( frontal + cingulate ) Collateral ( temporal + occipital ) Callosal sulcus Limbic lobe Parahippocampal gyrus anterior Entorhinal cortex Perirhinal cortex Postrhinal cortex Posterior parahippocampal gyrus Prepyriform area Cingulate cortex / gyrus Subgenual area 25 Anterior cingulate 24 32 33 Posterior cingulate 23 31 Isthmus of cingulate gyrus : Retrosplenial cortex 26 29 30 Hippocampal formation Hippocampal sulcus Fimbria of hippocampus Dentate gyrus Rhinal sulcus Other Supracallosal gyrus Uncus Amygdala Insular cortex Insular cortex General Operculum Poles of cerebral hemispheres Some categorizations are approximations , and some Brodmann areas span gyri . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wernicke%27s_area&oldid=840973836 '' Categories : Neurolinguistics Temporal lobe Cerebral cortex Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська West - Vlams 中文 19 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2018 , at 07 : 37 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where does it snow the most in north carolina

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Climate_of_North_Carolina&oldid=815465601

Climate of North Carolina - wikipedia Climate of North Carolina Jump to : navigation , search Köppen climate classification types of North Carolina . North Carolina 's climate varies from the Atlantic coast in the east to the Appalachian Mountain range in the west . The mountains often act as a `` shield '' , blocking low temperatures and storms from the Midwest from entering the Piedmont of North Carolina . Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfa ) , except in the higher elevations of the Appalachians which have a subtropical highland climate ( Köppen Cfb ) . For most areas in the state , the temperatures in July during the daytime are approximately 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . In January the average temperatures range near 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . ( However , a polar vortex or `` cold blast '' can significantly bring down average temperatures , seen in the winters of 2014 and 2015 . ) Average Monthly Temperature City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Asheville 46 / 26 50 / 28 58 / 35 66 / 42 74 / 51 80 / 58 83 / 63 82 / 62 76 / 55 67 / 43 57 / 35 49 / 29 Cape Hatteras 54 / 39 55 / 39 60 / 44 68 / 52 75 / 60 82 / 68 85 / 73 85 / 72 81 / 68 73 / 59 65 / 50 57 / 43 Charlotte 51 / 32 56 / 34 64 / 42 73 / 49 80 / 58 87 / 66 90 / 71 88 / 69 82 / 63 73 / 51 63 / 42 54 / 35 Greensboro 47 / 28 52 / 31 60 / 38 70 / 46 77 / 55 84 / 64 88 / 68 86 / 67 79 / 60 70 / 48 60 / 39 51 / 31 Raleigh 50 / 30 54 / 32 62 / 39 72 / 46 79 / 55 86 / 64 89 / 68 87 / 67 81 / 61 72 / 48 62 / 40 53 / 33 Wilmington 56 / 36 60 / 38 66 / 44 74 / 51 81 / 60 86 / 68 90 / 72 88 / 71 84 / 66 76 / 54 68 / 45 60 / 38 Contents ( hide ) 1 Precipitation 1.1 Snow 2 Tropical cyclones 2.1 Rain 3 Severe weather 4 Seasonal conditions 4.1 Winter 4.2 Spring 4.3 Summer 4.4 Fall 4.5 Southern Oscillation 4.6 Changes 5 See also 6 External links 7 References Precipitation ( edit ) There is an average of forty - five inches of rain a year ( fifty in the mountains ) . July storms account for much of this precipitation . As much as 15 % of the rainfall during the warm season in the Carolinas can be attributed to tropical cyclones . Mountains usually see some snow in the fall and winter . Moist winds from the southwest drop an average of 80 inches ( 2,000 mm ) of precipitation on the western side of the mountains , while the northeast - facing slopes average less than half that amount . Average Monthly Precipitation City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Asheville 2.6 inches ( 66 mm ) 3.1 inches ( 79 mm ) 4 inches ( 100 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 2.9 inches ( 74 mm ) 3.5 inches ( 89 mm ) 3.4 inches ( 86 mm ) 4 inches ( 100 mm ) 3.1 inches ( 79 mm ) 2.7 inches ( 69 mm ) 2.6 inches ( 66 mm ) 2.7 inches ( 69 mm ) 38.1 inches ( 970 mm ) Cape Hatteras 5.6 inches ( 140 mm ) 4.1 inches ( 100 mm ) 4.6 inches ( 120 mm ) 3.2 inches ( 81 mm ) 3.8 inches ( 97 mm ) 4.2 inches ( 110 mm ) 4.9 inches ( 120 mm ) 6.4 inches ( 160 mm ) 5.3 inches ( 130 mm ) 5.3 inches ( 130 mm ) 4.9 inches ( 120 mm ) 4.5 inches ( 110 mm ) 56.9 inches ( 1,450 mm ) Charlotte 3.7 inches ( 94 mm ) 3.7 inches ( 94 mm ) 4.6 inches ( 120 mm ) 3 inches ( 76 mm ) 3.6 inches ( 91 mm ) 3.5 inches ( 89 mm ) 3.8 inches ( 97 mm ) 4.1 inches ( 100 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 3.2 inches ( 81 mm ) 3.1 inches ( 79 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 43 inches ( 1,100 mm ) Greensboro 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 3.8 inches ( 97 mm ) 3.2 inches ( 81 mm ) 3.6 inches ( 91 mm ) 3.8 inches ( 97 mm ) 4.4 inches ( 110 mm ) 4.1 inches ( 100 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 3.4 inches ( 86 mm ) 2.9 inches ( 74 mm ) 3.2 inches ( 81 mm ) 42.3 inches ( 1,070 mm ) Raleigh 3.5 inches ( 89 mm ) 3.5 inches ( 89 mm ) 3.7 inches ( 94 mm ) 2.8 inches ( 71 mm ) 3.8 inches ( 97 mm ) 3.6 inches ( 91 mm ) 4.4 inches ( 110 mm ) 4.4 inches ( 110 mm ) 3.1 inches ( 79 mm ) 3 inches ( 76 mm ) 2.9 inches ( 74 mm ) 3.1 inches ( 79 mm ) 41.8 inches ( 1,060 mm ) Wilmington 3.6 inches ( 91 mm ) 3.5 inches ( 89 mm ) 4.3 inches ( 110 mm ) 2.9 inches ( 74 mm ) 4.3 inches ( 110 mm ) 5.4 inches ( 140 mm ) 7.9 inches ( 200 mm ) 7 inches ( 180 mm ) 5.6 inches ( 140 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 3.3 inches ( 84 mm ) 3.5 inches ( 89 mm ) 55 inches ( 1,400 mm ) Snow ( edit ) A downed tree in Asheville , North Carolina caused by snowfall from the 1993 Storm of the Century . Snow in North Carolina is seen on a regular basis in the mountains . North Carolina averages 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of snow a year . However , this also varies greatly across the state . Along the coast , most areas register less than 2 inches ( 51 mm ) per year while the state capital , Raleigh averages 7.5 inches ( 190 mm ) . Farther west in the Piedmont - Triad , the average grows to approximately 9 inches ( 230 mm ) . The Charlotte area averages approximately 6.5 inches ( 170 mm ) . The mountains in the west act as a barrier , preventing most snowstorms from entering the Piedmont . When snow does make it past the mountains , it is usually light and is seldom on the ground for more than two or three days . However , several storms have dropped 18 inches ( 460 mm ) or more of snow within normally warm areas . The 1993 Storm of the Century that lasted from March 11 to March 15 affected locales from Canada to Central America , and brought a significant amount of snow to North Carolina . Newfound Gap received more than 36 inches ( 0.91 m ) of snow with drifts more than 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) , while Mount Mitchell measured over 4 feet ( 1.2 m ) of snow with drifts to 14 feet ( 4.3 m ) . Most of the northwestern part of the state received somewhere between 2 feet ( 0.61 m ) an 3 feet ( 0.91 m ) of snow . Another significant snowfall hit the Raleigh area in January 2000 when more than 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of snow fell . There was also a heavy snowfall totaling 18 inches ( 460 mm ) that hit the Wilmington area on December 22 - 23 , 1989 . This storm affected only the Southeastern US coast , as far south as Savannah , GA , with little to no snow measured west of I - 95 . Most big snows that impact areas east of the mountains come from extratropical cyclones which approach from the south across Georgia and South Carolina and move off the coast of North or South Carolina . These storms typically throw Gulf or Atlantic moisture over cold Arctic air at ground level , usually propelled southward from Arctic high pressure over the Northeastern or New England states . If the storms track sufficiently far to the east , snow will be limited to the eastern part of the state ( as with the December 22 - 23 , 1989 storm ) . If the cyclones travel close to the coast , warm air will get pulled into eastern North Carolina due to increasing flow off the milder Atlantic Ocean , bringing a rain / snow line well inland with heavy snow restricted to the Piedmont , foothills and mountains , as with the January 22 , 1987 storm . If the storm tracks inland into eastern North Carolina , the rain / snow line ranges between Raleigh and Greensboro . Average Monthly Snowfall City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Asheville 4.6 inches ( 12 cm ) 4.6 inches ( 12 cm ) 3 inches ( 7.6 cm ) 0.7 inches ( 1.8 cm ) - - - - - - 0.7 inches ( 1.8 cm ) 2 inches ( 5.1 cm ) 15.6 inches ( 40 cm ) Cape Hatteras 0.4 inches ( 1.0 cm ) 0.6 inches ( 1.5 cm ) 0.4 inches ( 1.0 cm ) - - - - - - - - 0.6 inches ( 1.5 cm ) 2 inches ( 5.1 cm ) Charlotte 2 inches ( 5.1 cm ) 1.7 inches ( 4.3 cm ) 1.2 inches ( 3.0 cm ) - - - - - - - 0.1 inches ( 0.25 cm ) 0.5 inches ( 1.3 cm ) 5.5 inches ( 14 cm ) Greensboro 3.1 inches ( 7.9 cm ) 2.5 inches ( 6.4 cm ) 1.7 inches ( 4.3 cm ) - - - - - - - 0.1 inches ( 0.25 cm ) 1.2 inches ( 3.0 cm ) 8.6 inches ( 22 cm ) Raleigh 2.2 inches ( 5.6 cm ) 2.6 inches ( 6.6 cm ) 1.3 inches ( 3.3 cm ) - - - - - - - 0.1 inches ( 0.25 cm ) 0.8 inches ( 2.0 cm ) 7 inches ( 18 cm ) Wilmington 0.4 inches ( 1.0 cm ) 0.5 inches ( 1.3 cm ) 0.4 inches ( 1.0 cm ) - - - - - - - - 0.6 inches ( 1.5 cm ) 1.9 inches ( 4.8 cm ) Tropical cyclones ( edit ) Hurricane Fran Main article : List of North Carolina hurricanes Located along the Atlantic Coast , North Carolina is no stranger to hurricanes . Many hurricanes that come up from the Caribbean Sea make it up the coast of eastern America , passing by North Carolina . Rainfall from Floyd On October 15 , 1954 , Hurricane Hazel struck North Carolina , at that time it was a category 4 hurricane within the Saffir - Simpson Hurricane Scale . Hazel caused significant damage due to its strong winds . A weather station at Oak Island reported maximum sustained winds of 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) , while in Raleigh winds of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) were measured . The hurricane caused 19 deaths and significant destruction . One person at Long Beach claimed that `` of the 357 buildings that existed in the town , 352 were totally destroyed and the other five damaged '' . Hazel was described as `` the most destructive storm in the history of North Carolina '' in a 1989 report . In 1996 , Hurricane Fran made landfall in North Carolina . As a category 3 hurricane , Fran caused a great deal of damage , mainly through winds . Fran 's maximum sustained wind speeds were 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) , while North Carolina 's coast saw surges of 8 feet ( 2.4 m ) to 12 feet ( 3.7 m ) above sea level . The amount of damage caused by Fran ranged from $1.275 to $2 billion in North Carolina . Rain ( edit ) Heavy rains accompany tropical cyclones and their remnants which move northeast from the Gulf of Mexico coastline , as well as inland from the western subtropical Atlantic ocean . Over the past 30 years , the wettest tropical cyclone to strike the coastal plain was Hurricane Floyd of September 1999 , which dropped over 24 inches ( 610 mm ) of rainfall north of Southport . Unlike Hazel and Fran , the main force of destruction was from precipitation . Before Hurricane Floyd reached North Carolina , the state had already received large amounts of rain from Hurricane Dennis less than two weeks before Floyd . This saturated much of the Eastern North Carolina soil and allowed heavy rains from Hurricane Floyd to turn into floods . Over 35 people died from Floyd . In the mountains , Hurricane Frances of September 2004 was nearly as wet , bringing over 23 inches ( 580 mm ) of rainfall to Mount Mitchell . Tornado activity in the United States . Severe Weather ( edit ) In most years , the greatest weather - related economic loss incurred in North Carolina is due to severe weather spawned by summer thunderstorms . These storms affect limited areas , with their hail and wind accounting for an average annual loss of over US $5 million . North Carolina averages 31 tornadoes a year with May seeing the most tornadoes on average a month with 5 . June , July and August all have an average of 3 tornadoes with an increase to 4 average tornadoes a month in September . It is through September and into early November when North Carolina can typically expect to see that smaller , secondary , severe weather season . While severe weather season is technically from March through May , tornadoes have touched down in North Carolina in every month of the year . ( 1 ) . On November 28 , 1988 , an early morning F4 tornado smashed across northwestern Raleigh , continuing 84 miles further , killing 4 and injuring 157 ( http://www4.ncsu.edu/~nwsfo/storage/cases/19881128/ ) . Seasonal conditions ( edit ) Winter ( edit ) In winter , North Carolina is somewhat protected by the Appalachian Mountains to the west . Cold fronts from Canada are typically reduced in intensity by the mountains . However , occasionally cold air can move from the north or northeast , east of the Appalachian Mountains , from Arctic high pressure systems that settle over the Northeastern or New England states . Other polar and Arctic outbreaks can cross the mountains and force temperatures to drop to about 12 ° F ( − 11 ° C ) in central North Carolina . Still , temperatures below zero degrees Fahrenheit are extremely rare outside of the mountains . The coldest ever recorded temperature in North Carolina was − 34 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) on January 21 , 1985 , at Mount Mitchell . The winter temperatures on the coast are milder due to the warming influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream . The average ocean temperature in Southport in January is still higher than the average ocean temperature in Maine during July . Snow is common in the mountains , although many ski resorts use snowmaking equipment to make sure there is always snow on their land . North Carolina 's relative humidity is highest in the winter . Spring ( edit ) Tornadoes are most likely in the spring . Major tornado outbreaks affected parts of eastern North Carolina on March 28 , 1984 , and April 16 , 2011 . The month of May experiences the greatest rise in temperatures . During the spring , there are warm days and cool nights in the Piedmont . Temperatures are somewhat cooler in the mountains and warmer , particularly at night , near the coast . North Carolina 's humidity is lowest in the spring . Summer ( edit ) Harris Lake in Highlands , North Carolina during Fall . North Carolina experiences high summer temperatures . Sometimes , cool , dry air from the north will invade North Carolina for brief periods of time , with temperatures quickly rebounding . It remains colder at high elevations , with the average summer temperature in Mount Mitchell lying at 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) . Morning temperatures are on average 20 ° F ( 12 ° C ) lower than afternoon temperatures , except along the Atlantic Coast . The largest economic loss from severe weather in North Carolina is due to severe thunderstorms in the summer , although they usually only hit small areas . Tropical cyclones can impact the state during the summer as well . Fogs are also frequent in the summer . Fall ( edit ) Fall is the most rapidly changing season temperature wise , especially in October and November . Tropical cyclones remain a threat until late in the season . The Appalachian Mountains are frequently visited at this time of year , due to the leaves changing color in the trees . Southern oscillation ( edit ) During El Niño events , winter and early spring temperatures are cooler than average with above average precipitation in the central and eastern parts of the state and drier weather in the western part . La Niña usually brings warmer than average temperatures with above average precipitation in the western part of the state while the central and coastal regions stay drier than average . Changes ( edit ) Much of North Carolina 's Outer and Inner Banks could be at or below sea level . Main article : Effects of global warming The water on North Carolina 's shores have risen 2 inches ( 50 mm ) but the reason is heavily discussed . Temperatures in North Carolina have risen too . Over the last 100 years , the average temperature in Chapel Hill has gone up 1.2 ° F ( 0.7 ° C ) and precipitation in some parts of the state has increased by 5 percent . See also ( edit ) Climate Climate change Climatology List of North Carolina hurricanes List of North Carolina weather records List of wettest known tropical cyclones in North Carolina Meteorology External links ( edit ) State Climate Office of North Carolina References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : North Carolina Department of the Secretary of State . North Carolina Climate & Geography . Retrieved on 2008 - 01 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Travel Weather . North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 01 - 13 . Archived January 29 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ David B. Knight Robert E. Davis . Climatology of Tropical Cyclone Rainfall in the Southeastern United States . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 29 . Jump up ^ City-Data.com North Carolina - Climate Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Weatherbase . Asheville , North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Weatherbase . Cape Hatteras , North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Weatherbase . Charlotte , North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Weatherbase . Greensboro , North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Weatherbase . Raleigh , North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Weatherbase . Wilmington , North Carolina Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 08 . Jump up ^ Intellicast.com . `` MARCH IN THE NORTHEAST '' . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ Environmental Modeling Center . EMC MODEL GUIDANCE FOR THE BLIZZARD of 2000 . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ American Meteorological Society . Weather and Forecasting throughout the Eastern United States . Part III : The Effects of Topography and the Variability of Winter Weather in the Carolinas and Virginia ( pg. 11 ) . Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : State Climate Office of North Carolina . Research on North Carolina Severe Weather . Retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 09 . Archived December 16 , 2005 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Roth , David M ; Hydrometeorological Prediction Center . `` Tropical Cyclone Rainfall in the Southeastern United States '' . Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Point Maxima . United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Weather Service . Retrieved June 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ State Climate Office of North Carolina . Overview . Retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : State Climate Office of North Carolina . General Summary of N.C. Climate . Retrieved on 2008 - 01 - 13 . Jump up ^ NCDC Climate of North Carolina Retrieved on 2008 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ North Carolina Wildlife Federation . General Climate Change in North Carolina . Retrieved on 2008 - 01 - 17 . Archived September 12 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Duke University . Climate Change and North Carolina Archived September 12 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on 2008 - 01 - 17 . Climate of the United States States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Federal district Washington , D.C. Insular areas American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands State of North Carolina Raleigh ( capital ) Topics Climate Geography Government History Law Media Newspapers Radio TV Music North Carolinians State Parks Tourist attractions Wildlife Seal of North Carolina Society Culture Crime Demographics Economy Education Elections Gambling Politics Sports Regions Cape Fear Coastal Plain Crystal Coast Eastern Foothills High Country Inner Banks Metrolina ( Charlotte ) Outer Banks Piedmont Piedmont Triad Sandhills Triangle Western Largest cities Asheville Cary Chapel Hill Charlotte Concord Durham Fayetteville Gastonia Greensboro Greenville High Point Jacksonville Raleigh Wilmington Winston ‐ Salem Smaller cities Albemarle Apex Asheboro Burlington Conover Eden Elizabeth City Garner Goldsboro Graham Havelock Henderson Hendersonville Hickory Kannapolis Kings Mountain Kinston Laurinburg Lenoir Lexington Lumberton Monroe Morganton New Bern Newton Reidsville Roanoke Rapids Rocky Mount Salisbury Sanford Shelby Statesville Thomasville Wake Forest Wilson Major towns Beaufort Boone Brevard Carrboro Clayton Cornelius Dunn Fuquay - Varina Harrisburg Holly Springs Hope Mills Huntersville Indian Trail Kernersville Knightdale Leland Matthews Midland Mint Hill Mooresville Morehead City Morrisville Mount Pleasant Oxford Shallotte Smithfield Southern Pines Tarboro Waynesville Winterville Counties Alamance Alexander Alleghany Anson Ashe Avery Beaufort Bertie Bladen Brunswick Buncombe Burke Cabarrus Caldwell Camden Carteret Caswell Catawba Chatham Cherokee Chowan Clay Cleveland Columbus Craven Cumberland Currituck Dare Davidson Davie Duplin Durham Edgecombe Forsyth Franklin Gaston Gates Graham Granville Greene Guilford Halifax Harnett Haywood Henderson Hertford Hoke Hyde Iredell Jackson Johnston Jones Lee Lenoir Lincoln Macon Madison Martin McDowell Mecklenburg Mitchell Montgomery Moore Nash New Hanover Northampton Onslow Orange Pamlico Pasquotank Pender Perquimans Person Pitt Polk Randolph Richmond Robeson Rockingham Rowan Rutherford Sampson Scotland Stanly Stokes Surry Swain Transylvania Tyrrell Union Vance Wake Warren Washington Watauga Wayne Wilkes Wilson Yadkin Yancey Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_of_North_Carolina&oldid=815465601 '' Categories : Geography of North Carolina Climate of North Carolina Climate of the United States by state Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2010 Articles with dead external links from June 2016 Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 15 December 2017 , at 00 : 12 . 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highly suspect hello my name is human meaning

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=My_Name_Is_Human&oldid=841554093

My Name is Human - Wikipedia My Name is Human `` My Name Is Human '' Single by Highly Suspect from the album The Boy Who Died Wolf Released 2016 Format Digital download Genre Hard rock alternative rock Length 4 : 19 Label 300 Songwriter ( s ) Highly Suspect Producer ( s ) Joel Hamilton Highly Suspect singles chronology `` Bloodfeather '' ( 2015 ) `` My Name Is Human '' ( 2016 ) `` Little One '' ( 2017 ) `` Bloodfeather '' ( 2015 ) `` My Name Is Human '' ( 2016 ) `` Little One '' ( 2017 ) `` My Name Is Human '' is a song by American rock band Highly Suspect . It was released as the lead single from their second studio album The Boy Who Died Wolf in 2016 . The song reached No. 1 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart and stayed there for eight weeks . It is their first number one single . The song is also their highest charting single on the Alternative Songs , Hot Rock Songs and Rock Airplay charts , where it peaked at No. 20 , No. 12 and No. 7 respectively . The song was nominated for Best Rock Song at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Music video 3 Charts 4 References Background ( edit ) The song was released on September 7 , 2016 . Said Johnny Stevens of the song , `` A lot of people think the song is about being a human . I believe some of us are n't human at all . Or at least not completely , but that is still our name . At some point in the last couple hundred years something changed . The androids , the aliens ... They are n't coming . We are here . '' Music video ( edit ) The music video was released through Vanity Fair on February 23 , 2017 . It begins in a futuristic setting with a female lifelike robot being assembled , portrayed by actress Chloe Bridges in its final form , and is intercut with Johnny Stevens singing and viewing the robot 's features up close . Blue crystal - like formations appear to grow out of the floor , as more robots appear , standing in formation behind Stevens . It ends with Bridges resting her head on Stevens ' shoulder . Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2016 -- 17 ) Peak position US Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) 20 US Hot Rock Songs ( Billboard ) 12 US Mainstream Rock ( Billboard ) US Rock Airplay ( Billboard ) 7 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Mainstream Rock : January 21 , 2017 '' . Billboard . Retrieved February 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Rutherford , Kevin ( November 23 , 2016 ) . `` Highly Suspect Earns First No. 1 Song With ' My Name Is Human ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved February 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mishkin , Shaina . `` Highly Suspect , band with Cape Cod roots , earns 2017 Grammy Awards nomination for ' Best Rock Song ' '' . masslive.com . Retrieved 1 May 2017 . Jump up ^ Vain , Madison ( 7 September 2016 ) . `` Highly Suspect Detail Second Album , ' The Boy Who Died Wolf ' -- exclusive '' . EW.com . Retrieved 23 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Busis , Hillary . `` Highly Suspect 's `` My Name Is Human '' Video : See It Here First `` . Vanity Fair . Retrieved 23 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Highly Suspect Chart History ( Alternative Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved March 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Highly Suspect Chart History ( Hot Rock Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved February 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Highly Suspect Chart History ( Mainstream Rock ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved February 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Highly Suspect Chart History ( Rock Airplay ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved February 14 , 2017 . hide Highly Suspect Johnny Stevens Rich Meyer Ryan Meyer Studio albums Mister Asylum The Boy Who Died Wolf Singles `` Lydia '' `` My Name Is Human '' `` Little One '' This 2010s rock song - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=My_Name_Is_Human&oldid=841554093 '' Categories : 2016 singles 2016 songs Highly Suspect songs 300 Entertainment singles Billboard Mainstream Rock number - one singles 2010s rock song stubs Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Billboardalternativesongs Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardrocksongs Singlechart usages for Billboardmainstreamrock Singlechart usages for Billboardrockairplay All stub articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 16 May 2018 , at 14 : 59 . About Wikipedia

8900479189223971396

what is the difference between states and phases of matter

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Phase_(matter)&oldid=805590384

Phase ( matter ) - wikipedia Phase ( matter ) Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with State of matter . In the physical sciences , a phase is a region of space ( a thermodynamic system ) , throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform . Examples of physical properties include density , index of refraction , magnetization and chemical composition . A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform , physically distinct , and ( often ) mechanically separable . In a system consisting of ice and water in a glass jar , the ice cubes are one phase , the water is a second phase , and the humid air over the water is a third phase . The glass of the jar is another separate phase . ( See state of matter # Glass ) The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter , but there can be several immiscible phases of the same state of matter . Also , the term phase is sometimes used to refer to a set of equilibrium states demarcated in terms of state variables such as pressure and temperature by a phase boundary on a phase diagram . Because phase boundaries relate to changes in the organization of matter , such as a change from liquid to solid or a more subtle change from one crystal structure to another , this latter usage is similar to the use of `` phase '' as a synonym for state of matter . However , the state of matter and phase diagram usages are not commensurate with the formal definition given above and the intended meaning must be determined in part from the context in which the term is used . A small piece of rapidly melting argon ice shows the transition from solid to liquid . Contents ( hide ) 1 Types of phases 2 Phase equilibrium 3 Number of phases 4 Interfacial phenomena 5 Crystal phases 6 Phase transitions 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Types of phases ( edit ) Iron - carbon phase diagram , showing the conditions necessary to form different phases Distinct phases may be described as different states of matter such as gas , liquid , solid , plasma or Bose -- Einstein condensate . Useful mesophases between solid and liquid form other states of matter . Distinct phases may also exist within a given state of matter . As shown in the diagram for iron alloys , several phases exist for both the solid and liquid states . Phases may also be differentiated based on solubility as in polar ( hydrophilic ) or non-polar ( hydrophobic ) . A mixture of water ( a polar liquid ) and oil ( a non-polar liquid ) will spontaneously separate into two phases . Water has a very low solubility ( is insoluble ) in oil , and oil has a low solubility in water . Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent before the solute ceases to dissolve and remains in a separate phase . A mixture can separate into more than two liquid phases and the concept of phase separation extends to solids , i.e. , solids can form solid solutions or crystallize into distinct crystal phases . Metal pairs that are mutually soluble can form alloys , whereas metal pairs that are mutually insoluble can not . As many as eight immiscible liquid phases have been observed . Mutually immiscible liquid phases are formed from water ( aqueous phase ) , hydrophobic organic solvents , perfluorocarbons ( fluorous phase ) , silicones , several different metals , and also from molten phosphorus . Not all organic solvents are completely miscible , e.g. a mixture of ethylene glycol and toluene may separate into two distinct organic phases . Phases do not need to macroscopically separate spontaneously . Emulsions and colloids are examples of immiscible phase pair combinations that do not physically separate . Phase equilibrium ( edit ) Left to equilibration , many compositions will form a uniform single phase , but depending on the temperature and pressure even a single substance may separate into two or more distinct phases . Within each phase , the properties are uniform but between the two phases properties differ . Water in a closed jar with an air space over it forms a two phase system . Most of the water is in the liquid phase , where it is held by the mutual attraction of water molecules . Even at equilibrium molecules are constantly in motion and , once in a while , a molecule in the liquid phase gains enough kinetic energy to break away from the liquid phase and enter the gas phase . Likewise , every once in a while a vapor molecule collides with the liquid surface and condenses into the liquid . At equilibrium , evaporation and condensation processes exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of either phase . At room temperature and pressure , the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3 % . This percentage increases as the temperature goes up . At 100 ° C and atmospheric pressure , equilibrium is not reached until the air is 100 % water . If the liquid is heated a little over 100 ° C , the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface , but throughout the liquid volume : the water boils . Number of phases ( edit ) See also : Multiphasic liquid A typical phase diagram for a single - component material , exhibiting solid , liquid and gaseous phases . The solid green line shows the usual shape of the liquid -- solid phase line . The dotted green line shows the anomalous behavior of water when the pressure increases . The triple point and the critical point are shown as red dots . For a given composition , only certain phases are possible at a given temperature and pressure . The number and type of phases that will form is hard to predict and is usually determined by experiment . The results of such experiments can be plotted in phase diagrams . The phase diagram shown here is for a single component system . In this simple system , which phases that are possible depends only on pressure and temperature . The markings show points where two or more phases can co-exist in equilibrium . At temperatures and pressures away from the markings , there will be only one phase at equilibrium . In the diagram , the blue line marking the boundary between liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely , but terminates at a point called the critical point . As the temperature and pressure approach the critical point , the properties of the liquid and gas become progressively more similar . At the critical point , the liquid and gas become indistinguishable . Above the critical point , there are no longer separate liquid and gas phases : there is only a generic fluid phase referred to as a supercritical fluid . In water , the critical point occurs at around 647 K ( 374 ° C or 705 ° F ) and 22.064 MPa . An unusual feature of the water phase diagram is that the solid -- liquid phase line ( illustrated by the dotted green line ) has a negative slope . For most substances , the slope is positive as exemplified by the dark green line . This unusual feature of water is related to ice having a lower density than liquid water . Increasing the pressure drives the water into the higher density phase , which causes melting . Another interesting though not unusual feature of the phase diagram is the point where the solid -- liquid phase line meets the liquid -- gas phase line . The intersection is referred to as the triple point . At the triple point , all three phases can coexist . Experimentally , the phase lines are relatively easy to map due to the interdependence of temperature and pressure that develops when multiple phases forms . See Gibbs ' phase rule . Consider a test apparatus consisting of a closed and well insulated cylinder equipped with a piston . By charging the right amount of water and applying heat , the system can be brought to any point in the gas region of the phase diagram . If the piston is slowly lowered , the system will trace a curve of increasing temperature and pressure within the gas region of the phase diagram . At the point where gas begins to condense to liquid , the direction of the temperature and pressure curve will abruptly change to trace along the phase line until all of the water has condensed . Interfacial phenomena ( edit ) Further information : Surface science Between two phases in equilibrium there is a narrow region where the properties are not that of either phase . Although this region may be very thin , it can have significant and easily observable effects , such as causing a liquid to exhibit surface tension . In mixtures , some components may preferentially move toward the interface . In terms of modeling , describing , or understanding the behavior of a particular system , it may be efficacious to treat the interfacial region as a separate phase . Crystal phases ( edit ) A single material may have several distinct solid states capable of forming separate phases . Water is a well - known example of such a material . For example , water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form ice I , but can also exist as the cubic ice I , the rhombohedral ice II , and many other forms . Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form . For pure chemical elements , polymorphism is known as allotropy . For example , diamond , graphite , and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon . Phase transitions ( edit ) Main article : Phase transition When a substance undergoes a phase transition ( changes from one state of matter to another ) it usually either takes up or releases energy . For example , when water evaporates , the increase in kinetic energy as the evaporating molecules escape the attractive forces of the liquid is reflected in a decrease in temperature . The energy required to induce the phase transition is taken from the internal thermal energy of the water , which cools the liquid to a lower temperature ; hence evaporation is useful for cooling . See Enthalpy of vaporization . The reverse process , condensation , releases heat . The heat energy , or enthalpy , associated with a solid to liquid transition is the enthalpy of fusion and that associated with a solid to gas transition is the enthalpy of sublimation . See also ( edit ) Interface ( matter ) Phase boundary Literature of phase boundaries Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ One such system is , from the top : mineral oil , silicone oil , water , aniline , perfluoro ( dimethylcyclohexane ) , white phosphorus , gallium , and mercury . The system remains indefinitely separated at 7002318150000000000 ♠ 45 ° C , where gallium and phosphorus are in the molten state . From Reichardt , C. ( 2006 ) . Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry . Wiley - VCH . pp. 9 -- 10 . ISBN 3 - 527 - 60567 - 3 . Jump up ^ This phenomenon can be used to help with catalyst recycling in Heck vinylation . See Bhanage , B.M. ; et al. ( 1998 ) . `` Comparison of activity and selectivity of various metal - TPPTS complex catalysts in ethylene glycol -- toluene biphasic Heck vinylation reactions of iodobenzene '' . Tetrahedron Letters. 39 ( 51 ) : 9509 -- 9512 . doi : 10.1016 / S0040 - 4039 ( 98 ) 02225 - 4 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Modell , Michael ; Robert C. Reid ( 1974 ) . Thermodynamics and Its Applications . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice - Hall . ISBN 0 - 13 - 914861 - 2 . Jump up ^ Enrico Fermi ( 25 April 2012 ) . Thermodynamics . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 13485 - 7 . Jump up ^ Clement John Adkins ( 14 July 1983 ) . Equilibrium Thermodynamics . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 27456 - 2 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to States of aggregation . French physicists find a solution that reversibly solidifies with a rise in temperature -- α - cyclodextrin , water , and 4 - methylpyridine ( hide ) States of matter ( list ) State Solid Liquid Gas / Vapor Plasma Low energy Bose -- Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Degenerate matter Quantum Hall Rydberg matter Strange matter Superfluid Supersolid Photonic matter High energy QCD matter Lattice QCD Quark -- gluon plasma Supercritical fluid Other states Colloid Glass Liquid crystal Quantum spin liquid Magnetically ordered Antiferromagnet Ferrimagnet Ferromagnet String - net liquid Superglass Transitions Boiling Boiling point Condensation Critical line Critical point Crystallization Deposition Evaporation Flash evaporation Freezing Chemical ionization Ionization Lambda point Melting Melting point Recombination Regelation Saturated fluid Sublimation Supercooling Triple point Vaporization Vitrification Quantities Enthalpy of fusion Enthalpy of sublimation Enthalpy of vaporization Latent heat Latent internal energy Trouton 's ratio Volatility Concepts Binodal Compressed fluid Cooling curve Equation of state Leidenfrost effect Macroscopic quantum phenomena Mpemba effect Order and disorder ( physics ) Spinodal Superconductivity Superheated vapor Superheating Thermo - dielectric effect Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phase_(matter)&oldid=805590384 '' Categories : Engineering thermodynamics Condensed matter physics Concepts in physics Phases of matter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Aragonés Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 October 2017 , at 11 : 12 . 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where did the celts come from before ireland

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Celts&oldid=852484941

Celts - wikipedia Celts This article is about the ancient and medieval peoples of Europe . For Celts of the present day , see Celts ( modern ) . For other uses , see Celt ( disambiguation ) . Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples : Core Hallstatt territory , by the sixth century BC Maximal Celtic expansion by 275 BC Lusitanian area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain Areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today The Wandsworth Shield - boss , in the plastic style , found in London Part of a series on Indo - European topics Languages ( show ) List of Indo - European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto - Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo - Iranian Indo - Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo - Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto - Indo - European language Phonology : Sound laws , Accent , Ablaut Hypothetical Daco - Thracian Graeco - Armenian Graeco - Aryan Graeco - Phrygian Indo - Hittite Italo - Celtic Thraco - Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto - Anatolian Proto - Armenian Proto - Germanic ( Proto - Norse ) Proto - Celtic Proto - Italic Proto - Greek Proto - Balto - Slavic ( Proto - Slavic ) Proto - Indo - Iranian ( Proto - Iranian ) Philology ( show ) Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins ( show ) Homeland Proto - Indo - Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo - European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology ( show ) Chalcolithic ( Copper Age ) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug -- Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper -- Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamna Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamna Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern / Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco - Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies ( show ) Bronze Age Anatolian peoples ( Hittites ) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo - Iranians Iron Age Indo - Aryans Indo - Aryans Iranians Iranians Scythians Persians Medes Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo - Balkans / Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Balts Slavs Albanians Medieval Europe Indo - Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology ( show ) Reconstructed Proto - Indo - European religion Proto - Indo - Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indian Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo - Balkans Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo - Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Albanian Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice / Yule Indo - European studies ( show ) Scholars Marija Gimbutas J.P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo - European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo - European Culture The Horse , the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo - European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo - European Etymological Dictionary The Celts ( / kɛlts , sɛlts / , see pronunciation of Celt for different usages ) are an Indo - European ethnolinguistic group of Europe identified by their use of Celtic languages and cultural similarities . The history of pre-Celtic Europe and the exact relationship between ethnic , linguistic and cultural factors in the Celtic world remains uncertain and controversial . The exact geographic spread of the ancient Celts is disputed ; in particular , the ways in which the Iron Age inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland should be regarded as Celts have become a subject of controversy . According to one theory , the common root of the Celtic languages , the Proto - Celtic language , arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe , which flourished from around 1200 BC . According to a theory proposed in the 19th century , the first people to adopt cultural characteristics regarded as Celtic were the people of the Iron Age Hallstatt culture in central Europe ( c. 800 -- 450 BC ) , named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt , Austria . Thus this area is sometimes called the `` Celtic homeland '' . By or during the later La Tène period ( c. 450 BC to the Roman conquest ) , this Celtic culture was supposed to have expanded by trans - cultural diffusion or migration to the British Isles ( Insular Celts ) , France and the Low Countries ( Gauls ) , Bohemia , Poland and much of Central Europe , the Iberian Peninsula ( Celtiberians , Celtici , Lusitanians and Gallaeci ) and northern Italy ( Golasecca culture and Cisalpine Gauls ) and , following the Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe beginning in 279 BC , as far east as central Anatolia ( Galatians ) in modern - day Turkey . The earliest undisputed direct examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions beginning in the 6th century BC . Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place - names . Insular Celtic languages are attested beginning around the 4th century in Ogham inscriptions , although it was clearly being spoken much earlier . Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century CE . Coherent texts of Early Irish literature , such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge ( `` Cattle Raid of Cooley '' ) , survive in 12th century recensions . By the mid-1st millennium , with the expansion of the Roman Empire and migrating Germanic tribes , Celtic culture and Insular Celtic languages had become restricted to Ireland , the western and northern parts of Great Britain ( Wales , Scotland , and Cornwall ) , the Isle of Man , and Brittany . Between the 5th and 8th centuries , the Celtic - speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity . They had a common linguistic , religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from the culture of the surrounding polities . By the 6th century , however , the Continental Celtic languages were no longer in wide use . Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels ( Irish , Scottish and Manx ) and the Celtic Britons ( Welsh , Cornish , and Bretons ) of the medieval and modern periods . A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain , Ireland , and other European territories , such as Portugal and Spanish Galicia . Today , Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton are still spoken in parts of their historical territories , and Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival . Contents 1 Names and terminology 2 Origins 2.1 Hallstatt culture 2.2 Atlantic seaboard theory 2.3 Linguistic evidence 2.4 Genetic evidence 2.5 Archaeological evidence 2.6 Historical evidence 3 Distribution 3.1 Continental Celts 3.1. 1 Gaul 3.1. 2 Iberia 3.1. 3 Alps and Italy 3.1. 4 Expansion east and south 3.2 Insular Celts 4 Romanisation 5 Society 5.1 Clothing 5.2 Gender and sexual norms 5.3 Celtic art 6 Warfare and weapons 6.1 Head hunting 7 Religion 7.1 Polytheism 7.2 Gallic calendar 7.3 Roman influence 7.4 Celtic Christianity 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 External links Names and terminology Celtic stele from Galicia , 2nd century : `` APANA AMBO ( - ) / LLI F ( ilia ) CELTICA / SUPERTAM ( arica ) / ( castello ) MAIOBRI / AN ( norum ) XXV H ( ic ) S ( ita ) E ( st ) / APANUS FR ( ater ) F ( aciendum ) C ( uravit ) '' Main article : Names of the Celts The first recorded use of the name of Celts -- as Κελτοί -- to refer to an ethnic group was by Hecataeus of Miletus , the Greek geographer , in 517 BC , when writing about a people living near Massilia ( modern Marseille ) . In the fifth century BC , Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube and also in the far west of Europe . The etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear . Possible roots include Indo - European * kjel ' to hide ' ( present also in Old Irish ceilid ) , IE * kjel ' to heat ' or * kel ' to impel ' . Several authors have supposed it to be Celtic in origin , while others view it as a name coined by Greeks . Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the latter group , and suggests the meaning `` the tall ones '' . In the 1st century BC , Julius Caesar reported that the people known to the Romans as Gauls ( Galli ) called themselves Celts , which suggests that even if the name Keltoi was bestowed by the Greeks , it had been adopted to some extent as a collective name by the tribes of Gaul . The geographer Strabo , writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC , refers to the `` race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic , '' though he also uses the term Celtica as a synonym for Gaul , which is separated from Iberia by the Pyrenees . Yet he reports Celtic peoples in Iberia , and also uses the ethnic names Celtiberi and Celtici for peoples there , as distinct from Lusitani and Iberi . Pliny the Elder cited the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname , which epigraphic findings have confirmed . Latin Gallus ( pl . Galli ) might stem from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name originally , perhaps one borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansions into Italy during the early fifth century BC . Its root may be the Proto - Celtic * galno , meaning `` power , strength '' , hence Old Irish gal `` boldness , ferocity '' and Welsh gallu `` to be able , power '' . The tribal names of Gallaeci and the Greek Γαλάται ( Galatai , Latinized Galatae ; see the region Galatia in Anatolia ) most probably have the same origin . The suffix - atai might be an Ancient Greek inflection . Classical writers did not apply the terms Κελτοί or Celtae to the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland , which has led to some scholars preferring not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands . Celt is a modern English word , first attested in 1707 , in the writing of Edward Lhuyd , whose work , along with that of other late 17th - century scholars , brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain . The English form Gaul ( first recorded in the 17th century ) and Gaulish come from the French Gaule and Gaulois , a borrowing from Frankish * Walholant , `` Land of foreigners or Romans '' ( see Gaul : Name ) , the root of which is Proto - Germanic * walha - , `` foreigner , Roman , Celt '' , whence the English word Welsh ( Old English wælisċ < * walhiska - ) , South German welsch , meaning `` Celtic speaker '' , `` French speaker '' or `` Italian speaker '' in different contexts , and Old Norse valskr , pl . valir , `` Gaulish , French '' ) . Proto - Germanic * walha is derived ultimately from the name of the Volcae , a Celtic tribe who lived first in the south of Germany and in central Europe and then migrated to Gaul . This means that English Gaul , despite its superficial similarity , is not actually derived from Latin Gallia ( which should have produced * * Jaille in French ) , though it does refer to the same ancient region . Celtic refers to a family of languages and , more generally , means `` of the Celts '' or `` in the style of the Celts '' . Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic in nature , based on unique sets of artefacts . The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions . The relatively modern idea of an identifiable Celtic cultural identity or `` Celticity '' generally focuses on similarities among languages , works of art , and classical texts , and sometimes also among material artefacts , social organisation , homeland and mythology . Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common racial origin for the various Celtic peoples , but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and language heritage more than a genetic one . Celtic cultures seem to have been widely diverse , with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common . Today , the term Celtic generally refers to the languages and respective cultures of Ireland , Scotland , Wales , Cornwall , the Isle of Man , and Brittany , also known as the Celtic nations . These are the regions where four Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent as mother tongues . The four are Irish Gaelic , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton ; plus two recent revivals , Cornish ( one of the Brittonic languages ) and Manx ( one of the Goidelic languages ) . There are also attempts to reconstruct Cumbric , a Brittonic language from North West England and South West Scotland . Celtic regions of Continental Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage , but where no Celtic language has survived ; these areas include the western Iberian Peninsula , i.e. Portugal and north - central Spain ( Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León , Extremadura ) . Continental Celts are the Celtic - speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are the Celtic - speaking peoples of the British and Irish islands and their descendants . The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating insular Celts , mainly from Wales and Cornwall , and so are grouped accordingly . Origins Overview of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures . The core Hallstatt territory ( HaC , 800 BC ) is shown in solid yellow . The eventual area of Hallstatt influence ( by 500 BC , HaD ) in light yellow . The core territory of the La Tène culture ( 450 BC ) in solid green . The eventual area of La Tène influence ( by 250 BC ) in light green . The territories of some major Celtic tribes of the late La Tène period are labelled . Main articles : Pre-Celtic and Celticization Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in Altburg near Bundenbach ( first century BC ) Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in Havranok , Slovakia ( second -- first century BC ) The Celtic languages form a branch of the larger Indo - European family . By the time speakers of Celtic languages entered history around 400 BC , they were already split into several language groups , and spread over much of Western continental Europe , the Iberian Peninsula , Ireland and Britain . The Greek historian Ephorus of Cyme in Asia Minor , writing in the 4th century BC , believed that the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the Rhine and were `` driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea '' . Hallstatt culture Some scholars think that the Urnfield culture of western Middle Europe represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo - European family . This culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age , from circa 1200 BC until 700 BC , itself following the Unetice and Tumulus cultures . The Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the region , probably due to innovations in technology and agriculture . The spread of iron - working led to the development of the Hallstatt culture directly from the Urnfield ( c. 700 to 500 BC ) . Proto - Celtic , the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages , is considered by this school of thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures , in the early 1st millennium BC . The spread of the Celtic languages to Iberia , Ireland and Britain would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium BC , the earliest chariot burials in Britain dating to c. 500 BC . Other scholars see Celtic languages as covering Britain and Ireland , and parts of the Continent , long before any evidence of `` Celtic '' culture is found in archaeology . Over the centuries the language ( s ) developed into the separate Celtiberian , Goidelic and Brittonic languages . The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the La Tène culture of central Europe , which was overrun by the Roman Empire , though traces of La Tène style are still to be seen in Gallo - Roman artefacts . In Britain and Ireland La Tène style in art survived precariously to re-emerge in Insular art . Early Irish literature casts light on the flavour and tradition of the heroic warrior elites who dominated Celtic societies . Celtic river - names are found in great numbers around the upper reaches of the Danube and Rhine , which led many Celtic scholars to place the ethnogenesis of the Celts in this area . Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both suggest that the heartland of the people they called Celts was in southern France . The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts , but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls ( in linguistic terms the Gauls were certainly Celts ) . Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tène , it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern France , see Encyclopædia Britannica for 1813 . Atlantic seaboard theory Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick accepted that `` the Celtic settlement of the British Isles '' might have to be dated to the Bell Beaker culture concluding that `` There is no reason why so early a date for the coming of the Celts should be impossible '' . Martín Almagro Gorbea proposed the origins of the Celts could be traced back to the 3rd millennium BC , also seeking the initial roots in the Beaker period , thus offering the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe , as well as the variability of the different Celtic peoples , and the existence of ancestral traditions an ancient perspective . Using a multidisciplinary approach , Alberto J. Lorrio and Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea 's work to present a model for the origin of the Celtic archaeological groups in the Iberian Peninsula ( Celtiberian , Vetton , Vaccean , the Castro culture of the northwest , Asturian - Cantabrian and Celtic of the southwest ) and proposing a rethinking of the meaning of `` Celtic '' from a European perspective . More recently , John Koch and Barry Cunliffe have suggested that Celtic origins lie with the Atlantic Bronze Age , roughly contemporaneous with the Hallstatt culture but positioned considerably to the West , extending along the Atlantic coast of Europe . Stephen Oppenheimer points out that the only written evidence that locates the Keltoi near the source of the Danube ( i.e. in the Hallstatt region ) is in the Histories of Herodotus . However , Oppenheimer shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees , which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians ( i.e. in Gaul and the Iberian peninsula ) . Linguistic evidence Main article : Proto - Celtic language Further information : Celtic toponymy The Proto - Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age . The earliest records of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul ( Northern Italy ) , the oldest of which predate the La Tène period . Other early inscriptions , appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia , are in Gaulish , which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest . Celtiberian inscriptions , using their own Iberian script , appear later , after about 200 BC . Evidence of Insular Celtic is available only from about 400 AD , in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions . Besides epigraphical evidence , an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy . Genetic evidence In addition to linguistic evidence of a common Celtic / Iberian origin in the Iberian peninsula there is also genetic evidence of a common origin of the European Atlantic populations i.e. : Orkney Islands , Scottish , Irish , British , Bretons , Iberians ( Basques , Galicians ) , Guanches and Berbers . Archaeological evidence Further information : Iron Age Europe Map of the Hallstatt culture The world according to Herodotus Before the 19th century , scholars assumed that the original land of the Celts was west of the Rhine , more precisely in Gaul , because it was where Greek and Roman ancient sources , namely Caesar , located the Celts . This view was challenged by the 19th - century historian Marie Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville who placed the land of origin of the Celts east of the Rhine . Jubainville based his arguments on a phrase of Herodotus ' that placed the Celts at the source of the Danube , and argued that Herodotus had meant to place the Celtic homeland in southern Germany . The finding of the prehistoric cemetery of Hallstat in 1846 by Johan Ramsauer and the finding of the archaeological site of La Tène by Hansli Kopp in 1857 drew attention to this area . The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as `` Culture Groups '' , entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language , had started to grow by the end of the 19th century . At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these `` Culture Groups '' could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was strongly held by Gordon Childe whose theory was influenced by the writings of Gustaf Kossinna . As the 20th century progressed , the racial ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became much more strongly rooted , and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were directly associated with the Celts and the Celtic language . The Iron Age Hallstatt ( c. 800 -- 475 BC ) and La Tène ( c. 500 -- 50 BC ) cultures are typically associated with Proto - Celtic and Celtic culture . Expansion of the Celtic culture in the third century BC according to Francisco Villar In various academic disciplines the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon , through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène . However , archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in the Iberian Peninsula , in southwestern France , northern and western Britain , southern Ireland and Galatia and did not provide enough evidence for a cultural scenario comparable to that of Central Europe . It is considered equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Peninsular Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture . This has resulted in a more recent approach that introduces a ' proto - Celtic ' substratum and a process of Celticisation , having its initial roots in the Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture . The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age ( from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC ) in eastern France , Switzerland , Austria , southwest Germany , the Czech Republic , Slovakia and Hungary . It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break , under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek , and later Etruscan civilisations . A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century . The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical Celtic Gaul . Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess ; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language , material culture , and political affiliation do not necessarily run parallel . Frey notes that in the 5th century , `` burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform ; rather , localised groups had their own beliefs , which , in consequence , also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions '' . Thus , while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the Gauls , the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers . Borders of the region known as Celtica at time of the Roman conquest c. 54 BC ; they soon renamed it Gallia Lugdunensis . Historical evidence Polybius published a history of Rome about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome . Pausanias in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls `` originally called Celts '' , `` live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea '' . Posidonius described the southern Gauls about 100 BC . Though his original work is lost it was used by later writers such as Strabo . The latter , writing in the early 1st century AD , deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania , Italy and Galatia . Caesar wrote extensively about his Gallic Wars in 58 -- 51 BC . Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st - century history . Distribution Continental Celts Gaul Main article : Gauls The Romans knew the Celts then living in what became present - day France as Gauls . The territory of these peoples probably included the Low Countries , the Alps and present - day northern Italy . Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars described the 1st - century BC descendants of those Gauls . Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture . In later Iron Age Gaul , the social organisation resembled that of the Romans , with large towns . From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage . Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC . Greek traders founded Massalia about 600 BC , with some objects ( mostly drinking ceramics ) being traded up the Rhone valley . But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula . The Romans arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic - speaking Gaul . Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the Saluvii at Entremont in 124 -- 123 BC . Gradually Roman control extended , and the Roman Province of Gallia Transalpina developed along the Mediterranean coast . The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as Gallia Comata -- `` Hairy Gaul '' . In 58 BC the Helvetii planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back . He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul , and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul . In 52 BC Vercingetorix led a revolt against the Roman occupation but was defeated at the Siege of Alesia and surrendered . Following the Gallic Wars of 58 -- 51 BC , Caesar 's Celtica formed the main part of Roman Gaul , becoming the province of Gallia Lugdunensis . This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne . The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighboring provinces Belgica and Aquitania , particularly under Augustus . Place - and personal - name analysis and inscriptions suggest that the Gaulish Celtic language was spoken over most of what is now France . Iberia Main language areas in Iberia , showing Celtic languages in beige , c. 300 BC Main articles : Celtiberians and Gallaeci See also : Castro culture , Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula , Prehistoric Iberia , Hispania , Lusitania , Gallaecia , Celtici , and Vettones Until the end of the 19th century , traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula as a material culture relatable to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures . However , since according to the definition of the Iron Age in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe , the presence of Celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised . Modern scholarship , however , has clearly proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and Portugal ( with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe ) , particularly in the central , western and northern regions . In addition to Gauls infiltrating from the north of the Pyrenees , the Roman and Greek sources mention Celtic populations in three parts of the Iberian Peninsula : the eastern part of the Meseta ( inhabited by the Celtiberians ) , the southwest ( Celtici , in modern - day Alentejo ) and the northwest ( Gallaecia and Asturias ) . A modern scholarly review found several archaeological groups of Celts in Spain : The Celtiberian group in the Upper - Douro Upper - Tagus Upper - Jalón area . Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC . In this early period , the Celtiberians inhabited in hill - forts ( Castros ) . Around the end of the 3rd century BC , Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life . From the 2nd century BC , they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the Celtiberian script . These inscriptions make the Celtiberian Language the only Hispano - Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement . In the late period , before the Roman Conquest , both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the Celtiberians were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula ( e.g. Celtic Baeturia ) . The Vetton group in the western Meseta , between the Tormes , Douro and Tagus Rivers . They were characterised by the production of Verracos , sculptures of bulls and pigs carved in granite . The Vaccean group in the central Douro valley . They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC . Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their Celtiberian neighbours . Triskelion and spirals on a Galician torc terminal , Museum of Castro de Santa Tegra , A Guarda The Castro Culture in northwestern Iberia , modern day Galicia . Its high degree of continuity , from the Late Bronze Age , makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticization of the western Iberia , from the nucleus area of Celtiberia . Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances , and the `` Gallaecian Warriors '' , stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD . A large group of Latin inscriptions contain linguistic features that are clearly Celtic , while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic Lusitanian language . The Astures and the Cantabri . This area was romanised late , as it was not conquered by Rome until the Cantabrian Wars of 29 -- 19 BC . Celts in the southwest , in the area Strabo called Celtica The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula . The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is , however , not a simple Celtiberian question . Recent investigations about the Callaici and Bracari in northwestern Portugal are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture ( language , art and religion ) in western Iberia . John T. Koch of Aberystwyth University suggested that Tartessian inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic . This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century . Alps and Italy Main articles : Golasecca culture , Lepontii , and Cisalpine Gaul Map of the Alpine region of the Roman Empire in 14 AD Further information : History of the Alps The Canegrate culture represented the first migratory wave of the proto - Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that , through the Alpine passes , had already penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como ( Scamozzina culture ) . It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto - Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age , when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts , including ornaments , to the western groups of the Tumulus culture . La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy , the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from Canosa di Puglia . Italy is home to Lepontic , the oldest attested Celtic language ( from the 6th century BC ) . Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern - Central Italy , from the Alps to Umbria . According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises , more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present - day France -- with the notable exception of Aquitaine -- and in Italy , which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula . In 391 BC , Celts `` who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Apennine mountains and the Alps '' according to Diodorus Siculus . The Po Valley and the rest of northern Italy ( known to the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul ) was inhabited by Celtic - speakers who founded cities such as Milan . Later the Roman army was routed at the battle of Allia and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones . At the battle of Telamon in 225 BC , a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed . The defeat of the combined Samnite , Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe , but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy . Expansion east and South Celtic tribes in S.E. Europe , first century BC ( in purple ) Main article : Gallic invasion of the Balkans The Celts also expanded down the Danube river and its tributaries . One of the most influential tribes , the Scordisci , had established their capital at Singidunum in the 3rd century BC , which is present - day Belgrade , Serbia . The concentration of hill - forts and cemeteries shows a density of population in the Tisza valley of modern - day Vojvodina , Serbia , Hungary and into Ukraine . Expansion into Romania was however blocked by the Dacians . Further south , Celts settled in Thrace ( Bulgaria ) , which they ruled for over a century , and Anatolia , where they settled as the Galatians ( see also : Gallic Invasion of Greece ) . Despite their geographical isolation from the rest of the Celtic world , the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years . St Jerome , who visited Ancyra ( modern - day Ankara ) in 373 AD , likened their language to that of the Treveri of northern Gaul . For Venceslas Kruta , Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement . The Boii tribe gave their name to Bohemia , Bologna and possibly Bavaria , and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and Slovakia . A Celtic coin ( Biatec ) from Bratislava 's mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5 - crown coin . As there is no archaeological evidence for large - scale invasions in some of the other areas , one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion . However , the Celtic invasions of Italy and the expedition in Greece and western Anatolia , are well documented in Greek and Latin history . There are records of Celtic mercenaries in Egypt serving the Ptolemies . Thousands were employed in 283 -- 246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC . They attempted to overthrow Ptolemy II . Insular Celts Principal sites in Roman Britain , with indication of tribal territories Main article : Insular Celts Further information : Iron Age Britain and Celtic immigration to the British Isles Further information : Iron Age tribes in Britain , Goidelic substrate hypothesis , and O'Rahilly's historical model All Celtic languages extant today belong to the Insular Celtic languages , derived from the Celtic languages spoken in Iron Age Britain and Ireland . They were separated into a Goidelic and a Brythonic branch from an early period . Linguists have been arguing for many years whether a Celtic language came to Britain and Ireland and then split or whether there were two separate `` invasions '' . The older view of prehistorians was that the Celtic influence in the British Isles was the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic - speaking peoples over the course of several centuries , accounting for the P - Celtic vs. Q - Celtic isogloss . This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the Celtic languages of the British Isles form a phylogenetic Insular Celtic dialect group . In the 19th and 20th centuries , scholars commonly dated the `` arrival '' of Celtic culture in Britain ( via an invasion model ) to the 6th century BC , corresponding to archaeological evidence of Hallstatt influence and the appearance of chariot burials in what is now England . Some Iron Age migration does seem to have occurred but the nature of the interactions with the indigenous populations of the isles is unknown . In the late Iron Age . According to this model , by about the 6th century ( Sub-Roman Britain ) , most of the inhabitants of the Isles were speaking Celtic languages of either the Goidelic or the Brythonic branch . Since the late 20th century , a new model has emerged ( championed by archaeologists such as Barry Cunliffe and Celtic historians such as John T. Koch ) which places the emergence of Celtic culture in Britain much earlier , in the Bronze Age , and credits its spread not to invasion , but due to a gradual emergence in situ out of Proto - Indo - European culture ( perhaps introduced to the region by the Bell Beaker People , and enabled by an extensive network of contacts that existed between the peoples of Britain and Ireland and those of the Atlantic seaboard . Classical writers did not apply the terms Κελτοί or `` Celtae '' to the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland , leading a number of scholars to question the use of the term Celt to describe the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands . The first historical account of the islands of Britain and Ireland was by Pytheas , a Greek from the city of Massalia , who around 310 - 306 BC , sailed around what he called the `` Pretannikai nesoi '' , which can be translated as the `` Pretannic Isles '' . In general , classical writers referred to the inhabitants of Britain as Pretannoi or Britanni . Strabo , writing in the Roman era , clearly distinguished between the Celts and Britons . Romanisation Main article : Gallo - Roman culture The Roman republic and its neighbours in 58 BC Under Caesar the Romans conquered Celtic Gaul , and from Claudius onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of Britain . Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman tribal boundaries , and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government . The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanised and keen to adopt Roman ways . Celtic art had already incorporated classical influences , and surviving Gallo - Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay . The Roman occupation of Gaul , and to a lesser extent of Britain , led to Roman - Celtic syncretism . In the case of the continental Celts , this eventually resulted in a language shift to Vulgar Latin , while the Insular Celts retained their language . There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome , particularly in military matters and horsemanship , as the Gauls often served in the Roman cavalry . The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword , the spatha , and Epona , the Celtic horse goddess . Society To the extent that sources are available , they depict a pre-Christian Iron Age Celtic social structure based formally on class and kingship , although this may only have been a particular late phase of organization in Celtic societies . Patron - client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC . In the main , the evidence is of tribes being led by kings , although some argue that there is also evidence of oligarchical republican forms of government eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome . Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups : a warrior aristocracy ; an intellectual class including professions such as druid , poet , and jurist ; and everyone else . In historical times , the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of tanistry , which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of primogeniture in which succession goes to the first - born son . Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice , Czech Republic , wearing a torc , late La Tène culture The Dying Gaul , a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late third century BC , Capitoline Museums , Rome Little is known of family structure among the Celts . Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban . The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in hillforts and duns , drawn from Britain and Ireland ( there are about 3,000 hill forts known in Britain ) contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas , with the many significant oppida of Gaul late in the first millennium BC , and with the towns of Gallia Cisalpina . Slavery , as practised by the Celts , was very likely similar to the better documented practice in ancient Greece and Rome . Slaves were acquired from war , raids , and penal and debt servitude . Slavery was hereditary , though manumission was possible . The Old Irish and Welsh words for ' slave ' , cacht and caeth respectively , are cognate with Latin captus ' captive ' suggesting that the slave trade was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies . In the Middle Ages , slavery was especially prevalent in the Celtic countries . Manumissions were discouraged by law and the word for `` female slave '' , cumal , was used as a general unit of value in Ireland . Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland trade routes that spanned Eurasia . Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany . Due to their substantial nature , these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade . The territory held by the Celts contained tin , lead , iron , silver and gold . Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for international trade , particularly with the Romans . The myth that the Celtic monetary system consisted of wholly barter is a common one , but is in part false . The monetary system was complex and is still not understood ( much like the late Roman coinages ) , and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items , it is assumed that `` proto - money '' was used . This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards , which were often in the shape of axeheads , rings , or bells . Due to the large number of these present in some burials , it is thought they had a relatively high monetary value , and could be used for `` day to day '' purchases . Low - value coinages of potin , a bronze alloy with high tin content , were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South - East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands . Higher - value coinages , suitable for use in trade , were minted in gold , silver , and high - quality bronze . Gold coinage was much more common than silver coinage , despite being worth substantially more , as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France , silver was more rarely mined . This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained . As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world , silver and bronze coinage became more common . This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand , due to the high value Romans put on the metal . The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded . There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages . These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets . The Ogham script , an Early Medieval alphabet , was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland ( but also in Wales and England ) , and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones . The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition , such as that preserved by bards in Ireland , and eventually recorded by monasteries . Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork , examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites . In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative : for example , they still used chariots in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans . However , despite being outdated , Celtic chariot tactics were able to repel the invasion of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar . According to Diodorus Siculus : The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond , and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it . For they are always washing their hair in limewater and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck , with the result that their appearance is like that of Satyrs and Pans since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses . Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little ; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth . The Waterloo Helmet Clothing Celtic costumes in Przeworsk culture , third century BC , La Tène period , Archaeological Museum of Kraków During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long - sleeved shirts or tunics and long trousers ( called braccae by the Romans ) . Clothes were made of wool or linen , with some silk being used by the rich . Cloaks were worn in the winter . Brooches and armlets were used , but the most famous item of jewellery was the torc , a neck collar of metal , sometimes gold . The horned Waterloo Helmet in the British Museum , which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors , is in fact a unique survival , and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear . Gender and sexual norms Reconstruction of the dress and equipment of an Iron Age Celtic warrior from Biebertal , Germany See also : Ancient Celtic women According to Aristotle , most `` belligerent nations '' were strongly influenced by their women , but the Celts were unusual because their men openly preferred male lovers ( Politics II 1269b ) . H.D. Rankin in Celts and the Classical World notes that `` Athenaeus echoes this comment ( 603a ) and so does Ammianus ( 30.9 ) . It seems to be the general opinion of antiquity . '' In book XIII of his Deipnosophists , the Roman Greek rhetorician and grammarian Athenaeus , repeating assertions made by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC ( Bibliotheca historica 5 : 32 ) , wrote that Celtic women were beautiful but that the men preferred to sleep together . Diodorus went further , stating that `` the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused '' . Rankin argues that the ultimate source of these assertions is likely to be Posidonius and speculates that these authors may be recording male `` bonding rituals '' . The sexual freedom of women in Britain was noted by Cassius Dio : ... a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus , a Caledonian , to Julia Augusta . When the empress was jesting with her , after the treaty , about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain , she replied : `` We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women ; for we consort openly with the best men , whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest . '' Such was the retort of the British woman . There are instances recorded where women participated both in warfare and in kingship , although they were in the minority in these areas . Plutarch reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celts chiefdoms in the Po valley during the 4th century BC . Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on gender divisions and societal status , though some archaeological evidence does suggest that their views of gender roles may differ from contemporary and less egalitarian classical counterparts of the Roman era . There are some general indications from Iron Age burial sites in the Champagne and Bourgogne regions of Northeastern France suggesting that women may have had roles in combat during the earlier La Tène period . However , the evidence is far from conclusive . Examples of individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been identified , such as the Vix Grave , and there are questions about the gender of some skeletons that were buried with warrior assemblages . However , it has been suggested that `` the weapons may indicate rank instead of masculinity '' . Among the insular Celts , there is a greater amount of historic documentation to suggest warrior roles for women . In addition to commentary by Tacitus about Boudica , there are indications from later period histories that also suggest a more substantial role for `` women as warriors '' , in symbolic if not actual roles . Posidonius and Strabo described an island of women where men could not venture for fear of death , and where the women ripped each other apart . Other writers , such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Tacitus , mentioned Celtic women inciting , participating in , and leading battles . Posidonius ' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes , primarily primitivism , extreme ferocity , cruel sacrificial practices , and the strength and courage of their women . Under Brehon Law , which was written down in early Medieval Ireland after conversion to Christianity , a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence , obesity , homosexual inclination or preference for other women . Celtic art The reverse side of a British bronze mirror , with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain Main article : Celtic art Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe , while the Early Medieval art of Britain and Ireland , that is what `` Celtic art '' evokes for much of the general public , is called Insular art in art history . Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources , but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects , which are often extremely stylised when they do appear ; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence . Energetic circular forms , triskeles and spirals are characteristic . Much of the surviving material is in precious metal , which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture , but apart from Pictish stones and the Insular high crosses , large monumental sculpture , even with decorative carving , is very rare ; possibly it was originally common in wood . Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces , these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy , as the best preserved found in Tintignac ( Gaul ) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head . The interlace patterns that are often regarded as typical of `` Celtic art '' were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles , a style referred to as Insular art , or Hiberno - Saxon art . This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène , Late Roman , and , most importantly , animal Style II of Germanic Migration Period art . The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and illuminated manuscripts . Equally , the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world : Gospel books like the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne , chalices like the Ardagh Chalice and Derrynaflan Chalice , and penannular brooches like the Tara Brooch . These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art , which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries , before the Viking attacks sharply set back cultural life . In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts , before they were conquered by the Romans , often adopted elements of Roman , Greek and other `` foreign '' styles ( and possibly used imported craftsmen ) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic . After the Roman conquests , some Celtic elements remained in popular art , especially Ancient Roman pottery , of which Gaul was actually the largest producer , mostly in Italian styles , but also producing work in local taste , including figurines of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles . Roman Britain also took more interest in enamel than most of the Empire , and its development of champlevé technique was probably important to the later Medieval art of the whole of Europe , of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element . Rising nationalism brought Celtic revivals from the 19th century . Warfare and weapons Main articles : Celtic warfare and Celtic sword Ceremonial Agris Helmet , 350 BC , Angoulême city Museum in France , with stylistic borrowings from around the Mediterranean Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies . While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest , the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals , for economic advantage , and in some instances to conquer territory . The Celts were described by classical writers such as Strabo , Livy , Pausanias , and Florus as fighting like `` wild beasts '' , and as hordes . Dionysius said that their `` manner of fighting , being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied , was an erratic procedure , quite lacking in military science . Thus , at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars , throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks , and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target , as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries , protective armour and all '' . Such descriptions have been challenged by contemporary historians . Polybius ( 2.33 ) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a long bladed sword which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing . Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades . This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists , who note that Noric steel , steel produced in Celtic Noricum , was famous in the Roman Empire period and was used to equip the Roman military . However , Radomir Pleiner , in The Celtic Sword ( 1993 ) argues that `` the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point '' , as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes . Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked , `` The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle , for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life . '' According to Livy , this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor . Head hunting A Gallic warrior statuette , first century BC , Museum of Brittany , Rennes , France Celts had a reputation as head hunters . According to Paul Jacobsthal , `` Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else , since the head was to the Celt the soul , centre of the emotions as well as of life itself , a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other - world . '' Arguments for a Celtic cult of the severed head include the many sculptured representations of severed heads in La Tène carvings , and the surviving Celtic mythology , which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their own severed heads , right down to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , where the Green Knight picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off , just as St. Denis carried his head to the top of Montmartre . A further example of this regeneration after beheading lies in the tales of Connemara 's St. Feichin , who after being beheaded by Viking pirates carried his head to the Holy Well on Omey Island and on dipping the head into the well placed it back upon his neck and was restored to full health . Diodorus Siculus , in his 1st - century History had this to say about Celtic head - hunting : They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses . The blood - stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and striking up a paean and singing a song of victory ; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses , just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting . They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies , and preserve them carefully in a chest , and display them with pride to strangers , saying that for this head one of their ancestors , or his father , or the man himself , refused the offer of a large sum of money . They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold . In Gods and Fighting Men , Lady Gregory 's Celtic Revival translation of Irish mythology , heads of men killed in battle are described in the beginning of the story The Fight with the Fir Bolgs as pleasing to Macha , one aspect of the war goddess Morrigu . Religion A statuette probably depicting Brigantia ( or Brigid ) , with iconography derived from Roman statues of Minerva , first century AD , Museum of Brittany , Rennes Polytheism Main articles : Celtic polytheism and Celtic animism Like other European Iron Age tribal societies , the Celts practised a polytheistic religion . Many Celtic gods are known from texts and inscriptions from the Roman period . Rites and sacrifices were carried out by priests known as druids . The Celts did not see their gods as having human shapes until late in the Iron Age . Celtic shrines were situated in remote areas such as hilltops , groves , and lakes . Celtic religious patterns were regionally variable ; however , some patterns of deity forms , and ways of worshipping these deities , appeared over a wide geographical and temporal range . The Celts worshipped both gods and goddesses . In general , Celtic gods were deities of particular skills , such as the many - skilled Lugh and Dagda , while goddesses were associated with natural features , particularly rivers ( such as Boann , goddess of the River Boyne ) . This was not universal , however , as goddesses such as Brighid and The Morrígan were associated with both natural features ( holy wells and the River Unius ) and skills such as blacksmithing and healing . Triplicity is a common theme in Celtic cosmology , and a number of deities were seen as threefold . This trait is exhibited by The Three Mothers , a group of goddesses worshipped by many Celtic tribes ( with regional variations ) . The Celts had hundreds of deities , some of which were unknown outside a single family or tribe , while others were popular enough to have a following that crossed lingual and cultural barriers . For instance , the Irish god Lugh , associated with storms , lightning , and culture , is seen in similar forms as Lugos in Gaul and Lleu in Wales . Similar patterns are also seen with the continental Celtic horse goddess Epona and what may well be her Irish and Welsh counterparts , Macha and Rhiannon , respectively . Roman reports of the druids mention ceremonies being held in sacred groves . La Tène Celts built temples of varying size and shape , though they also maintained shrines at sacred trees and votive pools . Druids fulfilled a variety of roles in Celtic religion , serving as priests and religious officiants , but also as judges , sacrificers , teachers , and lore - keepers . Druids organised and ran religious ceremonies , and they memorised and taught the calendar . Other classes of druids performed ceremonial sacrifices of crops and animals for the perceived benefit of the community . Gallic calendar The Coligny calendar , which was found in 1897 in Coligny , Ain , was engraved on a bronze tablet , preserved in 73 fragments , that originally was 1.48 metres ( 4 feet 10 inches ) wide and 0.9 metres ( 2 feet 11 inches ) high ( Lambert p. 111 ) . Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects , it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century . It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals , and is in the Gallic language . The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns , with 62 months distributed over 5 years . The French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire . However , the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars ( or parapegmata ) found throughout the Greek and Roman world . Roman influence Further information : Gallo - Roman culture The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire . Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire 's control . Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion , the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class , especially religiously ; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether . Romano - Celtic deities also began to appear : these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes , combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities , and / or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity . Other changes included the adaptation of the Jupiter Column , a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire , primarily in northern and eastern Gaul . Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses . The Celts had only created wooden idols ( including monuments carved into trees , which were known as sacred poles ) previously to Roman conquest . A Celtic cross Celtic Christianity Main article : Celtic Christianity While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire , unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland began to move from Celtic polytheism to Christianity in the 5th century . Ireland was converted by missionaries from Britain , such as Saint Patrick . Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland , Anglo - Saxon parts of Britain , and central Europe ( see Hiberno - Scottish mission ) . Celtic Christianity , the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time , had for some centuries only limited and intermittent contact with Rome and continental Christianity , as well as some contacts with Coptic Christianity . Some elements of Celtic Christianity developed , or retained , features that made them distinct from the rest of Western Christianity , most famously their conservative method of calculating the date of Easter . In 664 , the Synod of Whitby began to resolve these differences , mostly by adopting the current Roman practices , which the Gregorian Mission from Rome had introduced to Anglo - Saxon England . See also Celtic Studies portal List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes Ethnic groups in Europe References Jump up ^ Waldman , Carl ; Mason , Catherine ( 2006 ) . Encyclopedia of European Peoples . Infobase Publishing . p. 144 . ISBN 1438129181 . CELTS location : Greater Europe time period : Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry : Celtic Jump up ^ `` Celt '' . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Retrieved July 11 , 2018 . Celt , also spelled Kelt , Latin Celta , plural Celtae , a member of an early Indo - European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe . Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania , the Black Sea coasts , and Galatia in Anatolia and were in part absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons , Gauls , Boii , Galatians , and Celtiberians . Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland , Highland Scotland , the Isle of Man , Wales , and Brittany . ^ Jump up to : Koch , John ( 2005 ) . Celtic Culture : a historical encyclopedia . Santa Barbara : ABC - Clio . p. xix - xxi . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85109 - 440 - 0 . Retrieved 9 June 2010 . This Encyclopedia is designed for the use of everyone interested in Celtic studies and also for those interested in many related and subsidiary fields , including the individual CELTIC COUNTRIES and their languages , literatures , archaeology , folklore , and mythology . In its chronological scope , the Encyclopedia covers subjects from the HALLSTATT and LA TENE periods of the later pre-Roman Iron Age to the beginning of the 21st century . ^ Jump up to : James , Simon ( 1999 ) . The Atlantic Celts -- Ancient People Or Modern Invention . University of Wisconsin Press . ^ Jump up to : Collis , John ( 2003 ) . The Celts : Origins , Myths and Inventions . Stroud : Tempus Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 2913 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Pryor , Francis ( 2004 ) . Britain BC . Harper Perennial . ISBN 978 - 0007126934 . ^ Jump up to : Chadwick , Nora ; Corcoran , J.X.W.P. ( 1970 ) . The Celts . Penguin Books . pp. 28 -- 33 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 1997 ) . The Ancient Celts . Penguin Books . pp. 39 -- 67 . Jump up ^ Koch , John T ( 2010 ) . Celtic from the West Chapter 9 : Paradigm Shift ? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic -- see map 9.3 The Ancient Celtic Languages c. 440 / 430 BC -- see third map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map ( PDF ) . Oxbow Books , Oxford , UK . p. 193 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84217 - 410 - 4 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 3 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Koch , John T ( 2010 ) . Celtic from the West Chapter 9 : Paradigm Shift ? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic -- see map 9.2 Celtic expansion from Hallstatt / La Tene central Europe -- see second map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map ( PDF ) . Oxbow Books , Oxford , UK . p. 190 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84217 - 410 - 4 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 3 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Stifter , David ( 2008 ) . Old Celtic Languages ( PDF ) . pp. 24 -- 37 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 30 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2003 ) . The Celts -- a very short introduction . Oxford University Press . p. 109 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280418 - 9 . Jump up ^ Minahan , James ( 2000 ) . One Europe , Many Nations : A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 179 . ISBN 0313309841 . The Cornish are related to the other Celtic peoples of Europe , the Bretons , * Irish , * Scots , * Manx , * Welsh , * and the Galicians * of northwestern Spain Jump up ^ Minahan , James ( 2000 ) . One Europe , Many Nations : A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 766 . ISBN 0313309841 . Celts , 257 , 278 , 523 , 533 , 555 , 643 ; Bretons , 129 - 33 ; Cornish , 178 - 81 ; Gali - cians , 277 - 80 ; Irish , 330 - 37 ; Manx , 452 - 55 ; Scots , 607 - 12 ; Welsh Jump up ^ McKevitt , Kerry Ann ( 2006 ) . `` Mythologizing Identity and History : a look at the Celtic past of Galicia '' ( PDF ) . E-Keltoi. 6 : 651 -- 673 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 30 June 2011 . Retrieved 8 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Sarunas Milisauskas , European prehistory : a survey . Springer , 2002 ISBN 0 - 306 - 47257 - 0 . 2002 . p. 363 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 47257 - 2 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ H.D. Rankin , Celts and the classical world . Routledge , 1998 ISBN 0 - 415 - 15090 - 6 . 1998 . pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 15090 - 3 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ Herodotus , The Histories , 2.33 ; 4.49 . Jump up ^ John T. Koch ( ed . ) , Celtic Culture : a historical encyclopedia. 5 vols. 2006 . Santa Barbara , California : ABC - CLIO , p. 371 . Jump up ^ P. De Bernardo Stempel 2008 . `` Linguistically Celtic ethnonyms : towards a classification '' , in Celtic and Other Languages in Ancient Europe , J.L. García Alonso ( ed . ) , 101 - 118 . Ediciones Universidad Salamanca . Jump up ^ Julius Caesar , Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.1 : `` All Gaul is divided into three parts , one of which the Belgae live , another in which the Aquitani live , and the third are those who in their own tongue are called Celtae , in our language Galli . '' Jump up ^ Strabo , Geography , 3.1. 3 ; 3.1. 6 ; 3.2. 2 ; 3.2. 15 ; 4.4. 2 . Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder , The Natural History 21 : `` the Mirobrigenses , surnamed Celtici '' ( `` Mirobrigenses qui Celtici cognominantur '' ) . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2 April 2010 . Retrieved 9 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Fernando DE ALMEIDA , Breve noticia sobre o santuário campestre romano de Miróbriga dos Celticos ( Portugal ) : D ( IS ) M ( ANIBUS ) S ( ACRUM ) / C ( AIUS ) PORCIUS SEVE / RUS MIROBRIGEN ( SIS ) / CELT ( ICUS ) ANN ( ORUM ) LX / H ( IC ) S ( ITUS ) E ( ST ) S ( IT ) T ( IBI ) T ( ERRA ) L ( EVIS ) . Jump up ^ Koch , John Thomas ( 2006 ) . Celtic culture : a historical encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . pp. 794 -- 795 . ISBN 1 - 85109 - 440 - 7 . Jump up ^ Spencer and Zwicky , Andrew and Arnold M ( 1998 ) . The handbook of morphology . Blackwell Publishers . p. 148 . ISBN 0 - 631 - 18544 - 5 . Jump up ^ Lhuyd , E. Archaeologia Britannica ; An account of the languages , histories , and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain . ( reprint ed . ) Irish University Press , 1971 , p. 290 . ISBN 0 - 7165 - 0031 - 0 . Jump up ^ Koch , John Thomas ( 2006 ) . Celtic culture : a historical encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . p. 532 . ISBN 1 - 85109 - 440 - 7 . Jump up ^ Mountain , Harry ( 1998 ) . The Celtic Encyclopedia , Volume 1 . uPublish.com . p. 252 . ISBN 1 - 58112 - 889 - 4 . Jump up ^ Kruta , Venceslas ; et al. ( 1991 ) . The Celts . Thames and Hudson . pp. 95 -- 102 . Jump up ^ Paul Graves - Brown , Siân Jones , Clive Gamble , Cultural identity and archaeology : the construction of European communities , pp 242 -- 244 . Routledge , 1996 ISBN 0 - 415 - 10676 - 1 . 1996 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 10676 - 4 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ Carl McColman , The Complete Idiot 's Guide to Celtic Wisdom , pp 31 -- 34 . Alpha Books , 2003 , ISBN 0 - 02 - 864417 - 4 . 6 May 2003 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 02 - 864417 - 2 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ Monaghan , Patricia ( 2008 ) . The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore . Facts on File Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8160 - 7556 - 0 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , Nora ( 1970 ) . The Celts with an introductory chapter by J.X.W.P. Corcoran . Penguin Books . p. 81 . Jump up ^ Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick , The Celtic Realms , 1967 , 18 -- 19 Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2010 ) . Celtic from the West Chapter 1 : Celticization from the West -- The Contribution of Archaeology . Oxbow Books , Oxford , UK . p. 14 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84217 - 410 - 4 . Jump up ^ 2001 p 95 . La lengua de los Celtas y otros pueblos indoeuropeos de la península ibérica . In Almagro - Gorbea , M. , Mariné , M. and Álvarez - Sanchís , J.R. ( eds ) Celtas y Vettones , pp. 115 -- 121 . Ávila : Diputación Provincial de Ávila . Jump up ^ Lorrio and Ruiz Zapatero , Alberto J. and Gonzalo ( 2005 ) . `` The Celts in Iberia : An Overview '' . e-Keltoi. 6 : The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula : 167 -- 254 . Archived from the original on 24 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Koch , John ( 2009 ) . Tartessian : Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9 ( 2009 ) ( PDF ) . Palaeohispanica . pp. 339 -- 351 . ISSN 1578 - 5386 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 23 June 2010 . Retrieved 17 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2008 ) . A Race Apart : Insularity and Connectivity in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75 , 2009 , pp. 55 -- 64 . The Prehistoric Society . p. 61 . Jump up ^ Oppenheimer , Stephen ( 2007 ) . The Origins of the British , pp. 21 -- 56 . Robinson . Jump up ^ e.g. Patrick Sims - Williams , Ancient Celtic Placenames in Europe and Asia Minor , Publications of the Philological Society , No. 39 ( 2006 ) ; Bethany Fox , ' The P - Celtic Place - Names of North - East England and South - East Scotland ' , The Heroic Age , 10 ( 2007 ) , `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 11 January 2018 . Retrieved 9 January 2018 . ( also available at http://www.alarichall.org.uk/placenames/fox.htm ) . See also List of Celtic place names in Portugal . Jump up ^ International Journal of Modern Anthropology Int. J. Mod . Anthrop. ( 2017 ) 10 : 50 - 72 HLA Genes in Atlantic Celtic populations : Are Celts Iberians ? Available online at : www.ata.org.tn Jump up ^ Murray , Tim ( April 2007 ) . pg346 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57607 - 186 - 1 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Jones , Andrew ( 2008 ) . pg 48 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 2597 - 0 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 02 . Jump up ^ F. Fleming , Heroes of the Dawn : Celtic Myth , 1996 . pp. 9 , 134 . Jump up ^ Villar , Francisco . The Indo - Europeans and the origins of Europe ( Italian version ) , p. 446 . Jump up ^ Harding , Dennis William ( 2007 ) . pg5 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 35177 - 5 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 October 2010 . Jump up ^ pg 386 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 19 August 2006 . Retrieved 27 April 2006 . The Celts in Iberia : An Overview -- Alberto J. Lorrio ( Universidad de Alicante ) & Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero ( Universidad Complutense de Madrid ) -- Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies , Volume 6 : 167 -- 254 The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula , 1 February 2005 Jump up ^ * Otto Hermann Frey , `` A new approach to early Celtic art '' . Setting the Glauberg finds in context of shifting iconography , Royal Irish Academy ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ Dietler , Michael ( 2010 ) . Archaeologies of Colonialism : Consumption , Entanglement , and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France . University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 26551 - 3 . Jump up ^ Dietler , Michael ( 2005 ) . Consumption and Colonial Encounters in the Rhône Basin of France : A Study of Early Iron Age Political Economy . Monographies d'Archéologie Meditérranéenne , 21 , CNRS , France . ISBN 978 - 2 - 912369 - 10 - 9 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2003 ) . The Celts . Oxford Press . p. 75 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280418 - 9 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2003 ) . The Celts . Oxford Press . p. 52 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280418 - 9 . Jump up ^ Dietler , Michael ( 2010 ) . Archaeologies of Colonialism : Consumption , Entanglement , and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France . University of California Press . pp. 75 -- 94 . ISBN 0 - 520 - 26551 - 3 . Jump up ^ Chambers , William ; Chambers , Robert ( 1842 ) . Chambers 's information for the people pg50 . Archived from the original on 22 July 2011 . Retrieved 2 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Brownson , Orestes Augustus ( 1859 ) . Brownson 's Quarterly Review pg505 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Quintela , Marco V. García ( 2005 ) . `` Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times '' . Center for Celtic Studies , University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee . Archived from the original on 6 January 2011 . Retrieved 12 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Pedreño , Juan Carlos Olivares ( 2005 ) . `` Celtic Gods of the Iberian Peninsula '' . Archived from the original on 24 September 2009 . Retrieved 12 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Prichard , James Cowles ( 1841 ) . Researches into the Physical History of Mankind . Archived from the original on 22 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Alberto J. Lorrio , Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero ( 2005 ) . `` The Celts in Iberia : An Overview '' . E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies . 6 : 167 -- 254 . Archived from the original on 24 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Burillo Mozota , Francisco ( 2005 ) . `` Celtiberians : Problems and Debates '' . E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies . 6 : 411 -- 480 . Archived from the original on 14 February 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Jordán Cólera , Carlos ( 2005 ) . `` Celtiberian '' ( PDF ) . E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies . 6 : 749 -- 850 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 24 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Alberro , Manuel ( 2005 ) . `` Celtic Legacy in Galicia '' . E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies . 6 : 1005 -- 1035 . Archived from the original on 17 April 2009 . Jump up ^ Berrocal - Rangel , Luis ( 2005 ) . `` The Celts of the Southwestern Iberian Peninsula '' . E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies . 6 : 481 -- 496 . Archived from the original on 16 April 2009 . Jump up ^ R. Luján Martínez , Eugenio ( 2005 ) . `` The Language ( s ) of the Callaeci '' . E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies . 6 : 715 -- 748 . Archived from the original on 17 April 2009 . Jump up ^ Coutinhas , José Manuel ( 2006 ) , Aproximação à identidade etno - cultural dos Callaici Bracari , Porto . Jump up ^ Archeological site of Tavira Archived 23 February 2011 at Wikiwix , official website Jump up ^ John T. Koch , Tartessian : Celtic From the South - west at the Dawn of History , Celtic Studies Publications , ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ Alfons Semler , Überlingen : Bilder aus der Geschichte einer kleinen Reichsstadt , Oberbadische Verlag , Singen , 1949 , pp. 11 -- 17 , specifically 15 . Jump up ^ Venceslas Kruta : La grande storia dei celti . La nascita , l'affermazione e la decadenza , Newton & Compton , 2003 , ISBN 88 - 8289 - 851 - 2 , ISBN 978 - 88 - 8289 - 851 - 9 Jump up ^ `` The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest Celts of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres , Laevi , Lepontii , Oromobii ( o Orumbovii ) '' . ( Raffaele C. De Marinis ) Jump up ^ `` Manufatti in ferro di tipo La Tène in area italiana : le potenzialità non sfruttate '' . Jump up ^ Piggott , Stuart ( 5 June 2008 ) . Early Celtic Art From Its Origins to its Aftermath . Transaction Publishers . p. 3 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 202 - 36186 - 4 . Archived from the original on 19 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Schumacher , Stefan ; Schulze - Thulin , Britta ; aan de Wiel , Caroline ( 2004 ) . Die keltischen Primärverben . Ein vergleichendes , etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon ( in German ) . Innsbruck : Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck . pp. 84 -- 87 . ISBN 3 - 85124 - 692 - 6 . Jump up ^ Percivaldi , Elena ( 2003 ) . I Celti : una civiltà europea . Giunti Editore . p. 82 . Jump up ^ Kruta , Venceslas ( 1991 ) . The Celts . Thames and Hudson . p. 55 . Jump up ^ Stifter , David ( 2008 ) . Old Celtic Languages ( PDF ) . p. 12 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2 October 2012 . Jump up ^ MORANDI 2004 , pp. 702 -- 703 , n . 277 Jump up ^ Peter Schrijver , `` Gaulish '' , in Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe , ed . Glanville Price ( Oxford : Blackwell , 1998 ) , 192 . Jump up ^ Landolfi , Maurizio ( 2000 ) . Adriatico tra 4 . e 3 . sec . a.C . L'Erma di Bretschneider . p. 43 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2003 ) . The Celts -- A Very Short Introduction . Oxford University Press . p. 37 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280418 - 9 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry ( 2003 ) . The Celts : A Very Short Introduction . Oxford . p. 71 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280418 - 9 . Jump up ^ Ball , Martin , Muller , Nicole ( eds . ) The Celtic Languages , Routledge , 2003 , pp. 67ff . Jump up ^ Koch , J.T. , ( 2006 ) Celtic Culture : A Historical Encyclopedia , ABC - CLIO , ISBN 1 - 85109 - 440 - 7 , p. 973 . Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry , Koch , John T. ( eds . ) , Celtic from the West , David Brown Co. , 2012 Jump up ^ Cunliffe , Barry , Facing the Ocean , Oxford University Press , 2004 Jump up ^ Collis , John ( 2003 ) . The Celts : Origins , Myths and Inventions . Stroud : Tempus Publishing . p. 125 . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 2913 - 2 . Jump up ^ Collis , John ( 2003 ) . The Celts : Origins , Myths and Inventions . Stroud : Tempus Publishing . p. 180 . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 2913 - 2 . Jump up ^ Collis , John ( 2003 ) . The Celts : Origins , Myths and Inventions . Stroud : Tempus Publishing . p. 27 . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 2913 - 2 . Jump up ^ Tristram , Hildegard L.C. ( 2007 ) . The Celtic languages in contact . Potsdam University Press . p. 5 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 940793 - 07 - 2 . Jump up ^ Ní Dhoireann , Kym . `` The Horse Amongst the Celts '' . Archived from the original on 14 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Age '' . Smr.herefordshire.gov.uk . Archived 7 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` The Landscape of Britain '' . Michael Reed ( 1997 ) . CRC Press . p. 56 . ISBN 0 - 203 - 44411 - 6 ^ Jump up to : Simmons , Victoria ( 2006 ) . John T. Koch , ed . Celtic Culture : A Historical Encyclopedia . I. ABC - CLIO . p. 1615 . ISBN 1 - 85109 - 440 - 7 . Jump up ^ Simmons , op . cit. , citing Wendy Davies , Wales in the Early Middle Ages , 64 . Jump up ^ Simmons , op . cit. , at 1616 , citing Kelly , Guide to Early Irish Law , 96 . Jump up ^ Casparie , Wil A. ; Moloney , Aonghus ( January 1994 ) . `` Neolithic wooden trackways and bog hydrology '' . Journal of Paleolimnology . Springer Netherlands . 12 : 49 -- 64 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00677989 . Jump up ^ `` Regional Reviews : Wales '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 4 June 2011 . ( 369 KB ) Beatrice Cauuet ( Université Toulouse Le Mirail , UTAH , France ) Jump up ^ Diodorus Siculus , Bibliotheca Historica Jump up ^ Percy , William A. ( 1996 ) . Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece . University of Illinois Press . p. 18 . ISBN 0 - 252 - 06740 - 1 . Archived from the original on 25 May 2012 . Retrieved 18 September 2009 . ; Rankin , H.D. Celts and the Classical World , p. 55 Jump up ^ Rankin , p. 55 Jump up ^ Rankin , p. 78 Jump up ^ Roman History Volume IX Books 71 -- 80 , Dio Cassiuss and Earnest Carry translator ( 1927 ) , Loeb Classical Library ISBN 0 - 674 - 99196 - 6 . Jump up ^ Ellis , Peter Berresford ( 1998 ) . The Celts : A History . Caroll & Graf . pp. 49 -- 50 . ISBN 0 - 7867 - 1211 - 2 . Jump up ^ J.A. MacCulloch ( 1911 ) . The Religion of the Ancient Celts . Morrison & Gibb . pp. 4 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Evans , Thomas L. ( 2004 ) . Quantified Identities : A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North - Eastern France 600 -- 130 BC , BAR International Series 1226 . Archaeopress . pp. 34 -- 40 , 158 -- 188 . Jump up ^ Evans , Thomas L. ( 2004 ) . Quantified Identities : A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North - Eastern France 600 -- 130 BC , BAR International Series 1226 . Archaeopress . pp. 34 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Nelson , Sarah M. ( 2004 ) . Gender in archaeology : analyzing power and prestige : Volume 9 of Gender and archaeology series . Rowman Altamira . p. 119 . Jump up ^ Bitel , Lisa M. ( 1996 ) . Land of Women : Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland . Cornell University Press . p. 212 . ISBN 0 - 8014 - 8544 - 4 . Jump up ^ Tierney , J.J. ( 1960 ) . The Celtic Ethnography of Posidonius , PRIA 60 C. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy . pp. 1.89 -- 275 . Jump up ^ Rankin , David ( 1996 ) . Celts and the Classical World . Routledge . p. 80 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 15090 - 6 . Jump up ^ University College , Cork . Cáin Lánamna ( Couples Law ) . 2005 . `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 16 December 2008 . Retrieved 20 November 2007 . Access date : 7 March 2006 . Jump up ^ http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves#!english/c11e3 Archived 1 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Official website of Tintignac - Naves archeological site Jump up ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus , Roman Antiquities p259 Excerpts from Book XIV Jump up ^ Ellis , Peter Berresford ( 1998 ) . The Celts : A History . Caroll & Graf . pp. 60 -- 3 . ISBN 0 - 7867 - 1211 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Noricus ensis , '' Horace , Odes , i . 16.9 Jump up ^ Vagn Fabritius Buchwald , Iron and steel in ancient times , 2005 , p. 127 Jump up ^ Radomir Pleiner , in The Celtic Sword , Oxford : Clarendon Press ( 1993 ) , p. 159 . Jump up ^ Polybius , Histories II. 28 Jump up ^ Livy , History XXII. 46 and XXXVIII. 21 Jump up ^ Paul Jacobsthal Early Celtic Art ^ Jump up to : Cunliffe , Barry , ( 1997 ) The Ancient Celts . Oxford , Oxford University Press ISBN 0 - 19 - 815010 - 5 , pp. 183 ( religion ) , 202 , 204 -- 08 . Jump up ^ Sjoestedt , Marie - Louise ( originally published in French , 1940 , reissued 1982 ) Gods and Heroes of the Celts . Translated by Myles Dillon , Berkeley , CA , Turtle Island Foundation ISBN 0 - 913666 - 52 - 1 , pp. 24 -- 46 . Jump up ^ Sjoestedt ( 1940 ) pp. 16 , 24 -- 46 . ^ Jump up to : Inse Jones , Prudence , and Nigel Pennick . History of pagan Europe . London : Routledge , 1995 . Print . Jump up ^ Sjoestedt ( 1940 ) pp. xiv -- xvi . Jump up ^ Sjoestedt ( 1982 ) pp. xxvi -- xix . Jump up ^ Lambert , Pierre - Yves ( 2003 ) . La langue gauloise . Paris , Editions Errance . 2nd edition . ISBN 2 - 87772 - 224 - 4 . Chapter 9 is titled `` Un calandrier gaulois '' Jump up ^ Lehoux , D.R. Parapegmata : or Astrology , Weather , and Calendars in the Ancient World , pp 63 -- 5 . PhD Dissertation , University of Toronto , 2000 Archived 23 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine ... Bibliography Alberro , Manuel and Arnold , Bettina ( eds . ) , e-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies , Volume 6 : The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula , University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee , Center for Celtic Studies , 2005 . Collis , John . The Celts : Origins , Myths and Inventions . Stroud : Tempus Publishing , 2003 . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 2913 - 2 . Historiography of Celtic studies . Cunliffe , Barry . The Ancient Celts . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1997 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 815010 - 5 . Cunliffe , Barry . Iron Age Britain . London : Batsford , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 7134 - 8839 - 5 Cunliffe , Barry . The Celts : A Very Short Introduction . 2003 Freeman , Philip Mitchell The Earliest Classical Sources on the Celts : A Linguistic and Historical Study . Diss . Harvard University , 1994 . ( link ) Gamito , Teresa J. `` The Celts in Portugal '' , E-Keltoi : Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies , 6 ( 2005 ) . Haywood , John . Historical Atlas of the Celtic World . 2001 . Herm , Gerhard . The Celts : The People who Came out of the Darkness . New York : St. Martin 's Press , 1977 . James , Simon . The World of the Celts . New York : Thames & Hudson , 1993 . 3rd edn. 2005 . James , Simon . The Atlantic Celts -- Ancient People Or Modern Invention ? Madison : University of Wisconsin Press , August 1999 . ISBN 0 - 299 - 16674 - 0 . James , Simon & Rigby , Valerie . Britain and the Celtic Iron Age . London : British Museum Press , 1997 . ISBN 0 - 7141 - 2306 - 4 . Kruta , Venceslas , Otto Hermann Frey , Barry Raftery and M. Szabo . eds . The Celts . New York : Thames & Hudson , 1991 . ISBN 0 - 8478 - 2193 - 5 . A translation of Les Celtes : Histoire et dictionnaire 2000 . Laing , Lloyd . The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland c. 400 -- 1200 AD . London : Methuen , 1975 . ISBN 0 - 416 - 82360 - 2 Laing , Lloyd and Jenifer Laing . Art of the Celts , London : Thames and Hudson , 1992 ISBN 0 - 500 - 20256 - 7 MacKillop , James . A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1998 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280120 - 1 Maier , Bernhard : Celts : A History from Earliest Times to the Present . University of Notre Dame Press 2003 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 268 - 02361 - 4 McEvedy , Colin . The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History . New York : Penguin , 1985 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 070832 - 4 Mallory , J.P. In Search of the Indo - Europeans : Language , Archaeology and Myth . London : Thames and Hudson , 1991 . ISBN 0 - 500 - 27616 - 1 . O'Rahilly , T.F. Early Irish History Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies , 1946 . Powell , T.G.E. The Celts . New York : Thames & Hudson , 1980 . 3rd edn. 1997 . ISBN 0 - 500 - 27275 - 1 . Raftery , Barry . Pagan Celtic Ireland : The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age . London : Thames & Hudson , 1994 . ISBN 0 - 500 - 27983 - 7 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Celts . Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Celt . Ancient Celtic music -- in the Citizendium Essays on Celtiberian topics -- in e-Keltoi , University of Wisconsin , Madison Ancient Celtic Warriors in History Celts descended from Spanish fishermen , study finds Discussion -- with academic Barry Cunliffe , on BBC Radio 4 's In Our Time , 21 February 2002 . ( Streaming RealPlayer format ) Geography An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800 BC and 305 AD . Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia ( around 200 BC ) , showing the Celtic territories Map of Celtic lands Organisations newworldcelts.org XIII . 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Uí Néill , Clan Colla , Clan Donald , Uí Maine , etc ) Dál gCais ( incl . Déisi ) Eóganachta Érainn ( incl . Dál Riata , Corcu Loígde , Clan Conla , Dál Fiatach , etc ) Laigin Ulaid ( incl . Dál nAraidi , Conmhaícne , Ciarraige , etc ) Related organisations Údarás na Gaeltachta Foras na Gaeilge Bòrd na Gàidhlig Culture Vannin Conradh na Gaeilge An Comunn Gàidhealach Manx Gaelic Society Seachtain na Gaeilge Gael Linn ULTACH Trust Comunn na Gàidhlig Columba Project Clans of Ireland An Coimisinéir Teanga An Comunn Gàidhealach America Related subjects Haplogroup R - M269 ( human genetics ) Celts Norse -- Gaels ( incl . Uí Ímair and Clan MacLeod ) Kingdom of the Isles Gaelicisation Category Pre-Roman peoples established into Spain Aquitanians ( in Spain ) Arenosii Garunni Iacetani Cantabri Amani Avarigines Blendii Camarici Concani Coniaci Moroecani Noegi Orgenomesci Pembelorum Plentusi Salaeni Vadinienses Alongi Aravos Arcaeduni Argalici Arganai Biracidegini Boddegi Cabedici Caddeci Corovesci Doiderigi Pentioci Vernai Vellici Celtiberians Arevaci Belli Lobetani Lusones Pellendones Oretani Titii Turboletae Uraci Celts Astures Astures Transmontanos Pesici Agubrigensi Argamonici Cadabrigensi Cabarci Berisoni Luggoni Abilicori Ablaidaci Agubrigenses Arganticaeni Argantori Arronidaeci Cabrangini Cadabrigensi Cilaridi Cilurnigi Coliacini Oilaridi Ratri Vinciani Viromenigi Paesici Peni Caelionicaeci Quetiani Astures Augustanos Amaci Saldanici Baeduniensi Brigaecini Legirnici Cigurri Iburri Lanciensi Lougei Toletensi Orniaci Avolgigi Abanici Saeleni Superati Blanobriensi Bolgensi Lougui Susarri Paemeiobriguensi Queledini Aiobrigiaeciensi Tiburi Zoeli Desonci Tridiavi Visaligi Cabruagenigi Belgae Suessetani Celtici Celtici of Arunda Cempsi Mirobrigenses Carpetani Aelariques Aeturiques Arquioci Acualiques Bocouriques Canbarici Contucianci Dagencii Doviliques Duitiques Duniques Elguismiques Langioci Longeidoci Maganiques Malugeniques Manuciques Maureici Mesici Metturici Moenicci Obisodiques Pilonicori Solici Tirtaliques Uloques Venatioques Eastern Celts Volcae Volciani Gallaeci Aebocosi Albiones Aobrigenses Arroni Artabri Aunonenses Baedi Biballi Brigantes Caladuni Capori Celtici Praestamarici Celtici Supertamarici Cibarci Cileni Coelerni Egi Egovarri Grovii Iadones Iadovi Lapatianci Lemavi Limici Louguei Namarini Narbasi Nerii Poemani Seurri Turodi Gauls Galli Lusitanians Arabrigenses Meidubrigenses Palanti Calontienses Caluri Coerenses Ocelenses Lancienses Talures Veaminicori Vaccaei Cauci Vettones Bletonesii Caluri Coerenses Lancienses Lancienses Oppidani Other Celtic groups of peoples Autrigones Allotriges Berones Caristii Cratistii Mantesani Olcades Plentauri Quaquerni Germanic peoples Germani Iberians Airenosini Andosini Ausetani Bastetani Mastieni Bergistani Castellani Ceretani Cessetani Contestani Deitani Edetani Elisyces Indigetes Ilercavones Ilergetes Indigetes Lacetani Laietani Sedetani Vescetani Tartessos Cynetes Mastia Turdetani Cilbiceni Elbisini Etmanei Gletes Turdetani proper Vascones Vascones clans Other European origin peoples Andologensi Greeks Interamici Turmodigi Varduli Non-European origin peoples Carthaginians ( Phoenicians ) Turduli Baetici The Canary Islands were not occupied by the Romans , the peoples of these islands until the arrival of the Castilians were the Guanches . Pre-Roman peoples established into Portugal Celts Astures Astures Augustanos Zoeli Desonci Tridiavi Visaligi Cabruagenigi Celtici Cempsi Mirobrigenses Sefes Gallaeci Aebocosi Amphiloci Banienses Bracari Brigantes Caladuni Coelerni Equaesi Grovii Leuni Limici Luanqui Naebisoci Narbasi Nemetati Quaquerni Seurbi Tamagani Turodi Lusitanians Arabrigenses Colarni Interamnienses Meidubrigenses Paesuri Palanti Calontienses Coerenses Lancienses Transcudani Lancienses Oppidani Tangi Elbocori Igaeditani Tapoli Other Celtic peoples Vettones Tartessos Cynetes Other European origin peoples Interamici Seurbi Non-European origin peoples Carthaginians ( Phoenicians ) Turduli Bardili Oppidani Veteres GND : 4030206 - 4 HDS : 8016 NDL : 00565634 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celts&oldid=852484941 '' Categories : Celts Ethnic groups in Europe by language family Indo - European peoples Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template other archives CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Use dmy dates from February 2013 Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from November 2011 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2011 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2009 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lumbaart Magyar Македонски მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne ไทย Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt West - Vlams Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 86 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 July 2018 , at 09 : 01 ( UTC ) . 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where did the expression getting cold feet come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cold_feet&oldid=841515068

Cold feet - wikipedia Cold feet Cold feet is a phrase which refers to a person not going through with an action , particularly one which requires long term commitment , due to fear , uncertainty , and doubt . A person is said to be `` getting cold feet '' when , after previously committing to a plan , they ultimately do not carry out the planned course of action . Contents ( hide ) 1 Definitions ( psychological ) 2 Origin and history 3 Common uses 3.1 Marriage 4 References 5 External links Definitions ( psychological ) ( edit ) Apprehension or doubt strong enough to prevent a planned course of action . A loss or lack of courage or confidence ; an onset of uncertainty or fear . To `` have cold feet '' is to be too fearful to undertake or complete an action . A wave of timidity or fearfulness . Loss or lack of courage or confidence . Timidity that prevents the continuation of a course of action . Origin and history ( edit ) The origin of the term itself has been largely attributed to American author Stephen Crane , who added the phrase , in 1896 , to the second edition of his short novel , Maggie : A Girl of the Streets . Crane writes , `` I knew this was the way it would be . They got cold feet . '' The term is present in `` Seed Time and Harvest '' by Fritz Reuter published in 1862 . Kenneth McKenzie , a former professor of Italian at Princeton University attributed the first use of the phrase to the play Volpone produced by Ben Jonson in 1605 . The true origin and first usage of the phrase remains debated and unconfirmed as exemplified above . Common uses ( edit ) Marriage ( edit ) A common use of the phrase is when people fear the commitment of marriage and get `` cold feet '' before a wedding ceremony . This pre-marital doubt or fear may manifest for a variety of reasons and sometimes cause the bride or groom to back out of a planned marriage . Original research on the `` cold feet '' phenomenon is very limited , but a four - year study conducted by UCLA researchers found feelings of pre-marital doubt or uncertainty about an impending marriage were associated with future marital problems and a viable predictor of divorce . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Cold feet - Definition '' . Merriam - Webster Dictionary . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet '' . Dictionary.com . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet definition '' . The American Heritage ® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy , Third Edition . Houghton Mifflin Company . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Spears , Richard . `` cold feet '' . Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions . McGraw Hill . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet '' . Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition . William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd . Jump up ^ `` Cold feet '' . Retrieved 22 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Barnhart , David K. ( 1997 ) . America in So Many Words : Words That Have Shaped America . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . p. 191 . ^ Jump up to : Engber , Daniel . `` When Did We Get `` Cold Feet '' ? The Germans had ' em first ! `` . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Zoulas , Peter . `` Take Our Word For It , Issue 77 '' . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Reuter , Fritz . `` Seed - time and Harvest '' . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Tony Mathews ( 2003 ) , There 's More Than One Color in the Pew ^ Jump up to : Hutson , Matthew . `` Brides and Grooms : Cold Feet '' . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bride 's `` Cold feet '' May Predict Divorce `` . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Lavner , Justin ; Benjamin Karney ; Thomas Bradbury ( 2012 ) . `` Do Cold Feet Warn of Trouble Ahead ? Premarital Uncertainty and Four - Year Marital Outcomes '' . Journal of Family Psychology . 26 ( 6 ) : 1012 -- 1017 . doi : 10.1037 / a0029912 . PMC 3525794 . External links ( edit ) Look up cold feet in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . `` Expert Advice on Cold Feet '' -- Article from Brides Magazine `` Cold Feet Common in Brides - to - Be '' ABC News Good Morning America , May 1 , 2005 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_feet&oldid=841515068 '' Categories : Human behavior Metaphors referring to body parts Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 16 May 2018 , at 09 : 28 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia

-4250679628664906948

who played rosario on will & grace and is she still alive

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Shelley_Morrison&oldid=811177829

Shelley Morrison - wikipedia Shelley Morrison Jump to : navigation , search This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification . Please help by adding reliable sources . Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately , especially if potentially libelous or harmful . ( May 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Shelley Morrison Rachel Mitrani ( 1936 - 10 - 26 ) October 26 , 1936 ( age 81 ) New York City , New York U.S. Other names Rachel Dominguez Occupation Actress Years active 1961 -- 2016 Spouse ( s ) Walter Dominguez ( m . 1973 ) Website http://shelleymorrison.com/ Shelley Morrison ( born Rachel Mitrani ; October 26 , 1936 ) is an American actress . Early in her career , she was sometimes credited as Rachel Domínguez . Morrison has been a theater and television actress since the early 1960s , predominantly as a character actress in ethnic roles . Her most recognizable role has been as the maid Rosario Salazar in the NBC comedy television series Will & Grace , which she played from 1999 to 2006 . She was a regular performer on the sitcom The Flying Nun playing Sister Sixto , a nun known mostly for mangling the English language ; and she continued in television guest roles until securing a recurring role in the soap opera General Hospital in 1982 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Cancer 4 Activism 5 Personal life 6 References 7 External links Early Life ( edit ) Morrison was born in New York City , the only daughter of Sephardic Jewish ( specifically , Spanish Jewish ) parents , originally surnamed Mitrani . She was raised in the Bronx , New York , and her first language was Spanish . Her father , Maurice Morris , was a clothing manufacturer . Morrison moved to California with her parents in 1946 . Career ( edit ) Morrison went on to study acting at Los Angeles City College and landed early film roles in Divorce American Style and How to Save a Marriage ( And Ruin Your Life ) . From 1965 to 1967 , she appeared four times as an American Indian , Linda Little Trees , in the NBC western television series Laredo ( in the episodes `` Yahoo '' , `` Jinx '' , `` No Bugles , One Drum '' , and `` Split the Difference . '' ) In 1967 , she capitalized on her own experiences learning English to play the Puerto Rican nun , Sister Sixto , who had trouble with English in Sally Field 's show The Flying Nun . She would keep this role until the show was cancelled in 1970 . Morrison 's most widely recognizable recent role has been as the Salvadoran maid Rosario Inés Consuelo Yolanda Salazar on the NBC sitcom Will & Grace . She appeared in 68 episodes from 1999 to 2006 ( as well as a brief cameo appearance on the September 2016 Will & Grace webisode in support of Hillary Clinton 's presidential campaign ) . The role was originally created for a brief one - episode appearance , but Rosario was so popular with viewers that she became a recurring character . In addition to sparring with her libertine and very spoiled employer , Karen Walker ( Megan Mullally ) , Rosario married Karen 's gay friend Jack McFarland ( Sean Hayes ) to prevent her impending deportation . Among approximately 25 film appearances and 200 television appearances , Morrison has portrayed a maid or housekeeper on 32 separate occasions . Morrison had just informed her agent not to offer her any more `` maid parts '' when the call came for Will & Grace . In 2017 , NBC revived Will & Grace for a new series of episodes . On August 3 , 2017 , co-creator Max Mutchnick announced to reporters that Morrison had been asked to reprise her role as Salazar on the show , but that she had ultimately decided to retire completely from acting . Although her last official acting role was a voiceover in the 2012 animated film Foodfight ! , her final appearance as an actress was the 2016 election - themed webisode of Will & Grace . Cancer ( edit ) Morrison underwent a lumpectomy for breast cancer in 1988 , followed by a full mastectomy when the cancer recurred in 1998 . She had lung cancer and underwent surgery to remove the upper third of her right lung . Morrison 's lung cancer went into remission , but her breast cancer returned after the treatment in 1988 and 1998 . Activism ( edit ) Morrison endorsed U.S. Congressman Dennis Kucinich for President in 2008 , actively fundraising , contributing to his campaign , and seeking votes for him . Personal Life ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Morrison lives with her husband of many years , Walter Domínguez , a Mexican - American , in a three - story apartment in Los Angeles -- the same apartment in which her father had settled the family five decades earlier . Morrison and Dominguez adopted three sons and three daughters ( adopted through a traditional Native American ceremony ) . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Fretts , Bruce ; Roush , Matt . `` The Greatest Shows on Earth '' . TV Guide . 61 ( 3194 - 3195 ) : 16 -- 19 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Sheridan , Patricia ( August 23 , 2004 ) . `` Shelley Morrison '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Shelley Morrison '' . Internet Movie Data Base . Retrieved January 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Shelley Morrison '' , IMDb and `` The Flying Nun '' , IMDb Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate ; Goldberg , Lesley ( August 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace ' : Why Shelley Morrison 's Rosario wo n't return for the revival '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved September 28 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Shelley Morrison on IMDb VIAF : 68651172 LCCN : no2004106384 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Morrison&oldid=811177829 '' Categories : 1936 births American film actresses American television actresses Jewish American actresses Actresses from New York City Living people American people of Spanish - Jewish descent American Sephardic Jews Los Angeles City College alumni Lung cancer survivors People from the Bronx People from the Greater Los Angeles Area 20th - century American actresses 21st - century American actresses Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL BLP articles lacking sources from May 2012 All BLP articles lacking sources Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia تۆرکجه Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Nederlands Português Suomi اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 20 November 2017 , at 00 : 34 . 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-3066832486070706632

night vision devices use which type of waves

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Night_vision&oldid=814137459

Night vision - wikipedia Night vision Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Night Visions ( disambiguation ) . Two American soldiers pictured during the 2003 Iraq War seen through an image intensifier Night vision is the ability to see in low light conditions . Whether by biological or technological means , night vision is made possible by a combination of two approaches : sufficient spectral range , and sufficient intensity range . Humans have poor night vision compared to many animals , in part because the human eye lacks a tapetum lucidum . Contents ( hide ) 1 Types of ranges 1.1 Spectral range 1.2 Intensity range 2 Biological night vision 3 Night vision technologies 3.1 Image intensification 3.1. 1 Active illumination 3.2 Thermal vision 4 Night vision devices 4.1 History 4.2 Current technology 5 See also 6 Patents 7 References 8 External links Types of ranges ( edit ) Spectral range ( edit ) Night - useful spectral range techniques can sense radiation that is invisible to a human observer . Human vision is confined to a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called visible light . Enhanced spectral range allows the viewer to take advantage of non-visible sources of electromagnetic radiation ( such as near - infrared or ultraviolet radiation ) . Some animals such as the mantis shrimp can see using much more of the infrared and / or ultraviolet spectrum than humans . Spectrum of light Intensity range ( edit ) Sufficient intensity range is simply the ability to see with very small quantities of light . Many animals have better night vision than humans do , the result of one or more differences in the morphology and anatomy of their eyes . These include having a larger eyeball , a larger lens , a larger optical aperture ( the pupils may expand to the physical limit of the eyelids ) , more rods than cones ( or rods exclusively ) in the retina , and a tapetum lucidum . Enhanced intensity range is achieved via technological means through the use of an image intensifier , gain multiplication CCD , or other very low - noise and high - sensitivity array of photodetectors . Biological night vision ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see Adaptation ( eye ) and Accelerating dark adaptation in humans . All photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate eye contain molecules of photoreceptor protein which is a combination of the protein photopsin in color vision cells , rhodopsin in night vision cells , and retinal ( a small photoreceptor molecule ) . Retinal undergoes an irreversible change in shape when it absorbs light ; this change causes an alteration in the shape of the protein which surrounds the retinal , and that alteration then induces the physiological process which results in vision . The retinal must diffuse from the vision cell , out of the eye , and circulate via the blood to the liver where it is regenerated . In bright light conditions , most of the retinal is not in the photoreceptors , but is outside of the eye . It takes about 45 minutes of dark for all of the photoreceptor proteins to be recharged with active retinal , but most of the night vision adaptation occurs within the first five minutes in the dark . Adaptation results in maximum sensitivity to light . In dark conditions only the rod cells have enough sensitivity to respond and to trigger vision . Normalised absorption spectra of the three human photopsins and of human rhodopsin ( dashed ) . Rhodopsin in the human rods is insensitive to the longer red wavelengths , so traditionally many people use red light to help preserve night vision . Red light only slowly depletes the rhodopsin stores in the rods , and instead is viewed by the red sensitive cone cells . Another theory posits that since stars typically emit light with shorter wavelengths , the light from stars will be in the blue - green color spectrum . Therefore , using red light to navigate would not desensitize the receptors used to detect star light . Using red light for night vision is less effective for people with red -- green color blindness , due to their insensitivity to red light . Many animals have a tissue layer called the tapetum lucidum in the back of the eye that reflects light back through the retina , increasing the amount of light available for it to capture , but reducing the sharpness of the focus of the image . This is found in many nocturnal animals and some deep sea animals , and is the cause of eyeshine . Humans , and monkeys , lack a tapetum lucidum . Nocturnal mammals have rods with unique properties that make enhanced night vision possible . The nuclear pattern of their rods changes shortly after birth to become inverted . In contrast to conventional rods , inverted rods have heterochromatin in the center of their nuclei and euchromatin and other transcription factors along the border . In addition , the outer layer of cells in the retina ( the outer nuclear layer ) in nocturnal mammals is thick due to the millions of rods present to process the lower light intensities . The anatomy of this layer in nocturnal mammals is such that the rod nuclei , from individual cells , are physically stacked such that light will pass through eight to ten nuclei before reaching the photoreceptor portion of the cells . Rather than being scattered , the light is passed to each nucleus individually , by a strong lensing effect due to the nuclear inversion , passing out of the stack of nuclei , and into the stack of ten photorecepting outer segments . The net effect of this anatomical change is to multiply the light sensitivity of the retina by a factor of eight to ten with no loss of focus . Night vision technologies ( edit ) Play media 1974 US Army film about the development of military night vision technology Night vision technologies can be broadly divided into three main categories : image intensification , active illumination and thermal imaging . Image intensification ( edit ) Main article : Image intensifier This magnifies the amount of received photons from various natural sources such as starlight or moonlight . Examples of such technologies include night glasses and low light cameras . In the military context , Image Intensifiers are often called `` Low Light TV '' since the video signal is often transmitted to a display within a control center . LLLTV These are usually integrated into a sensor containing both visible and IR detectors and the streams are used independently or in fused mode , depending on the mission at hand 's requirements. ( 1 ) The image intensifier is a vacuum - tube based device ( photomultiplier tube ) that can generate an image from a very small number of photons ( such as the light from stars in the sky ) so that a dimly lit scene can be viewed in real - time by the naked eye via visual output , or stored as data for later analysis . While many believe the light is `` amplified , '' it is not . When light strikes a charged photocathode plate , electrons are emitted through a vacuum tube that strike the microchannel plate that cause the image screen to illuminate with a picture in the same pattern as the light that strikes the photocathode , and is on a frequency that the human eye can see . This is much like a CRT television , but instead of color guns the photocathode does the emitting . The image is said to become `` intensified '' because the output visible light is brighter than the incoming light , and this effect directly relates to the difference in passive and active night vision goggles . Currently , the most popular image intensifier is the drop - in ANVIS module , though many other models and sizes are available at the market . Recently , the US Navy announced intentions to procure a dual - color variant of the ANVIS for use in the cockpit of airborne platforms. ( 2 ) Active illumination ( edit ) The German 1945 pattern active infrared Zielgerät ZG 1229 Vampir displayed by a British soldier Active illumination couples imaging intensification technology with an active source of illumination in the near infrared ( NIR ) or shortwave infrared ( SWIR ) band . Examples of such technologies include low light cameras . Active infrared night - vision combines infrared illumination of spectral range 700 -- 1,000 nm ( just below the visible spectrum of the human eye ) with CCD cameras sensitive to this light . The resulting scene , which is apparently dark to a human observer , appears as a monochrome image on a normal display device . Because active infrared night - vision systems can incorporate illuminators that produce high levels of infrared light , the resulting images are typically higher resolution than other night - vision technologies . Active infrared night vision is now commonly found in commercial , residential and government security applications , where it enables effective night time imaging under low - light conditions . However , since active infrared light can be detected by night - vision goggles , there can be a risk of giving away position in tactical military operations . Laser range gated imaging is another form of active night vision which utilizes a high powered pulsed light source for illumination and imaging . Range gating is a technique which controls the laser pulses in conjunction with the shutter speed of the camera 's detectors . Gated imaging technology can be divided into single shot , where the detector captures the image from a single light pulse , and multi-shot , where the detector integrates the light pulses from multiple shots to form an image . One of the key advantages of this technique is the ability to perform target recognition rather than mere detection , as is the case with thermal imaging . Thermal vision ( edit ) See also : Thermographic camera and Forward looking infrared Thermal imaging detects the temperature difference between the background and the foreground objects . Some organisms are able to sense a crude thermal image by means of special organs that function as bolometers . This allows thermal infrared sensing in snakes , which functions by detection of thermal radiation . Thermal imaging cameras are excellent tools for night vision . They detect thermal radiation and do not need a source of illumination . They produce an image in the darkest of nights and can see through light fog , rain and smoke ( to a certain extent ) . Thermal imaging cameras make small temperature differences visible . Thermal imaging cameras are widely used to complement new or existing security networks , and for night vision on aircraft , where they are commonly referred to as `` FLIR '' ( for `` forward - looking infrared '' ) . When coupled with additional cameras ( for example , a visible camera or SWIR ) multispectral sensors are possible , which take advantage of the benefits of each detection band capabilities . Contrary to misconceptions portrayed in the media , thermal imagers can not ' see ' through solid objects ( walls for example ) , nor can they see through glass or perspex as both these materials have their own thermal signature and are opaque to long wave infrared radiation . Night vision devices ( edit ) See articles : Night vision device and Thermal imaging device History ( edit ) Before the introduction of image intensifiers , night glasses were the only method of night vision , and thus were widely utilized , especially at sea . Second World War era night glasses usually had a lens diameter of 56 mm or more with magnification of seven or eight . Major drawbacks of night glasses are their large size and weight . Current technology ( edit ) Binocular night vision goggles on a flight helmet . The green color of the objective lenses is the reflection of the light interference filters , not a glow . This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A night vision device ( NVD ) is a device comprising an image intensifier tube in a rigid casing , commonly used by military forces . Lately , night vision technology has become more widely available for civilian use . For example , enhanced vision systems ( EVS ) have become available for aircraft to help pilots with situational awareness and avoid accidents . These systems are included in the latest avionics packages from manufacturers such as Cirrus and Cessna . The US Navy has begun procurement of a variant integrated into a helmet - mounted display , produced by Elbit Systems . A specific type of NVD , the night vision goggle ( NVG ) is a night vision device with dual eyepieces . The device can utilize either one intensifier tube with the same image sent to both eyes , or a separate image intensifier tube for each eye . Night vision goggles combined with magnification lenses constitutes night vision binoculars . Other types include monocular night vision devices with only one eyepiece which may be mounted to firearms as night sights . NVG and EVS technologies are becoming more popular with helicopter operations to improve safety . The NTSB is considering EVS as recommended equipment for safety features . Night glasses are single or binocular with a large diameter objective . Large lenses can gather and concentrate light , thus intensifying light with purely optical means and enabling the user to see better in the dark than with the naked eye alone . Often night glasses also have a fairly large exit pupil of 7 mm or more to let all gathered light into the user 's eye . However , many people can not take advantage of this because of the limited dilation of the human pupil . To overcome this , soldiers were sometimes issued atropine eye drops to dilate pupils . Night vision systems can also be installed in vehicles . An automotive night vision system is used to improve a vehicle driver 's perception and seeing distance in darkness or poor weather . Such systems typically use infrared cameras , sometimes combined with active illumination techniques , to collect information that is then displayed to the driver . Such systems are currently offered as optional equipment on certain premium vehicles . See also ( edit ) Johnson 's criteria Low light level television Night vision device Thermal imaging device Thermographic camera Patents ( edit ) US D248860 - Night vision Pocketscope US 4707595 - Invisible light beam projector and night vision system US 4991183 - Target illuminators and systems employing same US 6075644 - Panoramic night vision goggles U.S. Patent 7,173,237 US 6158879 - Infra - red reflector and illumination system References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Histological study of choroidal melanocytes in animals with tapetum lucidum cellulosum ( abstract ) '' . Graefe 's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 228 : 161 -- 168 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00935727 . Jump up ^ Milius , Susan ( 2012 ) . `` Mantis shrimp flub color vision test '' . Science News . 182 ( 6 ) : 11 . JSTOR 23351000 . Jump up ^ `` The Human Eye and Single Photons '' . Jump up ^ `` Sensory Reception : Human Vision : Structure and function of the Human Eye '' vol. 27 , p. 179 Encyclopædia Britannica , 1987 Jump up ^ Luria , S.M. ; Kobus , D.A. ( April 1985 ) . `` Immediate Visibility after Red and White Adaptation '' ( PDF ) . Submarine Base , Groton , CT : Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory ( published 26 April 1985 ) . Jump up ^ Luria , S.M. ; Kobus , D.A. ( July 1984 ) . with inconsistent citation formats % 5d % 5d `` THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF RED AND WHITE LIGHT FOR SUBSEQUENT DARK - ADAPTATION '' Check url = value ( help ) . Submarine Base , Groton , CT : Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory ( published 3 July 1984 ) . Jump up ^ Solovei , I. ; Kreysing , M. ; Lanctôt , C. ; Kösem , S. ; Peichl , L. ; Cremer , T. ; et al. ( April 16 , 2009 ) . `` Nuclear Architecture of Rod Photoreceptor Cells Adapts to Vision in Mammalian Evolution '' . Cell. 137 ( 2 ) : 945 -- 953 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cell. 2009.01. 052 . PMID 19379699 . Jump up ^ CCTV Information Jump up ^ `` Thermal Infrared vs. Active Infrared : A New Technology Begins to be Commercialized '' . Archived from the original on January 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Extreme CCTV Surveillance Systems Jump up ^ J. Bentell ; P. Nies ; J. Cloots ; J. Vermeiren ; B. Grietens ; O. David ; A. Shurkun ; R. Schneider . `` FLIP CHIPPED InGAaS PHOTODIODE ARRAYS FOR GATED IMAGING WITH EYE - SAFE LASERS '' ( PDF ) . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Night vision . Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate - Fort Belvoir , Virginia Automotive Night Vision Demonstration Database of night vision devices ( hide ) Anatomy of the globe of the eye Fibrous tunic ( outer ) Sclera Episcleral layer Schlemm 's canal Trabecular meshwork Cornea Limbus layers Epithelium Bowman 's Stroma Dua 's layer Descemet 's Endothelium Uvea / vascular tunic ( middle ) Choroid Capillary lamina of choroid Bruch 's membrane Sattler 's layer Ciliary body Ciliary processes Ciliary muscle Pars plicata Pars plana Iris Stroma Pupil Iris dilator muscle Iris sphincter muscle Retina ( inner ) Layers Inner limiting membrane Nerve fiber layer Ganglion cell layer Inner plexiform layer Inner nuclear layer Outer plexiform layer Outer nuclear layer External limiting membrane Layer of rods and cones Retinal pigment epithelium Cells Photoreceptor cells ( Cone cell , Rod cell ) → ( Horizontal cell ) → Bipolar cell → ( Amacrine cell ) → Retina ganglion cell ( Midget cell , Parasol cell , Bistratified cell , Giant retina ganglion cells , Photosensitive ganglion cell ) → Diencephalon : P cell , M cell , K cell , Muller glia Other Macula Perifoveal area Parafoveal area Fovea Foveal avascular zone Foveola Optic disc Optic cup Ora serrata Anatomical regions of the eye Anterior segment Adnexa Fibrous tunic Anterior chamber Aqueous humour Iris Posterior chamber Ciliary body Lens Capsule of lens Zonule of Zinn Posterior segment Vitreous chamber Vitreous body Retina Choroid Other Keratocytes Ocular immune system Tapetum lucidum Eye care professional Eye disease Refractive error Accommodation Physiological Optics Visual perception Automotive design Part of a series of articles on cars Body Framework Car platform Backbone chassis Beltline Body - on - frame Bumper Cabrio coach Chassis Continental tire Crumple zone Dagmar bumpers Fender Fender skirts Grille Hood Hood scoop Monocoque Overhang Pillar Pontoon fenders Quarter panel Roof rack Shaker scoop Spoiler Stressed member engine Subframe Tonneau Trunk lid Compartments Trunk / boot / dickie Hood / bonnet Doors Butterfly doors Gull - wing door Scissor doors Sliding door Suicide door Vehicle canopy Glass Greenhouse Power window Quarter glass Opera window Sunroof Windshield / windscreen Windshield / windscreen wiper Other elements Bumper sticker Curb feeler Front - end bra Hood ornament Japan black Nerf bar Omniview technology Run - flat tire Spare tire Tire / tyre Tow hitch Truck accessory Window deflector Geometry Approach and departure angles Breakover angle Overhang Ride height Roll center Turning radius Weight distribution Exterior equipment Lighting Daytime running lamp Headlamp sealed beam high - intensity discharge lamp Hidden headlamps Turn signals trafficators Rear position lamps Stop lamps Reversing lamps Safety reflector retroreflector Other elements Vehicle horn Vehicle registration plate vanity plate Windshield / windscreen washer fluid Wing mirror power side - view mirror Legal Motor vehicle theft Vehicle identification number Commons Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Night_vision&oldid=814137459 '' Categories : Infrared imaging Eye Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats Pages with URL errors Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Articles needing additional references from December 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from May 2012 Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk Português Simple English Slovenčina Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2017 , at 02 : 25 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

8624733370959826532

what is in his eyes from jekyll and hyde about

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=In_His_Eyes&oldid=814023619

In His Eyes - wikipedia In His Eyes Jump to : navigation , search This article is an orphan , as no other articles link to it . Please introduce links to this page from related articles ; try the Find link tool for suggestions . ( April 2016 ) Jekyll and Hyde CD cover `` In His Eyes '' is a song performed in the musical Jekyll and Hyde , composed by Frank Wildhorn with lyrics by Frank Wildhorn , Leslie Bricusse and Steve Cuden . Jekyll and Hyde premiered on Broadway in 1997 and has since seen many subsequent international , as well as regional , productions . In 2013 , the show was revived on Broadway . The song appeared in the Original Broadway production performed by Linda Eder and Christiane Noll . Contents ( hide ) 1 Context 2 Musical analysis 3 Textual analysis 4 References Context ( edit ) Jekyll and Hyde tells the story of a doctor , Jekyll , who , trying to find the basis of good and evil , develops an evil alter ego , Hyde . The song is sung by the two female leads , Lucy and Emma . Emma , Jekyll 's fiancé , is a refined young woman who is reluctant to support her husband 's experiments fearing that he is becoming too involved in the process . Lucy is a prostitute at a gentlemen 's club who becomes infatuated with the Hyde persona , eventually resulting in her death . While the two characters are very different , they both love the same man , albeit different personas within the same physicality . In this song , they lament about their separate desires for Jekyll / Hyde to see how much they love him and how their lives have been altered by the man and his experiments . Both women dream about their futures , with or without Jekyll / Hyde . They both , separately , come to the realization that their love for him is much too strong to ever truly break away . In mutual agreement , they recognize that when they look into the eyes of the man they love , they are filled with everything they need to continue on . The song ends with them fully believing that the love they have for Jekyll / Hyde enriches their lives and are committed to doing whatever they can for him . Lucy was initially played by Linda Eder ( Wildhorn 's wife , at the time of production ) in the Houston World Premiere , 1st US Tour , and the Original Broadway show . Emma was initially played by Rebecca Spencer ( character name of `` Lisa '' ) for the Houston World Premiere , and then Christiane Noll ( character name of `` Emma '' ) 1st US Tour , and the Original Broadway show . Musical analysis ( edit ) The song is a ballad duet in which the two women sing , but never truly interact with each other . Emma , a soprano with a classically operatic timbre , begins by singing a solo verse , which Lucy , a mezzo - soprano , with a raspy , forward tone , then copies , with different lyrics but the same melody . The song ends with the two overlapping similar lyrics , but most staging requires that the two are singing in their own world , about their own feelings , unaware of the other , even though they are singing the same song , at the same time . The song begins freely , with both women singing their verse rubato . As the two sing about not knowing where their future lies and other solemn wordings , the piece is in C - minor . Once they begin to ponder about how important Jekyll / Hyde is in their lives and how much they adore him , the piece modulates to B - flat major , creating a shift in musical feel to echo the shift lyrically . The song also quickens in tempo as the two women begin to make conclusions about their feelings and decisions about their actions . Accompanied by Bass ( Acoustic and Electric ) , Cello , Horn , Keyboard ( x3 ) , Percussion ( x2 ) , Reed 1 ( Alto Flute & Flute ) , Reed 2 ( English Horn & Oboe ) , Reed 3 ( Alto Saxophone , Bass Clarinet , & Clarinet ) , Reed 4 ( Bassoon , Contrabassoon ) , Trombone , Trumpet , Viola , Violin ( x2 ) . The character of Emma sings with notes ranging from Bb to Eb ( 2 octaves above ) , while Lucy sings with notes ranging from Bb to F ( 2 octaves above ) . While the two utilize a similar span of notes , the way in which they sing alters how these notes sound . As mentioned , the timbre differs between the two women , reflecting their pasts and , perhaps most importantly , their class status , with Emma being the daughter of a knighted man and Lucy being a prostitute in the local brothel , The Red Rat . Textual analysis ( edit ) The piece emphasizes the emotional states of Emma and Lucy and their overall feeling of longing . Emma is singing about losing elements of her husband as he is becoming Hyde and her inner struggle with his change and distance from her . Instead of angry , she seems more hurt and confused because she truly loves him . Lucy is singing about falling in love with a man that she does not understand. He has awakened a new side of her and she is fascinated with how someone like him could love someone like her , yet she is perplexed by him and unsure how they could have a real future together . Although the song does not advance the plot , it serves to further describe the emotions and feelings of the ladies , developing their characters and revealing their thoughts . By the end of the song , the audience is assured of both Emma and Lucy 's full devotion to Jekyll / Hyde . This song is easily and commonly excerpted due the vague nature of the lyrics . `` In His Eyes '' never uses specific names or places within the world of the play , and discusses a feeling and theme that is highly relatable , making the song a perfect stand - alone piece . Other than the Original Broadway Cast Recording , the song has been recorded by various artists such as Brandi Burkdhart and Kate Shindle , and Teal Wicks and Deborah Cox . Christiane Noll , who originated Emma on Broadway , has recorded various tracks with artists Christie LaVerdiere and Debbie Gravitte . `` In His Eyes '' has even been adapted into a solo piece for one voice and has been recorded as such by Mindy Jostyn , Elizabeth Harmetz , Emma Hunton , Casey Erin Clark , and others . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Emily Skinner ; Robert Cuccioli ; Christiane Noll ; Frank Wildhorn ; Leslie Briscusse ; John Treacy Egan ; Linda Eder ; Jekyll & Hyde ( 1997 - 07 - 15 ) , Jekyll & Hyde - The Musical , Atlantic , retrieved 2016 - 04 - 01 ^ Jump up to : `` Jekyll & Hyde '' . Music Theatre International . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Jekyll - hyde - song analysis '' . McDaniel College Community Blogs . September 25 , 2013 . Retrieved March 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ DeVenney , David P. ( 2009 ) . The New Broadway Song Companion . Scarecrow Press . ISBN 0810869438 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=In_His_Eyes&oldid=814023619 '' Categories : 1997 songs Songs written by Frank Wildhorn Songs written by Leslie Bricusse Hidden categories : Orphaned articles from April 2016 All orphaned articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 6 December 2017 , at 13 : 47 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who won the civil war the south or the north

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=American_Civil_War&oldid=835214350

American Civil War - Wikipedia American Civil War Jump to : navigation , search American Civil War Clockwise from top : Battle of Gettysburg , Union Captain John Tidball 's artillery , Confederate prisoners , ironclad USS Atlanta , ruins of Richmond , Virginia , Battle of Franklin Date April 12 , 1861 -- May 9 , 1865 ( by proclamation ) ( 4 years , 3 weeks and 6 days ) ( Last shot fired June 22 , 1865 ) Location Southern United States , Northeastern United States , Western United States , Atlantic Ocean Result Union victory Dissolution of the Confederate States U.S. territorial integrity preserved Slavery abolished Beginning of the Reconstruction Era Belligerents United States Confederate States Commanders and leaders Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade and others Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg and others Strength 2,200,000 : Union Army Union Marines Union Navy Revenue Service 698,000 ( peak ) 750,000 -- 1,000,000 : Confederate army Confederate marines Confederate navy 360,000 ( peak ) Casualties and losses 110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons 365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured Total : 828,000 + casualties 94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons 290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured Total : 864,000 + casualties 50,000 free civilians dead 80,000 + slaves dead Total : 785,000 -- 1,000,000 + dead Theaters of the American Civil War Union blockade Eastern Western Lower Seaboard Trans - Mississippi Pacific Coast Events leading to the American Civil War Slavery Northwest Ordinance Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Battle of Negro Fort Missouri Compromise Tariff of 1828 Nat Turner 's slave rebellion Nullification Crisis The Amistad Prigg v. Pennsylvania Texas annexation Mexican -- American War Wilmot Proviso Manifest destiny Underground Railroad Nashville Convention Compromise of 1850 Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 Uncle Tom 's Cabin Kansas -- Nebraska Act Ostend Manifesto Bleeding Kansas Caning of Charles Sumner Dred Scott v. Sandford The Impending Crisis of the South Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry 1860 presidential election Crittenden Compromise Secession of Southern States Star of the West Corwin Amendment Battle of Fort Sumter The American Civil War ( also , known by other names ) was a civil war that was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865 . As a result of the long - standing controversy over slavery , war broke out in April 1861 , when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina , shortly after U.S. President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated . The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution . They faced secessionists of the Confederate States , who advocated for states ' rights to expand slavery . Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861 , seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America , or the South . The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states . The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government , nor was it recognized by any foreign country ( although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status ) . The states that remained loyal to the U.S. ( including the border states where slavery was legal ) were known as the Union or the North . The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years . The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House , followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states . Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead , more than the number of U.S. military deaths in all other wars combined ( at least until approximately the Vietnam War ) . Much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed , especially the transportation systems , railroads , mills , and houses . The Confederacy collapsed , slavery was abolished , and 4 million slaves were freed . The Reconstruction Era ( 1863 -- 1877 ) overlapped and followed the war , with the process of restoring national unity , strengthening the national government , and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country . The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in U.S. history . Contents ( hide ) 1 Prelude to war 2 Causes of secession 2.1 Slavery 2.2 Sectionalism 2.3 Protectionism 2.4 States ' rights 2.5 Territorial crisis 2.6 National elections 2.6. 1 Nationalism and honor 2.6. 2 Lincoln 's election 3 Outbreak of the war 3.1 Secession crisis 3.2 Battle of Fort Sumter 3.3 Attitude of the border states 4 War 4.1 Mobilization 4.1. 1 Motivation 4.1. 2 Prisoners 4.2 Naval war 4.2. 1 Union blockade 4.2. 1.1 Modern navy evolves 4.2. 1.2 Blockade runners 4.2. 1.3 Economic impact 4.2. 2 Rivers 4.3 Eastern theater 4.4 Western theater 4.5 Trans - Mississippi 4.6 End of the war 4.6. 1 Conquest of Virginia 4.6. 2 Confederacy surrenders 5 Diplomacy 6 Union victory and aftermath 6.1 Results 6.2 Costs 6.3 Emancipation 6.3. 1 Slavery as a war issue 6.3. 2 Emancipation Proclamation 6.4 Texas v. White 6.5 Reconstruction 7 Memory and historiography 7.1 Lost Cause 7.2 Beardian historiography 7.3 Battlefield preservation 7.4 Civil War commemoration 7.5 Technological significance 8 In works of culture and art 8.1 Literature 8.2 Film 8.3 Song 8.4 Video games 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links Prelude to War In the 1860 presidential election , Republicans , led by Abraham Lincoln , supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories . The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery . The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally : Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north , Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee , Kentucky , and Virginia . The Republican Party , dominant in the North , secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally , so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president . He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency . However , before his inauguration , seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy . The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations , a total of 49 percent . The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 % . Alabama had voted 46 % for those unionists , Mississippi with 40 % , Florida with 38 % , Texas with 25 % , and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president . Of these , only Texas held a referendum on secession . Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession . Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal . Lincoln 's March 4 , 1861 , inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war . Speaking directly to the `` Southern States '' , he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery , reaffirming , `` I have no purpose , directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists . I believe I have no lawful right to do so , and I have no inclination to do so . '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy , efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war . The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on `` King Cotton '' that they would intervene , but none did , and none recognized the new Confederate States of America . Hostilities began on April 12 , 1861 , when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter . While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains , in the Eastern Theater , the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862 . Later , in 1863 , Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation , which made ending slavery a war goal . To the west , by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy , then much of their western armies , and seized New Orleans . The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River . In 1863 , Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg . Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864 . Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports , the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions , leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea . The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House , on April 9 , 1865 . While the military war was coming to an end , the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years , known as the Reconstruction Era . The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars . Railroads , the telegraph , steamships and iron - clad ships , and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively . The mobilization of civilian factories , mines , shipyards , banks , transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I , World War II and subsequent conflicts . It remains the deadliest war in American history . From 1861 to 1865 , it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died , along with an undetermined number of civilians . By one estimate , the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old , and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40 . Causes of secession Main articles : Origins of the American Civil War and Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began , but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war . James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists , who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war . Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s . The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery , and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate , Lincoln , won the 1860 election . After Lincoln won , many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option , fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies . Slavery Status of the states , 1861 States that seceded before April 15 , 1861 States that seceded after April 15 , 1861 Union states that permitted slavery Union states that banned slavery Territories Slavery was a major cause of disunion . Although there were opposing views even in the Union States , most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery , while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part . From the anti-slavery perspective , the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism . The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction . The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights . Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy , due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population . In particular , southerners feared a repeat of `` the horrors of Santo Domingo '' , in which nearly all white people -- including men , women , children , and even many sympathetic to abolition -- were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti . Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase `` a disease in the public mind '' used by critics of this idea , and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation . These fears were exacerbated by the recent attempts of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South . Slavery was illegal in much of the North , having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities , but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest . Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide . Sectionalism Sectionalism refers to the different economies , social structure , customs and political values of the North and South . Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812 , resulting in the Hartford Convention which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately , the Three - Fifths Compromise , dilution of Northern power by new states , and a succession of Southern Presidents . Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North , which phased slavery out of existence , industrialized , urbanized , and built prosperous farms , while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor , together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen . In the 1840s and 50s , the issue of accepting slavery ( in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries ) split the nation 's largest religious denominations ( the Methodist , Baptist and Presbyterian churches ) into separate Northern and Southern denominations . Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war . Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary . While socially different , the sections economically benefited each other . New Orleans , the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills , shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North , South and Border states Protectionism Historically , southern slave - holding states , because of their low - cost manual labor , had little perceived need for mechanization and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation . Northern states , which had heavily invested in their still - nascent manufacturing , could not compete with the full - fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return . Thus , northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade . The Democrats in Congress , controlled by Southerners , wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s , 1840s , and 1850s , and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816 . The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth , and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election . The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress . The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited -- long after the war -- by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists . In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue . Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff , and when some did , for instance , Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley , they were generally writing for a foreign audience . States ' rights The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time , that the Constitution was a `` compact '' or agreement among the states . Northerners ( including President Buchanan ) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union . Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations : While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups , few professional historians now subscribe to them . Of all these interpretations , the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest . It fails to ask the question , states ' rights for what purpose ? States ' rights , or sovereignty , was always more a means than an end , an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle . Territorial Crisis Further information : Slave and free states Between 1803 and 1854 , the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase , negotiation , and conquest . At first , the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states . It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided . With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848 , slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well . Northern `` free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory . The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free - soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s . But the states admitted following California were all free : Minnesota ( 1858 ) , Oregon ( 1859 ) and Kansas ( 1861 ) . In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive . Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion : `` The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself . '' Sen. Stephen Douglas , author of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 Sen. John J. Crittenden , of the 1860 Crittenden Compromise By 1860 , four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories , and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution , implicitly or explicitly . The first of these `` conservative '' theories , represented by the Constitutional Union Party , argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate . The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view . The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence , championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party , insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress , thus Congress could restrict human bondage , but never establish it . The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846 . Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or `` popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter . The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine . In Kansas Territory , years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted ; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860 , but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861 , after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave . The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis , one of state sovereignty ( `` states ' rights '' ) , also known as the `` Calhoun doctrine '' , named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun . Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government , state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U.S. Constitution . `` States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority . As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out , the `` Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power . '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery , the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election . National elections Beginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812 , the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world . Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire , the division and redivision of the Latin American political map , and the British - French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences , all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation - state . In the world of 19th century self - made Americans , growing in prosperity , population and expanding westward , `` freedom '' could mean personal liberty or property rights . The unresolved difference would cause failure -- first in their political institutions , then in their civil life together . Nationalism and honor Abraham Lincoln 16th U.S. President ( 1861 -- 1865 ) Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century , with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster . While practically all Northerners supported the Union , Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States ( called `` unionists '' ) and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy . C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group , A great slave society ... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic . It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional , legal , metaphysical , and religious defenses ... When the crisis came it chose to fight . It proved to be the death struggle of a society , which went down in ruins . Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin ( 1852 ) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859 . While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism , leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded , and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union . The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it : `` We denounce those threats of disunion ... as denying the vital principles of a free government , and as an avowal of contemplated treason , which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence . '' The South ignored the warnings : Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together . Lincoln 's election Main article : United States presidential election , 1860 The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession . Efforts at compromise , including the `` Corwin Amendment '' and the `` Crittenden Compromise '' , failed . Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction . The slave states , which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives , were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North . Before Lincoln took office in March 1861 , seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy . According to Lincoln , the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic , but a third challenge faced the nation , maintaining the republic , based on the people 's vote . The people must now show : `` successful maintenance ( of the Republic ) against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it . It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion ; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets ; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided , there can be no successful appeal back to bullets ; that there can be no successful appeal , except to ballots themselves , at succeeding elections . Such will be a great lesson of peace ; teaching men that what they can not take by an election , neither can they take it by a war '' . Outbreak of the War Secession Crisis The first published imprint of secession , a broadside issued by the Charleston Mercury , December 20 , 1860 The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession . Prior to the war , South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and , even , secede from the United States . The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20 , 1860 , and adopted the `` Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union '' . It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South , but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act , claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution . The `` cotton states '' of Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , and Texas followed suit , seceding in January and February 1861 . Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states , those of three -- Texas , Alabama , and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the `` slaveholding states '' at the hands of northern abolitionists . The rest make no mention of the slavery issue , and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures . However , at least four states -- South Carolina , Mississippi , Georgia , and Texas -- also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession , all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states . The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution . These states agreed to form a new federal government , the Confederate States of America , on February 4 , 1861 . They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan , whose term ended on March 4 , 1861 . Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession , and that the Union `` was intended to be perpetual '' , but that `` The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union '' was not among the `` enumerated powers granted to Congress '' . One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general , David E. Twiggs , who then joined the Confederacy . As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House , Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war , including the Morrill Tariff , land grant colleges ( the Morrill Act ) , a Homestead Act , a transcontinental railroad ( the Pacific Railway Acts ) , the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862 . The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war . On December 18 , 1860 , the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south . The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina , but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it . It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise . The Republicans again rejected the idea , although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it . A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington , proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise , it was rejected by Congress . The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient . Nonetheless , the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4 , 1861 . Jefferson Davis , President of the Confederate States of America ( 1861 -- 1865 ) On March 4 , 1861 , Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President . In his inaugural address , he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union , that it was a binding contract , and called any secession `` legally void '' . He had no intent to invade Southern states , nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed , but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property . The government would make no move to recover post offices , and if resisted , mail delivery would end at state lines . Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law , U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn . No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana , Georgia , and North Carolina . He stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports ; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration . His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union , famously calling on `` the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions . The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States . Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government , and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government . Secretary of State William Seward , who at the time saw himself as the real governor or `` prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln , engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed . President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy , Fort Monroe in Virginia , in Florida , Fort Pickens , Fort Jefferson , Fort Taylor and Fort Sumter , located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston , South Carolina . Battle of Fort Sumter Main article : Battle of Fort Sumter Mass meeting April 20 , 1861 , to support the Government at Washington 's equestrian statue in Union Square NYC Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston , South Carolina , where the U.S. fort 's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city . Unlike Buchanan , who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed , Lincoln required Maj . Anderson to hold on until fired upon . Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort . Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected , and Davis ordered P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive . Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13 , forcing its capitulation . The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism . Historian Allan Nevins said : The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment ... Anger swept the land . From every side came news of mass meetings , speeches , resolutions , tenders of business support , the muster of companies and regiments , the determined action of governors and legislatures . '' However , much of the North 's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on . Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession , they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South . Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties . With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far , Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days . The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day . In western Missouri , local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal . On May 3 , 1861 , Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years . Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures , but now Virginia , Tennessee , Arkansas , and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors , declared their secession , and joined the Confederacy . To reward Virginia , the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond . US Secession map 1863 . The Union vs. the Confederacy . Union states Union territories not permitting slavery Border Union states , permitting slavery Confederate states Union territories permitting slavery ( claimed by Confederacy ) Attitude of the border states Main article : Border states ( American Civil War ) Maryland , Delaware , Missouri , and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South . West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863 . Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington , DC and could cut it off from the North . It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges , both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South . Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly ( 53 -- 13 ) to stay in the Union , but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors , voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war . Lincoln responded by establishing martial law , and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus , in Maryland , along with sending in militia units from the North . Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia , by seizing many prominent figures , including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened . All were held without trial , ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney , a Maryland native , that only Congress ( and not the president ) could suspend habeas corpus ( Ex parte Merryman ) . Indeed , federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor , Frank Key Howard , Francis Scott Key 's grandson , after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling . In Missouri , an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union . When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia , it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon , who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state . ( See also : Missouri secession ) . In the resulting vacuum , the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri . Kentucky did not secede ; for a time , it declared itself neutral . When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861 , neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status , while trying to maintain slavery . During a brief invasion by Confederate forces , Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention , inaugurated a governor , and gained recognition from the Confederacy . The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky . After Virginia 's secession , a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24 , 1861 . A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill ( 96 percent approving ) . The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war . Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20 , 1863 . West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union . A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee , but was suppressed by the Confederacy , which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union . They were held without trial . War See also : List of American Civil War battles and Military leadership in the American Civil War County map of Civil War battles by theater and year The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle . Over four years , 237 named battles were fought , as were many more minor actions and skirmishes , which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties . In his book The American Civil War , John Keegan writes that `` The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought '' . Without geographic objectives , the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier . Mobilization See also : Child soldiers in the American Civil War As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery , the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000 . However , Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias . The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February . By May , Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration , and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress . In the first year of the war , both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip . After the initial enthusiasm faded , reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough . Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering ; relatively few were actually drafted and served . The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35 ; overseers of slaves , government officials , and clergymen were exempt . The U.S. Congress followed in July , authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers . European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers , including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland . Union soldiers before Marye 's Heights , Second Fredericksburg Confederate dead overrun at Marye 's Heights , reoccupied next day May 4 , 1863 When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863 , ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states , and used to meet the state quotas . States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers . Congress tightened the law in March 1863 . Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or , until mid-1864 , pay commutation money . Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted . Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home . There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft , especially in Catholic areas . The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine , not realizing it made them liable for the draft . Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft , 117,986 were substitutes , leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted . In both the North and South , the draft laws were highly unpopular . In the North , some 120,000 men evaded conscription , many of them fleeing to Canada , and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war . At least 100,000 Southerners deserted , or about 10 percent . In the South , many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families , then returned to their units . In the North , `` bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus , deserted , then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus ; 141 were caught and executed . Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots of 1863 From a tiny frontier force in 1860 , the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the `` largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years . European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional , but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French , Prussian and Russian armies of the time , and but for the Atlantic , would have threatened any of them with defeat . Motivation Perman and Taylor ( 2010 ) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight , suffer and die over four years : Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology , holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty , Union , or state rights , or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery . Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight , such as the defense of one 's home and family , or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men . Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war , the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight . Prisoners Main article : American Civil War prison camps At the start of the civil war , a system of paroles operated . Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged . Meanwhile , they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties . The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners . After that , about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war , accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities . Naval War The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865 , with 671 vessels , having a tonnage of 510,396 . Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports , take control of the river system , defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas , and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy . Meanwhile , the main riverine war was fought in the West , where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland , if the U.S. Navy could take control . In the East , the Navy supplied and moved army forces about , and occasionally shelled Confederate installations . Union blockade Main article : Union blockade General Scott 's `` Anaconda Plan '' 1861 . Tightening naval blockade , forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River , Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence , idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia . By early 1861 , General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible . Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy . Lincoln adopted parts of the plan , but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers . Public opinion , however , demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond . In April 1861 , Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports ; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended . The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective ; by the time they realized the mistake , it was too late . `` King Cotton '' was dead , as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton . The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton , especially New Orleans , Mobile , and Charleston . By June 1861 , warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports , and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service . Modern Navy evolves The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time , most notably the advent of the ironclad warship . It began when the Confederacy , knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority , responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels , including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries . Only half of these saw active service . Many were equipped with ram bows , creating `` ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened . But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships , they were unsuccessful . The Confederacy experimented with a submarine , which did not work well , and with building an ironclad ship , the CSS Virginia , which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship , the Merrimack . On its first foray on March 8 , 1862 , the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet , but the next day the first Union ironclad , the USS Monitor , arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay . The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw , but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships . Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture , while the Union built many copies of the Monitor . Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships , the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain . Blockade runners Main article : Blockade runners of the American Civil War British investors built small , fast , steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda , Cuba , and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton . Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out . When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner , the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold , with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors ; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released . The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war . There were multiple reasons for this : the severe deterioration of food supplies , especially in cities , the failure of Southern railroads , the loss of control of the main rivers , foraging by Northern armies , and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies . Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy ; however , Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months , thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles , lead , blankets , and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply . Gunline of nine Union ironclads . South Atlantic Blockading Squadron off Charleston . Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North 's overwhelming war production . Economic impact Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy , at the cost of few lives in combat . Practically , the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless ( although it was sold to Union traders ) , costing the Confederacy its main source of income . Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well . The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through , but the thousands that never tried it . Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade ; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports . To fight an offensive war , the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain , converted them to warships , and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans . Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters . However , the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested . After the war , the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done , and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871 . Rivers The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes : McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond . Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee . The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River . The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas . Clashes on the rivers were melees of ironclads , cottonclads , gunboats and rams , complicated by torpedoes and by fire rafts . Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's `` Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus , Kentucky . Though rebuffed at Belmont , Grant cut off Columbus . The Confederates , lacking their own gunboats , were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862 . In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi , the Union Navy used timberclads , tinclads , and armored gunboats . Shipyards at Cairo , Illinois , and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action . They took control of the Red , Tennessee , Cumberland , Mississippi , and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry ( February 6 , 1862 ) and Fort Donelson ( February 11 to 16 , 1862 ) , and supplied Grant 's forces as he moved into Tennessee . At Shiloh ( Pittsburg Landing ) , in Tennessee in April 1862 , the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell . Overnight , the Navy landed additional reinforcements , and Grant counter-attacked . Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over . Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6 , 1862 , and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River . On April 24 , 1862 , U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans . Confederate forces abandoned the city , giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South . Naval forces assisted Grant in the long , complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg , Mississippi in July 1863 , and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after . Eastern Theater Further information : Eastern Theater of the American Civil War In one of the first highly visible battles , a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed . Left : The Battle of Antietam , the Civil War 's deadliest one - day fight . Union troops committed piecemeal had little effect . Right : Confederate ironclads at Norfolk and New Orleans dispersed blockade , until Union ironclads could defeat them . Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 ( he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies , but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck ) , and the war began in earnest in 1862 . Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations , McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River , southeast of Richmond . Although McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign , Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines , then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat . The Northern Virginia Campaign , which included the Second Battle of Bull Run , ended in yet another victory for the South . McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia , which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops . Emboldened by Second Bull Run , the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North . General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5 . Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan . McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg , Maryland , on September 17 , 1862 , the bloodiest single day in United States military history . Lee 's army , checked at last , returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it . Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation . Union forces performing a bayonet charge , 1862 When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam , he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13 , 1862 , when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights . After the battle , Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker . Hooker , too , proved unable to defeat Lee 's army ; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one , he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 . Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications . Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North , in June . Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg ( July 1 to 3 , 1863 ) . This was the bloodiest battle of the war , and has been called the war 's turning point . Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory . Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties ( versus Meade 's 23,000 ) . However , Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat , and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign , Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership . At the same time , the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered , giving the Union control of the Mississippi River , permanently isolating the western Confederacy , and producing the new leader Lincoln needed , Ulysses S. Grant . Western Theater Further information : Western Theater of the American Civil War While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater , they were defeated many times in the West . They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge . Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus , Kentucky ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy . Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862 , leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization . Left : The Battle of Chickamauga , the highest two - day losses . Confederate victory held off Union offensive for two months . Right : New Orleans captured . Union ironclads forced passage , sank Confederate fleet , destroyed batteries , held docks for Army . The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid , Missouri , and then Memphis , Tennessee . In April 1862 , the Union Navy captured New Orleans , which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi . Only the fortress city of Vicksburg , Mississippi , prevented Union control of the entire river . General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville , although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state . Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee . The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga . Bragg , reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps ( from Lee 's army in the east ) , defeated Rosecrans , despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas . Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga , which Bragg then besieged . The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant , who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson ( by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers ) ; the Battle of Shiloh ; and the Battle of Vicksburg , which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war . Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga , driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy . Trans - Mississippi Further information on Missouri in the Civil War : Trans - Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War Left : Quantrill 's Raid captured a hotel in free - state Kansas for a day in a town of 2,000 , burned 185 buildings , killed 182 men and boys . Right : Nathaniel Lyon secured St. Louis docks and arsenal , led Union forces to expel Missouri Confederate forces and government . Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region , as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control . Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside , striking both military installations and civilian settlements . The `` Sons of Liberty '' and `` Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people , elected officeholders , and unarmed uniformed soldiers . These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged . By 1864 , these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln . Missouri not only stayed in the Union , Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election . Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union . The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862 , and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas . In the Indian Territory , civil war broke out within tribes . About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy , and smaller numbers for the Union . The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie , the last Confederate general to surrender . After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863 , General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River . Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies , he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler , along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy , a virtual `` independent fiefdom '' in Texas , including railroad construction and international smuggling . The Union in turn did not directly engage him . Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport , Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war . End of the War Conquest of Virginia At the beginning of 1864 , Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies . Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac , and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies . Grant understood the concept of total war and believed , along with Lincoln and Sherman , that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war . This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes , farms , and railroads , that Grant said `` would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion . This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end . '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions . Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond , General Franz Sigel ( and later Philip Sheridan ) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley , General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea ( the Atlantic Ocean ) , Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia , and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile , Alabama . These dead soldiers -- from Ewell 's May 1864 attack at Spotsylvania -- delayed Grant 's advance on Richmond in the Overland Campaign . The Peacemakers by George Peter Alexander Healy portrays Sherman , Grant , Lincoln , and Porter discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer River Queen in March 1865 . Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond , where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army . The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles , notably at the Wilderness , Spotsylvania , and Cold Harbor . These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides , and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly . An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler , who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend . Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals , though unlike those prior generals , Grant fought on rather than retreat . Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond . While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond , Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg , where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months . Grant finally found a commander , General Philip Sheridan , aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864 . Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge . The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war . After redoubling his efforts , Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles , including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek . Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley , a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia . Meanwhile , Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta , defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way . The fall of Atlanta on September 2 , 1864 , guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president . Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign . Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin , and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville , effectively destroying Hood 's army . Leaving Atlanta , and his base of supplies , Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination , laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his `` March to the Sea '' . He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah , Georgia in December 1864 . Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves ; there were no major battles along the March . Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south , increasing the pressure on Lee 's army . Lee 's army , thinned by desertion and casualties , was now much smaller than Grant 's . One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks ( sometimes called `` the Waterloo of the Confederacy '' ) on April 1 . This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg , completely cutting it off from the Confederacy . Realizing that the capital was now lost , Lee decided to evacuate his army . The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps , composed of black troops . The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek . Confederacy surrenders Map of Confederate territory losses year by year Main article : Conclusion of the American Civil War Initially , Lee did not intend to surrender , but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House , where supplies were to be waiting , and then continue the war . Grant chased Lee and got in front of him , so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House , they were surrounded . After an initial battle , Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless , and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9 , 1865 , at the McLean House . In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union , Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse , Traveller . On April 14 , 1865 , President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth , a Southern sympathizer . Lincoln died early the next morning , and Andrew Johnson became the president . Meanwhile , Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them . On April 26 , 1865 , General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham , North Carolina . It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces , effectively bringing the war to an end . President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9 , 1865 ; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day . On June 2 , Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department . On June 23 , Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces . Diplomacy Main article : Diplomacy of the American Civil War Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union , this was never likely , and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators . The Union , under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this , and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America . In 1861 , Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments , hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton , but this did not work . Worse , Europe developed other cotton suppliers , which they found superior , hindering the South 's recovery after the war . Crewmembers of USS Wissahickon by the ship 's 11 - inch ( 280 mm ) Dahlgren gun , circa 1863 Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton , while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance . It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy . It was said that `` King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '' , as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half . When Britain did face a cotton shortage , it was temporary , being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India . Meanwhile , the war created employment for arms makers , ironworkers , and British ships to transport weapons . Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion . Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery , but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession . Confederate spokesmen , on the other hand , were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty , their commitment to free trade , and the essential role of cotton in the European economy . In addition , the European aristocracy ( the dominant factor in every major country ) was `` absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed . European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic . '' U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade . The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain ( CSS Alabama , CSS Shenandoah , CSS Tennessee , CSS Tallahassee , CSS Florida , and some others ) . The most famous , the CSS Alabama , did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes . However , public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain , where the antislavery movement was powerful . War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair , involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats . However , London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two . In 1862 , the British considered mediation between North and South -- though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this . The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision . The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy . Despite sympathy for the Confederacy , France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union . Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris . After 1863 , the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers , and ensured that they would remain neutral . Union victory and aftermath Results The causes of the war , the reasons for its outcome , and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today . The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century . The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended . Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction , especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty . Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war . Most scholars , including James McPherson , argue that Confederate victory was at least possible . McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed . He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics , they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union . Comparison of Union and Confederacy , 1860 -- 1864 Year Union Confederacy Population 1860 22,100,000 ( 71 % ) 9,100,000 ( 29 % ) 1864 28,800,000 ( 90 % ) 3,000,000 ( 10 % ) Free 1860 21,700,000 ( 81 % ) 5,600,000 ( 19 % ) Slave 1860 400,000 ( 11 % ) 3,500,000 ( 89 % ) 1864 negligible 1,900,000 Soldiers 1860 -- 64 2,100,000 ( 67 % ) 1,064,000 ( 33 % ) Railroad miles 1860 21,800 ( 71 % ) 8,800 ( 29 % ) 1864 29,100 ( 98 % ) negligible Manufactures 1860 90 % 10 % 1864 98 % negligible Arms production 1860 97 % 3 % 1864 98 % negligible Cotton bales 1860 negligible 4,500,000 1864 300,000 negligible Exports 1860 30 % 70 % 1864 98 % negligible Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win , but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high . The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win . Lincoln was not a military dictator , and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war . The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln ; however , after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864 , all hope for a political victory for the South ended . At that point , Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans , War Democrats , the border states , emancipated slaves , and the neutrality of Britain and France . By defeating the Democrats and McClellan , he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform . Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population . Confederate actions , they argue , only delayed defeat . Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly : `` I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories , and a lot more , the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back . I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War . '' A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because , as E. Merton Coulter put it , `` people did not will hard enough and long enough to win . '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees , pointing to a class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners . He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery , and fought less enthusiastically . He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict . However , most historians reject the argument . James M. McPherson , after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers , found strong patriotism that continued to the end ; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty . Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65 , he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard . Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented , `` The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired . '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth , with starvation looming , Sherman continued , `` yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war , but the masses determined to fight it out . '' Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause . The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers . The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily , particularly Britain and France . Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities . Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods ; as a result , imports and exports to the South declined significantly . The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery , along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades , severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war . Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history . The Union victory energized popular democratic forces . A Confederate victory , on the other hand , would have meant a new birth of slavery , not freedom . Historian Fergus Bordewich , following Doyle , argues that : The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government . Confederate independence , on the other hand , would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond . '' Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South . The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South . However , a 2017 study challenges this , noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status , the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North . Costs The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties ( 3 percent of the population ) , including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease , and 50,000 civilians . Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000 , 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated , and possibly as high as 850,000 . The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined . One in thirteen veterans were amputees . Remains of both sides were reinterred . National cemetery in Andersonville , GA . Based on 1860 census figures , 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war , including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South . About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War . An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war . Union army dead , amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served , was broken down as follows : 110,070 killed in action ( 67,000 ) or died of wounds ( 43,000 ) . 199,790 died of disease ( 75 percent was due to the war , the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway ) 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps 9,058 killed by accidents or drowning 15,741 other / unknown deaths 359,528 total dead In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy ( 2,112 in battle ) and 460 in the Marines ( 148 in battle ) . Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll , they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle . Losses among African Americans were high , in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties , approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War . Notably , their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers : ( We ) find , according to the revised official data , that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers , over 316,000 died ( from all causes ) , or 15.2 percent . Of the 67,000 Regular Army ( white ) troops , 8.6 percent , or not quite 6,000 , died . Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops , however , over 36,000 died , or 20.5 percent . In other words , the mortality `` rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops , notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began . Burying Union dead on the Antietam battlefield , 1862 Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease . Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds . Fox complained , however , that records were incomplete , especially during the last year of the war , and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths ( many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds ) . Thomas L. Livermore , using Fox 's data , put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000 , using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records , for a total of 260,000 deaths . However , this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons , which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000 . The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses : Union : 853,838 110,100 killed in action 224,580 disease deaths 275,154 wounded in action 211,411 captured ( including 30,192 who died as POWs ) Confederate : 914,660 94,000 killed in action 164,000 disease deaths 194,026 wounded in action 462,634 captured ( including 31,000 who died as POWs ) While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited , they are incomplete . In addition to many Confederate records being missing , partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits , both armies only counted troops who died during their service , and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged . This often happened only a few days or weeks later . Francis Amasa Walker , Superintendent of the 1870 Census , used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths , for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers . While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting , it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 % , and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate . Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 , but most likely 761,000 soldiers , died in the war . This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths , going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses . Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate , due to the lack of reliable census data at the time , though they were known to be considerable , as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter , doctors , or food for them . University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease , starvation , exposure , or execution at the hands of the Confederates , and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total , the death toll would exceed 1 million . Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico , which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths , including fewer than two thousand killed in battle , between 1846 and 1848 . One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century , such as charging . With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels , Minié balls and ( near the end of the war for the Union army ) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle , soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open . This led to the adoption of trench warfare , a style of fighting that defined much of World War I . The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived ; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation . Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or ( on December 6 , 1865 ) by the Thirteenth Amendment . The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South . All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit ; most banks and railroads were bankrupt . Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North , a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century . Southern influence in the U.S. federal government , previously considerable , was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century . The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction . Emancipation Slavery as a War issue While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery , most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery . To Northerners , in contrast , the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union , not to abolish slavery . Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war , though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal . Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ( `` Copperheads '' ) and War Democrats , but energized most Republicans . By warning that free blacks would flood the North , Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections , but they did not gain control of Congress . The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support , with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment . Emancipation Proclamation Main article : Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans , both free blacks and escaped slaves , to join the Union Army . About 190,000 volunteered , further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates , who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery . During the Civil War , sentiment concerning slaves , enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided . In 1861 , Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states , and that `` to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game . '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation , although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union . Left : Contrabands -- fugitive slaves -- cooks , laundresses , laborers , teamsters , railroad repair crews -- fled to the Union Army , but were not officially freed until 1863 . Emancipation Proclamation . Right : In 1863 , the Union army accepted Freedmen . Seen here are Black and White teen - aged soldiers . At first , Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont ( in Missouri ) and David Hunter ( in South Carolina , Georgia and Florida ) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats . Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected . But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan , which was enacted by Congress . When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation , Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it , as to do otherwise would seem like `` our last shriek on the retreat '' . Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper . In September 1862 , the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity , and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation . Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22 , 1862 , and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1 , 1863 . In his letter to Albert G. Hodges , Lincoln explained his belief that `` If slavery is not wrong , nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events , but confess plainly that events have controlled me . '' Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states , War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union . The Union - controlled border states ( Kentucky , Missouri , Maryland , Delaware and West Virginia ) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans , Norfolk and elsewhere , were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation . All abolished slavery on their own , except Kentucky and Delaware . Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers , it only included territory held by Confederates at the time . However , the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty . The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France . By late 1864 , Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment , which made emancipation universal and permanent . Texas v. white In Texas v. White , 74 U.S. 700 ( 1869 ) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union , despite claims that it joined the Confederate States ; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States , and that the ordinances of secession , and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances , were `` absolutely null '' , under the constitution . Reconstruction Main article : Reconstruction Era Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population . Reconstruction began during the war , with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1 , 1863 , and it continued until 1877 . It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath , the most important of which were the three `` Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution , which remain in effect to the present time : the 13th ( 1865 ) , the 14th ( 1868 ) and the 15th ( 1870 ) . From the Union perspective , the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union ; to guarantee a `` republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states ; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status . President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865 , when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment . Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free . They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work . In 1872 the `` Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end . They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated . In 1874 , Democrats , primarily Southern , took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction . The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended . With the withdrawal of federal troops , however , whites retook control of every Southern legislature ; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin . Memory and historiography Left : Monument to the Grand Army of the Republic , a Union veteran organization Right : Cherokee Confederates reunion in New Orleans , 1903 The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory . There are innumerable statues , commemorations , books and archival collections . The memory includes the home front , military affairs , the treatment of soldiers , both living and dead , in the war 's aftermath , depictions of the war in literature and art , evaluations of heroes and villains , and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war . The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery , heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines , and the issues of democracy and minority rights , as well as the notion of an `` Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world . Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war , than to the war itself . Military history has largely developed outside academe , leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources , pay close attention to battles and campaigns , and write for the large public readership , rather than the small scholarly community . Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers . Practically every major figure in the war , both North and South , has had a serious biographical study . Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history , which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness , or His rewards for their suffering . Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War . Southern white preachers said : God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy , strict biblicism , personal piety , and traditional race relations . Slavery , they insisted , had not been sinful . Rather , emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor . In sharp contrast , Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as : God 's gift of freedom . They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence , to worship in their own way , to affirm their worth and dignity , and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man . Most of all , they could form their own churches , associations , and conventions . These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift , and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed . As a result , black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him ; God would be their rock in a stormy land . Lost Cause Main article : Lost Cause of the Confederacy Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the `` Lost Cause '' , shaping regional identity and race relations for generations . Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly `` a rationalization , a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion . Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery ; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South ; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized ; in any case , secession was said to be lawful . Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the `` virulent racism '' of the 19th century , sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification . He also deems the Lost Cause `` a caricature of the truth . This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance . Beginning in 1961 the U.S. Post Office released Commemorative stamps for five famous battles , each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle . Beardian historiography The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization ( 1927 ) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s . The Beards downplayed slavery , abolitionism , and issues of morality . They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war . Indeed , the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event . Much more important was the calculus of class conflict . The Beards announced that the Civil War was really : ( A ) social cataclysm in which the capitalists , laborers , and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South . The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s , when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery . However , Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers . Battlefield preservation The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg , Mill Springs and Chattanooga . Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 , but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument , erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro , Tennessee , in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen 's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River . In the 1890s , the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department , beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890 . The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894 , followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899 . In 1933 , these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service . The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites ( APCWS ) , a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it . In 1991 , the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island Foundation , but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U.S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation . Although the two organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions , ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger , which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust . In 2011 , the organization was renamed The Civil War Trust . From 1987 through late 2017 , The Trust and its predecessor organizations saved more than 40,000 acres at 126 Civil War battlefields and sites in 21 states . Civil War commemoration Main article : Commemoration of the American Civil War See also : Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Left : Grand Army of the Republic ( Union ) Right : United Confederate Veterans The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles , to statues and memorial halls erected , to films being produced , to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued , all of which helped to shape public memory . This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary . Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory , as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation ( 1915 ) , Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) , and more recently Lincoln ( 2012 ) . Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War ( 1990 ) . It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015 . Technological significance There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science . The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an `` industrial war '' , in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war . New inventions , such as the train and telegraph , delivered soldiers , supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel . It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare , in the form of reconnaissance balloons , to a significant effect . It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history . Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle , Spencer rifle , Colt revolving rifle , Triplett & Scott carbine and others , first appeared during the Civil War ; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare , as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun . In works of culture and art Literature The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government ( 1881 ) by Jefferson Davis The Red Badge of Courage ( 1885 ) by Stephen Crane The Private History of a Campaign That Failed ( 1885 ) by Mark Twain Texar 's Revenge , or , North Against South ( 1887 ) by Jules Verne `` An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge '' ( 1890 ) by Ambrose Bierce Gone with the Wind ( 1936 ) by Margaret Mitchell Shiloh ( 1952 ) by Shelby Foote North and South ( 1982 ) by John Jakes Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All ( 1989 ) by Allan Gurganus Film The Birth of a Nation ( 1915 , US ) The General ( 1926 , US ) Gone with the Wind ( 1939 , US ) The Red Badge of Courage ( 1951 , US ) The Horse Soldiers ( 1959 , US ) Shenandoah ( 1965 , US ) The Good , the Bad and the Ugly ( 1966 , Italy - Spain - FRG ) The Beguiled ( 1971 , US ) Glory ( 1989 , US ) The Civil War ( 1990 , US ) Gettysburg ( 1993 , US ) The Last Outlaw ( 1993 , US ) Cold Mountain ( 2003 , US ) Gods and Generals ( 2003 , US ) North and South ( miniseries ) Lincoln ( 2012 , US ) 12 Years a Slave ( 2012 , US ) Free State of Jones ( 2016 , US ) The Gettysburg Address ( 2017 , US ) Song `` Johnny Reb '' ( 1959 ) written by Merle Kilgore , sung by Johnny Horton `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' ( 1969 ) written by Robbie Robertson , sung by The Band Video games Sid Meier 's Gettysburg ! ( 1997 , US ) Sid Meier 's Antietam ! ( 1999 , US ) American Conqest : Divided Nation ( 2006 , US ) Forge of Freedom : The American Civil War ( 2006 , US ) The History Channel : Civil War -- A Nation Divided ( 2006 , US ) Ageod 's American Civil War ( 2007 , US / FR ) History Civil War : Secret Missions ( 2008 , US ) Call of Juarez : Bound in Blood ( 2009 , US ) Darkest of Days ( 2009 , US ) Victoria II : A House Divided ( 2011 , US ) Ageod 's American Civil War II ( 2013 , US / FR ) Ultimate General : Gettysburg ( 2014 , UKR ) Ultimate General : Civil War ( 2016 , UKR ) See also General reference Battles of the American Civil War Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant Corps badges of the American Civil War Costliest Battles of the American Civil War Naval bibliography of the American Civil War Origins of the American Civil War Uniforms of the Confederacy Uniforms of the Union Weapons in the American Civil War Union United States Union Army Union Navy Abraham Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation Confederacy Confederate States Confederate Army Confederate Navy Jefferson Davis Ethnic articles African Americans in the American Civil War German Americans in the American Civil War Irish Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans in the American Civil War American Civil War portal Topical articles Blockade runners of the American Civil War Blockade , Union -- of the American Civil War Casualties in the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Education of freed people during the Civil War Infantry in the American Civil War Modern display of the Confederate flag Nursing in the American Civil War , Dorothea Dix Ships captured during the American Civil War Slavery during the American Civil War Spies in the American Civil War National articles Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War Britain in the American Civil War Canada in the American Civil War Prussia in the American Civil War State articles See articles in the format , `` * state * in the American Civil War '' Memorials List of Confederate monuments and memorials List of memorials and monuments at Arlington National Cemetery List of memorials to Jefferson Davis List of memorials to Robert E. Lee List of memorials to Stonewall Jackson List of monuments erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials Memorials to Abraham Lincoln Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials References Notes ^ Jump up to : Total number that served Jump up ^ A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people , but most likely 761,000 people , died through the war . Jump up ^ `` Union population 1864 '' aggregates 1860 population , average annual immigration 1855 -- 1864 , and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source . Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen , migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies , and natural increase are excluded . Jump up ^ `` Slave 1864 , CSA '' aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia and Texas . It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation , freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies , especially in the Mississippi Valley . Jump up ^ At the beginning of the war , some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters . By 1862 , when it became clear that this would be a long war , the question of what to do about slavery became more general . The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor . It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production . As one Congressman put it , the slaves `` ... can not be neutral . As laborers , if not as soldiers , they will be allies of the rebels , or of the Union . '' The same Congressman -- and his fellow Radical Republicans -- put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves , whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual , compensated emancipation and colonization . Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln 's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines . From early years of the war , hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines , especially in occupied areas like Nashville , Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862 , Tennessee from 1862 on , the line of Sherman 's march , etc . So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them , where both adults and children learned to read and write . See Catton , Bruce . Never Call Retreat , p. 335 . The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps , for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations . In addition , approximately 180,000 or more African - American men served as soldiers and sailors with Union troops . Most of those were escaped slaves . Probably the most prominent of these African - American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry . Jump up ^ In spite of the South 's shortage of soldiers , most Southern leaders -- until 1865 -- opposed enlisting slaves . They used them as laborers to support the war effort . As Howell Cobb said , `` If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong . '' Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war , and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat . The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented . The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation , as Union armies moved south . Historian John D. Winters referred to the exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana : `` As the troops moved up to Alexandria , the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army . They were ' all frantic with joy , some weeping , some blessing , and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions . ' All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army . Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there . '' Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers , and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre . See Catton , Bruce . Never Call Retreat , p. 335 . This led to a breakdown of the prisoner and mail exchange program and the growth of prison camps such as Andersonville prison in Georgia , where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease . Citations ^ Jump up to : `` The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End . All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers . If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports . Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia . The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There '' . The New York Times . Associated Press . May 10 , 1865 . Retrieved December 23 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Facts '' . National Park Service . Jump up ^ `` Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War '' : Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines , 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia , and 427,000 were in the field army . Jump up ^ Long , E.B. The Civil War Day by Day : An Almanac , 1861 -- 1865 . Garden City , NY : Doubleday , 1971 . OCLC 68283123 . p. 705 . Jump up ^ `` The war of the rebellion : a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies. ; Series 4 -- Volume 2 '' , United States . War Dept 1900 . ^ Jump up to : Fox , William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War ( 1889 ) ^ Jump up to : Official DOD data Archived February 28 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Chambers & Anderson 1999 , p. 849 . Jump up ^ 211,411 Union soldiers were captured , and 30,218 died in prison . The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double - counting of casualties . Jump up ^ 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison . The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double - counting of casualties . ^ Jump up to : Nofi , Al ( June 13 , 2001 ) . `` Statistics on the War 's Costs '' . Louisiana State University . Archived from the original on July 11 , 2007 . Retrieved October 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Professor James Downs . `` Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War '' . University of Connecticut , April 13th 2012 . `` The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic , but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources . The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered ; tens of thousands of other slaves who died had no contact with army doctors , leaving no records of their deaths . '' 60,000 documented plus ' tens of thousands ' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths . Jump up ^ Recounting the dead , Associate Professor J. David Hacker , `` estimates , based on Census data , indicate that the ( military ) death toll was approximately 750,000 , and may have been as high as 850,000 '' Jump up ^ Professor James Downs . `` Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War '' . Oxford University Press , April 13th 2012 . `` An 2 April 2012 New York Times article , `` New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll , '' reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people . As horrific as this new number is , it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war . If former slaves were included in this figure , the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ... '' Jump up ^ `` Answers to your Civil War Questions '' . Civil War Trust . Civil War Trust . Retrieved 14 Jan 2018 . Jump up ^ Hutchison , Coleman ( 2015 ) . A History of American Civil War Literature . Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ `` Date of Secession Related to 1860 Black Population '' , America 's Civil War Jump up ^ Burnham , Walter Dean . Presidential Ballots , 1836 -- 1892 . Johns Hopkins University Press , 1955 , pp. 247 -- 57 Jump up ^ Deborah Gray White , Mia Bay , and Waldo E. Martin , Jr. , Freedom on My Mind : A History of African Americans ( New York : Bedford / St. Martin 's , 2013 ) , 325 . Jump up ^ Frank J. Williams , `` Doing Less and Doing More : The President and the Proclamation -- Legally , Militarily and Politically , '' in Harold Holzer , ed . The Emancipation Proclamation ( 2006 ) , pp. 74 -- 75 . ^ Jump up to : `` U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated , New Analysis Suggests '' . Science Daily . September 22 , 2011 . Retrieved September 22 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Hacker 2011 , p. 307 -- 48 . Jump up ^ Huddleston 2002 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ James C. Bradford , A Companion to American Military History ( 2010 ) , vol. 1 , p. 101 . Jump up ^ See also Freehling , William W. , The Road to Disunion : Secessionists Triumphant 1854 -- 1861 , pp. 9 -- 24 , and Martis , Kenneth C. , The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress , 1789 -- 1989 , ISBN 0 - 02 - 920170 - 5 , pp. 111 -- 115 , and Foner , Eric . Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War , ( Oxford University Press , 1980 ) , pp. 18 -- 20 , 21 -- 24 . Jump up ^ Coates , Ta - Nehisi ( 22 June 2015 ) . `` What This Cruel War Was Over '' . The Atlantic . Retrieved 21 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Gallagher , Gary ( February 21 , 2011 ) . Remembering the Civil War ( Speech ) . Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War . Miller Center of Public Affairs UV : C - Span . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Issues related to the institution of slavery precipitated secession ... It was not states ' rights . It was not a tariff . It was not unhappiness with manner and customs that led to secession and eventually to war . It was a cluster of issues profoundly dividing the nation along a fault line delineated by the institution of slavery . Jump up ^ McPherson , James M. ( March 1 , 1994 ) . What They Fought For 1861 -- 1865 . Louisiana State University Press . p. 62 . ISBN 9780807119044 . Jump up ^ McPherson , James M. ( April 3 , 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades . Oxford University Press . p. 39 . ISBN 9780195090239 . Jump up ^ Gallagher , Gary ( February 21 , 2011 ) . Remembering the Civil War ( Speech ) . Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War . Miller Center of Public Affairs UV : C - Span . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . The loyal citizenry initially gave very little thought to emancipation in their quest to save the union . Most loyal citizens , though profoundly prejudice by 21st century standards , embraced emancipation as a tool to punish slave holders , weaken the confederacy , and protect the union from future internal strife . A minority of the white populous invoked moral grounds to attack slavery , though their arguments carried far less popular weight than those presenting emancipation as a military measure necessary to defeat the rebels and restore the Union . Jump up ^ Eskridge , Larry ( January 29 , 2011 ) . `` After 150 years , we still ask : Why ' this cruel war ' ? '' . Canton Daily Ledger . Canton , Illinois . Archived from the original on February 1 , 2011 . Retrieved January 29 , 2011 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Weeks 2013 , p. 240 . Jump up ^ Olsen 2002 , p. 237 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , French Esnor . Causes of the civil war , 1859 -- 1861 ( 1906 ) p. 8 Jump up ^ Thomas Fleming ( 2014 ) . A Disease in the Public Mind : A New Understanding of Why We Fought the Civil War . ISBN 978 - 0306822957 . Jump up ^ Charles S. Sydnor , The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819 -- 1848 ( 1948 ) . Jump up ^ Robert Royal Russel , Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism , 1840 -- 1861 ( 1973 ) . Jump up ^ Ahlstrom 1972 , p. 648 -- 649 . Jump up ^ Kenneth M. Stampp , The Imperiled Union : Essays on the Background of the Civil War ( 1981 ) , p. 198 ; Richard Hofstadter , The Progressive Historians : Turner , Beard , Parrington ( 1969 ) . Jump up ^ Woodworth 1996 , p. 145 , 151 , 505 , 512 , 554 , 557 , 684 . Jump up ^ Thornton & Ekelund 2004 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Frank Taussig , The Tariff History of the United States ( 1931 ) , pp. 115 -- 61 Jump up ^ Hofstadter 1938 , p. 50 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Robert Gray Gunderson , Old Gentleman 's Convention : The Washington Peace Conference of 1861 . ( 1961 ) Jump up ^ Jon L. Wakelyn ( 1996 ) . Southern Pamphlets on Secession , November 1860 -- April 1861 . U. of North Carolina Press . pp. 23 -- 30 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 6614 - 6 . Jump up ^ Matthew Fontaine Maury ( 1861 / 1967 ) , `` Captain Maury 's Letter on American Affairs : A Letter Addressed to Rear - Admiral Fitz Roy , of England '' , reprinted in Frank Friedel , ed. , Union Pamphlets of the Civil War : 1861 -- 1865 , Cambridge , MA : Harvard , A John Harvard Library Book , Vol . I , pp. 171 -- 73 . Jump up ^ John Lothrop Motley ( 1861 / 1967 ) , `` The Causes of the American Civil War : A Paper Contributed to the London Times '' , reprinted in Frank Friedel , ed. , Union Pamphlets of the Civil War : 1861 -- 1865 , Cambridge , MA : Harvard , A John Harvard Library Book , Vol. 1 , p. 51 . Jump up ^ Forrest McDonald , States ' Rights and the Union : Imperium in Imperio , 1776 -- 1876 ( 2002 ) . Jump up ^ McPherson 2007 , pp. 3 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Krannawitter 2008 , p. 49 -- 50 . Jump up ^ McPherson 2007 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Stampp 1990 , p. 190 -- 93 . Jump up ^ McPherson 2007 , pp. 13 -- 14 . Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , p. 19 . Jump up ^ McPherson 2007 , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , pp. 19 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , p. 20 . Jump up ^ Russell 1966 , p. 468 -- 69 . Jump up ^ Bestor , Arthur . `` The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis '' , in Lawrence Meir Friedman ( ed . ) `` American Law and the Constitutional Order : Historical Perspectives , ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 02527 - 1 p. 231 Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , pp. 21 -- 23 . Jump up ^ Johannsen 1973 , p. 406 . Jump up ^ `` Territorial Politics and Government '' . Territorial Kansas Online : University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society . Retrieved July 10 , 2014 . Finteg Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Varon 2008 , p. 58 . Jump up ^ Russell 1966 , p. 470 . Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , p. 23 -- 24 . Jump up ^ McPherson 2007 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Krannawitter 2008 , p. 232 . Jump up ^ Gara , 1964 , p. 190 Jump up ^ Bestor 1964 , p. 24 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Potter 1962 , p. 924 -- 50 . Jump up ^ C. Vann Woodward ( 1971 ) , American Counterpoint : Slavery and Racism in the North - South Dialogue , p. 281 . Jump up ^ Bertram Wyatt - Brown , The Shaping of Southern Culture : Honor , Grace , and War , 1760s -- 1880s ( 2000 ) . Jump up ^ Avery Craven , The Growth of Southern Nationalism , 1848 -- 1861 ( 1953 ) . Jump up ^ `` Republican Platform of 1860 , '' in Kirk H. Porter , and Donald Bruce Johnson , eds . National Party Platforms , 1840 -- 1956 , ( University of Illinois Press , 1956 ) . p. 32 . Jump up ^ Susan - Mary Grant , North over South : Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era ( 2000 ) ; Melinda Lawson , Patriot Fires : Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North ( 2005 ) . Jump up ^ Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976 , p. 485 . Jump up ^ Jaffa , Harry V. ( 2000 ) . A New Birth of Freedom : Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 0 - 8476 - 9952 - 8 . p. 1 Jump up ^ Ordinances of Secession by State Archived 2004 - 06 - 11 at the Wayback Machine ... Retrieved November 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union . Jump up ^ The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union . Retrieved November 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The text of Georgia 's secession declaration . Retrieved November 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union . Retrieved November 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 24 . Jump up ^ President James Buchanan , Message of December 8 , 1860 . Retrieved November 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River '' . World Digital Library . 1865 . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Rhodes , James Ford . History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley - Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III ( 1920 ) pp. 41 -- 66 Jump up ^ Rhodes , James Ford . History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley - Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III ( 1920 ) pp. 147 -- 52 Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 234 -- 266 . ^ Jump up to : Abraham Lincoln , First Inaugural Address , Monday , March 4 , 1861 . ^ Jump up to : Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976 , p. 572 -- 73 . Jump up ^ Allan Nevins , The War for the Union : The Improvised War 1861 -- 1862 ( 1959 ) , pp. 74 -- 75 . Jump up ^ Russell McClintock ( 2008 ) . Lincoln and the Decision for War : The Northern Response to Secession . Chapel Hill : The University of North Carolina Press . pp. 254 -- 74 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 3188 - 5 . Provides details of support across the North . Online preview . Jump up ^ Rhodes , James Ford . History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley - Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III ( 1920 ) pp. 291 -- 92 Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 274 . Jump up ^ Howard Louis Conard ( 1901 ) . Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri . p. 45 . Jump up ^ `` Abraham Lincoln : Proclamation 83 -- Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy '' . Presidency.ucsb.edu . Retrieved November 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 276 -- 307 . Jump up ^ `` Civil War and the Maryland General Assembly , Maryland State Archives '' . msa.maryland.gov . Retrieved May 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Teaching American History in Maryland -- Documents for the Classroom : Arrest of the Maryland Legislature , 1861 '' . Maryland State Archives . 2005 . Archived from the original on January 11 , 2008 . Retrieved February 6 , 2008 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 284 -- 87 . Jump up ^ William C. Harris , Lincoln and the Border States : Preserving the Union ( University Press of Kansas , 2011 ) , p. 71 , Jump up ^ Howard , F.K. ( Frank Key ) ( 1863 ) . Fourteen Months in American Bastiles . London : H.F. Mackintosh . Retrieved August 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Nevins , The War for the Union ( 1959 ) , 1 : 119 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Nevins , The War for the Union ( 1959 ) , 1 : 129 -- 36 . Jump up ^ `` A State of Convenience , The Creation of West Virginia '' . West Virginia Archives & History . Retrieved April 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Curry , Richard Orr ( 1964 ) , A House Divided , A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia , University of Pittsburgh Press , map on p. 49 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 303 . Jump up ^ Weigley 2004 , p. 55 . Jump up ^ Snell , Mark A. , West Virginia and the Civil War , History Press , Charleston , SC , 2011 , p. 28 . Jump up ^ Neely 1993 , p. 10 -- 11 . Jump up ^ Keegan , `` The American Civil War '' , p. 73 . Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war , 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee . See Gabor Boritt , ed . War Comes Again ( 1995 ) , p. 247 . Jump up ^ `` With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30 , 1860 , the Regular Army ... '' Civil War Extracts pp. 199 -- 221 , American Military History . Jump up ^ E. Merton Coulter , Confederate States of America ( 1950 ) p. 308 . John G. Nicolay and John Hay ( Abraham Lincoln : a history , vol. 4 , p. 264 ) state : `` Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February , some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made ... In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress , Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000 ... '' Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army , and from that moment on became his implacable opponent . Jump up ^ Albert Burton Moore . Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy ( 1924 ) online edition . Jump up ^ Albert Bernhardt Faust , The German Element in the United States ( 1909 ) v. 1 , p. 523 online . The railroads and banks grew rapidly . See Oberholtzer , Ellis Paxson . Jay Cooke : Financier Of The Civil War ( 1907 ) , Vol. 2 at Google Books , pp. 378 -- 430 . See also Oberholtzer , A History of the United States Since the Civil War ( 1926 ) , 3 : 69 -- 122 . Jump up ^ Barnet Schecter , The Devil 's Own Work : The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America ( 2007 ) . Jump up ^ Eugene Murdock , One Million Men : the Civil War draft in the North ( 1971 ) . Jump up ^ Judith Lee Hallock , `` The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion . '' Civil War History ( 1983 ) 29 # 2 pp. 123 -- 34 . online Jump up ^ Peter S. Bearman , `` Desertion as localism : Army unit solidarity and group norms in the U.S. Civil War . '' Social Forces ( 1991 ) 70 # 2 pp. 321 -- 42 in JSTOR . Jump up ^ Robert Fantina , Desertion and the American soldier , 1776 -- 2006 ( 2006 ) , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Keegan 2009 , p. 57 . Jump up ^ Perman & Taylor 2010 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Roger Pickenpaugh ( 2013 ) . Captives in Blue : The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy . University of Alabama Press . pp. 57 -- 73 . Jump up ^ Tucker , Pierpaoli & White 2010 , p. 1466 . Jump up ^ Welles 1865 , p. 152 . Jump up ^ Tucker , Pierpaoli & White 2010 , p. 462 . Jump up ^ Canney 1998 , p. ? . Jump up ^ Richter 2009 , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Johnson 1998 , p. 228 . Jump up ^ Anderson 1989 , pp. 288 -- 89 , 296 -- 98 . Jump up ^ Nelson 2005 , p. 92 . ^ Jump up to : Anderson 1989 , p. 300 . Jump up ^ Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose , The Confederate Submarine H.L. Hunley ( 1989 ) Jump up ^ Nelson 2005 , p. 345 . Jump up ^ Fuller 2008 , p. 36 . Jump up ^ Stern 1962 , pp. 224 -- 225 . Jump up ^ Mark E. Neely , Jr . `` The Perils of Running the Blockade : The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War , '' Civil War History ( 1986 ) 32 # 2 , pp. 101 -- 18 in Project MUSE Jump up ^ Stephen R. Wise , Lifeline of the Confederacy : Blockade Running during the Civil War ( 1991 ) Jump up ^ Surdam , David G. ( 1998 ) . `` The Union Navy 's blockade reconsidered '' . Naval War College Review . 51 ( 4 ) : 85 -- 107 . Jump up ^ David G. Surdam , Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War ( University of South Carolina Press , 2001 ) . Jump up ^ Jones 2002 , p. 225 . Jump up ^ Anderson 1989 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Whitsell , Robert D. ( 1963 ) . `` Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus '' . Register of the Kentucky Historical Society . 62 ( 2 ) : 107 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Myron J. Smith , Tinclads in the Civil War : Union Light - Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters , 1862 -- 1865 ( 2009 ) . Jump up ^ Frank & Reaves 2003 , p. 170 . Jump up ^ Symonds & Clipson 2001 , p. 92 . Jump up ^ Ronald Scott Mangum , `` The Vicksburg Campaign : A Study In Joint Operations , '' Parameters : U.S. Army War College ( 1991 ) 21 # 3 , pp. 74 -- 86 online Jump up ^ Foote 1974 , p. 464 -- 519 . Jump up ^ Bruce Catton , Terrible Swift Sword , pp. 263 -- 96 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 424 -- 27 . ^ Jump up to : McPherson 1988 , pp. 538 -- 44 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 528 -- 33 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 543 -- 45 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 557 -- 558 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 571 -- 74 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 639 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Jonathan A. Noyalas ( 3 Dec 2010 ) . Stonewall Jackson 's 1862 Valley Campaign . Arcadia Publishing . p. 93 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 653 -- 663 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 664 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 404 -- 05 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 418 -- 20 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 419 -- 20 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 480 -- 83 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 405 -- 13 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 637 -- 38 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 677 -- 80 . ^ Jump up to : Keegan 2009 , p. 270 . Jump up ^ Keegan 2009 , p. 100 . Jump up ^ James B. Martin , Third War : Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861 -- 1865 ( Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series , number 23 , 2012 ) . See also , Michael Fellman , Inside War : The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War ( 1989 ) . Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units , and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands , especially in the recently settled western counties . Jump up ^ Bohl , Sarah ( 2004 ) . `` A War on Civilians : Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri '' . Prologue. 36 ( 1 ) : 44 -- 51 . Jump up ^ Graves , William H. ( 1991 ) . `` Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army : Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory '' . Chronicles of Oklahoma . 69 ( 2 ) : 134 -- 145 . Jump up ^ Neet , J. Frederick ; Jr ( 1996 ) . `` Stand Watie : Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation '' . Great Plains Journal . 6 ( 1 ) : 36 -- 51 . Jump up ^ Keegan 2009 , p. 220 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Mark E. Neely Jr. ; `` Was the Civil War a Total War ? '' Civil War History , Vol. 50 , 2004 , pp. 434 + . Jump up ^ U.S. Grant ( 1990 ) . Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant ; Selected Letters . Library of America . p. 247 . ISBN 0 - 940450 - 58 - 5 . Jump up ^ Ron Field ( 2013 ) . Petersburg 1864 -- 65 : The Longest Siege . Osprey Publishing . p. 6 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 724 -- 42 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 778 -- 79 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 773 -- 76 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 812 -- 15 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 825 -- 30 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 846 -- 47 . Jump up ^ William Marvel , Lee 's Last Retreat : The Flight to Appomattox ( 2002 ) , pp. 158 -- 81 . Jump up ^ Unaware of the surrender of Lee , on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus , Georgia and the Battle of West Point . Jump up ^ http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html General Kirby Smith Surrenders the Trans - Mississippi Forces Archived February 7 , 2016 , at the Wayback Machine . Web . Retrieved February 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Morris , John Wesley , Ghost towns of Oklahoma , University of Oklahoma Press , 1977 , pp. 68 -- 69 , ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1420 - 7 Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 546 -- 57 . Jump up ^ Herring 2011 , p. 237 . ^ Jump up to : McPherson 1988 , p. 386 . Jump up ^ Allan Nevins , War for the Union 1862 -- 1863 , pp. 263 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Don H. Doyle , The Cause of All Nations : An International History of the American Civil War ( 2014 ) , pp. 8 ( quote ) , 69 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Richard Huzzeym , Freedom Burning : Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain ( 2013 ) Jump up ^ Stephen B. Oates , The Approaching Fury : Voices of the Storm 1820 -- 1861 , p. 125 . Jump up ^ Herring 2011 , p. 261 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 851 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 855 . ^ Jump up to : James McPherson , Why did the Confederacy Lose ? . p. ? . Jump up ^ Railroad length is from : Chauncey Depew ( ed . ) , One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795 -- 1895 , p. 111 ; For other data see : 1860 U.S. Census and Carter , Susan B. , ed . The Historical Statistics of the United States : Millennial Edition ( 5 vols ) , 2006 . Jump up ^ Martis , Kenneth C. , `` The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America : 1861 -- 1865 '' Simon & Schuster ( 1994 ) ISBN 0 - 13 - 389115 - 1 p. 27 . At the beginning of 1865 , the Confederacy controlled one - third of its congressional districts , which were apportioned by population . The major slave - populations found in Louisiana , Mississippi , Tennessee , and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864 . Jump up ^ Digital History Reader , U.S. Railroad Construction , 1860 -- 1880 Virginia Tech , Retrieved August 21 , 2012 . `` Total Union railroad miles '' aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860 -- 1864 @ 5000 , plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 771 -- 72 . Jump up ^ Murray , Bernstein & Knox 1996 , p. 235 . Jump up ^ HeidlerHeidlerColes 2002 , p. 1207 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Ward 1990 , p. 272 . Jump up ^ E. Merton Coulter , The Confederate States of America , 1861 -- 1865 ( 1950 ) , p. 566 . Jump up ^ Richard E. Beringer , Herman Hattaway , Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr , Why the South Lost the Civil War ( 1991 ) , ch 1 . Jump up ^ Armstead Robinson , Bitter Fruits of Bondage : The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy , 1861 -- 1865 ( University of Virginia Press , 2004 ) Jump up ^ see Alan Farmer , History Review ( 2005 ) , No. 52 : 15 -- 20 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1997 , pp. 169 -- 72 . Jump up ^ Gallagher 1999 , p. 57 . Jump up ^ Fehrenbacher , Don ( 2004 ) . `` Lincoln 's Wartime Leadership : The First Hundred Days '' . University of Illinois . Retrieved October 16 , 2007 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 382 -- 88 . Jump up ^ Don H. Doyle , The Cause of All Nations : An International History of the American Civil War ( 2014 ) . Jump up ^ Fergus M. Bordewich , `` The World Was Watching : America 's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege '' , Wall Street Journal ( February 7 -- 8 , 2015 ) . ^ Jump up to : Dupont , Brandon ; Rosenbloom , Joshua L. `` The Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite '' . Explorations in Economic History . doi : 10.1016 / j. eeh. 2017.09. 002 . ^ Jump up to : Hacker , J. David ( September 20 , 2011 ) . `` Recounting the Dead '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . Associated Press . Retrieved September 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. xix . Jump up ^ Vinovskis 1990 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Richard Wightman Fox ( 2008 ). `` National Life After Death '' . Slate.com . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands '' . National Geographic News . July 1 , 2003 . Jump up ^ Teresa Riordan ( March 8 , 2004 ) . `` When Necessity Meets Ingenuity : Art of Restoring What 's Missing '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . Associated Press . Retrieved December 23 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Herbert Aptheker , `` Negro Casualties in the Civil War '' , The Journal of Negro History , Vol. 32 , No. 1 . ( January 1947 ) . Jump up ^ Professor James Downs . `` Sick from Freedom : African - American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction '' . January 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ron Field and Peter Dennis ( 2013 ) . American Civil War Fortifications ( 2 ) : Land and Field Fortifications . Osprey Publishing . p. 4 . Jump up ^ Claudia Goldin , `` The economics of emancipation . '' The Journal of Economic History 33 # 1 ( 1973 ) : 66 -- 85 . Jump up ^ The Economist , `` The Civil War : Finally Passing '' , April 2 , 2011 , pp. 23 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Foner 1981 , p. ? . Jump up ^ Foner 2010 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ McPherson , pp. 506 -- 8 . Jump up ^ McPherson . p. 686 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , p. 495 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 355 , 494 -- 96 , 495 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 831 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Winters 1963 , p. 237 . Jump up ^ McPherson 1988 , pp. 791 -- 98 . Jump up ^ Lincoln 's letter to O.H. Browning , September 22 , 1861 . Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery especially among Forty - Eighters , resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union . `` Wittke , Carl ( 1952 ) . `` Refugees of Revolution '' . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania press . `` , Christian B. Keller , `` Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen : The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers '' , Journal of Military History , Vol / 73 , No. 1 , January 2009 , pp. 117 -- 45 ; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich , eds , Germans in the Civil War : The Letters They Wrote Home ( 2006 ) . `` On the other hand , many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs , and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought . '' Baker , Kevin ( March 2003 ) . `` Violent City '' , American Heritage . Retrieved July 29 , 2010 . `` Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities , the poor and working class Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation . When the draft began in the summer of 1863 , they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military , as well as much smaller protests in other cities . '' Barnet Schecter , The Devil 's Own Work : The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America ( 2007 ) , ch 6 . Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861 , sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties , especially at Fredericksburg ; their volunteering fell off after 1862 . Jump up ^ Baker , Kevin ( March 2003 ) . `` Violent City '' , American Heritage . Retrieved July 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ McPherson , James , in Gabor S. Boritt , ed . Lincoln , the War President , pp. 52 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Oates , Stephen B. , Abraham Lincoln : The Man Behind the Myths , p. 106 . Jump up ^ `` Lincoln Letter to Greeley , August 22 , 1862 '' . Jump up ^ Pulling , Sr. Anne Francis . `` Images of America : Altoona , 2001 , 10 . Jump up ^ Lincoln 's Letter to A.G. Hodges , April 4 , 1864 . Jump up ^ Harper , Douglas ( 2003 ) . `` SLAVERY in DELAWARE '' . Archived from the original on October 16 , 2007 . Retrieved October 16 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` James McPherson , The War that Never Goes Away '' Jump up ^ Asante & Mazama 2004 , p. 82 . Jump up ^ Holzer & Gabbard 2007 , p. 172 -- 174 . Jump up ^ Murray , pp. 155 -- 59 . Jump up ^ Hans L. Trefousse , Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction ( Greenwood , 1991 ) covers all the main events and leaders . Jump up ^ Eric Foner 's A Short History of Reconstruction ( 1990 ) is a brief survey . Jump up ^ C. Vann Woodward , Reunion and Reaction : The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction ( 2nd edn 1991 ) . Jump up ^ Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher , eds ( 2009 ) , Wars within a War : Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War ( University of North Carolina Press ) . Jump up ^ David W. Blight , Race and Reunion : The Civil War in American Memory ( 2001 ) . Jump up ^ Steven E. Woodworth ( 1996 ) . The American Civil War : A Handbook of Literature and Research . p. 208 . Jump up ^ Stephen Cushman ( 2014 ) . Belligerent Muse : Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War . pp. 5 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn , eds. , Leaders of the American Civil War : A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary ( 1998 ) Provide short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries Jump up ^ Wilson Fallin Jr , Uplifting the People : Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama ( 2007 ) , pp. 52 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Fallin , Uplifting the People : Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama ( 2007 ) , pp. 52 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Gaines M. Foster ( 1988 ) , Ghosts of the Confederacy : Defeat , the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South , 1865 -- 1913 . Jump up ^ Nolan , Alan T. , in Gallagher , Gary W. , and Alan T. Nolan , The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War history ( 2000 ) , pp. 12 -- 19 . Jump up ^ Nolan , The Myth of the Lost Cause , pp. 28 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard , The Rise of American Civilization ( 1927 ) , 2 : 54 . Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter ( 2012 ) ( 1968 ) . Progressive Historians . Knopf Doubleday . p. 304 . Jump up ^ Timothy B. Smith , `` The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation '' ( 2008 ; The University of Tennessee Press ) . Jump up ^ Bob Zeller , `` Fighting the Second Civil War : A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust , '' ( 2017 : Knox Press ) Jump up ^ Gary Gallagher , Causes Won , Lost , and Forgotten : How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War ( Univ of North Carolina Press , 2008 ) . Jump up ^ Bailey , Thomas and David Kennedy : The American Pageant , p. 434 . 1987 Jump up ^ Dome , Steam ( 1974 ) . `` A Civil War Iron Clad Car '' . Railroad History . The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society . 130 ( Spring 1974 ) : 51 -- 53 . Jump up ^ William Rattle Plum , The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States , ed . Christopher H. Sterling ( New York : Arno Press , 1974 ) vol. 1 : 63 . Jump up ^ Buckley , John . Air Power in the Age of Total War ( Warfare and History ) . Routledge ; 1 edition ( December 18 , 1998 ) . pp. 6 , 24 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85728 - 589 - 5 Jump up ^ Sondhaus , Naval Warfare 1815 -- 1914 p. 77 . Jump up ^ Keegan , John ( 2009 ) . The American Civil War : A Military History . Vintage Books . p. 75 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 27314 - 7 Bibliography Main article : Bibliography of the American Civil War Ahlstrom , Sydney E. ( 1972 ) . A Religious History of the American People . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 01762 - 5 . Anderson , Bern ( 1989 ) . By Sea and By River : The naval history of the Civil War . New York , New York : Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 80367 - 3 . Asante , Molefi Kete ; Mazama , Ama ( 2004 ) . Encyclopedia of Black Studies . Thousand Oaks , California : SAGE Publications . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7619 - 2762 - 4 . Beringer , Richard E. , Archer Jones , and Herman Hattaway , Why the South Lost the Civil War ( 1986 ) , influential analysis of factors ; an abridged version is The Elements of Confederate Defeat : Nationalism , War Aims , and Religion ( 1988 ) Bestor , Arthur ( 1964 ) . `` The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis '' . American Historical Review . 69 ( 2 ) : 327 -- 52 . JSTOR 1844986 . Canney , Donald L. ( 1998 ) . Lincoln 's Navy : The Ships , Men and Organization , 1861 -- 65 . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55750 - 519 - 4 . Catton , Bruce ( 1960 ) . The Civil War . New York : American Heritage Distributed by Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8281 - 0305 - 3 . Chambers , John W. ; Anderson , Fred ( 1999 ) . The Oxford Companion to American Military History . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 507198 - 6 . Davis , William C. ( 1983 ) . Stand in the Day of Battle : The Imperiled Union : 1861 -- 1865 . Garden City , New York : Doubleday . ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 14895 - 5 . Davis , William C. ( 2003 ) . Look Away ! : A History of the Confederate States of America . New York : Free Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7432 - 3499 - 3 . Donald , David ; Baker , Jean H. ; Holt , Michael F. ( 2001 ) . The Civil War and Reconstruction . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 97427 - 0 . Fehrenbacher , Don E. ( 1981 ) . Slavery , Law , and Politics : The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 502883 - 6 . Fellman , Michael ; Gordon , Lesley J. ; Sunderland , Daniel E. ( 2007 ) . This Terrible War : The Civil War and its Aftermath ( 2 ed . ) . New York : Pearson . ISBN 978 - 0 - 321 - 38960 - 2 . Foner , Eric ( 1981 ) . Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 502926 - 0 . Retrieved April 20 , 2012 . Foner , Eric ( 2010 ) . The Fiery Trial : Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery . New York : W.W. Norton & Co . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 34066 - 2 . Foote , Shelby ( 1974 ) . The Civil War : A Narrative : Volume 1 : Fort Sumter to Perryville . New York : Vintage Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 394 - 74623 - 4 . Frank , Joseph Allan ; Reaves , George A. ( 2003 ) . Seeing the Elephant : Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh . Urbana , Illinois : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 252 - 07126 - 3 . Fuller , Howard J. ( 2008 ) . Clad in Iron -- The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59114 - 297 - 3 . Gallagher , Gary W. ( 1999 ) . The Confederate War . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 16056 - 9 . Gara , Larry . 1964 . The Fugitive Slave Law : A Double Paradox in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction , New York : Holt , Rinehart and Winston , 1970 ( originally published in Civil War History , X , No. 3 , September 1964 ) Green , Fletcher M. ( 2008 ) . Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States , 1776 -- 1860 : A Study in the Evolution of Democracy . Chapel Hill , North Carolina : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58477 - 928 - 5 . Guelzo , Allen C. ( 2009 ) . Lincoln : A Very Short Introduction . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 536780 - 5 . Guelzo , Allen C. ( 2012 ) . Fateful Lightning : A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 984328 - 2 . Hacker , J. David ( December 2011 ) . `` A Census - Based Count of the Civil War Dead '' . Civil War History . 57 ( 4 ) : 307 -- 48 . doi : 10.1353 / cwh. 2011.0061 . PMID 22512048 . Heidler , David S. ; Heidler , Jeanne T. ; Coles , David J. ( 2002 ) . Encyclopedia of the American Civil War : A Political , Social , and Military History . Santa Barbara , California : ABC - CLIO . ISBN 1 - 57607 - 382 - 3 . Herring , George C. ( 2011 ) . From Colony to Superpower : U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 976553 - 9 . Hofstadter , Richard ( 1938 ) . `` The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War '' . American Historical Review . 44 ( 1 ) : 50 -- 55 . JSTOR 1840850 . Holt , Michael F. ( 2005 ) . The Fate of Their Country : Politicians , Slavery Extension , and the Coming of the Civil War . New York : Hill and Wang . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8090 - 4439 - 9 . Holzer , Harold ; Gabbard , Sara Vaughn ( 2007 ) . Lincoln and Freedom : Slavery , Emancipation , and the Thirteenth Amendment . Carbondale , Illinois : Southern Illinois University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8093 - 2764 - 5 . Huddleston , John ( 2002 ) . Killing Ground : The Civil War and the Changing American Landscape . Baltimore , Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 6773 - 6 . Johannsen , Robert W. ( 1973 ) . Stephen A. Douglas . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 501620 - 8 . Johnson , Timothy D. ( 1998 ) . Winfield Scott : The Quest for Military Glory . Lawrence , Kansas : University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7006 - 0914 - 7 . Jones , Howard ( 1999 ) . Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom : The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War . Lincoln , Nebraska : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8032 - 2582 - 4 . Jones , Howard ( 2002 ) . Crucible of Power : A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913 . Wilmington , Delaware : Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8420 - 2916 - 2 . Keegan , John ( 2009 ) . The American Civil War : A Military History . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 26343 - 8 . Krannawitter , Thomas L. ( 2008 ) . Vindicating Lincoln : defending the politics of our greatest president . Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers . ISBN 0 - 7425 - 5972 - 6 . Lipset , Seymour Martin ( 1960 ) . Political Man : The Social Bases of Politics . Garden City , New York : Doubleday & Company , Inc . McPherson , James M. ( 1988 ) . Battle Cry of Freedom : The Civil War Era . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 503863 - 7 . McPherson , James M. ( 1992 ) . Ordeal By Fire : The Civil War and Reconstruction ( 2 ed . ) . New York : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 045842 - 0 . McPherson , James M. ( 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 974105 - 2 . McPherson , James M. ( 2007 ) . This Mighty Scourge : Perspectives on the Civil War . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 539242 - 5 . Thornton , Mark ; Ekelund , Robert Burton ( 2004 ) . Tariffs , Blockades , and Inflation : The Economics of the Civil War . Rowman & Littlefield . Murray , Robert Bruce . Legal Cases of the Civil War ( 2003 ) . ISBN 0 - 8117 - 0059 - 3 Murray , Williamson ; Bernstein , Alvin ; Knox , MacGregor ( 1996 ) . The Making of Strategy : Rulers , States , and War . Cabmbridge , New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 56627 - 8 . Neely , Mark ( 1993 ) . Confederate Bastille : Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties . Milwaukee , Wisconsin : Marquette University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87462 - 325 - 3 . Nelson , James L. ( 2005 ) . Reign of Iron : The Story of the First Battling Ironclads , the Monitor and the Merrimack . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 052404 - 3 . Nevins , Allan . Ordeal of the Union , an 8 - volume set ( 1947 -- 1971 ) . the most detailed political , economic and military narrative ; by Pulitzer Prize - winner 1 . Fruits of Manifest Destiny , 1847 -- 1852 online ; 2 . A House Dividing , 1852 -- 1857 ; 3 . Douglas , Buchanan , and Party Chaos , 1857 -- 1859 ; 4 . Prologue to Civil War , 1859 -- 1861 ; vols 5 -- 8 have the series title War for the Union ; 5 . The Improvised War , 1861 -- 1862 ; 6 . online ; War Becomes Revolution , 1862 -- 1863 ; 7 . The Organized War , 1863 -- 1864 ; 8 . The Organized War to Victory , 1864 -- 1865 Olsen , Christopher J. ( 2002 ) . Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi : Masculinity , Honor , and the Antiparty Tradition , 1830 -- 1860 . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 516097 - 0 . Perman , Michael ; Taylor , Amy M. ( 2010 ) . Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction : Documents and Essays ( 3 ed . ) . Boston , Massachusetts : Wadsworth , Cengage Learning . ISBN 978 - 0 - 618 - 87520 - 7 . Potter , David M. ( 1962 ) . `` The Historian 's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa '' . American Historical Review . 67 ( 4 ) : 924 -- 50 . JSTOR 1845246 . Potter , David M. ; Fehrenbacher , Don E. ( 1976 ) . The Impending Crisis , 1848 -- 1861 . New York : Harper & Row . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 013403 - 7 . Rhodes , John Ford ( 1917 ) . History of the Civil War , 1861 -- 1865 . New York : The Macmillan Company . Richter , William L. ( 2009 ) . The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction . Lanham : Scarecrow Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8108 - 6336 - 1 . Russell , Robert R. ( 1966 ) . `` Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories '' . Journal of Southern History . 32 ( 4 ) : 466 -- 86 . doi : 10.2307 / 2204926 . JSTOR 2204926 . Schott , Thomas E. ( 1996 ) . Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia : A Biography . Baton Rouge , Louisiana : Louisiana State University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8071 - 2106 - 1 . Sheehan - Dean , Aaron , ed. ( 2014 ) . A Companion to the U.S. Civil War . New York : Wiley Blackwell . ISBN 1 - 4443 - 5131 - 1 . , 2 vol. 1232 pp ; 64 topical chapters by experts ; emphasis on historiography . Stampp , Kenneth M. ( 1990 ) . America in 1857 : A Nation on the Brink . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 503902 - 5 . Stern , Phillip Van Doren ( 1962 ) . The Confederate Navy . Doubleday & Company , Inc . Symonds , Craig L. ; Clipson , William J. ( 2001 ) . The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55750 - 984 - 0 . Tucker , Spencer C. ; Pierpaoli , Paul G. ; White , William E. ( 2010 ) . The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia . Santa Barbara , California : ABC - CLIO . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59884 - 338 - 5 . Varon , Elizabeth R. ( 2008 ) . Disunion ! : The Coming of the American Civil War , 1789 -- 1859 . Chapel Hill , North Carolina : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 3232 - 5 . Vinovskis , Maris ( 1990 ) . Toward a Social History of the American Civil War : Exploratory Essays . Cambridge , England : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 39559 - 5 . Ward , Geoffrey R. ( 1990 ) . The Civil War : An Illustrated History . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 - 0 - 394 - 56285 - 8 . Weeks , William E. ( 2013 ) . The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations . Cambridge , New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 107 - 00590 - 7 . Weigley , Frank Russell ( 2004 ) . A Great Civil War : A Military and Political History , 1861 -- 1865 . Bloomington , Indiana : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0 - 253 - 33738 - 0 . Welles , Gideon ( 1865 ) . Secretary of the Navy 's Report . 37 -- 38 . American Seamen 's Friend Society . Winters , John D. ( 1963 ) . The Civil War in Louisiana . Baton Rouge , Louisiana : Louisiana State University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8071 - 0834 - 5 . Woodworth , Steven E. ( 1996 ) . American Civil War : A Handbook of Literature and Research . Wesport , Connecticut : Greenwood Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 29019 - 0 . Further reading Gugliotta , Guy . New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll , The New York Times , April 3 , 2012 , p . D1 ( of the New York edition ) , and April 2 , 2012 , on NYTimes.com . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 03 online . Bibliography of American Civil War naval history `` American Civil War '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . 1911 . Tidball , John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion , 1861 -- 1865 . Westholme Publishing , 2011 . ISBN 978 - 1594161490 . 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who sings the theme song from happy days

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Happy_Days_(TV_theme)&oldid=791701352

Happy Days ( TV theme ) - wikipedia Happy Days ( TV theme ) Jump to : navigation , search For the 2004 Japanese hit , see Happy Days ( Ai Otsuka song ) . `` Happy Days '' Single by Pratt & McClain from the album Pratt & McClain Featuring Happy Days Released 1976 Format Vinyl , 7 `` , Single Recorded 1976 Genre Rock , Stage & Screen Length 2 : 40 Label Reprise Records Songwriter ( s ) Charles Fox , Norman Gimbel Producer ( s ) Steve Barri , Michael Omartian Pratt & McClain singles chronology `` String Module Error : Match not found '' ( 1976 ) `` Happy Days '' ( 1976 ) `` Devil with a Blue Dress On '' ( 1976 ) `` Whachersign '' ( 1976 ) `` Happy Days '' ( 1976 ) `` Devil with a Blue Dress On '' ( 1976 ) `` Happy Days '' is a song written by Norman Gimbel and Charles Fox . It is the theme song of Happy Days . It can be heard during the TV show 's opening and closing credits as it runs in perpetual rerun syndication . The song was first recorded in 1974 by Jim Haas with a group of other session singers for the first two seasons . These versions of the song were used only during the closing credits of Seasons 1 and 2 , with an updated version of `` Rock Around the Clock '' by Bill Haley and His Comets used as the opening theme . The song was re-recorded in 1975 with different lyrics for both the opening and closing credits for Seasons 3 through 10 . Pratt & McClain released the song as a single in 1976 from their album Pratt & McClain Featuring Happy Days . Bobby Arvon recorded an updated version of the song in 1983 for the opening and closing credits of Season 11 , with the same lyrics as the version used for seasons 3 - 10 . Pratt & McClain 's album version of the song , recorded in 1976 , peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 , No. 7 on the Easy Listening chart , and No. 31 on the UK Singles Chart . Australian band Silver Studs also recorded a version of the theme for their debut album . It became their biggest hit single in Australia , reaching No. 4 in June 1976 . In 2014 , a re-recorded version of the song was used in commercials for Target . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Pratt & Mc Lain * With Brotherlove - Happy Days '' . Discogs . Retrieved 14 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Pratt & McClain Songs '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 20 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Pratt & McClain - Music Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 14 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Song : Happy Days '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Pratt & McClain - Awards '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 14 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Roberts , David ( 2006 ) . British Hit Singles & Albums ( 19th ed . ) . London : Guinness World Records Limited . p. 433 . ISBN 1 - 904994 - 10 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Midoztouch Discussion Forum '' . Retrieved 8 January 2015 . Happy Days Episodes Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 `` My Cousin the Cheat '' `` My Favorite Orkan '' Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Season 9 Season 10 Season 11 Characters Richard `` Richie '' Cunningham Arthur `` Fonzie '' Fonzarelli Ralph Malph Warren `` Potsie '' Weber Joanie Cunningham Charles `` Chachi '' Arcola Al Delvecchio Howard Cunningham Marion Cunningham Lori Beth Allen Roger Phillips Spin - offs Laverne & Shirley Blansky 's Beauties Mork & Mindy Out of the Blue Joanie Loves Chachi The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang Laverne & Shirley in the Army Mork & Mindy / Laverne & Shirley / Fonz Hour Related Theme from Happy Days Happy Days ( musical ) Jumping the shark `` Buddy Holly '' ( song ) Fonz ( video game ) Bronze Fonz ( sculpture ) Love , American Style Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Happy_Days_(TV_theme)&oldid=791701352 '' Categories : 1974 songs 1976 singles Happy Days Reprise Records singles Song recordings produced by Michael Omartian Songs from television series Songs with lyrics by Norman Gimbel Songs with music by Charles Fox ( composer ) Television theme songs Hidden categories : Music infoboxes with Module : String errors Articles with hAudio microformats Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 21 July 2017 , at 23 : 11 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where did the name sweet frog come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sweet_Frog&oldid=853948172

Sweet Frog - wikipedia Sweet Frog Sweet Frog Enterprises , LLC . Type Private Industry Chain restaurant / Franchise Founded Richmond , Virginia ( 2009 ( 2009 ) ) Founder Derek Cha and Annah Kim Headquarters Richmond , Virginia , United States of America Number of locations 350 + stores ( 2 / 2016 ) Area served regional - East Coast , South , Mideast , Midwest , West Coast Key people CEO J. Patrick Galleher Products Frozen yogurt and Sweet Frog merchandise Website www.sweetfrog.com Scoop & Cookie promoting Sweet Frog 's first Chicago area restaurant in Frankfort , IL . Sweet Frog ( stylised as sweetFrog - Premium Frozen Yogurt ) is a chain of frozen yogurt retail stores owned and operated by Sweet Frog Enterprises , LLC . Sweet Frog customers create their own soft - serve frozen yogurt with numerous flavors and toppings from which to choose . Derek Cha , who immigrated to the United States from South Korea at the age of 12 , is the founder of Sweet Frog . He started the first Sweet Frog store in Richmond , Virginia in 2009 , at a time when the United States economy was in recession . Cha founded Sweet Frog on Christian principles . The `` FROG '' part of the name , according to Cha , is actually an acronym for `` Fully Rely on God '' . The Sweet Frog stores ' interiors are distinctively painted pink and green , and the typical store consists of seven or eight frozen yogurt machines , toppings bars and Sweet Frog merchandise , much of which is centered on Sweet Frog 's mascots `` Scoop '' and `` Cookie '' . Contents 1 Growth 2 Sponsorships 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Growth ( edit ) Derek Cha started Sweet Frog with only one store in 2009 , and in four years Sweet Frog has grown to over 215 stores in 25 states in the U.S. , with more stores located internationally in the Dominican Republic , the United Kingdom and Egypt . In its first 3 years of franchising , over 60 Sweet Frog stores were opened . By the spring of 2012 , it was reported that Sweet Frog had 100 stores , and expected to have 200 by the end of the calendar year Cha 's goal was to have 200 Sweet Frog stores by the end of 2012 . A 24 April 2013 article reported that Sweet Frog had 240 stores at the time of that writing , which would include corporate - owned , licensed and franchised locations . It added that Sweet Frog had grown from 130 stores only seven months earlier in October 2012.By 2020 , Cha stated that he would like to have 1,000 U.S. locations and 1,000 international locations On April 17 , 2012 , Boxwood Capital Partners , LLC announced that it had made a growth capital investment in sweetFrog Enterprises , LLC . Boxwood 's minority investment is being used to help fund Sweet Frog 's expansion plans across the country and internationally . Subsequent to the investment , James Patrick Galleher , the Managing Director at Boxwood Capital Partners became the Chief Executive Officer of Sweet Frog Enterprises , LLC . In 2014 , sweetFrog was listed # 22 on the Inc. 500 list of fastest growing private companies in 2014 with revenues of $34.4 million . On February 2 , 2015 , it was announced that Boxwood Capital Partners , LLC had acquired sweetFrog Enterprises , LLC . The table below shows the Year ( column 1 ) , how many stores Sweet Frog opened during that year ( column 2 ) and the total number of stores that Sweet Frog had open and was operating by the end of that calendar year ( column 3 ) : Year Opened At Year End 2009 2011 8 10 2012 70 80 2013 107 187 2014 85 272 2015 - 23 249 2016 27 276 Sponsorships ( edit ) On April 18 , 2016 , it was announced by BK Racing that sweetFrog would be sponsoring David Ragan and the No. 23 Toyota Camry for the Toyota Owners 400 at Richmond International Raceway . sweetFrog returned to sponsor Ragan 's No. 23 for the Federated Auto Parts 400 at Richmond in August . sweetFrog later appeared in the video game NASCAR Heat Evolution . See also ( edit ) List of frozen yogurt companies References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Derosia Team . `` Must Eat Frozen Yogurt ! '' . The Derosia Team . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Sweet Frog founder 's Waterford Park could become Chesterfield 's next attraction '' . Richmond Times - Dispatch . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Christian Owned Businesses '' . A Voice of Reason . Archived from the original on 4 January 2015 . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Sweet Frog ; Fro - Yo with a side of God . Wait , what ? - Forward Progressives '' . Forward Progressives. 2013 - 08 - 01 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ Harris , Al . `` Q&A : Yogurt chain leapfrogs competition '' . Richmond BizSense . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ McNair , David . `` Sweet taste of success for Sweet Frog '' . The Hook . Better Publications LLC . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Llovio , Louis ( 20 February 2012 ) . `` rss feed Sweet Frog 's founder looks to grow chain beyond frozen yogurt '' . Richmond Times - Dispatch . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` sweetFrog US Store Locations '' . sweetFrog Premium Frozen Yogurt . Jump up ^ Owens , Andrew ( 17 May 2012 ) . `` Sweet Frog Makes a Splash in the Frozen Yogurt Pond '' . Brand Iron . Archived from the original on 2014 - 05 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` sweetFrog Premium Frozen Yogurt Franchise Information '' . Entrepreneur . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Derek Cha Sweet Frog '' . ZoomInfo.com . Jump up ^ `` sweetFrog , a Family - Friendly Frozen Yogurt Franchise with Christian Roots '' . www.franchisechatter.com . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ Bulik , Beth ( 14 May 2012 ) . `` In Crowded Fro - Yo Pond , Sweet Frog Stands Out '' . Advertising Age . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Larter , David ( 24 April 2013 ) . `` Sweet Frog orders a double serving of space '' . Richmond BizSense . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Llovio , Louis ( 20 February 2012 ) . `` Sweet Frog 's founder looks to grow chain beyond frozen yogurt '' . Richmond Times - Dispatch . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Sweet Frog Receives Growth Investment '' . Venture Capital News . Massinvestor , Inc . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Sweet Frog Enterprises , LLC : Private Company Information '' . Business Week . Jump up ^ `` J. Patrick Galleher '' . LinkedIn . Jump up ^ `` sweetFrog '' . Food and Drink International . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` sweetFrog Premium Frozen Yogurt '' . Inc . Jump up ^ `` Boxwood Capital Partners Acquires sweetFrog '' . GoDanRiver.com . Archived from the original on 2015 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` sweetFrog Teams Up with BK Racing , David Ragan '' . PRWeb . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 13 . Jump up ^ Koelle , Christian ( 2016 - 08 - 31 ) . `` The Motorsports News Source : SweetFrog Returns to sponsor BK Racing , David Ragan at Richmond International Raceway '' . The Motorsports News Source . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` A New DLC Is Set To Be Released For NASCAR Heat Evoltuion This Coming Week '' . iDigitalTimes.com. 2016 - 11 - 20 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 08 . External links ( edit ) Official website Fast food and fast casual restaurant chains in the United States Burger chains Chicken chains Coffeehouse chains Pizza chains Wiener chains Hamburgers A&W Arctic Circle Back Yard Big Boy BurgerFi Burger King Carl 's Jr . Checkers / Rally 's Cook Out Cheeburger Cheeburger Dairy Queen Fatburger Five Guys Freddy 's Fuddruckers The Habit Hardee 's Hwy 55 In - N - Out Jack in the Box Johnny Rockets Krystal McDonald 's Red Robin Roy Rogers Shake Shack Smashburger Sonic Steak ' n Shake Wayback Wendy 's Whataburger White Castle Asian L&L Hawaiian Barbecue Manchu Wok Panda Express Pei Wei Asian Diner P.F. Chang 's China Bistro Pick Up Stix Baked goods Au Bon Pain Auntie Anne 's Bruegger 's Cheesecake Factory Cinnabon Corner Bakery Cafe Duck Donuts Dunkin ' Donuts Einstein Bros . Great American Cookies Honey Dew Donuts Insomnia Cookies Krispy Kreme Mrs. Fields Nestlé Toll House Panera Bread Pretzelmaker / Pretzel Time Shipley Do - Nuts Tim Hortons T.J. Cinnamons Wetzel 's Winchell 's Beverages Argo Tea Biggby Coffee Caribou Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf Coffee Beanery Dunn Bros Gloria Jean 's Heine Brothers ' Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea Jamba Juice Juice It Up ! Orange Julius Peet 's Planet Smoothie Robeks Seattle 's Best Coffee Smoothie King Starbucks Tropical Smoothie Cafe Tully 's Frozen desserts Baskin - Robbins Ben & Jerry 's Braum 's Bruster 's Carvel Cold Stone Creamery Culver 's Dairy Queen Dippin ' Dots Fosters Freeze Friendly 's Golden Spoon Graeter 's Häagen - Dazs Handel 's MaggieMoo 's Marble Slab Menchie 's Oberweis Pinkberry Red Mango Rita 's Sweet Frog Tastee - Freez TCBY Tropical Sno Tutti Frutti Yogen Früz Yogurtland Hot dogs Hot Dog on a Stick Nathan 's Famous Portillo 's Wienerschnitzel Mexican - style / Tex - Mex Baja Fresh Cafe Rio Chipotle Del Taco El Pollo Loco Freebirds Green / Red Burrito La Salsa Moe 's Pancheros Qdoba Rubio 's Taco Bell Taco Bueno Taco Cabana Taco del Mar Taco John 's Taco Mayo Taco Time Tijuana Flats Wahoo 's Fish Taco Other Fazoli 's The Halal Guys Hooters Noodles & Company Sbarro Skyline Chili Sandwiches Arby 's Atlanta Bread Blimpie Capriotti 's Charley 's Così Cousins D'Angelo Daphne 's Erbert & Gerbert 's Firehouse Subs Great Wraps Jason 's Jerry 's Subs Jersey Mike 's Jimmy John 's Lee 's Sandwiches Lenny 's Sub McAlister 's Deli Miami Subs Newk 's Eatery Penn Station Port of Subs Potbelly Primo Hoagies Quiznos Rax Sandella 's Schlotzsky 's Steak Escape Subway Togo 's Tubby 's Tudor 's Biscuit World Which Wich ? Seafood Arthur Treacher 's California Fish Grill Captain D 's H. Salt Esquire Ivar 's Long John Silver 's Red Lobster Skippers Seafood & Chowder House Defunct Bresler 's Brigham 's Burger Chef Carrols D'Lites Druther 's Henry 's Hamburgers Hot ' n Now Hot Sam Pretzels Naugles Red Barn Sandy 's Teavana White Tower Zantigo Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sweet_Frog&oldid=853948172 '' Categories : 2009 establishments in Virginia Companies based in Richmond , Virginia Frozen yogurt businesses Regional restaurant chains in the United States Restaurants established in 2009 Fast - food franchises Fast - food chains of the United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 7 August 2018 , at 23 : 59 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what is the great wall of china built out of

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Great_Wall_of_China&oldid=809169765

Great Wall of China - wikipedia Great Wall of China Jump to : navigation , search `` Great Wall '' redirects here . For other uses , see Great Wall ( disambiguation ) . Great Wall of China 萬里 長城 The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling Map of all the wall constructions General information Type Fortification Country China Coordinates 40 ° 41 ′ N 117 ° 14 ′ E  /  40.68 ° N 117.23 ° E  / 40.68 ; 117.23 Coordinates : 40 ° 41 ′ N 117 ° 14 ′ E  /  40.68 ° N 117.23 ° E  / 40.68 ; 117.23 Technical details Size 21,196 km ( 13,171 mi ) UNESCO World Heritage Site Criteria Cultural : ( i ) , ( ii ) , ( iii ) , ( iv ) , ( vi ) Reference 438 Inscription 1987 ( 11th Session ) ( edit on Wikidata ) Great Wall of China Simplified Chinese 长城 Traditional Chinese 長城 Literal meaning `` The Long Wall '' ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chángchéng Wade -- Giles Ch'ang - ch'eng IPA ( ʈʂhǎŋ. ʈʂhə̌ŋ ) Wu Romanization Saon sen Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Cheung sing IPA ( tshœ̏ːŋ. sȅŋ ) Jyutping Coeng sing Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tn̂g - siân Tâi - lô Tn̂g - siânn Alternative Chinese name Simplified Chinese 万里 长城 Traditional Chinese 萬里 長城 Literal meaning `` The 10,000 - Mile Long Wall '' ( show ) Transcriptions Wu Romanization Vae - li saon - sen Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Maan lei Cheung sing IPA ( màːn. le̬i tshœ̏ːŋ. sȅŋ ) Jyutping Maan - lei coeng - sing Southern Min Tâi - lô Bān - lí tn̂g - siânn The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone , brick , tamped earth , wood , and other materials , generally built along an east - to - west line across the historical northern borders of China to protect the Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of the various nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe . Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC ; these , later joined together and made bigger and stronger , are collectively referred to as the Great Wall . Especially famous is the system of fortifications built in 220 -- 206 BC by Qin Shi Huang , the first Emperor of China . Little of that wall remains . The Great Wall has been rebuilt , maintained , and enhanced over various dynasties ; the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) . Apart from defense , other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls , allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road , regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration . Furthermore , the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers , troop barracks , garrison stations , signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire , and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor . The Great Wall stretches from Dandong in the east to Lop Lake in the west , along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia . A comprehensive archaeological survey , using advanced technologies , has concluded that the Ming walls measure 8,850 km ( 5,500 mi ) . This is made up of 6,259 km ( 3,889 mi ) sections of actual wall , 359 km ( 223 mi ) of trenches and 2,232 km ( 1,387 mi ) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers . Another archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measure out to be 21,196 km ( 13,171 mi ) . Today , the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history . Contents ( hide ) 1 Names 2 History 2.1 Early walls 2.2 Ming era 2.3 Foreign accounts 3 Course 4 Characteristics 5 Condition 6 Visibility from space 6.1 From the Moon 6.2 From low Earth orbit 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Names The collection of fortifications known as the Great Wall of China has historically had a number of different names in both Chinese and English . In Chinese histories , the term `` Long Wall ( s ) '' ( 長城 , changcheng ) appears in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian , where it referred to both the separate great walls built between and north of the Warring States and to the more unified construction of the First Emperor . The Chinese character 城 is a phono - semantic compound of the `` place '' or `` earth '' radical 土 and 成 , whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as * deŋ . It originally referred to the rampart which surrounded traditional Chinese cities and was used by extension for these walls around their respective states ; today , however , it is much more often the Chinese word for `` city '' . The longer Chinese name `` Ten - Thousand Mile Long Wall '' ( 萬里 長城 , Wanli Changcheng ) came from Sima Qian 's description of it in the Records , though he did not name the walls as such . The AD 493 Book of Song quotes the frontier general Tan Daoji referring to `` the long wall of 10,000 miles '' , closer to the modern name , but the name rarely features in pre-modern times otherwise . The traditional Chinese mile ( 里 , lǐ ) was an often irregular distance that was intended to show the length of a standard village and varied with terrain but was usually standardized at distances around a third of an English mile ( 540 m ) . Since China 's metrication in 1930 , it has been exactly equivalent to 500 metres or 1,600 feet , which would make the wall 's name describe a distance of 5,000 km ( 3,100 mi ) . However , this use of `` ten - thousand '' ( wàn ) is figurative in a similar manner to the Greek and English myriad and simply means `` innumerable '' or `` immeasurable '' . Because of the wall 's association with the First Emperor 's supposed tyranny , the Chinese dynasties after Qin usually avoided referring to their own additions to the wall by the name `` Long Wall '' . Instead , various terms were used in medieval records , including `` frontier ( s ) '' ( 塞 , sāi ) , `` rampart ( s ) '' ( 垣 , yuán ) , `` barrier ( s ) '' ( 障 , zhàng ) , `` the outer fortresses '' ( 外 堡 , wàibǎo ) , and `` the border wall ( s ) '' ( t 邊 牆 , s 边 墙 , biānqiáng ) . Poetic and informal names for the wall included `` the Purple Frontier '' ( 紫 塞 , Zǐsāi ) and `` the Earth Dragon '' ( t 土 龍 , s 土 龙 , Tǔlóng ) . Only during the Qing period did `` Long Wall '' become the catch - all term to refer to the many border walls regardless of their location or dynastic origin , equivalent to the English `` Great Wall '' . The current English name evolved from accounts of `` the Chinese wall '' from early modern European travelers . By the 19th century , `` The Great Wall of China '' had become standard in English , French , and German , although other European languages continued to refer to it as `` the Chinese wall '' . History Main article : History of the Great Wall of China Early walls The Great Wall of the Qin The Great Wall of the Han The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall - building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC . During this time and the subsequent Warring States period , the states of Qin , Wei , Zhao , Qi , Yan , and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders . Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears , these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames . King Zheng of Qin conquered the last of his opponents and unified China as the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty ( `` Qin Shi Huang '' ) in 221 BC . Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords , he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states . To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north , however , he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire 's northern frontier . Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult , so builders always tried to use local resources . Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges , while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains . There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls . Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries , and very few sections remain today . The human cost of the construction is unknown , but it has been estimated by some authors that hundreds of thousands , if not up to a million , workers died building the Qin wall . Later , the Han , the Sui , and the Northern dynasties all repaired , rebuilt , or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders . The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region . The Liao , Jin , and Yuan dynasties , who ruled Northern China throughout most of the 10th -- 13th centuries , constructed defensive walls in the 12th century but those were located much to the north of the Great Wall as we know it , within China 's province of Inner Mongolia and in Mongolia itself . Ming era The extent of the Ming Empire and its walls Main article : Ming Great Wall The Great Wall concept was revived again under the Ming in the 14th century , and following the Ming army 's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu . The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper hand over the Mongolian tribes after successive battles , and the long - drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire . The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the nomadic tribes out by constructing walls along the northern border of China . Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert , the wall followed the desert 's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River . Unlike the earlier fortifications , the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth . Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall . As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years , the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls . Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong . Qi Jiguang between 1567 and 1570 also repaired and reinforced the wall , faced sections of the ram - earth wall with bricks and constructed 1,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping to warn of approaching Mongol raiders . During the 1440s -- 1460s , the Ming also built a so - called `` Liaodong Wall '' . Similar in function to the Great Wall ( whose extension , in a sense , it was ) , but more basic in construction , the Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province , protecting it against potential incursions by Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north . While stones and tiles were used in some parts of the Liaodong Wall , most of it was in fact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides . Towards the end of the Ming , the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600 . Even after the loss of all of Liaodong , the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass , preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland . The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644 , after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng 's rebels . Before this time , the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid , but this time it was for conquest . The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general , Wu Sangui , who formed an alliance with the Manchus , hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing . The Manchus quickly seized Beijing , and eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance , establishing the Qing dynasty rule over all of China . Under Qing rule , China 's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the empire , so constructions on the Great Wall were discontinued . On the other hand , the so - called Willow Palisade , following a line similar to that of the Ming Liaodong Wall , was constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria . Its purpose , however , was not defense but rather migration control . Foreign accounts Part of the Great Wall of China ( April 1853 , X , p. 41 ) The Great Wall in 1907 None of the Europeans who visited Yuan China or Mongolia , such as Marco Polo , Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , William of Rubruck , Giovanni de ' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone , mentioned the Great Wall . The North African traveler Ibn Battuta , who also visited China during the Yuan dynasty ca . 1346 , had heard about China 's Great Wall , possibly before he had arrived in China . He wrote that the wall is `` sixty days ' travel '' from Zeitun ( modern Quanzhou ) in his travelogue Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling . He associated it with the legend of the wall mentioned in the Qur'an , which Dhul - Qarnayn ( commonly associated with Alexander the Great ) was said to have erected to protect people near the land of the rising sun from the savages of Gog and Magog . However , Ibn Battuta could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it , suggesting that although there were remnants of the wall at that time , they were n't significant . Soon after Europeans reached Ming China by ship in the early 16th century , accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe , even though no European was to see it for another century . Possibly one of the earliest European descriptions of the wall and of its significance for the defense of the country against the `` Tartars '' ( i.e. Mongols ) , may be the one contained in João de Barros 's 1563 Asia . Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da Cruz , Bento de Goes , Matteo Ricci , and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza . In 1559 , in his work `` A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions , '' Gaspar da Cruz offers an early discussion of the Great Wall . Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605 , when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India . Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical , closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall , although later they slid into hyperbole , including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming Walls were the same ones that were built by the First Emperor in the 3rd century BC . When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars , the Great Wall became a main attraction for tourists . The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and the mythology of the Great Wall , such that in the 20th century , a persistent misconception exists about the Great Wall of China being visible from the Moon or even Mars . Course The main sections of the Great Wall that are still standing today An area of the sections of the Great Wall at Jinshanling Although a formal definition of what constitutes a `` Great Wall '' has not been agreed upon , making the full course of the Great Wall difficult to describe in its entirety , the course of the main Great Wall line following Ming constructions can be charted . The Jiayu Pass , located in Gansu province , is the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall . Although Han fortifications such as Yumen Pass and the Yang Pass exist further west , the extant walls leading to those passes are difficult to trace . From Jiayu Pass the wall travels discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor and into the deserts of Ningxia , where it enters the western edge of the Yellow River loop at Yinchuan . Here the first major walls erected during the Ming dynasty cuts through the Ordos Desert to the eastern edge of the Yellow River loop . There at Piantou Pass ( t 偏 頭 關 , s 偏 头 关 , Piāntóuguān ) in Xinzhou , Shanxi province , the Great Wall splits in two with the `` Outer Great Wall '' ( t 外 長城 , s 外 长城 , Wài Chǎngchéng ) extending along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province , and the `` inner Great Wall '' ( t 內 長城 , s 內 长城 , Nèi Chǎngchéng ) running southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 km ( 250 mi ) , passing through important passes like the Pingxing Pass and Yanmen Pass before joining the Outer Great Wall at Sihaiye ( 四海 冶 , Sìhǎiyě ) , in Beijing 's Yanqing County . The sections of the Great Wall around Beijing municipality are especially famous : they were frequently renovated and are regularly visited by tourists today . The Badaling Great Wall near Zhangjiakou is the most famous stretch of the Wall , for this is the first section to be opened to the public in the People 's Republic of China , as well as the showpiece stretch for foreign dignitaries . South of Badaling is the Juyong Pass ; when used by the Chinese to protect their land , this section of the wall had many guards to defend China 's capital Beijing . Made of stone and bricks from the hills , this portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 m ( 25 ft 7 in ) high and 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) wide . One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes in Jinshanling . There it runs 11 km ( 7 mi ) long , ranges from 5 to 8 m ( 16 ft 5 in to 26 ft 3 in ) in height , and 6 m ( 19 ft 8 in ) across the bottom , narrowing up to 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) across the top . Wangjinglou ( t 望 京 樓 , s 望 京 楼 , Wàngjīng Lóu ) is one of Jinshanling 's 67 watchtowers , 980 m ( 3,220 ft ) above sea level . Southeast of Jinshanling is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty , cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for 2.25 km ( 1.40 mi ) . It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east . This section was one of the first to be renovated following the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution . At the edge of the Bohai Gulf is Shanhai Pass , considered the traditional end of the Great Wall and the `` First Pass Under Heaven '' . The part of the wall inside Shanhai Pass that meets the sea is named the `` Old Dragon Head '' . 3 km ( 2 mi ) north of Shanhai Pass is Jiaoshan Great Wall ( 焦 山 長城 ) , the site of the first mountain of the Great Wall . 15 km ( 9 mi ) northeast from Shanhaiguan is Jiumenkou ( t 九 門口 , s 九 门口 , Jiǔménkǒu ) , which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge . Beyond Jiumenkou , an offshoot known as the Liaodong Wall continues through Liaoning province and terminates at the Hushan Great Wall , in the city of Dandong near the North Korean border . In 2009 , 180 km of previously unknown sections of the wall concealed by hills , trenches and rivers were discovered with the help of infrared range finders and GPS devices . In March and April 2015 nine sections with a total length of more than 10 km ( 6 mi ) , believed to be part of the Great Wall , were discovered along the border of Ningxia autonomous region and Gansu province . Characteristics The Great Wall at Mutianyu , near Beijing Great Wall of China in tourist season Before the use of bricks , the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth , stones , and wood . During the Ming , however , bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall , as were materials such as tiles , lime , and stone . The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone , so construction quickened . Additionally , bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth . Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick , but is more difficult to use . Consequently , stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation , inner and outer brims , and gateways of the wall . Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall , with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm ( 12 in ) tall , and about 23 cm ( 9.1 in ) wide . From the parapets , guards could survey the surrounding land . Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall , including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements , was of high importance . Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility . Wooden gates could be used as a trap against those going through . Barracks , stables , and armories were built near the wall 's inner surface . Condition A more rural portion of the Great Wall that stretches throughout the mountains , here seen in slight disrepair A view of the Great Wall ranging across a mountain , from another part of the Great Wall , near Beijing . While portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even extensively renovated , in many other locations the Wall is in disrepair . Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads . Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism , while inscribed bricks were pilfered and sold on the market for up to 50 renminbi . Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction . A 2012 report by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage states that 22 % of the Ming Great Wall has disappeared , while 1,961 km ( 1,219 mi ) of wall have vanished . More than 60 km ( 37 mi ) of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years , due to erosion from sandstorms . In some places , the height of the wall has been reduced from more than 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) to less than 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) . Various square lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared . Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud , rather than brick and stone , and thus are more susceptible to erosion . In 2014 a portion of the wall near the border of Liaoning and Hebei province was repaired with concrete . The work has been much criticized . Visibility from space From the Moon One of the earliest known references to the myth that the Great Wall can be seen from the moon appears in a letter written in 1754 by the English antiquary William Stukeley . Stukeley wrote that , `` This mighty wall of four score miles ( 130 km ) in length is only exceeded by the Chinese Wall , which makes a considerable figure upon the terrestrial globe , and may be discerned at the Moon . '' The claim was also mentioned by Henry Norman in 1895 where he states `` besides its age it enjoys the reputation of being the only work of human hands on the globe visible from the Moon . '' The issue of `` canals '' on Mars was prominent in the late 19th century and may have led to the belief that long , thin objects were visible from space . The claim that the Great Wall is visible from the moon also appears in 1932 's Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! strip and in Richard Halliburton 's 1938 book Second Book of Marvels . The claim the Great Wall is visible from the moon has been debunked many times , but is still ingrained in popular culture . The wall is a maximum 9.1 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) wide , and is about the same color as the soil surrounding it . Based on the optics of resolving power ( distance versus the width of the iris : a few millimeters for the human eye , meters for large telescopes ) only an object of reasonable contrast to its surroundings which is 110 km ( 70 mi ) or more in diameter ( 1 arc - minute ) would be visible to the unaided eye from the Moon , whose average distance from Earth is 384,393 km ( 238,851 mi ) . The apparent width of the Great Wall from the Moon is the same as that of a human hair viewed from 3 km ( 2 mi ) away . To see the wall from the Moon would require spatial resolution 17,000 times better than normal ( 20 / 20 ) vision . Unsurprisingly , no lunar astronaut has ever claimed to have seen the Great Wall from the Moon . From low earth orbit A satellite image of a section of the Great Wall in northern Shanxi , running diagonally from lower left to upper right and not to be confused with the more prominent river running from upper left to lower right . The region pictured is 12 km × 12 km ( 7 mi × 7 mi ) . A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit ( an altitude of as little as 160 km ( 100 mi ) ) . NASA claims that it is barely visible , and only under nearly perfect conditions ; it is no more conspicuous than many other man - made objects . Other authors have argued that due to limitations of the optics of the eye and the spacing of photoreceptors on the retina , it is impossible to see the wall with the naked eye , even from low orbit , and would require visual acuity of 20 / 3 ( 7.7 times better than normal ) . Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing . He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars , but said that `` it was n't visible to the unaided eye . '' U.S. Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s , but his claim has been disputed by several U.S. astronauts . Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene Cernan has stated : `` At Earth orbit of 100 to 200 miles ( 160 to 320 km ) high , the Great Wall of China is , indeed , visible to the naked eye . '' Ed Lu , Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station , adds that , `` it 's less visible than a lot of other objects . And you have to know where to look . '' In 2001 , Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11 : `` I do not believe that , at least with my eyes , there would be any man - made object that I could see . I have not yet found somebody who has told me they 've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit ... I 've asked various people , particularly Shuttle guys , that have been many orbits around China in the daytime , and the ones I 've talked to did n't see it . '' In October 2003 , Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see the Great Wall of China . In response , the European Space Agency ( ESA ) issued a press release reporting that from an orbit between 160 and 320 km ( 100 and 200 mi ) , the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye , even though the ISS is in low Earth orbit , not space . In an attempt to further clarify things , the ESA published a picture of a part of the `` Great Wall '' photographed from low orbit . However , in a press release a week later , they acknowledged that the `` Great Wall '' in the picture was actually a river . Leroy Chiao , a Chinese - American astronaut , took a photograph from the International Space Station that shows the wall . It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had actually captured it . Based on the photograph , the China Daily later reported that the Great Wall can be seen from ' space ' with the naked eye , under favorable viewing conditions , if one knows exactly where to look . However , the resolution of a camera can be much higher than the human visual system , and the optics much better , rendering photographic evidence irrelevant to the issue of whether it is visible to the naked eye . Gallery `` The First Mound '' -- at Jiayuguan , the western terminus The Great Wall of China at Badaling A portion of the Great Wall of China at Simatai , overlooking the gorge Mutianyu Great Wall , China . This is atop the wall on a section that has not been restored The Old Dragon Head , the Great Wall where it meets the sea in the vicinity of Shanhaiguan Great Wall at Dandong See also Defense of the Great Wall Gates of Alexander Great Wall Marathon Great Wall of China hoax Great Wall of Qi Huangya Pass Jiankou List of World Heritage Sites in China Notes Jump up ^ `` China 's Great Wall Found To Measure More Than 20,000 Kilometers '' . Bloomberg . June 5 , 2012 . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The New York Times with introduction by Sam Tanenhaus ( 2011 ) . The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge : A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind . St. Martin 's Press of Macmillan Publishers . p. 1131 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 64302 - 7 . Beginning as separate sections of fortification around the 7th century B.C.E and unified during the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century B.C.E , this wall , built of earth and rubble with a facing of brick or stone , runs from east to west across China for over 4,000 miles . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Large parts of the fortification system date from the 7th through the 4th century BC . In the 3rd century BC Shihuangdi ( Qin Shi Huang ) , the first emperor of a united China ( under the Qin dynasty ) , connected a number of existing defensive walls into a single system . Traditionally , the eastern terminus of the wall was considered to be Shanhai Pass ( Shanhaiguan ) in eastern Hebei province along the coast of the Bo Hai ( Gulf of Chihli ) , and the wall 's length -- without its branches and other secondary sections -- was thought to extend for some 6,690 km ( 4,160 mi ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Great Wall of China ' even longer ' '' . BBC . April 20 , 2009 . Retrieved April 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China even longer than previously thought '' . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . June 6 , 2012 . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China '' . History . April 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1983 , p. 650 . Jump up ^ Baxter , William H. & al. ( 20 September 2014 ) . `` Baxter -- Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction , Version 1.1 '' ( PDF ) . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . Jump up ^ See Lovell 2006 , p. 25 Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 202 . Tan Daoji 's exact quote : `` So you would destroy your Great Wall of Ten Thousand Li ! '' ( 乃 復 壞 汝 萬里 之 長城 ) Note the use of the particle 之 zhi that differentiates the quote from the modern name . Jump up ^ Byron R. Winborn ( 1994 ) . Wen Bon : a Naval Air Intelligence Officer behind Japanese lines in China . University of North Texas Press . p. 63 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 929398 - 77 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` The Weights and Measures Act ( 1929 ) '' . The Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China . Archived from the original on 2014 - 04 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : Lindesay , William ( 2007 ) . The Great Wall Revisited : From the Jade Gate to Old Dragon 's Head . Beijing : Wuzhou Publishing . p. 21 . ISBN 7 - 5085 - 1032 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1983 , p. 651 . ^ Jump up to : Lovell 2006 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1988 , p. 69 . ^ Jump up to : Hessler 2007 , p. 59 . Jump up ^ 歷代 王朝 修 長城 ( in Chinese ) . Chiculture.net . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ 古代 长城 -- 战争 与 和平 的 纽带 ( in Chinese ) . Newsmth.net . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ 万里 长城 ( in Chinese ) . Newsmth.net . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Slavicek , Mitchell & Matray 2005 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Evans 2006 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ `` Defense and Cost of The Great Wall -- page 3 '' . Paul and Bernice Noll 's Window on the World . Retrieved July 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Coonan , Clifford ( February 27 , 2012 ) . `` British researcher discovers piece of Great Wall ' marooned outside China ' '' . The Irish Times . Retrieved February 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1983 , p. 653 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1983 , p. 654 ; Haw 2006 , pp. 52 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Karnow 2008 , p. 192 . Jump up ^ Szabó , Dávid & Loczy 2010 , p. 220 . Jump up ^ Evans 2006 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall at Mutianyu '' . Great Wall of China . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Edmonds 1985 , pp. 38 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Lovell 2006 , p. 254 . Jump up ^ Elliott 2001 , pp. 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ `` Part of the Great Wall of China '' . The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering : A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons . Wesleyan Missionary Society . X : 41 . April 1853 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Ruysbroek , Willem van ( 1900 ) ( 1255 ) . The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World , 1253 -- 55 , as Narrated by Himself , with Two Accounts of the Earlier Journey of John of Pian de Carpine . Translated from the Latin by William Woodville Rockhill . London : The Hakluyt Society . Jump up ^ Haw 2006 , pp. 53 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Haw 2006 , pp. 54 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Qur'an , XVIII : `` The Cave '' . English translations hosted at Wikisource include Maulana Muhammad Ali 's , E.H. Palmer 's , and the Progressive Muslims Organization 's . Jump up ^ Haw 2006 , pp. 53 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Barros , João de ( 1777 ) ( 1563 ) . Ásia de João de Barros : Dos feitos que os portugueses fizeram no descobrimento dos mares e terras do Oriente . V. Lisbon . 3a Década , pp. 186 -- 204 ( originally Vol. II , Ch . vii ) . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1990 , pp. 204 -- 05 . Jump up ^ Yule 1866 , p. 579This section is the report of Góis 's travel , as reported by Matteo Ricci in De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas ( published 1615 ) , annotated by Henry Yule ) . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , pp. 2 -- 4 . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1990 , p. 206 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 209 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 214 . Jump up ^ Hessler 2007 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Rojas 2010 , p. 140 . Jump up ^ Lindesay 2008 , p. 212 . Jump up ^ `` Jiaoshan Great Wall '' . TravelChinaGuide.com . Retrieved September 15 , 2010 . Jiaoshan Great Wall is located about 3 km ( 2 mi ) from Shanhaiguan ancient city . It is named after Jiaoshan Mountain , which is the highest peak to the north of Shanhai Pass and also the first mountain the Great Wall climbs up after Shanhai Pass . Therefore Jiaoshan Mountain is noted as `` The first mountain of the Great Wall '' . Jump up ^ `` The Great Wall : Liaoning Province '' . Global Times . October 14 , 2014 . Retrieved December 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China longer than believed as 180 missing miles found '' . The Guardian . 20 April 2009 . Retrieved 18 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Newly - discovered remains redraw path of Great Wall '' . China Daily . 15 April 2015 . Retrieved 18 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Turnbull 2007 , p. 29 . Jump up ^ Ford , Peter ( November 30 , 2006 ) . New law to keep China 's Wall looking great . Christian Science Monitor , Asia Pacific section . Retrieved March 17 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Wong , Edward ( 29 June 2015 ) . `` China Fears Loss of Great Wall , Brick by Brick '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 1 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Bruce G. Doar : The Great Wall of China : Tangible , Intangible and Destructible . China Heritage Newsletter , China Heritage Project , Australian National University Jump up ^ `` China 's Wall becoming less and less Great '' . Reuters . August 29 , 2007 . Retrieved August 30 , 2007 . Jump up ^ CNN , Ben Westcott and Serenitie Wang . `` China 's Great Wall covered in cement '' . Jump up ^ The Family Memoirs of the Rev. William Stukeley ( 1887 ) Vol. 3 , p. 142 . ( 1754 ) . Jump up ^ Norman , Henry , The Peoples and Politics of the Far East , p. 215 . ( 1895 ) . Jump up ^ `` The Great Wall of China , Ripley 's Believe It or Not , 1932 . Jump up ^ Urban Legends.com website . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . `` Can you see the Great Wall of China from the moon or outer space ? '' , Answers.com . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . Cecil Adams , `` Is the Great wall of China the only manmade object byou can see from space ? '' , The Straight Dope . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . Snopes , `` Great wall from space '' , last updated July 21 , 2007 . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . `` Is China 's Great Wall Visible from Space ? '' , Scientific American , February 21 , 2008 . `` ... the wall is only visible from low orbit under a specific set of weather and lighting conditions . And many other structures that are less spectacular from an earthly vantage point -- desert roads , for example -- appear more prominent from an orbital perspective . '' Jump up ^ `` Metro Tescos '' , The Times ( London ) , April 26 , 2010 . Found at The Times website . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : López - Gil 2008 , pp. 3 -- 4 . Jump up ^ `` NASA -- Great Wall of China '' . Nasa.gov . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Dr. Stephen E. Ambrose ; Dr. Douglas Brinkley ( September 19 , 2001 ) . `` Johnson Space Center Oral History Project Oral History Transcript -- Neil Armstrong '' ( PDF ) . NASA . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Markus , Francis . ( 2005 , April 19 ) . Great Wall visible in space photo . BBC News , Asia - Pacific section . Retrieved March 17 , 2007 . References Edmonds , Richard Louis ( 1985 ) . Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan : A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy . University of Chicago , Department of Geography ; Research Paper No. 213 . ISBN 0 - 89065 - 118 - 3 . Elliott , Mark C. ( 2001 ) . The Manchu Way : The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China . Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 4684 - 7 . Evans , Thammy ( 2006 ) . Great Wall of China : Beijing & Northern China . Bradt Travel Guide . Bradt Travel Guides . p. 3 . ISBN 1 - 84162 - 158 - 7 . Haw , Stephen G. ( 2006 ) . Marco Polo 's China : a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan . Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia . Psychology Press . ISBN 0 - 415 - 34850 - 1 . Hessler , Peter ( 2007 ) . `` Letter from China : Walking the Wall '' . The New Yorker ( May 21 , 2007 ) : 58 -- 67 . Karnow , Mooney , Paul and Catherine ( 2008 ) . National Geographic Traveler : Beijing . National Geographic Books . p. 192 . ISBN 1 - 4262 - 0231 - 8 . Lindesay , William ( 2008 ) . The Great Wall Revisited : From the Jade Gate to Old Dragon 's Head . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03149 - 4 . López - Gil , Norberto ( 2008 ) . `` Is it Really Possible to See the Great Wall of China from Space with a Naked Eye ? '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Optometry. 1 ( 1 ) : 3 -- 4 . doi : 10.3921 / joptom. 2008.3 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 09 - 10 . Lovell , Julia ( 2006 ) . The Great Wall : China against the world 1000 BC -- AD 2000 . Sydney : Picador Pan Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 330 - 42241 - 3 . Rojas , Carlos ( 2010 ) . The Great Wall : a cultural history . Cambridge , Mass : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 04787 - 7 . Slavicek , Louise Chipley ; Mitchell , George J. ; Matray , James I. ( 2005 ) . The Great Wall of China . Infobase Publishing . p. 35 . ISBN 0 - 7910 - 8019 - 6 . Szabó , József ; Dávid , Lóránt ; Loczy , Denes , eds. ( 2010 ) . Anthropogenic Geomorphology : A Guide to Man - made Landforms . Springer . ISBN 978 - 90 - 481 - 3057 - 3 . Turnbull , Stephen R ( January 2007 ) . The Great Wall of China 221 BC -- AD 1644 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84603 - 004 - 8 . Waldron , Arthur ( 1983 ) . `` The Problem of The Great Wall of China '' . Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies . Harvard - Yenching Institute . 43 ( 2 ) : 643 -- 63 . JSTOR 2719110 . Waldron , Arthur ( 1988 ) . `` The Great Wall Myth : Its Origins and Role in Modern China '' . The Yale Journal of Criticism . Johns Hopkins University Press . 2 ( 1 ) : 67 -- 104 . Waldron , Arthur ( 1990 ) . The Great Wall of China : from history to myth . Cambridge England New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 42707 - 4 . Yule , Sir Henry , ed. ( 1866 ) . Cathay and the way thither : being a collection of medieval notices of China . Issues 36 -- 37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society . Printed for the Hakluyt society . Further reading Arnold , H.J.P , `` The Great Wall : Is It or Is n't It ? '' Astronomy Now , 1995 . Beckwith , Christopher I. ( 2009 ) : Empires of the Silk Road : A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present . Princeton : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 13589 - 2 . Luo , Zewen , et al. and Baker , David , ed. ( 1981 ) . The Great Wall . Maidenhead : McGraw - Hill Book Company ( UK ) . ISBN 0 - 07 - 070745 - 6 Man , John . ( 2008 ) . The Great Wall . London : Bantam Press . 335 pages . ISBN 978 - 0 - 593 - 05574 - 8 . Michaud , Roland and Sabrina ( photographers ) , & Michel Jan , The Great Wall of China . Abbeville Press , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 7892 - 0736 - 2 Schafer , Edward H. ( 1985 ) The Golden Peaches of Samarkand . Berkeley : University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 05462 - 2 . Yamashita , Michael ; Lindesay , William ( 2007 ) . The Great Wall -- From Beginning to End . New York : Sterling . 160 pages . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4027 - 3160 - 0 . 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what happened to backlot tour at hollywood studios

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Studio_Backlot_Tour&oldid=801936877

Studio Backlot tour - wikipedia Studio Backlot tour Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Studio Tour ( disambiguation ) . Studio Backlot Tour Attraction 's entrance Disney 's Hollywood Studios Area Streets of America 28 ° 21 ′ 18 '' N 81 ° 33 ′ 42 '' W  /  28.35500 ° N 81.56167 ° W  / 28.35500 ; - 81.56167 Status Closed Opening date May 1 , 1989 Closing date September 27 , 2014 Replaced by Toy Story Land General statistics Attraction type Tram tour Designer Walt Disney Imagineering Theme Back - lot tour of a working film studio Vehicle type Tram Riders per vehicle 200 Duration 35 minutes Included attractions Catastrophe Canyon Must transfer from wheelchair Assistive listening available Closed captioning available The Studio Backlot Tour was a theme park attraction at Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista , Florida . It was a combination of a walking and tram tour of the backlot area of the park . The Studio Backlot Tour was one of two original attractions at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , the other being the Great Movie Ride . Originally the park 's premier attraction , it shut down in the fall of 2014 , after years of downscaling , for newer experiences not announced at the time . In August 2015 , it was announced that the area would be used for Toy Story Land . The entire attraction has now been demolished . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Original ride 1.2 Refurbishment 1.3 Closure 2 Attractions 2.1 The queue area 2.2 Walking tour 2.3 Tram tour 2.4 Post-ride 3 References 4 External links History ( edit ) Original ride ( edit ) Attraction 's marquee The first incarnation of the Backlot Tour loaded at the former entrance to The Magic of Disney Animation . The original tour was far longer and more elaborate than the final version . The former tour originally drove through New York Street / Streets of America . However , due to the surprise popularity of the park , New York Street was removed from the tour and made into a public walking space within the first few years of operation . It remained open to pedestrians until April 2 , 2016 when Streets of America closed . After driving through New York Street , the tram drove to Catastrophe Canyon . After visiting the canyon , guests disembarked at the final tour 's exit area . The area where Studio Catering Co. restaurant & the adjacent shop stood until Streets of America closed was originally a break area for guests before embarking on the second half of the Backlot tour . This break area was expanded to include an area for kids to play , called Honey , I Shrunk the Kids : Movie Set Adventure . The second half of the tour was a walking tour . It encompassed the water special effects tank , an effects shop , and the existing soundstages along Mickey Avenue and the soundstages that currently house Walt Disney : One Man 's Dream and Voyage of the Little Mermaid . Guests viewed the soundstages using overhead walkways . Portions of the walkway can still be seen in the park . Most noticeably , by the most recent Backlot Tour entrance and by the former The Legend of Captain Jack Sparrow entrance , there are walkway bridges . Just like New York Street , due to the overwhelming popularity of Disney 's Hollywood Studios , former Backlot areas were opened up to guests ( present day Mickey Avenue & southern Animation Courtyard ) . Much of the former walking portion of the Backlot Tour became its own attraction , Backstage Pass , separate from the original tour . This greatly reduced the overall Tour time . Around this same time , the entrance to the Backlot Tour was moved to the end of Mickey Avenue , with a new entrance ramp built to the water effects tank , a prop warehouse building constructed for additional queue , and a new loading area for the trams . In 2001 , Backstage Pass was closed . In April 2001 , Soundstage 3 opened to the public to house Who Wants To Be A Millionaire - Play It ! and was closed in 2006 . In 2008 , Soundstage 3 and the adjacent Soundstage 2 were converted into the Toy Story Midway Mania ! attraction . Soundstage 1 previously housed a gift shop for `` Star Wars Weekends '' . In the summer of 2014 , it housed `` Wandering Oaken 's Trading Post and Sauna '' . Currently , it houses the third track to the popular Toy Story Midway Mania ! . The adjacent building , an unnamed enclosed area and theater , housed for many years an attraction called `` The Making of ______ '' ( the blank filled in with the name of the next upcoming film from either Walt Disney Pictures or Touchstone Pictures ) . When the walking tour was removed from the Backlot Tour , this became a separate attraction , the previously mentioned Backstage Pass attraction . In 2001 , the space was converted into Walt Disney : One Man 's Dream . Originally the display area of the building emptied into the theater currently occupied by Voyage of The Little Mermaid . Within months of the park 's opening , the theater became a separate venue from the walking tour portion of the Backlot Tour . The first show in the new separate theater was Here Come the Muppets . When the original theater was separated , a new slightly smaller theater was built right behind it for `` The Making of '' attraction . This is the current theater guests enter in Walt Disney : One Man 's Dream . Refurbishment ( edit ) Walt Disney 's private airplane on display In 2003 , Residential Street was walled off from the tour and demolished . The land was used for The Lights , Motors , Action Stunt Show . The addition of the stunt show caused the Backlot Tour to be re-routed to go around the large stadium . Small portions of the former residential street were turned into areas for the tour 's relocated and downsized boneyard and for the tram roadways . The addition of the stunt show also caused NY Street to lose its arch , as the area was needed for the tour tram to turn around to arrive at the exit station . Overall , the tram portion of the tour was obviously greatly reduced due to the new stunt show . In 2008 , Imagineering announced to cast members that an automated narration spiel was in development to replace all the live tour guides on the shuttles portion of the tour . The Special Effects Water Tank continued to have a live cast until the attraction closed due to volunteer guests . The entire attraction went down for two months ' refurbishment on January 4 , 2009 . The ride briefly closed down in February 2010 , along with the adjacent Studio Catering Company and Honey I Shrunk the Kids Movie Set Adventure . It was the final refurbishment before the attraction closed . Closure ( edit ) On September 20 , 2014 it was announced to cast members that the ride would temporarily close on September 27 , 2014 for the orchestral facility . On September 28 , the marquee and the sign that were at the entrance were removed and painted over . At the time of the attraction 's closing , there was no word as to what would replace it . However , it was later annonouced at the D23 Expo 2015 that the land taking up the Backlot Tour , as well as the majority of the Streets of America area would make room for Star Wars and Toy Story - themed lands . Construction began in mid-2016 . Attractions ( edit ) The queue area ( edit ) Upon entering the queue , guests were put into four different lines underneath a large canopy . Throughout the area were props from different movies , including Pearl Harbor , Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl , and The Rock . A film also looped with director Michael Bay telling guests how some of the special effects scenes from Pearl Harbor were filmed . While guests were waiting , four volunteers were chosen to be used in the first part of the attraction . Walking tour ( edit ) A number of guests in each line were taken into a show area with a large water tank in front of them . In the water tank were props reminiscent of Pearl Harbor : the deck and the engine room of a patrol boat . Cast Members explained how the water tank and props could be used in filming scenes from action films . Using the volunteers from before the guests were shown a special effects demonstration , known as Harbor Attack . One volunteer sat in the engine room and was overcame by a deluge of water ( 1000 Gallons of Water ) coming into the room through a window from two dump tanks . The other three volunteers were standing on the deck when an attack happened . Explosions underwater , simulated torpedo bursts , and fireballs were used to simulate the attack . When filming was finished the footage was put together with previously recorded footage of airplane attacks and dialogue and shown to the guests . When the demonstration was finished , guests continued into a large prop warehouse . The line moved guests up and down aisles of props used in different major productions , including Marvin 's Room , The Santa Clause , Honey , I Shrunk the Kids , Honey , I Blew Up the Kid , Who Framed Roger Rabbit , `` The Rocketeer '' , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , The Great Muppet Caper , and George of the Jungle . Several of the props were tagged with information . At the exit of the building the tram part of the tour began . Tram tour ( edit ) Catastrophe Canyon before the deluge ... ... and during As guests exited the prop building they boarded onto a tram for the main part of the tour . As the driver brought the tram through different areas , a prerecorded narration explained what was found there and tells the guests facts about it . Guests first traveled past the Earffel Tower , the former icon of the park . The tram ride was the closest that guests could get to the tower in the park . After the tower the tram drove through the costume and materials building , which had a thru - way for the tram and windows for guests to see the costumes and people working . A highlight in the building was the room full of tires used for the Lights , Motors , Action ! Extreme Stunt Show . When the tram left the building it would bring the guests through an outside area named the boneyard ( named after an aircraft boneyard ) . In the boneyard vehicles featured in many films could be seen . Props included the genuine steamroller used by Judge Doom during the climax of Who Framed Roger Rabbit , ships from the original Star Wars films , the duo motorcycles from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , the escape pod from The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , cars used in the Herbie the Love Bug films ( the ex-parade vehicle Herbie was taken away from the All - Star Movies Resort ( on account of children kept climbing on it ) and was on display on the tour ) , bone cages from Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest , the spaceship from Flight of the Navigator and boats and other vehicles used in other Disney - produced films . After leaving the boneyard , guests were told that they would be entering a `` live '' movie set while the cast was on break . The tram would then move into an area known as Catastrophe Canyon , a rocky area with a fuel truck and water tanks inside of it . While the tram was stopped , filming starts suddenly . An earthquake shakes the tram and causes the fuel truck to explode , sending a fire ball into the air . Then a flood of water comes rushing down from the canyon and from above the tram . When the earthquake subsides and the water stops , the set would then begin to reset for the next tram and the host on the tram tells guests how it was done as the tram travels behind the set to show the back of the production . After exiting the canyon the tram traveled through parts of the boneyard again . Guests would go past the Lights , Motors , Action ! Extreme Stunt Show stadium and practice areas . The tram also passed Walt Disney 's private airplane . After passing the plane , the tram pulls in to the exit and unloaded into the AFI Showcase room . Post-ride ( edit ) In order to leave the attraction , guests had to walk through an American Film Institute museum exhibit based on AFI 's 50 Greatest Villains . Many of the villains on the list were represented with life - sized figures in display cases , with drawings and pictures of them from their films . The entire list was presented with pictures of all of the villains on a wall in the building . While guests on the Backlot Tour had to go through the exhibit to exit , it was not necessary to go on the tour to see the exhibit , as it was possible to enter it through the exit . The exhibit and store were closed in August 2014 , a month prior to the attraction 's closure . References ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Studio Backlot Tour . ^ Jump up to : Bevil , Dewayne . `` Disney 's Studio Backlot Tour turning out the lights '' . OrlandoSentinel.com . Retrieved January 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Fickley - Baker , Jennifer . `` Toy Story Land To Come To Life At Disney 's Hollywood Studios '' . Disney Parks Blog . Retrieved January 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Toy Story Mania News '' . www.wdwmagic.com . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ The attraction reopened on March 29 , 2009 with new audio spiel throughout the tour and in Catastrophe Canyon . Jump up ^ Bevil , Dewayne ( September 25 , 2014 ) . `` Disney 's Studio Backlot Tour turning out the lights '' . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` PHOTOS , VIDEO : Take an Aerial View as Demolition Begins at Disney 's Hollywood Studios - WDW News Today '' . April 6 , 2016 . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Star Wars - Themed Lands Coming to Disney Parks - StarWars.com '' . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Toy Story Land To Come To Life At Disney 's Hollywood Studios '' . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Knopp , JeniLynn ( August 26 , 2016 ) . `` VIDEO : Star Wars area construction progressing at Disney 's Hollywood Studios '' . insidethemagic.net . Retrieved August 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Paige , Rachel ( January 15 , 2016 ) . `` What 's closing at Disney World to make way for `` Star Wars '' Land `` . hellogiggles.com . Retrieved August 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bevil , Dewayne ( March 24 , 2016 ) . `` Hollywood Studios attractions on their way out at Disney World '' . orlandosentinel.com . Retrieved September 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Pedicini , Sandra ( January 15 , 2016 ) . `` Earffel Tower coming down , attractions closing at Disney 's Hollywood Studios '' . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved November 21 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Walt Disney World Resort - Studio Backlot Tour at the Wayback Machine ( archive index ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Studio_Backlot_Tour&oldid=801936877 '' Categories : Closed amusement attractions Amusement rides introduced in 1989 Amusement rides by name Amusement rides that closed in 2014 Backlot sets Disney 's Hollywood Studios Disney production studios Former Walt Disney Parks and Resorts attractions Recording studios in the United States Streets of America Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from July 2017 Webarchive template wayback links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Edit links This page was last edited on 22 September 2017 , at 21 : 53 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where is french polynesia on the world map

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=French_Polynesia&oldid=804840199

French Polynesia - wikipedia French Polynesia Jump to : navigation , search French Polynesia Polynésie française ( French ) Pōrīnetia Farāni ( Tahitian ) Flag Coat of arms Motto : `` Liberté , Égalité , Fraternité '' ( French ) `` Liberty , Equality , Fraternity '' `` Tahiti Nui Mare'a'rea '' ( Tahitian ) Anthem : La Marseillaise ( French ) ' Ia ora ' o Tahiti Nui ( Tahitian ) Status Overseas collectivity Capital Pape'ete 17 ° 34 ′ S 149 ° 36 ′ W  /  17.567 ° S 149.600 ° W  / - 17.567 ; - 149.600 Largest city Fa'a'ā Official languages French Ethnic groups ( 2015 ) 78 % Polynesians 12 % Chinese 6 % French Polynesian 4 % French Demonym French Polynesian Government Dependent territory President of France Emmanuel Macron President of French Polynesia Édouard Fritch High Commissioner René Bidal Legislature Assembly Overseas collectivity of France Protectorate 1842 Overseas territory 1946 Overseas collectivity 2003 Area Total 4,167 km ( 1,609 sq mi ) ( unranked ) Water ( % ) 12 Land area 3,521.2 km 1,359.5 sq mi Population July 2016 estimate 280,208 August 2012 census 268,270 ( 177th ) Density 76 / km ( 196.8 / sq mi ) ( 130th ) GDP ( nominal ) 2014 estimate Total US $5.623 billion ( not ranked ) Per capita US $20,098 ( not ranked ) Currency CFP franc ( XPF ) Time zone ( UTC - 10 , − 9 : 30 , - 9 ) Drives on the right Calling code + 689 ISO 3166 code PF Internet TLD . pf Wikisource has original text related to this article : United Nations General Assembly Resolution A / 67 / 265 A two - franc World War II emergency - issue banknote ( 1943 ) , printed in Papeete , and depicting the outline of Tahiti on the reverse . French Polynesia ( / ˈfrɛntʃ pɒlɪˈniːʒə / ( listen ) ; French : Polynésie française ( pɔlinezi fʁɑ̃sɛz ) ; Tahitian : Pōrīnetia Farāni ) is an overseas collectivity of the French Republic ; collectivité d'outre - mer de la République française pronunciation ( help info ) ( COM ) , sometimes unofficially referred to as an overseas country ; pays d'outre - mer ( POM ) . It is composed of 118 geographically dispersed islands and atolls stretching over an expanse of more than 2,000 kilometres ( 1,200 mi ) in the South Pacific Ocean . Its total land area is 4,167 square kilometres ( 1,609 sq mi ) . French Polynesia is divided into five groups of islands : the Society Islands archipelago , composed of the Windward Islands and the Leeward Islands ; the Tuamotu Archipelago ; the Gambier Islands ; the Marquesas Islands ; and the Austral Islands . Among its 118 islands and atolls , 67 are inhabited . Tahiti , which is located within the Society Islands , is the most populous island and the seat of the capital of the collectivity , Pape'ete . It has more than 68 % of the population of the islands in 2012 . Although not an integral part of its territory , Clipperton Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007 . Following the Great Polynesian Migration , European explorers visited the islands of French Polynesia on several occasions . Traders and whaling ships also visited . In 1842 , the French took over the islands and established a French protectorate they called Etablissements des français en Océanie ( EFO ) ( French Establishments / Settlements in Oceania ) . In 1946 , the EFOs became an overseas territory under the constitution of the French Fourth Republic , and Polynesians were granted the right to vote through citizenship . In 1957 , the EFOs were renamed French Polynesia . Since 28 March 2003 , French Polynesia has been an overseas collectivity of the French Republic under the constitutional revision of article 74 , and later gained , with law 2004 - 192 of 27 February 2004 , an administrative autonomy , two symbolic manifestations of which are the title of the President of French Polynesia and its additional designation as an overseas country . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Governance 2.1 Relations with mainland France 3 Administration 3.1 Administrative divisions 4 Geography 5 Economy 6 Population 6.1 Demographics 6.2 Historical population 6.3 Languages 6.4 Religion 7 Sports 7.1 Va'a 7.2 Surfing 7.3 Kitesurfing 7.4 Diving 8 Transportation 9 Notable people 10 Music 11 See also 12 Notes and references 13 Bibliography 14 External links History ( edit ) The French frigate Floréal in November 2002 , stationed in Bora Bora lagoon . French Polynesia as we know it today was one of the last places on Earth to be settled by humans . Scientists believe the Great Polynesian Migration happened around 1500 BC as Austronesian people went on a journey using celestial navigation to find islands in the South Pacific Ocean . The first islands of French Polynesia to be settled were the Marquesas Islands in about 200 BC . The Polynesians later ventured southwest and discovered the Society Islands around AD 300 . European encounters began in 1521 when Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan , sailing at the service of the Spanish Crown , sighted Puka - Puka in the Tuāmotu - Gambier Archipelago . In 1606 another Spanish expedition under Pedro Fernandes de Queirós sailed through Polynesia sighting an inhabited island on 10 February which they called Sagitaria ( or Sagittaria ) , probably the island of Rekareka to the south - east of Tahiti . Over a century later , British explorer Samuel Wallis visited Tahiti in 1767 . French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville also visited Tahiti in 1768 , while British explorer James Cook arrived in 1769 . In 1772 , the Spanish Viceroy of Peru Don Manuel de Amat ordered a number of expeditions to Tahiti under the command of Domingo de Bonechea who was the first European to explore all of the main islands beyond Tahiti . A short - lived Spanish settlement was created in 1774 , and for a time some maps bore the name Isla de Amat after Viceroy Amat . In 1772 , Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen came across Bora Bora in the Society Islands . Christian missions began with Spanish priests who stayed in Tahiti for a year . Protestants from the London Missionary Society settled permanently in Polynesia in 1797 . Society Island kingdoms . King Pōmare II of Tahiti was forced to flee to Mo'orea in 1803 ; he and his subjects were converted to Protestantism in 1812 . French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834 ; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838 . In 1842 , Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate , to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed . The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843 . In 1880 , France annexed Tahiti , changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a colony . The island groups were not officially united until the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889 . In the 1880s , France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago , which formerly belonged to the Pōmare Dynasty , without formally annexing it . Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842 , the French regarded the entire Marquesas Islands as French . In 1885 , France appointed a governor and established a general council , thus giving it the proper administration for a colony . The islands of Rimatara and Rūrutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888 , so in 1889 they were annexed by France . Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892 . The first official name for the colony was Établissements de l'Océanie ( Establishments in Oceania ) ; in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony 's name was changed to Établissements Français de l'Océanie ( French Establishments in Oceania ) . In 1940 , the administration of French Polynesia recognised the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II . Unknown at the time to the French and Polynesians , the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16 September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions , as part of the `` Eastern Pacific Government - General '' in the post-war world . However , in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands . In 1946 , Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands ' status was changed to an overseas territory ; the islands ' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française ( French Polynesia ) . In 1962 , France 's early nuclear testing ground of Algeria became independent and the Moruroa atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site ; tests were conducted underground after 1974 . In 1977 , French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy ; in 1984 , the autonomy was extended . French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2003 . In September 1995 , France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three - year moratorium . The last test was on 27 January 1996 . On 29 January 1996 , France announced that it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty , and no longer test nuclear weapons . French Polynesia was relisted in the UN List of Non-Self Governing Territories in 2013 , making it eligible for a UN-backed independence referendum . The relisting was made after its indigenous government was voiced and supported by the Polynesian Leaders Group , Pacific Conference of Churches , Women 's International League for Peace and Freedom , Non-Aligned Movement , World Council of Churches , and Melanesian Spearhead Group . Governance ( edit ) Main article : Politics of French Polynesia Under the terms of Article 74 of the French constitution and the Organic Law 2014 - 192 on the statute of autonomy of French Polynesia , politics of French Polynesia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas collectivity , whereby the President of French Polynesia is the head of government , and of a multi-party system . Executive power is exercised by the government . Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of French Polynesia ( the territorial assembly ) . Political life in French Polynesia has been marked by great instability since the mid-2000s . On 14 September 2007 , the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru , was elected president of French Polynesia for the third time in three years ( with 27 of 44 votes cast in the territorial assembly ) . He replaced former president Gaston Tong Sang , opposed to independence , who lost a no - confidence vote in the Assembly of French Polynesia on 31 August after the longtime former president of French Polynesia , Gaston Flosse , hitherto opposed to independence , sided with his long enemy Oscar Temaru to topple the government of Gaston Tong Sang . Oscar Temaru , however , had no stable majority in the Assembly of French Polynesia , and new territorial elections were held in February 2008 to solve the political crisis . The Assembly of French Polynesia . The party of Gaston Tong Sang won the territorial elections , but that did not solve the political crisis : the two minority parties of Oscar Temaru and Gaston Flosse , who together have one more member in the territorial assembly than the political party of Gaston Tong Sang , allied to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia . Gaston Flosse was then elected president of French Polynesia by the territorial assembly on 23 February 2008 with the support of the pro-independence party led by Oscar Temaru , while Oscar Temaru was elected speaker of the territorial assembly with the support of the anti-independence party led by Gaston Flosse . Both formed a coalition cabinet . Many observers doubted that the alliance between the anti-independence Gaston Flosse and the pro-independence Oscar Temaru , designed to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia , could last very long . At the French municipal elections held in March 2008 , several prominent mayors who are member of the Flosse - Temaru coalition lost their offices in key municipalities of French Polynesia , which was interpreted as a disapproval of the way Gaston Tong Sang , whose party French Polynesian voters had placed first in the territorial elections the month before , had been prevented from becoming president of French Polynesia by the last minute alliance between Flosse and Temaru 's parties . Eventually , on 15 April 2008 the government of Gaston Flosse was toppled by a constructive vote of no confidence in the territorial assembly when two members of the Flosse - Temaru coalition left the coalition and sided with Tong Sang 's party . Gaston Tong Sang was elected president of French Polynesia as a result of this constructive vote of no confidence , but his majority in the territorial assembly is very narrow . He offered posts in his cabinet to Flosse and Temaru 's parties which they both refused . Gaston Tong Sang has called all parties to help end the instability in local politics , a prerequisite to attract foreign investors needed to develop the local economy . Relations with mainland France ( edit ) High Commission of the French Fifth Republic . Despite a local assembly and government , French Polynesia is not in a free association with France , like the Cook Islands with New Zealand . As a French overseas collectivity , the local government has no competence in justice , university education , security and defense . Services in these areas are directly provided and administered by the Government of France , including the National Gendarmerie ( which also polices rural and border areas in European France ) , and French military forces . The collectivity government retains control over primary and secondary education , health , town planning , and the environment . The highest representative of the State in the territory is the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia ( French : Haut commissaire de la République ) . French Polynesia also sends three deputies to the French National Assembly , one representing the Leeward Islands administrative subdivision and the south - western suburbs of Papeete , another one representing Papeete and its north - eastern suburbs , plus the commune ( municipality ) of Mo'orea - Mai'ao , the Tuāmotu - Gambier administrative division , and the Marquesas Islands administrative division , and the last one representing the rest of Tahiti and the Austral Islands administrative subdivision . French Polynesia also sends two senators to the French Senate . French Polynesians vote in the French presidential elections and at the 2007 French presidential election , in which the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru openly called to vote for the Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal while the parties opposed to independence generally supported the center - right candidate Nicolas Sarkozy , the turnout in French Polynesia was 69.12 % in the first round of the election and 74.67 % in the second round in favour of Nicolas Sarkozy ahead in both rounds of the election expressing their will to remain in the French Republic . ( versus in Metropolitan France in the 2nd round : Nicolas Sarkozy 51.9 % ; Ségolène Royal 48.1 % ) . Administration ( edit ) Bora Bora Between 1946 and 2003 , French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory ( territoire d'outre - mer , or TOM ) . In 2003 , it became an overseas collectivity ( collectivité d'outre - mer , or COM ) . Its statutory law of 27 February 2004 gives it the particular designation of overseas country inside the Republic ( pays d'outre - mer au sein de la République , or POM ) , but without legal modification of its status . Administrative divisions ( edit ) Main article : Administrative divisions of French Polynesia French Polynesia has five administrative subdivisions ( subdivisions administratives ) : Marquesas Islands ( French : ( les ) ( Îles ) Marquises or officially la subdivision administrative des ( Îles ) Marquises ) Leeward Islands ( French : ( les ) Îles Sous - le - Vent or officially la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous - le - Vent ) ( the two subdivisions administratives Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands ) Windward Islands ( French : ( les ) Îles du Vent or officially la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent ) ( the two subdivisions administratives Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands ) Tuāmotu - Gambier ( French : ( les ) ( Îles ) Tuamotu - Gambier or officially la subdivision administrative des ( Îles ) Tuamotu - Gambier ) ( the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands ) Austral Islands ( French : ( les ) ( Îles ) Australes or officially la subdivision administrative des ( Îles ) Australes ) ( including the Bass Islands ) Geography ( edit ) Map of French Polynesia . Main article : Geography of French Polynesia The islands of French Polynesia make up a total land area of 3,521 square kilometres ( 1,359 sq mi ) , scattered over more than 2,000 kilometres ( 1,200 mi ) of ocean . There are 118 islands in French Polynesia ( and many more islets or motus around atolls ) . The highest point is Mount Orohena on Tahiti . It is made up of six archipelagos . The largest and most populated island is Tahiti , in the Society Islands . The archipelagos are : Marquesas Islands - administratively making the Marquesas Islands subdivision ( 12 high islands and 1 atoll ) ; Society Islands - administratively subdivided into the Windward Islands subdivision ( 5 high islands ) and the Leeward Islands District ( 5 atolls ) ; Tuamotu Archipelago - administratively part of the Tuamotu - Gambier subdivision ( 80 atolls , grouping over 3,100 islands or islets ) ; Gambier Islands - administratively part of the Tuamotu - Gambier subdivision ( 2 atolls in genesis ) ; Austral Islands - administratively part of the Austral Islands subdivision : ( 5 atolls ) ; Bass Islands - administratively part of the Austral Islands subdivision ( 2 atolls ) . Aside from Tahiti , some other important atolls , islands , and island groups in French Polynesia are : Ahē , Bora Bora , Hiva ' Oa , Huahine , Mai'ao , Maupiti , Meheti'a , Mo'orea , Nuku Hiva , Raiatea , Taha'a , Tetiaroa , Tupua'i , and Tūpai . Top three largest communes Commune Island Population ( 2012 ) Fa'a'ā Tahiti 29,687 Punaauia Tahiti 27,613 Pape'ete Tahiti 25,769 Economy ( edit ) Main article : Economy of French Polynesia Tourism is an important source of income for French Polynesia The legal tender of French Polynesia is the CFP Franc which has a fixed exchange rate with the Euro . The nominal gross domestic product ( or GDP ) of French Polynesia in 2014 was 5.623 billion US dollars at market local prices , the sixth - largest economy in Oceania after Australia , New Zealand , Hawaii , New Caledonia , and Papua New Guinea . The GDP per capita was $20,098 in 2014 ( at market exchange rates , not at PPP ) , lower than in Hawaii , Australia , New Zealand , and New Caledonia , but higher than all the independent insular states of Oceania . Both per capita and total figures were significantly lower than those recorded before the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 . French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy , which is dependent on imported goods , tourism , and the financial assistance of mainland France . Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands . Main agricultural productions are coconuts ( copra ) , vegetables and fruits . French Polynesia exports noni juice , a high quality vanilla , and the famous black Tahitian pearls which accounted for 55 % of exports ( in value ) in 2008 . French Polynesia 's seafloor contains rich deposits of nickel , cobalt , manganese , and copper that are not exploited . In 2008 , French Polynesia 's imports amounted to 2.2 billion US dollars and exports amounted to 0.2 billion US dollars . Population ( edit ) Demographics ( edit ) Tahitian girls , circa 1860 -- 1879 . Main article : Demographics of French Polynesia Total population at the August 2012 census was 268,270 inhabitants . At the 2012 census , 68.5 % of the population of French Polynesia lived on the island of Tahiti alone . The urban area of Papeete , the capital city , has 133,627 inhabitants ( 2012 census ) . In 2016 , the population was estimated at 280,208 , with a steady population growth rate of 1.1 % . At the 2007 census , 87.3 % of people living in French Polynesia were born in French Polynesia , 9.3 % were born in metropolitan France , 1.4 % were born in overseas France outside of French Polynesia , and 2.0 % were born in foreign countries . At the 1988 census , the last census which asked questions regarding ethnicity , 66.5 % of people were ethnically unmixed Polynesians , 7.1 % were ethnically mixed Polynesians , 11.9 % were Europeans ( mostly French ) , 9.3 % were people of mixed French and Polynesian descent , the so - called Demis ( literally meaning `` Half '' ) , and 4.7 % were East Asians ( mainly Chinese ) . In 2015 , the ethnic makeup of the population was estimated to be 78 % native Polynesian , 12 % Chinese , 6 % French Polynesian and 4 % French . Chinese , Demis , and the white populace are essentially concentrated on the island of Tahiti , particularly in the urban area of Papeetē , where their share of the population is thus much greater than in French Polynesia overall . Despite a long history of ethnic mixing , ethnic tensions have been growing in recent years , with politicians using a xenophobic discourse and fanning the flame of nationalism . Historical population ( edit ) 1907 1911 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 30,600 31,900 31,600 35,900 40,400 44,000 51,200 58,200 63,300 76,323 1962 1971 1977 2002 2007 2012 2016 84,551 119,168 137,382 166,753 188,814 219,521 245,516 259,596 268,270 280,208 Official figures from past censuses . Languages ( edit ) Cemetery in the Tuāmotu . French is the only official language of French Polynesia . An organic law of 12 April 1996 states that `` French is the official language , Tahitian and other Polynesian languages can be used . '' At the 2007 census , among the population whose age was 15 and older , 68.5 % of people reported that the language they spoke the most at home was French , 24.2 % reported that the language they spoke the most at home was Tahitian , 2.6 % reported Marquesan , 1.5 % reported Tuamotuan , 1.3 % reported any of the Austral languages , 1.0 % reported a Chinese dialect ( half of which is still Hakka ) , and 0.9 % another language . At the same census , 94.7 % of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they could speak , read and write French , whereas only 2.0 % reported that they had no knowledge of French . 86.4 % of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they had some form of knowledge of at least one Polynesian language , whereas 13.6 % reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Polynesian languages . Religion ( edit ) Christianity is the main religion of the islands . A majority of 54 % belongs to various Protestant churches , especially the Maohi Protestant Church , which is the largest and accounts for more than 50 % of the population . It traces its origins to Pomare II , the king of Tahiti , who converted from traditional beliefs to the Reformed tradition brought to the islands by the London Missionary Society . Latin rite Roman Catholics constitute a large minority with 30 % of the population , which has its own ecclesiastical province , comprising the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Papeete and its only suffragan , the Diocese of Taiohae . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints had 25,841 members as of 2017 . Community of Christ , another denomination within the Latter - Day Saint tradition , claimed 7,990 total French Polynesian members as of 2015 including Mareva Arnaud Tchong who serves in the church 's governing Council of Twelve Apostles . There were about 3,000 Jehovah 's Witnesses in Tahiti as of 2014 . Sports ( edit ) Va'a ( edit ) The Polynesian traditional sport va'a is practiced in all the islands . French Polynesia hosts the Hawaiki nui va'a ( fr ) an international race between Tahiti , Huahine and Bora Bora . Va'a ( traditional Polynesian outrigger canoe ) during the Hawaiki Nui Va'a race . Surfing ( edit ) French Polynesia is famous for its reef break waves . Teahupo'o is probably the most renowned , regularly ranked in the best waves of the world . This site hosts the annual Billabong Pro Tahiti surf competition , the 7th stop of the World Championship Tour . Kitesurfing ( edit ) There are many spots to practice kitesurfing in French Polynesia . Tahiti , Moorea , Bora - Bora , Maupiti and Raivavae are the most iconic spots . Diving ( edit ) French Polynesia is internationally known for diving . Each archipelago offers opportunities for divers . Rangiroa and Fakarava in the Tuamotu islands are the most famous spots in the area . Fakarava atoll , South pass Transportation ( edit ) Main article : Transportation in French Polynesia There are 53 airports in French Polynesia ; 46 are paved . Fa'a'ā International Airport is the only international airport in French Polynesia . Each island has its own airport that serves flights to other islands . Air Tahiti is the main airline that flies around the islands . Notable people ( edit ) Painting of Two Women of Tahiti by Paul Gauguin Taïna Barioz ( born 1988 ) , World Champion skier representing France . Michel Bourez ( born 1985 ) , professional surfer . Cheyenne Brando ( 1970 -- 1995 ) , model , daughter of Marlon Brando and Tarita Teriipaia . Tuki Brando ( born 1990 ) , model , son of Cheyenne Brando . Jacques Brel ( 1929 -- 1978 ) , Belgian musician who lived in French Polynesia near the end of his life . Jean Gabilou , singer ( born 1944 ) , represented France in the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest . Paul Gauguin ( 1848 -- 1903 ) , French impressionist painter who spent the last years of his life in French Polynesia . Vaitiare Hirson - Asars ( born 1964 ) , actress . Ella Koon ( born 1979 ) , singer , actor and model . Karina Lombard ( born 1969 ) , French - American model and actress . Pouvāna'a ' Ō'opa ( 1895 -- 1977 ) , politician and Tahitian nationalist . Fabrice Santoro ( born 1972 ) , professional tennis player . Tarita Teriipaia ( born 1941 ) , actress , third wife of Marlon Brando . Marama Vahirua ( born 1980 ) , footballer , cousin of Pascal Vahirua . Pascal Vahirua ( born 1966 ) , French former international footballer . Célestine Hitiura Vaite ( born 1966 ) , writer . Music ( edit ) Main article : Music of French Polynesia French Polynesia came to the forefront of the world music scene in 1992 , with the release of The Tahitian Choir 's recordings of unaccompanied vocal Christian music called himene tārava , recorded by French musicologist Pascal Nabet - Meyer . This form of singing is common in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands , and is distinguished by a unique drop in pitch at the end of the phrases , which is a characteristic formed by several different voices ; it is also accompanied by steady grunting of staccato , nonsensical syllables . See also ( edit ) French Polynesia portal Geography portal Oceania portal France portal Outline of French Polynesia Index of French Polynesia - related articles Colonial and Departmental Heads of French Polynesia French colonial empire List of French possessions and colonies List of islands Notes and references ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Referred to in the source as `` local French '' ^ Jump up to : Referred to in the source as `` metropolitan French '' ^ Jump up to : `` French Polynesia '' . CIA The World Factbook . Retrieved 19 August 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` R1 - Population sans doubles comptes , des subdivisions , communes et communes associées de Polynésie française , de 1971 à 1996 '' . ISPF . Archived from the original on 14 November 2012 . Retrieved 13 October 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` World Population Prospects : The 2017 Revision '' . ESA.UN.org ( custom data acquired via website ) . United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs , Population Division . Retrieved 10 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Population des communes de Polynésie française '' . INSEE . Retrieved 13 October 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` French Polynesia '' . United Nations . Retrieved 19 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Les statuts de la Nouvelle - Calédonie et de la Polynésie '' . Retrieved 17 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Ganse , Alexander . `` History of Polynesia , before 1797 '' . Archived from the original on 30 December 2007 . Retrieved 20 October 2007 . Jump up ^ James Burney ( 1803 ) A Chronological History of the Voyages or Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean , Vol. 5 , London , p. 222 Jump up ^ Geo . Collingridge ( 1903 ) . `` Who Discovered Tahiti ? '' . Journal of the Polynesian Society . 12 ( 3 ) : 184 -- 186 . Jump up ^ Kirk , Robert K. Paradise Past : The Transformation of the South Pacific , 1520 - 1920 . Retrieved 5 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Manso Porto , Carmen ( 1997 ) . Cartografía histórica de América : catálogo de manuscritos ( in Spanish ) . Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia . p. 10 . ISBN 9788489512023 . Jump up ^ Ganse , Alexander . `` History of French Polynesia , 1797 to 1889 '' . Archived from the original on 30 December 2007 . Retrieved 20 October 2007 . Jump up ^ Ganse , Alexander . `` History of French Polynesia , 1889 to 1918 '' . Archived from the original on 30 December 2007 . Retrieved 20 October 2007 . Jump up ^ The Japanese claim to the French Pacific islands , along with many other vast territories , appears in 16 September 1940 `` Sphere of survival for the Establishment of a New Order in Greater East Asia by Imperial Japan '' , published in 1955 by Japan 's Foreign Ministry as part of the two - volume `` Chronology and major documents of Diplomacy of Japan 1840 -- 1945 '' -- here quoted from `` Interview with Tetsuzo Fuwa : Japan 's War : History of Expansionism '' , Japan Press Service , July 2007 Jump up ^ Ganse , Alexander . `` History of Polynesia , 1939 to 1977 '' . Archived from the original on 30 December 2007 . Retrieved 20 October 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` French Polynesia '' . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency ... Retrieved 25 September 2012 . Jump up ^ Whitney , Craig R ( 30 January 1996 ) . `` France Ending Nuclear Tests That Caused Broad Protests '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 20 October 2007 . Jump up ^ Reeves , Rachel ; Hunt , Luke ( 10 October 2012 ) . `` French Polynesia Battles for Independence '' . The Diplomat . Retrieved 30 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BBC NEWS , French Polynesia gets new leader '' . BBC News . 14 September 2007 . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . Jump up ^ http://www.rfo.fr/article1437.html Jump up ^ Rachel Reeves ; Luke Hunt ; The Diplomat . `` French Polynesia Battles for Independence '' . The Diplomat . Retrieved 17 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Minister of the Interior , Government of France . `` POLYNESIE FRANCAISE ( 987 ) ( résultats officiels ) '' ( in French ) . Retrieved 14 September 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Institut d'émission d'Outre - Mer ( IEOM ) . `` La Polynésie française en 2008 '' ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 14 September 2009 . Jump up ^ Manheim , F.T. ( 1986 ) . `` Marine Cobalt Resources '' . Science . 232 ( 4750 ) : 600 -- 608 . ISSN 0036 - 8075 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 232.4750. 600 . Jump up ^ Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française ( ISPF ) . `` Recensement 2007 -- Migrations : Chiffres clés '' ( in French ) . Archived from the original on 18 November 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Logiques '' autonomiste `` et '' indépendantiste `` en Polynésie française '' . Conflits.org . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Temaru - Flosse : le rebond du nationalisme tahitien '' . Rue89.com. 19 January 2011 . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Population des communes de Polynésie française au RP 2007 '' . INSEE . Retrieved 13 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Population statistique des communes et communes associées aux recensements de 1971 à 2002 '' . ISPF . Archived from the original on 18 December 2012 . Retrieved 13 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Censuses from 1907 to 1962 in Population , 1972 , # 4 -- 5 , pp. 705 -- 706 , published by INED Jump up ^ Le tahitien reste interdit à l'assemblée de Polynésie , RFO , 6 October 2010 ^ Jump up to : Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française ( ISPF ) . `` Recensement 2007 -- Langues : Chiffres clés '' ( in French ) . Archived from the original on 13 November 2012 . Retrieved 13 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` https://www.webcitation.org/64LUkdnR5?url=http://en.tahitipresse.pf/2010/07/126th-maohi-protestant-church-synod-to-last-one-week/ '' . Tahitipresse. 26 July 2010 . Archived from the original on 31 December 2011 . Retrieved 31 December 2011 . External link in title = ( help ) Jump up ^ http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/country/PF.htm GCatholic consulted April 2017 Jump up ^ LDS Newsroom Statistical Information . Retrieved 27 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Saturday / Sunday Bulletin World Conference 2016 . Community of Christ . 2016 . pp. 46 -- 47 . Jump up ^ 2015 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses . Watch Tower Society . p. 186 . Jump up ^ CNN , By Jade Bremner , for . `` World 's 50 best surf spots - CNN.com '' . CNN . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ GR3G . `` General Info - WWW.TaHiTi-KiTeSuRF.COM '' . www.tahiti-kitesurf.com . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Destination : Diving in French Polynesia '' . Scuba Diving . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 03 . Bibliography ( edit ) Danielsson , Bengt ( 1965 ) . Work and Life on Raroia : An Acculturation Study from the Tuamotu Group , French Oceania . London : G. Allen & Unwin . Danielsson , Bengt ; Marie - Thérèse Danielsson ( 1986 ) . Poisoned Reign : French Nuclear Colonialism in the Pacific . New York : Penguin Books . ISBN 0 - 14 - 008130 - 5 . Hough , Richard ( 1995 ) . Captain James Cook . WW Norton . ISBN 0 - 393 - 03680 - 4 . Pollock , Nancy J. ; Ron Crocombe , eds. ( 1988 ) . French Polynesia : A Book of Selected Readings . Suva , Fiji : Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific . ISBN 982 - 02 - 0032 - 6 . Thompson , Virginia ; Richard Adloff ( 1971 ) . The French Pacific Islands : French Polynesia and New Caledonia . Berkeley : University of California Press . Aldrich , Robert ( 1990 ) . The French Presence in the South Pacific , 1842 -- 1940 . Sydney . Aldrich , Robert ( 1993 ) . France and the South Pacific since 1940 . Sydney . James Rogers and Luis Simón . The Status and Location of the Military Installations of the Member States of the European Union and Their Potential Role for the European Security and Defence Policy ( ESDP ) . Brussels : European Parliament , 2009 . 25 pp . Jean - Marc Régnault , Le pouvoir confisqué en Polynésie française . L'affrontement Temaru - Flosse . Les Indes savantes , 2005 . External links ( edit ) The Wikibook Geography of France has a page on the topic of : French Polynesia Find more aboutFrench Polynesiaat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Government Government of French Polynesia Presidency of French Polynesia Administrative Subdivisions of French Polynesia General information ( in French ) Encyclopédie collaborative du patrimoine culturel et naturel polynésien `` French Polynesia '' . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . 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Overseas France ( hide ) Inhabited areas Overseas departments French Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique Mayotte Réunion Overseas collectivities French Polynesia St. Barthélemy St. Martin St. Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna Sui generis collectivity New Caledonia Uninhabited areas Pacific Ocean Clipperton Island Overseas territory ( French Southern and Antarctic Lands ) Île Amsterdam Île Saint - Paul Crozet Islands Kerguelen Islands Adélie Land Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean Bassas da India Europa Island Glorioso Islands Juan de Nova Island Tromelin Island Also known as overseas regions Claimed by Comoros Claimed by Madagascar Claimed by Mauritius Pacific Islands Forum ( PIF ) Members Australia Cook Islands Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Niue Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Associate members French Polynesia New Caledonia Observers Commonwealth of Nations East Timor Tokelau United Nations Wallis and Futuna Guam American Samoa Northern Mariana Islands Asian Development Bank Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission ( WCPFC ) Dialogue partners Canada China Cuba European Union France India Indonesia Italy Japan Republic of Korea Malaysia Philippines Spain Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Meetings 45th Coordinates : 17 ° 32 ′ S 149 ° 34 ′ W  /  17.533 ° S 149.567 ° W  / - 17.533 ; - 149.567 VIAF : 142613073 GND : 4018191 - 1 SUDOC : 026398443 BNF : cb118653379 ( data ) NDL : 00563741 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_Polynesia&oldid=804840199 '' Categories : French Polynesia Overseas collectivities of France French - speaking countries and territories Geography of Polynesia Island countries Small Island Developing States European colonisation in Oceania States and territories established in 1842 1842 establishments in the French colonial empire 1842 establishments in Oceania Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2010 CS1 errors : external links Use dmy dates from January 2015 Articles containing French - language text Articles containing Tahitian - language text Articles with hAudio microformats Articles including recorded pronunciations ( English ) Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 Interlanguage link template link number All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 Articles with French - language external links Articles with DMOZ links Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Languages Acèh Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc Aragonés Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kapampangan ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kinyarwanda Kiswahili Кыргызча Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Magyar Македонски Malagasy Māori मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Nordfriisk Norfuk / Pitkern Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Reo tahiti Română Runa Simi Русский Sámegiella Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray Wolof Yorùbá 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 October 2017 , at 13 : 14 . 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how to cure breast wound due to breastfeeding

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cracked_nipple&oldid=858545844

Cracked nipple - wikipedia Cracked nipple This article is about the postpartum development of cracked nipples in women related to breastfeeding . For other uses , see Fissure of the nipple . Cracked nipple ( postpartum ) Cracked nipple ( or nipple trauma ) is a condition that can occur in breastfeeding women as a result of a number of possible causes . Developing a cracked nipple can result in soreness , dryness or irritation to , or bleeding of , one or both nipples during breastfeeding . The mother with a cracked nipple can have severe nipple pain when the baby is nursing . This severe pain is a disincentive for continued breastfeeding . The crack can appear as a cut across the tip of the nipple and may extend to its the base . Cracked nipples develop after the birth of the infant and is managed with pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment . Contents 1 Signs and symptoms 1.1 Complications 1.2 Contraindications for breastfeeding 2 Cause 3 Prevention 4 Treatment 5 Epidemiology 6 Society and culture 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Signs and symptoms ( edit ) Cracked nipples are classified as a breast disorder . The nipple is not only the structure to deliver milk to the infant , it also contains small , sebaceous glands or Montgomery glands to lubricate the skin of the areola . Cracked nipples are most often associated with breastfeeding and appear as cracks or small lacerations or breaks in the skin of the nipple . In some instances an ulcer will form . The nipple in a nursing mother is in regular contact with a nursing infant . Cracked nipples are trauma to the nipple and can be quite painful . Cracked nipples typically appear three to seven days after the birth . If the nipples appears to be wedge - shaped , white and flattened , this may indicate that the latch is not good and there is a potential of developing cracked nipples . Complications ( edit ) Bacteria can enter the breast through cracked nipples , which increase the risk of mastitis . Candida infection ( thrush ) of the nipple can also occur , resulting in deep - pink , cracked , and sore nipples . Contraindications for breastfeeding ( edit ) Because cracked nipples can result in the infant being exposed to blood , women with certain blood - borne diseases may be advised to stop breastfeeding if they have a cracked nipple . It has been found safe for breastfeeding mothers with hepatitis B and cracked nipples to breastfeed . In the event that a nursing woman experiences cracked and bleeding nipples or breast inflammation within one to two weeks immediately following an acute Toxoplasmosis infection ( when the organism is still circulating in her bloodstream ) , it is theoretically possible that she could transmit Toxoplasma gondii to the infant through her breast milk . Immune suppressed women could have circulating Toxoplasma for even longer periods of time . However , the likelihood of human milk transmission is very small . Transmission risk of HIV increases if the mother has cracked and bleeding nipples An uncommon infection in the mother , Chagas disease , can be transmitted to the nursing infant via cracked nipples . Women with hepatitis C are advised to abstain from breastfeeding if their nipples are cracked or bleeding . Cause ( edit ) Some studies indicate that cracked nipples are caused by poor latch . Yet other causes could be poor positioning , use of a feeding bottle , breast engorgement , inexperience , semi-protruding nipples , use of breast pumps and light pigmentation of the nipples . These causes vary between cultures . Breast engorgement is also a main factor in altering the ability of the infant to latch - on . Engorgement changes the shape and curvature of the nipple region by making the breast inflexible , flat , hard , and swollen . The nipples on an engorged breast are flat . When the baby is latched on correctly , the nipple is located against the soft palate in the back of the baby 's mouth . When the nipple is near the front of the mouth and being pinched against the hard palate , this will cause pain and development of cracked nipples . One cause of painful , cracked nipples is the incorrect positioning and incorrect latching on to the breast by the infant . The baby can create cracked nipples due to the strong sucking pressure , stretching and pulling the nipple , the friction and rubbing of skin to skin . The cause of sore , cracked nipples can also be from a yeast or Candida infection in the baby or the mother or both . Thrush can develop after the use of antibiotics . For first - time breastfeeding mothers , it normally takes a few tries before the latch is right , which can make the nipples tender and sore the first few days . If the nipples become cracked or bleed , the latch may need to be corrected . Women are advised to keep on breastfeeding , as it will actually help the nipples heal . A little breast milk or purified lanolin cream or ointment helps the healing process . If a feeding bottle is used in addition to breastfeeding , cracked nipples may result because the different sucking techniques required for the bottle and the breast vary . Bottle - feeding babies uses his or her tongue to regulate the flow of milk . This same technique will cause friction on the nipple while breastfeeding . This in turn encourages the continued use of the bottle with less time breastfeeding . Pain caused by cracked nipples can sometimes lead to the cessation of breast - feeding . In addition to cracks , or blisters or ulcers can form . Prevention ( edit ) The nipples of nursing mothers naturally make a lubricant to prevent drying , cracking , or infections . Cracked nipples may be able to be prevented by : Avoid soaps and harsh washing or drying of the breasts and nipples . This can cause dryness and cracking . Rubbing a little breast milk on the nipple after feeding to protect it . Keeping the nipples dry to prevent cracking and infection . Roman chamomile can be applied directly to the skin for pain and swelling and is used to treat cracked nipples . Treatment ( edit ) Cracked nipples can be treated with 100 % lanolin . Glycerin nipple pads can be chilled and placed over the nipples to help soothe and heal cracked or painful nipples . If the cause of cracked nipples is from thrush , treatment is usually begun with nystatin . If the mother is symptomatic then the mother and the baby can be treated . Continuing to breastfeed will actually help the nipples heal . A little breast milk or purified lanolin cream or ointment helps the healing process . Breastfeeding professionals that include nurses , midwives and lactation consultants are able to assist in the treatment of cracked nipples . Advice from others is abundant but there have been some treatments that have been identified as not being effective in healing or preventing cracked nipples . These ineffective treatments are keeping the breastfeeding short and using a nipple guard . Keeping the feedings short so that the nipples can rest is not effective in relieving the pain of cracked nipples and it could have a negative effect on the milk supply . Nipple shields do not improve latching on . Epidemiology ( edit ) In a survey in New York City , 35 % of nursing mothers stopped breastfeeding after one week due to the pain of cracked nipples . Thirty percent stopped breastfeeding between weeks one and three . Another survey of breastfeeding mothers in Brazil reported that there was 25 % higher risk of interruption of exclusive breastfeeding when the women had cracked nipples . Mothers with higher education levels are more likely to continue breastfeeding despite the pain of cracked nipples . Society and culture ( edit ) The importance of preventing cracked nipples while breastfeeding has been reported . In an informal survey of breastfeeding in the UK , some mothers reported that they stopped breastfeeding because the cracked nipples made it too painful . See also ( edit ) List of cutaneous conditions References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Santos , Kamila Juliana da Silva ; Santana , Géssica Silva ; Vieira , Tatiana de Oliveira ; Santos , Carlos Antônio de Souza Teles ; Giugliani , Elsa Regina Justo ; Vieira , Graciete Oliveira ( 2016 ) . `` Prevalence and factors associated with cracked nipples in the first month postpartum '' . BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 16 ( 1 ) . doi : 10.1186 / s12884 - 016 - 0999 - 4 . ISSN 1471 - 2393 . ^ Jump up to : `` Management of breast conditions and other breastfeeding difficulties '' . National Center for Biotechnology and Information , US National Library of Medicine . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Henry , p. 120 . Jump up ^ `` ICD - 10 Version : 2016 '' . apps.who.int . Retrieved 4 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Doucet , Sébastien ; Soussignan , Robert ; Sagot , Paul ; Schaal , Benoist ( 23 October 2009 ) . `` The Secretion of Areolar ( Montgomery 's ) Glands from Lactating Women Elicits Selective , Unconditional Responses in Neonates '' . PLoS ONE . 4 ( 10 ) : e7579 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0007579 . PMC 2761488 . PMID 19851461 . ^ Jump up to : `` Breastfeeding problems '' . www.nhs.uk . National Health Service ( UK ) . Retrieved 4 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Common questions about breastfeeding and pain '' . WomensHealth.gov . Retrieved 4 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . ^ Jump up to : `` Sore or cracked nipples when breastfeeding , Pregnancy and baby guide '' . www.nhs.uk . National Health Services ( UK ) . Retrieved 4 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Kinlay , Joanne R. ; O'Connell , Dianne L. ; Kinlay , Scott ( April 2001 ) . `` Risk factors for mastitis in breastfeeding women : results of a prospective cohort study '' . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health . 25 ( 2 ) : 115 -- 120 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1753 - 6405.2001. tb01831. x . ISSN 1326 - 0200 . Jump up ^ `` Thrush in newborns : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia '' . medlineplus.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Hepatitis B and C Infections - Breastfeeding - CDC '' . www.cdc.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Toxoplasmosis - Breastfeeding - CDC '' . www.cdc.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ https://www.cdc.gov/globalaids/resources/pmtct-care/docs/pocketguide.doc This link opens a document that opens rather than a web page . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ Prevention , CDC - Centers for Disease Control and . `` CDC - Chagas Disease - Detailed Fact Sheet '' . www.cdc.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` HCV FAQs for Health Professionals - Division of Viral Hepatitis - CDC '' . www.cdc.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Breastfeeding vs. Formula Feeding : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia '' . medlineplus.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ Rosen , Paul ( 2014 ) . Rosen 's breast pathology . Philadelphia : Wolters Kluwer Health / Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . p. 41 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4511 - 7653 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : `` World Breastfeeding Week : Supporting mothers to reach the six month mark '' . Retrieved 4 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Positioning your baby for breastfeeding : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia '' . medlineplus.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Roman chamomile : MedlinePlus Supplements '' . medlineplus.gov . Retrieved 3 August 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` 6 Reasons Why You Might Have Stopped Breastfeeding , And That 's Okay '' . 4 August 2017 . Retrieved 4 August 2017 . Bibliography ( edit ) Henry , Norma ( 2016 ) . RN maternal newborn nursing : review module . Stilwell , KS : Assessment Technologies Institute . ISBN 9781565335691 . Dennis , Cindy - Lee ; Jackson , Kim ; Watson , Jo ( 2014 - 12 - 15 ) . The Cochrane Library . John Wiley & Sons , Ltd . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. cd007366. pub2 . External links ( edit ) Classification ICD - 10 : N64. 0 , O92. 1 ICD - 9 - CM : 611.2 External resources MedlinePlus : 000632 Breastfeeding Main Article Breastfeeding Anatomy , Physiology and Immunolgy Anti inflammatory agents in breast milk Areola Areolar gland ( gland of Montgomery ) Breast Breast anatomy Breast crawl Breast milk Breastfeeding and medications Dysphoric milk ejection reflex Frenulum of tongue Galactose Human milk oligosaccharide Hypothalamic -- pituitary -- prolactin_axis Latching on Lactation suppression Lactiferous duct Lactose Milk Overactive let - down Oxytocin Passive immunity Prolactin Prolactin modulator Colostrum Lactation Nipple Mammary gland Mammary alveoli Mammary lobule Disorders and Difficulties Blocked milk duct Breastfeeding difficulties Breast engorgement Low milk supply Cracked nipple Mastitis Milk blister ( milk bleb ) Nipple vasospasm Neonatal jaundice Breastfeeding infertility Breastfeeding and HIV Prolactinoma Culture and Support Breastfeeding advocacy Breastfeeding in art Breastfeeding in public Breastfeeding in the United States Breastfeeding organizations Breastfeeding promotion Child 's Right to Nurse Act Diana West ( lactation consultant ) History and culture of breastfeeding Human milk bank Human milk banking in North America International Breastfeeding Symbol Jack Newman ( doctor ) International Breast Milk Project La Leche League Lactation room Lactivism Mothers ' rights Pat Shelly Amy Spangler Mary Rose Tully World Breastfeeding Week Roles Doula Midwifery Lactation consultant Lactation Counselor List of breastfeeding activists Wet nurse Equipment used with breastfeeding Breast pump Nipple shield Nursing bra Nursing chair Supplemental nursing system Other topics Baby - led weaning Weaning Extended breastfeeding Breast disease ( N60 -- N64 , 610 -- 611 ) Mastitis Mastitis Nonpuerperal mastitis Subareolar abscess Granulomatous mastitis Physiological changes and conditions Benign mammary dysplasia Duct ectasia of breast Chronic cystic mastitis Mammoplasia Gynecomastia Adipomastia ( lipomastia , pseudogynecomastia ) Breast hypertrophy Breast atrophy Micromastia Amastia Anisomastia Breast engorgement Nipple Nipple discharge Galactorrhea Inverted nipple Cracked nipples Masses Galactocele Breast cyst Breast hematoma Breast lump Pseudoangiomatous stromal hyperplasia Other Pain Tension Ptosis Fat necrosis Amazia Pathology of pregnancy , childbirth and the puerperium ( O , 630 -- 679 ) Pregnancy Pregnancy with abortive outcome Ectopic pregnancy Abdominal pregnancy Cervical pregnancy Interstitial pregnancy Ovarian pregnancy Heterotopic pregnancy Molar pregnancy Miscarriage Stillbirth Oedema , proteinuria and hypertensive disorders Gestational hypertension Pre-eclampsia HELLP syndrome Eclampsia Other , predominantly related to pregnancy Digestive system Acute fatty liver of pregnancy Gestational diabetes Hepatitis E Hyperemesis gravidarum Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy Integumentary system / dermatoses of pregnancy Gestational pemphigoid Impetigo herpetiformis Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy Linea nigra Prurigo gestationis Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy Pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of pregnancy ( PUPPP ) Striae gravidarum Nervous system Chorea gravidarum Blood Gestational thrombocytopenia Pregnancy - induced hypercoagulability Maternal care related to the fetus and amniotic cavity amniotic fluid Oligohydramnios Polyhydramnios Braxton Hicks contractions chorion / amnion Amniotic band syndrome Chorioamnionitis Chorionic hematoma Monoamniotic twins Premature rupture of membranes Obstetrical bleeding Antepartum placenta Circumvallate placenta Monochorionic twins Placenta accreta Placenta praevia Placental abruption Twin - to - twin transfusion syndrome Labor Amniotic fluid embolism Cephalopelvic disproportion Dystocia Shoulder dystocia Fetal distress Locked twins Obstetrical bleeding Postpartum Pain management during childbirth placenta Placenta accreta Preterm birth Postmature birth Umbilical cord prolapse Uterine inversion Uterine rupture Vasa praevia Puerperal Breastfeeding difficulties Low milk supply Cracked nipples Breast engorgement Childbirth - related posttraumatic stress disorder Diastasis symphysis pubis Postpartum bleeding Peripartum cardiomyopathy Postpartum depression Postpartum thyroiditis Puerperal fever Puerperal mastitis Other Concomitant conditions Diabetes mellitus Systemic lupus erythematosus Thyroid disorders Maternal death Sexual activity during pregnancy Infants and their care Main Article Infant Health Baby food Birth weight Breast pump Breastfeeding Breastfeeding and medications Bottle feeding Colic Immunizations Cradle cap Cross eyed Failure to thrive Immunization Infant and toddler safety Infant bathing Infant food safety Infant formula Infant massage Infant food safety Infant nutrition Infant respiratory distress syndrome Infant sleep training Neo-natal intensive care unit Oral rehydration therapy / Pedialyte Newborn care and safety Pediatrician Preterm birth Shaken baby syndrome Soy formula Sudden infant death syndrome Development Attachment parenting Baby - led weaning Baby talk Babbling Childbirth Congential disorder Crawling Infant visual development Diaper rash Gestational age Infant cognitive development Kangaroo care Mother Nursery Rhyme Object permanence Parent Parenting Peekaboo Play Prenatal development Prenatal development table Teething Types of crying Walking Weaning Socialization and Culture Attachment Babysitting Child abuse Child custody Child 's rights UN Child rights Circumcision Daycare Foster care Grandparent visitation Infant swimming Milk bank Nanny Wet nurse Infant care and equipment Baby bouncer Baby gate Baby monitor / Hidden camera Baby powder Baby shampoo Baby toy Baby walker Bib baby swing Baby transport Bassinet Child safety seat / Car seat safety Cloth diaper Cradle board Diaper Diaper bag Baby wipes Haberman Feeder Highchair Infant bed ( American ' crib ' and ' cradle ' , British ' cot ' ) Infant carrier Infant clothing Pacifier Playpen Stroller Supplemental nursing system Swaddling Swim diaper Baby teether Travel cot Other topics Baby shower Babywearing Child neglect Closed adoption Cry room Infant ear piercing Open adoption Prenatal cocaine exposure Neonatal withdrawal syndrome Parental child abduction Parental rights Parenting plan Paternity fraud Paternity Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cracked_nipple&oldid=858545844 '' Categories : Skin conditions resulting from physical factors Breast diseases Breast Breastfeeding Hidden categories : Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Infobox medical condition ( new ) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Kreyòl ayisyen Nederlands Русский Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2018 , at 23 : 30 ( UTC ) . 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where do the humphreys live in gossip girl

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Dan_Humphrey&oldid=801636542

Dan Humphrey - Wikipedia Dan Humphrey Jump to : navigation , search This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( August 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Dan Humphrey Gossip Girl character Penn Badgley as Daniel Humphrey First appearance Novel : Gossip Girl Television : `` Pilot '' ( episode 1.01 ) Last appearance Novel : I Will Always Love You Television : `` New York , I Love You XOXO '' ( episode 6.10 ) Created by Character Cecily von Ziegesar Developed for Television Josh Schwartz Stephanie Savage Portrayed by Penn Badgley Information Full name Daniel Randolph Humphrey Nickname ( s ) Dan Television : Cabbage Patch ( by Blair ) Humphrey ( by Blair ) Lonely Boy ( by Gossip Girl ) Brooklyn ( by Chuck ) Aliases D , Lonely Boy Television : Gossip Girl Occupation Novels : Poet High school student ( at Riverside Preparatory ; graduated ) College student ( at Evergreen State ) Television : Author Freelance writer High school student ( at St. Jude 's ; graduated ) College student ( at NYU ) Former W Magazine intern Gossip Girl Family Rufus Humphrey ( father ) Jennifer `` Jenny '' Humphrey ( younger sister ) Novels : Jeanette Humphrey ( mother ; estranged ) Television : Alison Humphrey ( mother ; estranged ) Lillian `` Lily '' van der Woodsen ( former stepmother ) Scott Rosson ( paternal half - brother ) Spouse ( s ) Television : Serena van der Woodsen ( wife ; flash - forward ) Daniel Randolph `` Dan '' Humphrey is a fictional character in the best selling Gossip Girl series of novels . He is one of the central male characters in the television adaptation of the same name , where he is portrayed by Penn Badgley . Dan Humphrey is the son of Rufus Humphrey and has a younger sister , Jenny , while his mother remains absent for the majority of the series . Dan and his family live in Brooklyn , New York , the alternative of the old - moneyed and conservative Upper East Side . He attends St. Jude 's Preparatory School for Boys on the West Side as a scholarship student . His life changed dramatically when his father , Rufus Humphrey , married the wealthy Lily van der Woodsen , moving the family to the Upper East Side . He is described as being attractive and sensitive , loves to write poetry , and one of his poems , `` Sluts , '' was featured in The New Yorker . He revealed his favorite word is death and drinks copious amounts of dark coffee . He over analyses and is easily frustrated . Dan is very close and protective of little sister Jenny who attends an exclusive private school , called the Constance Billard School for Girls , a small , elite , all - girls school located at 93rd and Madison Avenue . Contents ( hide ) 1 Novel series 2 Television series 2.1 Season 1 2.2 Season 2 2.3 Season 3 2.4 Season 4 2.4. 1 Reaction to triangle 2.5 Season 5 2.6 Season 6 3 Reception 4 References Novel series ( edit ) Daniel Humphrey lives with his father Rufus , and sister Jenny in Brooklyn . He is tall , pale , quite neurotic , quite `` intense '' and enjoys drinking coffee . He is considered to be an intellectual when it comes to writing and literature , and was in fact an intern for The Strand one summer . His favorite past time is writing on his black journals . He goes to St. Jude 's Preparatory School for Boys , on the Upper East Side , with Chuck Bass and Nate Archibald . In the first part of the books , he is in love with Serena Van Der Woodsen because of a party he threw at their apartment before he went to boarding school . When Serena returned to the Upper East Side , she was ostracized by her peers , so she made friends with Dan and Jenny . Dan later realizes that he has feelings for Vanessa , so he begins a relationship with her . They have a fight when a video of Jenny without her pants is leaked onto the internet , and she apologizes by sending his poem to The New Yorker . Dan gets published , and they make up . He gets an agent called Rusty Klien who claims he is `` the next Keats . '' Rusty introduces Dan to Mystery Craze , a novelist . They hook up on stage at a poetry reading which Vanessa sees , effectively ending their relationship . He gets an internship at Red Letter , which he leaves once he realizes they do n't want him there for his talent . He gets back together with Vanessa after he sends her a small , pink singing toy from Japan to film , and at a party at her house , a band called The Raves make him their new front man because of his poems , which they thought were lyrics . He hooks up with one of the instrumentalist 's wife , which ends his stint with them . He later meets Bree while working at The Strand one summer while he was still dating Vanessa . Dan explores his sexuality later in the books by starting a relationship with his co-worker , Greg , in the Strand by making literary salons with him , which were , in actuality , giant orgies . He breaks up with Greg , who becomes Chuck 's boyfriend instead . Dan realizes that he truly loved Vanessa . He went to The Evergreen State College for bachelor studies . Television series ( edit ) This article 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise . ( August 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Dan `` Lonely Boy '' Humphrey is the son of rocker Rufus Humphrey , and is the older sibling of Jenny Humphrey . His best friend is Vanessa Abrams , who is secretly in love with him . Dan and his family reside in Brooklyn . He is a writer and attends the St. Jude 's School for boys . He has longed for Serena van der Woodsen since a party when they were fifteen and she was the only person who was nice to him . During the beginning of the show Dan has had somewhat of a disgust towards Serena 's childhood best friend Blair Waldorf , however as the seasons progressed he develops a close friendship with her . Season 1 ( edit ) His mother lives away from home , in Hudson , as an artist . He is financially strained compared to his wealthy classmates at St. Jude 's . Dan is one of the first people to see Serena back in person . He accidentally bumps into her , causing her to fall and spill the contents of her purse and leave behind her cellphone . In an attempt to see her again , he returns the phone to The New York Palace Hotel where she lives . He runs into Serena there and ends up on a date that with her so she does not have to go to the `` Kiss On The Lips '' party which Blair is throwing . They have a rocky first date , going to his dad 's concert . The date is ended early because he gets a text from Jenny saying that she needs help at the party . Serena helps Jenny and saves her from Chuck Bass . Dan is highly embarrassed after this , as at the end of the date he only waves to her from a taxi . He and Serena end up going out again but he leaves her after Blair tells him about Serena and Nate hooking up at a party when Nate and Blair were a couple . They make up and become a constant source of attention . At the Ivy Mixer , Blair tells the whole school and Ivy scouts that Serena is a patient at the Ostroff Centre , presumably for alcoholism . Serena then goes on stage and lies to protect the real patient at the Centre : her brother . Dan is surprised at Serena 's apparent problem , especially after it seems that Serena has been making a real effort to change from her old partying ways . However , Jenny reveals that Eric is the actual patient , which then causes Dan to respect Serena for protecting her family . This event actually strengthens their relationship , instead of weakening it like Blair had intended it to do . Behind the scenes , though , is Dan 's childhood best friend Vanessa , who is clearly jealous of Serena and very much in love with Dan . Dan is oblivious to this . Despite Dan 's clear preference for Serena , Serena can not help but feel jealous of how close Dan is with Vanessa , such as when Dan tells Vanessa that his mother came home , while Serena learns this from Vanessa instead of Dan himself . When he learns from the Gossip Girl site that Serena was seen buying pregnancy tests he freaks out knowing that the child could very well be his as they 've slept together . His father sees this as well and is extremely upset that his son may be a teenage father . Dan explains he will stay with Serena no matter what she does because he loves her . He tells this to Serena who says she 's not having a child . Later on , he tells her that he loves her , and she responds with , `` Okay , '' which is not the response he was looking for . She later asks him why he loves her and he tells her a list he made of the reasons . She believes him and says she loves him as well , but she needs to help Blair . When he asks why , she says `` one of the many reasons you love me . '' When Georgina Sparks arrives on the Upper East Side with the intent on making Serena 's life hell , she gets to know Dan behind Serena 's back . Pretending to be `` Sarah '' and accidentally - on - purpose letting her dog run off its leash in the park , Georgina gets an excuse to talk to Dan . It is later seen that Dan and Vanessa have taken `` Sarah '' under their wing as they believe she is a new girl to the Upper East Side who does n't know her way around . Eventually , Dan breaks up with Serena , because he believes that she has slept with someone else and he is tired of her holding secrets from him . A few hours after he breaks up with Serena , he kisses Georgina , believing that she is a helpless girl who is running away from a psychotic ex-boyfriend . Soon thereafter , Dan is convinced that Georgina is lying to him by being told the truth by Serena . He and Blair manage to fool Georgina into thinking that Dan would like to meet up with her . The real purpose of the plan , though , is to get Georgina to meet with her parents and then get sent to a Christian boot camp . Dan and Serena rekindle what is left of their relationship before Dan ultimately ends it entirely . He is last seen spending some time with Vanessa during the start of the summer holidays . Season 2 ( edit ) According to Gossip Girl , over the summer Dan went from `` Lonely Boy to Playboy . '' Dan occupied himself by having continuous dates throughout the summer , with Serena still on his mind . Due to Dan 's emotional complications , he is unable to complete an essay he was to submit . This ultimately results in his being fired due to his lack of commitment . Upon being fired from his summer job , he heads to the Hamptons upon realizing that he has been missing Serena . He hopes that by seeing Serena he will realize that they made the right decision , and he can move on . He arrives in the Hamptons , at the annual White Party , to find Serena and Nate Archibald in a passionate kiss . This reveals his true feelings for Serena as he shows obvious anger towards Serena 's `` cheating . '' Serena tries to convince him that she kissed Nate so as to make Nate 's girlfriend ( an older , married woman ) jealous . Dan goes to leave , when he is confronted by a pair of girls he had dated throughout the summer . The girls , having found out about one another 's relationships with Dan , pour their drinks on Dan and leave . Having been caught out by Serena for his hypocrisy , Dan and Serena retreat into the house to talk . They decide to meet up later at the beach , where they spend the night together . The following morning , Serena and Dan decide to halt any discussions on their relationships until they are back in the city . After some confusion between who was to take the train and who was to take the bus , they both ended traveling back to the city on the bus . This creates tension between the two , and as Serena gets up to use the bus bathroom , she trips and falls on Dan . She pulls up Dan and the two go into the bathroom to have some fun . The two decide to keep their rekindled relationship a secret until they were sure of themselves . Back in the city at Blair 's `` Welcome Back '' party , Nate discovers the two in an embrace , revealing publicly that their relationship is `` back on . '' In `` The Dark Night , '' during the citywide blackout , Dan and Serena talk about their problems while they were both trapped in an elevator . After a long talk ( and a bit of arguing ) , they realized they keep having the same fight , and break up . During their return to school , Serena and Dan are now friends until he meets a transfer student named Amanda Lasher . They share the same interests and have perfect chemistry . Blair attempts to keep them separate by making her one of her entourage so that Serena would n't have to suffer seeing them together and so she also would n't have to lose the competition of rebounding . Serena meets Amanda and nearly makes a fool out of herself . Blair forces Amanda to join them for lunch . Dan , thinking that Serena is trying to keep him away from Amanda gets Serena , who was reasoning with Dan why it happened , irritated when he kept implying that she was the one who forced her to lunch . Dan and Amanda 's relationship goes public much to Serena 's irritation . Serena then invites Dan and Amanda to go out later that night which turns into as disaster as Dan and Amanda continue to make her feel out of place . Isabel and Penelope , after witnessing Dan go out with Amanda that led to the relationship getting public , offers Serena several suitors , one in particular is a Dalton lacrosse team captain . Serena 's new suitor fails to impress Dan . Dan thinks that Serena used the lacrosse team to rub it into his face . Later on , Penelope ruins Amanda 's hair with a little help from Chuck . Dan runs to Amanda 's aid who brushes him off saying that she no longer wants to see him . Dan gets into an argument with Serena and leaves . The next day , he is shunned because of Serena 's rise to Queen Bee status . Dan 's recommendation from Noah Shapiro , a writer , leads him to find new inspiration in the form of Chuck Bass . Noah suggests he use Chuck to fuel a new story . Dan does so and loses his shoes in the process . He ends up creating the character of `` Charlie Trout , '' a character that impresses Noah and asks him to find out what makes him tick . That night , Chuck mistakes a woman of being a prostitute and nearly gets punched until Dan defends him . The two end up in jail and Chuck confesses that he thinks his father hates him because he thinks he killed his mother at Chuck 's birth . Chuck gets out a jail with some help from his lawyers and discovers Dan 's reason as to why he was hanging out with him . Chuck gets angry at Dan and leaves him , saying that he lied about his mother 's death and that she died in the Andes in a plane accident . Dan calls Noah Shapiro who bails him out . Dan confesses that he thinks it 's wrong to exploit people for art and that he 'd rather be safe . The two part ways and in bad terms . During a visit to Yale , Dan 's recommendation for Yale admission goes awry as his only recommendation came from J.L. Hall . Jeremiah Harris and Noah Shapiro likely declined to write for Dan 's recommendation . The Dean of Admissions suggests that he find someone to read his work . Dan then finds out Nate used his name to get into a fling with Jordan , a co-ed girl who eventually helps Dan get his work to other literature professors . Dan is stripped of his clothes and tied to a statue by members of the Skull & Bones after Chuck fools them into thinking he is Nate . Chuck 's revenge on Dan then backfires on Chuck who loses Nate as a friend after Nate finds out about what he did to Dan . Dan and Nate begin a friendship much to Chuck 's chagrin . During an invite to play soccer , Dan tries to visit Nate at his house and finds out about Nate 's financial situation . Nate has been squatting in his own house that got seized amongst other property of the Archibalds . Dan invites Nate to a family dinner and tells Nate that he knows about Nate squatting in his own house . Nate leaves angry . Rufus talks to Dan and tells him that Nate needs help even if he does n't want it , seeing as Nate has no one to turn to for help . Dan finds Serena outside Nate 's house and repair their relationship . The two become friends . Dan convinces Nate , who moves in after his house got seized . With Blair 's situation with Chuck now out of hand , Serena gets Dan to help Blair and tells her that wearing him down would help her situation . Later on , he continues to help Blair by telling her that she should intercept him at home . With Blair desperate , he tells Blair that she should take a risk and say those `` 3 words , 8 letters '' anyway . During Aaron 's opening at Rufus ' gallery , Vanessa confesses that Blair and Chuck used her in one of their sick games . Dan ruins Blair 's opportunity to tell Chuck that she loves him and tells Serena what happened . He said that the two were bound to break up eventually and that what they did to Vanessa was sick . Serena says that Vanessa 's matter is different and that Chuck and Blair do love each other . He later apologizes to Serena and get into an honest conversation . Serena confesses her feelings for Aaron and Dan gives her his blessing to date other people . Aaron and Serena start to date each other while Dan realizes that he still has feelings for Serena . Aaron has been concerned that Serena leans emotionally more on Dan than him . He asks her to come with him to Buenos Aires for Christmas . Serena asks Dan for his opinion , and he tells her to go . At Eleanor 's wedding however , Dan confronts Serena about his feelings for her . Because she knows about her mother and Rufus ' relationship , and because she has already said yes to Aaron , Serena turns Dan down and goes ahead with Aaron 's trip . Serena breaks up with Aaron during the holiday and Dan and Serena meet with each other and they both decide there are better off back together . Dan soon learns he shares a sibling brother with Serena and becomes ridden with guilt when Rufus asks him to let Lily tell Serena the news . Serena and Dan attempt to return to normal , but find this difficult with Lily and Rufus , who have decided to go public with their relationship . Dan , and Serena both get acceptance letters to Yale but Serena decides that Yale is n't for her and applies to Brown and gives her spot to Blair who was wait - listed . A new teacher named Ms. Carr teaches at Constance Billard and there is an obvious attraction between them . Blair is so willing to get back at Ms. Carr for giving her a B on a paper that she sends in a rumor to Gossip girl concerning a secret relationship going on between Dan and Ms. Carr . Serena herself is becoming suspicious when she sees Dan and Ms. Carr discussing Dan 's paper together but believes Dan when he says nothing is going on between the two of them . Serena then sees Dan and Ms. Carr in a coffee shop together . She can not hear what they are saying but in fact Dan is only comforting Ms. Carr who is in tears about the slanderous teacher - student relationship rumor . Serena captures a photo of Dan touching Ms. Carr 's face in an intimate way and shares the photo with Blair although she has doubts about the authenticity of the situation . Blair enters a parent - teacher meeting at Constance Billard and presents the incriminating photo at hand . Dan explains to Serena nothing happened between him and Ms. Carr but it is too late . Ms. Carr is fired . Serena and Dan 's relationship hits another dead end when things become too much for them to take . First their parents start dating , then they find out they shared a half brother together , and now the mess of the rumor . Serena goes to apologize to Ms. Carr while admitting regretfully that she was the one who gave the photo to Blair . Later Dan visits Ms. Carr and starts to apologize for how things went down but then she kisses him . Dan , at first , is surprised at her actions . Ms. Carr points out that she does n't teach at Constance anymore so there is no student - teacher relationship . So Dan obliges and they have sex in the dark of the room . Even though Rachel is reinstated , she and Dan have sex again before the school play . Dan then discovers she has used things he told her to humiliate Serena and Blair on Gossip Girl , as well as blocking Blair 's application to Yale . He tells the girls what has been going on and Rachel leaves the school . Dan is accepted at Yale but denied financial aid . He discovers Rufus has invested his college fund with Serena 's new boyfriend Gabriel Edwards , who was working with con artist Poppy Lifton . Not trusting Serena , Blair and Chuck to get the money back , Dan goes to Lily for help , resulting in her getting Serena arrested to stop her exposing Poppy . With money from CeCe and a dress from Jenny , Dan manages to bail Serena out of jail and take her to the prom . On graduation day , Dan refuses to take part in Serena 's plan to expose Gossip Girl , which results in everyone 's secrets , including Dan being arrested , becoming common knowledge . Dan gets a call from Georgina saying the money Poppy took is back in his account and tells her he 's going to New York University . Season 3 ( edit ) Dan joins Blair , Vanessa and Georgina at New York University and instantly fits in among its many aspiring writers . His stay at NYU also tests his friendship with Vanessa , who assumes that Dan has been absent in their friendship ever since he became wealthy . Dan explains to Vanessa that he and his family are still adjusting to their nouveau - riche status and Vanessa leaves frustrated at Dan . Dan 's first day at NYU reveals Georgina Sparks ' return . When Georgina throws a party , Blair 's attempt at sabotage results in Dan standing up for Georgina . Dan is popular at NYU , and his influence leaves Blair ostracized . Dan and Georgina 's relationship is short - lived in the episode `` The Lost Boy . '' Georgina sends Blair on a wild goose chase to enter an elite secret society that gets her into a bidding war with Chuck Bass at an auction . Serena recognizes Georgina 's handwriting in Blair 's invitation to the secret society and confronts her . The Humphrey family leaves and Georgina is left alone at the auction . Serena reveals Georgina 's scheming to Dan and Dan ends his relationship with Georgina . Georgina leaves for Boston when she discovers that Scott , Vanessa 's boyfriend , is Rufus and Lily 's love - child and that Vanessa had known that he was for a long time . In `` Dan de Fleurette , '' Dan moves on from his relationship with Georgina when he meets Olivia , a Hollywood film star who attended NYU to experience life as a normal college student . Dan first meets Olivia , who calls herself Kate until her movie premiere of Fleur reveals that she is Olivia Burke , a Hollywood movie star . Olivia apologizes to Dan and they embark in a new relationship . Georgina 's return from Boston has her blackmailing Vanessa when she discovers that Dan has moved on from their relationship so quickly in `` Rufus Getting Married . '' Dan , then persuades Vanessa to reveal her secret , only to find out that Scott Rosson is his half - brother , the love - child of Rufus and Lily . Rufus and Lily 's wedding has Dan and Vanessa reluctant to tell the truth about Scott . On Rufus and Lily 's wedding when Lily gets cold feet , Rufus confronts her with Scott unknowingly asking if their wedding was off . Lily scolds Scott and Georgina reveals that Scott is their love - child . Dan arrives with the rest of the family and confirms Georgina 's statement . Dan and Blair find Georgina eating the wedding cake and Blair leaves . At the end of the episode , Dan expresses regret that Georgina left unscathed . Blair assures him that she did n't by sending Dorota and Vanya to get rid of her . Dan and Olivia encounter several troubles in their relationship when Vanessa alienates them both during her attempt at getting the freshman toast at NYU . When Dan introduces Olivia to Rufus and Lily , she starts acting like a stereotypical movie star towards them until Vanessa reveals that she lied to the both of them so that Olivia would n't have to meet her judgmental mother , Gabriela . Vanessa loses the toast to Olivia and properly reintroduces Olivia the next morning after the incident . Olivia 's movie star background also catches up to her when she is forced to continue her fake relationship with Patrick Roberts , her former co-star . Serena intervenes and Dan and Olivia soon manage to make their relationship public . Dan and Olivia 's relationship soon comes to an end when Olivia is again forced back into the world of film and return to Hollywood but not without Dan and Vanessa giving her the best college experience . The college experience results in a threesome that consequently leads to Dan and Olivia 's break - up when Olivia states that Dan has feelings for Vanessa . Vanessa unfortunately , falls for theater student , Paul Hoffman . With Olivia gone , Dan confesses his love for Vanessa during the anniversary of Bart Bass ' death but Vanessa turns him down . Dan attempts to impress Vanessa by impressing Gabriela that ends with Gabriela telling Dan that if he breaks Vanessa 's heart , their friendship would n't make it . Vanessa eventually reveals her feelings for Dan at a beach party when Dan arrives with a fresh date and Vanessa gets back together with Paul Hoffman . Dan had been unaware that Vanessa had ended her relationship with Paul until Paul and Dan 's date reveals each other 's predicaments , get together and leave Dan and Vanessa at the party . Dan and Vanessa reveal their feelings toward each other and kiss at the end of the episode . Dan finds little trouble with his relationship with Vanessa and reveals their relationship to Rufus . Vanessa , frustrated at the lack of something different in their relationship , heeds Nate 's advice on role - playing and sets up a date fashioned according to Dan 's favorite movie Rear Window . Vanessa is not convinced that Dan appreciates what she did for her date , and she leaves . Dan confronts her and tells her that their relationship is different from their friendship . Dan applies to get into the Tisch School of the Arts writing program at NYU , as Vanessa reads and secretly critiques one of the stories that he plans on submitting for admission . Dan secretly read Vanessa 's film script and is impressed , unaware that Vanessa is also applying for the same program . Towards the end of the season , Vanessa decides to accept an internship with CNN , that of which requires her to go on a six - month trip to Haiti . Despite this , the two of them decide that they can still maintain their relationship as a long - distance one . In the season finale , Dan wakes up with Serena in his bed . The viewers learn that the two did not sleep together but - after staying up until 4AM talking and drinking wine - they shared a kiss , that of which Serena classifies as them `` falling into a comfortable path for one ... or ten minutes . '' When Dan hears that Serena breaks up with Nate , he calls her , possibly to say he had feelings for her . When she announces she wo n't be back to talk to him till September he appears very disappointed . He then shuts the e-mail he had opened to write to Vanessa , his current girlfriend , who is no longer taking his calls ( due to Nate 's interception after finding out from Gossip Girl 's blast and later overhearing at the hospital about the kiss ) . When he later learns that Serena is going to Paris with Blair , he goes online to book a ticket . Before he can , however , Georgina visits Dan and tells him that she 's pregnant with his child . Season 4 ( edit ) `` You 've always wanted in ... maybe more than Jenny . '' -- Vanessa reveals Dan 's secret desire to be a part of the Upper East Side It is revealed Georgina gave birth to a son , Milo , on July 7 , 2010 , though it is unknown whether Dan is the father , because they never did a DNA test . It is later revealed to be another one of her schemes when she abruptly leaves New York , leaving Dan alone with Milo . She left a note saying that she went to the `` spa . '' Georgina returns from the `` spa '' ( she was in fact in St. Barths ) to tell Dan about Serge , Milo 's real father , and to say that she and Milo are going to live with Georgina 's parents . Dan is sad to see Milo go . He tries to embark on a relationship with Serena , who is still torn over him and Nate . Blair and Dan team up to find Juliet in Connecticut . They do find her with Serena , but get a shock when Serena tells them that Lily was the one who put Ben in jail instead of herself . It was revealed that Blair and Dan went to see a couple of movies together , though the both say that they are not friends . Blair was fired from her internship at W Magazine , but since Dan connived to get her fired , he confessed and convinced Epperly to re-hire Blair . Hereafter , Blair got better position as a team leader , since her boss decided to retire . On Valentine 's Day , Blair found out that Chuck had real romantic feelings for Raina Thorpe . Dan stalked Blair to try to convince her to publish his short story , and the two of them made the discovery together ( Chucks real feelings for Raina ) while hidden behind a curtain . They went their separate ways , but spent the rest of the evening talking together on their cell phones while watching Rosemary 's Baby on their laptops . Afterwards , both got a hidden closed relationship and denied the friendship to everybody . Feeling something beyond that happened , they tried to overcome the all confusions and denials by only one kiss . Later , Dan admits to Eric and to Charlie that he has romantic feelings for Blair . In the finale , it was revealed that Dan had been writing a scathing novel based on his life for the past five years . While looking for Charlie at the loft , Vanessa reads his novel and hints at the possibility that he possesses unrequited feelings for Blair all the while realizing that Dan always wanted to be a part of the Upper East side . Vanessa encourages him to publish the novel following in a harsh exchange of words during a phone call and resulting in Dan lashing out at Vanessa while she takes matters into her own hands leaves the Humphrey apartment with his novel . Later scenes during the finale show Vanessa offering Dan 's novel to a publishing company . Reaction to triangle ( edit ) `` Chuck and Blair are always going to be connected in their way , and Dan and Serena are always going to be connected in their way . But that does n't mean that there wo n't be new roads to go down that might be different than what we initially anticipated . '' -- Joshua Safran , producer Amidst the fourth season , the romance between Dan and Blair became a polarizing topic among viewers which also drew significant media interest . Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post applauded the development , feeling that Blair had `` more chemistry '' with Dan than with Chuck . New York magazine 's Chris Rovzar called Blair and Dan 's story line `` believable '' , citing their common ground in education and taste . Rovzar further stated , `` Since they live in a world where both only seem to have half a dozen real friends ( if that ) , is it so crazy they 'd end up together ? '' The Huffington Post declared that `` Dan and Blair together are like Harry Burns and Sally Albright reincarnated -- the couple was obviously inspired by When Harry Met Sally . '' It further commented that the couple paralleled Pacey and Joey 's relationship from Dawson 's Creek and concluded that Dan and Blair were `` the most inspired storyline and couple of the show '' . Entertainment Weekly stated that Dan and Blair were like stars in an `` updated version of You 've Got Mail '' . Tierney Bricker of E ! ranked all 25 Gossip Girl couples placing ' Dair ' as the third best couple after Blair and Serena ( # 1 ) and ' Chair ' ( # 2 ) . Bricker stated that `` ( Dan and Blair ) , out of all the main characters , were the most well - suited for each other . In real - life , they would 've been ' endgame ' . '' Dawn Fallik of The Wall Street Journal was less positive , asserting that `` both characters have been so Blandified that there 's no fun left in the show . '' A writer for E ! Online 's Team WWK labeled the Dan / Blair relationship `` nomance nonsense '' . With regard to Chuck and Blair , Meester stated , `` I can really relate to it -- not necessarily because it 's this dramatic , tumultuous relationship , but because the way they love each other is very real , and not for the sake of being dramatic . It 's actual love . There 's nobody for each other but them . '' Meester also expressed fondness for Dan and Blair , however , stating , `` I think they 're good for each other in a lot of ways , in a way that Chuck and Blair are n't . '' Badgley claimed that he thought `` Blair ( was ) Dan 's soul mate '' and further stated that he thought the Blair and Dan storyline was `` the most exciting for Dan as a person '' . When Hollywoodlife.com asked Ed Westwick who played Chuck Bass which character he thought loved Blair more : Chuck or Dan , Westwick pointed to Badgley , saying `` definitely him . '' Producers initially noticed chemistry between Blair and Dan in the Season 1 episode `` Bad News Blair '' . According to producer Joshua Safran , the creators planned to revisit their relationship once the timing was right . Safran also stated that the outcome was n't necessarily decided ahead of time . `` One thing we are very conscious of -- and I know some fans get upset about this -- is we really try to treat the characters as living , breathing , well - rounded individuals . And we 're often surprised by where their journeys take them ; they open new doors for us all the time . '' Season 5 ( edit ) The fifth season opens with Dan in the Hamptons . He appears upset when he receives Blair 's invitation for her royal wedding . Dan soon finds out that someone has published his book , Inside . Meanwhile , Blair , back from her cruise and is currently in Manhattan again , is frustrated with Louis ' domineering mother , who feels the need to have complete control over the wedding . Dan finds out that Vanessa has published his book without his permission and tries to undo the damage , especially after Vanity Fair want to publish a part about Dan and Blair . Desperate , Dan turns to Louis for some help , hoping the prince could put some royal weight on it and manage to cancel the publishing . Louis informs him that he promised earlier to Blair that he 's going to take her to the Royal consulate , so he calls her and tells her that he would not be able to make it , much to Blair 's disappointment . Soon after , Blair then arrives at Dan 's loft and tells him that despite they have n't spoken since the holidays , she needs a friend to talk to and believes that he is the only one that will truly listen . She announces that she plans to break it off with Louis and asks him about his trip to the Hamptons , to which he responds to staying at CeCe 's house . She asks him to take her there and Dan tells her he will be there for her for whatever she needs . He decides to conceal the real reason why Louis could n't make it , and just as they were about to make a move , Louis comes enters the loft . Blair assumes that he was following her and starts reprimanding him , until Dan 's conscience gets the better of him and reveals that Louis was only helping him with his book issue . Blair soon becomes furious with Dan as he did not tell her the real reason why Louis could not make it and departs with Louis , arm - in - arm , leaving Dan alone and heartbroken . And at the end of the episode it 's been revealed that Blair is the one pregnant . Over the next few episodes , Blair is found having trouble keeping the pregnancy a secret and begins having morning sickness . Things get more difficult when Louis 's sister , Princess Beatrice , comes to town . When she hears Blair 's morning sickness in the bathroom , she begins to assume that Blair has gone back to being bulimic . She decides to invite Blair to a feast to be sure . Meanwhile , in Brooklyn , Dan is still trying to stop the publishing of his book , in order to save the relationship he has built with his closest friends and family . He calls Serena on the phone and asks her how she went through Lily 's bank account so that he can go to Vanessa 's bank and look for the publisher , but she tells him that it was all Chuck 's doing , driving him to go searching for Chuck . To his horror , he finds Chuck getting beat up by men . He attempts to save Chuck , when he reveals that the men were not real criminals and he paid them to hurt him , much to Dan 's astonishment . This leads Dan to search for Blair and inform her about Chuck 's recent dilemma . Meanwhile , at the feast , Blair begins to feel sick and searches for an excuse to run to the bathroom without arising suspicion . She begins to silently pray to God for a way out , and once she finishes , she sees Dan at the front of the door . Blair rushes to his side and drags him to the toilet and orders him to guard the door . Dan announces that Chuck is getting himself into trouble again , but Blair brushes it off , stating that he 's merely doing it to get her attention . Once Dan hears Blair throw up , he begins to get worried and , like Beatrice , assumes that she has gone back to her previous bulimic ways . He voices out his concern and Blair leaves the washroom stall , stating that she was not bulimic , but instead pregnant . However , Beatrice walks into the bathroom just as Blair reveals her pregnancy to Dan . The both of them are shocked , but agree to keep it a secret . Afterwards , Blair arrives at Dan 's loft once again , revealing to him that she is uncertain who the father of her unborn child is . He encourages her to take a test , but she refuses , stating that she 'll lose everything if Chuck is the actual father . Dan responds that she will still have him , causing Blair to cry and rest her head on Dan 's shoulder . He then kisses her forehead . However , Blair , being her usual self , still tries to avoid taking the test , but after much persuasion from Dan , she eventually does , and announces that the father is Louis . She then tells Louis that she 's pregnant , much to his elation . Soon afterwards , Serena , Nate , Chuck , Louis 's mother , Eleanor and Cyrus all know about Blair 's pregnancy , and she decides not to keep anymore secrets regarding her unborn child . Dan decides that it is time for him to tell Blair about his feelings for her , engaged or not , when she comes and visits him at his loft , feeling heavy - hearted and dejected . She tells him that she wishes to be happy again , but has forgotten how to be . After a very emotional phone call with Chuck , Blair enters Dan 's living room heartbroken , looking devastated and emotionally drained . This drives Dan to attempt and bring Chuck and Blair together again , determined to bring joy back into Blair 's life . He decides to keep his feelings for Blair quiet and bottled up , only letting Serena know how he feels about her . Dan leads both Chuck and Blair individually into an enclosed candlelight room . Once they both come face - to - face , Dan closes the door and shows himself out , leaving them both alone . Then , he engages in a discussion with Serena , telling her that all he wants is for Blair to be happy . Serena to tells him that he 's one of the good guys , due to his selflessness regarding Blair 's happiness . While Blair and Chuck are whisking away in a limo , planning on running away together and raising Blair 's unborn baby as Chuck 's child , they both end up in a serious , life - threatening car accident when paparazzi tail them continuously after Charlie sends Gossip Girl a blast , informing her on Chuck and Blair 's whereabouts . The accident causes Serena , who is alongside Nate and Dan , to be more furious at Gossip Girl than ever before , and blames her entirely for the accident caused . Dan monotonously states that she did n't jump on one of the motorcycles and chase Chuck and Blair down the road , but Serena angrily responds that the accident is merely the result of all the amount of damage that Gossip Girl has caused throughout the years . Nate agrees , and he Serena begin planning on taking Gossip Girl down for good , to avenge Chuck and Blair , as Dan anxiously waits for news on Blair . In the next episode , Blair learns that she lost the baby in the accident , much to her depression and despair , and she immediately bursts into tears when the news reaches her . She becomes even more terrified when Serena tells her that Chuck is in serious danger , due to losing a large amount of blood . This drives her to make a secret deal with God , promising Him that if He saves Chuck 's life , she would marry Louis and not go back to being with Chuck . Once she makes the promise , the nurse informs her that Chuck is asking for her . She decides that this means that God has honored their promise , and chooses to further her relationship with Louis , deciding against pursuing her relationship with Chuck . She informs Dan about her deal and tells him to keep it a secret , to which he agrees . Soon , only Dan and Serena know about Blair 's promise . She begins avoiding Chuck and Louis , who collaborate to find out what was going on with Blair , and find pictures of Dan and Blair together in New York , learning that the only man she 's not avoiding is Dan . When she tells him that she needs him , and he responds that he has her , once again confirming that he will be there for her during the hard times . When Dan walks in on Blair in her wedding dress , he tells her that she looks perfect , making her cry . She says that she can no longer get married in the dress , as now all she sees is everything she 's lost . Dan comforts her and tells her that she should change her mind about marrying Louis , but she insists on pursuing the wedding , stating she 's committed to him . They both falsely assume that she 's having an affair with Dan , to which she immediately denies . Soon later , she finds Louis 's wedding vows , and is pleasantly stunned with how accurately he describes her and how much love the vows display . She tells Serena that she feels as if Louis had `` peered into her soul , '' and now is happy with the decision she had made , believing that Louis is the one for her . However , unknown to Blair , Dan was the one who wrote the vows , after Louis asked him to . On her wedding day , Blair and Chuck confront each other once again , and Blair declares that she does indeed love him , but can not be with him . She leaves the room to attend the ceremony , leaving Chuck alone in the room . Cyrus and Harold both give Blair away , and Dan and Serena walk down the aisle together . However , it appears that someone taped Chuck and Blair 's moment , when Blair was professing her love for Chuck to him . It sends Blair running down the aisle and causes her to blame Chuck , assuming he was the one who sent the blast to Gossip Girl . Soon , she returns to the altar , and she and Louis continue the wedding . After Louis and Blair say their vows and take each other as man and wife , Serena tells Dan that she loves him , that she always had and she always will , just before Louis and Blair take their first dance as a married couple . As Blair tells Louis that she 's very thankful for giving her a princess title and especially grateful that he gave her another chance , he coldly responds that their wedding was all for show and there is nothing but a contract between them . He tells her that when they 're alone , they 'll become like strangers to each other . After the wedding , Dan is certain he has lost Blair to Louis but soon finds out it is a sham wedding when Blair asks him for help to get out of the country and file for a divorce . Taking her to the airport he realizes just how much she needs to get out of this situation and lies to Serena about her whereabouts , this leaves him with a problem when he is discovered with Blair later on . Soon afterwards , Blair arrives from her honeymoon to Manhattan on Valentine 's Day , she tries to set Dan and Serena up once again . However , when Blair notices the lack of interest Dan has in pursuing his old relationship with Serena . She tells him that she attempted to get Dan and Serena back together because she wants Dan to be happy . Blair asks him what it is that would make him happy , and he responds by kissing her , leaving Blair stunned . She , however , does not stop him and instead slowly begins to reciprocate to the kiss . Unfortunately , Serena , alongside Georgina , accidentally intrudes on Dan and Blair . Georgina manages to snap a picture of Dan and Blair 's kiss and soon runs away from the scene , driving Dan to chase after her , leaving Blair and stunned and angered Serena alone together . Blair continues to deny having any feelings for Dan during and after the party to both Dan and Serena . With Serena and Blair 's friendship on shaky grounds Dorota decides to lock them in the dining room up for their own good . Blair decides to prove to Serena by spending a whole day with Dan that her feelings are platonic . Unfortunately , she reciprocates another kiss from Dan while Serena accidentally intrudes on them . Serena dictates that Blair is always in denial when it comes to matters of the heart . During a re-enactment of a scene from the Inside novel , Blair realizes that Dan loves her for her and has so for some time . Putting aside her insecurities she admits to both Serena and Dan that she too has feelings for Dan . Serena then gives Blair her blessing , stating that she does not want to be an obstacle in Dan and Blair 's relationship . Soon afterwards , Blair pecks a kiss from Dan and heads off to support Serena with her last moments with CeCe . In `` The Princess Dowry '' Dan walks in on Blair discussing what could be a potential way out of her prenup on the phone with Cyrus and another lawyer from his firm . Blair shares the details and after saying that she `` would n't have to wait a year for ... anything '' she and Dan exchange smiles . At CeCe 's wake , Chuck outs Dan via Gossip Girl as the sender of the video that was fatal to Blair 's marriage . At first , she thinks that it 's just a game Chuck is playing and she is unwilling to participate , however , when she sees the guilty looks on Dan 's face she realizes that it 's the truth . She is mad at him , but forgives him after he tells her that his only reason for sending the video was that he could n't stand to see Blair so unhappy . Meanwhile , Blair makes a deal with Estee to help her get out of her marriage dowry if there will be no more public mention of it in the media , including Gossip Girl . However , at this time Georgina , who has stolen Dan 's phone , teams up with Chuck and sends Gossip Girl a message from Dan 's phone uploading the photo of the Valentine 's Day kiss , thus ruining Blair 's chances of not having to pay the dowry . Dorota shows Blair the blast and she confronts Dan who is confronting Georgina . The latter admits to having been Gossip Girl and it turns out that the deal with Estee was also one of her schemes . Dan goes to confront Chuck , who , after finding out that the blast will bankrupt Blair 's family , is regretful , however , he revels that he has outed Dan for the bad guy he has been and he question whether their friendship was just an act . Blair walks over to them and Chuck tells Dan to be honest and confess that he has been trying to keep him and Blair apart , which Dan does . He apologizes to Blair and leaves . Chuck says that wants Blair and him to try again because all the obstacles that were in their relationship 's way are seemingly gone , but Blair tells him that although she loves him , she is not `` in love '' with him anymore . Later , Georgina visits Blair and promises to get her rid of her dowry in exchange for Blair 's support . Blair agrees to this . In the episode 's last scene , Blair goes to Brooklyn . Dan is n't expecting her , as he is assuming she got back together with Chuck . Blair tells him that she is n't there to tell him off and she is n't with Chuck . Dan cracks a joke that clearly expresses his disbelief and surprise at Blair choosing him over the `` love of her life , '' Chuck . She tells him that she told Chuck that he does n't have her heart anymore as it now belongs to someone else . They kiss and rest their foreheads against each other 's . Blair calls him by his first name which amuses Dan and he asks her to `` say it again '' and they start kissing passionately . The new couple make a slow and rocky debut on the Upper East side and are faced with numerous challenges including their relations in the bedroom , Blair 's lingering feelings for Chuck , and Serena 's distaste for their relationship . When Gossip Girl intentionally exposes Blair 's secrets on Gossip Girl , Dan comes to terms with Blair 's feelings for Chuck , as well as Serena 's attempts to sabotage their relationship . In the finale , Dan , having been left by Blair for Chuck , teams up with Georgina in order to write his follow up to `` Inside '' . This time , however , he pledges to write the novel `` he should have written from the beginning . '' Georgina , with her own score to settle with the Upper East side , is more than happy to help . Season 6 ( edit ) In Season 6 , Dan tells Serena that the reason he did n't give her an answer to the `` I love you '' was because it was easier to focus on his anger at Blair , than to face the possibility of getting what he always wanted in the fear of losing it again . Dan and Serena throw their first Thanksgiving as a couple together , where Serena affirms her love for Dan by rejecting both Steven and Blair by saying that Dan is her soul - mate and the only love of her life . Dan also solidifies his love by telling Georgina and Rufus that he had a plan all along to win and that there is no winning without Serena . In the finale , Dan reveals to Serena their first meeting at a party , where Dan first spoke to her and fell madly in love . Dan realized at that party that he could never pull Serena out of her world but he could n't give up either . He realized that the only way he could get Serena was to write himself into the Upper East Side drama by using a blog to create a legend ; the blog came to be known as Gossip Girl . Dan then revealed his secret to all by giving Nate his final chapter to publish in the struggling Spectator , revealing to all that the only purpose of Gossip Girl was the love he had for Serena . Serena was overjoyed at the revelation , stating that Dan , through Gossip Girl , had written her and everyone else a seven - year love letter and made her realize that she belongs in the Upper East Side with Dan . Five years later , Dan and Serena get married , surrounded by their closest friends and family . Reception ( edit ) Dan Humphrey 's character has garnered much media recognition . Alfonso Espina of The Huffington Post declared that Dan was the `` Nick Carraway character we viewers could live vicariously through . '' Jason Gay of Rolling Stone praised Badgley 's characterisation , claiming that `` while another actor may have played Dan as a blah straight man , Badgley imbued him with an occasionally obnoxious know - it - all - ness . '' The New Yorker cited Dan as `` the token - boho character '' ; while , New York Magazine described Badgley 's Dan as `` the moralistic outsider , or what passes for one on a show produced by the guy who created The O.C. '' . Jarett Wieselman of Entertainment Tonight asserted that `` charming and disarming in equal measure , Badgley 's incarnation of the Brooklyn - boy gone bad was always a comedic and emotional highlight . '' Melena Ryzik of The New York Times compared Dan Humphrey 's character to The O.C. 's Seth Cohen , saying they both fulfilled the role of `` the darkly comic observer '' . Similarly , Julie Weiner of Vanity Fair claimed that Dan was a Schwartzian archetype of Seth in that both characters were `` attractive bookish outsiders '' . Other colleagues have also commented on Dan Humphrey 's character . Blake Lively , Badgley 's co-star , declared that `` Dan was supposed to be the goofy , nerdy guy who felt like he never measured up to other people , but Penn ( Badgley ) decided to play it a little more arrogant . Like he 's smarter than these spoiled little brats . '' The series executive producer , Stephanie Savage , claimed that `` as he ( Dan Humphrey ) is the outsider , he 's somebody who when he 's pointing out what 's absurd about the world , you have to believe he 's smart enough to get it and also deliver it in a way that you find it kind of amusing and not just critical or judgmental . '' References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Ausiello , Michael ( March 1 , 2011 ) . `` Gossip Girl Boss on the Big Dan / Blair Smooch : ' It Was a Long Time Coming ' '' . TV Line . Retrieved March 28 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Bricker , Tierney ( February 1 , 2011 ) . `` Gossip Girl 's Leighton Meester talks Dan and Blair : ' I think they 're good for each other ' '' . Zap2it . Archived from the original on April 8 , 2011 . Retrieved March 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wieselman , Jarett ( March 1 , 2011 ) . `` IM - ing about Gossip Girl '' . New York Post . Archived from the original on March 6 , 2011 . Retrieved March 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Rovzar , Chris ( March 8 , 2011 ) . `` How the Writers of Gossip Girl Sold Us on the Show 's Most Unbelievable Couple '' . New York . Retrieved March 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Espina , Alfonso ( December 19 , 2012 ) . `` The End of Gossip Girl : Chair vs. Dair '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Stack , Tim ( February 15 , 2011 ) . `` Gossip Girl recap : Dair to Get Closer '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bricker , Tierney ( November 28 , 2015 ) . `` We Ranked All the Gossip Girl Couples and No. 1 May Surprise You '' . E !. Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Fallik , Dawn ( February 28 , 2011 ) . `` Gossip Girl Season 4 , Episode 17 ' Empire of the Son ' : TV Recap '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved March 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Spoiler Chat : Get Sweeps Scoop on Your Fave Gossip Girl , Glee and Grey 's Anatomy Couples '' . E !. May 11 , 2011 . Retrieved July 16 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Hall , Katy ( December 14 , 2010 ) . `` Leighton Meester In Allure '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved December 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Nicole , Karlis ( October 14 , 2011 ) . `` Penn Badgley Reveals : ' Blair Is Dan 's Soul Mate ' ! '' . Hollywoodlife.com . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ross , Robyn ( November 20 , 2011 ) . `` Gossip Girl 's Leighton Meester : I Want the Blair and Dan Relationship to Play Out '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nicole , Karlis ( February 13 , 2012 ) . `` ' Gossip Girl ' Stars Ed Westick & Penn Badgley Reveal Who Loves Blair More '' . Hollywoodlife.com . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Espina , Alfonso ( December 12 , 2011 ) . `` The End of Gossip Girl : Chair vs. Dair '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gay , Jason ( April 2 , 2009 ) . `` ' Gossip Girl ' : Dirty Pretty Things '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Greenhouse , Emily ( December 21 , 2012 ) . `` Farewell `` Gossip Girl '' `` . The New Yorker . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swanson , Carl ( April 28 , 2013 ) . `` Penn Badgley 's Mission to Reclaim His Own Celebrity With Greetings From Tim Buckley '' . New York . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Wieselman , Jarett ( February 11 , 2013 ) . `` Why Dan Owned ' Gossip Girl ' - Exclusive '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ryzik , Melena ( September 12 , 2007 ) . `` Omigosh ! ' OC ' With Warmer Duds ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Weiner , Juli ( August 31 , 2010 ) . `` Predicting The Characters in The Gossip Girl And O.C. Creator 's New Show About D.C '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gay , Jason ( April 2 , 2009 ) . `` ' Gossip Girl ' : Dirty Pretty Things '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . ( hide ) Gossip Girl Episodes Season 1 `` Pilot '' `` The Wild Brunch '' `` Victor , Victrola '' `` Hi , Society '' `` The Thin Line Between Chuck and Nate '' `` Desperately Seeking Serena '' `` All About My Brother '' `` Much ' I Do ' About Nothing '' Season 2 `` Summer , Kind of Wonderful '' `` Never Been Marcused '' `` The Dark Night '' `` The Ex Files '' `` The Serena Also Rises '' `` Seder Anything '' `` Valley Girls '' `` The Goodbye Gossip Girl '' Season 3 `` Reversals of Fortune '' `` The Freshman '' `` The Lost Boy '' `` Enough About Eve '' `` They Shoot Humphreys , Do n't They ? '' `` The Last Days of Disco Stick '' `` The Debarted '' `` The Hurt Locket '' `` Last Tango , Then Paris '' Season 4 `` Belles de Jour '' `` Double Identity '' `` The Undergraduates '' `` Touch of Eva '' `` Easy J '' `` Gaslit '' `` The Townie '' `` Petty in Pink '' `` The Princesses and the Frog '' `` The Wrong Goodbye '' Season 5 `` Yes , Then Zero '' `` All the Pretty Sources '' `` Rhodes to Perdition '' `` Riding in Town Cars with Boys '' `` The End of the Affair ? '' `` Father and the Bride '' `` G.G. '' `` The Backup Dan '' Season 6 `` Gone Maybe Gone '' `` New York , I Love You XOXO '' Characters Serena van der Woodsen Blair Waldorf Dan Humphrey Nate Archibald Jenny Humphrey Chuck Bass Vanessa Abrams Eric van der Woodsen Lily van der Woodsen Rufus Humphrey Georgina Sparks Juliet Sharp Ivy Dickens Lola Rhodes Related Gossip Girl novel series The It Girl novel series OMFGG -- Original Music Featured on Gossip Girl No. 1 Gossip Girl : Acapulco episodes Gossip Girl : Thailand Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dan_Humphrey&oldid=801636542 '' Categories : Gossip Girl characters Characters in American novels of the 21st century Fictional bisexual males Fictional characters introduced in 2002 Fictional characters from New York City Fictional college students Fictional poets Fictional American people of English descent Hidden categories : Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from August 2013 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2013 Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from August 2013 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 20 September 2017 , at 22 : 05 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who wrote be careful with me cardi b

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Be_Careful_(Cardi_B_song)&oldid=854416359

Be Careful ( Cardi B song ) - wikipedia Be Careful ( Cardi B song ) `` Be Careful '' Single by Cardi B from the album Invasion of Privacy Released March 29 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 29 ) Format Digital download streaming Length 3 : 30 Label Atlantic Songwriter ( s ) Belcalis Almanzar Matthew Samuels Anderson Hernandez Adam Feeney Jordan Thorpe Marilyn Bergman Alan Bergman Robert Diggs Lauryn Hill Clifford Smith Lamont Hawkins Dennis Coles Gary Grice Jason Hunter Russell Jones Corey Woods Marvin Hamlisch Producer ( s ) Boi - 1da Frank Dukes Vinylz Cardi B singles chronology `` Finesse ( Remix ) '' ( 2018 ) `` Be Careful '' ( 2018 ) `` Girls '' ( 2018 ) `` Finesse ( Remix ) '' ( 2018 ) `` Be Careful '' ( 2018 ) `` Girls '' ( 2018 ) Music video `` Be Careful '' on YouTube `` Be Careful '' is a song recorded by American rapper Cardi B. It was released on March 29 , 2018 , as the third single from her debut studio album Invasion of Privacy ( 2018 ) . The song was written by Cardi B , Jordan Thorpe , and its producers Boi - 1da , Vinylz , and Frank Dukes . It contains an interpolation from `` Ex-Factor '' , written and performed by Lauryn Hill , which itself samples `` Can It Be All So Simple '' , written and performed by Wu - Tang Clan . The latter song also samples `` The Way We Were '' . Therefore , Hill , the members of Wu - Tang Clan , and Marvin Hamlisch , Alan Bergman and Marilyn Bergman are credited among the composers . A song about infidelity , `` Be Careful '' was inspired by her past romantic relationships in New York City , which annoyed Almanzar when she was finishing recording Invasion of Privacy there . `` Be Careful '' peaked at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and reached the top 40 in Canada , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . Contents 1 Background and release 2 Composition 3 Music video 4 Live performances 5 Charts 6 Certifications 7 Release history 8 References Background and release ( edit ) A draft of one verse for `` Be Careful '' was first written by Jordan Thorpe . Later , Cardi and the producers Frank Dukes , Boi - 1da and Vinylz added the hook and finished writing the rest of the song . Cardi was motivated to write the song when she was in New York City finishing her debut album , Invasion of Privacy ( 2018 ) . Annoyed about her past romantic relationships and the unfaithfulness in them , she found herself tense and upset -- prioritising work , with too many bad thoughts . `` Be Careful '' , the third and final single that preceded the album , was recorded at Chuing King Studios in NY by Commissioner Gordon ( who also recorded Lauryn Hill 's Ex-Factor single in the same studio ) and mixed at Hit Factory Studios in New York as well . The song was released a week after its recording with `` Drip '' on February 2018 . Composition ( edit ) Cardi B performs the hook using a softly sung vocal style over a `` laidback '' beat . The song also comprises `` flickering '' hi - hats and `` slick '' synths . Lyrically , `` Be Careful '' is a song about infidelity , where the performer warns her cheating partner and asks him to treat her better . During an interview , Cardi B expressed she drew inspiration from past relationships , while denying that the song was directed at her fiancé Offset . Music Video ( edit ) Directed by Jora Frantzis , the song 's music video premiered on May 21 , 2018 . The clip opens with a wedding in a church filled with Jesus statues and crucifixes located in the middle of the dessert . Cardi B walks down the aisle in a wedding dress . The clip shifts to a darker hue as the rapper returns to the church , this time for her husband 's funeral . Live performances ( edit ) On April 7 , 2018 , Cardi B performed `` Be Careful '' on Saturday Night Live . During the performance she revealed her pregnancy . Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2018 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) 65 Belgium ( Ultratip Flanders ) 19 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 24 France ( SNEP ) 154 Ireland ( IRMA ) 25 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 39 Portugal ( AFP ) 75 Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) 79 Sweden Heatseeker ( Sverigetopplistan ) 6 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 24 US Billboard Hot 100 11 US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ( Billboard ) 8 US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) Gold 40,000 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 1,000,000 shipments figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Ref . Various March 29 , 2018 Digital download Atlantic United States April 24 , 2018 Urban contemporary KSR Atlantic References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tardio , Andres ( April 3 , 2018 ) . `` 5 Takeaways From Cardi B 's New Single ' Be Careful ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Peters , Mitchell ( April 7 , 2018 ) . `` The ' Ex-Factor ' : How Drake , Cardi B & More Sampled Lauryn Hill 's ' Miseducation ' Single '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Cardi B Talks Pregnancy , Coachella , & Rumored Beyoncé Collaboration on ' The Breakfast Club ' - Rap - Up - Rap - Up '' . www.rap-up.com . Jump up ^ `` Cardi B Talks About Her New Song `` Be Careful '' `` . nocumentary . YouTube . March 30 , 2018 . Retrieved April 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Dandridge , Ben ( April 4 , 2018 ) . `` Listen to Cardi B 's new songs `` Be Careful '' and `` Drip '' `` . The Fader . Retrieved April 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Gore , Sydney ( April 4 , 2018 ) . `` Cardi B Releases `` Be Careful '' & `` Drip '' `` . MTV News . Retrieved April 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Hughes , Hilary ( April 10 , 2018 ) . `` Here 's Why ' Be Careful ' Almost Did n't Make It Onto Cardi B 's Album '' . MTV News . Retrieved April 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Reed , Ryan ( March 30 , 2018 ) . `` Cardi B Sings About Infidelity on New Song ' Be Careful ' '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Cardi B Drops a Warning to Cheating Fiance in New Single , ' Be Careful ' ( Listen ) '' . Variety . March 30 , 2018 . Retrieved April 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Beaumont - Thomas , Ben ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Cardi B : Invasion of Privacy review -- Bronx Cinderella grinds her heel into hip - hop sexism '' . The Guardian . Retrieved April 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Saponara , Michael ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` Ranking the Top 7 Songs From Cardi B 's ' Invasion of Privacy ' : Critic 's Pick '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Reed , Ryan ( May 21 , 2018 ) . `` Watch Cardi B as a Heartbroken Bride in New Video for ' Be Careful ' '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved June 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Chuba , Kirsten ( May 21 , 2018 ) . `` Cardi B 's Romance Goes Wrong in New Video for ' Be Careful ' '' . Variety . Retrieved June 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ DiMeglio , Mary J. ( April 8 , 2018 ) . `` Cardi B Reveals Pregnancy in ' SNL ' Performance '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Chart Watch # 468 '' . auspOp. April 14 , 2018 . Retrieved April 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Cardi B -- Be Careful '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratip . Retrieved May 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Cardi B Chart History ( Canadian Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Cardi B -- Be Careful '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved April 28 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` IRMA -- Irish Charts '' . Irish Recorded Music Association . Retrieved April 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` NZ Top 40 Singles Chart '' . Recorded Music NZ. April 23 , 2018 . Retrieved April 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Portuguesecharts.com -- Cardi B -- Be Careful '' . AFP Top 100 Singles . Retrieved May 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved April 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Veckolista Heatseeker -- Vecka 16 , 20 april 2018 '' . Sverigetopplistan . Retrieved April 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved April 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( April 16 , 2018 ) . `` Cardi B Bests Beyonce for the Most Simultaneous Hot 100 Hits Among Women '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Cardi B Chart History ( Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Cardi B Chart History ( Rhythmic ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved July 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian single certifications -- Cardi B -- Be Careful '' . Music Canada . Retrieved May 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- Cardi B -- Be Careful '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved July 3 , 2018 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ `` Be Careful - Single '' . iTunes ( CA ) . Jump up ^ `` Urban / UAC > Future Releases '' . AllAccess . Archived from the original on April 23 , 2018 . Cardi B Discography Awards and nominations Studio albums Invasion of Privacy Mixtapes Gangsta Bitch Music , Vol. 1 Gangsta Bitch Music , Vol. 2 Singles `` Bodak Yellow '' `` MotorSport '' `` Bartier Cardi '' `` Be Careful '' `` I Like It '' `` Ring '' Featured singles `` No Limit '' `` La Modelo '' `` Finesse ( Remix ) '' `` Girls '' `` Dinero '' `` Girls Like You '' Other songs `` Get Up 10 '' `` Drip '' `` I Do '' `` Bickenhead '' Related articles Offset Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Be_Careful_(Cardi_B_song)&oldid=854416359 '' Categories : 2018 songs 2018 singles Atlantic Records singles Cardi B songs Songs written by Cardi B Song recordings produced by Boi - 1da Song recordings produced by Vinylz Songs written by Boi - 1da Songs written by Vinylz Songs with lyrics by Marilyn Bergman Songs with lyrics by Alan Bergman Songs written by Raekwon Songs written by Marvin Hamlisch Songs written by Method Man Songs written by RZA Songs written by Lauryn Hill Songs about infidelity Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Flanders Tip Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Portugal Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart called without artist Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for Billboardrandbhiphop Singlechart usages for Billboardrhythmic Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Italiano עברית Português Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2018 , at 05 : 39 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what is the difference between dpt and tdpt

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Physical_Therapy&oldid=810101191

Doctor of Physical Therapy - wikipedia Doctor of Physical Therapy Jump to : navigation , search A Doctor of Physical Therapy ( DPT ) degree is a post-baccalaureate degree that takes 7 years to complete . A DPT is considered as a clinical doctor who is educated in many areas of rehabilitation . A Transitional Doctor of Physical Therapy Degree is also offered for those who already hold a professional Bachelor or Master of Physical Therapy ( PT or MPT ) degree . As of 2015 , all accredited and developing physical therapist programs are DPT programs . The DPT degree currently prepares students to be eligible for the PT license examination in all 50 states . As of March 2017 , there are 222 accredited Doctor of Physical Therapy programs in the United States . After completing a DPT program the doctor of physical therapy may continue training in a residency and then fellowship . As of December 2013 , there are 178 credentialed physical therapy residencies and 34 fellowships in the US with 63 additional developing residencies and fellowships . Credentialed residencies are between 9 and 36 months while credentialed fellowships are between 6 and 36 months . In 2000 the American Physical Therapy Association ( APTA ) passed its Vision 2020 statement , which states ( in part ) : `` By 2020 , physical therapy will be provided by physical therapists who are doctors of physical therapy , recognized by consumers and other health care professionals as the practitioners of choice to whom consumers have direct access for the diagnosis of , interventions for , and prevention of impairments , functional limitations , and disabilities related to movement , function , and health . '' As this statement highlights , the DPT program is an integral part of the APTA 's continued advocacy for legislation granting consumers ( i.e. patients and clients ) direct access to physical therapists , rather than requiring physician referral . Direct access is said to decrease wait times for access to care and even help reduce both cost to consumer and overall healthcare costs . As of January 1 , 2015 , all 50 states and the District of Columbia currently allow some form of direct access to physical therapists . Contents ( hide ) 1 History of the DPT degree 2 Time frame 3 Admission 4 Transition Doctor of Physical Therapy degree 5 Controversies 6 Professional degree ( entry - level ) 7 Advanced clinical science degree 8 United Kingdom 9 References 10 External links History of the DPT degree ( edit ) In 1992 , the University of Southern California initiated the first post-professional `` transitional '' ( DPT ) program in the United States . This `` transitional '' DPT takes into account a physiotherapist 's current level of knowledge and skill and purports to offer programs that upgrade clinical skills to meet the needs of the current health care environment . Creighton University followed by initiating the first entry - level DPT program in 1993 . The Doctor of Physiotherapy has since been adopted in other countries such as the United Kingdom , Australia and Taiwan . In the United Kingdom and Australia the PhD or Professional Doctorate in Physiotherapy is offered by a number of Universities . These programmes are usually professional entry masters level programmes with the opportunity to undertake research to lead to a doctorate degree . Alternatively , these programmes are masters pre-qualifying Physiotherapy courses with an enhanced research element in the final phase of the course that leads to undertaking a doctorate . The first full pre-qualifying doctor in Physiotherapy programme is offered in the United Kingdom at Glasgow Caledonian University in Glasgow . Time frame ( edit ) Undergraduate Doctor of Physical Therapy Residency ( optional ) Fellowship ( optional ) 4 years 3 -- 4 years 9 to 36 months 6 to 36 months The typical time frame for completion of a Doctor of Physical Therapy is 3 to 4 years after earning a bachelor 's degree . Depending on residency and fellowship training , if undertaken , the doctor may have completed several years of additional training . Admission ( edit ) Admission to a Doctor of Physical Therapy program in the USA is highly competitive . As of 2011 the average GPA for enrolling students was 3.5 with a range of 3.1 to 3.9 for all programs . On average there were 354.7 applicants per program with an average of 43.3 students enrolled per class for an average matriculation rate of 12.2 % . The range for applicants to all programs as of 2011 was 34 - 1358 , and the range of enrolled students was 6 - 354 . A bachelor 's degree generally is required before beginning a Doctor of Physical Therapy program , but there is no requirement on the degree earned , as long as all prerequisite course requirements are met . Transition Doctor of Physical Therapy degree ( edit ) The t - DPT degree is conferred upon completion of a structured postprofessional educational experience that results in the augmentation of knowledge , skills , and behaviors to a level consistent with the current professional ( entry - level ) DPT standards . The t - DPT degree enables the US - licensed physical therapist to attain degree parity with therapists who hold the professional DPT by filling in any gaps between their professional baccalaureate or master 's degree PT education and the current professional DPT degree education . The post-professional DPT ( Transitional ) degree is designed to provide the doctoral credential to those who currently holding a master 's or bachelor 's degree in the field . Post-professional DPT ( Transitional ) degree programs are typically offered on a primarily online learning model and are often one year in length . Controversies ( edit ) The use of the title doctor by physical therapists and other non-physician health care professionals is controversial . In a letter to The New York Times , the president of the American Physical Therapy Association responded : `` To provide accurate information to consumers , the American Physical Therapy Association has taken a proactive approach and provides clear guidelines for physical therapists regarding the use of the title `` Doctor . '' These guidelines state that physical therapists , in all clinical settings , who hold a Doctor of Physical Therapy degree ( DPT ) shall indicate they are physical therapists when using the title `` Doctor '' or `` Dr , '' and shall use the titles in accord with jurisdictional law . '' The DPT degree has been described as an example of `` credential creep '' or degree inflation in The Chronicle of Higher Education . Citing concerns that the DPT , and similar professional doctorates in areas such as occupational therapy , do not meet the standards of traditional doctorate degrees , the journal states : `` The six - and - a-half - year doctor of physical therapy , or DPT , is rapidly replacing a six - year master 's degree ... The American Physical Therapy Association ... has not set separate requirements for doctoral programs . To be accredited they need only to meet the same requirements as master 's programs . '' Critics question whether the rigor of the physical therapy curriculum and the current scope of practice warrant the conferral of a professional degree similar to that characteristic of medicine , dentistry , or nursing . Proponents counter that the existing curricula are `` victims of ' curricular inflation ' . '' As Rothstein and Moffat noted , the previous master 's and even baccalaureate curricula rival that of most other doctoral programs , and these curricula often require more than the typical 72 credits mandated for a doctoral degree . The 2000 Fact Sheet from APTA reported that the mean number of credits required for the professional phase of the typical baccalaureate program was 83.0 credits and that the typical master 's degree program required 95.5 credits . As of 2009 the typical number of prerequisite credits was 114.2 and the total number of professional credits was 116.5 for a total of 230.7 credit hours . This is well in excess of the typical 72 professional credits mandated for a doctoral degree . Additional credit hours may be earned in residency and fellowship as well . Threlkeld et al. suggest that the scope of existing physical therapy curricula already matches that of a professional doctorate , further submitting that students of a well - defined DPT program will have earned the right to be recognized with the doctoral title . Professional degree ( entry - level ) ( edit ) The professional ( entry - level ) DPT degree is currently the degree conferred by all physical therapist professional programs upon successful completion of a three - to four - year post-baccalaureate degree program in the United States , preparing the graduate to enter the practice of physical therapy . Admission requirements for the program include completion of an undergraduate degree that includes specific prerequisite coursework , volunteer experience ( or other exposure to the profession ) , and completion of a standardized graduate examination ( e.g. , GRE ) . Typical prerequisite courses may include two semesters of anatomy and physiology with labs , two semesters of physics with labs , two semesters of chemistry with labs , a general course in psychology , another course in psychology , statistics , two semesters of biology , and may include other courses required by specific schools . The physical therapist curriculum consists of foundational sciences ( i.e. , gross anatomy , cellular histology , embryology , neurology , neuroscience , kinesiology , physiology , exercise physiology , pathology , pharmacology , radiology / imaging , medical screening ) , behavioral sciences ( communication , social and psychologic factors , ethics and values , law , business and management sciences , clinical reasoning and evidence - based practice ) , and clinical sciences ( cardiovascular / pulmonary , endocrine and metabolic , gastrointestinal and genitourinary , integumentary , musculoskeletal , neuromuscular ) . Coursework also includes material specific to the practice of physical therapy ( patient / client management model , prevention , wellness , and health promotion , practice management , management of care delivery , social responsibility , advocacy , and core values ) . Additionally , students have to engage in full - time clinical practice under the supervision of licensed physical therapists with an expectation of providing safe , competent , and effective physical therapy . Advanced clinical science degree ( edit ) The `` advanced clinical science '' doctorate ( e.g. , DPTSc or DScPT , DHSc , ScDPT ) is one of several degrees conferred by academic institutions upon successful completion of a post-professional physical therapist education program . This program is intended to provide an experienced clinician with advanced knowledge , clinical skills , and professional behavior , usually in a specific specialty practice area . These programs typically culminate work that contributes new knowledge to clinical practice in the profession . Completion of these advanced clinical science doctoral programs may include credentialed clinical residencies and lead to ABPTS clinical specialization or other advanced certifications . United Kingdom ( edit ) Some UK universities now offer a DPT as a post-professional qualification , but the qualifying degree remains Bachelor or Master of Science , Physiotherapy ( with honours ) . The Doctor of Physiotherapy in the UK differs from a US clinical doctorate in that it is a post-professional Physiotherapy specific research programme , which is offered at the University of Sussex in Brighton , Nottingham University and Robert Gordon University . Glasgow Caledonian University in Glasgow now offers a 3.5 year Doctor in Physiotherapy ( pre-registration ) programme which is the first clinical doctorate which leads to qualification as a Physiotherapist eligible to register with the CSP and HCPC in the United Kingdom . This programme provides a focus on researcher development as well as professional development within a health and social care context . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.capteonline.org/uploadedFiles/CAPTEorg/State_Boards/MasterListofAccreditedPTPrograms.pdf#search=%22DPT%22 Jump up ^ http://aptaapps.apta.org/accreditedschoolsdirectory/default.aspx?UniqueKey= Jump up ^ http://www.abptrfe.org/home.aspx Jump up ^ http://www.abptrfe.org/apta/abptrfe/Directory.aspx?navID=10737432672 Jump up ^ `` Vision 2020 '' . American Physical Therapy Association . 2011 - 10 - 04 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Direct access to physical therapists being sought '' . Elm Leaves. 2012 - 02 - 12 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ http://www.apta.org/Media/Releases/Legislative/2014/7/1/ . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Physical Therapy : Jump up ^ The Postprofessional Clinical Doctorates ( Draft Document ) . Consensus Conference on Postprofessional Education . Alexandria , Va : American Physical Therapy Association ; 1998 . Jump up ^ Massey B. 2001 APTA Presidential Address : We have arrived ! Phys Ther. 2001 ; 81 : 1830 - 1833 . Jump up ^ Doctor of Physical Therapy DPT Program Creighton University Jump up ^ Murphy W. Healing the Generations : A History of Physical Therapy and the American Physical Therapy Association . Alexandria , Va : American Physical Therapy Association ; 1995 . Jump up ^ College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences - Entry - Level DPT Curriculum Jump up ^ http://www.oakland.edu/upload/docs/SHS/PT/2011DPTBrochure%20.pdf Jump up ^ http://www.northeastern.edu/bouve/pt/pdf/Post%20Baccalaureate%20DPT%20Curriculum%20Plan%20-%2011-9-11.pdf Jump up ^ DPT , Doctor of Physical Therapy , Overview , School of Health and Medical Sciences - Seton Hall University , New Jersey Jump up ^ `` www.apta.org '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 18 . Jump up ^ Residency vs. Fellowship ^ Jump up to : `` 2011 - 2012 Fact Sheet : Physical Therapist Education Programs '' ( PDF ) . Commission on Accreditation of Physical Therapy Education . 2013 - 03 - 14 . p. 17 . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 16 . Jump up ^ http://www.apta.org/ProspectiveStudents/Admissions/PTProcess/ Jump up ^ FAQ : Postprofessional DPT ( Transition ) Jump up ^ `` FAQ : Postprofessional DPT ( Transition ) '' . American Physical Therapy Association . 2011 - 03 - 01 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` When the Nurse Wants to Be Called ' Doctor ' '' . The New York Times . 2011 - 10 - 01 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` APTA Responds to The New York Times on Physical Therapists Using the Term ' Doctor ' '' . American Physical Therapy Association . 2011 - 10 - 05 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Credential Creep '' ( PDF ) . The Chronicle of Higher Education . 2007 - 06 - 27 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ Messaros , A ( October 1999 ) . `` Fatal assumption ( letter to the editor ) '' . Physical Therapy . 79 ( 10 ) : 981 -- 982 . Jump up ^ Threlkeld , A ; Jensen , G ; Royeen , C ( October 1999 ) . `` Author response '' . Physical Therapy . 79 ( 10 ) : 986 -- 990 . Jump up ^ Rothstein , J ( April 1998 ) . `` Education at the Crossroads : For Today 's Practice , the DPT ( editorial ) '' ( PDF ) . Physical Therapy . 78 ( 4 ) : 358 -- 360 . Jump up ^ Moffat M. APTA Presidential Address : Will the legacy of our past provide us with a legacy for the future ? Phys Ther. 1994 ; 74 : 1063 - 1066 . Jump up ^ Sahrmann , S ( November 1998 ) . `` Moving Precisely ? Or Taking the Path of Least Resistance ? '' ( PDF ) . Physical Therapy . 78 ( 11 ) : 1208 -- 1218 . Jump up ^ 2000 Fact Sheet : Physical Therapist Education Program . Alexandria , Va : American Physical Therapy Association ; October 2000 . Jump up ^ 2009 fact sheet : Physical Therapist Education Program . Alexandria , Va : American Physical Therapy Association ; August 2009 Jump up ^ Threlkeld A. Jensen G , Royeen C ( author response ) . PhysTher. 1999 : 79 : 986 - 990 . Jump up ^ http://www.paeaonline.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/69169 Jump up ^ DPT - Frequently Asked Questions - USC Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy Jump up ^ Columbia University Program in Physical Therapy Jump up ^ Doctor of Physical Therapy ( DPT ) Coursework -- Azusa Pacific University Jump up ^ Curriculum Physical Therapy Program George Fox University External links ( edit ) Information for Prospective Students from the American Physical Therapy Association medicine portal health portal education portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Physical_Therapy&oldid=810101191 '' Categories : Physical therapy Doctoral degrees Academic degrees in healthcare Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 13 November 2017 , at 09 : 57 . 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what was the motive of british government for the partition of bengal

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)&oldid=856681038

Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) - wikipedia Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( July 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The neutrality of this article is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( July 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Map showing the result of the partition of Bengal in 1905 . The western part ( Bengal ) gained parts of Orissa , the eastern part ( Eastern Bengal and Assam ) regained Assam that had been made a separate province in 1874 Map showing the modern day nation of Bangladesh and Indian states of Bihar , Jharkhand , Orissa , Assam , Meghalaya , Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Nagaland and Manipur within the Province before division into Bihar and Orissa and East Bengal and Assam Part of a series on the History of Bengal Ancient Geopolitical units ( show ) Pundravardhana Vanga Gangaridai Radha Samatata Anga Suhma Harikela Ancient and Classical dynasties ( show ) Nanda dynasty Maurya dynasty Shunga dynasty Gupta dynasty Varman dynasty Gauda dynasty Kamarupa Mallabhum dynasty Khadga dynasty Pala dynasty Chandra dynasty Chola dynasty Sena dynasty Deva dynasty Medieval and Early Modern periods ( show ) Muslim conquests in Bengal Delhi Sultanate City states Sonargaon Lakhnauti Satgaon Bengal Sultanate Ilyas Shahi dynasty Ganesha dynasty Hussain Shahi dynasty Karrani dynasty Sur Empire Twelve Bhuyan Confederacy Kingdom of Mrauk U Jaintia Kingdom Koch dynasty Kingdom of Tripura Kingdom of Bhurshut Mughal Empire Bengal Subah Burdwan Raj Rajshahi Raj Nadia Raj Bettiah Raj Nawabs of Bengal Zamindars Maratha expeditions in Bengal European colonisation ( show ) Portuguese Chittagong Dutch Bengal French Bengal Danish Bengal Austrian Bengal Battle of Plassey British India Company rule Bengal Presidency Bengal famine of 1770 Santal Revolt Chuar Revolt Bihar famine of 1873 -- 74 Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) Bengal famine of 1943 Indian Mutiny of 1857 British Raj Bengal Renaissance Eastern Bengal and Assam Anti-colonial struggle Direct Action Day Radcliffe Line Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) East Bengal ( show ) East Bengali refugees East Pakistan ( show ) 1964 East Pakistan riots Language Movement Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 Liberation War 1971 Genocide Indo - Pakistani War of 1971 Bangladesh ( show ) People 's Republic Military coups Bangladesh famine of 1974 Indian Bengal ( show ) West Bengal Left Front Naxalism Barak Valley Language Movement Gorkhaland Calendar ( show ) Bengali calendar Malla calendar Related ( show ) Bengali literary history Architecture of Bengal Bangamata Bangladesh -- India border Part of a series on the History of Bangladesh Etymology Timeline Traditional Urheimat Ancient ( show ) Neolithic , c. 7600 -- c. 3300 BCE Bronze Age , c. 3300 -- c. 1200 BCE Iron Age , c. 1200 -- c. 200 BCE Janapada , c. 1200 -- c. 600 BCE Northern Black Polished Ware , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Pundra Kingdom , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Bengal in Mahabharata , c. 400 -- c. 325 BCE Gangaridai Kingdom , c. 350 -- c. 325 BCE Mauryan Empire , c. 325 -- c. 185 BCE Samatata Kingdom , c. 232 BCE -- c. 800 AD Shunga - Kushan Period , c. 185 BCE -- c. 75 AD Southwestern Silk Road , c. 114 BCE -- c. 1450 AD Indo - Roman trade relations , c. 30 BCE -- c. 600 AD Classical ( show ) Gupta Empire , c. 240 -- c. 550 AD Sylhet - Assam Varmans , c. 350 -- c. 650 Gauda Kingdom , c. 590 -- c. 626 Khadga dynasty , c. 650 -- c. 750 Pala Empire , c. 750 -- c. 1100 Arrival of Islam , c. 800 -- c. 1050 Harikela Kingdom , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Candra dynasty , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Sena dynasty , c. 1070 -- c. 1320 Deva dynasty , c. 1100 -- c. 1250 Medieval ( show ) Delhi Sultanate , c. 1204 -- c. 1338 Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sonargaon Sultanate , c. 1338 -- c. 1352 Bengal Sultanate , c. 1352 -- c. 1576 Ilyas Shahi dynasty Hussain Shahi dynasty Karrani dynasty Suri Dynasty , c. 1540 -- c. 1556 Twelve Bhuyans , c. 1550 -- c. 1620 Porto Grande de Bengala , c. 1528 -- c. 1666 Chittagong - Arakan Kingdom , c. 1530 -- c. 1666 Mughal Empire , c. 1576 -- c. 1717 Bengal Subah Modern ( show ) Nawabs of Bengal , c. 1717 -- c. 1757 Company Raj , c. 1757 -- c. 1858 Faraizi Movement , c. 1818 -- c. 1884 The Great Rebellion , c. 1857 -- c. 1858 British Raj , c. 1858 -- c. 1947 Bengal Renaissance Eastern Bengal and Assam Prime Minister of Bengal East Bengal , c. 1947 -- c. 1955 Bengali Language Movement East Pakistan , c. 1955 -- c. 1971 Six Point Movement 1969 uprising in East Pakistan Pakistani general election , 1970 Bangladesh Liberation War , c. 1971 Declaration of Independence Provisional Government of Bangladesh 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Bangladesh Forces Bangladeshi Republic , c. 1972 -- present Related articles ( show ) Timeline of Bangladeshi history Bangladeshi art History of Bengali literature Bangladesh portal The decision to effect the Partition of Bengal ( Bengali : বঙ্গভঙ্গ ) was announced on 19 July 1905 by the Viceroy of India , Lord Curzon . The partition took place on 16 October 1905 and separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas . The Hindus of West Bengal who dominated Bengal 's business and rural life complained that the division would make them a minority in a province that would incorporate the province of Bihar and Orissa . Hindus were outraged at what they recognised as a `` divide and rule '' policy , where the colonisers turned the native population against itself in order to rule , even though Curzon stressed it would produce administrative efficiency . The partition animated the Muslims to form their own national organization on communal lines . In order to appease Bengali sentiment , Bengal was reunited by Lord Hardinge in 1911 , in response to the Swadeshi movement 's riots in protest against the policy and the growing belief among Hindus that east Bengal would have its own courts and policies . Contents 1 Background 2 Partition 3 Political crisis 4 Re-unification 5 Aftermath 6 Significance 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Further reading 10 External resources Background ( edit ) The provincial state of Bengal had an area of 490,000 km ( 189,000 mi ) and a population of nearly 78.5 million . It comprised West Bengal with a Hindu majority and East Bengal and Assam with a Muslim majority . It included the Hindi - speaking regions of Bihar , the Odia - speaking regions of Odisha as well as the Assamese - speaking region of Assam , making it a huge administrative entity . Moreover , the capital , Calcutta , was also the capital of the entire British India . With the growing efforts of the Indian freedom fighters to secure the independence of India , Lord Curzon decided to address both these problems by partitioning Bengal into two entities , which would result in a Muslim - majority in the eastern half , and a Hindu - majority in the western half . This he hoped would reduce the administrative pressures . Partition ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Bengal Presidency ( Partition of Bengal , 1905 ) The government announced the idea for partition in January 1904 ... The idea was opposed by Henry John Stedman Cotton , Chief Commissioner of Assam ( 1896 -- 1902 ) . The partition was enacted on 16 October 1905 , by Viceroy Curzon , and Cayan Uddin Ahmet , the Chief Secretary of Bengal . The Lower Bengal was divided into two new provinces : `` Bengal '' province , composed of the Hindu - majority , largely Bengali speaking divisions of Patna , Baghalpur , Bardwan and Presidency administered from Calcutta , and the eastern Muslim - majority divisions of Chittagong , Rajshahi and Dhaka , as well as the states of Comilla , Sylhet and Tripura united within the Eastern Bengal and Assam province with Dhaka as the capital . There were further transfers of administrative districts in the name of linguistic or ethnic unification , with the Hindi - speaking districts of Chota Nagpur becoming part of the Central Provinces , while the Bengali - speaking areas of Oriya and Sambalpur were included in the new province of Bengal Partition was promoted for administrative reasons since Bengal was geographically as large as France and had a significantly larger population . Curzon stated the eastern region was neglected and under - governed . By splitting the province , an improved administration could be established in the east , where subsequently , the population would benefit from new schools and employment opportunities . The partition was generally supported by the Muslims of East Bengal by both their poor economic conditions in East Bengal and the perceived dominance of the Hindu businessmen and landlords in West Bengal over the governance of Bengal . Most of the factories and mills in Bengal were established in and around Calcutta , while many sources of raw materials for these factories were in East Bengal . Furthermore , most of the educational institutions of the Province were in Calcutta , including the lone university in Bengal . The scars resulting from the partition of Bengal have never completely healed and can still be seen today . Given below is the proclamation of partition : `` The Governor - General is pleased to constitute the territories at present under the administration of the Chief Commissioner of Assam to be for the purposes of the Indian Councils Act 1861 ... a province to which the provisions of that Act touching the making of laws and regulations for the peace and good order of the presidencies of Fort St. George and Bombay shall be applicable and to direct that the said province shall be called and known as the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam ... The Governor - General in Council is pleased to specify the sixteenth day of October , 1905 as the period at which the said provisions shall take effect and 15th as the number of councilors whom the Lieutenant - Governor may nominate for his assistance in making laws and regulations . The Governor - General in Council is further pleased to declare and appoint that upon the constitution of the said province of Eastern Bengal and Assam , the districts of Dacca , Mymensingh , Faridpur , Backergunge , Tippera , Noakhali , Chittagong , the Chittagong Hill Tracts , Rajashahi , Dinajpur , Jalpaiguri , Rangpur , Bogra , Pabna , and Malda which now form part of the Bengal Division of the Presidency of Fort William shall cease to be subject to or included within the limits of that Division , and shall thenceforth be subject to and included within the limits of the Lieutenant - Governorship of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam . '' The reason behind the partition that was officially announced was that the Bengal province was too large to be administered by a single governor and so it would be partitioned on administrative purpose . The real reason behind the partition was political and not administrative . East Bengal was dominated by the Muslims and West Bengal by the Hindus . Partition was yet another part of the divide and rule policy . The following excerpts from Curzon 's letter of 2 February 1905 to St. John Brodrick , Secretary of State for India , give an idea of his aims in partitioning Bengal : `` Calcutta is the centre from which the Congress Party is manipulated throughout the whole of Bengal , and indeed the whole of India . Its best wire pullers and its most frothy orators all reside here . The perfection of their machinery , and the tyranny which it enables them to exercise are truly remarkable . They dominate public opinion in Calcutta ; they affect the High Court ; they frighten the local Government , and they are sometimes not without serious influence on the Government of India . The whole of their activity is directed to creating an agency so powerful that they may one day be able to force a weak government to give them what they desire . Any measure in consequence that would divide the Bengali - speaking population ; that would permit independent centres of activity and influence to grow up ; that would dethrone Calcutta from its place as the center of successful intrigue , or that would weaken the influence of the lawyer class , who have the entire organisation in their hands , is intensely and hotly resented by them . The outcry will be loud and very fierce , but as a native gentleman said to me -- ' my countrymen always howl until a thing is settled ; then they accept it ' . '' Political crisis ( edit ) Partition sparked an extremely major political crisis along religious lines . Hindu resistance exploded as the Indian National Congress began the Swadeshi movement that included boycotting British goods and public institutions , meetings and processions , forming committees , propaganda through press , and diplomatic pressure . Hitherto untouched sections of Indian society participated in these movements , providing base for later movements . Richness of the movement extended to culture , science and literature . Masses were educated for a bolder form of politics and colonial hegemony was undermined . The Muslims in East Bengal hoped that a separate region would give them more control over education and employment , hence , they opposed those movements . Rabindranath Tagore wrote Banglar Mati Banglar Jol as a rallying cry for proponents of annulment of Partition . Opposition to the partition was supported by Henry John Stedman Cotton who had been Chief Commissioner of Assam , but Curzon was not to be moved . Later , Cotton , now Liberal MP for Nottingham East coordinated the successful campaign to oust the first lieutenant - governor of East Bengal , Sir Bampfylde Fuller . Re-unification ( edit ) Due to these political protests , the two parts of Bengal were reunited on 12 December 1911 . A new partition which divided the province on linguistic , rather than religious grounds followed , with the Hindi , Oriya and Assamese areas separated to form separate administrative units : Bihar and Orissa Province was created to the west , and Assam Province to the east . The administrative capital of British India was moved from Calcutta to New Delhi as well . Aftermath ( edit ) In 1909 , separate elections were established for Muslims and Hindus . Before this , many members of both communities had advocated national solidarity of all Bengalis . With separate electorates , distinctive political communities developed , with their own political agendas . Muslims , too , dominated the Legislature , due to their overall numerical strength of roughly twenty two to twenty eight million . Nationally , Hindus and Muslims began to demand the creation of two independent states , one to be formed in majority Hindu and one in majority Muslim areas . In 1947 , Bengal was partitioned for the second time , solely on religious grounds , as part of the Partition of India following the formation of the nations India and Pakistan . In 1947 , East Bengal became East Pakistan , and in 1971 became the independent state of Bangladesh after a successful war of independence with West Pakistan . Significance ( edit ) The partition left a significant impact on the people of Bengal as well as the political scene of the Indian subcontinent . This event also created a sense of political awareness among the Muslims of East Bengal . To mollify the people of East Bengal , Lord Curzon declared that a university as a center of excellence would be established in Dacca ( which would later be named as University of Dhaka ) and formed a committee in this regard consisting Khwaja Salimullah , A.K. Fazlul Huq and others . The decision was severely criticised by some Hindu leaders in West Bengal . The most significant impact of this event was greater communal dissonance between the Hindus and Muslims of Bengal . See also ( edit ) West Bengal Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica , `` the creation of the barrier '' http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/60754/partition-of-Bengal Jump up ^ Bipan Chandre Lal , `` History of Modern India '' , ISBN 978 - 81 - 250 - 3684 - 5 , pp. 248 -- 249 Jump up ^ David Gilmour , Curzon : Imperial Statesman ( 1994 ) , pp. 271 -- 3 Jump up ^ Gordon Johnson , `` Partition , Agitation and Congress : Bengal 1904 To 1908 , '' Modern Asian Studies , ( May 1973 ) 7 # 3 , pp. 533 -- 588 Jump up ^ The heritage of Bangla patriotic songs Jump up ^ Judith M. Brown , Modern India ( 1985 ) , pp. 184 , 366 Jump up ^ Haimanti Roy , `` Partition of Contingency ? Public Discourse in Bengal , 1946 -- 1947 , '' Modern Asian Studies , ( November 2009 ) , 43 # 6 , pp. 1355 -- 1384 Jump up ^ Judith M. Brown , Modern India ( 1985 ) , p. 366 Further reading ( edit ) Edwardes , Michael . High Noon of Empire : India under Curzon ( 1965 ) McLane , John R ... `` The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905 , '' Indian Economic and Social History Review , July 1965 , 2 # 3 , pp. 221 -- 237 External Resources ( edit ) Ahmed , Sufia ( 2012 ) . `` Partition of Bengal , 1905 '' . In Islam , Sirajul ; Jamal , Ahmed A. Banglapedia : National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh ( Second ed . ) . Asiatic Society of Bangladesh . 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where does sadness come from in the brain

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sadness&oldid=854251068

Sadness - wikipedia Sadness For the video game , see Sadness ( video game ) . `` Sad '' redirects here . For other uses , see Sad ( disambiguation ) and SAD ( disambiguation ) . A detail of the 1672 sculpture Entombment of Christ , showing Mary Magdalene crying Part of a series on Emotions Affection Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Boredom Confidence Contempt Contentment Courage Curiosity Depression Desire Despair Disappointment Disgust Distrust Ecstasy Embarrassment Empathy Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Fear Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Interest Jealousy Joy Loneliness Love Lust Outrage Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Rejection Remorse Resentment Sadness Saudade Schadenfreude Self - confidence Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Suffering Surprise Trust Wonder Worry Sadness is an emotional pain associated with , or characterized by , feelings of disadvantage , loss , despair , grief , helplessness , disappointment and sorrow . An individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic , and withdraw themselves from others . An example of severe sadness is depression , a mood which can be brought on by major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder . Crying can be an indication of sadness . Sadness is one of the `` six basic emotions '' described by Paul Ekman , along with happiness , anger , surprise , fear , and disgust . Contents 1 Childhood 2 Neuroanatomy 3 Coping mechanisms 4 Pupil empathy 5 Vocal patterns 6 Cultural explorations 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading Childhood Sad girls . Photo by Paolo Monti , 1953 Sadness is a common experience in childhood . Some families may have a ( conscious or unconscious ) rule that sadness is `` not allowed '' , but Robin Skynner has suggested that this may cause problems , arguing that with sadness `` screened off '' , people can become shallow and manic . Pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton suggests that acknowledging sadness can make it easier for families to address more serious emotional problems . Sadness is part of the normal process of the child separating from an early symbiosis with the mother and becoming more independent . Every time a child separates a little more , he or she will have to cope with a small loss . If the mother can not allow the minor distress involved , the child may never learn how to deal with sadness by themselves . Brazelton argues that too much cheering a child up devalues the emotion of sadness for them ; and Selma Fraiberg suggests that it is important to respect a child 's right to experience a loss fully and deeply . Margaret Mahler also saw the ability to feel sadness as an emotional achievement , as opposed for example to warding it off through restless hyperactivity . D.W. Winnicott similarly saw in sad crying the psychological root of valuable musical experiences in later life . Neuroanatomy According to the American Journal of Psychiatry , sadness has been found to be associated with `` increases in bilateral activity within the vicinity of the middle and posterior temporal cortex , lateral cerebellum , cerebellar vermis , midbrain , putamen , and caudate . '' Jose V. Pardo has his M.D and Ph. D and leads a research program in cognitive neuroscience . Using positron emission tomography ( PET ) Pardo and his colleagues were able to provoke sadness among seven normal men and women by asking them to think about sad things . They observed increased brain activity in the bilateral inferior and orbitofrontal cortex . In a study that induced sadness in subjects by showing emotional film clips , the feeling was correlated with significant increases in regional brain activity , especially in the prefrontal cortex , in the region called Brodmann 's area 9 , and the thalamus . A significant increase in activity was also observed in the bilateral anterior temporal structures . Coping mechanisms Main article : Coping ( psychology ) A man expressing sadness with his head in his hands People deal with sadness in different ways , and it is an important emotion because it helps to motivate people to deal with their situation . Some coping mechanisms include : getting social support and / or spending time with a pet , creating a list , or engaging in some activity to express sadness . Some individuals , when feeling sad , may exclude themselves from a social setting , so as to take the time to recover from the feeling . While being one of the moods people most want to shake , sadness can sometimes be perpetuated by the very coping strategies chosen , such as ruminating , `` drowning one 's sorrows '' , or permanently isolating oneself . As alternative ways of coping with sadness to the above , cognitive behavioral therapy suggests instead either challenging one 's negative thoughts , or scheduling some positive event as a distraction . Being attentive to , and patient with , one 's sadness may also be a way for people to learn through solitude ; while emotional support to help people stay with their sadness can be further helpful . Such an approach is fueled by the underlying belief that loss ( when felt wholeheartedly ) can lead to a new sense of aliveness , and to a re-engagement with the outside world . Pupil empathy Pupil size may be an indicator of sadness . A sad facial expression with small pupils is judged to be more intensely sad as the pupil size decreases . A person 's own pupil size also mirrors this and becomes smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils . No parallel effect exists when people look at neutral , happy or angry expressions . The greater degree to which a person 's pupils mirror another predicts a person 's greater score on empathy . However , in disorders such as autism and psychopathy facial expressions that represent sadness may be subtle , which may show a need for a more non-linguistic situation to affect their level of empathy . Vocal Patterns According to Swati Johar , sadness is an emotion `` identified by current speech dialogue and processing systems '' . Root mean square ( RMS ) energy , inter-word silence and speaking rate were noted as useful measurements in distinguishing sadness from other emotions . It 's communicated mostly by lowering the mean and variability of the fundamental frequency ( f ) , besides being associated with lower vocal intensity , and with decreases in f over time . Johar argues that , `` when someone is sad , slow , low pitched speech with weak high audio frequency energy is produced '' . Likewise , `` low energy state of sadness attributes to slow tempo , lower speech rate and mean pitch '' . Sadness is , as stated by Klaus Scherer , one of the `` best - recognized emotions in the ( human ) voice '' , although it 's `` generally somewhat lower than that of facial expression '' . In a study by Scherer , it was found that in Western countries sadness had 79 % of accuracy for facial recognition and 71 % for vocal , while in Non-Western countries the results were of 74 % and 58 % , respectively . Cultural explorations Lost in thoughts , by Wilhelm Amberg . An individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic , and withdraw themselves from others . During the Renaissance , Edmund Spenser in The Faerie Queene endorsed sadness as a marker of spiritual commitment . In The Lord of the Rings , sadness is distinguished from unhappiness , to exemplify J.R.R. Tolkien 's preference for a sad , but settled determination , as opposed to what he saw as the shallower temptations of either despair or hope . Julia Kristeva considered that `` a diversification of moods , variety in sadness , refinement in sorrow or mourning are the imprint of a humanity that is surely not triumphant but subtle , ready to fight and creative '' . See also Joie de vivre Melancholia Mood ( psychology ) References Jump up ^ Jellesma , F.C. ; Vingerhoets , Ad J.J.M. ( 1 January 2012 ) . `` Crying in Middle Childhood : A Report on Gender Differences '' . Sex Roles . Heidelberg , Germany . 67 ( 7 ) : 412 -- 21 . doi : 10.1007 / s11199 - 012 - 0136 - 4 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Goleman , Daniel ( 1996 ) . Emotional Intelligence . London , United Kingdom . Jump up ^ Masman , Karen ( 21 July 2010 ) . The Uses of Sadness : Why Feeling Sad is No Reason Not to be Happy . Allen & Unwin . p. 8 . ISBN 9781741757576 . ^ Jump up to : Skynner , Robin ; Cleese , John ( 1994 ) . Families and How to Survive Them . ^ Jump up to : Brazelton , T. Berry ( 1992 ) . To Listen to a Child . Jump up ^ Fraiberg , Selma H. ( 1987 ) . The Magic Years . New York , United States . p. 274 . Jump up ^ Mahler , Margaret S. ; Pine , Fred ; Bergman , Annl ( 1975 ) . The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant : Symbiosis and Individuation . London , United Kingdom . p. 92 . Jump up ^ Winnicott , D.W. ( 1973 ) . The Child , the Family , and the Outside World . United Kingdom : Penguin Books . p. 64 . Jump up ^ Lane , R.D. ; Reiman , E.M. ; Ahern , G.L. ; Schwartz , G.E. ; Davidson , R.J. ( July 1997 ) . `` Neuroanatomical Correlates of Happiness , Sadness , and Disgust '' . American Journal of Psychiatry : 926 -- 33 . doi : 10.1176 / ajp. 154.7. 926 . PMID 9210742 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Pardo , J.V. ; Pardo , P.J. ; Raichle , M.E. ( May 1993 ) . `` Neural correlates of self - induced dysphoria '' . American Journal of Psychiatry ( 150 ) : 713 -- 9 . doi : 10.1176 / ajp. 150.5. 713 . PMID 8480815 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . Jump up ^ George , M.S. ; Ketter , T.A. ; Parekh , J.I. ; Horwitz , B. ; Herscovitch , P. ; Post , R.M. ( March 1995 ) . `` Brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women '' . American Journal of Psychiatry ( 152 ) : 341 -- 51 . doi : 10.1176 / ajp. 152.3. 341 . PMID 7864258 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Bos , E.H. ; Snippe , E. ; de Jonge , P. ; Jeronimus , B.F. ( 2016 ) . `` Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology : Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources '' . PLOS ONE . 11 : e0150867 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0150867 . PMID 26963923 . Jump up ^ `` Feeling Sad '' . Kids Help Phone . November 2010 . Jump up ^ Barnstone , Aliki ( 2000 ) . `` New England Review ( 1990 -- ) '' . Spring . New York , United States : Middlebury College Publications . 21 ( 2 ) : 19 . ISSN 1053 - 1297 . JSTOR i40009359 . Jump up ^ Parsons , Michael ( 13 August 2000 ) . The Dove that Returns , the Dove that Vanishes : Paradox and Creativity in Psychoanalysis . London , United Kingdom : Routledge . p. 4 . ISBN 978 - 0415211826 . ^ Jump up to : Harrison , Neil A. ; Singer , Tania ; Rotshtein , Pia ; Dolan , Ray J. ; Critchley , Hugo D. ( 1 June 2006 ) . `` Pupillary contagion : central mechanisms engaged in sadness processing '' . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 1 ( 1 ) : 5 -- 17 . doi : 10.1093 / scan / nsl006 . PMC 1716019 . PMID 17186063 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Harrison , Neil A. ; Wilson , C.E. ; Critchley , H.D. ( November 2007 ) . `` Processing of observed pupil size modulates perception of sadness and predicts empathy '' . Emotion. 7 ( 4 ) : 724 -- 9 . doi : 10.1037 / 1528 - 3542.7. 4.724 . PMID 18039039 . ^ Jump up to : Johar , Swati ( 22 December 2015 ) . Emotion , Affect and Personality in Speech : The Bias of Language and Paralanguage . Springer . ISBN 978 - 3 - 319 - 28047 - 9 . Jump up ^ Yildirim , Serdar ; Bulut , Murtaza ; M. Lee , Chul ; Kazemzadeh , Abe ; Busso , Carlos ; Deng , Zhigang ; Lee , Sungbok ; Narayanan , Shrikanth ( 2004 ) . `` An acoustic study of emotions expressed in speech '' ( PDF ) . ISCA : 1 . Retrieved 20 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Stolarski , Łukasz ( 2015 ) . `` Pitch Patterns in Vocal Expression of `` Happiness '' and `` Sadness '' in the Reading Aloud of Prose on the Basis of Selected Audiobooks '' ( PDF ) . Research in Language . University of Łódź. 13 ( 2 ) : 140 . doi : 10.1515 / rela - 2015 - 0016 . Retrieved 20 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Bachorowski , Jo - Anne ( 20 April 1999 ) . `` Vocal Expression and Perception of Emotion '' ( PDF ) . Current Directions in Psychological Science . 8 ( 2 ) : 54 . doi : 10.1111 / 1467 - 8721.00013 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Scherer , Klaus R. ( 2003 ) . `` Vocal communication of emotion : A review of research paradigms '' . Elsevier : 235 -- 6 . doi : 10.1016 / S0167 - 6393 ( 02 ) 00084 - 5 . Retrieved 20 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Trevor , Douglas ( 30 September 2004 ) . The Poetics of Melancholy in Early Modern England . Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture . United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press . p. 48 . ISBN 9780521834698 . Jump up ^ Tolkien , J.R.R. ( 1991 ) . The Lord of the Rings . London , United Kingdom : HarperCollins . p. 475 . ISBN 9780261102309 . Jump up ^ Sippey , Tom A. ( 1992 ) . The Road to Middle - Earth : How J.R.R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology . London , United Kingdom : HarperCollins . p. 143 . ISBN 9780261102750 . Jump up ^ Phillips , Adam ( 1994 ) . On Flirtation . London , United Kingdom : Harvard University Press . p. 87 . ISBN 9780674634404 . Further Reading Find more aboutSadnessat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Karp DA ( 1997 ) . Speaking of Sadness . ISBN 0195113861 . Keltner D ; Ellsworth PC ; Edwards K ( May 1993 ) . `` Beyond simple pessimism : effects of sadness and anger on social perception '' . J Pers Soc Psychol. 64 ( 5 ) : 740 -- 52 . doi : 10.1037 / 0022 - 3514.64. 5.740 . PMID 8505705 . Tiedens LZ ( January 2001 ) . `` Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation : the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral '' . J Pers Soc Psychol. 80 ( 1 ) : 86 -- 94 . doi : 10.1037 / 0022 - 3514.80. 1.86 . PMID 11195894 . Ambady & Gray , 2002 Forgas JP ( March 1998 ) . `` On feeling good and getting your way : mood effects on negotiator cognition and bargaining strategies '' . J Pers Soc Psychol. 74 ( 3 ) : 565 -- 77 . doi : 10.1037 / 0022 - 3514.74. 3.565 . PMID 11407408 . Forgas JP ( August 1998 ) . `` On being happy and mistaken : mood effects on the fundamental attribution error '' . J Pers Soc Psychol. 75 ( 2 ) : 318 -- 31 . doi : 10.1037 / 0022 - 3514.75. 2.318 . PMID 9731311 . Forgas JP ( 1994 ) . `` The role of emotion in social judgments : an introductory review and an Affect Infusion Model ( AIM ) '' . Eur J Soc Psychol. 24 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 24 . doi : 10.1002 / ejsp. 2420240102 . Forgas JP ; Bower GH ( July 1987 ) . `` Mood effects on person - perception judgments '' . J Pers Soc Psychol. 53 ( 1 ) : 53 -- 60 . doi : 10.1037 / 0022 - 3514.53. 1.53 . PMID 3612493 . Isen AM ; Daubman KA ; Nowicki GP ( June 1987 ) . `` Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving '' . J Pers Soc Psychol. 52 ( 6 ) : 1122 -- 31 . doi : 10.1037 / 0022 - 3514.52. 6.1122 . PMID 3598858 . Keltner D ; Kring AM ( 1998 ) . `` Emotion , social function , and psychopathology '' ( PDF ) . Review of General Psychology . 2 ( 3 ) : 320 -- 342 . doi : 10.1037 / 1089 - 2680.2. 3.320 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2007 - 06 - 11 . Emotions ( list ) Emotions Adoration Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Anguish Annoyance Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Boredom Calmness Compassion Contempt Contentment Defeat Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Ecstasy Embarrassment Vicarious Empathy Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Fear Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hiraeth Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hysteria Infatuation Insecurity Insult Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Limerence Loneliness Longing Love Lust Melancholy Mono no aware Neglect Nostalgia Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride hubris Rage Regret Rejection Remorse Resentment Sadness Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Spite Stress Suffering Surprise Sympathy Tenseness Wonder Worry World views Cynicism Defeatism Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz GND : 4391630 - 2 NDL : 01082965 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sadness&oldid=854251068 '' Categories : Emotions Personal life Grief Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2018 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles with dead external links from April 2016 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Aymar aru Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български བོད ་ ཡིག Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Kurdî Latviešu Lietuvių La . lojban . 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were shakespeare's plays popular when he was alive

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Shakespeare 's reputation - wikipedia Shakespeare 's reputation This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Chandos portrait , commonly assumed to depict William Shakespeare , `` the man who of all Modern , and perhaps Ancient Poets , had the largest and most comprehensive soul '' ( John Dryden , 1668 ) , `` our myriad - minded Shakespeare '' ( S.T. Coleridge , 1817 ) . In his own time , William Shakespeare ( 1564 -- 1616 ) was rated as merely one among many talented playwrights and poets , but since the late 17th century he has been considered the supreme playwright and poet of the English language . No other dramatist has been performed even remotely as often on the world stage as Shakespeare . The plays have often been drastically adapted in performance . During the 18th and 19th centuries , the era of the great acting stars , to be a star on the British stage was synonymous with being a great Shakespearean actor . Then the emphasis was placed on the soliloquies as declamatory turns at the expense of pace and action , and Shakespeare 's plays seemed in peril of disappearing beneath the added music , scenery , and special effects produced by thunder , lightning , and wave machines . Editors and critics of the plays , disdaining the showiness and melodrama of Shakespearean stage representation , began to focus on Shakespeare as a dramatic poet , to be studied on the printed page rather than in the theatre . The rift between Shakespeare on the stage and Shakespeare on the page was at its widest in the early 19th century , at a time when both forms of Shakespeare were hitting peaks of fame and popularity : theatrical Shakespeare was successful spectacle and melodrama for the masses , while book or closet drama Shakespeare was being elevated by the reverential commentary of the Romantics into unique poetic genius , prophet , and bard . Before the Romantics , Shakespeare was simply the most admired of all dramatic poets , especially for his insight into human nature and his realism , but Romantic critics such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge refactored him into an object of almost religious adoration , George Bernard Shaw coining the term `` bardolatry '' to describe it . These critics regarded Shakespeare as towering above other writers , and regarding his plays not as `` merely great works of art '' but as `` phenomena of nature , like the sun and the sea , the stars and the flowers '' and `` with entire submission of our own faculties '' ( Thomas De Quincey , 1823 ) . To the later 19th century , Shakespeare became in addition an emblem of national pride , the crown jewel of English culture , and a `` rallying - sign '' , as Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1841 , for the whole British empire . Contents ( hide ) 1 17th century 1.1 Jacobean and Caroline 1.2 Interregnum and Restoration 2 18th century 2.1 Britain 2.2 In Germany 2.3 In Russia 3 19th century 3.1 Shakespeare in performance 3.2 Shakespeare in criticism 3.3 Romantic icon in Russia 4 20th century 4.1 In the Third Reich 4.2 Acceptance in France 4.3 In China 4.4 Film 4.5 Poetry 5 Critical quotations 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links 8.1 Audiobook 8.2 E-texts ( chronological ) 8.3 Other resources 17th century ( edit ) Jacobean and caroline ( edit ) Further information : Early texts of Shakespeare 's works A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on the platform or apron stage of the typical circular Elizabethan open - roof playhouse The Swan . It is difficult to assess Shakespeare 's reputation in his own lifetime and shortly after . England had little modern literature before the 1570s , and detailed critical commentaries on modern authors did not begin to appear until the reign of Charles I . The facts about his reputation can be surmised from fragmentary evidence . He was included in some contemporary lists of leading poets , but he seems to have lacked the stature of the aristocratic Philip Sidney , who became a cult figure due to his death in battle at a young age , or of Edmund Spenser . Shakespeare 's poems were reprinted far more frequently than his plays ; but Shakespeare 's plays were written for performance by his own company , and because no law prevented rival companies from using the plays , Shakespeare 's troupe took steps to prevent his plays from being printed . That many of his plays were pirated suggests his popularity in the book market , and the regular patronage of his company by the court , culminating in 1603 when James I turned it into the `` King 's Men , '' suggests his popularity among higher stations of society . Modern plays ( as opposed to those in Latin and Greek ) were considered ephemeral and even somewhat disreputable entertainments by some contemporaries ; the new Bodleian Library explicitly refused to shelve plays . Some of Shakespeare 's plays , particularly the history plays , were reprinted frequently in cheap quarto ( i.e. pamphlet ) form ; others took decades to reach a 3rd edition . After Ben Jonson pioneered the canonisation of modern plays by printing his own works in folio ( the luxury book format ) in 1616 , Shakespeare was the next playwright to be honoured by a folio collection , in 1623 . That this folio went into another edition within 9 years indicates he was held in unusually high regard for a playwright . The dedicatory poems by Ben Jonson and John Milton in the 2nd folio were the first to suggest Shakespeare was the supreme poet of his age . These expensive reading editions are the first visible sign of a rift between Shakespeare on the stage and Shakespeare for readers , a rift that was to widen over the next two centuries . In his 1630 work ' Timber ' or ' Discoveries ' , Ben Jonson praised the speed and ease with which Shakespeare wrote his plays as well as his contemporary 's honesty and gentleness towards others . Interregnum and Restoration ( edit ) During the Interregnum ( 1642 -- 1660 ) , all public stage performances were banned by the Puritan rulers . Though denied the use of the stage , costumes and scenery , actors still managed to ply their trade by performing `` drolls '' or short pieces of larger plays that usually ended with some type of jig . Shakespeare was among the many playwrights whose works were plundered for these scenes . Among the most common scenes were Bottom 's scenes from A Midsummer Night 's Dream and the gravedigger 's scene from Hamlet . When the theatres opened again in 1660 after this uniquely long and sharp break in British theatrical history , two newly licensed London theatre companies , the Duke 's and the King 's Company , started business with a scramble for performance rights to old plays . Shakespeare , Ben Jonson , and the Beaumont and Fletcher team were among the most valuable properties and remained popular after Restoration playwriting had gained momentum . The Restoration playhouses had elaborate scenery . They retained a shortened version of the apron stage for actor / audience contact , although it is not visible in this picture ( the artist is standing on it ) . In the elaborate Restoration London playhouses , designed by Christopher Wren , Shakespeare 's plays were staged with music , dancing , thunder , lightning , wave machines , and fireworks . The texts were `` reformed '' and `` improved '' for the stage . A notorious example is Irish poet Nahum Tate 's happy - ending King Lear ( 1681 ) ( which held the stage until 1838 ) , while The Tempest was turned into an opera replete with special effects by William Davenant . In fact , as the director of the Duke 's Company , Davenant was legally obliged to reform and modernise Shakespeare 's plays before performing them , an ad hoc ruling by the Lord Chamberlain in the battle for performance rights which `` sheds an interesting light on the many 20th - century denunciations of Davenant for his adaptations '' . The modern view of the Restoration stage as the epitome of Shakespeare abuse and bad taste has been shown by Hume to be exaggerated , and both scenery and adaptation became more reckless in the 18th and 19th centuries . The incomplete Restoration stage records suggest Shakespeare , although always a major repertory author , was bested in the 1660 -- 1700 period by the phenomenal popularity of Beaumont and Fletcher . `` Their plays are now the most pleasant and frequent entertainments of the stage '' , reported fellow playwright John Dryden in 1668 , `` two of theirs being acted through the year for one of Shakespeare 's or Jonson 's '' . In the early 18th century , however , Shakespeare took over the lead on the London stage from Beaumont and Fletcher , never to relinquish it again . By contrast to the stage history , in literary criticism there was no lag time , no temporary preference for other dramatists : Shakespeare had a unique position at least from the Restoration in 1660 and onwards . While Shakespeare did not follow the unbending French neo-classical `` rules '' for the drama and the three classical unities of time , place , and action , those strict rules had never caught on in England , and their sole zealous proponent Thomas Rymer was hardly ever mentioned by influential writers except as an example of narrow dogmatism . Dryden , for example , argued in his influential Essay of Dramatick Poesie ( 1668 ) -- the same essay in which he noted that Shakespeare 's plays were performed only half as often as those of Beaumont and Fletcher -- for Shakespeare 's artistic superiority . Though Shakespeare does not follow the dramatic conventions , Dryden wrote , Ben Jonson does , and as a result Jonson lands in a distant second place to `` the incomparable Shakespeare '' , the follower of nature , the untaught genius , the great realist of human character . 18th century ( edit ) Britain ( edit ) In the 18th century , Shakespeare dominated the London stage , while Shakespeare productions turned increasingly into the creation of star turns for star actors . After the Licensing Act of 1737 , a quarter of plays performed were by Shakespeare , and on at least two occasions rival London playhouses staged the very same Shakespeare play at the same time ( Romeo and Juliet in 1755 and King Lear the next year ) and still commanded audiences . This occasion was a striking example of the growing prominence of Shakespeare stars in the theatrical culture , the big attraction being the competition and rivalry between the male leads at Covent Garden and Drury Lane , Spranger Barry and David Garrick . There appears to have been no issues with Barry and Garrick , in their late thirties , playing adolescent Romeo one season and geriatric King Lear the next . In September 1769 Garrick staged a major Shakespeare Jubilee in Stratford - upon - Avon which was a major influence on the rise of bardolatry . David Garrick as Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing , 1770 . As performance playscripts diverged increasingly from their originals , the publication of texts intended for reading developed rapidly in the opposite direction , with the invention of textual criticism and an emphasis on fidelity to Shakespeare 's original words . The texts that we read and perform today were largely settled in the 18th century . Nahum Tate and Nathaniel Lee had already prepared editions and performed scene divisions in the late 17th century , and Nicholas Rowe 's edition of 1709 is considered the first truly scholarly text for the plays . It was followed by many good 18th - century editions , crowned by Edmund Malone 's landmark Variorum Edition , which was published posthumously in 1821 and remains the basis of modern editions . These collected editions were meant for reading , not staging ; Rowe 's 1709 edition was , compared to the old folios , a light pocketbook . Shakespeare criticism also increasingly spoke to readers , rather than to theatre audiences . The only aspects of Shakespeare 's plays that were consistently disliked and singled out for criticism in the 18th century were the puns ( `` clenches '' ) and the `` low '' ( sexual ) allusions . While a few editors , notably Alexander Pope , attempted to gloss over or remove the puns and the double entendres , they were quickly reversed , and by mid-century the puns and sexual humour were ( with only a few exceptions , see Thomas Bowdler ) back in permanently . Dryden 's sentiments about Shakespeare 's imagination and capacity for painting `` nature '' were echoed in the 18th century by , for example , Joseph Addison ( `` Among the English , Shakespeare has incomparably excelled all others '' ) , Alexander Pope ( `` every single character in Shakespeare is as much an Individual as those in Life itself '' ) , and Samuel Johnson ( who scornfully dismissed Voltaire 's and Rhymer 's neoclassical Shakespeare criticism as `` the petty cavils of petty minds '' ) . The long - lived belief that the Romantics were the first generation to truly appreciate Shakespeare and to prefer him to Ben Jonson is contradicted by praise from writers throughout the 18th century . Ideas about Shakespeare that many people think of as typically post-Romantic were frequently expressed in the 18th and even in the 17th century : he was described as a genius who needed no learning , as deeply original , and as creating uniquely `` real '' and individual characters ( see Timeline of Shakespeare criticism ) . To compare Shakespeare and his well - educated contemporary Ben Jonson was a popular exercise at this time , a comparison that was invariably complimentary to Shakespeare . It functioned to highlight the special qualities of both writers , and it especially powered the assertion that natural genius trumps rules , that `` there is always an appeal open from criticism to nature '' ( Samuel Johnson ) . Opinion of Shakespeare was briefly shaped in the 1790s by the `` discovery '' of the Shakespeare Papers by William Henry Ireland . Ireland claimed to have found in a trunk a goldmine of lost documents of Shakespeare 's including two plays , Vortigern and Rowena and Henry II . These documents appeared to demonstrate a number of unknown facts about Shakespeare that shaped opinion of his works , including a Profession of Faith demonstrating Shakespeare was a Protestant and that he had an illegitimate child . Although there were many believers in the provenance of the Papers they soon came under fierce attack from scholars who pointed out numerous inaccuracies . Vortigern had only one performance at the Drury Lane Theatre before Ireland admitted he had forged the documents and written the plays himself . In Germany ( edit ) English actors started visiting the Holy Roman Empire in the late 16th century to work as `` fiddlers , singers and jugglers '' , and through them the work of Shakespeare had first become known in the Reich . In 1601 , in the Free City of Danzig ( modern Gdańsk , Poland ) , which had a large English merchant colony living within its walls , a company of English actors arrived to put on plays by Shakespeare . By 1610 , the actors were performing Shakespeare in German as his plays had become popular in Danzig . Some of Shakespeare 's work was performed in continental Europe during the 17th century , but it was not until the mid 18th century that it became widely known . In Germany Lessing compared Shakespeare to German folk literature . In France , the Aristotelian rules were rigidly obeyed , and in Germany , a land where French cultural influence was very strong ( German elites preferred to speak French rather than German in the 18th century ) , the Francophile German theatre critics had long denounced Shakespeare 's work as a `` jumble '' that violated all the Aristotelian rules . As a part of an effort to get the German public to take Shakespeare more seriously , Johann Wolfgang von Goethe organised a Shakespeare jubilee in Frankfurt in 1771 , stating in a speech on 14 October 1771 that the dramatist had shown that the Aristotelian unities were `` as oppressive as a prison '' and were `` burdensome fetters on our imagination '' . Goethe praised Shakespeare for liberating his mind from the rigid Aristoltelian rules , saying : `` I jumped into the free air , and suddenly felt I had hands and feet ... Shakespeare , my friend , if you were with us today , I could only live with you '' . Herder likewise proclaimed that reading Shakespeare 's work opens `` leaves from the book of events , of providence , of the world , blowing in the sands of time . '' This claim that Shakespeare 's work breaks through all creative boundaries to reveal a chaotic , teeming , contradictory world became characteristic of Romantic criticism , later being expressed by Victor Hugo in the preface to his play Cromwell , in which he lauded Shakespeare as an artist of the grotesque , a genre in which the tragic , absurd , trivial and serious were inseparably intertwined . In 1995 , the American journalist Stephen Kinzer writing in The New York Times observed : `` Shakespeare is an all - but - guaranteed success in Germany , where his work has enjoyed immense popularity for more than 200 years . By some estimates , Shakespeare 's plays are performed more frequently in Germany than anywhere else in the world , not excluding his native England . The market for his work , both in English and in German translation , seems inexhaustible . '' The German critic Ernst Osterkamp wrote : `` Shakespeare 's importance to German literature can not be compared with that of any other writer of the post-antiquity period . Neither Dante or Cervantes , neither Moliere or Ibsen have even approached his influence here . With the passage of time , Shakespeare has virtually become one of Germany 's national authors . '' In Russia ( edit ) Shakespeare as far it can be established never went any further from Stratford - upon - Avon than London , but he make a reference to the visit of Russian diplomats from the court of Tsar Ivan the Terrible to the court of Elizabeth I in Love Labor Lost in which the French aristocrats dress up as Russians and make fools of themselves . '' Shakespeare was first translated into Russian by Alexander Sumarokov , who called Shakespeare an `` inspired barbarian '' , who wrote of the Bard of Avon that in his plays `` there is much that is bad and exceedingly good '' . In 1786 , Shakespeare 's reputation in Russia was greatly enhanced when the Empress Catherine the Great translated a French version of The Merry Wives of Windsor into Russian ( Catherine did not know English ) and had it staged in St. Petersburg . Shortly afterwards , Catherine translated Timon of Athens from French into Russian . The patronage of Catherine made Shakespeare an eminently respectable author in Russia , but his plays were rarely performed until the 19th century , and instead he was widely read ... 19th century ( edit ) Shakespeare in performance ( edit ) The Theatre Royal at Drury Lane in 1813 . The platform stage is gone , and note the orchestra cutting off the actors from the audience . Theatres and theatrical scenery became ever more elaborate in the 19th century , and the acting editions used were progressively cut and restructured to emphasise more and more the soliloquies and the stars , at the expense of pace and action . Performances were further slowed by the need for frequent pauses to change the scenery , creating a perceived need for even more cuts to keep performance length within tolerable limits ; it became a generally accepted maxim that Shakespeare 's plays were too long to be performed without substantial cuts . The platform , or apron , stage , on which actors of the 17th century would come forward for audience contact , was gone , and the actors stayed permanently behind the fourth wall or proscenium arch , further separated from the audience by the orchestra , see image right . Through the 19th century , a roll call of legendary actors ' names all but drown out the plays in which they appear : Sarah Siddons ( 1755 -- 1831 ) , John Philip Kemble ( 1757 -- 1823 ) , Henry Irving ( 1838 -- 1905 ) , and Ellen Terry ( 1847 -- 1928 ) . To be a star of the legitimate drama came to mean being first and foremost a `` great Shakespeare actor '' , with a famous interpretation of , for men , Hamlet , and for women , Lady Macbeth , and especially with a striking delivery of the great soliloquies . The acme of spectacle , star , and soliloquy Shakespeare performance came with the reign of actor - manager Henry Irving at the Royal Lyceum Theatre in London from 1878 -- 99 . At the same time , a revolutionary return to the roots of Shakespeare 's original texts , and to the platform stage , absence of scenery , and fluid scene changes of the Elizabethan theatre , was being effected by William Poel 's Elizabethan Stage Society . Shakespeare in criticism ( edit ) Thomas De Quincey : `` O , mighty poet ! Thy works are ... like the phenomena of nature , like the sun and the sea , the stars and the flowers '' . The belief in the unappreciated 18th - century Shakespeare was proposed at the beginning of the 19th century by the Romantics , in support of their view of 18th - century literary criticism as mean , formal , and rule - bound , which was contrasted with their own reverence for the poet as prophet and genius . Such ideas were most fully expressed by German critics such as Goethe and the Schlegel brothers . Romantic critics such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Hazlitt raised admiration for Shakespeare to worship or even `` bardolatry '' ( a sarcastic coinage from bard + idolatry by George Bernard Shaw in 1901 , meaning excessive or religious worship of Shakespeare ) . To compare him to other Renaissance playwrights at all , even for the purpose of finding him superior , began to seem irreverent . Shakespeare was rather to be studied without any involvement of the critical faculty , to be addressed or apostrophised -- almost prayed to -- by his worshippers , as in Thomas De Quincey 's classic essay `` On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth '' ( 1823 ) : `` O , mighty poet ! Thy works are not as those of other men , simply and merely great works of art ; but are also like the phenomena of nature , like the sun and the sea , the stars and the flowers , -- like frost and snow , rain and dew , hail - storm and thunder , which are to be studied with entire submission of our own faculties ... '' . As the concept of literary originality grew in importance , critics were horrified at the idea of adapting Shakespeare 's tragedies for the stage by putting happy endings on them , or editing out the puns in Romeo and Juliet . In another way , what happened on the stage was seen as unimportant , as the Romantics , themselves writers of closet drama , considered Shakespeare altogether more suitable for reading than staging . Charles Lamb saw any form of stage representation as distracting from the true qualities of the text . This view , argued as a timeless truth , was also a natural consequence of the dominance of melodrama and spectacle on the early 19th - century stage . Shakespeare became an important emblem of national pride in the 19th century , which was the heyday of the British Empire and the acme of British power in the world . To Thomas Carlyle in On Heroes , Hero - Worship , and the Heroic in History ( 1841 ) , Shakespeare was one of the great poet - heroes of history , in the sense of being a `` rallying - sign '' for British cultural patriotism all over the world , including even the lost American colonies : `` From Paramatta , from New York , wheresoever ... English men and women are , they will say to one another , ' Yes , this Shakespeare is ours ; we produced him , we speak and think by him ; we are of one blood and kind with him ' '' ( `` The Hero as a Poet '' ) . As the foremost of the great canonical writers , the jewel of English culture , and as Carlyle puts it , `` merely as a real , marketable , tangibly useful possession '' , Shakespeare became in the 19th century a means of creating a common heritage for the motherland and all her colonies . Post-colonial literary critics have had much to say of this use of Shakespeare 's plays in what they regard as a move to subordinate and deracinate the cultures of the colonies themselves . Across the North Sea , Shakespeare remained influential in Germany . In 1807 , August Wilhelm Schlegel translated all of Shakespeare 's plays into German , and such was the popularity of Schlegel 's translation ( which is generally regarded as one of the best translations of Shakespeare into any language ) that German nationalists were soon starting to claim that Shakespeare was actually a German playwright who just written his plays in English . By the middle of the 19th century , Shakespeare had been incorporated into the pantheon of German literature . In 1904 , a statue of Shakespeare was erected in Weimar showing the Bard of Avon staring into the distance , becoming the first statue built to honor Shakespeare on the mainland of Europe . Romantic Icon in Russia ( edit ) In the Romantic age , Shakespeare became extremely popular in Russia . Vissarion Belinsky wrote he had been `` enslaved by the drama of Shakespeare '' . Russia 's national poet , Alexander Pushkin , was heavily influenced by Hamlet and the history plays , and his novel Boris Godunov showed strong Shakespearean influences . Later on , in the 19th century , the novelist Ivan Turgenev often wrote essays on Shakespeare with the best known being `` Hamlet and Don Quixote '' . Fyodor Dostoevsky was greatly influenced by Macbeth with the his novel Crime and Punishment showing Shakespearean influence in his treatment of the theme of guilt . From the 1840s onward , Shakespeare was regularly staged in Russia , and the black American actor Ira Aldridge who had been barred from the stage in the United States on the account of his skin color became the leading Shakespearean actor in Russia in the 1850s , being decorated by the Emperor Alexander II for his work in portraying Shakespearean characters . 20th century ( edit ) Shakespeare continued to be considered the greatest English writer of all time throughout the 20th century . Most Western educational systems required the textual study of two or more of Shakespeare 's plays , and both amateur and professional stagings of Shakespeare were commonplace . It was the proliferation of high - quality , well - annotated texts and the unrivalled reputation of Shakespeare that allowed for stagings of Shakespeare 's plays to remain textually faithful , but with an extraordinary variety in setting , stage direction , and costuming . Institutions such as the Folger Shakespeare Library in the United States worked to ensure constant , serious study of Shakespearean texts and the Royal Shakespeare Company in the United Kingdom worked to maintain a yearly staging of at least two plays . Shakespeare performances reflected the tensions of the times , and early in the century , Barry Jackson of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre began the staging of modern - dress productions , thus starting a new trend in Shakesperian production . Performances of the plays could be highly interpretive . Thus , play directors would emphasise Marxist , feminist , or , perhaps most popularly , Freudian psychoanalytical interpretations of the plays , even as they retained letter - perfect scripts . The number of analytical approaches became more diverse by the latter part of the century , as critics applied theories such as structuralism , New Historicism , Cultural materialism , African American studies , queer studies , and literary semiotics to Shakespeare 's works . In the Third Reich ( edit ) In 1934 the French government banned , in permanence , performances of Coriolanus because of its perceived unpatriotic qualities . In the international protests that followed came one from Germany , from none other than Joseph Goebbels . Although productions of Shakespeare 's plays in Germany itself were subject to ' streamlining ' , he continued to be favoured as a great classical dramatist , especially so as almost every new German play since the late 1890s onwards was portrayed by German government propaganda as the work of left - wingers , of Jews or of `` degenerates '' of one kind or another . Politically acceptable writers had simply been unable to fill the gap , or had only been able to do so with the worst kinds of agitprop . In 1935 Goebbels was to say `` We can build autobahns , revive the economy , create a new army , but we ... can not manufacture new dramatists . '' With Schiller suspect for his radicalism , Lessing for his humanism and even the great Goethe for his lack of patriotism , the legacy of the `` Aryan '' Shakespeare was reinterpreted for new purposes . Rodney Symington , Professor of Germanic and Russian Studies at the University of Victoria , Canada , deals with this question in The Nazi Appropriation of Shakespeare : Cultural Politics in the Third Reich ( Edwin Mellen Press , 2005 ) . The scholar reports that Hamlet , for instance , was reconceived as a proto - German warrior rather than a man with a conscience . Of this play one critic wrote : `` If the courtier Laertes is drawn to Paris and the humanist Horatio seems more Roman than Danish , it is surely no accident that Hamlet 's alma mater should be Wittenberg . '' A leading magazine declared that the crime which deprived Hamlet of his inheritance was a foreshadow of the Treaty of Versailles , and that the conduct of Gertrude was reminiscent of the spineless Weimar politicians . Weeks after Hitler took power in 1933 an official party publication appeared entitled Shakespeare -- a Germanic Writer , a counter to those who wanted to ban all foreign influences . At the Propaganda Ministry , Rainer Schlosser , given charge of German theatre by Goebbels , mused that Shakespeare was more German than English . After the outbreak of the war the performance of Shakespeare was banned , though it was quickly lifted by Hitler in person , a favour extended to no other . Not only did the regime appropriate the Bard but it also appropriated Elizabethan England itself . To the Nazi leaders , it was a young , vigorous nation , much like the Third Reich itself , quite unlike the decadent British Empire of the present day . Clearly there were some exceptions to the official approval of Shakespeare , and the great patriotic plays , most notably Henry V were shelved . But interestingly the reception of The Merchant of Venice was at best lukewarm ( Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta was suggested as a possible alternative ) because it was too ambiguous and not nearly anti-semitic enough for Nazi taste . So Hamlet was by far the most popular play , along with Macbeth and Richard III . Acceptance in France ( edit ) Shakespeare for a variety of reasons had never caught on in France , and even when his plays were performed in France in the 19th century , they were drastically altered to fit in with French tastes with for example Romano and Juliet having a happy ending . Not until 1946 when Hamlet as translated by André Gide was performed in Paris that `` ensured Shakespeare 's elevation to cult status '' in France . The philosopher Jean - Paul Sartre wrote that French intellectuals had been `` abruptly reintegrated into history '' by the German occupation of 1940 - 44 as the old teleological history version of history with the world getting progressively better as led by France not longer held , and as such the `` nihilist '' and `` chaotic '' plays of Shakespeare finally found an audience in France . The Economist observed : `` By the late 1950s , Shakespeare had entered the French soul . No one who has seen the Comédie - Française perform his plays at the Salle Richelieu in Paris is likely to forget the special buzz in the audience , for the bard is the darling of France . '' In China ( edit ) In the years of tentative political and economic liberalization after the death of Mao in 1976 , Shakespeare became popular in China . The very act of putting on a play by Shakespeare , formerly condemned as a `` bourgeois Western imperialist author '' whom no Chinese could respect , was in and of itself an act of quiet dissent . Of all Shakespeare 's plays , the most popular in China in the late 1970s and 1980s was Macbeth , as Chinese audiences saw in a play first performed in England in 1606 and set in 11th century Scotland a parallel with the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the late 1960s . The violence and bloody chaos of Macbeth reminded Chinese audiences of the violence and bloody chaos of the Cultural Revolution , and furthermore , the story of a national hero becoming a tyrant complete with a power - hungry wife was seen as a parallel with Mao Zedong and his wife , Jiang Qing . Reviewing a production of Macbeth in Beijing in 1980 , one Chinese critic , Xu Xiaozhong praised Macbeth as the story of `` how the greed for power finally ruined a great man '' . Another critic , Zhao Xun wrote `` Macbeth is the fifth Shakespearean play produced on the Chinese stage after the smashing of the Gang of Four . This play of conspiracy has always been performed at critical moments in the history of our nation '' . Likewise , a 1982 production of King Lear was hailed by the critics as the story of `` moral decline '' , of a story `` when human beings ' souls were so polluted that they even mistreated their aged parents '' , an allusion to the days of the Cultural Revolution when the young people serving in the Red Guard had berated , denounced , attacked and sometimes even killed their parents for failing to live up to `` Mao Zedong thought '' . The play 's director , the Shakespearean scholar Fang Ping who had suffered during the Cultural Revolution for studying this `` bourgeois Western imperialist '' , stated in an interview at the time that King Lear was relevant in China because King Lear , the `` highest ruler of a monarchy '' created a world full of cruelty and chaos where those who loved him were punished and those who did not were rewarded , a barely veiled reference to the often capricious behavior of Mao , who punished his loyal followers for no apparent reason . Cordeilia 's devotion and love for her father - despite his madness , cruelty and rejection of her - is seen in China as affirming traditional Confucian values where love of the family counts above all , and for this reason , King Lear is seen in China as being a very `` Chinese '' play that affirms the traditional values of filial piety . A 1981 production of The Merchant of Venice was a hit with Chinese audiences as the play was seen promoting the theme of justice and fairness in life , with the character of Portia being especially popular as she seen as standing for as one critic wrote for `` the humanist spirit of the Renaissance '' with its striving for `` individuality , human rights and freedom '' . The theme of a religious conflict between a Jewish merchant vs. a Christian merchant in The Merchant of Venice is generally ignored in Chinese productions of The Merchant of Venice as most Chinese find do not find the theme of Jewish - Christian conflict relevant. , Unlike in Western productions , the character of Shylock is very much an unnuanced villain in Chinese productions of The Merchant of Venice , being presented as a man capable only of envy , spite , greed and cruelty , a man whose actions are only motivated by his spiritual impoverishment . By contrast , in the West , Shylock is usually presented as a nuanced villain , of a man who has never held power over a Christian before , and lets that power go to his head . Another popular play , especially with dissidents under the Communist government , is Hamlet . Hamlet , with its theme of a man trapped under a tyrannical regime is very popular with Chinese dissidents with one dissident Wu Ningkun writing about his time in internal exile between 1958 - 61 at a collective farm in a remote part of northern Manchuria that he understood all too well the line from the play `` Denmark is a prison ! '' Film ( edit ) Main article : List of William Shakespeare screen adaptations That divergence between text and performance in Shakespeare continued into the new media of film . For instance , both Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet have been filmed in modern settings , sometimes with contemporary `` updated '' dialogue . Additionally , there were efforts ( notably by the BBC ) to ensure that there was a filmed or videotaped version of every Shakespeare play . The reasoning for this was educational , as many government educational initiatives recognised the need to get performative Shakespeare into the same classrooms as the read plays . Poetry ( edit ) Many English - language Modernist poets drew on Shakespeare 's works , interpreting in new ways . Ezra Pound , for instance , considered the Sonnets as a kind of apprentice work , with Shakespeare learning the art of poetry through writing them . He also declared the History plays to be the true English epic . Basil Bunting rewrote the sonnets as modernist poems by simply erasing all the words he considered unnecessary . Louis Zukofsky had read all of Shakespeare 's works by the time he was eleven , and his Bottom : On Shakespeare ( 1947 ) is a book - length prose poem exploring the role of the eye in the plays . In its original printing , a second volume consisting of a setting of The Tempest by the poet 's wife , Celia Zukofsky was also included . Critical quotations ( edit ) Main article : Timeline of Shakespeare criticism The growth of Shakespeare 's reputation is illustrated by a timeline of Shakespeare criticism , from John Dryden 's `` when he describes any thing , you more than see it , you feel it too '' ( 1668 ) to Thomas Carlyle 's estimation of Shakespeare as the `` strongest of rallying - signs '' ( 1841 ) for an English identity . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ ( Hume , p. 20 ) Jump up ^ McIntyre , Ian ( 1999 ) . Garrick . London : Penguin . p. 432 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 028323 - 4 . Jump up ^ Pierce p. 4 - 10 Jump up ^ Pierce p. 137 - 181 Jump up ^ Buruma , Ian Anglomania : A European Love Affair , New York : Vintage Books , 1998 page 52 . Jump up ^ Easton , Adam ( 19 September 2014 ) . `` Gdansk theatre reveals Poland 's ties to Shakespeare '' . The BBC . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ Easton , Adam ( 19 September 2014 ) . `` Gdansk theatre reveals Poland 's ties to Shakespeare '' . The BBC . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ Buruma , Ian Anglomania : A European Love Affair , New York : Vintage Books , 1998 page 57 . Jump up ^ Buruma , Ian Anglomania : A European Love Affair , New York : Vintage Books , 1998 page 57 . Jump up ^ Kinzer , Stephen ( 30 December 1995 ) . `` Shakespeare , Icon in Germany '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Kinzer , Stephen ( 30 December 1995 ) . `` Shakespeare , Icon in Germany '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ See , for example , the 19th century playwright W.S. Gilbert 's essay , Unappreciated Shakespeare , from Foggerty 's Fairy and Other Tales Jump up ^ Buruma , Ian Anglomania : A European Love Affair , New York : Vintage Books , 1998 page 51 . Jump up ^ Buruma , Ian Anglomania : A European Love Affair , New York : Vintage Books , 1998 page 51 . Jump up ^ Kinzer , Stephen ( 30 December 1995 ) . `` Shakespeare , Icon in Germany '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Andrew ( May 2012 ) . `` As they like it : Shakespeare in Russia '' . The Calvert Journal . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Grady , Hugh ( 2001 ) . `` Modernity , Modernism and Postmodernism in the Twentieth Century 's Shakespeare '' . In Bristol , Michael ; McLuskie , Kathleen . Shakespeare and Modern Theatre : The Performance of Modernity . New York : Routledge . p. 29 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 21984 - 1 . Jump up ^ Drakakis , John ( 1985 ) . Drakakis , John , ed . Alternative Shakespeares . New York : Meuthen . pp. 16 -- 17 , 23 -- 25 . ISBN 0 - 416 - 36860 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` French hissing '' . The Economist. 31 March 2002 . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` French hissing '' . The Economist. 31 March 2002 . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` French hissing '' . The Economist. 31 March 2002 . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` French hissing '' . The Economist. 31 March 2002 . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 pages 51 - 52 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 51 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 51 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Oiccidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 52 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 52 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 52 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 54 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 54 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 pages 54 - 55 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 55 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 55 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 55 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 55 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 55 . Jump up ^ Chen , Xiaomei Occidentalism , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1995 page 55 . References ( edit ) Hawkes , Terence. ( 1992 ) Meaning by Shakespeare . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 07450 - 9 . Hume , Robert D. ( 1976 ) . The Development of English Drama in the Late Seventeenth Century . Oxford : Clarendon Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 812063 - X . Lynch , Jack ( 2007 ) . Becoming Shakespeare : The Strange Afterlife That Turned a Provincial Playwright into the Bard . New York : Walker & Co . Marder , Louis . ( 1963 ) . His Exits and His Entrances : The Story of Shakespeare 's Reputation . Philadelphia : JB Lippincott . Pierce , Patricia . The Great Shakespeare Fraud : The Strange , True Story of William - Henry Ireland . Sutton Publishing , 2005 . Sorelius , Gunnar. ( 1965 ) . `` The Giant Race Before the Flood '' : Pre-Restoration Drama on the Stage and in the Criticism of the Restoration . Uppsala : Studia Anglistica Upsaliensia . Speaight , Robert . ( 1954 ) William Poel and the Elizabethan revival . Published for The Society for Theatre Research . London : Heinemann . External links ( edit ) Audiobook ( edit ) Tolstoy on Shakespeare ( 1906 ) E-texts ( chronological ) ( edit ) Ben Jonson on Shakespeare ( 1630 ) John Dryden , Essay of Dramatic Poesy , ( 1668 ) Thomas Rhymer 's notorious attack on Othello ( 1692 ) , which in the end did Shakespeare 's reputation more good than harm , by firing up John Dryden , John Dennis and other influential critics into writing eloquent replies . Alexander Pope , Preface to his Works of Shakespear ( 1725 ) Thomas De Quincey , `` On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth '' ( 1823 ) Thomas Carlyle , On Heroes , Hero - Worship , and the Heroic in History ( 1841 ) Other resources ( edit ) PeoplePlay UK Shakespeare performance timeline Shakespeare biography and online resources at NoSweatShakespeare The Shakespeare Resource Center A directory of Web resources for online Shakespearean study . Includes a Shakespeare biography , works timeline , play synopses , and language resources . hide William Shakespeare Plays Tragedies Antony and Cleopatra Coriolanus Hamlet Julius Caesar King Lear Macbeth Othello Romeo and Juliet Timon of Athens Titus Andronicus Troilus and Cressida Comedies All 's Well That Ends Well As You Like It The Comedy of Errors Cymbeline Love 's Labour 's Lost Measure for Measure The Merchant of Venice The Merry Wives of Windsor A Midsummer Night 's Dream Much Ado About Nothing Pericles , Prince of Tyre * The Taming of the Shrew The Tempest Twelfth Night The Two Gentlemen of Verona The Two Noble Kinsmen * The Winter 's Tale Histories King John Edward III * Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI 1 * Richard III Henry VIII * See also Problem plays Late romances Characters A -- K L -- Z Ghost character Chronology Performances Settings Quarto publications First Folio Second Folio Poems Shakespeare 's sonnets comparison to Petrarch A Lover 's Complaint The Phoenix and the Turtle The Rape of Lucrece Venus and Adonis Apocrypha Plays Arden of Faversham The Birth of Merlin Cardenio * Double Falsehood Edmund Ironside Fair Em Locrine The London Prodigal Love 's Labour 's Won The Merry Devil of Edmonton Mucedorus The Puritan The Second Maiden 's Tragedy Sejanus His Fall Sir John Oldcastle Sir Thomas More * The Spanish Tragedy Thomas Lord Cromwell Thomas of Woodstock Vortigern and Rowena A Yorkshire Tragedy Poems The Passionate Pilgrim To the Queen Life and works Birthplace and childhood home Bibliography Complete Works of William Shakespeare Translations Early editions Editors English Renaissance theatre Globe Theatre Handwriting Lord Chamberlain 's Men / King 's Men The Theatre Curtain Theatre New Place Portraits Religious views Sexuality Spelling of his name Stratford - upon - Avon Style Legacy Attribution studies Authorship question Influence Memorials Screen adaptations Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Folger Shakespeare Library Shakespeare Quarterly Shakespeare 's Globe ( replica ) Bardolatry Titles of works taken from Shakespeare Family Anne Hathaway ( wife ) Susanna Hall ( daughter ) Hamnet Shakespeare ( son ) Judith Quiney ( daughter ) Elizabeth Barnard ( granddaughter ) John Shakespeare ( father ) Mary Arden ( mother ) Gilbert Shakespeare ( brother ) Joan Shakespeare ( sister ) Edmund Shakespeare ( brother ) Richard Shakespeare ( grandfather ) John Hall ( son - in - law ) Thomas Quiney ( son - in - law ) Thomas Nash ( grandson - in - law ) * Shakespeare and other authors Lost Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakespeare%27s_reputation&oldid=840297813 '' Categories : Reception of writers William Shakespeare Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2008 All articles needing additional references EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 9 May 2018 , at 00 : 19 . 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system of a down meaning of chop suey

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Chop_Suey!_(song)&oldid=818335151

Chop Suey ! ( Song ) - wikipedia Chop Suey ! ( Song ) Jump to : navigation , search `` Chop Suey ! '' redirects here . For other uses , including other songs titled `` Chop Suey '' , see Chop suey ( disambiguation ) . `` Chop Suey ! '' Single by System of a Down from the album Toxicity B - side `` Johnny '' Released August 13 , 2001 ( 2001 - 08 - 13 ) Format 7 '' CD Recorded February 2001 ( 2001 - 02 ) -- March 2001 ( 2001 - 03 ) ( Cello Studios , Hollywood , California , US ) Genre Alternative metal nu metal Length 3 : 30 Label American Songwriter ( s ) Daron Malakian John Dolmayan Serj Tankian Shavo Odadjian Producer ( s ) Daron Malakian Rick Rubin Serj Tankian System of a Down singles chronology `` Spiders '' ( 1999 ) `` Chop Suey ! '' ( 2001 ) `` Toxicity '' ( 2002 ) `` Spiders '' ( 1999 ) `` Chop Suey ! '' ( 2001 ) `` Toxicity '' ( 2002 ) UK Import CD 1 UK Import CD 1 single cover of `` Chop Suey ! '' UK Import CD 2 UK Import CD 2 single cover of `` Chop Suey ! '' Promo CD Promo cover Music video `` Chop Suey ! '' on YouTube `` Chop Suey ! '' is the first single from Armenian - American alternative metal band System of a Down 's second album Toxicity . The single was released in August 2001 and earned the band its first Grammy nomination in 2002 for Best Metal Performance . Loudwire included the song in its list of The Best Hard Rock Songs Of The 21st Century , where it was ranked at number - one . `` Chop Suey ! '' is often seen as the band 's signature song . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Song title 3 Music video 4 Controversy 5 Covers and parodies 6 Track listing 7 Chart positions 8 References 9 External links Overview ( edit ) In an interview , Daron Malakian explained , `` The song is about how we are regarded differently depending on how we pass . Everyone deserves to die . Like , if I were now to die from drug abuse , they might say I deserved it because I abused dangerous drugs . Hence the line , ' I cry when angels deserve to die ' . The lyric passages ' Father , into your hands I commend my spirit ' and ' why have you forsaken me ? ' are a reference to Jesus ' death on the cross , as , according to the Gospels , it was one of the seven things Jesus said while dying . '' Song title ( edit ) The song was originally titled `` Suicide '' but the band decided to change it because they wanted to make it radio - friendly . The song title is therefore a wordplay from Self - righteous suicide to `` Self - right - Chop Suey - cide '' that replaces provocation by absurdity . The band members claim this change was not caused by pressure from their record company . Noteworthy , certain pressings of the album include an intro to the track where the comment We 're rolling ' Suicide ' can still be heard faintly before the guitar starts . Music video ( edit ) The music video was the band 's first collaboration with the acclaimed director Marcos Siega , and is set in the car park of the Oak Tree Inn motel in Los Angeles , hometown of the band . The members are performing the song on stage , surrounded by approximately 1,000 fans . Editing devices are used to create the effect of the band members `` walking through '' one another and teleporting on and off the stage , an effect similar to one used in the Red Hot Chili Peppers video `` Around the World '' . One scene briefly shows Tankian eating chop suey with some fans , the only reference to the title dish in either the song or the video . The video makes use of the SnorriCam technique , in which an actor will have a camera attached to them with a harness , making it appear as though the background is moving and the actor is stationary . In the middle of the video the Armenian flag can be seen . The video has more than 650 million views on YouTube as of December 2017 . Controversy ( edit ) `` Chop Suey ! '' is the first single of Toxicity , an album that was number one on the charts during the week of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . A controversy surrounding the popular single , especially the line ' I do n't think you trust in my self - righteous suicide ' , at the time led to Clear Channel Radio placing the song on a list of post-9 / 11 inappropriate titles . Although it was never actually banned completely from the air , Clear Channel Radio stations were advised against playing any of the songs on the list . Covers and parodies ( edit ) The song has been parodied and covered several times . Tenacious D covered the song in live performances , with Jack Black singing gibberish lyrics . `` Weird Al '' Yankovic included the song in the `` Angry White Boy Polka '' medley on his album Poodle Hat . Richard Cheese parodied the song in his 2002 album Tuxicity ( which itself is a take - off on the album 's name ) . ApologetiX parodied the song as `` Downer of a Sister '' on their album Adam Up . Filipino band Parokya ni Edgar also parodied this song , along with `` Toxicity '' , another of System of a Down 's songs , and amalgamated it as `` The Ordertaker '' in their album Halina sa Parokya , about an angry customer at a restaurant that has a menu but sells nothing . Casey Shea recorded a cover for Engine Room Recordings ' compilation album Guilt by Association Vol. 1 , which was released in September 2007 . In 2017 , Anthony Vincent , the vocalist behind YouTube series Ten Seconds Songs , re-interpreted `` Chop Suey ! '' in 20 different styles . Peruvian singer Tongo recorded a parody of the song at the end of 2016 , titled Selfo Radio Suisay , based on the pronunciation of Spanish phonetic sounds of the line `` self - righteous suicide '' . Track listing ( edit ) CD single No . Title Lyrics Music Length 1 . `` Chop Suey ! '' Serj Tankian Daron Malakian Daron Malakian 3 : 30 2 . `` Johnny '' Serj Tankian Serj Tankian 2 : 08 3 . `` Sugar '' ( Live ) Serj Tankian Shavo Odadjian Daron Malakian 2 : 23 4 . `` War ? '' ( Live ) Serj Tankian Daron Malakian 2 : 47 UK CD1 Australian single No . Title Lyrics Music Length 1 . `` Chop Suey ! '' Serj Tankian Daron Malakian Daron Malakian 3 : 30 2 . `` Johnny '' Serj Tankian Serj Tankian 2 : 08 3 . `` Know '' ( Live ) Serj Tankian Shavo Odadjian Daron Malakian Serj Tankian 3 : 04 UK CD2 No . Title Lyrics Music Length 1 . `` Chop Suey ! '' Serj Tankian Daron Malakian Daron Malakian 3 : 31 2 . `` Sugar '' ( Live ) Serj Tankian Shavo Odadjian Daron Malakian 2 : 27 3 . `` War ? '' ( Live ) Serj Tankian Daron Malakian 2 : 47 4 . `` Chop Suey ! '' ( Video ) Serj Tankian Daron Malakian Daron Malakian 3 : 27 7 '' single No . Title Lyrics Music Length 1 . `` Chop Suey ! '' Serj Tankian Daron Malakian Daron Malakian 3 : 30 2 . `` Johnny '' Serj Tankian Serj Tankian 2 : 08 Chart positions ( edit ) `` Chop Suey ! '' was a moderate success on the charts around the world . In Australia , after hitting No. 3 on the Triple J Hottest 100 of 2001 , with virtually no airplay on commercial radio , it debuted and peaked at No. 14 in February 2002 . It is System of a Down 's highest charting single in Australia . In the United States , the song peaked at No. 76 , making it the band 's lowest peaking song on the Hot 100 due to the fact it was taken off the radio for its political lyrics . On the Modern Rock Tracks , `` Chop Suey ! '' peaked at No. 7 , becoming the band 's first top ten single . In the UK Singles Chart , it debuted and peaked at No. 17 . Chart ( 2001 -- 02 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) 14 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 18 Ireland ( IRMA ) 46 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 25 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 17 US Billboard Hot 100 76 US Hot Modern Rock Tracks 7 US Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks 12 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Wiederhorn , Jonn ( August 13 , 2001 ) . `` System Of A Down 's Schizophrenia Aggravated On Toxicity '' . MTV . Retrieved April 15 , 2015 . The first single from Toxicity is `` Chop Suey , '' which starts with a guitar strum and a tribal beat and segues to a serrated stop - start punk verse before drifting into an ethereal chorus colored by a bouzouki , a Greek stringed instrument . Jump up ^ Evans , James ( April 17 , 2013 ) . `` Crashing the Party '' . Not so long ago , I was frequenting an exclusive South Leamington cocktail bar . Compelled by housemates proffering a certain glowing green beverage , I was giving a passionate rendition of System of a Down 's alternative metal anthem , ' Chop Suey ' . Jump up ^ Chesler , Josh ( May 18 , 2015 ) . `` 10 Nu - metal Songs That Actually Do n't Suck '' . Phoenix New Times . Retrieved March 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ http://loudwire.com/system-of-a-down-chop-suey-top-21st-century-hard-rock-songs/ Jump up ^ `` System of a Down ' chop suey ' '' . www.nme.com . The Forum Inglewood . Retrieved 28 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` What Do The Lyrics Of The Song Chop Suey ! mean ? '' . Quora . Retrieved May 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` SongFacts - Chop Suey by System of a Down '' . SongFacts . Retrieved May 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ It 's the End of the World as Clear Channel Knows It Slate Jump up ^ Deusner , Stephen M. ( August 30 , 2007 ) . `` Guilt by Association '' . Pitchfork . Jump up ^ Majzoub , Hamzeh ( 24 February 2017 ) . `` Hear System of a Down 's ' Chop Suey ! ' Sung in 20 Different Styles '' . rollinstone . Retrieved 24 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Toxicity -- System of a Down -- Billboard Singles '' . Allmusic . Rovi Corporation . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- System of a Down -- Chop Suey ! '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- System of a Down -- Chop Suey ! '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Jump up ^ `` Chart Track : Week 47 , 2001 '' . Irish Singles Chart . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- System of a Down -- Chop Suey ! '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . External links ( edit ) `` Chop Suey ! '' Official Music Video on YouTube `` Chop Suey ! '' Live Performance Video on YouTube Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics ( hide ) System of a Down Daron Malakian Serj Tankian Shavo Odadjian John Dolmayan Ontronik `` Andy '' Khachaturian Studio albums System of a Down Toxicity Steal This Album ! Mezmerize Hypnotize Singles `` Sugar '' `` Spiders '' `` Chop Suey ! '' `` Toxicity '' `` Aerials '' `` B.Y.O.B. '' `` Question ! '' `` Hypnotize '' `` Lonely Day '' Promo Singles `` Prison Song / X '' `` Johnny '' `` Innervision '' `` Boom ! '' `` Cigaro '' `` Violent Pornography '' `` Kill Rock ' n Roll '' `` Vicinity of Obscenity '' Tours Reunion Tour Wake Up The Souls Tour Linkin Park and Friends - Celebrate Life In Honor of Chester Bennington Related Articles Discography Awards and nominations Axis of Justice Rick Rubin `` Charades '' Cool Gardens Glaring Through Oblivion Screamers Serart Artists Scars on Broadway Achozen Buckethead & Friends The F.C.C. Mt . Helium VoKee Fair to Midland Labels American Recordings Columbia Records Velvet Hammer Music and Management Group Serjical Strike Records Categories System of a Down Members Albums Songs Book : System of a Down Category : System of a Down Portal : Heavy metal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chop_Suey!_(song)&oldid=818335151 '' Categories : System of a Down songs 2001 singles Songs about suicide Music videos directed by Marcos Siega Song recordings produced by Rick Rubin 2001 songs Hidden categories : Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Track listings with deprecated parameters Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Ireland Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for UK Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2018 , at 23 : 33 . 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what kind of rock is in joshua tree

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Joshua_Tree_National_Park&oldid=798459672

Joshua Tree National Park - Wikipedia Joshua Tree National Park Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the national park . For other uses , see Joshua Tree ( disambiguation ) . Joshua Tree National Park IUCN category II ( national park ) Cyclops and Pee Wee Formations near Hidden Valley Campground at sunrise Show map of California Show map of the US Show all Location Riverside County and San Bernardino County , California , United States Nearest city Yucca Valley , San Bernardino Coordinates 33 ° 47 ′ 18 '' N 115 ° 53 ′ 54 '' W  /  33.7883944 ° N 115.8982222 ° W  / 33.7883944 ; - 115.8982222 Coordinates : 33 ° 47 ′ 18 '' N 115 ° 53 ′ 54 '' W  /  33.7883944 ° N 115.8982222 ° W  / 33.7883944 ; - 115.8982222 Area 790,636 acres ( 319,959 ha ) Established October 31 , 1994 Visitors 2,505,286 ( in 2016 ) Governing body National Park Service Website Joshua Tree National Park Joshua Tree National Park on a 2003 Landsat image Joshua Tree National Park is located in southeastern California . Declared a U.S. National Park in 1994 when the U.S. Congress passed the California Desert Protection Act ( Public Law 103 - 433 ) , it had been a U.S. National Monument since 1936 . It is named for the Joshua trees ( Yucca brevifolia ) native to the park . It covers a land area of 790,636 acres ( 1,235.37 sq mi ; 3,199.59 km ) -- an area slightly larger than the state of Rhode Island . A large part of the park , some 429,690 acres ( 173,890 ha ) , is a designated wilderness area . Straddling the San Bernardino County / Riverside County border , the park includes parts of two deserts , each an ecosystem whose characteristics are determined primarily by elevation : the higher Mojave Desert and lower Colorado Desert . The Little San Bernardino Mountains run through the southwest edge of the park . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Early 1.2 After 1870 2 Geography and botany 2.1 Mojave Desert 2.2 Colorado Desert 3 Geology 4 Recreation 4.1 Camping 4.2 Hiking 4.3 Climbing 4.4 Driving 4.5 Birding 4.6 Astronomy 5 Wildlife 6 Wilderness 7 Vandalism 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links History ( edit ) Early ( edit ) The earliest known residents of the land in and around what later became Joshua Tree National Park were the people of the Pinto Culture , who lived and hunted here between 8000 and 4000 BCE . Their stone tools and spear points , discovered in the Pinto Basin in the 1930s , suggest that they hunted game and gathered seasonal plants , but little else is known about them . Later residents included the Serrano , the Cahuilla , and the Chemehuevi peoples . All three lived at times in small villages in or near water , particularly the Oasis of Mara in what non-natives later called Twentynine Palms . They were hunter - gatherers who subsisted largely on plant foods supplemented by small game , amphibians , and reptiles while using other plants for making medicines , bows and arrows , baskets , and other articles of daily life . A fourth group , the Mojaves , used the local resources as they traveled along trails between the Colorado River and the Pacific coast . In the 21st century , small numbers of all four peoples live in the region near the park ; the Twentynine Palms Band of Mission Indians , descendants of the Chemehuevi , own a reservation in Twentynine Palms . In 1772 , a group of Spaniards led by Pedro Fages , made the first European sightings of Joshua trees while pursuing native converts to Christianity who had run away from a mission in San Diego . By 1823 , the year Mexico achieved independence from Spain , a Mexican expedition from Los Angeles , in what was then Alta California , is thought to have explored as far east as the Eagle Mountains in what later became the park . Three years later , Jedediah Smith led a group of American fur trappers and explorers along the nearby Mojave Trail , and others soon followed . Two decades after that , the United States defeated Mexico in the Mexican -- American War ( 1846 -- 48 ) and took over about half of Mexico 's original territory , including California and the future parkland . After 1870 ( edit ) In 1870 , non-natives began grazing cattle on the tall grasses that grew in the park . In 1888 , a gang of cattle rustlers moved into the region near the Oasis of Mara . Led by brothers James . B. and William S. McHaney , they hid stolen cattle in a box canyon at Cow Camp . Throughout the region , ranchers dug wells and built rainwater catchments called `` tanks '' such White Tank and Barker Dam . In 1900 , C.O. Barker , a miner and cattleman , built the original Barker Dam , later improved by William `` Bill '' Keys , a rancher . Grazing continued in the park through 1945 . Barker Dam was added to the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) in 1975 . Between the 1860s and the 1940s , miners worked about 300 pit mines , mostly small , in what later became the park . The most successful , the Lost Horse Mine , produced gold and silver worth about $5 million in today 's currency . Johnny Lang and others , the original owners of the Lost Horse Mine , installed a two - stamp mill to process ore at the site , and the next owner , J.D. Ryan , replaced it with a 10 - stamp steam - powered mill . Ryan pumped water from his ranch to the mill and cut timber from the nearby hills to heat water to make steam . Most of the structures associated with the mine fell apart , and for safety reasons the National Park Service plugged the mine , which had collapsed . The Desert Queen Mine on Keys ' Desert Queen Ranch was another productive gold mine . In the early 1930s , Keys bought a gasoline - powered two - stamp mill , the Wall Street Mill , and moved it to his ranch to process ore . The ranch and mill were added to the NRHP in 1975 and the mine in 1976 . Some of the mines in the park yielded copper , zinc , and iron . On August 10 , 1936 , after Minerva Hoyt and others persuaded the state and federal governments to protect the area , President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the power of the 1906 Antiquities Act to establish Joshua Tree National Monument . It protected about 825,000 acres ( 334,000 ha ) . In 1950 , the size of the park was reduced by about 290,000 acres to open the land to more mining . The park was elevated to a National Park on October 31 , 1994 , by the Desert Protection Act , which also added 234,000 acres to the park . Geography and botany ( edit ) The park is named after the Joshua tree . Mojave Desert ( edit ) The higher and cooler Mojave Desert is the special habitat of Yucca brevifolia , the Joshua tree for which the park is named . It occurs in patterns from dense forests to distantly spaced specimens . In addition to Joshua tree forests , the western part of the park includes some of the most interesting geologic displays found in California 's deserts . The dominant geologic features of this landscape are hills of bare rock , usually broken up into loose boulders . These hills are popular among rock climbing and scrambling enthusiasts . The flatland between these hills is sparsely forested with Joshua trees . Together with the boulder piles and Skull Rock , the trees make the landscape otherworldly . Temperatures are most comfortable in the spring and fall , with an average high / low of 85 and 50 ° F ( 29 and 10 ° C ) respectively . Winter brings cooler days , around 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) , and freezing nights . It occasionally snows at higher elevations . Summers are hot , over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) during the day and not cooling much below 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) until the early hours of the morning . Joshua trees dominate the open spaces of the park , but in among the rock outcroppings are piñon pine , California juniper ( Juniperus californica ) , Quercus turbinella ( desert scrub oak ) , Quercus john - tuckeri ( Tucker 's oak ) , and Quercus cornelius - mulleri ( Muller 's oak ) . These communities are under some stress , however , as the climate was wetter until the 1930s , with the same hot and dry conditions that provoked the Dust Bowl affecting the local climate . These cycles were nothing new , but the original vegetation did not prosper when wetter cycles returned . The difference may have been human development . Cattle grazing took out some of the natural cover and made it less resistant to the changes . But the bigger problem seems to be invasive species , such as cheatgrass , which during wetter periods fill in below and among the pines and oak . In drier times , they die back , but do not quickly decompose . This makes wildfires hotter and more destructive , which kills some of the trees that would have otherwise survived . When the area regenerates , these non-native grasses form a thick layer of turf that makes it harder for the pine and oak seedlings to get a roothold . Colorado Desert ( edit ) Below 3,000 feet ( 910 m ) , the Colorado Desert encompasses the eastern part of the park and features habitats of Creosote bush scrub , Ocotillo , desert Saltbush and mixed scrub including Yucca and Cholla cactus ( Cylindropuntia bigelovii ) . There are areas of such cactus density they appear as natural gardens . The lower Coachella Valley is on the southeastern side of the Park with sandy soil grasslands and desert dunes . The only palm native to California , the California Fan Palm ( Washingtonia filifera ) , occurs naturally in five oases in the park , rare areas where water occurs naturally year round and all forms of wildlife abound . Geology ( edit ) Joshua Tree National Park ; a typical view Giant Marbles Climbing the Old Woman Rock North Horror Rock at Hall of Horrors area at Sheep Pass The park 's oldest rocks , Pinto gneiss among them , are 1.7 billion years old . They are exposed in places on the park 's surface in the Cottonwood , Pinto , and Eagle mountains . Much later , from 250 to 75 million years ago , tectonic plate movements forced volcanic material toward the surface at this location and formed granites , including monzogranite common to the Wonderland of Rocks , parts of the Pinto , Eagle , and Coxcomb mountains , and elsewhere . Erosion eventually exposed the harder rocks , gneiss and granite , in the uplands and reduced the softer rocks to debris that filled the canyons and basins between the ranges . The debris , moved by gravity and water , formed alluvial fans at the mouths of canyons as well as bajadas where the alluvial fans overlapped . The rock formations of Joshua Tree National Park owe their shape partly to groundwater , which filtered through the roughly rectangular joints of the monzonite and eroded the corners and edges of blocks of stone , and to flash floods , which washed away covering ground and left piles of rounded boulders . These prominent outcrops are known as inselbergs . Of the park 's six blocks of mountains , five -- the Little San Bernardino , Hexie , Pinto , Cottonwood , and Eagle -- are among the Transverse Ranges , which trend generally east -- west in locations between the Eagle Mountains on the east and the northern Channel Islands , in the Pacific Ocean west of Santa Barbara , on the west . Tectonic forces along the San Andreas Fault system compressed and lifted the crust material that formed these ranges . The San Andreas Fault itself passes southwest of the park , but related parallel faults including the Dillon , Blue Cut , and Pinto , run through the park , and movements along them have caused earthquakes . The easternmost range in the park , the Coxcomb Mountains , runs generally north -- south and is part of the Basin and Range Province . Recreation ( edit ) Camping ( edit ) Nine established campgrounds exist in the park , three of which ( Black Rock Campground , Indian Cove Campground , and Cottonwood Campground ) provide water and flush toilets . A fee is charged per night for each camping spot . Reservations are accepted at Black Rock Campground and Indian Cove Campground for October through May , while the other campgrounds are first - come , first - served . Backcountry camping , for those who wish to backpack , is permitted with a few regulations . Hiking ( edit ) There are several hiking trails within the park , many of which can be accessed from a campground . Shorter trails , such as the one mile hike through Hidden Valley , offer a chance to view the beauty of the park without straying too far into the desert . A section of the California Riding and Hiking Trail meanders for 35 miles ( 56 km ) through the western side of the park . The lookout point at Keys View , towards the south of the park , offers views of the Coachella Valley , the Salton Sea , the San Andreas Fault , the Santa Rosa Mountains , and the city of Palm Springs . Nature walks inside the park include : Hidden Valley Indian Cove Cholla Cactus Garden Longer trails include : Boy Scout Hiking and Equestrian Trail Contact Mine Fortynine Palms Oasis Lost Horse Mine Lost Palms Oasis Ryan Mountain Warren Peak Due to graffiti on at least 17 sites on trails , officials have closed them to the public . The closed sites include Native American sites , at the Southern California park 's Rattlesnake Canyon and Barker Dam . They blame the increase in vandalism on the increased use of social media . Climbing ( edit ) Climbers in Hidden Valley Campground in March 2008 The park is popular with rock climbers and was originally a winter practice area while Yosemite Valley and other parts of the Sierra Nevada were snowbound , but later became an area of interest in its own right . There are thousands of named climbing routes , at all levels of difficulty . The routes are typically short , the rocks being rarely more than 230 ft ( 70 m ) in height , but access is usually a short , easy walk through the desert , and it is possible to do a number of interesting climbs in a single day . The rocks are all composed of quartz monzonite , a very rough type of granite made even more so as there is no snow or ice to polish it as in places like Yosemite . Driving ( edit ) The paved main road allows visitors to drive to major attractions and through the park . The unpaved roads may require a vehicle with high ground clearance , and four - wheel drive . An example is the Geology Tour Road in the center of the park . Visitors with a four - wheel drive vehicle can use this road for a self - guided tour with stops that describe the region 's geology . Birding ( edit ) There are over 250 species of bird in the park including resident desert birds such as the greater roadrunner and cactus wren as well as mockingbirds , Le Conte 's thrasher , verdin and Gambel 's quail . There are also many transient species that may spend only one or two seasons in the park . Noted birding spots in the park include : fan palm oases , Barker Dam and Smith Water Canyon . Queen Valley and Lost Horse Valley also provide good birding but with a different range of species because of the lack of water . These are often good places to see ladder - backed woodpecker and oak titmouse . A USGS Bird Checklist of `` what , when , and status '' has 239 species listed for the park . Astronomy ( edit ) Joshua Tree is a popular southern California location for amateur astronomy and stargazing , along with nearby Anza - Borrego Desert State Park . Joshua Tree is well known for its dark skies , which are largely free from southern California 's extreme light pollution . The park 's elevation and dry desert air , along with the relatively stable atmosphere in southern California , often make for excellent astronomical observing conditions . Joshua Tree 's sky darkness ranges from a green to a blue ( 3 - 4 ) rating on the Bortle Dark - Sky Scale . Wildlife ( edit ) Teddy - bear cholla ( Cylindropuntia bigelovii ) at the Cholla Cactus Garden , Joshua Tree National Park Many animals make their homes in Joshua Tree . Birds , lizards , and ground squirrels are most likely to be seen because they are largely active during the day . However , it is at night that desert animals come out to roam . Mostly nocturnal animals include snakes , bighorn sheep , kangaroo rats , coyotes , lynx , and black - tailed jackrabbits . Animals that thrive in Joshua Tree often have special adaptations for dealing with limited water and high summer temperatures . The smaller mammals and all reptiles take refuge from the heat underground . Desert mammals make more efficient use of their bodies ' water supply than does the human body . Reptiles are physiologically adapted to getting along with little water , and birds can fly to water sources when they need to drink . Nevertheless , the springs and seeps in the park are necessary to the survival of many animals . Most of the reptiles and many small rodents and insects go into an inactive state of hibernation during the winter . However , winter is the time of greatest bird concentrations in the park , because of the presence of many migrant species . A good place to view wildlife is at Barker Dam , a short hike from a parking area near Hidden Valley . Desert bighorn sheep and mule deer sometimes stop by the dam for a drink . Tours of the Barker Dam area are available . Wildlife of the park includes : The California tree frog , Pseudacris cadaverina , is found in the rocky , permanent water sources created by the Pinto Fault along the northern edge of the park . The red - spotted toad , Bufo punctatus , is a true denizen of the desert , where it spends most of its life underground . Found from one end of the park to the other , it appears after good , soaking rains . Golden eagles hunt in the park regularly . The roadrunner is an easily recognized resident . The call of Gambel 's quail can frequently be heard . The tarantula Aphonopelma iodium , the green darner Anax junius , and the giant desert scorpion Hadrurus arizonensis are arthropods that can grow to be more than 4 inches ( 10 cm ) long . The yucca moth Tegeticula paradoxa is responsible for pollinating the Joshua trees after which the park is named . Wilderness ( edit ) Of the park 's total land area of 790,636 acres ( 319,959 ha ) , 429,690 acres ( 173,890 ha ) are designated wilderness and managed by the National Park Service ( NPS ) in accordance with the Wilderness Act . The NPS requires registration for overnight camping at specific locations called registration boards . Other requirements include the use of a camp stove as open campfires are prohibited and employing Leave No Trace camping techniques ( also known as `` pack it in , pack it out '' ) . Although bicycles are not allowed in wilderness areas , horses are , but a permit must be obtained in advance for travel in the backcountry . Panoramic 360 ° view of Joshua Tree Park Panorama of the view south from the popular Keys View in the Little San Bernardino Mountains , Joshua Tree National Park , California . Visible landmarks are the Salton Sea ( 230 ft or 70 m below sea level ) at rear left , along towards the center the Santa Rosa Mountains behind Indio and the San Jacinto Mountains behind Palm Springs . In the valley floor , the San Andreas Fault is clearly visible . At the rear right is the 11,500 ft ( 3,500 m ) San Gorgonio Mountain . Panoramic 360 ° view of Joshua Tree National Park taken in mid-January near the Western Entrance Station Vandalism ( edit ) On April 1 , 2015 , graffiti artist André was convicted and fined for vandalizing ancient rock formations in the park . André posted photos of his vandalizations on Instagram . The web site Modern Hiker and its readers aided the National Park Service in tracking down and identifying André 's vandalism . Before the conviction , André attempted to silence the reporting with legal threats . In popular Culture ( edit ) In 1972 , the album cover photos for Eagles were shot in Joshua Tree National Park . In 1973 , Phil Kaufman attempted to cremate singer / songwriter Gram Parsons ' remains here . To this day , people continue to visit in tribute to Parsons . In 1987 , Irish rock band U2 released their fifth studio album , The Joshua Tree , named after a tree with which the band were photographed near Darwin , California . It is a common misconception that the site of this tree is within Joshua Tree National Park , when in fact it is over 200 miles away . In 1994 , American Tejano singer Selena recorded her music video for `` Amor Prohibido '' at Joshua Tree National Park . In 2016 , neo-hasidic hipster group Zusha recorded a music video in Joshua Tree National Park . See also ( edit ) Inland Empire portal Cahuilla California Desert Protection Act of 1994 Chemehuevi Johnny Lang Mojave and Colorado Deserts Biosphere Reserve National Register of Historic Places listings in Joshua Tree National Park References ( edit ) This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service . ^ Jump up to : Land Resources Division ( December 31 , 2016 ) . `` National Park Service Listing of Acreage ( summary ) '' ( PDF ) . National Park Service . Retrieved July 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report '' . National Park Service . ^ Jump up to : `` A Desert Park '' . National Park Service . Archived from the original on May 20 , 2017 . Retrieved May 6 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Pinto Culture '' . National Park Service . February 28 , 2015 . Retrieved July 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hunter , Charlotte ( March 22 , 2016 ) . `` American Indians '' . National Park Service . Retrieved July 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dilsaver 2015 , pp. 28 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Dilsaver 2015 , pp. 31 -- 33 . Jump up ^ Eggers 2004 , pp. 33 -- 34 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cowboys '' . National Park Service . February 28 , 2015 . Retrieved July 6 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Chappell , Gordon ( June 11 , 1975 ) . `` National Register of Historic Places Inventory -- Nomination Form : Barker Dam '' . National Park Service . Retrieved July 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dilsaver 2015 , p. 33 . ^ Jump up to : Dilsaver 2015 , pp. 33 -- 39 . ^ Jump up to : Spoo , Melanie ( February 28 , 2015 ) . `` Lost Horse Mine '' . National Park Service . Retrieved July 7 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Chappell , Gordon ( June 10 , 1975 ) . `` National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination : Wall Street Mill '' ( PDF ) . National Park Service . Retrieved July 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chappell , Gordon ( 1975 ) . `` National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination : Keys Desert Queen Ranch '' ( PDF ) . National Park Service . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chappell , Gordon ( 1975 ) . `` National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination : Desert Queen Mine '' ( PDF ) . National Park Service . Retrieved July 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Zarki 2015 , pp. 75 -- 76 . Jump up ^ Zarki 2015 , p. 92 . Jump up ^ `` Park History '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved December 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Operating Hours & Seasons '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Jump up ^ Southern California Plant Communities 15 . Joshua Tree woodland ^ Jump up to : Dilsaver 2015 , pp. 16 -- 19 . Jump up ^ `` Geologic Formations '' . Joshua Tree National Park . January 4 , 2017 . Retrieved July 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Trent , D.D. ( April 1984 ) . `` Geology of the Joshua Tree National Monument '' . California Geology. 37 . Archived from the original on December 21 , 2013 . Retrieved December 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Camping '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved May 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` California Resort Life '' . CaliforniaResortLife.com . Jump up ^ `` Hiking '' . National Park Service . Retrieved May 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Kaiser 2010 , pp. 142 -- 43 . Jump up ^ `` Graffiti Force Closure Of Joshua Tree Park Sites '' . AP . Retrieved April 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Geology Motor Tour '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved May 6 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` USGS Bird Checklist '' . Archived from the original on July 31 , 2010 . Retrieved June 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Joshua Tree National Park : Stargazing '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved August 15 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ClearDarkSky Light Pollution Map '' . ClearDarkSky.com . Retrieved August 18 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Animals '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved January 20 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Amphibians '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved January 20 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Birds '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved January 20 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Insects , Spiders , Centipedes , Millipedes '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved January 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Backpacking '' . Joshua Tree National Park , NPS . Retrieved May 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Spiers , Katherine ( April 15 , 2015 ) `` Artist `` Mr. Andre '' Pays Fine For Vandalizing Joshua Tree National Park . '' KCET . org . ( Retrieved April 16 , 2015 . ) Jump up ^ Schreiner , Casey ( February 27 , 2015 ) . `` Is Mr. Andre tagging in Joshua Tree ? '' . Modern Hiker . Jump up ^ Schreiner , Casey ( March 10 , 2015 ) . `` Mr. Andre issues legal threat to Modern Hiker '' . Modern Hiker . Jump up ^ Simmons , Bill . `` The Eagles ' Greatest Hit '' . Grantland . Retrieved August 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` What 's up with the strange end of country - rock pioneer Gram Parsons ? '' from The Straight Dope Jump up ^ Villarreal , Yezmen. `` 28 Things You Did n't Know About Selena '' . BuzzFeed . Retrieved August 18 , 2015 . Works cited ( edit ) Dilsaver , Lary M. ( March 2015 ) . Joshua Tree National Park : A History of Preserving the Desert ( PDF ) . National Park Service . OCLC 912308073 . Retrieved July 4 , 2017 . Eggers , Margaret ( 2004 ) . Mining History and Geology of Joshua Tree National Park . San Diego Association of Geologists . ISBN 978 - 0 - 916251 - 70 - 3 . Kaiser , James ( 2010 ) . Joshua Tree : The Complete Guide ( 4th ed . ) . Destination Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9825172 - 3 - 9 . Zarki , Joseph W. ( 2015 ) . Images of America : Joshua Tree National Park . Charleston , South Carolina : Arcadia Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4671 - 3281 - 7 . Further reading ( edit ) Birds , Joshua Tree National Park Association `` Joshua Tree '' ( 2001 ) , California 's Gold . VHS videorecording by Huell Howser Productions , in association with KCET / Los Angeles . 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who founded the grange what was its original purpose

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry&oldid=838717592

National Grange of the order of Patrons of Husbandry - wikipedia National Grange of the order of Patrons of Husbandry `` Grange Hall '' redirects here . For other Grange Halls including individual Grange Hall buildings , see The Grange ( disambiguation ) . Grange Hall in Solon , Maine , circa 1910 The Grange , officially referred to as The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry , is a fraternal organization in the United States that encourages families to band together to promote the economic and political well - being of the community and agriculture . The Grange , founded after the Civil War in 1867 , is the oldest American agricultural advocacy group with a national scope . The Grange actively lobbied state legislatures and Congress for political goals , such as the Granger Laws to lower rates charged by railroads , and rural free mail delivery by the Post Office . In 2005 , the Grange had a membership of 160,000 , with organizations in 2,100 communities in 36 states . It is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , in a building built by the organization in 1960 . Many rural communities in the United States still have a Grange Hall and local Granges still serve as a center of rural life for many farming communities . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Today 3 Rituals and ceremonies 4 Organization 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 8 External links History ( edit ) Promotional poster , ca . 1873 , that offers a `` gift for the grangers '' President Andrew Johnson commissioned Oliver Kelley to go to the Southern states and to collect data to improve Southern agricultural conditions . In the South , poor farmers bore the brunt of the Civil War and were suspicious of Northerners like Kelley . Kelley found he was able to overcome these sectional differences as a Mason . With Southern Masons as guides , he toured the war - torn countryside in the South and was appalled by the outdated farming practices . He saw the need for an organization that would bring people from the North and South together in a spirit of mutual cooperation and , after many letters and consultations with the other founders , the Grange was born . The first Grange , Grange # 1 , was founded in 1868 in Fredonia , New York . Seven men and one woman co-founded the Grange : Oliver Hudson Kelley , William Saunders , Francis M. McDowell , John Trimble , Aaron B. Grosh , John R. Thompson , William M. Ireland , and Caroline Hall . Paid agents organized local Granges and membership in the Grange increased dramatically from 1873 ( 200,000 ) to 1875 ( 858,050 ) . Many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions , especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs . The organization was unusual at this time because women and any teen old enough to draw a plow were encouraged to participate . The importance of women was reinforced by requiring that four of the elected positions could be held only by women . 1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring the National Grange Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues , and many local granges established consumer cooperatives , initially supplied by the wholesaler Aaron Montgomery Ward . Poor fiscal management , combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth , led to a massive decline in membership . By the turn of the 20th century , the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized . The Granger movement supported efforts by politicians to regulate rates charged by the railroads and grain warehouses . It claimed credit for the ideas of the Cooperative Extension Service , Rural Free Delivery , and the Farm Credit System . The peak of their political reputation was marked by the Supreme Court decision in Munn v. Illinois ( 1877 ) , which held that grain warehouses were a `` private utility in the public interest , '' and so could be regulated by public law . However this achievement was overturned later by the Supreme Court in Wabash v. Illinois ( 1886 ) . The Grange also endorsed the temperance cause to avoid alcohol , the direct election of Senators and women 's suffrage . Grange membership has declined considerably as the percentage of American farmers has fallen from a third of the population in the early 20th century to less than two percent today . Between 1992 and 2007 , the number of Grange members fell by 40 % . Washington has the largest membership of any state , at approximately 13,000 . Today ( edit ) Union Grange Hall in Slatersville , Rhode Island , now a community center As of 2013 the Grange continues to press for the causes of farmers , including issues of free trade and farm policy . In its 2006 Journal of Proceedings , the organization 's report on its annual convention , the organization lays out its mission and how it works towards achieving it through fellowship , service , and legislation : The Grange provides opportunities for individuals and families to develop to their highest potential in order to build stronger communities and states , as well as a stronger nation . As a non-partisan organization , the Grange supports only policies , never political parties or candidates . Although the Grange was founded to serve the interests of farmers , because of the shrinking farm population the Grange has begun to broaden its range to include a wide variety of issues , and anyone is welcome to join the Grange . The Junior Grange is open to children 5 - 14 . Regular Grange membership is open to anyone age 14 or older . The Grange Youth , a group within the Grange , consists of members 13 1 / 2 - 35 . In 2013 , the Grange signed on to a letter to Congress calling for the doubling of legal immigration and legalization for undocumented immigrants currently in the United States . However , this position has been somewhat revised , and the Grange now emphasizes an expansion in the H - 2A visa program to increase legal immigration and address the crisis - level labor shortage in agriculture . They support the enforcement of immigration law but urge discretion with regard to the impact on labor availability . Rituals and ceremonies ( edit ) Grange in session , 1873 When the Grange first began in 1867 , it borrowed some of its rituals and symbols from Freemasonry , including secret meetings , oaths and special passwords . It also copied ideas from Greek and Roman mythology and the Bible . Small , ceremonial farm tools are often displayed at Grange meetings . Elected officers are in charge of opening and closing each meeting . There are seven degrees of Grange membership ; the ceremony of each degree relates to the seasons and various symbols and principles . During the last few decades , the Grange has moved toward public meetings and no longer meets in secret . Though the secret meetings do not occur , the Grange still acknowledges its rich history and practices some traditions . Organization ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Grange is a hierarchical organization ranging from local communities to the National Grange organization . At the local level are community Granges , otherwise known as subordinate Granges . All members are affiliated with at least one subordinate . In most states , multiple subordinate Granges are grouped together to form Pomona Granges . Typically , Pomona Granges are made up of all the subordinates in a county . Next in the order come State Granges , which is where the Grange begins to be especially active in the political process . State Masters ( Presidents ) are responsible for supervising the administration of Subordinate and Pomona Granges . Together , thirty - five State Granges , as well as Potomac Grange # 1 in Washington , D.C. , form the National Grange . The National Grange represents the interests of most Grangers in lobbying activities similar to the state , but on a much larger scale . In addition , the National Grange oversees the Grange ritual . The Grange is a grassroots organization ; virtually all policy originates at the subordinate level . The motto of the Grange is In necessariis unitas , in dubiis libertas , in omnibus caritas ( `` In essentials , unity ; in non-essentials , liberty ; in all things , charity '' ) . Indeed , the word `` grange '' comes from a Latin word for grain , and is related to a `` granary '' or , generically , a farm . See also ( edit ) List of Grange Hall buildings Order of the Sovereigns of Industry Grange building east of Longmont , Colorado References ( edit ) Jump up ^ William D. Barnes , `` Oliver Hudson Kelley and the Genesis of the Grange : A Reappraisal , '' Agricultural History ( 1967 ) 41 : 229 -- 242 Jump up ^ D. Sven . Nordin , Rich Harvest : A History of the Grange , 1867 -- 1900 ( 1974 ) ch 1 Jump up ^ Ezra Slocum Carr ( 1875 ) . The Patrons of husbandry on the Pacific coast : Being a complete history of the origin , condition and progress of agriculture in different parts of the world ; of the origin and growth of the order of Patrons , with a general and special grange directory , and full list of charter members of the subordinate granges of California . Also , of the foes of the farmers , or monopolies of land , water , transportation and education ; of a protective tariff , currency and banking . A.L. Bancroft . p. 105 . Jump up ^ Adam D. Sheingate ( 2003 ) . The Rise of the Agricultural Welfare State : Institutions and Interest Group Power in the United States , France , and Japan . Princeton U.P. p. 60 . Jump up ^ David B. Danbom ( 2006 ) . Born in the Country : A History of Rural America . Johns Hopkins U.P. pp. 154 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Krishnan , Sonia ( 2007 - 07 - 29 ) . `` Beyond Potlucks '' . The Seattle Times . In the past 15 years , Grange membership has fallen nearly 40 percent to 240,000 people . These days , fewer than 2 percent of Americans farm . Jump up ^ https://www.nationalgrange.org/immigration-visas/ Jump up ^ Jay Kinney ( 2009 ) . The Masonic Myth : Unlocking the Truth About the Symbols , the Secret Rites , and the History of Freemasonry . HarperCollins . p. 70 . Jump up ^ Dennis Sven Nordin ( 2006 ) . Rich Harvest : A History of the Grange , 1867 - 1900 . U. Press of Mississippi . p. 10 . Further reading ( edit ) Atkeson , Thomas Clark . Semi-centennial History of the Patrons of Husbandry. 1916 . Barnes , William D. `` Oliver Hudson Kelley and the Genesis of the Grange : A Reappraisal '' . Agricultural History , vol. 41 , no . 3 ( July 1967 ) , pp. 229 -- 242 . Bourne , Jenny . In Essentials , Unity : An Economic History of the Grange Movement . Ohio University Press , 2017 . Buck , Solon Justus . The Granger Movement : A Study of Agricultural Organization and its Political , Economic , and Social Manifestations , 1870 - 1880 . 1913 . 384pp ; excellent older history ( newer is Nordin ( 1974 ) Ferguson , James S . `` The Grange and Farmer Education in Mississippi '' . Journal of Southern History , vol. 8 , no . 4 ( November 1942 ) , pp. 497 -- 512 . Gardner , Charles M. The Grange : Friend of the Farmer 1949 . 531pp . Hirsch , Arthur H. `` Efforts of the Grange in the Middle West to Control the Price of Farm Machinery , 1870 - 1880 '' . Mississippi Valley Historical Review , vol. 15 , no . 4 ( March 1929 ) , pp. 473 -- 496 . Howard , David H. People , Pride , and Progress : 125 Years of the Grange in America . 1992 . 335pp . Lownsbrough , John . The Privileged Few . The Grange and its People in Nineteenth Century Ontario . 1980 . Marti , Donald B. Women of the Grange : Mutuality and Sisterhood in Rural America , 1866 - 1920 . 1991 . Nordin , D. Sven . Rich Harvest : A History of the Grange , 1867 -- 1900 . 1974 . 273pp . Saloutos , Theodore . `` The Grange in the South , 1870 - 1877 '' . Journal of Southern History , vol. 19 , no . 4 ( November 1953 ) , pp. 473 -- 487 . Schneiberg , Marc et al . `` Social Movements and Organizational Form : Cooperative Alternatives to Corporations in the American Insurance , Dairy , and Grain Industries '' . American Sociological Review , 73 ( 4 ) ( 2008 ) : 635 - 667 . theoretical essay Schell , Herbert S . `` The Grange and the Credit Problem in Dakota Territory '' . Agricultural History . vol. 10 , no . 2 ( April 1936 ) , pp. 59 -- 83 . Tontz , Robert L. `` Memberships of General Farmers ' Organizations , United States , 1874 - 1960 '' . Agricultural History , vol. 38 , no . 3 ( July 1964 ) , pp. 143 -- 156 . statistical tables showing membership in the Grange and other farm organizations by date and state and region Woods , Thomas A. Knights of the Plow : Oliver H. Kelley and the Origins of the Grange in Republican Ideology. 2002 . Primary sources ( edit ) Commons , John R. et al. eds . A Documentary History of American Industrial Society v 10 , ( 1911 ) pp 39 - 138 . online Goss , Albert S. `` Legislative Program of the National Grange , '' Journal of Farm Economics , Vol. 29 , No. 1 , Proceedings Number ( Feb. , 1947 ) , pp. 52 -- 63 by Grange leader Kelley , Oliver Hudson . Origin and progress of the order of the Patrons of Husbandry in the United States ( 1875 ) 441pp full text online Full texts of primary sources on Grange External links ( edit ) Official Website of the National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry `` A Short History of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry , also known as the National Grange , '' by Charles P. Gilliam Background , History , Ritual and Emblems of the Grange Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture Texts on Wikisource : `` Husbandry , Patrons of '' . Collier 's New Encyclopedia . 1921 . `` Grangers '' . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920 . `` Grange '' . New International Encyclopedia . 1905 . `` Husbandry , Patrons of '' . The American Cyclopædia. 1879 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry&oldid=838717592 '' Categories : National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry Economic history of the United States Agrarian politics History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) 1867 establishments in the United States Organizations established in 1867 Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2008 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Articles needing additional references from March 2014 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier 's Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia with a Wikisource reference Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Русский Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 28 April 2018 , at 21 : 29 . 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band that got in trouble for lip syncing

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Milli_Vanilli&oldid=800075295

Milli Vanilli - wikipedia Milli Vanilli Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Milli Vanilli Fab Morvan ( left ) and Rob Pilatus ( right ) with NARAS President C. Michael Greene ( center ) , February 1990 Background information Also known as Rob & Fab Origin Munich , West Germany Genres Dance , new jack swing , R&B , funk , Eurodance , hip hop Years active 1988 -- 1990 , 1997 -- 1998 Labels Arista , Hansa Associated acts The Real Milli Vanilli , Rob & Fab Past members Representative : Fab Morvan Rob Pilatus Actual : Charles Shaw Brad Howell John Davis Jodie Rocco Linda Rocco Instrumental : Frank Farian Milli Vanilli was a German R&B duo from Munich . The group was founded by Frank Farian in 1988 and consisted of Fab Morvan and Rob Pilatus . The group 's debut album Girl You Know It 's True achieved international success and earned them a Grammy Award for Best New Artist on 21 February 1990 . Milli Vanilli became one of the most popular pop acts in the late 1980s and early 1990s , with millions of records sold . Their success quickly turned to infamy when Morvan , Pilatus , and their agent Sergio Vendero confessed that Morvan and Pilatus did not sing any of the vocals heard on the record . This resulted in the group being stripped of their Grammy Award for Best New Artist . The group recorded a comeback album in 1998 , but Rob Pilatus died before it was released . Contents ( hide ) 1 Beginnings 2 Lip - synching indications , exposure , and media backlash 3 The Real Milli Vanilli 3.1 Try ' N ' B 4 Rob & Fab 5 Milli Vanilli comeback and death of Rob Pilatus 6 Fab Morvan 's solo career 7 Later developments 8 Discography 9 References 10 External links Beginnings ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( September 2016 ) According to VH1 's Behind the Music , the single `` Girl You Know It 's True '' was first produced by Jesse Powell and had already been completed before Rob Pilatus and Fab Morvan were recruited . Frank Farian felt that no efforts should be made to refine Pilatus and Morvan 's voices . Farian added his own studio - augmented voice to recordings , using back - up singers to hide the other two members ' live voices . In 2011 Morvan claimed that Farian manipulated the two of them by giving them a small advance when he signed them . The pair spent most of it on clothes and hairstyling . Several months later , Farian called them and told them they had to lip sync to some prerecorded music or , as stated in the contract , repay the advance in full . `` We were not hired , we were trapped , '' Morvan recalled . Lip - synching indications , exposure , and media backlash ( edit ) Beth McCarthy - Miller , then an executive with MTV , says the duo 's poor English language skills , when they came in for their first interview with the channel , stirred doubts among those present as to whether they had sung on their records . The first public sign that the group was lip - synching came on 21 July 1989 , during a live performance on MTV at the Lake Compounce theme park in Bristol , Connecticut . As they performed , the recording of the song `` Girl You Know It 's True '' jammed and began to skip , repeating the partial line `` Girl , you know it 's ... '' over and over through the speakers . They continued to pretend to sing and dance onstage for a few more moments , then they both ran offstage . According to the episode of VH1 's Behind the Music which profiled Milli Vanilli , Downtown Julie Brown stated that fans attending the concert seemed neither to care , nor even to notice , and the concert continued as if nothing unusual had happened . In a March 1990 issue of Time magazine , Pilatus was quoted proclaiming himself to be `` the new Elvis '' , reasoning that by the duo 's success they were more talented musically than Bob Dylan , Paul McCartney and Mick Jagger . Unlike the international release of All or Nothing , the inserts for the American version of the album explicitly attributed the vocals to Morvan and Pilatus . This prompted singer Charles Shaw to reveal in December 1989 that he was one of the three actual singers on the album and that Pilatus and Morvan were impostors . Farian reportedly paid Shaw $150,000 to retract his statements , though this did not stem the tide of public criticism . Because of growing public questioning as to who sang in the group , as well as the Morvan and Pilatus ' demand to Farian that they be allowed to sing on the next album , Farian confessed to reporters on 12 November 1990 that Morvan and Pilatus did not sing on the records . As a result of American media pressure , Milli Vanilli 's Grammy was withdrawn four days later . However , their three American Music Awards were never withdrawn because the organizers felt the awards were given to them by music consumers . After these details emerged , at least 27 different lawsuits were filed under various U.S. consumer fraud protection laws against Pilatus , Morvan and Arista Records . One such filing occurred on 22 November 1990 , in Ohio , where lawyers filed a class - action lawsuit asking for refunds on behalf of a local woman in Cuyahoga County , who had bought Girl You Know It 's True . At the time the lawsuit was filed , it was estimated at least 1,000 Ohio residents had bought the album . On 12 August 1991 , a proposed settlement of a refund lawsuit in Chicago , Illinois , was rejected . This settlement would have refunded buyers of Milli Vanilli CDs , cassettes , records , or singles . However , the refunds would only be given as a credit for a future Arista release . On 28 August , a new settlement was approved ; it refunded those who attended concerts along with those who bought Milli Vanilli recordings . An estimated 10 million buyers were eligible to claim a refund and they could keep the refunded recordings as well . The deadline to claim refunds passed on 8 March 1992 . The real Milli Vanilli ( edit ) Main article : The Real Milli Vanilli The resulting album , released in Europe in early 1991 , was renamed The Moment of Truth and spawned three singles , `` Keep On Running '' , `` Nice ' n Easy '' and `` Too Late ( True Love ) '' . A Morvan / Pilatus lookalike named Ray Horton was depicted on the cover along with the real singers ; Brad Howell and John Davis . In addition , the album featured rappers Icy Bro on `` Hard as Hell '' and Tammy T on `` Too Late ( True Love ) '' . Original members and vocalists Jodie Rocco and Linda Rocco remained on 95 % of the tracks . One of four Diane Warren - penned songs that are included on The Moment of Truth , `` When I Die '' , has been covered by several other artists , including Farian 's No Mercy . For the American market , Farian chose to avoid any association with Milli Vanilli and had the tracks re-recorded with Ray Horton on the majority of lead vocals , however , The Moment of Truth was never released in that format in the USA . Try ' N ' B ( edit ) In 1992 , RCA signed on to release the album as the debut of the newly created group Try ' N ' B . The self - titled release included three additional tracks not on the Real Milli Vanilli release : `` Ding Dong '' , `` Who Do You Love '' , and a remake of Dr. Hook 's `` Sexy Eyes '' , and featured original Milli Vanilli vocalists Jodie Rocco and Linda Rocco . Because of significantly better sales under the name Try ' N ' B in America , a slightly modified Try ' N ' B debut album was released internationally . It featured guest singer Tracy Ganser , a Ray Horton lookalike named Kevin Weatherspoon , as well as Jodie Rocco and Linda Rocco . Rob & Fab ( edit ) Main article : Rob & Fab Meanwhile , Morvan and Pilatus moved to Los Angeles , California , and signed with the Joss Entertainment Group , where they recorded their follow - up album under the name Rob & Fab . Almost all the songs on the album were written by Kenny Taylor and Fab Morvan , while Morvan and Pilatus provided the lead vocals . Because of financial constraints , Joss Entertainment Group was only able to release the album in the United States , the priority market to Milli Vanilli . A single , `` We Can Get It On '' , was made available for radio play shortly before the album 's release . However , the lack of publicity , poor distribution , and their steep fall from the height of pop - culture visibility after the lip - synching scandal contributed to its failure . The album only sold around 2,000 copies . Milli Vanilli comeback and death of Rob Pilatus ( edit ) In order to restore their career , in 1997 Farian agreed to produce a new Milli Vanilli album with Morvan and Pilatus on lead vocals . This led up to the recording of the 1998 Milli Vanilli comeback album Back and In Attack . Even some of the original studio singers backed the performers in their attempt to bring back some of the fame that had been shed so quickly . However , Rob Pilatus encountered a number of personal problems during the production of the new album . He turned to drugs and crime , committing a series of assaults and robberies , and was ultimately sentenced to three months in jail and six months in a drug rehabilitation facility in California . Farian bailed Pilatus out of jail and paid for the rehab and plane tickets for him to fly back to Germany . On the eve of the new album 's promotional tour on 2 April 1998 , Pilatus was found dead of a suspected alcohol and prescription drug overdose in a Frankfurt , Germany hotel room . Pilatus ' death was ruled accidental. According to one source , `` In 1998 , Rob Pilatus died of a drug overdose , which many suspect was a suicide . '' The tour was cancelled and Back and In Attack remains unreleased . The recordings are assumed to have been destroyed . Fab Morvan 's solo career ( edit ) Morvan spent the following years as a session musician and public speaker while working on his musical abilities . In 1998 , he was a DJ at famed L.A. radio station KIIS - FM . During this period he also performed at the station 's sold - out 1999 Wango Tango festival concert before 50,000 people at Dodger Stadium . Morvan then spent 2001 on tour before performing in 2002 as the inaugural performer at the brand - new Velvet Lounge at the Hard Rock Hotel in Orlando , Florida . In 2003 , Morvan released his first solo album , Love Revolution . He marketed the album through his website and CD Baby . In April 2011 , Morvan released the single `` Anytime '' on iTunes . Later developments ( edit ) In 2000 , Fab Morvan was featured in a BBC documentary titled It Takes Two : The Story of the Pop Duo about musical duos . The duo were also featured ( and interviewed ) for the premiere episode of VH1 's Behind the Music . On 14 February 2007 , it was announced that Universal Pictures was developing a film based on the story of Milli Vanilli 's rise and fall in the music industry . Jeff Nathanson , screenwriter for Catch Me If You Can , producers Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall , and producer executive Adam Yoelin , were supposed to write and direct the film while Fab Morvan served as a consultant . However , in February 2011 , it was announced the Milli Vanilli movie would be rewritten and directed by Florian Gallenberger . In January 2014 , the actual Milli Vanilli singers -- Jodie and Linda Rocco , John Davis and Brad Howell -- filmed an in - depth interview with the producers of Oprah : Where Are They Now for OWN TV . The show aired in the US on Friday , 21 February 2014 . In 2015 TMZ reported that Fab Morvan was working on an album with John Davis , one of the original Milli Vanilli singers , called Face Meets Voice . Discography ( edit ) Main article : Milli Vanilli discography References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Milli Vanilli voice steps into the limelight '' . 17 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 32nd Annual GRAMMY Awards -- Best New Artist '' . GRAMMY.com . Retrieved 9 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Shriver , Jerry ( 28 January 2010 ) . `` Milli Vanilli frontman says duo were musical ' scapegoats ' '' . USA Today . Retrieved 12 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Philips , Chuck ( 20 November 1990 ) . `` Milli Vanilli 's Grammy Rescinded by Academy : Music : Organization revokes an award for the first time after revelation that the duo never sang on album . '' . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ Philips , Chuck ( 16 November 1990 ) . `` It 's True : Milli Vanilli Did n't Sing : Pop music : The duo could be stripped of its Grammy after admitting it lip - synced the best - selling ' Girl You Know It 's True . ' '' . LA Times . ^ Jump up to : Chris , Willman . `` The Sad Truth '' . ew.com . p. 2 . Retrieved 25 July 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Fantastic Boney M '' . Musiclange.dk . Retrieved 15 October 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Marks , Craig ; Tannenbaum , Rob ( 2011 ) . I Want My MTV : The Uncensored Story of the Music Video Revolution . New York , NY : Dutton . pp. 362 -- 363 . ISBN 9780525952305 . Jump up ^ Cocks , Jay ( 5 March 1990 ) . `` Two Scoops Of Vanilli '' . Time Magazine . Jump up ^ Goodman , Fred ; Trakin , Roy ( 30 November 1990 ) . `` Artificial Vanilli '' . ew.com . Retrieved 25 July 2008 . Jump up ^ Jeff Meyer ( 17 November 1990 ) . `` Milli Vanilli Meltdown Angers Former Fans -- latimes '' . Articles.latimes.com . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . ^ Jump up to : AP ( 13 August 1991 ) . `` Judge Rejects Milli Vanilli Refund Plan - NYTimes.com '' . New York Times . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 11 February 2010 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Reuters ( 31 August 1991 ) . `` Small Victory for Milli Vanilli Fans - NYTimes.com '' . New York Times . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Company , Johnson Publishing ( 30 September 1991 ) . `` Judge Sets Deadline For Milli Vanilli Records '' . Jet . Johnson Publishing Company : 32 . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.reviewjournal.com/columns-blogs/norm-clarke/milli-vanilli-voice-steps-limelight Las Vegas Review Journal Milli Vanilli voice steps into the limelight `` Milli Vanilli backup singer story airs on OWN 's Oprah : Where Are They Now ? series '' . http://www.oprah.com/FindOWN Oprah Winfrey Network Why the Real Voices Behind Milli Vanilli Kept Quiet Where Are They Now Oprah Winfrey . http://www.crapfromthepast.com/millivanilli/firstlp.htm Crap From The Past Milli Vanilli The First Album Girl You Know It 's True . http://www.crapfromthepast.com/millivanilli/secondlp.htm Milli Vanilli The Second Album The Real Milli Vanilli . http://www.therealmillivanilli.com The Real Milli Vanilli Jump up ^ Company , Johnson Publishing ( 19 February 1996 ) . `` Ex-Member Of Milli Vanilli Arrested For Terrorist Threat '' . Jet . Johnson Publishing Company : 16 . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Pierre Perrone ( 6 April 1998 ) . `` Obituary : Rob Pilatus '' . The Independent . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Vena , Jocelyn ; Elias , Matt ( 9 October 2009 ) . `` TLC Ready To ' Change People 's Lives ' With New Music '' . mtv.com . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Milli Vanilli 's Pilatus Dead At 33 '' . rollingstone.com. 7 April 1998 . Archived from the original on 6 February 2008 . Retrieved 25 July 2008 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Hesse , Josiah M. ( 18 June 2012 ) . `` Review : Fab Morvan of Milli Vanilli at PrideFest 2012 , Civic Center Park amphitheatre , 6 / 16 / 12 '' . Jump up ^ `` Anytime on iTunes '' . Jump up ^ Nicole Frehsee ( 19 June 2008 ) . `` Girl , You Know It 's True : Milli Vanilli Biopic Will Reveal the Truth ( ! ) : Rolling Stone : Rock and Roll Daily '' . Web.archive.org . Archived from the original on 19 June 2008 . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ Catsoulis , Jeannette ( 15 September 2016 ) . `` Movie Reviews -- The New York Times '' . Movies.nytimes.com . Retrieved 22 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` No Filter '' . Archived from the original on 2012 - 09 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` IFITSMOVIES -- Serving you the best . '' . Archived from the original on 15 February 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Milli Vanilli man attempts comeback -- with the man who actually sang the songs '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2 May 2015 . External links ( edit ) Book : Milli Vanilli Germany portal MTV Artist Arena : Milli Vanilli Allmusic entry for Milli Vanilli Individual artists involved Fabrice Morvan 's official website John Davis ' official website The Real Milli Vanilli 's official website Frank Farian 's Website Breaking stories about Milli Vanilli 's Rob Pilatus and Fab Morvan by Chuck Philips archived at the LA Times Grammy Award for Best New Artist Bobby Darin ( 1960 ) Bob Newhart ( 1961 ) Peter Nero ( 1962 ) Robert Goulet ( 1963 ) The Swingle Singers ( 1964 ) The Beatles ( 1965 ) Tom Jones ( 1966 ) No award given ( 1967 ) Bobbie Gentry ( 1968 ) José Feliciano ( 1969 ) Crosby , Stills & Nash ( 1970 ) The Carpenters ( 1971 ) Carly Simon ( 1972 ) America ( 1973 ) Bette Midler ( 1974 ) Marvin Hamlisch ( 1975 ) Natalie Cole ( 1976 ) Starland Vocal Band ( 1977 ) Debby Boone ( 1978 ) A Taste of Honey ( 1979 ) Rickie Lee Jones ( 1980 ) Christopher Cross ( 1981 ) Sheena Easton ( 1982 ) Men at Work ( 1983 ) Culture Club ( 1984 ) Cyndi Lauper ( 1985 ) Sade ( 1986 ) Bruce Hornsby and the Range ( 1987 ) Jody Watley ( 1988 ) Tracy Chapman ( 1989 ) Milli Vanilli ( 1990 ; withdrawn ) Mariah Carey ( 1991 ) Marc Cohn ( 1992 ) Arrested Development ( 1993 ) Toni Braxton ( 1994 ) Sheryl Crow ( 1995 ) Hootie & the Blowfish ( 1996 ) LeAnn Rimes ( 1997 ) Paula Cole ( 1998 ) Lauryn Hill ( 1999 ) Christina Aguilera ( 2000 ) Shelby Lynne ( 2001 ) Alicia Keys ( 2002 ) Norah Jones ( 2003 ) Evanescence ( 2004 ) Maroon 5 ( 2005 ) John Legend ( 2006 ) Carrie Underwood ( 2007 ) Amy Winehouse ( 2008 ) Adele ( 2009 ) Zac Brown Band ( 2010 ) Esperanza Spalding ( 2011 ) Bon Iver ( 2012 ) Fun ( 2013 ) Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ( 2014 ) Sam Smith ( 2015 ) Meghan Trainor ( 2016 ) Chance the Rapper ( 2017 ) Milli Vanilli / The Real Milli Vanilli Fab Morvan Rob Pilatus Brad Howell John Davis Jodie Rocco Linda Rocco Charles Shaw Gina Mohammed Ray Horton Studio albums All or Nothing Girl You Know It 's True The Moment of Truth Compilations The U.S. - Remix Album : All or Nothing The Remix Album Best of the Best 2 × 2 Singles `` Girl You Know It 's True '' `` Baby Do n't Forget My Number '' `` Blame It on the Rain '' `` Girl I 'm Gonna Miss You '' `` All or Nothing '' `` Keep On Running '' `` Tell Me Where It Hurts '' `` Too Late ( True Love ) '' Related Discography Frank Farian Rob & Fab Book VIAF : 145560235 LCCN : n92038234 ISNI : 0000 0001 0669 7062 GND : 10292065 - 5 BNF : cb139050083 ( data ) MusicBrainz : d3d83a98 - 4a2e - 433c - 903c - 5b4c79ccb42e Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Milli_Vanilli&oldid=800075295 '' Categories : Milli Vanilli 1988 establishments in Germany 1998 disestablishments in Germany 20th - century hoaxes Arista Records artists Entertainment scandals German dance music groups German pop music groups German musical duos Musical groups disestablished in 1998 Musical groups established in 1988 Musical hoaxes Music controversies Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Unfit url CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Articles needing additional references from September 2016 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from April 2017 Articles with hCards Articles to be expanded from September 2016 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from December 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2017 , at 11 : 11 . 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who won the battle of the bull run

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=First_Battle_of_Bull_Run&oldid=852859365

First battle of Bull Run - wikipedia First battle of Bull Run This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 31 July 2018 . First Battle of Bull Run First Battle of Manassas Part of the American Civil War First Battle of Bull Run . Chromolithograph by Kurz & Allison , 1889 Date July 21 , 1861 ( 1861 - 07 - 21 ) Location Fairfax County and Prince William County , Virginia 38 ° 48 ′ 53 '' N 77 ° 31 ′ 22 '' W  /  38.8147 ° N 77.5227 ° W  / 38.8147 ; - 77.5227 Coordinates : 38 ° 48 ′ 53 '' N 77 ° 31 ′ 22 '' W  /  38.8147 ° N 77.5227 ° W  / 38.8147 ; - 77.5227 Result Decisive Confederate victory Belligerents United States ( Union ) Confederate States ( Confederacy ) Commanders and leaders Political leaders : Abraham Lincoln Military commanders : Winfield Scott Irvin McDowell Robert Patterson Political leaders : Jefferson Davis Military commanders : P.G.T. Beauregard Thomas `` Stonewall '' Jackson ( WIA ) Joseph E. Johnston Units involved Department of Northeastern Virginia : Army of Northeastern Virginia Department of Pennsylvania : Patterson 's Command ( not engaged ) Army of the Potomac Army of the Shenandoah Strength Army of Northeastern Virginia : 35,732 ( c. 18,000 engaged ) Patterson 's Command : 14 -- 18,000 ( not engaged ) 32,000 -- 34,000 ( c. 18,000 engaged ) Casualties and losses 2,708 ( 481 killed ; 1,011 wounded ; 1,216 missing ) 1,982 ( 387 killed ; 1,582 wounded ; 13 missing ) Manassas Campaign Fairfax Court House ( June 1861 ) Arlington Mills Vienna , Virginia Hoke 's Run Blackburn 's Ford 1st Bull Run Virginia ( 1861 ) Northeastern Virginia ( 1861 ) The First Battle of Bull Run ( the name used by Union forces ) , also known as the First Battle of Manassas ( the name used by Confederate forces ) , was fought on July 21 , 1861 in Prince William County , Virginia , just north of the city of Manassas and about 25 miles west - southwest of Washington , D.C. It was the first major battle of the American Civil War . The Union 's forces were slow in positioning themselves , allowing Confederate reinforcements time to arrive by rail . Each side had about 18,000 poorly trained and poorly led troops in their first battle . It was a Confederate victory , followed by a disorganized retreat of the Union forces . Just months after the start of the war at Fort Sumter , the Northern public clamored for a march against the Confederate capital of Richmond , Virginia , which was expected to bring an early end to the rebellion . Yielding to political pressure , Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell led his unseasoned Union Army across Bull Run against the equally inexperienced Confederate Army of Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard camped near Manassas Junction . McDowell 's ambitious plan for a surprise flank attack on the Confederate left was poorly executed by his officers and men ; nevertheless , the Confederates , who had been planning to attack the Union left flank , found themselves at an initial disadvantage . Confederate reinforcements under Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad , and the course of the battle quickly changed . A brigade of Virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the Virginia Military Institute , Thomas J. Jackson , stood its ground , which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname , `` Stonewall '' . The Confederates launched a strong counterattack , and as the Union troops began withdrawing under fire , many panicked and the retreat turned into a rout . McDowell 's men frantically ran without order in the direction of Washington , D.C. Both armies were sobered by the fierce fighting and many casualties , and realized that the war was going to be much longer and bloodier than either had anticipated . The Battle of First Bull Run highlighted many of the problems and deficiencies that were typical of the first year of the war . Units were committed piecemeal , attacks were frontal , infantry failed to protect exposed artillery , tactical intelligence was nil , and neither commander was able to employ his whole force effectively . McDowell , with 35,000 men , was only able to commit about 18,000 , and the combined Confederate forces , with about 32,000 men , committed only 18,000 . Contents 1 Background 1.1 Military and political situation 1.2 Irvin McDowell 1.3 Intelligence 1.4 McDowell 's plan and initial movements in the Manassas Campaign 1.5 Prelude to battle 2 Opposing forces 2.1 Union 2.2 Confederate 3 Battle 3.1 Morning phase 3.1. 1 Matthews Hill 3.2 Noon phase 3.2. 1 Henry House Hill 3.3 Union retreat 4 Aftermath 4.1 Brief observations 4.2 Detailed casualties 4.2. 1 Union 4.2. 2 Confederate 4.3 Effect on the Union and subsequent events 4.4 Effect on the Confederacy 4.5 Confederate victory : turning point of the American Civil War 4.6 `` Bull Run '' vs. `` Manassas '' 4.7 Confusion between the battle flags 4.8 Conclusions 5 Additional battle maps 5.1 Gallery : the First Bull Run hour by hour 6 In popular culture 7 Sesquicentennial 8 Battlefield preservation 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Memoirs and primary sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Background ( edit ) Military and political situation ( edit ) Main article : Manassas Campaign Further information : Origins of the American Civil War ; Battle of Fort Sumter ; Western Virginia Campaign ; Border states ( American Civil War ) ; President Lincoln 's 75,000 volunteers ; Eastern Theater of the American Civil War ; and American Civil War Opposing political leaders Pres . Abraham Lincoln , USA Pres . Jefferson Davis , CSA Northern Virginia Theater in July 1861 Confederate Union Further map details , see : Additional Map 1 and Additional Map 2 . On April 15 , 1861 , the day after South Carolina military forces attacked and captured Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor , President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring an insurrection against the laws of the United States . Earlier , South Carolina and seven other Southern states had declared their secession from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America . To suppress the rebellion and restore Federal law in the Southern states , Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers with ninety - day enlistments to augment the existing U.S. Army of about 15,000 . He later accepted an additional 40,000 volunteers with three - year enlistments and increased the strength of the U.S. Army to almost 20,000 . Lincoln 's actions caused four more Southern states , including Virginia , to secede and join the Confederacy , and by 1 June the Confederate capital had been moved from Montgomery , Alabama , to Richmond , Virginia . In Washington , D.C. , as thousands of volunteers rushed to defend the capital , General in Chief Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott laid out his strategy to subdue the rebellious states . He proposed that an army of 80,000 men be organized and sail down the Mississippi River and capture New Orleans . While the Army `` strangled '' the Confederacy in the west , the U.S. Navy would blockade Southern ports along the eastern and Gulf coasts . The press ridiculed what they dubbed as Scott 's `` Anaconda Plan '' . Instead , many believed the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond , only one hundred miles south of Washington , would quickly end the war . By July 1861 thousands of volunteers were camped in and around Washington . Since General Scott was seventy - five years old and physically unable to lead this force , the administration searched for a more suitable field commander . Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott , General in Chief , USA Cartoon map illustrating Gen. Winfield Scott 's plan to crush the Confederacy , economically . It is sometimes called the `` Anaconda plan '' . Irvin McDowell ( edit ) Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase championed fellow Ohioan , 42 - year - old Maj . Irvin McDowell . Although McDowell was a West Point graduate , his command experience was limited . In fact , he had spent most of his career engaged in various staff duties in the Adjutant General 's Office . While stationed in Washington he had become acquainted with Chase , a former Ohio governor and senator . Now , through Chase 's influence , McDowell was promoted three grades to brigadier general in the Regular Army and on 27 May was assigned command ( by President Abraham Lincoln ) of the Department of Northeastern Virginia , which included the military forces in and around Washington ( Army of Northeastern Virginia ) . McDowell immediately began organizing what became known as the Army of Northeastern Virginia , 35,000 men arranged in five divisions . Under public and political pressure to begin offensive operations , McDowell was given very little time to train the newly inducted troops . Units were instructed in the maneuvering of regiments , but they received little or no training at the brigade or division level . He was reassured by President Lincoln , `` You are green , it is true , but they are green also ; you are all green alike . '' Against his better judgment , McDowell commenced campaigning . Intelligence ( edit ) During the previous year , U.S. Army captain Thomas Jordan set up a pro-Southern spy network in Washington City , including Rose O'Neal Greenhow , a prominent socialite with a wide range of contacts . He provided her with a code for messages . After he left to join the Confederate Army , he gave her control of his network but continued to receive reports from her . On July 9 and 16 , 1861 , Greenhow passed secret messages to Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard containing critical information regarding military movements for what would be the First Battle of Bull Run , including the plans of Union general McDowell . McDowell 's plan and initial movements in the Manassas Campaign ( edit ) On July 16 , 1861 , McDowell departed Washington with the largest field army yet gathered on the North American continent , about 35,000 men ( 28,452 effectives ) . McDowell 's plan was to move westward in three columns and make a diversionary attack on the Confederate line at Bull Run with two columns , while the third column moved around the Confederates ' right flank to the south , cutting the railroad to Richmond and threatening the rear of the Confederate army . He assumed that the Confederates would be forced to abandon Manassas Junction and fall back to the Rappahannock River , the next defensible line in Virginia , which would relieve some of the pressure on the U.S. capital . McDowell had hoped to have his army at Centreville by 17 July , but the troops , unaccustomed to marching , moved in starts and stops . Along the route soldiers often broke ranks to wander off to pick apples or blackberries or to get water , regardless of the orders of their officers to remain in ranks . The Confederate Army of the Potomac ( 21,883 effectives ) under Beauregard was encamped near Manassas Junction , approximately 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the United States capital . McDowell planned to attack this numerically inferior enemy army . Union Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson 's 18,000 men engaged Johnston 's force ( the Army of the Shenandoah at 8,884 effectives , augmented by Maj. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes 's brigade of 1,465 ) in the Shenandoah Valley , preventing them from reinforcing Beauregard . Movements July 16 -- 21 , 1861 Situation July 18 Battlefield of Manassas After two days of marching slowly in the sweltering heat , the Union army was allowed to rest in Centreville . McDowell reduced the size of his army to approximately 31,000 by dispatching Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon with 5,000 troops to protect the army 's rear . In the meantime , McDowell searched for a way to outflank Beauregard , who had drawn up his lines along Bull Run . On July 18 , the Union commander sent a division under Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler to pass on the Confederate right ( southeast ) flank. Tyler was drawn into a skirmish at Blackburn 's Ford over Bull Run and made no headway . Also on the morning of 18 July Johnston had received a telegram suggesting he go to Beauregard 's assistance if possible . Johnston marched out of Winchester about noon , while Stuart 's cavalry screened the movement from Patterson . Patterson was completely deceived . One hour after Johnston 's departure Patterson telegraphed Washington , `` I have succeeded , in accordance with the wishes of the General - in - Chief , in keeping General Johnston 's force at Winchester . '' For the maneuver to be successful McDowell felt he needed to act quickly . He had already begun to hear rumors that Johnston had slipped out of the valley and was headed for Manassas Junction . If the rumors were true , McDowell might soon be facing 34,000 Confederates , instead of 22,000 . Another reason for quick action was McDowell 's concern that the ninety - day enlistments of many of his regiments were about to expire . `` In a few days I will lose many thousands of the best of this force '' , he wrote Washington on the eve of battle . In fact , the next morning two units of McDowell 's command , their enlistments expiring that day , would turn a deaf ear to McDowell 's appeal to stay a few days longer . Instead , to the sounds of battle , they would march back to Washington to be mustered out of service . Becoming more frustrated , McDowell resolved to attack the Confederate left ( northwest ) flank instead . He planned to attack with Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler 's division at the Stone Bridge on the Warrenton Turnpike and send the divisions of Brig . Gens . David Hunter and Samuel P. Heintzelman over Sudley Springs Ford . From here , these divisions could march into the Confederate rear . The brigade of Col. Israel B. Richardson ( Tyler 's Division ) would harass the enemy at Blackburn 's Ford , preventing them from thwarting the main attack . Patterson would tie down Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley so that reinforcements could not reach the area . Although McDowell had arrived at a theoretically sound plan , it had a number of flaws : it was one that required synchronized execution of troop movements and attacks , skills that had not been developed in the nascent army ; it relied on actions by Patterson that he had already failed to take ; finally , McDowell had delayed long enough that Johnston 's Valley force was able to board trains at Piedmont Station and rush to Manassas Junction to reinforce Beauregard 's men . Prelude to battle ( edit ) On July 19 -- 20 , significant reinforcements bolstered the Confederate lines behind Bull Run . Johnston arrived with all of his army , except for the troops of Brig. Gen. Kirby Smith , who were still in transit . Most of the new arrivals were posted in the vicinity of Blackburn 's Ford , and Beauregard 's plan was to attack from there to the north toward Centreville . Johnston , the senior officer , approved the plan . If both of the armies had been able to execute their plans simultaneously , it would have resulted in a mutual counterclockwise movement as they attacked each other 's left flank . McDowell was getting contradictory information from his intelligence agents , so he called for the balloon Enterprise , which was being demonstrated by Prof. Thaddeus S.C. Lowe in Washington , to perform aerial reconnaissance . Opposing forces ( edit ) Union ( edit ) Further information : Union order of battle Key Union commanders Brig. Gen . Irvin McDowell , Army of Northeastern Virginia , ( Commanding ) , USA Brig. Gen . Daniel Tyler , Army of Northeastern Virginia , ( 1st Div . ) USA Brig. Gen . David Hunter , Army of Northeastern Virginia , ( 2nd Div . ) USA Brig. Gen . Samuel P. Heintzelman , Army of Northeastern Virginia , ( 3rd Div . ) USA Brig. Gen . Theodore Runyon , Army of Northeastern Virginia , ( 4th Div . ) USA Brig. Gen . Dixon S. Miles , Army of Northeastern Virginia , ( 5th Div . ) USA Maj. Gen . Robert Patterson , Patterson 's Command , USA McDowell 's Army of Northeastern Virginia was organized into five infantry divisions of three to five brigades each . Each brigade contained three to five infantry regiments . An artillery battery was generally assigned to each brigade . The total number of Union troops present at the Battle of First Bull Run was about 35,000 , although only about 18,000 were actually engaged . The Union army was organized as follows : 1st Division of Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler the largest in the army , contained four brigades , led by Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck , Col. Erasmus Keyes , Col. William T. Sherman , and Col. Israel B. Richardson ; 2nd Division of Col. David Hunter of two brigades . These were led by Cols . Andrew Porter and Ambrose E. Burnside ; 3rd Division of Col. Samuel P. Heintzelman included 3 brigades , led by Cols . William B. Franklin , Orlando B. Willcox , and Oliver O. Howard ; 4th Division of Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon without brigade organization and not engaged , contained seven regiments of New Jersey and one regiment of New York volunteer infantries ; 5th Division of Col. Dixon S. Miles included 2 brigades , commanded by Cols . Louis Blenker and Thomas A. Davies ; While McDowell organized the Army of Northeastern Virginia , a smaller Union command was organized and stationed northwest of Washington , near Harper 's Ferry . Commanded by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson , 18,000 men of the Department of Pennsylvania protected against a Confederate incursion from the Shenandoah Valley . Abstract from the returns of the Department of Northeastern Virginia , commanded by Brigadier - General McDowell , U.S.A. , for July 16 and 17 , 1861 . ARMY OF NORTHEASTERN VIRGINIA Commands Present For duty Total Aggregate Officers Men General staff 19 21 First ( Tyler 's ) Division 569 12,226 9,494 9,936 Second ( Hunter 's ) Division 121 2,364 2,525 2,648 Third ( Heintzelman 's ) Division 382 8,680 9,385 9,777 Fourth ( Runyon 's ) Division 247 5,201 5,502 5,752 Fifth ( Miles ' ) Division 289 5,884 5,917 6,207 Twenty - first New York Volunteers 37 684 707 745 Twenty - fifth New York Militia 39 519 534 573 Second United States Cavalry , Company E 56 63 73 Total 1,707 35,614 34,127 35,732 Abstract from return of the Department of Pennsylvania , commanded by Major - General Patterson , June 28 , 1861 . PATTERSON 'S COMMAND Commanding officer Troops Present for duty Infantry Cavalry Artillery Officers Men Officers Men Officers Men Bvt . Maj. Gen. Geo . Cadwalader First division 322 6,637 11 307 7 251 Maj. Gen. W.H. Keim Second division 322 6,410 74 Total 644 13,047 14 381 7 251 Aggregate present for duty Infantry 13,691 Cavalry 395 Artillery 258 Total 14,344 Confederate ( edit ) Further information : Confederate order of battle Key Confederate commanders Brig. Gen . P.G.T. Beauregard , CSA Army of the Potomac Brig. Gen . Joseph E. Johnston , CSA Army of the Shenandoah , ( Commanding ) Joseph E. Johnston 's forces was organized as follows : The Army of the Potomac ( Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard ) was organized into six infantry brigades , with each brigade containing three to six infantry regiments . Artillery batteries were assigned to various infantry brigades . The total number of troops in the Confederate Army of the Potomac was approximately 22,000 . Beauregard 's army also contained thirty - nine pieces of field artillery and a regiment of Virginia cavalry . The Army of the Potomac was organized into seven infantry brigades . These were : 1st Brigade , under Brig. Gen. Milledge Luke Bonham ; 2nd Brigade , under Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell ; 3rd Brigade , under Brig. Gen. David R. Jones ; 4th Brigade , under Brig. Gen. James Longstreet ; 5th Brigade , under Col. Philip St. George Cocke ; 6th Brigade , under Col. Jubal Early ; 7th Brigade , under Col. Nathan G. Evans . Reserve Brigade , under Brig. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes The Army of the Shenandoah ( Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston ) was also organized into brigades . It consisted of four brigades of three to five infantry regiments each , which totaled approximately 12,000 men . Each brigade was assigned one artillery battery . In addition to the infantry , there were twenty pieces of artillery and about 300 Virginia cavalrymen under Col. J.E.B. Stuart . Although the combined strength of both Confederate armies was about 34,000 , only about 18,000 were actually engaged at First Bull Run . The Army of the Shenandoah consisted of four infantry brigades : 1st Brigade , commanded by Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson ; 2nd Brigade , commanded by Col. Francis S. Bartow ; 3rd Brigade , commanded by Brig. Gen. Barnard E. Bee ; 4th Brigade , commanded by Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith . Abstract front field return , First Corps ( Army of the Potomac ) , July 21 , 1861 . ( Dated September 25 , 1861 . ) ARMY OF THE POTOMAC Commands . General and Staff Officers Infantry . Cavalry . Artillery . Officers Men . Officers Men . Officers Men . First Brigade 211 4,070 Second Brigade 133 2,307 Third Brigade 128 1,989 Fourth Brigade 160 2,364 Fifth Brigade 208 8,065 Sixth Brigade 261 2,356 Seventh Louisiana 44 773 Eighth Louisiana 43 803 Hampton Legion 27 627 Thirteenth Virginia 34 642 Harrison 's Battalion ( three companies ) 13 196 Troops ( ten ) of cavalry 38 545 Washington ( Louisiana ) Artillery 19 201 Kemper 's battery 76 Latham 's battery 86 Loudoun Battery 55 Shield 's battery 82 Camp Pickens ( heavy artillery ) 18 275 Total 22 1,215 18,354 85 1,383 51 775 Aggregates : Infantry 19,569 Cavalry 1,468 Artillery 826 21,863 Abstract from monthly report of Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston 's division , or Army of the Shenandoah ( C.S.A. ) , for June 30 , 1861 . ARMY OF THE SHENANDOAH Commanding officer . Troops . PRESENT FOR DUTY . Infantry . Cavalry . Artillery . Officers . Men . Officers . Men . Officers . Men . Colonel Jackson First brigade 128 2,043 81 Col. F.S. Bartow Second brigade 155 2,391 59 Brigadier - General Bee Third brigade 161 2,629 78 Col. A. Elzey Fourth brigade 156 2,106 45 Col. J.E.B. Stuart First Virginia Cavalry 21 313 Col. A.C. Cummings Virginia Volunteers 14 227 Total 614 9,396 21 313 15 263 Aggregate present for duty . General staff 32 Infantry 10,010 Cavalry 334 Artillery 278 10,654 Battle ( edit ) Morning phase ( edit ) Matthews Hill ( edit ) Situation morning , July 21 Situation at 05 : 30 -- 06 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) On the morning of July 21 , 1861 , McDowell sent the divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman ( about 12,000 men ) from Centreville at 2 : 30 a.m. , marching southwest on the Warrenton Turnpike and then turning northwest toward Sudley Springs . Tyler 's division ( about 8,000 ) marched directly toward the Stone Bridge . The inexperienced units immediately developed logistical problems . Tyler 's division blocked the advance of the main flanking column on the turnpike . The later units found the approach roads to Sudley Springs were inadequate , little more than a cart path in some places , and did not begin fording Bull Run until 9 : 30 a.m. Tyler 's men reached the Stone Bridge around 6 a.m. At 5 : 15 a.m. , Richardson 's brigade fired a few artillery rounds across Mitchell 's Ford on the Confederate right , some of which hit Beauregard 's headquarters in the Wilmer McLean house as he was eating breakfast , alerting him to the fact that his offensive battle plan had been preempted . Nevertheless , he ordered demonstration attacks north toward the Union left at Centreville . Bungled orders and poor communications prevented their execution . Although he intended for Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell to lead the attack , Ewell , at Union Mills Ford , was simply ordered to `` hold ... in readiness to advance at a moment 's notice '' . Brig. Gen. D.R. Jones was supposed to attack in support of Ewell , but found himself moving forward alone . Holmes was also supposed to support , but received no orders at all . U.S. cavalry at Sudley Spring Ford An 1862 illustration of a Confederate officer forcing slaves to fire a cannon at U.S. forces at gunpoint . According to John Parker , a former slave , he was forced by his Confederate captors to fire a cannon at U.S. soldiers at the Battle of Bull Run . All that stood in the path of the 20,000 Union soldiers converging on the Confederate left flank were Col. Nathan `` Shanks '' Evans and his reduced brigade of 1,100 men . Evans had moved some of his men to intercept the direct threat from Tyler at the bridge , but he began to suspect that the weak attacks from the Union brigade of Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck were merely feints . He was informed of the main Union flanking movement through Sudley Springs by Captain Edward Porter Alexander , Beauregard 's signal officer , observing from 8 miles ( 13 km ) southwest on Signal Hill . In the first use of wig - wag semaphore signaling in combat , Alexander sent the message `` Look out for your left , your position is turned . '' Evans hastily led 900 of his men from their position fronting the Stone Bridge to a new location on the slopes of Matthews Hill , a low rise to the northwest of his previous position . The Confederate delaying action on Matthews Hill included a spoiling attack launched by Major Roberdeau Wheat 's 1st Louisiana Special Battalion , `` Wheat 's Tigers '' . After Wheat 's command was thrown back , and Wheat seriously wounded , Evans received reinforcement from two other brigades under Brig. Gen. Barnard Bee and Col. Francis S. Bartow , bringing the force on the flank to 2,800 men . They successfully slowed Hunter 's lead brigade ( Brig. Gen. Ambrose Burnside ) in its attempts to ford Bull Run and advance across Young 's Branch , at the northern end of Henry House Hill . One of Tyler 's brigade commanders , Col. William Tecumseh Sherman , crossed at an unguarded ford and struck the right flank of the Confederate defenders . This surprise attack , coupled with pressure from Burnside and Maj . George Sykes , collapsed the Confederate line shortly after 11 : 30 a.m. , sending them in a disorderly retreat to Henry House Hill . ( Further map details , see : Additional Map 4 , Additional Map 5 , Additional Map 6 and Additional Map 7 . ) Noon phase ( edit ) Henry House Hill ( edit ) As they retreated from their Matthews Hill position , the remainder of Evans 's , Bee 's , and Bartow 's commands received some cover from Capt . John D. Imboden and his battery of four 6 - pounder guns , who held off the Union advance while the Confederates attempted to regroup on Henry House Hill . They were met by generals Johnston and Beauregard , who had just arrived from Johnston 's headquarters at the M. Lewis Farm , `` Portici '' . Fortunately for the Confederates , McDowell did not press his advantage and attempt to seize the strategic ground immediately , choosing to bombard the hill with the batteries of Capts . James B. Ricketts ( Battery I , 1st U.S. Artillery ) and Charles Griffin ( Battery D , 5th U.S. ) from Dogan 's Ridge . Attacks on Henry House Hill , noon -- 2 p.m Union retreat , after 4 p.m. Brig. Gen Thomas J. Jackson 's Virginia Brigade came up in support of the disorganized Confederates around noon , accompanied by Col. Wade Hampton and his Hampton 's Legion , and Col. J.E.B. Stuart 's cavalry . The Hampton Legion , some 600 men strong , managed to buy Jackson time to construct a defensive line on Henry House Hill by firing repeated volleys at Sherman 's advancing brigade . Hampton had purchased about 400 British Enfield rifles to equip the men with , however it is not clear if his troops had them at Bull Run or if the weapons arrived after the battle . If so , they would have been the only foreign - made weapons on the field . The 79th New York was thoroughly decimated by Hampton 's musket fire and began to disintegrate . Wade Hampton gestured towards their colonel , James Cameron , and remarked `` Look at that brave officer trying to lead his men and they wo n't follow him . '' Shortly afterwards , Cameron , the brother of US Senator Simon Cameron , was fatally wounded . It has been claimed that Hampton deliberately targeted officers of the 79th New York in revenge for the death of his nephew earlier in the day , although he had in fact been killed by soldiers of the 69th New York . Jackson posted his five regiments on the reverse slope of the hill , where they were shielded from direct fire , and was able to assemble 13 guns for the defensive line , which he posted on the crest of the hill ; as the guns fired , their recoil moved them down the reverse slope , where they could be safely reloaded . Meanwhile , McDowell ordered the batteries of Ricketts and Griffin to move from Dogan 's Ridge to the hill for close infantry support . Their 11 guns engaged in a fierce artillery duel across 300 yards ( 270 m ) against Jackson 's 13 . Unlike many engagements in the Civil War , here the Confederate artillery had an advantage . The Union pieces were now within range of the Confederate smoothbores and the predominantly rifled pieces on the Union side were not effective weapons at such close ranges , with many shots fired over the head of their targets . Ruins of Judith Henry 's house , `` Spring Hill '' , after the battle Postwar house on site of Judith Henry house in Manassas Judith Henry grave One of the casualties of the artillery fire was Judith Carter Henry , an 85 - year - old widow and invalid , who was unable to leave her bedroom in the Henry House . As Ricketts began receiving rifle fire , he concluded that it was coming from the Henry House and turned his guns on the building . A shell that crashed through the bedroom wall tore off one of the widow 's feet and inflicted multiple injuries , from which she died later that day . `` The Enemy are driving us '' , Bee exclaimed to Jackson . Jackson , a former U.S. Army officer and professor at the Virginia Military Institute , is said to have replied , `` Then , Sir , we will give them the bayonet . '' Bee exhorted his own troops to re-form by shouting , `` There is Jackson standing like a stone wall . Let us determine to die here , and we will conquer . Rally behind the Virginians . '' This exclamation was the source for Jackson 's ( and his brigade 's ) nickname , `` Stonewall '' . Bee was shot through the stomach shortly after speaking and died the next day , thus it is unclear exactly what he meant , moreover none of his subordinates wrote reports of the battle . Col. States Rights Gist , serving as Bee 's aide - de-camp , took command of the brigade . Major Burnett Rhett , chief of staff to General Johnston , claimed that Bee was angry at Jackson 's failure to come immediately to the relief of Bee 's and Bartow 's brigades while they were under heavy pressure . Those who subscribe to this opinion believe that Bee 's statement was meant to be pejorative : `` Look at Jackson standing there like a stone wall ! '' Artillery commander Griffin decided to move two of his guns to the southern end of his line , hoping to provide enfilade fire against the Confederates . At approximately 3 p.m. , these guns were overrun by the 33rd Virginia , whose men were outfitted in blue uniforms , causing Griffin 's commander , Maj . William F. Barry , to mistake them for Union troops and to order Griffin not to fire on them . Close range volleys from the 33rd Virginia and Stuart 's cavalry attack against the flank of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment ( Ellsworth 's Fire Zouaves ) , which was supporting the battery , killed many of the gunners and scattered the infantry . Capitalizing on this success , Jackson ordered two regiments to charge Ricketts 's guns and they were captured as well . As additional Federal infantry engaged , the guns changed hands several times . Capture of Ricketts ' Battery , painting by Sidney E. King , National Park Service The capture of the Union guns turned the tide of battle . Although McDowell had brought 15 regiments into the fight on the hill , outnumbering the Confederates two to one , no more than two were ever engaged simultaneously . Jackson continued to press his attacks , telling soldiers of the 4th Virginia Infantry , `` Reserve your fire until they come within 50 yards ! Then fire and give them the bayonet ! And when you charge , yell like furies ! '' For the first time , Union troops heard the disturbing sound of the Rebel yell . At about 4 p.m. , the last Union troops were pushed off Henry House Hill by a charge of two regiments from Col. Philip St. George Cocke 's brigade . To the west , Chinn Ridge had been occupied by Col. Oliver Otis Howard 's brigade from Heintzelman 's division . Also at 4 p.m. , two Confederate brigades - Col. Jubal Early 's , which had moved from the Confederate right , and Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith 's ( commanded by Col. Arnold Elzey after Smith was wounded ) , which had just arrived from the Shenandoah Valley -- crushed Howard 's brigade . Beauregard ordered his entire line forward . At 5 p.m. everywhere McDowell 's army was disintegrating . Thousands , in large and small groups or as individuals , began to leave the battlefield and head for Centreville . McDowell rode around the field trying to rally regiments and groups of soldiers , but most had had enough . Unable to stop the mass exodus , McDowell gave orders for Porter 's regular infantry battalion , near the intersection of the turnpike and Manassas - Sudley Road , to act as a rear guard as his army withdrew . The unit briefly held the crossroads , then retreated eastward with the rest of the army . McDowell 's force crumbled and began to retreat . ( Further map details , see : Additional Map 8 , Additional Map 9 , Additional Map 10 , Additional Map 11 and Additional Map 12 . ) Union retreat ( edit ) The retreat was relatively orderly up to the Bull Run crossings , but it was poorly managed by the Union officers . A Union wagon was overturned by artillery fire on a bridge spanning Cub Run Creek and incited panic in McDowell 's force . As the soldiers streamed uncontrollably toward Centreville , discarding their arms and equipment , McDowell ordered Col. Dixon S. Miles 's division to act as a rear guard , but it was impossible to rally the army short of Washington . In the disorder that followed , hundreds of Union troops were taken prisoner . Wagons and artillery were abandoned , including the 30 - pounder Parrott rifle , which had opened the battle with such fanfare . Expecting an easy Union victory , the wealthy elite of nearby Washington , including congressmen and their families , had come to picnic and watch the battle . When the Union army was driven back in a running disorder , the roads back to Washington were blocked by panicked civilians attempting to flee in their carriages . Since their combined army had been left highly disorganized as well , Beauregard and Johnston did not fully press their advantage , despite urging from Confederate President Jefferson Davis , who had arrived on the battlefield to see the Union soldiers retreating . An attempt by Johnston to intercept the Union troops from his right flank , using the brigades of Brig . Gens . Milledge L. Bonham and James Longstreet , was a failure . The two commanders squabbled with each other and when Bonham 's men received some artillery fire from the Union rear guard , and found that Richardson 's brigade blocked the road to Centreville , he called off the pursuit . In Washington President Lincoln and members of the cabinet waited for news of a Union victory . Instead , a telegram arrived stating `` General McDowell 's army in full retreat through Centreville . The day is lost . Save Washington and the remnants of this army . '' The tidings were happier in the Confederate capital . From the battlefield President Davis telegraphed Richmond , `` We have won a glorious but dear - bought victory . Night closed on the enemy in full flight and closely pursued . '' Aftermath ( edit ) Brief observations ( edit ) First Bull Run was a clash between relatively large , ill - trained bodies of recruits , led by inexperienced officers . Neither army commander was able to deploy his forces effectively ; although nearly 60,000 men were present at the battle , only 18,000 had actually been engaged . Although McDowell had been active on the battlefield , he had expended most of his energy maneuvering nearby regiments and brigades , instead of controlling and coordinating the movements of his army as a whole . Other factors contributed to McDowell 's defeat : Patterson 's failure to hold Johnston in the valley ; McDowell 's two - day delay at Centreville ; allowing Tyler 's division to lead the march on 21 July thus delaying the flanking divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman ; and the 2 1 / 2 - hour delay after the Union victory on Matthews ' Hill , which allowed the Confederates to bring up reinforcements and establish a defensive position on Henry Hill . On Henry Hill Beauregard had also limited his control to the regimental level , generally allowing the battle to continue on its own and only reacting to Union moves . Johnston 's decision to transport his infantry to the battlefield by rail played a major role in the Confederate victory . Although the trains were slow and a lack of sufficient cars did not allow the transport of large numbers of troops at one time , almost all of his army arrived in time to participate in the battle . After reaching Manassas Junction , Johnston had relinquished command of the battlefield to Beauregard , but his forwarding of reinforcements to the scene of fighting was decisive . Jackson and Bee 's brigades had done the largest share of fighting in the battle ; Jackson 's brigade had fought almost alone for four hours and sustained over 50 % casualties . Detailed casualties ( edit ) Bull Run was the largest and bloodiest battle in United States history up to that point . Union casualties were 460 killed , 1,124 wounded , and 1,312 missing or captured ; Confederate casualties were 387 killed , 1,582 wounded , and 13 missing . Among the Union dead was Col. James Cameron , brother of President Lincoln 's first Secretary of War , Simon Cameron . Among the Confederate casualties was Col. Francis S. Bartow , who was the first Confederate brigade commander to be killed in the Civil War . General Bee was mortally wounded and died the following day . Compared to later battles , casualties at First Bull Run had not been especially heavy . Both Union and Confederate killed , wounded , and missing were a little over one thousand seven hundred each . Two Confederate brigade commanders , Jackson and Edmund Kirby - Smith , were wounded in the battle . No Union officers above the regimental level were killed ; two division commanders ( Samuel Heintzelman and David Hunter ) , and one brigade commander ( Orlando Willcox ) were wounded . Union ( edit ) Union casualties at the battle of Bull Run , July 21 , 1861 . ARMY OF NORTHEASTERN VIRGINIA Troops Killed Wounded Missing Remarks Officers Enlisted Men Officers Enlisted Men Officers Enlisted Men General staff First Division , General TYLER : First Brigade , Colonel Keyes 19 46 5 149 Eighteen others slightly wounded . Second Brigade , General Schenck 16 15 15 Third Brigade , Colonel Sherman 117 15 193 13 240 Fourth Brigade , Colonel Richardson Not engaged . Guarding Blackburn 's Ford . Total , First Division 6 152 19 254 19 404 Second Division , Colonel HUNTER : First Brigade , Colonel Porter 83 9 139 9 236 Four surgeons missing . Second Brigade , Colonel Burnside 5 35 85 59 Five surgeons missing . Total Second Division 6 118 12 224 11 295 Third Division , Colonel HEINTZELMAN : Division headquarters . First Brigade , Colonel Franklin 68 13 183 22 Second Brigade , Colonel Willcox 70 11 161 186 Third Brigade , Colonel Howard 48 7 108 6 174 Total , Third Division 6 186 32 452 10 382 Fourth Division , General RUNYON In reserve on the Potomac . Fifth Division , Colonel MILES : First Brigade Colonel Blenker 6 16 94 Second Brigade , Colonel Davies Total , Fifth Division 6 17 95 Grand total 19 462 64 947 40 1,176 Union artillery lost in the battle of Bull Run , July 21 , 1861 . Batteries Commanders Guns lost Remarks Rifled Smooth Total First U.S. Artillery , Company G ( two 20 - pounder Parrotts , one 30 - pounder Parrott ) . Lieutenant Edwards 20 - pounders saved First U.S. Artillery , Company I ( six 10 - pounder Parrots ) Captain Ricketts 6 6 None saved Second U.S. Artillery , Company D Captain Arnold None saved Second U.S. Artillery , Company E ( two 13 - pounder James , two 6 - pounders ( old ) , two 12 - pounder howitzers ) . Captain Carlisle Two 6 - pounders saved Fifth S. Artillery ( Company D ) , ( two 10 - pounder Parrotts , two 6 - pounders ( old ) , two 12 - pounder howitzers ) . Captain Griffin 5 One 10 - pounder saved Rhode Island Battery ( six 13 - pounder James ) 5 5 One saved Total lost 17 8 25 Confederate ( edit ) Confederate casualties at the battle of Bull Run , July 21 , 1861 . Command Killed Wounded Missing Aggregate Officers Enlisted Men Officers Enlisted Men Officers Enlisted Men ARMY OF THE POTOMAC INFANTRY First Louisiana ( battalion ) 8 5 33 48 Seventh Louisiana 23 26 Thirteenth Mississippi 6 6 Seventeenth Mississippi 9 11 Eighteenth Mississippi 6 28 38 Fifth North Carolina Second South Carolina 5 6 37 48 Fourth South Carolina 10 9 70 6 96 Fifth South Carolina 23 26 Eighth South Carolina 5 20 28 Hampton Legion 19 100 121 First Virginia 6 6 Seventh Virginia 9 37 47 Eighth Virginia 6 23 30 Seventeenth Virginia Eighteenth Virginia 6 12 19 Nineteenth Virginia 6 Twenty - eighth Virginia 9 9 Forty - ninth Virginia 9 29 40 ARTILLERY Alexandria Light Artillery Latham 's Loudoun Washington ( La . ) CAVALRY Thirtieth Virginia 9 Hanover ARMY OF THE SHENANDOAH INFANTRY Fourth Alabama 36 6 151 Seventh Georgia 18 12 122 Eighth Georgia 38 6 153 First Maryland 5 Second Mississippi 21 79 Eleventh Mississippi 7 21 Sixth North Carolina 22 46 Third Tennessee Second Virginia 15 69 Fourth Virginia 30 100 Fifth Virginia 6 47 Tenth Virginia 6 10 Twenty - seventh Virginia 18 122 Thirty - third Virginia 44 101 Total First Corps 6 99 29 490 12 632 Total Second Corps 19 263 34 1,029 Grand total 25 362 63 1,519 12 632 Today will be known as BLACK MONDAY . We are utterly and disgracefully routed , beaten , whipped by secessionists . -- Union diarist George Templeton Strong If the war had turned out to be of short duration , Bull Run would have been a disaster for the Union . But if , as now seemed more plausible , a long and nasty war was inevitable , that battle had a curiously salutary effect for the Union side . It provided a wake - up call for those optimists -- like Seward or even Lincoln -- who had hoped for or counted on a quick result . -- David Detzer , Donnybrook Bull Run was a turning point in the American Civil War ... in the sense that the battle struck with impelling force upon public opinion at home and abroad , upon Congress , and upon the Commander - in - chief . It framed new patterns of thought and led to far - reaching changes in the conduct of the war . The failure at Bull Run inspired a second Northern rising . Volunteering accelerated , 90 - day men reenlisted , states rushed fresh regiments forward in plenitude ... As they realized victory would not come readily , a new mood fastened upon Northerners . An iron resolve entered the Northern soul ... -- James A. Rawley , Turning Points of the Civil War Effect on the Union and subsequent events ( edit ) Union forces and civilians alike feared that Confederate forces would advance on Washington , D.C. , with very little standing in their way . On July 24 , Prof. Thaddeus S.C. Lowe ascended in the balloon Enterprise to observe the Confederates moving in and about Manassas Junction and Fairfax . He saw no evidence of massing Confederate forces , but was forced to land in Confederate territory . It was overnight before he was rescued and could report to headquarters . He reported that his observations `` restored confidence '' to the Union commanders . The Northern public was shocked at the unexpected defeat of their army when an easy victory had been widely anticipated . Both sides quickly came to realize the war would be longer and more brutal than they had imagined . On July 22 President Lincoln signed a bill that provided for the enlistment of another 500,000 men for up to three years of service . On July 25 , eleven thousand Pennsylvanians who had earlier been rejected by the U.S. Secretary of War , Simon Cameron , for federal service in either Patterson 's or McDowell 's command arrived in Washington , D.C. , and were finally accepted . Three months after First Bull Run Union forces suffered another , smaller defeat at the Battle of Ball 's Bluff , near Leesburg , Virginia . The perceived military incompetence at First Bull Run and Ball 's Bluff led to the establishment of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War , a congressional body created to investigate Northern military affairs . Concerning the Battle of First Bull Run , the committee listened to testimony from a variety of witnesses connected with McDowell 's army . Although the committee 's report concluded that the principal cause of defeat was Patterson 's failure to prevent Johnston from reinforcing Beauregard , Patterson 's enlistment had expired a few days after the battle , and he was no longer in the service . The Northern public clamored for another scapegoat , and McDowell bore the chief blame . On 25 July 1861 , he was relieved of army command and replaced by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan , who would soon be named general - in - chief of all the Union armies . McDowell was also present to bear significant blame for the defeat of Maj. Gen. John Pope 's Army of Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia thirteen months later , at the Second Battle of Bull Run . Effect on the Confederacy ( edit ) The reaction in the Confederacy was more muted . There was little public celebration as the Southerners realized that despite their victory , the greater battles that would inevitably come would mean greater losses for their side as well . Once the euphoria of victory had worn off , Jefferson Davis called for 400,000 additional volunteers . Beauregard was considered the Confederate hero of the battle and was promoted that day by C.S. President Davis to full general in the Confederate army . Stonewall Jackson , arguably the most important tactical contributor to the victory , received no special recognition , but would later achieve glory for his 1862 Valley Campaign . Privately , Davis credited Greenhow with ensuring Confederate victory . Jordan sent a telegram to Greenhow : `` Our President and our General direct me to thank you . We rely upon you for further information . The Confederacy owes you a debt . ( Signed ) JORDAN , Adjutant - General . '' The battle also had long - term psychological consequences . The decisive victory led to a degree of over-confidence on the part of Confederate forces , while prompting a determined organizational effort on the part of the Union . In hindsight commentators on both sides agreed that the one - sided outcome `` proved the greatest misfortune that would have befallen the Confederacy '' . Although modern historians generally agree with this interpretation , James M. McPherson has argued that the esprit de corps attained by Confederate troops on the heels of their victory , together with a new sense of insecurity felt by northern commanders , also gave the Confederacy a military edge in the following months . Confederate victory : turning point of the American Civil War ( edit ) Further information : Turning point of the American Civil War § Confederate victory in First Battle of Bull Run ( July 1861 ) `` Bull Run '' vs. `` Manassas '' ( edit ) The name of the battle has caused controversy since 1861 . The Union Army frequently named battles after significant rivers and creeks that played a role in the fighting ; the Confederates generally used the names of nearby towns or farms . The U.S. National Park Service uses the Confederate name for its national battlefield park , but the Union name ( Bull Run ) also has widespread currency in popular literature . Confusion between the battle flags ( edit ) Battlefield confusion between the battle flags , especially the similarity of the Confederacy 's `` Stars and Bars '' and the Union 's `` Stars and Stripes '' when fluttering , led to the adoption of the Confederate Battle Flag , which eventually became the most popular symbol of the Confederacy and the South in general . Conclusions ( edit ) First Bull Run demonstrated that the war would not be won by one grand battle , and both sides began preparing for a long and bloody conflict . The battle also showed the need for adequately trained and experienced officers and men . One year later many of the same soldiers who had fought at First Bull Run , now combat veterans , would have an opportunity to test their skills on the same battlefield at the Second Battle of Bull Run / Manassas . Additional battle maps ( edit ) Gallery : the First Bull Run hour by hour ( edit ) Map 1 : Situation Mid-July 1861 Map 2 : Beauregard 's defensive situation ( Mid-July 1861 ) Map 3 : Situation at 05 : 30 - 06 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 4 : Situation at 10 : 30 - 11 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 5 : Situation at 11 : 00 - 11 : 30 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 6 : Situation at 12 : 00 - 12 : 30 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 7 : Situation at 13 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 8 : Situation at 14 : 30 - 15 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 9 : Situation at 15 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 10 : Situation at 15 : 30 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 11 : Situation at 16 : 00 ( July 21 , 1861 ) Map 12 : Situation at 16 : 30 - 17 : 30 ( July 21 , 1861 ) In popular culture ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The First Battle of Bull Run is mentioned in the novel Gods and Generals , but is depicted more fully in its film adaptation . The battle forms the climax of the film Class of ' 61 . It also appears in the first episode of the second season of the mini-series North and South , in the second episode of the first season of the mini-series How the West Was Won and in the first episode of the mini-series The Blue and the Gray . Manassas ( 1999 ) is the first volume in the James Reasoner Civil War Series of historical novels . The battle is described in Rebel ( 1993 ) , the first volume of Bernard Cornwell 's The Starbuck Chronicles series of historical novels . The battle is described from the viewpoint of a Union infantryman in Upton Sinclair 's novella Manassas , which also depicts the political turmoil leading up to the Civil War . The battle is also depicted in John Jakes 's The Titans , the fifth novel in The Kent Family Chronicles , a series that explores the fictional Confederate cavalry officer Gideon Kent . The battle is the subject of the Johnny Horton song , `` Battle of Bull Run '' . Shaman , second in the Cole family trilogy by Noah Gordon , includes an account of the battle . The battle is also depicted in the song `` Yankee Bayonet '' by indie - folk band The Decemberists . In Murder at 1600 , Detective Harlan Regis ( Wesley Snipes ) has built a plan - relief of the battle which plays a certain role in the plot . Sesquicentennial ( edit ) The National Jubilee of Peace building at Grant and Lee avenues in Manassas , Virginia , is draped with the U.S. flag for the 150th anniversary commemoration , held on July 21 , 2011 , of the First Battle of Bull Run . Prince William County staged special events commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War through 2011 . Manassas was named the No. 1 tourist destination in the United States for 2011 by the American Bus Association for its efforts in highlighting the historical impact of the Civil War . The cornerstone of the commemoration event featured a reenactment of the battle on July 23 -- 24 , 2011 . Throughout the year , there were tours of the Manassas battlefield and other battlefields in the county and a number of related events and activities . The City of Manassas commemorated the 150th anniversary of the battle July 21 -- 24 , 2011 . Battlefield preservation ( edit ) Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park , which is designated as a National Battlefield Park More than 900,000 people visit the battlefield each year . ( In comparison , 22 million people visited nearby Washington , D.C. in 2016 ) As a historic area under the National Park Service , the park was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15 , 1966 . See also ( edit ) American Civil War portal Second Battle of Bull Run Armies in the American Civil War Troop engagements of the American Civil War , 1861 List of costliest American Civil War land battles Origins of the American Civil War Battle of Fort Sumter Manassas Campaign Manassas National Battlefield Park Bull Run Mountains Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : National Park Service . Jump up ^ National Park Service Jump up ^ Further information : Official Records , Series I , Volume II pages 314 -- 315 . ^ Jump up to : Further information : Official Records , Series I , Volume II pages 469 -- 470 . ^ Jump up to : Further information : Abtract from returns of the Department of Northeastern Virginia , commanded by Brigadier - General McDowell , U.S.A. , for July 16 and 17 , 1861 ( Official Records , Series I , Volume II page 309 ) . ^ Jump up to : Strength figures vary by source . Eicher , p. 87 - 88 : 35,000 Union , 32,000 Confederate ; Esposito , map 19 : 35,000 Union , 29,000 Confederate ; Ballard , 35,000 Union ( 18,000 engaged ) , 34,000 Confederate ( 18,000 engaged ) ; Salmon , p. 20 : 28,450 Union , 32,230 Confederate ; Kennedy , p. 14 : 35,000 Union , 33,000 Confederate ; Livermore , p. 77 : 28,452 Union `` effectives '' , 32,323 Confederate engaged . Writing in The Century Magazine , adjutant generals James B. Fry cites Archived May 9 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . 18,572 Union men ( including stragglers not on the field ) and 24 guns engaged , Thomas Jordan cites Archived August 29 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . 18,052 Confederate men and 37 guns engaged . ^ Jump up to : Further information : Official Records , Series I , Volume II page 187 and pages 568 -- 569 . ^ Jump up to : Further information : Casualties at the battle of Bull Run , July 21 , 1861 . ( Official Records , Series I , Volume II page 327 ) . Jump up ^ 2,896 ( 460 killed ; 1,124 wounded ; 1,312 captured / missing ) , according to Eicher , p. 99 . ^ Jump up to : Further information : Casualties in the Army of the Potomac ( Confederate ) July 21 , 1861 . ( Official Records , Series I , Volume II page 570 ) . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 99 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page V ( Preface ) . Jump up ^ Ballard , 3 . Jump up ^ Ballard , 4 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page 4 . Jump up ^ Detzer , p. 77 ; Williams , p. 21 ; McPherson , p. 336 ; Davis , p. 110 , attributes the remark to general - in - chief Winfield Scott . ^ Jump up to : Fishel , Edwin C. , The Secret War For The Union : The Untold Story of Military Intelligence in the Civil War , Boston : Houghton Mifflin , 1996 , pp. 59 -- 63 ^ Jump up to : `` Greenhow , Rose O'Neal '' , ( 1817 -- 1864 ) , The National Archives -- People Description. 1817 -- 1864 , ( accessed February 5 , 2013 ) Jump up ^ `` Letter Written in Cipher on Mourning Paper by Rose Greenhow '' , National Archives and Records Administration , World Digital Library Jump up ^ Davis , pp. 110 -- 11 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page 8 . ^ Jump up to : Livermore , p. 77 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page 9 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page 10 . Jump up ^ Eicher , pp. 91 -- 100 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 92 . Jump up ^ Further information : Official Records , Series I , Volume II page 187 . Jump up ^ Beatie , pp. 285 -- 88 ; Esposito , text for Map 21 ; Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , p. 312 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 94 ; Esposito , Map 22 . Jump up ^ Masur , Kate ( July 27 , 2011 ) . `` Slavery and Freedom at Bull Run '' . The New York Times . New York : The New York Times Company . Retrieved March 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hall , Andy ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` Memory : Frederick Douglass ' Black Confederate '' . Dead Confederates : A Civil War Blog . WordPress . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2016 . Retrieved March 5 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , p. 312 . Jump up ^ Brown , pp. 43 -- 45 ; Alexander , pp. 50 -- 51 . Alexander recalls that the signal was `` You are flanked . '' Jump up ^ Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , pp. 312 -- 13 ; Rafuse , A Single Grand Victory `` , p. 131 ; Esposito , Map 22 ; Eicher , pp. 94 -- 95 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 95 . Jump up ^ Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , p. 313 ; Eicher , p. 96 . Jump up ^ Salmon , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , p. 314 . Jump up ^ Detzer , p. 357 ; Davis , pp. 204 -- 05 . Jump up ^ Robertson , p. 264 . Jump up ^ Freeman , vol. 1 , p. 82 ; Robertson , p. 264 . McPherson , p. 342 , reports the quotation after `` stone wall '' as being `` Rally around the Virginians ! '' Jump up ^ See , for instance , McPherson , p. 342 . There are additional controversies about what Bee said and whether he said anything at all . See Freeman , vol. 1 , pp. 733 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Eicher , pp. 96 -- 98 ; Esposito , Map 23 ; Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , pp. 314 -- 15 ; McPherson , pp. 342 -- 44 . Jump up ^ Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , p. 315 ; Eicher , p. 98 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page 32 . Jump up ^ Rafuse , `` First Battle of Bull Run '' , pp. 315 -- 16 . Jump up ^ McPherson , p. 344 ; Eicher , p. 98 ; Esposito , Map 24 . Jump up ^ Freeman , vol. 1 , p. 76 ; Esposito , Map 24 ; Davis , p. 149 . Jump up ^ Ballard , page 35 . Jump up ^ Ballard , pages 35 -- 36 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 99 . Jump up ^ Detzer , pp. 434 -- 435 . Jump up ^ Detzer , p. 383 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard , page 36 . Jump up ^ Further information : Official Records , Series I , Volume II page 328 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 100 . Jump up ^ Detzer , p. 488 . Jump up ^ Rawley , pp. 56 -- 57 . Jump up ^ Haydon , pp. 192 -- 93 . Jump up ^ Rawley , p. 58 . Jump up ^ Curtin , Andrew G. ( January 8 , 1862 ) . `` Message of Andrew G. Curtin , Governor of Pennsylvania , to the Legislature , '' . Executive Department : 8 . Jump up ^ Eicher , pp. 100 -- 101 . Jump up ^ Detzer , pp. 492 -- 93 . Jump up ^ Freeman , vol. 1 , p. 79 . Jump up ^ Greenhow , Rose O'Neal , My Imprisonment and the First Year of Abolition Rule at Washington , London : Richard Bentley , 1863 , p. 18 , full text online at Documenting the American South , University of North Carolina Jump up ^ James M. McPherson ( 1988 ) . The Battle Cry of Freedom : The Civil War Era . Oxford University Press . pp. 347 -- 350 . ISBN 9780199743902 . Jump up ^ McPherson , p. 346 , n . 7 . McPherson 's popular one - volume history of the war uses the two names interchangeably because he states that `` neither name has any intrinsic superiority over the other . '' Jump up ^ McPherson , p. 342 . Jump up ^ `` Plan a trip and discover your story '' . visitpwc.com . Jump up ^ `` manassascivilwar.org '' . manassascivilwar.org . Archived from the original on May 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Washington , DC Facts '' . Destination DC . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . Jump up ^ National Park Service ( 2009 - 03 - 13 ) . `` National Register Information System '' . National Register of Historic Places . National Park Service . References ( edit ) Alexander , Edward P. Fighting for the Confederacy : The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander . Edited by Gary W. Gallagher . Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press , 1989 . ISBN 0 - 8078 - 4722 - 4 . Ballard , Ted . First Battle of Bull Run : Staff Ride Guide . Washington , DC : United States Army Center of Military History , 2003 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 16 - 068078 - 6 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Beatie , Russel H. Army of the Potomac : Birth of Command , November 1860 -- September 1861 . New York : Da Capo Press , 2002 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 81141 - 3 . Brown , J. Willard . The Signal Corps , U.S.A. in the War of the Rebellion . U.S. Veteran Signal Corps Association , 1896 . Reprinted 1974 by Arno Press . ISBN 0 - 405 - 06036 - X . Davis , William C. , and the Editors of Time - Life Books . First Blood : Fort Sumter to Bull Run . Alexandria , VA : Time - Life Books , 1983 . ISBN 0 - 8094 - 4704 - 5 . Detzer , David . Donnybrook : The Battle of Bull Run , 1861 . New York : Harcourt , 2004 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 15 - 603143 - 1 . Eicher , David J. The Longest Night : A Military History of the Civil War . New York : Simon & Schuster , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 684 - 84944 - 5 . Esposito , Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars . New York : Frederick A. Praeger , 1959 . OCLC 5890637 . The collection of maps ( without explanatory text ) is available online at the West Point website . Praeger , 1959 . Freeman , Douglas S. Lee 's Lieutenants : A Study in Command . 3 vols . New York : Scribner , 1946 . ISBN 0 - 684 - 85979 - 3 . Haydon , F. Stansbury . Military Ballooning during the Early Civil War . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 1941 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 6442 - 9 . Livermore , Thomas L. Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America 1861 -- 65 . Reprinted with errata , Dayton , OH : Morninside House , 1986 . ISBN 0 - 527 - 57600 - X . First published in 1901 by Houghton Mifflin . McPherson , James M. Battle Cry of Freedom : The Civil War Era . Oxford History of the United States . New York : Oxford University Press , 1988 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 503863 - 0 . Rafuse , Ethan S. `` First Battle of Bull Run . '' In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War : A Political , Social , and Military History , edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler . New York : W.W. Norton & Company , 2000 . ISBN 0 - 393 - 04758 - X . Rafuse , Ethan S. A Single Grand Victory : The First Campaign and Battle of Manassas . The American Crisis Series . Wilmington , DE : SR Books , 2002 . ISBN 0 - 8420 - 2875 - 7 . Rawley , James A. Turning Points of the Civil War . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press , 1966 . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 8935 - 9 . Robertson , James I. , Jr . Stonewall Jackson : The Man , The Soldier , The Legend . New York : MacMillan Publishing , 1997 . ISBN 0 - 02 - 864685 - 1 . Salmon , John S . The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide . Mechanicsburg , PA : Stackpole Books , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 8117 - 2868 - 4 . Williams , T. Harry . Lincoln and His Generals . New York : Alfred A. Knopf , 1952 . ISBN 0 - 9654382 - 6 - 0 . National Park Service battle description Professor Thaddeus Lowe 's Official Report ( Part I ) Memoirs and primary sources ( edit ) Dyer , Frederick H. , A compendium of the War of the Rebellion , Volume 1 , 1908 , Des Moines IA Longstreet , James . From Manassas to Appomattox : Memoirs of the Civil War in America . New York : Da Capo Press , 1992 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 80464 - 6 . First published in 1896 by J.B. Lippincott and Co . Robert Underwood Johnson , Clarence Clough Buell , Battles and Leaders of the Civil War : The Opening Battles , Volume 1 ( Pdf ) , New York : The Century Co. , 1887 . U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 -- 1901 Further reading ( edit ) Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Bull Run . Cunningham , Horace H. ( 1968 ) . Field medical services at the Battles of Manassas ( Bull Run ) . Athens : University of Georgia Press . ISBN 9780820333557 . Retrieved 20 February 2018 . Davis , William C. Battle at Bull Run : A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War . Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press , 1977 . ISBN 0 - 8071 - 0867 - 7 . Goldfield , David , et al . The American Journey : A History of the United States . 2nd ed . New York : Prentice Hall , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 13 - 088243 - 7 . Gottfried , Bradley M. The Maps of First Bull Run : An atlas of the First Bull Run ( Manassas ) Campaign , including the Battle of Ball 's Bluff , June -- October 1861 . El Dorado Hills , CA : Savas Beatie , 2009 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 932714 - 60 - 9 . Hankinson , Alan . First Bull Run 1861 : The South 's First Victory . Osprey Campaign Series # 10 . London : Osprey Publishing , 1991 . ISBN 1 - 85532 - 133 - 5 . Hennessy , John , Ethan Rafuse , and Harry Smeltzer . `` Historians ' Forum : The First Battle of Bull Run . '' Civil War History 57 # 2 ( June 2011 ) : 106 -- 120 . Hines , Blaikie . The Battle of First Bull Run , Manassas Campaign -- July 16 -- 22 , 1861 : An Illustrated Atlas and Battlefield Guide . Maine : American Patriot Press , 2011 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61364 - 129 - 3 . Longacre , Edward G . The Early Morning of War : Bull Run , 1861 ( 2014 ) . Rable , George . `` The Battlefield and Beyond . '' Civil War History 53 # 3 ( September 2007 ) : 244 -- 51 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to First Battle of Bull Run . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manassas National Battlefield Park . Battle of Bull Run : Battle maps , photos , history articles , and battlefield news ( Civil War Trust ) `` Map of the Battles of Bull Run , 1861 '' , prepared by Army engineer , National Archives and Record Administration , at World Digital Library Manassas National Battlefield Park website First Battle of Manassas : An End to Innocence , a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places ( TwHP ) lesson plan Harper 's Weekly 1861 Report on the Battle of Bull Run Civil War Home website on First Bull Run Animated history of the First Battle of Bull Run FirstBullRun.co.uk The First Battle of Bull Run public domain audiobook at LibriVox First Manassas Campaign with Official Records and Reports Map of the Battles of Bull Run Near Manassas . Solomon Bamberger . Zoomable high - resolution map . Newspaper coverage of the First Battle of Bull Run Manassas Civil War 150th Anniversary July 21 -- 24 , 2011 at the Library of Congress Web Archives ( archived 2011 - 05 - 05 ) Texts on Wikisource : Guernsey , Alfred H. ( 1879 ) . `` Bull Run '' . The American Cyclopædia . 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Education George Mason University University of Fairfax Northern Virginia Community College Prince William County , Virginia Northern Virginia Washington Metropolitan Area Administration Prince William Board of County Supervisors Prince William County Public Schools Prince William County Department of Parks & Recreation Prince William County Public Library Prince William County Department of Fire and Rescue Prince William County Police Department Prince William County Sheriff 's Office Organizations Prince William Chamber of Commerce Landmarks National Museum of the Marine Corps Marine Corps Base Quantico Hylton Performing Arts Center Manassas National Battlefield Park Jiffy Lube Live Old Dominion Speedway Prince William Forest Park Leesylvania State Park Potomac Mills Transportation OmniRide Washington Dulles International Airport Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Manassas Regional Airport Prince William Parkway Virginia State Route 234 Interstate 66 Interstate 95 U.S. Route 1 Culture Battles First Battle of Bull Run Second Battle of Bull Run Events Dale City 4th of July Parade Education George Mason University Northern Virginia Community College Strayer University University of Northern Virginia Municipalities and communities of Prince William County , Virginia , United States County seat : Manassas Towns Dumfries Haymarket Occoquan Quantico CDPs Buckhall Bull Run Bull Run Mountain Estates Cherry Hill County Center Dale City Gainesville Independent Hill Lake Ridge Linton Hall Loch Lomond Marumsco Montclair Neabsco Nokesville Potomac Mills Quantico Base ‡ Sudley Triangle Woodbridge Yorkshire Unincorporated communities Aden Agnewville Antioch Batestown Bethel Brentsville Bristow Buckland Canova Catharpin Cornwell Featherstone Greenwich Groveton Hickory Ridge Hoadly Joplin Kopp Locust Hill Minnieville Rixlew Southbridge Sudley Springs Thoroughfare Wellington West Gate Footnotes ‡ This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Battle_of_Bull_Run&oldid=852859365 '' Categories : Fairfax County in the American Civil War Manassas Campaign Battles of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War Confederate victories of the American Civil War Prince William County in the American Civil War Battles of the American Civil War in Virginia United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries 1861 in the American Civil War 1861 in Virginia July 1861 events Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Use mdy dates from November 2013 Pages using deprecated image syntax Coordinates on Wikidata Articles needing additional references from July 2018 All articles needing additional references Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Articles with LibriVox links Webarchive template other archives Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia with a Wikisource reference Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 21 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 July 2018 , at 21 : 15 ( UTC ) . 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what does the democratic republic of congo flag represent

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Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - wikipedia Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article is about the current national flag . For list of all flags , see List of flags of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Not to be confused with Flag of the Republic of the Congo . Democratic Republic of the Congo Use National flag and ensign Proportion 3 : 4 Adopted February 20 , 2006 Design Sky blue flag , adorned with a yellow star in the upper left canton and cut diagonally by a red stripe with a thin yellow frame . Variant flag of Democratic Republic of the Congo Name Presidential Standard Design National flag with the addition of the inscription `` Le President '' The national flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is a sky blue flag , adorned with a yellow star in the upper left canton and cut diagonally by a red stripe with a yellow fimbriation . It was adopted on 20 February 2006 . A new constitution , ratified in December 2005 and which came into effect in February 2006 , promoted a return to a flag similar to that flown between 1963 and 1971 , with a change from a royal blue to sky blue background . Blue represents peace . Red stands for `` the blood of the country 's martyrs '' , yellow the country 's wealth ; and the star a radiant future for the country . ( subscription required ) Previous flags ( edit ) The previous flag was adopted in 2003 . It is similar to the flag used between 1960 and 1963 . The flag is based on the flag which was originally used by King Leopold 's Association Internationale Africaine and was first used in 1877 . The design was then implemented as the flag of the Congo Free State after the territory was recognized as an official possession of Leopold II at the Berlin Conference . After gaining independence from Belgium on 30 June 1960 , the same basic design was maintained . However , six stars were incorporated to symbolise the six provinces of the country at the time . This design was used only from 1960 to 1963 . This flag was reimplemented in 1997 , when the Mobutu government was overthrown and the country assumed its current designation of Democratic Republic of the Congo , with the 2003 flag only being different by using a lighter shade of blue . The flag of the first Republic of Mobutu Sese Seko became the official banner after Mobutu established his dictatorship . This flag was used from 1966 -- 1971 and consisted of the same yellow star , now made smaller , situated in the top corner of the hoist side , with a red , yellow - lined band running diagonally across the center . The red symbolized the people 's blood ; the yellow symbolized prosperity ; the blue symbolized hope ; and the star represented unity . This flag was changed when the country was renamed Zaire in 1971 . The Zaire flag was created as part of Mobutu 's attempted re-Africanization of the nation and was used officially until Mobutu 's overthrow in the First Congo War . The flag of Zaire was also used as the party flag of the Popular Movement of the Revolution . Flag of Association Internationale Africaine , the Congo Free State ( 1877 -- 1908 ) , and the Belgian Congo ( 1908 -- 1960 ) Flag of Congo - Léopoldville from independence June 30 , 1960 until 1963 . Also used by the rival Congo - Stanleyville from 1960 to 1962 . Flag from 1963 until 1966 Flag from 1966 until 1971 Flag of Zaire 1971 -- 1997 Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( 1997 - 2003 ) Flag from 2003 until 2006 Flag since February 20 , 2006 See also ( edit ) Emblem of the Democratic Republic of the Congo References ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Jump up ^ Construction sheet ( registration required ) Jump up ^ News story about the change ( subscription required ) Jump up ^ Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) at Flags of the World Flags of Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Democratic Republic of the Congo articles History Early history Colonization ( 1867 -- 85 ) Congo Free State ( 1885 -- 1908 ) Belgian Congo ( 1908 -- 60 ) World War II Congo - Léopoldville ( 1960 -- 65 ) Congo Crisis ( 1960 -- 65 ) Zaire ( 1965 -- 97 ) First Congo War ( 1996 -- 98 ) Second Congo War ( 1998 -- 2003 ) 2000s Transitional Government ( 2003 -- 06 ) M23 rebellion ( 2012 -- 13 ) Geography Cities Conservation Deforestation Ecoregions Mountains Rivers Volcanoes Wildlife Former place names Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Court of Cassation Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights Law enforcement Military National Assembly Political parties President Prime Minister Senate Economy Agriculture Central Bank Energy Franc ( currency ) Mining Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Corruption Demographics Education Health Languages Religion Social issues Women Culture Cinema Cuisine Flag Football Media Music Public holidays Outline Index Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&oldid=821698509 '' Categories : National symbols of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Flags of Africa National flags Hidden categories : Pages with login required references or sources Pages containing links to subscription - only content Articles needing additional references from September 2016 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011 Talk About Wikipedia Languages Afrikaans Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kongo Latviešu Lietuvių Lingála Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Yorùbá 中文 47 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018 , at 02 : 43 . 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song it's now or never by elvis presley

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It 's Now or Never ( song ) - wikipedia It 's Now or Never ( song ) Jump to : navigation , search `` It 's Now or Never '' Single by Elvis Presley B - side `` A Mess of Blues '' Released July 5 , 1960 Format Vinyl single Recorded April 3 , 1960 , RCA Studios , Nashville , Tennessee Genre Pop Length 3 : 15 Label RCA Victor Songwriter ( s ) Wally Gold , Aaron Schroeder , Eduardo di Capua Elvis Presley singles chronology `` Stuck on You '' / `` Fame and Fortune '' ( 1960 ) `` It 's Now or Never '' ( 1960 ) `` Are You Lonesome Tonight ? '' ( 1960 ) `` Stuck on You '' / `` Fame and Fortune '' ( 1960 ) `` It 's Now or Never '' ( 1960 ) `` Are You Lonesome Tonight ? '' ( 1960 ) Music video `` It 's Now or Never '' ( audio ) on YouTube `` It 's Now or Never '' is a ballad recorded by Elvis Presley in 1960 . It is one of two popular songs based on the Italian song of Neapolitan language `` ' O Sole mio '' ( music by Eduardo di Capua ) , the other being `` There 's No Tomorrow '' , recorded by U.S. singer Tony Martin in 1949 , which inspired Presley 's version . The lyrics were written by Aaron Schroeder and Wally Gold . The single is the second best - selling single by Presley , and one of the best - selling singles of all time . It was recorded by Bill Porter at RCA Studio B in Nashville . In the late 1950s , while stationed in Germany with the U.S. Army , Presley heard Martin 's recording . According to The New York Times , quoting from the 1986 book Behind The Hits , `` he told the idea to his music publisher , Freddy Bienstock , who was visiting him in Germany ... Mr. Bienstock , who many times found songwriters for Presley , returned to his New York office , where he found songwriters , Mr. ( Aaron ) Schroeder and Wally Gold , the only people in that day . The two wrote lyrics in half an hour . Selling more than 20 million records , the song became number one in countries all around and was Presley 's best selling single ever ... a song ( they ) finished in 20 minutes to a half hour was the biggest song of ( their ) career . '' In 1960 , `` It 's Now or Never '' was a number - one record in the U.S. , spending five weeks at number one and the UK , where it spent eight weeks at the top in 1960 and an additional week at number one in 2005 as a re-issue , and numerous other countries , selling in excess of 25 million copies worldwide , Elvis Presley 's biggest international single ever . Its British release was delayed for some time because of rights issues , allowing the song to build up massive advance orders and to enter the UK Singles Chart at number one , a very rare occurrence at the time . `` It 's Now or Never '' peaked at number seven on the R&B charts . Barry White credited this song as his inspiration for changing his life and becoming a singer following his release from prison . A live version featuring `` ' O Sole mio '' is available on the 1977 live album Elvis in Concert . `` ' O Sole mio '' is sung by tenor Sherrill Nielson . In early 2005 , the song was re-released along with the other Presley singles in the UK , and again reached number one on the UK Singles Chart for the week of 5 February 2005 . The re-release held the record for the lowest selling number - one single in UK chart history until Orson 's `` No Tomorrow '' in 2006 . The song also appears in the TV mini-series Elvis . Contents ( hide ) 1 Charts and certifications 1.1 Weekly charts 1.2 Year - end charts 1.3 Sales and certifications 1.3. 1 Chart succession 2 John Schneider version 3 Uses in popular culture 3.1 Chart performance 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Charts and certifications ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1960 -- 61 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Germany ( Der Musikmarkt ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) Norway ( VG - lista ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 US Billboard Hot R&B Sides 7 US Singles ( Cash Box ) Chart ( 1977 ) Peak position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 39 Chart ( 2005 ) Peak position France ( SNEP ) 86 Ireland ( IRMA ) 6 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 58 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) 47 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1960 ) Rank US Billboard Hot 100 7 US Singles ( Cash Box ) Sales and certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Finland ( Musiikkituottajat ) 31,000 Germany ( BVMI ) Gold 1,000,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Gold 1,300,000 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 1,000,000 shipments figures based on certification alone Chart succession ( edit ) Preceded by `` Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini '' by Brian Hyland US Cash Box number - one single August 13 , 1960 -- September 3 , 1960 ( 4 weeks ) Succeeded by `` The Twist '' by Chubby Checker US Billboard Hot 100 number - one single of 1960 August 15 , 1960 -- September 12 , 1960 ( 5 weeks ) Preceded by `` Only the Lonely ( Know the Way I Feel ) '' by Roy Orbison UK Singles Chart number - one single 3 November 1960 -- 22 December 1960 ( 8 weeks ) Succeeded by `` I Love You '' by Cliff Richard and The Shadows Preceded by `` A Mess of Blues '' by Elvis Presley European Hitkrant number - one single 1 October 1960 -- 21 January 1961 ( 17 weeks ) Succeeded by `` Are You Lonesome Tonight ? '' by Elvis Presley Preceded by `` Goodies '' by Ciara featuring Petey Pablo UK Singles Chart number - one single 30 January 2005 ( 1 week ) Succeeded by `` Like Toy Soldiers '' by Eminem John Schneider version ( edit ) `` It 's Now or Never '' Single by John Schneider from the album Now or Never B - side `` Stay '' Released May 1981 Genre Country Length 3 : 22 Label Scotti Brothers Songwriter ( s ) Wally Gold , Aaron Schroeder , Eduardo di Capua John Schneider singles chronology `` It 's Now or Never '' ( 1981 ) `` Them Good Ol ' Boys Are Bad '' ( 1981 ) `` It 's Now or Never '' ( 1981 ) `` Them Good Ol ' Boys Are Bad '' ( 1981 ) American country music singer and actor John Schneider released in 1981 a cover of the song as his first single and the title track of his debut album Now or Never . Schneider 's version was a top five hit on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and peaked at # 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Uses in popular culture ( edit ) An instrumental version is used in a scene from Masahiro Shinoda 's 1964 film Pale Flower . Presley 's version appears in a 2017 TV commercial for Jose Cuervo . Chart performance ( edit ) Chart ( 1981 ) Peak position Canadian RPM Country Tracks 7 Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary Tracks 5 New Zealand U.S. Billboard Hot 100 14 U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks 5 See also ( edit ) List of best - selling singles List of best - selling singles in Germany List of number - one hits in Norway List of Hot 100 number - one singles of 1960 ( U.S. ) List of number - one singles from the 1960s ( UK ) List of number - one singles from the 2000s ( UK ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Collins , Ace ( 2005 ) . Untold Gold : The Stories Behind Elvis 's # 1 Hits . Chicago Review Press . pp. 155 -- 162 . ISBN 9781569765074 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Martin , Douglas ( December 6 , 2009 ) . `` Aaron Schroeder , Writer of Hit Songs for Elvis Presley , Dies at 83 '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2004 ) . Top R&B / Hip - Hop Singles : 1942 - 2004 . Record Research . p. 468 . Jump up ^ Barry White with Marc Eliot , Love Unlimited , New York : Broadway Books , 1999 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Jon ( 17 March 2016 ) . `` 15 songs from the 00s you probably forgot made number one '' . Metro . Retrieved 2 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Kent , David ( 2005 ) . Australian Chart Book : 1940 - 1969 : the Hit Songs and Records from Thirty Years of Specially Compiled Charts . Australian Chart Book Limited . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Elvis Presley -- It 's Now or Never '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Elvis Presley - It 's Now or Never '' . Charts.de . Media Control . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Elvis Presley -- It 's Now or Never '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- Elvis Presley -- It 's Now or Never '' . VG - lista . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Elvis Presley Chart History ( Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Elvis Presley - Awards '' . Allmusic . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn 's top pop singles 1955 - 2006 . Record Research . 2008 - 01 - 08 . Retrieved March 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Elvis Presley -- It 's Now or Never '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved February 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Irish Charts -- Search charts '' . Irish Recorded Music Association . 2008 . To use , type `` Now or Never '' in the `` Search by Song Title '' search var and click search . Archived from the original on 2011 - 10 - 12 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 04 . ( ( # cite_ref - ' `` ` UNIQ -- ref - 00000018 - QINU ` '' ' _19 - 0 ^ ) ) `` Chart Track : Week 4 , 2005 '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Elvis Presley -- It 's Now or Never '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard Top 50 - 1956 '' . Billboard . Longbored Surfer. 1956 . Archived from the original on 2013 - 01 - 28 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` The CASH BOX Year - End Charts : 1960 '' . Cash Box Magazine . 1960 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 04 . ^ Jump up to : `` Elvis Presley '' ( in Finnish ) . Musiikkituottajat -- IFPI Finland . Retrieved August 20 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Murrells , Joseph ( 1978 ) . The Book of Golden Discs ( 2 , illustrated ed . ) . Barrie & Jenkins . ISBN 0 - 214 - 20480 - 4 . Jump up ^ Copsey , Rob ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` Elvis Presley 's Top 50 biggest selling songs revealed '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved August 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- Elvis Presley -- It 's Now or Never '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH External links ( edit ) It 's Now Or Never lyrics Preceded by `` Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini '' by Brian Hyland Billboard Hot 100 number one single August 15 , 1960 ( five weeks ) Succeeded by `` The Twist '' by Chubby Checker Elvis Presley singles discography 1954 `` That 's All Right '' / `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' `` Good Rockin ' Tonight '' / `` I Do n't Care if the Sun Do n't Shine '' `` You 're a Heartbreaker '' 1955 `` Baby Let 's Play House '' `` I Forgot to Remember to Forget '' / `` Mystery Train '' 1956 `` Heartbreak Hotel '' / `` I Was the One '' `` I Want You , I Need You , I Love You '' / `` My Baby Left Me '' `` Do n't Be Cruel '' / `` Hound Dog '' `` Blue Suede Shoes '' / `` Tutti Frutti '' `` Money Honey '' `` I Got a Woman '' `` Tryin ' to Get to You '' `` Blue Moon '' `` I 'll Never Let You Go ( Lil ' Darlin ' ) '' / `` I 'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry ( Over You ) '' `` Shake , Rattle and Roll '' / `` Lawdy Miss Clawdy '' `` Love Me Tender '' 1957 `` Too Much '' / `` Playing for Keeps '' `` All Shook Up '' `` Peace in the Valley `` ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear '' `` Paralyzed '' ( UK ) `` Jailhouse Rock '' `` Party '' / `` Got a Lot o ' Livin ' to Do ! '' ( UK ) 1958 `` Do n't '' `` Wear My Ring Around Your Neck '' `` Hard Headed Woman '' / `` Do n't Ask Me Why '' `` King Creole '' ( UK ) `` One Night '' 1959 `` I Need Your Love Tonight '' / `` A Fool Such as I '' `` A Big Hunk o ' Love '' 1960 `` Stuck on You '' / `` Fame and Fortune '' `` It 's Now or Never '' `` Are You Lonesome Tonight ? '' 1961 `` Surrender '' / `` Lonely Man '' `` I Feel So Bad '' / `` Wild in the Country '' `` ( Marie 's the Name ) His Latest Flame '' / `` Little Sister '' `` Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' / `` Rock - A-Hula Baby '' 1962 `` Good Luck Charm '' / `` Anything That 's Part of You '' `` She 's Not You '' `` Return to Sender '' / `` Where Do You Come From '' 1963 `` One Broken Heart for Sale '' `` ( You 're the ) Devil in Disguise '' `` Bossa Nova Baby '' / `` Witchcraft '' 1964 `` Kissin ' Cousins '' / `` It Hurts Me '' `` What 'd I Say '' / `` Viva Las Vegas '' `` Such a Night '' / `` Never Ending '' `` Ask Me '' / `` Ai n't That Loving You Baby '' `` Blue Christmas '' 1965 `` Do the Clam '' / `` You 'll Be Gone '' `` Crying in the Chapel `` ( Such an ) Easy Question '' `` I 'm Yours '' `` Puppet on a String '' / `` Wooden Heart '' 1966 `` Tell Me Why '' / `` Blue River '' `` Frankie and Johnny '' / `` Please Do n't Stop Loving Me '' `` Love Letters '' `` Spinout '' / `` All That I Am '' `` If Every Day Was Like Christmas '' 1967 `` Indescribably Blue '' `` Long Legged Girl ( With the Short Dress On ) '' / `` That 's Someone You Never Forget '' `` There 's Always Me '' / `` Judy '' `` Big Boss Man '' / `` You Do n't Know Me '' 1968 `` Guitar Man '' `` U.S. Male '' / `` Stay Away '' `` You 'll Never Walk Alone '' `` Your Time Has n't Come Yet , Baby '' / `` Let Yourself Go '' `` Almost in Love '' / `` A Little Less Conversation '' `` If I Can Dream '' / `` Edge of Reality '' 1969 `` Memories '' / `` Charro '' `` How Great Thou Art '' `` In the Ghetto '' / `` Any Day Now '' `` Clean Up Your Own Backyard '' `` Suspicious Minds '' / `` You 'll Think of Me '' `` Do n't Cry Daddy '' 1970 `` Kentucky Rain '' `` The Wonder of You '' `` I 've Lost You '' `` You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' / `` Patch It Up '' `` I Really Do n't Want to Know '' / `` There Goes My Everything '' 1971 `` Rags to Riches '' `` Life '' / `` Only Believe '' `` I 'm Leavin ' '' `` It 's Only Love '' `` Merry Christmas Baby '' / `` O Come All Ye Faithful '' 1972 `` Until It 's Time for You to Go '' `` He Touched Me '' `` An American Trilogy '' / `` The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face '' `` Burning Love '' / `` It 's a Matter of Time '' `` Separate Ways '' / `` Always on My Mind '' 1973 `` Steamroller Blues '' / `` Fool '' `` Raised on Rock '' / `` For Ol ' Times Sake '' `` I 've Got a Thing About You Baby '' `` If You Talk in Your Sleep '' / `` Help Me '' `` Promised Land '' / `` It 's Midnight '' `` My Boy '' / `` Thinking About You '' `` T-R-O-U-B-L-E '' `` Bringing It Back '' / `` Pieces of My Life '' 1976 `` Hurt '' / `` For the Heart '' `` Moody Blue '' 1977 `` Way Down '' `` My Way '' / `` America the Beautiful '' 1978 `` Unchained Melody '' / `` Softly as I Leave You '' John Schneider Studio albums A Memory Like You Home for Christmas Notable singles `` It 's Now or Never '' `` Dreamin ' '' `` Are You Lonesome Tonight '' `` I 've Been Around Enough to Know '' `` Country Girls '' `` It 's a Short Walk from Heaven to Hell '' `` I 'm Gonna Leave You Tomorrow '' `` What 's a Memory Like You ( Doing in a Love Like This ) '' `` You 're the Last Thing I Needed Tonight '' `` At the Sound of the Tone '' `` Take the Long Way Home '' `` Love , You Ai n't Seen the Last of Me '' `` When the Right One Comes Along '' Related articles The Dukes of Hazzard Best - selling singles by year in the United Kingdom 1952 -- 1969 1952 : `` Auf Wiederseh'n Sweetheart '' -- Vera Lynn ( UK ) 1953 : `` I Believe '' -- Frankie Laine 1954 : `` Secret Love '' -- Doris Day 1955 : `` Rose Marie '' -- Slim Whitman 1956 : `` I 'll Be Home '' -- Pat Boone 1957 : `` Diana '' -- Paul Anka 1958 : `` Jailhouse Rock '' -- Elvis Presley 1959 : `` Living Doll '' -- Cliff Richard ( UK ) 1960 : `` It 's Now or Never '' -- Elvis Presley 1961 : `` Wooden Heart '' -- Elvis Presley 1962 : `` I Remember You '' -- Frank Ifield ( UK ) 1963 : `` She Loves You '' -- The Beatles ( UK ) 1964 : `` Ca n't Buy Me Love '' -- The Beatles ( UK ) 1965 : `` Tears '' -- Ken Dodd ( UK ) 1966 : `` Green , Green Grass of Home '' -- Tom Jones ( UK ) 1967 : `` Release Me '' -- Engelbert Humperdinck ( UK ) 1968 : `` Hey Jude '' -- The Beatles ( UK ) 1969 : `` Sugar , Sugar '' -- The Archies 1970 -- 1989 1970 : `` The Wonder of You '' -- Elvis Presley 1971 : `` My Sweet Lord '' -- George Harrison ( UK ) 1972 : `` Amazing Grace '' -- The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Band ( UK ) 1973 : `` Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree '' -- Tony Orlando and Dawn 1974 : `` Tiger Feet '' -- Mud ( UK ) 1975 : `` Bye Bye Baby '' -- Bay City Rollers ( UK ) 1976 : `` Save Your Kisses for Me '' -- Brotherhood of Man ( UK ) 1977 : `` Mull of Kintyre '' / `` Girls ' School '' -- Wings ( UK ) 1978 : `` Rivers of Babylon '' / `` Brown Girl in the Ring '' -- Boney M . 1979 : `` Bright Eyes '' -- Art Garfunkel 1980 : `` Do n't Stand So Close to Me '' -- The Police ( UK ) 1981 : `` Do n't You Want Me '' -- The Human League ( UK ) 1982 : `` Come On Eileen '' -- Dexys Midnight Runners ( UK ) 1983 : `` Karma Chameleon '' -- Culture Club ( UK ) 1984 : `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' -- Band Aid ( UK ) 1985 : `` The Power of Love '' -- Jennifer Rush 1986 : `` Do n't Leave Me This Way '' -- The Communards ( UK ) 1987 : `` Never Gonna Give You Up '' -- Rick Astley ( UK ) 1988 : `` Mistletoe and Wine '' -- Cliff Richard ( UK ) 1989 : `` Ride on Time '' -- Black Box 1990 -- 2009 1990 : `` Unchained Melody '' -- The Righteous Brothers 1991 : `` ( Everything I Do ) I Do It for You '' -- Bryan Adams 1992 : `` I Will Always Love You '' -- Whitney Houston 1993 : `` I 'd Do Anything for Love ( But I Wo n't Do That ) '' -- Meat Loaf 1994 : `` Love Is All Around '' -- Wet Wet Wet ( UK ) 1995 : `` Unchained Melody '' -- Robson & Jerome ( UK ) 1996 : `` Killing Me Softly '' -- Fugees 1997 : `` Something About the Way You Look Tonight '' / `` Candle in the Wind 1997 '' -- Elton John ( UK ) 1998 : `` Believe '' -- Cher 1999 : `` ... Baby One More Time '' -- Britney Spears 2000 : `` Can We Fix It ? '' -- Bob the Builder ( UK ) 2001 : `` It Was n't Me '' -- Shaggy featuring Rikrok ( UK ) 2002 : `` Anything Is Possible '' / `` Evergreen '' -- Will Young ( UK ) 2003 : `` Where Is the Love ? '' -- The Black Eyed Peas 2004 : `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' -- Band Aid 20 ( UK ) 2005 : `` Is This the Way to Amarillo '' -- Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay ( UK ) 2006 : `` Crazy '' -- Gnarls Barkley 2007 : `` Bleeding Love '' -- Leona Lewis ( UK ) 2008 : `` Hallelujah '' -- Alexandra Burke ( UK ) 2009 : `` Poker Face '' -- Lady Gaga 2010 -- present 2010 : `` Love the Way You Lie '' -- Eminem featuring Rihanna 2011 : `` Someone Like You '' -- Adele ( UK ) 2012 : `` Somebody That I Used to Know '' -- Gotye featuring Kimbra 2013 : `` Blurred Lines '' -- Robin Thicke featuring T.I. & Pharrell Williams 2014 : `` Happy '' -- Pharrell Williams 2015 : `` Uptown Funk '' -- Mark Ronson ( UK ) featuring Bruno Mars 2016 : `` One Dance '' -- Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla ( UK ) 2017 : `` Shape of You '' - Ed Sheeran ( UK ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=It%27s_Now_or_Never_(song)&oldid=833898472 '' Categories : 1960s ballads 1960 singles 1981 singles 2005 singles Debut singles 1960 songs Elvis Presley songs John Schneider ( screen actor ) songs Songs written by Aaron Schroeder Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles UK Singles Chart number - one singles Number - one singles in Norway Songs written by Wally Gold RCA Victor singles Scotti Brothers Records singles Pop ballads Hidden categories : CS1 Finnish - language sources ( fi ) Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Belgium ( Flanders ) Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for Norway Singlechart usages for United Kingdom Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart making named ref Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Ireland Singlechart usages for Sweden Certification Table Entry usages for Finland Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia עברית Norsk nynorsk Português Русский Svenska 3 more Edit links This page was last edited on 2 April 2018 , at 23 : 02 . 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who trained the continental army at valley forge

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Wilhelm_von_Steuben&oldid=803192254

Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben - wikipedia Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben Jump to : navigation , search For ships named after General von Steuben , see Von Steuben ( disambiguation ) . Baron Von Steuben Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , by Charles Willson Peale Birth name Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand von Steuben ( 1730 - 09 - 17 ) 17 September 1730 Magdeburg , Duchy of Magdeburg ( now Magdeburg , Germany ) 28 November 1794 ( 1794 - 11 - 28 ) ( aged 64 ) Utica , New York , U.S. Buried Steuben Memorial State Historic Site , Remsen , New York , U.S. Allegiance Prussia ( 1744 -- 1762 ) United States ( 1778 -- 1783 ) Service / branch Prussian Army Continental Army Years of service 1744 -- 1762 1778 -- 1783 Rank Major general Battles / wars War of 1744 Siege of Prague ( 1744 ) Seven Years ' War Siege of Prague ( 1757 ) Battle of Kunersdorf Siege of Kolberg Siege of Schweidnitz American Revolutionary War Valley Forge Battle of Monmouth Battle of Blandford Siege of Yorktown Awards Cross of the Order of De la Fidelite Signature Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand Steuben ( born Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin von Steuben ; September 17 , 1730 -- November 28 , 1794 ) , also referred to as the Baron von Steuben , was a Prussian and later an American military officer . He served as inspector general and major general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . He is credited with being one of the fathers of the Continental Army in teaching them the essentials of military drills , tactics , and disciplines . He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States , the book that served as standard United States drill manual until the American Civil War . He served as General George Washington 's chief of staff in the final years of the war . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life and education 2 First military service 3 Service in Hohenzollern - Hechingen 4 American Revolution 4.1 Inspector General 4.2 Training program 4.3 Southern campaign 5 Final years 6 Personal life 7 Death 8 Legacy 9 See also 10 References 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Early life and education ( edit ) Baron von Steuben was born in the fortress town of Magdeburg on September 17 , 1730 , the son of Royal Prussian Engineer , Capt . Baron Wilhelm von Steuben , and his wife , Elizabeth von Jagvodin . When his father entered the service of Empress Anna , young Friedrich came with him to the Crimea and then to Kronstadt , staying until the Russian war against the Turks under the General Burkhard Christoph von Münnich . In 1740 Steuben 's father returned to Prussia and Friedrich was educated in the garrison towns Neisse and Breslau by Jesuits . It is said that at age 14 he served as volunteer with his father in one of the campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession . First military service ( edit ) Baron von Steuben joined the Prussian Army at age 17 . He served as a second lieutenant during the Seven Years ' War in 1756 , and was wounded at the 1757 Battle of Prague . He served as adjutant to the free battalion of General Johann von Mayr and was promoted to first lieutenant in 1759 . In August 1759 he was wounded a second time at the Battle of Kunersdorf . In June 1761 , he was appointed deputy quartermaster at the general headquarters . Later that year he was taken prisoner by the Russians at Treptow . He subsequently attained the rank of captain , and served as aide - de-camp to Frederick the Great ; in 1762 he was one of 13 young officers chosen to participate in a special course of instruction delivered by the king himself . Upon the reduction of the army at the end of the war , in 1763 , Steuben was one of many officers who found themselves unemployed . Towards the end of his life , Steuben indicated in a letter that `` an inconsiderate step and an implacable personal enemy '' led to his leaving the Prussian army . Service in Hohenzollern - Hechingen ( edit ) In 1764 Steuben became Hofmarschall to Fürst Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern - Hechingen , a post he held until 1777 . In 1769 the Duchess of Wurttemberg , niece of Frederick the Great , presented him with the `` Cross of the Order of De la Fidelite '' . In 1771 he began to use the title baron . That same year he accompanied the prince to France in 1771 , hoping to borrow money . Failing to find funds , they returned to Germany in 1775 , deeply in debt . In 1763 Steuben had been formally introduced to the future French Minister of War , Claude Louis , Comte de Saint - Germain in Hamburg . They met again in Paris in 1777 . The Count , fully realizing the potential of an officer with Prussian general staff training , introduced him to Benjamin Franklin . Franklin , however , was unable to offer Steuben a rank or pay in the American army . The Continental Congress had grown tired of foreign mercenaries coming to America and demanding a high rank and pay . Promoting these men over qualified American officers caused discontent in the ranks . Von Steuben would have to go to America strictly as a volunteer , and present himself to Congress . Steuben left these first meetings in disgust and returned to Prussia . Steuben found waiting for him allegations that he engaged in homosexual relationships with young men while in the service of Prince Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern - Hechingen . The allegations were never proven , but Steuben knew they would stymie his chances at an officer 's position in Europe . Threatened with prosecution for his alleged homosexuality , Steuben returned to Paris . Rumors followed him from Prussia to America that he was homosexual , but there never was an investigation of von Steuben and he received a Congressional pension after the war . Upon the Count 's recommendation , Steuben was introduced to future president George Washington by means of a letter from Franklin as a `` Lieutenant General in the King of Prussia 's service '' , an exaggeration of his actual credentials that appears to be based on a mistranslation of his service record . He was advanced travel funds and left Europe from Marseilles on Friday , September 26 , 1777 on board the frigate Flamand . American Revolution ( edit ) Portrait of Steuben by Ralph Earl The Baron , his Italian greyhound , Azor ( which he took with him everywhere ) , his young aide de camp Louis de Pontière , his military secretary , Peter Stephen Du Ponceau ( then called Pierre Etienne Du Ponceau ) , and two other companions , reached Portsmouth , New Hampshire on December 1 , 1777 , where they were almost arrested for being British because Steuben had mistakenly outfitted them in red uniforms . They were extravagantly entertained in Boston . On February 5 , 1778 Steuben and his party arrived in York , Pennsylvania , where the Continental Congress had relocated after being ousted from Philadelphia by the British advance . Arrangements were made for Steuben to be paid following the successful completion of the war according to his contributions . He arrived at Valley Forge on February 23 , 1778 , and reported for duty as a volunteer . One soldier 's first impression of the Baron was `` of the ancient fabled God of War ... he seemed to me a perfect personification of Mars . The trappings of his horse , the enormous holsters of his pistols , his large size , and his strikingly martial aspect , all seemed to favor the idea . He turned the volunteers into a great army '' Inspector General ( edit ) Washington appointed von Steuben as temporary inspector general . He went out into the camp to talk with the officers and men , inspect their huts , and scrutinize their equipment . Steuben established standards of sanitation and camp layouts that would still be standard a century and a half later . There had previously been no set arrangement of tents and huts . Men relieved themselves where they wished and when an animal died , it was stripped of its meat and the rest was left to rot where it lay . Steuben laid out a plan to have rows for command , officers and enlisted men . Kitchens and latrines were on opposite sides of the camp , with latrines downhill side . There was the familiar arrangement of company and regimental streets . On May 5 , 1778 , on General Washington 's recommendation , Congress appointed Steuben inspector general of the army , with the rank and pay of major general . Internal administration had been neglected , and no books had been kept either as to supplies , clothing or men . Steuben became aware of the `` administrative incompetence , graft , war profiteering '' that existed . He enforced the keeping of exact records and strict inspections . His inspections saved the army an estimated loss of five to eight thousand muskets . Training program ( edit ) Baron von Steuben Drilling Troops at Valley Forge , by E.A. Abbey ( c. 1904 ) , Pennsylvania State Capitol , Harrisburg Steuben picked 120 men from various regiments , to form an honor guard for General Washington , and used them to demonstrate military training to the rest of the troops . These men in turn trained other personnel at Regimental and Brigade levels . Steuben 's eccentric personality greatly enhanced his mystique . In full military dress uniform , he twice a day trained the soldiers who , at this point , were themselves greatly lacking in proper clothing . As he could only speak and write a small amount of English , Steuben originally wrote the drills in the German dialect of Prussian , the military language of Europe at the time . His secretary , Du Ponceau , then translated the drills from Prussian into French , and a secretary for Washington translated it to English . They did this every single night so Washington could command his soldiers in the morning . Colonel Alexander Hamilton and General Nathanael Greene were of great help in assisting Steuben in drafting a training program for the Army . The Baron 's willingness and ability to work with the men , as well as his use of profanity ( in several different languages ) , made him popular among the soldiers . It is here he met his reputed future lover , Captain Benjamin Walker . Upon meeting Walker for the first time he exclaimed `` If I had seen an angel from Heaven I should not have more rejoiced . '' Within weeks , Walker was Steuben 's aide - de-camp . Steuben introduced a system of progressive training , beginning with the school of the soldier , with and without arms , and going through the school of the regiment . This corrected the previous policy of simply assigning personnel to regiments . Each company commander was made responsible for the training of new men , but actual instruction was done by sergeants specifically selected for being the best obtainable . In the earlier part of the war , the U.S. used the bayonet mostly as a cooking skewer or tool rather than as a fighting instrument . Steuben 's introduction of effective bayonet charges became crucial . In the Battle of Stony Point , U.S. soldiers attacked with unloaded muskets and won the battle solely on Steuben 's bayonet training . The first results of Steuben 's training were in evidence at the Battle of Barren Hill , May 20 , 1778 and then again at the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778 . Steuben , by then serving in Washington 's headquarters , was the first to determine that the enemy was heading for Monmouth . During the winter of 1778 -- 1779 , Steuben prepared Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States , commonly known as the `` Blue Book '' . Its basis was the training plan he had devised at Valley Forge . It was used by the United States Army until 1814 , and affected U.S. drills and tactics until the Mexican War of 1846 . Southern campaign ( edit ) Mount Gulian , Fishkill , N.Y. In 1780 Steuben sat on the court - martial of the British Army officer Major John André , captured and charged with espionage in conjunction with the defection of General Benedict Arnold . He later traveled with Nathanael Greene , the new commander of the Southern campaign . He quartered in Virginia since U.S. supplies and soldiers would be provided to the army from there . Steuben would help in the defense of Virginia with approximately 1000 militia fighting a delaying action in the Battle of Blandford . During the spring of 1781 , he aided Greene in the campaign in the south , culminating in the delivery of 450 Virginia Continentals to Lafayette in June . He was forced to take sick leave , rejoining the army for the final campaign at Yorktown , where his role was as commander of one of the three divisions of Washington 's troops . In 1783 , General Von Steuben joined General Knox at Vail 's Gate , near West Point , in the fall of 1782 and in early 1783 moved to the Verplanck homestead , at Mount Gulian , across the Hudson River from Washington 's headquarters in Newburgh . Steuben gave assistance to Washington in demobilizing the army in 1783 as well as aiding in the defense plan of the new nation . In May 1783 Steuben presided over the founding of the Society of the Cincinnati . He was discharged from the military with honor on March 24 , 1784 . Final years ( edit ) Steuben 's log cabin summer residence , Steuben , New York Steuben became a U.S. citizen by act of the Pennsylvania legislature in March 1784 ( and later by the New York authorities in July 1786 ) . With the war over , Steuben resigned from service and first settled with his longtime companion , William North , for whom he created a special room at his retreat he called The Louvre on Manhattan Island , where he became a prominent figure and elder in the German Reformed Church . From 1785 until his death , in 1794 , he served as president of the German Society of the City of New York , a charitable society founded in 1784 to assist German immigrants . Even with the new U.S. Congress giving him large sums of money , he became largely indebted . In 1790 , Congress awarded him a pension of $2,500 a year , which he kept until his death . On December 23 , 1783 , the State of New Jersey presented him with the use of an estate in Bergen County now known as Steuben House , which had been confiscated from Loyalist Jan Zabriskie in 1781 . Located in the formerly strategic New Bridge Landing , the estate included a gristmill and about 40 acres of land . Legislators initially conditioned the grant , requiring Steuben to `` hold , occupy and enjoy the said estate in person , and not by tenant . '' Gen. Philemon Dickinson of the New Jersey Militia informed the baron of this gift and responded to his inquiries that `` there are on the premises an exceeding good House , an excellent barn , together with many useful outbuildings , all of which I am told , want some repairs ... there is ... a Grist - mill ; a good Orchard , some meadow Ground , & plenty of Wood . The distance from N York by land 15 miles , but you may keep a boat & go from your own door to N York by water -- Oysters , Fish & wild fowl in abundance -- Possession will be given to you in the Spring , when you will take a view of the premises . '' Von Steuben spent considerable sums to repair wartime damages to the house and restore its commercial operations under former aide Walker . On September 5 , 1788 , the New Jersey Legislature gave Baron von Steuben full title to the former Zabriskie estate . A month later , recognizing his financial embarrassment , Steuben wrote another former aide - de-camp and companion , William North , recognizing : `` The jersey Estate must and is to be sold . Walker is my administrator , all debts are to be paid out of it . '' On November 6 , 1788 , Steuben again wrote North ( at his new home in Duanesburg ) , noting `` My Jersey Estate is Advertised but not yet Sold , from this Walker Shall immediately pay to you the money , you so generously lend me and all my debts in New - York will be payed . I support my present poverty with more heroism than I Expected . All Clubs and parties are renounced , I seldom leave the House . '' Steuben eventually sold the New Jersey property to a son of the previous owner , and it remained in the Zabriskie family until 1909 . It is the only remaining eighteenth - century building that von Steuben owned . Von Steuben moved upstate and settled in Oneida County on a small estate in the vicinity of Rome , on land granted to him for his military service and where he had spent summers . He was later appointed a regent for what evolved into the University of the State of New York . Personal life ( edit ) Von Steuben was probably gay . His exits from the court of Hohenzollern - Hechingen and from Paris were under clouds of accusation of homosexual activity . Von Steuben arrived in the United States with his 17 - year - old secretary , Peter Stephen Du Ponceau , who is rumored to have been his lover . At Valley Forge , he began close relationships with Benjamin Walker and William North , then both military officers in their 20s , which are assumed by many to have been romantic . Because homosexuality was criminalized at the time , records of his relationships are limited to references in correspondences . Death ( edit ) Von Steuben died on November 28 , 1794 , at his estate in Oneida County , and was buried in a grove at what became the Steuben Memorial State Historic Site ; the estate became part of the town of Steuben , New York , which was named for him . Steuben did not marry and had no children . He did not care much for his European relatives . Thus , he left his estate to his companions and aides - de-camp , Captains Benjamin Walker and William North , with whom he had had an `` extraordinarily intense emotional relationship ... treating them as surrogate sons '' . Legacy ( edit ) General Von Steuben , 1930 Issue Generally , Von Steuben Day takes place in September in many cities throughout the United States . It is often considered the German - American event of the year . Participants march , dance , wear German costumes and play German music , and the event is attended by millions of people . The German - American Steuben Parade is held annually in September in New York City . It is one of the largest parades in the city and is traditionally followed by an Oktoberfest in Central Park as well as celebrations in Yorkville , Manhattan , a German section of New York City . The German - American Steuben Parade has been taking place since 1958 . Chicago also hosts a von Steuben Day parade , which is featured in the U.S. film Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . Philadelphia hosts to a smaller Steuben Parade in the Northeast section of the city . Steubenville , Ohio , has the recreated Fort Steuben , named after our beloved Baron . The Steuben Society was founded in 1919 as `` an educational , fraternal , and patriotic organization of American citizens of German background '' . In the difficult post-World War I years the Society helped the German - American community to reorganize . It is now one of the largest organizations for Americans of German descent . A warship , a submarine , and an ocean liner ( later pressed into military service ) were named in von Steuben 's honor . In World War I the captured German ship SS Kronprinz Wilhelm was renamed as USS Von Steuben , and in World War II there was the Dampfschiff General von Steuben , an ill - fated German luxury passenger ship which was turned into an armed transport ship during the war . During the Cold War , the U.S. Navy submarine USS Von Steuben was named for him . Several locations in the United States are also named Steuben , most of them in his honor . Examples include Steuben County , New York , Steuben County , Indiana , and the city of Steubenville , Ohio . Several buildings are named for Steuben , among them Von Steuben Metropolitan Science Center in Chicago , Illinois , as well as one of the cadet barracks buildings at Valley Forge Military Academy and College . Von Steuben was one of four European military leaders who assisted the U.S. cause during the Revolution and was honored with a statue in Lafayette Square , just north of the White House , in Washington , D.C. The statue by Albert Jaegers was dedicated in 1910 . A copy was dedicated in Potsdam , Germany in 1911 , and destroyed during World War II . A new cast was given in honor of German - American friendship in 1987 , and to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin . It was installed in the Dahlem district , in what had been the U.S. sector of the formerly divided city . Additional casts are in Potsdam , and in Steuben 's home town of Magdeburg . Statues of Steuben by J. Otto Schweizer can be found in Valley Forge , Pennsylvania and Utica , New York ; in addition to an equestrian statue by Schweizer in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . A bust of Steuben is in the garden of the German Embassy in Washington , D.C. The Steuben House , presented to Steuben as a gift for his services in the Continental Army , is located at New Bridge Landing in River Edge , New Jersey . The house and surrounding farmland were seized in 1781 from a Loyalist family . The house looks much as it did after Steuben renovated it . The State of New Jersey took possession of the historic mansion and one acre of ground for $9,000 on June 27 , 1928 . It was opened as a public museum in September 1939 . The Bergen County Historical Society opens the building for special events . It is under the jurisdiction of the Historic New Bridge Landing Park Commission . Other tributes include Steuben Field , the stadium of the Hamilton College football team . Von Steuben , acting as Alexander Hamilton 's surrogate , laid the cornerstone of the school . Upon graduating , all Hamilton seniors receive as a gift from the college a cane with a tricorn hat at its top in reference to von Steuben . The various depictions of Steuben in popular U.S. media include portrayals by Nehemiah Persoff in the 1979 U.S. TV miniseries The Rebels , Kurt Knudson in the 1984 TV miniseries George Washington , being voiced by Austrian - American Arnold Schwarzenegger in the animated series Liberty 's Kids , and by David Cross on the `` Philadelphia '' episode of Drunk History . In 2007 , a popular documentary DVD was released by LionHeart FilmWorks and director Kevin Hershberger titled Von Steuben 's Continentals : The First American Army . The 60 - minute , live - action documentary details the life , uniforms , camp life , food , weapons , equipment and drill of the Continental soldier 1775 -- 1781 , as taught and developed by Baron von Steuben . Steuben House , River Edge , New Jersey . A gift to Steuben from the State of New Jersey , this is the only extant house he owned . Steuben 's grave , Steuben , New York Painting : Baron von Steuben at Valley Forge , 1777 ( 1907 ) , Augustus G. Heaton , artist , National War College , Washington , D.C. Steuben Monument ( 1910 ) , Albert Jaegers , sculptor , Lafayette Park , Washington , D.C. General Friedrich Wilhelm August von Steuben ( 1911 , destroyed 1945 , cast 1994 ) , Albert Jaegers , sculptor , Potsdam , Germany Baron von Steuben ( 1915 ) , J. Otto Schweizer , sculptor , Valley Forge National Historical Park , Pennsylvania . A copy is in Utica , New York . General von Stueben Drilling Washington 's Army at Valley Forge ( 1915 ) , J. Otto Schweizer , sculptor . Bas - relief panel on the base of the Valley Forge statue . Steuben Monument ( 1921 ) , J. Otto Schweizer , sculptor , Milwaukee , Wisconsin Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben ( 1947 ) , Warren Wheelock , sculptor , outside Philadelphia Museum of Art , Pennsylvania Friedrich Wilhelm Baron von Steuben ( cast 1987 ) , Albert Jaegers , sculptor , Berlin - Dahlem , Germany General von Steuben ( cast 1996 ) , Albert Jaegers , sculptor , Magdeburg , Germany General Von Steuben Memorial ( 2004 ) , Johnson Atelier , sculptors , Monmouth Battlefield State Park , New Jersey See also ( edit ) Revolutionary War Drill Manual References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Fleming , Thomas ( February -- March 2006 ) . `` The Magnificent Fraud '' . American Heritage . Jump up ^ Beck , Glenn ( 2011 ) . Being George Washington . Mercury Radio Arts . p. 74 . Jump up ^ `` Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben '' . Bergen County Historical Society . ^ Jump up to : `` General von Steuben '' . Valley Forge ( National Historical Park Pennsylvania ) . National Park Service . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Bielakowski , Alexander M. ( 2013 ) . Ethnic and Racial Minorities in the U.S. Military : An Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . pp. 667 -- 69 . ^ Jump up to : Kapp , Friedrich ( 1859 ) . Life of Frederick William Von Steuben : Major General in the Revolutionary Army . Mason Brothers . ^ Jump up to : Lockhart , Paul ( June 27 , 2008 ) . `` The Rich Legacy of a Forgotten Founder '' . US News and World Report . ^ Jump up to : `` Major General Von Steuben '' . Steuben Society of America . 2014 . Archived from the original on January 16 , 2016 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ Villa , Pablo ( September 18 , 2015 ) . `` Friedrich von Steuben : A Closer Look at the ' Father ' of the NCO Corps '' . NCO Journal . Jump up ^ Shilts , Randy ( 2005 ) . Conduct Unbecoming : Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military . St. Martin 's Press . pp. 7 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Adam , Thomas ( 2005 ) . Germany and the Americas : Culture , Politics , and History ; a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . p. 1007 . ^ Jump up to : `` General Von Steuben '' . Mount Gulian Historic site . Jump up ^ Deats , Paula ; Fleisher , Carol L. ( 1995 ) . `` A War Without End '' episode `` . The Revolutionary War . The Learning Channel . Jump up ^ Benemann , William E. ( 2006 ) . Male -- Male Intimacy in Early America : Beyond Romantic Friendships Routledge ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Routledge . Jump up ^ `` Drill and Ceremony # 43 '' . ArmyStudyGuide.com . Retrieved April 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ The current revision of this book is available for download from the US Army directly The United States Army Jump up ^ Lockhart , Paul Douglas ( 2008 ) . The Drillmaster of Valley Forge : The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 0 - 06 - 145163 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Baron Von Steuben '' . Museum Collections . National Park Service . Jump up ^ Headley , Joel Tyler ( 1900 ) . `` Steuben , Frederick William Augustus Henry Ferdinand von '' . In Wilson , James Grant ; Fiske , John . Appletons ' Cyclopædia of American Biography . New York : D. Appleton . Jump up ^ Von Zemenszky , Edith ( 1982 ) . The Papers of General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben 1777 -- 1794 . Millwood , NY . Account with -- -- -- - , reel 6 , frame . Jump up ^ Wust , Klaus ( 1984 ) . Guardian on the Hudson : The German Society of the City of New York , 1784 -- 1984 . New York : The Society . ISBN 0 - 917968 - 11 - 5 . p. 15 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Zabriskie - Steuben House '' . Bergen County Historical Society . Jump up ^ Karels , Carol ( 2007 ) . The Revolutionary War in Bergen County . Charleston , SC : The History Press . p. 61 . ISBN 9781596293588 . Jump up ^ Quoted in : Wright , Kevin . `` Baron von Steuben 's Jersey Estate at New Bridge '' . Bergen County Historical Society . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` '' Meet The Gay Man Who Won America Her Independence `` '' . Jump up ^ Lockhart , Paul ( 2008 ) . `` The Drillmaster of Valley Forge '' . Harper Perennial . Jump up ^ No Author Given ( March 24 , 2014 ) . `` '' Gay Influence : Baron Von Steuben `` '' . Gay Influence . Retrieved July 4 , 2017 . Behind him were his retinue of African servants , a French chef , his French aide - de-camp Louis de Pontière and the Baron 's 17 - year - old lover / secretary Pierre - Étienne du Ponceau . Jump up ^ Benemann , William Male - Male Intimacy in Early America : Beyond Romantic Friendships Haworth Press , 2006 , ISBN 1 - 56023 - 345 - 1 Jump up ^ `` Frederick William Augustus von Steuben , Baron . '' Encyclopedia of World Biography . Detroit : Gale , 1998 . Retrieved from Biography in Context database , 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Scott . Resting Places : The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons , 3d ed. : 2 ( Kindle Location 44998 ) . McFarland & Company , Inc. , Publishers . Kindle Edition . Jump up ^ Skelton , William B. ( February 2000 ) . `` North , William '' . American National Biography Online . Jump up ^ `` German - American Steuben Parade of New York '' . Jump up ^ `` Our History '' . The Steuben Society of America . www.steubensociety.org . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Bergen County Historical Society '' . Jump up ^ `` NESCAC Football Record Book '' . Jump up ^ `` LionHeart FilmWorks '' . Sources ( edit ) Palmer , John McAuley ( 1937 ) . General Von Steuben . Yale University Press . Steuben Papers , NYHS . The Historic Society of Pennsylvania , Simon Gratz Collection ( # 250 ) , Case 4 , Box 13 William North / Benjamin Walker Letters Guide to the Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben Papers at the New - York Historical Society Further reading ( edit ) Baron Von Steuben : An account of a 19th century visit to America by his German relatives . N.Y. Times : Steuben hosted by the Nation he helped to create External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben . Wikisource has original works written by or about : Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben Works by or about Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben at Internet Archive Works by Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks ) Bowen , Francis ; Hayward , Charles ( 1838 ) . Lives of Baron Steuben , Sebastian Cabot , and William Eaton . Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin Baron von Steuben . Baron Von Steuben 's Revolutionary War Drill Manual Military offices Preceded by Thomas Conway IG of the U.S. Army May 5 , 1778 -- April 15 , 1784 Succeeded by William North VIAF : 56927823 LCCN : n50023974 ISNI : 0000 0000 2337 1577 GND : 118617990 SUDOC : 095073620 BNF : cb15566204b ( data ) IATH : w6513xnj Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Wilhelm_von_Steuben&oldid=803192254 '' Categories : 1730 births 1794 deaths Continental Army generals Continental Army staff officers German Christians Prussian emigrants to the United States Barons of Germany German people of the American Revolution Members of the American Philosophical Society Prussian military personnel of the Seven Years ' War German military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Appleton 's Cyclopedia Use mdy dates from July 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017 Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - ID identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 1 October 2017 , at 01 : 52 . 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what is the primary function of the outer ear

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Ear&oldid=844747430

Ear - wikipedia Ear For other uses , see Ear ( disambiguation ) . Ear The outer portion of the human ear `` Ear '' pronounced ( British accent ) Details System Auditory system Identifiers Latin Auris MeSH D004423 NeuroLex ID birnlex_1062 TA A01. 1.00. 005 A15. 3.00. 001 FMA 52780 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the Human ear Outer ear ( show ) Pinna Tragus Middle ear ( show ) Tympanic membrane Ossicles Malleus Incus Stapes Inner ear ( show ) Vestibules Utricle Saccule Cochlea Semicircular canals The ear is the organ of hearing and , in mammals , balance . In mammals , the ear is usually described as having three parts -- the outer ear , middle ear and the inner ear . The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal . Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals , the word `` ear '' often refers to the external part alone . The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles . The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth , and contains structures which are key to several senses : the semicircular canals , which enable balance and eye tracking when moving ; the utricle and saccule , which enable balance when stationary ; and the cochlea , which enables hearing . The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head , an arrangement that aids sound localisation . The ear develops from the first pharyngeal pouch and six small swellings that develop in the early embryo called otic placodes , which are derived from ectoderm . The ear may be affected by disease , including infection and traumatic damage . Diseases of the ear may lead to hearing loss , tinnitus and balance disorders such as vertigo , although many of these conditions may also be affected by damage to the brain or neural pathways leading from the ear . The ear has been adorned by earrings and other jewelry in numerous cultures for thousands of years , and has been subjected to surgical and cosmetic alterations . Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Outer ear 1.2 Middle ear 1.3 Inner ear 1.4 Blood supply 2 Function 2.1 Hearing 2.2 Balance 3 Development 3.1 Inner ear 3.2 Middle ear 3.3 Outer ear 4 Clinical significance 4.1 Hearing loss 4.2 Congenital abnormalities 4.3 Vertigo 4.4 Injury 4.5 Tinnitus 5 Society and culture 6 Other animals 6.1 Invertebrates 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Structure The eardrum as viewed from the outside using an otoscope . The outer ear ends at the eardrum , and the middle ear can be seen in the tympanic cavity behind . The human ear consists of three parts -- the outer ear , middle ear and inner ear . The ear canal of the outer ear is separated from the air - filled tympanic cavity of the middle ear by the eardrum . The middle ear contains the three small bones -- the ossicles -- involved in the transmission of sound , and is connected to the throat at the nasopharynx , via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube . The inner ear contains the otolith organs -- the utricle and saccule -- and the semicircular canals belonging to the vestibular system , as well as the cochlea of the auditory system . Outer ear Main article : Outer ear The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the fleshy visible pinna ( also called the auricle ) , the ear canal , and the outer layer of the eardrum ( also called the tympanic membrane ) . The pinna consists of the curving outer rim called the helix , the inner curved rim called the antihelix , and opens into the ear canal . The tragus protrudes and partially obscures the ear canal , as does the facing antitragus . The hollow region in front of the ear canal is called the concha . The ear canal stretches for about 1 inch ( 2.5 cm ) . The first part of the canal is surrounded by cartilage , while the second part near the eardrum is surrounded by bone . This bony part is known as the auditory bulla and is formed by the tympanic part of the temporal bone . The skin surrounding the ear canal contains ceruminous and sebaceous glands that produce protective ear wax . The ear canal ends at the external surface of the eardrum . Two sets of muscles are associated with the outer ear : the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles . In some mammals , these muscles can adjust the direction of the pinna . In humans , these muscles have little or no effect . The ear muscles are supplied by the facial nerve , which also supplies sensation to the skin of the ear itself , as well as to the external ear cavity . The great auricular nerve , auricular nerve , auriculotemporal nerve , and lesser and greater occipital nerves of the cervical plexus all supply sensation to parts of the outer ear and the surrounding skin . The pinna consists of a single piece of elastic cartilage with a complicated relief on its inner surface and a fairly smooth configuration on its posterior surface . A tubercle , known as Darwin 's tubercle , is sometimes present , lying in the descending part of the helix and corresponding to the ear - tip of mammals . The earlobe consists of areola and adipose tissue . The symmetrical arrangement of the two ears allows for the localisation of sound . The brain accomplishes this by comparing arrival - times and intensities from each ear , in circuits located in the superior olivary complex and the trapezoid bodies which are connected via pathways to both ears . Middle ear Main article : Middle ear The middle ear The middle ear lies between the outer ear and the inner ear . It consists of an air - filled cavity called the tympanic cavity and includes the three ossicles and their attaching ligaments ; the auditory tube ; and the round and oval windows . The ossicles are three small bones that function together to receive , amplify , and transmit the sound from the eardrum to the inner ear . The ossicles are the malleus ( hammer ) , incus ( anvil ) , and the stapes ( stirrup ) . The stapes is the smallest named bone in the body . The middle ear also connects to the upper throat at the nasopharynx via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube . The three ossicles transmit sound from the outer ear to the inner ear . The malleus receives vibrations from sound pressure on the eardrum , where it is connected at its longest part ( the manubrium or handle ) by a ligament . It transmits vibrations to the incus , which in turn transmits the vibrations to the small stapes bone . The wide base of the stapes rests on the oval window . As the stapes vibrates , vibrations are transmitted through the oval window , causing movement of fluid within the cochlea . The round window allows for the fluid within the inner ear to move . As the stapes pushes the secondary tympanic membrane , fluid in the inner ear moves and pushes the membrane of the round window out by a corresponding amount into the middle ear . The ossicles help amplify sound waves by nearly 15 -- 20 times . Inner ear The outer ear receives sound , transmitted through the ossicles of the middle ear to the inner ear , where it is converted to a nervous signal in the cochlear and transmitted along the vestibulocochlear nerve Main article : Inner ear The inner ear sits within the temporal bone in a complex cavity called the bony labyrinth . A central area known as the vestibule contains two small fluid - filled recesses , the utricle and saccule . These connect to the semicircular canals and the cochlea . There are three semicircular canals angled at right angles to each other which are responsible for dynamic balance . The cochlea is a spiral shell - shaped organ responsible for the sense of hearing . These structures together create the membranous labyrinth . The bony labyrinth refers to the bony compartment which contains the membranous labyrinth , contained within the temporal bone . The inner ear structurally begins at the oval window , which receives vibrations from the incus of the middle ear . Vibrations are transmitted into the inner ear into a fluid called endolymph , which fills the membranous labyrinth . The endolymph is situated in two vestibules , the utricle and saccule , and eventually transmits to the cochlea , a spiral - shaped structure . The cochlea consists of three fluid - filled spaces : the vestibular duct , the cochlear duct , and the tympanic duct . Hair cells responsible for transduction -- changing mechanical changes into electrical stimuli are present in the organ of Corti in the cochlea . Blood supply The blood supply of the ear differs according to each part of the ear . The outer ear is supplied by a number of arteries . The posterior auricular artery provides the majority of the blood supply . The anterior auricular arteries provide some supply to the outer rim of the ear and scalp behind it . The posterior auricular artery is a direct branch of the external carotid artery , and the anterior auricular arteries are branches from the superficial temporal artery . The occipital artery also plays a role . The middle ear is supplied by the mastoid branch of either the occipital or posterior auricular arteries and the deep auricular artery , a branch of the maxillary artery . Other arteries which are present but play a smaller role include branches of the middle meningeal artery , ascending pharyngeal artery , internal carotid artery , and the artery of the pterygoid canal . The inner ear is supplied by the anterior tympanic branch of the maxillary artery ; the stylomastoid branch of the posterior auricular artery ; the petrosal branch of middle meningeal artery ; and the labyrinthine artery , arising from either the anterior inferior cerebellar artery or the basilar artery . Function Hearing Main article : Hearing Sound waves travel through the outer ear , are modulated by the middle ear , and are transmitted to the vestibulocochlear nerve in the inner ear . This nerve transmits information to the temporal lobe of the brain , where it is registered as sound . Sound that travels through the outer ear impacts on the eardrum , and causes it to vibrate . The three ossicles bones transmit this sound to a second window ( the oval window ) which protects the fluid - filled inner ear . In detail , the pinna of the outer ear helps to focus a sound , which impacts on the eardrum . The malleus rests on the membrane , and receives the vibration . This vibration is transmitted along the incus and stapes to the oval window . Two small muscles , the tensor tympani and stapedius , also help modulate noise . The two muscles reflexively contract to dampen excessive vibrations . Vibration of the oval window causes vibration of the endolymph within the vestibule and the cochlea . The inner ear houses the apparatus necessary to change the vibrations transmitted from the outside world via the middle ear into signals passed along the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain . The hollow channels of the inner ear are filled with liquid , and contain a sensory epithelium that is studded with hair cells . The microscopic `` hairs '' of these cells are structural protein filaments that project out into the fluid . The hair cells are mechanoreceptors that release a chemical neurotransmitter when stimulated . Sound waves moving through fluid flows against the receptor cells of the organ of Corti . The fluid pushes the filaments of individual cells ; movement of the filaments causes receptor cells to become open to receive the potassium - rich endolymph . This causes the cell to depolarise , and creates an action potential that is transmitted along the spiral ganglion , which sends information through the auditory portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve to the temporal lobe of the brain . The human ear can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz ( the audio range ) . Sounds outside this range are considered infrasound ( below 20 Hz ) or ultrasound ( above 20 kHz ) Although hearing requires an intact and functioning auditory portion of the central nervous system as well as a working ear , human deafness ( extreme insensitivity to sound ) most commonly occurs because of abnormalities of the inner ear , rather than in the nerves or tracts of the central auditory system . Balance Main articles : Balance ( ability ) and Equilibrioception Providing balance , when moving or stationary , is also a central function of the ear . The ear facilitates two types of balance : static balance , which allows a person to feel the effects of gravity , and dynamic balance , which allows a person to sense acceleration . Static balance is provided by two ventricles , the utricle and the saccule . Cells lining the walls of these ventricles contain fine filaments , and the cells are covered with a fine gelatinous layer . Each cell has 50 -- 70 small filaments , and one large filament , the kinocilium . Within the gelatinous layer lie otoliths , tiny formations of calcium carbonate . When a person moves , these otoliths shift position . This shift alters the positions of the filaments , which opens ion channels within the cell membranes , creating depolarisation and an action potential that is transmitted to the brain along the vestibulocochlear nerve . Dynamic balance is provided through the three semicircular canals . These three canals are orthogonal ( at right angles ) to each other . At the end of each canal is a slight enlargement , known as the ampulla , which contains numerous cells with filaments in a central area called the cupula . The fluid in these canals rotates according to the momentum of the head . When a person changes acceleration , the inertia of the fluid changes . This affects the pressure on the cupula , and results in the opening of ion channels . This causes depolarisation , which is passed as a signal to the brain along the vestibulocochlear nerve . Dynamic balance also helps maintain eye tracking when moving , via the vestibulo -- ocular reflex . Development During embryogenesis the ear develops as three distinct structures : the inner ear , the middle ear and the outer ear . Each structure originates from a different germ layer : the ectoderm , endoderm and mesenchyme . Inner ear The otic placode visible on this sketch of a developing embryo . After implantation , around the second to third week the developing embryo consists of three layers : endoderm , mesoderm and ectoderm . The first part of the ear to develop is the inner ear , which begins to form from the ectoderm around the 22nd day of the embryo 's development . Specifically , the inner ear derives from two thickenings called otic placodes on either side of the head . Each otic placode recedes below the ectoderm , forms an otic pit and then an otic vesicle . This entire mass will eventually become surrounded by mesenchyme to form the bony labyrinth . Around the 33rd day of development , the vesicles begin to differentiate . Closer to the back of the embryo , they form what will become the utricle and semicircular canals . Closer to the front of the embryo , the vesicles differentiate into a rudimentary saccule , which will eventually become the saccule and cochlea . Part of the saccule will eventually give rise and connect to the cochlear duct . This duct appears approximately during the sixth week and connects to the saccule through the ductus reuniens . As the cochlear duct 's mesenchyme begins to differentiate , three cavities are formed : the scala vestibuli , the scala tympani and the scala media . Both the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani contain an extracellular fluid called perilymph . The scala media contains endolymph . A set of membranes called the vestibular membrane and the basilar membrane develop to separate the cochlear duct from the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct , respectively . Parts of the otic vesicle in turn form the vestibulocochlear nerve . These form bipolar neurons which supply sensation to parts of the inner ear ( namely the sensory parts of the semicircular canals , macular of the utricle and saccule , and organ of Corti ) . The nerve begins to form around the 28th day . Molecular regulation Most of the genes responsible for the regulation of inner ear formation and its morphogenesis are members of the homeobox gene family such as Pax , Msx and Otx homeobox genes . The development of inner ear structures such as the cochlea is regulated by Dlx5 / Dlx6 , Otx1 / Otx2 and Pax2 , which in turn are controlled by the master gene Shh . Shh is secreted by the notochord . Middle ear The middle ear and its components develop from the first and second pharyngeal arches . The tympanic cavity and auditory tube develop from the first part of the pharyngeal pouch between the first two arches in an area which will also go on to develop the pharynx . This develops as a structure called the tubotympanic recess . The ossicles ( malleus , incus and stapes ) normally appear during the first half of fetal development . The first two ( malleus and incus ) derive from the first pharyngeal arch and the stapes derives from the second . All three ossicles develop from the neural crest . Eventually cells from the tissue surrounding the ossicles will experience apoptosis and a new layer of endodermal epithelial will constitute the formation of the tympanic cavity wall . Outer ear The ear develops in the lower neck region and moves upwards as the mandible develops . Unlike structures of the inner and middle ear , which develop from pharyngeal pouches , the ear canal originates from the dorsal portion of the first pharyngeal cleft . It is fully expanded by the end of the 18th week of development . The eardrum is made up of three layers ( ectoderm , endoderm and connective tissue ) . The pinna originates as a fusion of six hillocks . The first three hillocks are derived from the lower part of the first pharyngeal arch and form the tragus , crus of the helix , and helix , respectively . The final three hillocks are derived from the upper part of the second pharyngeal arch and form the antihelix , antitragus , and earlobe . The outer ears develop in the lower neck . As the mandible forms they move towards their final position level with the eyes . Clinical significance Hearing loss Perforation Fluid in the middle ear cavity Complications of otitis media that can lead to hearing loss , as seen on otoscope . Main article : Hearing loss Hearing loss may be either partial or total . This may be a result of injury or damage , congenital disease , or physiological causes . When hearing loss is a result of injury or damage to the outer ear or middle ear , it is known as conductive hearing loss . When deafness is a result of injury or damage to the inner ear , vestibulochoclear nerve , or brain , it is known as sensorineural hearing loss . Causes of conductive hearing loss include an ear canal blocked by ear wax , ossicles that are fixed together or absent , or holes in the eardrum . Conductive hearing loss may also result from middle ear inflammation causing fluid build - up in the normally air - filled space , such as by otitis media . Tympanoplasty is the general name of the operation to repair the middle ear 's eardrum and ossicles . Grafts from muscle fascia are ordinarily used to rebuild an intact eardrum . Sometimes artificial ear bones are placed to substitute for damaged ones , or a disrupted ossicular chain is rebuilt in order to conduct sound effectively . Hearing aids or cochlear implants may be used if the hearing loss is severe or prolonged . Hearing aids work by amplifying the sound of the local environment and are best suited to conductive hearing loss . Cochlear implants transmit the sound that is heard as if it were a nervous signal , bypassing the cochlea . Congenital abnormalities Anomalies and malformations of the pinna are common . These anomalies include chromosome syndromes such as ring 18 . Children may also present cases of abnormal ear canals and low ear implantation . In rare cases no pinna is formed ( atresia ) , or is extremely small ( microtia ) . Small pinnae can develop when the auricular hillocks do not develop properly . The ear canal can fail to develop if it does not channelise properly or if there is an obstruction . Reconstructive surgery to treat hearing loss is considered as an option for children older than five , with a cosmetic surgical procedure to reduce the size or change the shape of the ear is called an otoplasty . The initial medical intervention is aimed at assessing the baby 's hearing and the condition of the ear canal , as well as the middle and inner ear . Depending on the results of tests , reconstruction of the outer ear is done in stages , with planning for any possible repairs of the rest of the ear . Approximately one out of one thousand children suffer some type of congenital deafness related to the development of the inner ear . Inner ear congenital anomalies are related to sensorineural hearing loss and are generally diagnosed with a computed tomography ( CT ) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan . Hearing loss problems also derive from inner ear anomalies because its development is separate from that of the middle and external ear . Middle ear anomalies can occur because of errors during head and neck development . The first pharyngeal pouch syndrome associates middle ear anomalies to the malleus and incus structures as well as to the non-differentiation of the annular stapedial ligament . Temporal bone and ear canal anomalies are also related to this structure of the ear and are known to be associated with sensorineural hearing loss and conductive hearing loss . Vertigo Main article : Vertigo Vertigo refers to the inappropriate perception of motion . This is due to dysfunction of the vestibular system . One common type of vertigo is benign paroxysmal positional vertigo , when an otolith is displaced from the ventricles to the semicircular canal . The displaced otolith rests on the cupola , causing a sensation of movement when there is none . Ménière 's disease , labyrinthitis , strokes , and other infective and congenital diseases may also result in the perception of vertigo . Injury Outer ear Injuries to the external ear occur fairly frequently , and can leave minor to major deformity . Injuries include : laceration , avulsion injuries , burn and repeated twisting or pulling of an ear , for discipline or torture . Chronic damage to the ears can cause cauliflower ear , a common condition in boxers and wrestlers in which the cartilage around the ears becomes lumpy and distorted owing to persistence of a haematoma around the perichondrium , which can impair blood supply and healing . Owing to its exposed position , the external ear is susceptible to frostbite as well as skin cancers , including squamous - cell carcinoma and basal - cell carcinomas . Middle ear The ear drum may become perforated in the event of a large sound or explosion , when diving or flying ( called barotrauma ) , or by objects inserted into the ear . Another common cause of injury is due to an infection such as otitis media . These may cause a discharge from the ear called otorrhea , and are often investigated by otoscopy and audiometry . Treatment may include watchful waiting , antibiotics and possibly surgery , if the injury is prolonged or the position of the ossicles is affected . Skull fractures that go through the part of the skull containing the ear structures ( the temporal bone ) can also cause damage to the middle ear . A cholesteatoma is a cyst of squamous skin cells that may develop from birth or secondary to other causes such as chronic ear infections . It may impair hearing or cause dizziness or vertigo , and is usually investigated by otoscopy and may require a CT scan . The treatment for cholesteatoma is surgery . Inner ear There are two principal damage mechanisms to the inner ear in industrialised society , and both injure hair cells . The first is exposure to elevated sound levels ( noise trauma ) , and the second is exposure to drugs and other substances ( ototoxicity ) . A large number of people are exposed to sound levels on a daily basis that are likely to lead to significant hearing loss . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has recently published research on the estimated numbers of persons with hearing difficulty ( 11 % ) and the percentage of those that can be attributed to occupational noise exposure ( 24 % ) . Furthermore , according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ( NHANES ) , approximately twenty - two million ( 17 % ) US workers reported exposure to hazardous workplace noise . Workers exposed to hazardous noise further exacerbate the potential for developing noise - induced hearing loss when they do not wear hearing protection . Tinnitus Tinnitus is the hearing of sound when no external sound is present . While often described as a ringing , it may also sound like a clicking , hiss or roaring . Rarely , unclear voices or music are heard . The sound may be soft or loud , low pitched or high pitched and appear to be coming from one ear or both . Most of the time , it comes on gradually . In some people , the sound causes depression , anxiety , or concentration difficulties . Tinnitus is not a disease but a symptom that can result from a number of underlying causes . One of the most common causes is noise - induced hearing loss . Other causes include : ear infections , disease of the heart or blood vessels , Ménière 's disease , brain tumors , emotional stress , exposure to certain medications , a previous head injury , and earwax . It is more common in those with depression . Society and Culture Stretching of the earlobe and various cartilage piercings The ears have been ornamented with jewelry for thousands of years , traditionally by piercing of the earlobe . In ancient and modern cultures , ornaments have been placed to stretch and enlarge the earlobes , allowing for larger plugs to be slid into a large fleshy gap in the lobe . Tearing of the earlobe from the weight of heavy earrings , or from traumatic pull of an earring ( for example , by snagging on a sweater ) , is fairly common . Injury to the ears has been present since Roman times as a method of reprimand or punishment - `` In Roman times , when a dispute arose that could not be settled amicably , the injured party cited the name of the person thought to be responsible before the Praetor ; if the offender did not appear within the specified time limit , the complainant summoned witnesses to make statements . If they refused , as often happened , the injured party was allowed to drag them by the ear and to pinch them hard if they resisted . Hence the French expression `` se faire tirer l'oreille '' , of which the literal meaning is `` to have one 's ear pulled '' and the figurative meaning `` to take a lot of persuading '' . We use the expression `` to tweak ( or pull ) someone 's ears '' to mean `` inflict a punishment '' . '' The pinnae have an effect on facial appearance . In Western societies , protruding ears ( present in about 5 % of ethnic Europeans ) have been considered unattractive , particularly if asymmetric . The first surgery to reduce the projection of prominent ears was published in the medical literature by Ernst Dieffenbach in 1845 , and the first case report in 1881 . Pointy ears are a characteristic of some creatures in folklore such as the French croquemitaine , Brazilian curupira or Japanese earth spider . It has been a feature of characters on art as old as that of Ancient Greece and medieval Europe . Pointy ears are a common characteristic of many creatures in the fantasy genre , including elves , faeries , pixies , hobbits , or orcs . They are a characteristic of creatures in the horror genre , such as vampires . Pointy ears are also found in the science fiction genre ; for example among the Vulcan and Romulan races of the Star Trek universe and the Nightcrawler character from the X-Men universe . Georg von Békésy was a Hungarian biophysicist born in Budapest , Hungary . In 1961 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the function of the cochlea in the mammalian hearing organ . The Vacanti mouse was a laboratory mouse that had what looked like a human ear grown on its back . The `` ear '' was actually an ear - shaped cartilage structure grown by seeding cow cartilage cells into a biodegradable ear - shaped mold and then implanted under the skin of the mouse ; then the cartilage naturally grew by itself . It was developed as an alternative to ear repair or grafting procedures and the results met with much publicity and controversy in 1997 . Other animals Primate ears Human & Crab - eating macaque ( Darwin 's tubercle highlighted ) Pinnae of the bat The pinna helps direct sound through the ear canal to the eardrum . The complex geometry of ridges on the inner surface of some mammalian ears helps to sharply focus sounds produced by prey , using echolocation signals . These ridges can be regarded as the acoustic equivalent of a fresnel lens , and may be seen in a wide range of animals , including the bat , aye - aye , lesser galago , bat - eared fox , mouse lemur and others . Some large primates such as gorillas and orang - utans ( and also humans ) have undeveloped ear muscles that are non-functional vestigial structures , yet are still large enough to be easily identified . An ear muscle that can not move the ear , for whatever reason , has lost that biological function . This serves as evidence of homology between related species . In humans , there is variability in these muscles , such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions , and it has been said that it may be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials . In such primates , the inability to move the ear is compensated for mainly by the ability to easily turn the head on a horizontal plane , an ability which is not common to most monkeys -- a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another . In some animals with mobile pinnae ( like the horse ) , each pinna can be aimed independently to better receive the sound . For these animals , the pinnae help localise the direction of the sound source . African bush elephant Loxodonta africana Fennec fox ( desert regions ) Vulpes zerda Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus Domestic rabbit -- French Lop breed Oryctolagus cuniculus Half - Lop Rabbit Illustration by Charles Darwin , 1868 The ear , with its blood vessels close to the surface , is an essential thermoregulator in some land mammals , including the elephant , the fox , and the rabbit . There are five types of ear carriage in domestic rabbits , some of which have been bred for exaggerated ear length -- a potential health risk that is controlled in some countries . Abnormalities in the skull of a half - lop rabbit were studied by Charles Darwin in 1868 . In marine mammals , Earless seals are one of three groups of Pinnipedia . Invertebrates Only vertebrate animals have ears , though many invertebrates detect sound using other kinds of sense organs . In insects , tympanal organs are used to hear distant sounds . They are located either on the head or elsewhere , depending on the insect family . The tympanal organs of some insects are extremely sensitive , offering acute hearing beyond that of most other animals . The female cricket fly Ormia ochracea has tympanal organs on each side of her abdomen . They are connected by a thin bridge of exoskeleton and they function like a tiny pair of eardrums , but , because they are linked , they provide acute directional information . The fly uses her `` ears '' to detect the call of her host , a male cricket . Depending on where the song of the cricket is coming from , the fly 's hearing organs will reverberate at slightly different frequencies . This difference may be as little as 50 billionths of a second , but it is enough to allow the fly to home in directly on a singing male cricket and parasitise it . Simpler structures allow other arthropods to detect near - field sounds . Spiders and cockroaches , for example , have hairs on their legs which are used for detecting sound . Caterpillars may also have hairs on their body that perceive vibrations and allow them to respond to sound . See also Righting reflex Hearing Hearing test Hear , hear References Jump up ^ `` Ear '' . Oxford Dictionary . 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( September 1972 ) . `` Georg von Békésy '' . Physics Today . 25 ( 9 ) : 78 -- 80 . Bibcode : 1972PhT ... 25i ... 78S . doi : 10.1063 / 1.3071029 . Archived from the original on 2013 - 09 - 24 . Jump up ^ Cao , Y. ; Vacanti , J.P. ; Paige , K.T. ; Upton , J. ; Vacanti , C.A. ( 1997 ) . `` Transplantation of chondrocytes utilizing a polymer - cell construct to produce tissue - engineered cartilage in the shape of a human ear '' . Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery . 100 ( 2 ) : 297 -- 302 , discussion 303 -- 4 . doi : 10.1097 / 00006534 - 199708000 - 00001 . PMID 9252594 . Jump up ^ Goodyear , Dana . `` The Stress Test '' . New Yorker . Retrieved 23 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Karin Sellberg , Lena Wånggren ( 2016 ) . Corporeality and Culture : Bodies in Movement . Routledge . pp. 75 -- 76 . ISBN 9781317159247 . Jump up ^ Pavey , C.R. ; Burwell , C.J. ( 1998 ) . `` Bat Predation on Eared Moths : A Test of the Allotonic Frequency Hypothesis '' . Oikos. 81 ( 1 ) : 143 -- 151 . doi : 10.2307 / 3546476 . JSTOR 3546476 . Jump up ^ The Bat 's Ear as a Diffraction Grating Jump up ^ Kuc , R. ( 2009 ) . `` Model predicts bat pinna ridges focus high frequencies to form narrow sensitivity beams '' . The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America . 125 ( 5 ) : 3454 -- 3459 . Bibcode : 2009ASAJ ... 125.3454 K . doi : 10.1121 / 1.3097500 . PMID 19425684 . ^ Jump up to : Darwin , Charles ( 1871 ) . The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex . John Murray : London . Jump up ^ Mr. St. George Mivart , Elementary Anatomy , 1873 , p. 396 . Two ears provide stereo imaging that the brain can use to develop a 3 - dimensional sound field . Jump up ^ Fayez , I. ; Marai , M. ; Alnaimy , A. ; Habeeb , M. ( 1994 ) . Baselga , M. ; Marai , I.F.M. , eds . `` Thermoregulation in Rabbits '' ( PDF ) . Rabbit Production in Hot Climates . Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes . Zaragoza : CIHEAM - International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies . 8 : 33 -- 41 . Jump up ^ `` Longest ears on a rabbit '' . Guinness World Records . Retrieved 9 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Whitman , Bob D. ( October 2004 ) . Domestic Rabbits & Their Histories : Breeds of the World . Leawood KS : Leathers Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1585972753 . Jump up ^ Yack , JE ; Fullard , JH ( 1993 ) . `` What is an insect ear ? '' . Ann . Entomol . Soc . Am. 86 ( 6 ) : 677 -- 682 . Jump up ^ Piper , Ross ( 2007 ) , Extraordinary Animals : An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals , Greenwood Press . Jump up ^ Scoble , M.J. 1992 . The Lepidoptera : Form , function , and diversity . 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when was the first vaccine for diphtheria invented

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Diphtheria&oldid=843287850

Diphtheria - wikipedia Diphtheria Jump to : navigation , search `` Diphthera '' redirects here . For the genus of moth , see Diphthera ( moth ) . Diphtheria Diphtheria can cause a swollen neck , sometimes referred to as a bull neck . Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Sore throat , fever , barky cough Usual onset 2 -- 5 days post-exposure Causes Corynebacterium diphtheriae ( spread by direct contact and through the air ) Diagnostic method Throat appearance , culture Prevention Diphtheria vaccine Treatment Antibiotics , tracheostomy Frequency 4,500 ( reported 2015 ) Deaths 2,100 ( 2015 ) Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae . Signs and symptoms may vary from mild to severe . They usually start two to five days after exposure . Symptoms often come on fairly gradually , beginning with a sore throat and fever . In severe cases , a grey or white patch develops in the throat . This can block the airway and create a barking cough as in croup . The neck may swell in part due to enlarged lymph nodes . A form of diphtheria that involves the skin , eyes , or genitals also exists . Complications may include myocarditis , inflammation of nerves , kidney problems , and bleeding problems due to low levels of platelets . Myocarditis may result in an abnormal heart rate and inflammation of the nerves may result in paralysis . Diphtheria is usually spread between people by direct contact or through the air . It may also be spread by contaminated objects . Some people carry the bacteria without having symptoms , but can still spread the disease to others . The three main types of C. diphtheriae cause different severities of disease . The symptoms are due to a toxin produced by the bacteria . Diagnosis can often be made based on the appearance of the throat with confirmation by microbiological culture . Previous infection may not prevent against future infection . A diphtheria vaccine is effective for prevention and available in a number of formulations . Three or four doses , given along with tetanus vaccine and pertussis vaccine , are recommended during childhood . Further doses of diphtheria - tetanus vaccine are recommended every ten years . Protection can be verified by measuring the antitoxin level in the blood . Diphtheria can be treated with the antibiotics erythromycin or benzylpenicillin . These antibiotics may also be used for prevention in those who have been exposed to the infection . A tracheotomy is sometimes needed to open the airway in severe cases . In 2015 , 4,500 cases were officially reported worldwide , down from nearly 100,000 in 1980 . About a million cases a year are believed to have occurred before the 1980s . Diphtheria currently occurs most often in sub-Saharan Africa , India , and Indonesia . In 2015 , it resulted in 2,100 deaths , down from 8,000 deaths in 1990 . In areas where it is still common , children are most affected . It is rare in the developed world due to widespread vaccination . In the United States , 57 cases were reported between 1980 and 2004 . Death occurs in 5 % to 10 % of those affected . The disease was first described in the 5th century BC by Hippocrates . The bacterium was discovered in 1882 by Edwin Klebs . Contents ( hide ) 1 Signs and symptoms 1.1 Diphtheritic croup 2 Transmission 3 Mechanism 4 Diagnosis 4.1 Laboratory criteria 4.2 Clinical criteria 4.3 Case classification 5 Prevention 6 Treatment 7 Epidemiology 8 History 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Signs and symptoms ( edit ) An adherent , dense , grey pseudomembrane covering the tonsils is classically seen in diphtheria . A diphtheria skin lesion on the leg The symptoms of diphtheria usually begin two to seven days after infection . Symptoms of diphtheria include fever of 38 ° C ( 100.4 ° F ) or above , chills , fatigue , bluish skin coloration ( cyanosis ) , sore throat , hoarseness , cough , headache , difficulty swallowing , painful swallowing , difficulty breathing , rapid breathing , foul - smelling and bloodstained nasal discharge , and lymphadenopathy . Within two to three days , diphtheria may destroy healthy tissues in the respiratory system . The dead tissue forms a thick , gray coating that can build up in the throat or nose . This thick gray coating is called a `` pseudomembrane . '' It can cover tissues in the nose , tonsils , voice box , and throat , making it very hard to breathe and swallow . Symptoms can also include cardiac arrhythmias , myocarditis , and cranial and peripheral nerve palsies . Diphtheritic croup ( edit ) Laryngeal diphtheria can lead to a characteristic swollen neck and throat , or `` bull neck '' . The swollen throat is often accompanied by a serious respiratory condition , characterized by a brassy or `` barking '' cough , stridor , hoarseness , and difficulty breathing , and historically referred to variously as `` diphtheritic croup '' , `` true croup '' , or sometimes simply as `` croup '' . Diphtheritic croup is extremely rare in countries where diphtheria vaccination is customary . As a result , the term `` croup '' nowadays most often refers to an unrelated viral illness that produces similar but milder respiratory symptoms . Transmission ( edit ) Human - to - human transmission of diphtheria typically occurs through the air when an infected individual coughs or sneezes . Breathing in particles released from the infected individual leads to infection . Contact with any lesions on the skin can also lead to transmission of diphtheria , but this is uncommon . Indirect infections can occur , as well . If an infected individual touches a surface or object , the bacteria can be left behind and remain viable . Also , some evidence indicates diphtheria has the potential to be zoonotic , but this has yet to be confirmed . Corynebacterium ulcerans has been found in some animals , which would suggest zoonotic potential . Mechanism ( edit ) Diphtheria toxin is produced by C. diphtheriae only when infected with a bacteriophage that integrates the toxin - encoding genetic elements into the bacteria . Diphtheria toxin is a single , 60 - kDa - molecular weight protein composed of two peptide chains , fragment A and fragment B , held together by a disulfide bond . Fragment B is a recognition subunit that gains the toxin entry into the host cell by binding to the EGF - like domain of heparin - binding EGF - like growth factor on the cell surface . This signals the cell to internalize the toxin within an endosome via receptor - mediated endocytosis . Inside the endosome , the toxin is split by a trypsin - like protease into its individual A and B fragments . The acidity of the endosome causes fragment B to create pores in the endosome membrane , thereby catalysing the release of fragment A into the cell 's cytoplasm . Fragment A inhibits the synthesis of new proteins in the affected cell by catalyzing ADP - ribosylation of elongation factor EF - 2 -- a protein that is essential to the translation step of protein synthesis . This ADP - ribosylation involves the transfer of an ADP - ribose from NAD+ to a diphthamide ( a modified histidine ) residue within the EF - 2 protein . Since EF - 2 is needed for the moving of tRNA from the A-site to the P - site of the ribosome during protein translation , ADP - ribosylation of EF - 2 prevents protein synthesis . ADP - ribosylation of EF - 2 is reversed by giving high doses of nicotinamide ( a form of vitamin B ) , since this is one of the reaction 's end products , and high amounts drive the reaction in the opposite direction . Diagnosis ( edit ) The current clinical case definition of diphtheria used by the United States ' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is based on both laboratory and clinical criteria . Laboratory criteria ( edit ) Isolation of C. diphtheriae from a Gram stain or throat culture from a clinical specimen , Histopathologic diagnosis of diphtheria by Albert 's stain Clinical criteria ( edit ) Upper respiratory tract illness with sore throat Low - grade fever ( above 39 ° C ( 102 ° F ) is rare ) An adherent , dense , grey pseudomembrane covering the posterior aspect of the pharynx : in severe cases , it can extend to cover the entire tracheobronchial tree . Case classification ( edit ) Probable : a clinically compatible case that is not laboratory - confirmed and is not epidemiologically linked to a laboratory - confirmed case Confirmed : a clinically compatible case that is either laboratory - confirmed or epidemiologically linked to a laboratory - confirmed case Empirical treatment should generally be started in a patient in whom suspicion of diphtheria is high . Prevention ( edit ) Quinvaxem is a widely administered pentavalent vaccine , which is a combination of five vaccines in one that protect babies from diphtheria , among other common childhood diseases . Diphtheria vaccine is usually combined at least with tetanus vaccine ( Td ) and often with pertussis ( DTP , DTaP , TdaP ) vaccines , as well . Treatment ( edit ) The disease may remain manageable , but in more severe cases , lymph nodes in the neck may swell , and breathing and swallowing are more difficult . People in this stage should seek immediate medical attention , as obstruction in the throat may require intubation or a tracheotomy . Abnormal cardiac rhythms can occur early in the course of the illness or weeks later , and can lead to heart failure . Diphtheria can also cause paralysis in the eye , neck , throat , or respiratory muscles . Patients with severe cases are put in a hospital intensive care unit and given a diphtheria antitoxin . Since antitoxin does not neutralize toxin that is already bound to tissues , delaying its administration is associated with an increase in mortality risk . Therefore , the decision to administer diphtheria antitoxin is based on clinical diagnosis , and should not await laboratory confirmation . Antibiotics have not been demonstrated to affect healing of local infection in diphtheria patients treated with antitoxin . Antibiotics are used in patients or carriers to eradicate C. diphtheriae and prevent its transmission to others . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends either : Metronidazole Erythromycin is given ( orally or by injection ) for 14 days ( 40 mg / kg per day with a maximum of 2 g / d ) , or Procaine penicillin G is given intramuscularly for 14 days ( 300,000 U / d for patients weighing < 10 kg and 600,000 U / d for those weighing > 10 kg ) ; patients with allergies to penicillin G or erythromycin can use rifampin or clindamycin . In cases that progress beyond a throat infection , diphtheria toxin spreads through the blood and can lead to potentially life - threatening complications that affect other organs , such as the heart and kidneys . Damage to the heart caused by the toxin affects the heart 's ability to pump blood or the kidneys ' ability to clear wastes . It can also cause nerve damage , eventually leading to paralysis . About 40 % to 50 % of those left untreated can die . Epidemiology. ( edit ) Disability - adjusted life year for diphtheria per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 no data ≤ 1 1 -- 2 2 -- 3 3 -- 4 4 -- 5 5 -- 6 6 -- 7 7 -- 9 9 -- 10 10 -- 15 15 -- 50 ≥ 50 Diphtheria cases reported to the World Health Organization between 1997 and 2006 : no data 1 -- 49 reported cases Between 50 and 99 reported cases Over 100 reported cases Diphtheria is fatal in between 5 % and 10 % of cases . In children under five years and adults over 40 years , the fatality rate may be as much as 20 % . In 2013 , it resulted in 3,300 deaths , down from 8,000 deaths in 1990 . The number of cases has changed over the course of the last 2 decades , specifically throughout developing countries . Better standards of living , mass immunization , improved diagnosis , prompt treatment , and more effective health care have led to the decrease in cases worldwide . However , although outbreaks are rare , they still occur worldwide , especially in developed nations such as Germany among unvaccinated children , and Canada . After the breakup of the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s , vaccination rates in its constituent countries fell so low that an explosion of diphtheria cases occurred . In 1991 , 2,000 cases of diphtheria occurred in the USSR . Because of this outbreak , since 1992 , many of the cases reported throughout other parts of Europe have been linked to the NIS epidemic . Belgium ( 3 / 3 ) and Finland ( 10 / 10 ) come in first , stating that 100 % of cases are connected to this epidemic . However , locations such as Poland and Germany have had a larger number of people diagnosed with Diphtheria overall , but claim that a smaller percentage have been linked directly to the NIS . By 1998 as many as 200,000 cases in the Commonwealth of Independent States were reported , with 5,000 deaths . History ( edit ) This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose . You can help by converting this section to prose , if appropriate . Editing help is available . ( January 2018 ) In 1613 , Spain experienced an epidemic of diphtheria . The year is known as El Año de los Garrotillos ( The Year of Strangulations ) in the history of Spain . In 1735 , a diphtheria epidemic swept through New England . Before 1826 , diphtheria was known by different names across the world . In England , it was known as Boulogne sore throat , as it spread from France . In 1826 , Pierre Bretonneau gave the disease the name diphthérite ( from Greek diphthera `` leather '' ) describing the appearance of pseudomembrane in the throat . In 1856 , Victor Fourgeaud described an epidemic of diphtheria in California . In 1878 , Queen Victoria 's daughter Princess Alice and her family became infected with diphtheria , causing two deaths , Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Alice herself . In 1883 , Edwin Klebs identified the bacterium and named it Klebs - Loeffler bacterium . The club shape of this bacterium helped Edwin to differentiate it from other bacteria . Over the period of time , it was called Microsporon diphtheriticum , Bacillus diphtheriae , and Mycobacterium diphtheriae . Current nomenclature is Corynebacterium diphtheriae . Friedrich Loeffler was the first person to cultivate C. diphtheriae in 1884 . He used Koch 's postulates to prove association between C. diphtheriae and diphtheria . He also showed that the bacillus produces an exotoxin . A diphtheria immunisation scheme in London , 1941 Joseph P. O'Dwyer introduced the O'Dwyer tube for laryngeal intubation in patients with an obstructed larynx in 1885 . It soon replaced tracheostomy as the emergency diphtheric intubation method . In 1888 , Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin showed that a substance produced by C. diphtheriae caused symptoms of diphtheria in animals . In 1890 , Shibasaburo Kitasato and Emil von Behring immunized guinea pigs with heat - treated diphtheria toxin . The first cure of a person with diphtheria is dated to the 1891 Christmas holiday in Berlin . Von Behring won the first Nobel Prize in medicine in 1901 for his work on diphtheria . In 1895 , H.K. Mulford Company of Philadelphia started production and testing of diphtheria antitoxin in the United States . Park and Biggs described the method for producing serum from horses for use in diphtheria treatment . In 1897 , Paul Ehrlich developed a standardized unit of measure for diphtheria antitoxin . This was the first ever standardization of a biological product , and played an important role in future developmental work on sera and vaccines . In 1901 , 10 of 11 inoculated St. Louis children died from contaminated diphtheria antitoxin . The horse from which the antitoxin was derived died of tetanus . This incident , coupled with a tetanus outbreak in Camden , New Jersey , played an important part in initiating federal regulation of biologic products . On 7 January 1904 , Ruth Cleveland died of diphtheria at the age of 12 years in Princeton , New Jersey . Ruth was the eldest daughter of former President Grover Cleveland and the former first lady Frances Folsom . She was the only one of the Clevelands ' five children who died before adulthood . In 1905 , Franklin Royer , from Philadelphia 's Municipal Hospital , published a paper urging timely treatment for diphtheria and adequate doses of antitoxin . In 1906 , Clemens Pirquet and Béla Schick described serum sickness in children receiving large quantities of horse - derived antitoxin . Between 1910 and 1911 , Béla Schick developed the Schick test to detect pre-existing immunity to diphtheria in an exposed person . Only those who were not exposed to diphtheria were preferably vaccinated . A massive , five - year campaign was coordinated by Dr. Schick . As a part of the campaign , 85 million pieces of literature were distributed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company with an appeal to parents to `` Save your child from diphtheria . '' A vaccine was developed in the next decade , and deaths began declining significantly in 1924 . A poster from the United Kingdom advertising diphtheria immunisation ( published prior to 1962 ) In 1919 , in Dallas , Texas , 10 children were killed and 60 others made seriously ill by toxic antitoxin which had passed the tests of the New York State Health Department . Mulford Company of Philadelphia ( manufacturers ) paid damages in every case . In the 1920s , an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 cases of diphtheria occurred per year in the United States , causing 13,000 to 15,000 deaths per year . Children represented a large majority of these cases and fatalities . One of the most infamous outbreaks of diphtheria was in Nome , Alaska ; the `` Great Race of Mercy '' to deliver diphtheria antitoxin is now celebrated by the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race . In 1926 , Alexander Thomas Glenny increased the effectiveness of diphtheria toxoid by treating it with aluminum salts . During the same period of the 1920s through 1930s when the outbreaks greatly declined , the use of water chlorination systems for the public water supply had also first become a standard municipal practice in developed countries such as the US - Drinking water filtration and chlorination had virtually eliminated major epidemics of waterborne diseases such as Diphtheria in the U.S at the end of this period . In 1943 , diphtheria outbreaks accompanied war and disruption in Europe . The 1 million cases in Europe resulted in 50,000 deaths . In 1949 , 68 of 606 children died after diphtheria immunization due to improper manufacture of aluminum phosphate toxoid . In 1974 , World Health Organization included DPT vaccine in their Expanded Programme on Immunization for developing countries . In 1975 , an outbreak of cutaneous diphtheria in Seattle , Washington , was reported . In 1994 , the Russian Federation had 39,703 diphtheria cases . In contrast , in 1990 , only 1,211 cases were reported . In early May 2010 , a case of diphtheria was diagnosed in Port - au - Prince , Haiti , after the devastating 2010 Haiti earthquake . The 15 - year - old male patient died while workers searched for antitoxin . In 2013 , three children died of diphtheria in Hyderabad , India . In early June 2015 , a case of diphtheria was diagnosed at Vall d'Hebron University Hospital in Barcelona , Spain . The 6 - year - old child who died of the illness had not been previously vaccinated due to parental opposition to vaccination . It was the first case of diphtheria in the country since 1986 as reported by `` El Mundo '' or from 1998 , as reported by WHO . In March 2016 , a 3 - year - old girl died of diphtheria in the University Hospital of Antwerp , Belgium . In June 2016 , a 3 - year - old , 5 - year - old , and 7 - year - old girl died of diphtheria in Kedah and Malacca , Sabah Malaysia . In January 2017 , more than 300 cases were recorded in Venezuela . In November and December 2017 , an outbreak of diphtheria occurred in Indonesia with more than 600 cases found and 38 fatalities . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Atkinson , William ( May 2012 ) . Diphtheria Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine - Preventable Diseases ( 12 ed . ) . Public Health Foundation . pp. 215 -- 230 . ISBN 9780983263135 . Archived from the original on 15 September 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Diphtheria vaccine '' ( PDF ) . Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 81 ( 3 ) : 24 -- 32 . 20 January 2006 . PMID 16671240 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 6 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Diphtheria '' . who.int. 3 September 2014 . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 27 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death , Collaborators. ( 8 October 2016 ) . `` Global , regional , and national life expectancy , all - cause mortality , and cause - specific mortality for 249 causes of death , 1980 - 2015 : a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 '' . Lancet . 388 ( 10053 ) : 1459 -- 1544 . doi : 10.1016 / s0140 - 6736 ( 16 ) 31012 - 1 . PMC 5388903 . PMID 27733281 . Jump up ^ Kowalski , Wladyslaw ( 2012 ) . Hospital airborne infection control . Boca Raton , Florida : CRC Press . p. 54 . ISBN 9781439821961 . Archived from the original on 21 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Mandell , Douglas , and Bennett 's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases ( 8 ed . ) . Elsevier Health Sciences . 2014 . p. 2372 . ISBN 9780323263733 . Archived from the original on 21 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death , Collaborators ( 17 December 2014 ) . `` Global , regional , and national age - sex specific all - cause and cause - specific mortality for 240 causes of death , 1990 -- 2013 : a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 '' . Lancet . 385 : 117 -- 71 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 14 ) 61682 - 2 . PMC 4340604 . PMID 25530442 . Jump up ^ `` Diphtheria -- Symptoms -- NHS Choices '' . Archived from the original on 28 June 2015 . Retrieved 28 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Updating PubMed Health '' . PubMed Health . Archived from the original on 17 October 2014 . Retrieved 28 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Diphtheria Symptoms '' . www.cdc.gov. 10 April 2017 . Retrieved 26 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Loving , Starling ( 5 October 1895 ) . `` Something concerning the diagnosis and treatment of false croup '' . JAMA : the Journal of the American Medical Association . XXV ( 14 ) : 567 -- 573 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 1895.02430400011001 d . Archived from the original on 4 July 2014 . Retrieved 16 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Cormack , John Rose ( 8 May 1875 ) . `` Meaning of the Terms Diphtheria , Croup , and Faux Croup '' . British Medical Journal . 1 ( 749 ) : 606 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 1.749. 606 . PMC 2297755 . PMID 20747853 . Jump up ^ Bennett , James Risdon ( 8 May 1875 ) . `` True and False Croup '' . British Medical Journal . 1 ( 749 ) : 606 -- 607 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 1.749. 606 - a . PMC 2297754 . PMID 20747854 . Jump up ^ Beard , George Miller ( 1875 ) . Our Home Physician : A New and Popular Guide to the Art of Preserving Health and Treating Disease . New York : E.B. Treat . pp. 560 -- 564 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2014 . Retrieved 15 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Vanderpool , Patricia ( December 2012 ) . `` Recognizing croup and stridor in children '' . American Nurse Today . 7 ( 12 ) . Archived from the original on 16 April 2014 . Retrieved 15 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Diphtheria Causes and Transmission Archived 13 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine ... U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention ( 2016 ) . Jump up ^ Youwang Y. ; Jianming D. ; Yong X. ; Pong Z. ( 1992 ) . `` Epidemiological features of an outbreak of diphtheria and its control with diphtheria toxoid immunization '' . International Journal of Epidemiology. 21 ( 4 ) : 807 -- 11 . doi : 10.1093 / ije / 21.4. 807 . PMID 1521987 . Jump up ^ Hogg R.A. ; Wessels J. ; Hart A. ; Efstratiou A. ; De Zoysa G. ; Mann T. ; Pritchard G.C. ( 2009 ) . `` Possible zoonotic transmission of toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans from companion animals in a human case of fatal diphtheria '' . The Veterinary record . 165 ( 23 ) : 691 -- 2 . doi : 10.1136 / vr. 165.23. 691 . PMID 19966333 . Jump up ^ Freeman , Victor J ( 1951 ) . `` Studies on the Virulence of Bacteriophage - Infected Strains of Corynebacterium Diphtheriae '' . Journal of Bacteriology. 61 ( 6 ) : 675 -- 688 . PMC 386063 . PMID 14850426 . Jump up ^ Freeman VJ , Morse IU ; Morse ( 1953 ) . `` Further Observations on the Change to Virulence of Bacteriophage - Infected Avirulent Strains of Corynebacterium Diphtheriae '' . Journal of Bacteriology. 63 ( 3 ) : 407 -- 414 . PMC 169283 . PMID 14927573 . Jump up ^ Collier JR ( 1975 ) . `` Diphtheria toxin : mode of action and structure '' . Bacteriological Reviews . 39 ( 1 ) : 54 -- 85 . PMC 413884 . PMID 164179 . Jump up ^ `` Immunisation and Pentavalent Vaccine '' . UNICEF . Archived from the original on 29 July 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Atkinson W , Hamborsky J , McIntyre L , Wolfe S , eds. ( 2007 ) . `` Diphtheria '' . Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine - Preventable Diseases ( The Pink Book ) ( PDF ) ( 10 ed . ) . Washington , D.C. : Public Health Foundation . pp. 59 -- 70 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 27 September 2007 . Jump up ^ The first version of this article was adapted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention document `` Diphtheria ( Corynebacterium diphtheriae ) 1995 Case Definition '' Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine ... As a work of an agency of the U.S. government without any other copyright notice it should be available as a public domain resource . ^ Jump up to : Laval , Enrique ( March 2006 ) . `` El garotillo ( Difteria ) en España ( Siglos XVI y XVII ) '' . Revista chilena de infectología. 23 . doi : 10.4067 / S0716 - 10182006000100012 . Jump up ^ `` ON THE TREATMENT OF DIPHTHERIA IN 1735 '' . Pediatrics . American Academy of Pediatrics. 55 ( 1 ) : 43 . 1975 . Jump up ^ Bretonneau , Pierre ( 1826 ) Des inflammations spéciales du tissu muqueux , et en particulier de la diphtérite , ou inflammation pelliculaire , connue sous le nom de croup , d'angine maligne , d'angine gangréneuse , etc . ( Special inflammations of mucous tissue , and in particular diphtheria or skin inflammation , known by the name of croup , malignant throat infection , gangrenous throat infection , etc . ) Paris , France : Crevot . A condensed version of this work is available in : P. Bretonneau ( 1826 ) `` Extrait du traité de la diphthérite , angine maligne , ou croup épidémique '' ( Extract from the treatise on diphtheria , malignant throat infection , or epidemic croup ) , Archives générales de médecine , series 1 , 11 : 219 -- 254 . From p. 230 : `` ... M. Bretonneau a cru convenable de l'appeler diphthérite , dérivé de ΔΙΦθΕΡΑ , ... '' ( ... Mr. Bretonneau thought it appropriate to call it diphtheria , derived from ΔΙΦθΕΡΑ ( diphthera ) , ... ) Jump up ^ `` Diphtheria '' . Online Etymology Dictionary . Archived from the original on 13 January 2013 . Retrieved 29 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Fourgeaud , Victor J. ( 1858 ) . Diphtheritis : a concise historical and critical essay on the late epidemic pseudo-membranous sore throat of California ( 1856 -- 7 ) , with a few remarks illustrating the diagnosis , pathology , and treatment of the disease . California : Sacramento : J. Anthony & Co. , 1858 . Archived from the original on 21 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Diaries and Letters - Princess Alice of Hesse and by Rhine '' . Jump up ^ Klebs , E. ( 1883 ) `` III . Sitzung : Ueber Diphtherie '' ( Third session : On diphtheria ) , Verhandlungen des Congresses für innere Medicin . Zweiter Congress gehalten zu Wiesbaden , 18. - 23 . April 1883 Archived 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine . ( Proceedings of the Congress on Internal Medicine . Second congress held at Wiesbaden , 18 -- 23 April 1883 ) , 2 : 139 -- 154 . Jump up ^ Loeffler , F. ( 1884 ) `` Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung der Mikroorganismen für die Entstehung der Diphtherie , beim Menschen , bei der Taube und beim Kalbe '' ( Investigations into the significance of microorganisms in the development of diphtheria among humans , pigeons , and calves ) , Mitteilungen aus der Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte ( Communications from the Imperial Office of Health ) , 2 : 421 -- 499 . Jump up ^ Gifford , Robert R. ( March 1970 ) . `` The O'Dwyer tube ; development and use in laryngeal diphtheria '' . Clin Pediatr ( Phila ) . 9 ( 3 ) : 179 -- 185 . doi : 10.1177 / 000992287000900313 . PMID 4905866 . Jump up ^ Roux , E. and Yersin , A. ( December 1888 ) `` Contribution à l'étude de la diphthérte '' Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . ( Contribution to the study of diphtheria ) , Annales de l'Institute Pasteur , 2 : 629 -- 661 . Jump up ^ Parish , Henry ( 1965 ) . A history of immunization . E. & S. Livingstone . p. 120 . Jump up ^ Behring , E. and Kitasato , S. ( 1890 ) `` Ueber das Zustandekommen der Diphtherie - Immunitat und der Tetanus - Immunitat bei Thieren '' Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine . ( On the realization of diphtheria immunity and tetanus immunity among animals ) , Deutsche medizinsche Wochenschrift , 16 : 1113 -- 1114 . Jump up ^ Barry , John M. ( 2004 ) The Great Influenza ; The Story of the Deadliest Pandemic in History . New York : Penguin Books . p. 70 . ISBN 0143036491 . Jump up ^ Emil von Behring Serum Therapy in Therapeutics and Medical Science . Nobel Lecture , December 12 , 1901 . nobelprize.org Jump up ^ H.K. Mulford Company ( 1903 ) . Diphtheria Antitoxin . The Company . Jump up ^ `` The Tetanus Cases in Camden , N.J '' . JAMA . XXXVII ( 23 ) : 1539 -- 1540 . 7 December 1901 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 1901.02470490037010 . Archived from the original on 20 May 2013 . Retrieved 29 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Lilienfeld , David E. ( Spring 2008 ) . `` The first pharmacoepidemiologic investigations : national drug safety policy in the United States , 1901 -- 1902 '' . Perspect Biol Med. 51 ( 2 ) : 188 -- 198 . doi : 10.1353 / pbm. 0.0010 . PMID 18453724 . Jump up ^ `` Ruth Cleveland ( 1891 -- 1904 ) -- Find A Grave Memorial '' . Archived from the original on 4 July 2015 . Retrieved 28 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Royer , Franklin ( 1905 ) . `` The Antitoxin Treatment of Diphtheria , with a Plea for Rational Dosage in Treatment and in Immunizing '' . Jump up ^ Jackson R ( October 2000 ) . `` Serum sickness '' . J Cutan Med Surg. 4 ( 4 ) : 223 -- 5 . doi : 10.1177 / 120347540000400411 . PMID 11231202 . Jump up ^ `` United States mortality rate from measles , scarlet fever , typhoid , whooping cough , and diphtheria from 1900 -- 1965 '' . HealthSentinel.com . Archived from the original on 14 May 2008 . Retrieved 30 June 2008 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Graham ( 2002 ) . The Hazards of Immunization . Continuum International Publishing Group , Limited , 2002 . p. 20 . ISBN 9780485263190 . Jump up ^ `` Disease and Vaccines '' . historyofvaccines. orgHistory of Vaccines . Archived from the original on 1 July 2014 . Retrieved 28 October 2013 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ US Environmental Protection Agency . `` The history of drinking water treatment '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Harnisch , JP ; Tronca E ; Nolan CM ; Turck M ; Holmes KK ( 1 July 1989 ) . `` Diphtheria among alcoholic urban adults . A decade of experience in Seattle '' . Annals of Internal Medicine . 111 ( 1 ) : 71 -- 82 . doi : 10.7326 / 0003 - 4819 - 111 - 1 - 71 . PMID 2472081 . Jump up ^ Tatochenko , Vladimir ; Mitjushin , I.L. ( 2000 ) . `` Contraindications to Vaccination in the Russian Federation '' . The Journal of Infectious Diseases . 181 : S228 -- 31 . doi : 10.1086 / 315567 . PMID 10657219 . Jump up ^ `` CNN 's Anderson Cooper talks with Sean Penn and Dr. Sanjay Gupta about the threat of diphtheria in Haiti '' . CNN . 10 May 2010 . Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Three kids die of diphtheria '' . The Hindu . 28 August 2013 . Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Parents of diphtheria - stricken boy feel `` tricked '' by anti-vaccination groups `` . El Pais. 5 June 2015 . Archived from the original on 7 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Primer caso de difteria en España en casi 30 años '' . El Mundo. 2 June 2015 . Archived from the original on 2 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` WHO - Diphtheria reported cases '' . Archived from the original on 12 June 2015 . Retrieved 11 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Meisje ( 3 ) overlijdt aan difterie in ziekenhuis '' . De Standaard. 17 March 2016 . Archived from the original on 19 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Murali , R.S.N. ( 21 June 2016 ) . `` Malacca Health Dept works to contain diptheria after seven - year - old dies '' . thestar.com.my . Archived from the original on 24 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Infant mortality and malaria soar in Venezuela , according to government data '' . Reuters. 9 May 2017 . Archived from the original on 24 May 2017 . Retrieved 3 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Diphtheria Reemerges as Venezuela Remains on the Brink of Economic Collapse HealthMap '' . www.healthmap.org . Archived from the original on 12 July 2017 . Retrieved 3 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Nugraha , Indra Komara . `` IDI : 38 Anak Meninggal karena Difteri '' . detiknews . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 18 . Further reading ( edit ) Holmes , R . K. ( 2005 ) . `` Diphtheria and other corynebacterial infections '' . In Kasper ; et al. Harrison 's Principles of Internal Medicine ( 16th ed . ) . New York : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0 - 07 - 139140 - 1 . `` Antitoxin dars 1735 and 1740 . '' The William and Mary Quarterly , 3rd Ser. , Vol 6 , No 2 . p. 338 . Shulman , S.T. ( 2004 ) . `` The History of Pediatric Infectious Diseases '' . Pediatric Research . 55 ( 1 ) : 163 -- 176 . doi : 10.1203 / 01. PDR. 0000101756.93542. 09 . PMID 14605240 . External links ( edit ) Classification ICD - 10 : A36 ICD - 9 - CM : 032 MeSH : D004165 DiseasesDB : 3122 External resources MedlinePlus : 001608 eMedicine : emerg / 138 med / 459 oph / 674 ped / 596 Media related to Diphtheria at Wikimedia Commons ( hide ) Gram - positive bacterial infection : Actinobacteria ( primarily A00 -- A79 , 001 -- 041 , 080 -- 109 ) Actinomycineae Actinomycetaceae Actinomyces israelii Actinomycosis Cutaneous actinomycosis Tropheryma whipplei Whipple 's disease Arcanobacterium haemolyticum Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection Actinomyces gerencseriae Propionibacteriaceae Propionibacterium acnes Corynebacterineae Mycobacteriaceae M. tuberculosis / M. bovis Tuberculosis : Ghon focus / Ghon 's complex Pott disease brain Meningitis Rich focus Tuberculous lymphadenitis Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis cutaneous Scrofuloderma Erythema induratum Lupus vulgaris Prosector 's wart Tuberculosis cutis orificialis Tuberculous cellulitis Tuberculous gumma Lichen scrofulosorum Tuberculid Papulonecrotic tuberculid Primary inoculation tuberculosis Miliary Tuberculous pericarditis Urogenital tuberculosis Multi-drug - resistant tuberculosis Extensively drug - resistant tuberculosis M. leprae Leprosy : Tuberculoid leprosy Borderline tuberculoid leprosy Borderline leprosy Borderline lepromatous leprosy Lepromatous leprosy Histoid leprosy Nontuberculous R1 : M. kansasii M. marinum Aquarium granuloma R2 : M. gordonae R3 : M. avium complex / Mycobacterium avium / Mycobacterium intracellulare / MAP MAI infection M. ulcerans Buruli ulcer M. haemophilum R4 / RG : M. fortuitum M. chelonae M. abscessus Nocardiaceae Nocardia asteroides / Nocardia brasiliensis Nocardiosis Rhodococcus equi Corynebacteriaceae Corynebacterium diphtheriae Diphtheria Corynebacterium minutissimum Erythrasma Corynebacterium jeikeium Group JK corynebacterium sepsis Bifidobacteriaceae Gardnerella vaginalis GND : 4150087 - 8 NDL : 00574716 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diphtheria&oldid=843287850 '' Categories : Bacterial diseases Diphtheria Vaccine - preventable diseases Hidden categories : CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Use dmy dates from December 2016 Infobox medical condition ( new ) Articles needing cleanup from January 2018 All pages needing cleanup Articles with sections that need to be turned into prose from January 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers RTT RTTEM Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 62 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2018 , at 04 : 26 . 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where are negative numbers used in real life

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Negative_number&oldid=842297443

Negative number - wikipedia Negative number Jump to : navigation , search This thermometer is indicating a negative Fahrenheit temperature ( − 4 ° F ) . In mathematics , a negative number is a real number that is less than zero . Negative numbers represent opposites . If positive represents a movement to the right , negative represents a movement to the left . If positive represents above sea level , then negative represents below sea level . If positive represents a deposit , negative represents a withdrawal . They are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency . A debt that is owed may be thought of as a negative asset , a decrease in some quantity may be thought of as a negative increase . If a quantity may have either of two opposite senses , then one may choose to distinguish between those senses -- perhaps arbitrarily -- as positive and negative . In the medical context of fighting a tumor , an expansion could be thought of as a negative shrinkage . Negative numbers are used to describe values on a scale that goes below zero , such as the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales for temperature . The laws of arithmetic for negative numbers ensure that the common sense idea of an opposite is reflected in arithmetic . For example , − ( − 3 ) = 3 because the opposite of an opposite is the original thing . Negative numbers are usually written with a minus sign in front . For example , − 3 represents a negative quantity with a magnitude of three , and is pronounced `` minus three '' or `` negative three '' . To help tell the difference between a subtraction operation and a negative number , occasionally the negative sign is placed slightly higher than the minus sign ( as a superscript ) . Conversely , a number that is greater than zero is called positive ; zero is usually thought of as neither positive nor negative . The positivity of a number may be emphasized by placing a plus sign before it , e.g. + 3 . In general , the negativity or positivity of a number is referred to as its sign . Every real number other than zero is either positive or negative . The positive whole numbers are referred to as natural numbers , while the positive and negative whole numbers ( together with zero ) are referred to as integers . In bookkeeping , amounts owed are often represented by red numbers , or a number in parentheses , as an alternative notation to represent negative numbers . Negative numbers appeared for the first time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art , which in its present form dates from the period of the Chinese Han Dynasty ( 202 BC -- AD 220 ) , but may well contain much older material . Liu Hui ( c. 3rd century ) established rules for adding and subtracting negative numbers . By the 7th century , Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta were describing the use of negative numbers . Islamic mathematicians further developed the rules of subtracting and multiplying negative numbers and solved problems with negative coefficients . Western mathematicians accepted the idea of negative numbers by the 17th century . Prior to the concept of negative numbers , mathematicians such as Diophantus considered negative solutions to problems `` false '' and equations requiring negative solutions were described as absurd . Contents ( hide ) 1 Introduction 1.1 As the result of subtraction 1.2 The number line 1.3 Signed numbers 2 Everyday uses of negative numbers 2.1 Sport 2.2 Science 2.3 Finance 2.4 Other 3 Arithmetic involving negative numbers 3.1 Addition 3.2 Subtraction 3.3 Multiplication 3.4 Division 4 Negation 5 Formal construction of negative integers 5.1 Uniqueness 6 History 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 9 External links Introduction ( edit ) As the result of subtraction ( edit ) Negative numbers can be thought of as resulting from the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller . For example , negative three is the result of subtracting three from zero : 0 − 3 = − 3 . In general , the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller yields a negative result , with the magnitude of the result being the difference between the two numbers . For example , 5 − 8 = − 3 since 8 − 5 = 3 . The number line ( edit ) Main article : Number line The relationship between negative numbers , positive numbers , and zero is often expressed in the form of a number line : Numbers appearing farther to the right on this line are greater , while numbers appearing farther to the left are less . Thus zero appears in the middle , with the positive numbers to the right and the negative numbers to the left . Note that a negative number with greater magnitude is considered less . For example , even though ( positive ) 8 is greater than ( positive ) 5 , written 8 > 5 negative 8 is considered to be less than negative 5 : − 8 < − 5 . ( Because , for example , if you have £ - 8 , a debt of £ 8 , you would have less after adding , say £ 10 , to it than if you have £ - 5 . ) It follows that any negative number is less than any positive number , so − 8 < 5 and − 5 < 8 . Signed numbers ( edit ) Main article : Sign ( mathematics ) In the context of negative numbers , a number that is greater than zero is referred to as positive . Thus every real number other than zero is either positive or negative , while zero itself is not considered to have a sign . Positive numbers are sometimes written with a plus sign in front , e.g. + 3 denotes a positive three . Because zero is neither positive nor negative , the term nonnegative is sometimes used to refer to a number that is either positive or zero , while nonpositive is used to refer to a number that is either negative or zero . Zero is a neutral number . Everyday uses of negative numbers ( edit ) Sport ( edit ) Goal difference in association football and hockey ; points difference in rugby football ; net run rate in cricket ; golf scores relative to par . Plus - minus differential in ice hockey : the difference in total goals scored for the team ( + ) and against the team ( − ) when a particular player is on the ice is the player 's + / − rating . Players can have a negative ( + / − ) rating . Run differential in baseball : the run differential is negative if the team allows more runs than they scored . British football clubs are deducted points if they enter administration , and thus have a negative points total until they have earned at least that many points that season . Lap ( or sector ) times in Formula 1 may be given as the difference compared to a previous lap ( or sector ) ( such as the previous record , or the lap just completed by a driver in front ) , and will be positive if slower and negative if faster . In some athletics events , such as sprint races , the hurdles , the triple jump and the long jump , the wind assistance is measured and recorded , and is positive for a tailwind and negative for a headwind . Science ( edit ) Temperatures which are colder than 0 ° C or 0 ° F . Latitudes south of the equator and longitudes west of the prime meridian . Topographical features of the earth 's surface are given a height above sea level , which can be negative ( e.g. The surface elevation of The Dead Sea or Death Valley ) . Electrical circuits . When a battery is connected in reverse polarity , the voltage applied is said to be the opposite of its rated voltage . For example , a 6 ( V ) battery connected in reverse applies a voltage of − 6 ( V ) . Ions have a positive or negative electrical charge . Impedance of an AM broadcast tower used in multi-tower directional antenna arrays can have a positive or negative impedance . Finance ( edit ) Bank account balances which are overdrawn . Refunds to a credit card or debit card are a negative debit . A company might make a negative annual profit ( i.e. a loss ) . The annual percentage growth in a country 's GDP might be negative , which is one indicator of being in a recession . Occasionally , a rate of inflation may be negative ( deflation ) , indicating a fall in average prices . The daily change in a share price or stock market index , such as the FTSE 100 or the Dow Jones . A negative number in financing is synonymous with `` debt '' and `` deficit '' which are also known as `` being in the red '' . Interest rates can be negative , when the lender is charged to deposit their money . Other ( edit ) The numbering of storeys in a building below the ground floor . When playing an audio file on a portable media player , such as an iPod , the screen display may show the time remaining as a negative number , which increases up to zero at the same rate as the time already played increases from zero . Television game shows : Participants on QI often finish with a negative points score . Teams on University Challenge have a negative score if their first answers are incorrect and interrupt the question . Jeopardy ! has a negative money score -- contestants play for an amount of money and any incorrect answer that costs them more than what they have now can result in a negative score . The Price Is Right pricing game Buy or Sell , if any money is lost and is more than the amount currently in the bank , it also incurs a negative score . The change in support for a political party between elections , known as swing . A politician 's approval rating . In video games , a negative number indicates loss of life , damage , a score penalty , or consumption of a resource , depending on the genre of the simulation . Employees with flexible working hours may have a negative balance on their timesheet if they 've worked fewer total hours than contracted to that point . Employees may be able to take more than their annual holiday allowance in a year , and carry forward a negative balance to the next year . Transposing notes on an electronic keyboard are shown on the display with positive numbers for increases and negative numbers for decreases , e.g. ' − 1 ' for one semitone down . Arithmetic involving negative numbers ( edit ) The minus sign `` − '' signifies the operator for both the binary ( two - operand ) operation of subtraction ( as in y − z ) and the unary ( one - operand ) operation of negation ( as in − x , or twice in − ( − x ) ) . A special case of unary negation occurs when it operates on a positive number , in which case the result is a negative number ( as in − 5 ) . The ambiguity of the `` − '' symbol does not generally lead to ambiguity in arithmetical expressions , because the order of operations makes only one interpretation or the other possible for each `` − '' . However , it can lead to confusion and be difficult for a person to understand an expression when operator symbols appear adjacent to one another . A solution can be to parenthesize the unary `` − '' along with its operand . For example , the expression 7 + − 5 may be clearer if written 7 + ( − 5 ) ( even though they mean exactly the same thing formally ) . The subtraction expression 7 -- 5 is a different expression that does n't represent the same operations , but it evaluates to the same result . Sometimes in elementary schools a number may be prefixed by a superscript minus sign or plus sign to explicitly distinguish negative and positive numbers as in 2 + 5 gives 7 . Addition ( edit ) A visual representation of the addition of positive and negative numbers . Larger balls represent numbers with greater magnitude . Addition of two negative numbers is very similar to addition of two positive numbers . For example , ( − 3 ) + ( − 5 ) = − 8 . The idea is that two debts can be combined into a single debt of greater magnitude . When adding together a mixture of positive and negative numbers , one can think of the negative numbers as positive quantities being subtracted . For example : 8 + ( − 3 ) = 8 − 3 = 5 and ( − 2 ) + 7 = 7 − 2 = 5 . In the first example , a credit of 8 is combined with a debt of 3 , which yields a total credit of 5 . If the negative number has greater magnitude , then the result is negative : ( − 8 ) + 3 = 3 − 8 = − 5 and 2 + ( − 7 ) = 2 − 7 = − 5 . Here the credit is less than the debt , so the net result is a debt . Subtraction ( edit ) As discussed above , it is possible for the subtraction of two non-negative numbers to yield a negative answer : 5 − 8 = − 3 In general , subtraction of a positive number yields the same result as the addition of a negative number of equal magnitude . Thus 5 − 8 = 5 + ( − 8 ) = − 3 and ( − 3 ) − 5 = ( − 3 ) + ( − 5 ) = − 8 On the other hand , subtracting a negative number yields the same result as the addition a positive number of equal magnitude . ( The idea is that losing a debt is the same thing as gaining a credit . ) Thus 3 − ( − 5 ) = 3 + 5 = 8 and ( − 5 ) − ( − 8 ) = ( − 5 ) + 8 = 3 . Multiplication ( edit ) When multiplying numbers , the magnitude of the product is always just the product of the two magnitudes . The sign of the product is determined by the following rules : The product of one positive number and one negative number is negative . The product of two negative numbers is positive . Thus ( − 2 ) × 3 = − 6 and ( − 2 ) × ( − 3 ) = 6 . The reason behind the first example is simple : adding three − 2 's together yields − 6 : ( − 2 ) × 3 = ( − 2 ) + ( − 2 ) + ( − 2 ) = − 6 . The reasoning behind the second example is more complicated . The idea again is that losing a debt is the same thing as gaining a credit . In this case , losing two debts of three each is the same as gaining a credit of six : ( − 2 debts ) × ( − 3 each ) = + 6 credit . The convention that a product of two negative numbers is positive is also necessary for multiplication to follow the distributive law . In this case , we know that ( − 2 ) × ( − 3 ) + 2 × ( − 3 ) = ( − 2 + 2 ) × ( − 3 ) = 0 × ( − 3 ) = 0 . Since 2 × ( − 3 ) = − 6 , the product ( − 2 ) × ( − 3 ) must equal 6 . These rules lead to another ( equivalent ) rule -- the sign of any product a × b depends on the sign of a as follows : if a is positive , then the sign of a × b is the same as the sign of b , and if a is negative , then the sign of a × b is the opposite of the sign of b . The justification for why the product of two negative numbers is a positive number can be observed in the analysis of complex numbers . Division ( edit ) The sign rules for division are the same as for multiplication . For example , 8 ÷ ( − 2 ) = − 4 , ( − 8 ) ÷ 2 = − 4 , and ( − 8 ) ÷ ( − 2 ) = 4 . If dividend and divisor have the same sign , the result is always positive . Another method of dividing negative numbers is that if one of the numbers being divided is a negative , the answer will be negative . Negation ( edit ) Main article : Additive inverse The negative version of a positive number is referred to as its negation . For example , − 3 is the negation of the positive number 3 . The sum of a number and its negation is equal to zero : 3 + ( − 3 ) = 0 . That is , the negation of a positive number is the additive inverse of the number . Using algebra , we may write this principle as an algebraic identity : x + ( − x ) = 0 . This identity holds for any positive number x . It can be made to hold for all real numbers by extending the definition of negation to include zero and negative numbers . Specifically : The negation of 0 is 0 , and The negation of a negative number is the corresponding positive number . For example , the negation of − 3 is + 3 . In general , − ( − x ) = x . The absolute value of a number is the non-negative number with the same magnitude . For example , the absolute value of − 3 and the absolute value of 3 are both equal to 3 , and the absolute value of 0 is 0 . Formal construction of negative integers ( edit ) See also : Integer § Construction In a similar manner to rational numbers , we can extend the natural numbers N to the integers Z by defining integers as an ordered pair of natural numbers ( a , b ) . We can extend addition and multiplication to these pairs with the following rules : ( a , b ) + ( c , d ) = ( a + c , b + d ) ( a , b ) × ( c , d ) = ( a × c + b × d , a × d + b × c ) We define an equivalence relation ~ upon these pairs with the following rule : ( a , b ) ~ ( c , d ) if and only if a + d = b + c . This equivalence relation is compatible with the addition and multiplication defined above , and we may define Z to be the quotient set N2 / ~ , i.e. we identify two pairs ( a , b ) and ( c , d ) if they are equivalent in the above sense . Note that Z , equipped with these operations of addition and multiplication , is a ring , and is in fact , the prototypical example of a ring . We can also define a total order on Z by writing ( a , b ) ≤ ( c , d ) if and only if a + d ≤ b + c . This will lead to an additive zero of the form ( a , a ) , an additive inverse of ( a , b ) of the form ( b , a ) , a multiplicative unit of the form ( a + 1 , a ) , and a definition of subtraction ( a , b ) − ( c , d ) = ( a + d , b + c ) . This construction is a special case of the Grothendieck construction . Uniqueness ( edit ) The negative of a number is unique , as is shown by the following proof . Let x be a number and let y be its negative . Suppose y ′ is another negative of x . By an axiom of the real number system x + y ′ = 0 , ( \ displaystyle x + y \ prime = 0 , ) x + y = 0 . ( \ displaystyle x + y \ , \ , = 0 . ) And so , x + y ′ = x + y . Using the law of cancellation for addition , it is seen that y ′ = y . Thus y is equal to any other negative of x . That is , y is the unique negative of x . History ( edit ) For a long time , negative solutions to problems were considered `` false '' . In Hellenistic Egypt , the Greek mathematician Diophantus in the 3rd century AD referred to an equation that was equivalent to 4x + 20 = 4 ( which has a negative solution ) in Arithmetica , saying that the equation was absurd . Negative numbers appear for the first time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ( Jiu zhang suan - shu ) , which in its present form dates from the period of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC -- AD 220 ) , but may well contain much older material . The mathematician Liu Hui ( c. 3rd century ) established rules for the addition and subtraction of negative numbers . The historian Jean - Claude Martzloff theorized that the importance of duality in Chinese natural philosophy made it easier for the Chinese to accept the idea of negative numbers . The Chinese were able to solve simultaneous equations involving negative numbers . The Nine Chapters used red counting rods to denote positive coefficients and black rods for negative . This system is the exact opposite of contemporary printing of positive and negative numbers in the fields of banking , accounting , and commerce , wherein red numbers denote negative values and black numbers signify positive values . Liu Hui writes : Now there are two opposite kinds of counting rods for gains and losses , let them be called positive and negative . Red counting rods are positive , black counting rods are negative . The ancient Indian Bakhshali Manuscript carried out calculations with negative numbers , using `` + '' as a negative sign . The date of the manuscript is uncertain . LV Gurjar dates it no later than the 4th century , Hoernle dates it between the third and fourth centuries , Ayyangar and Pingree dates it to the 8th or 9th centuries , and George Gheverghese Joseph dates it to about AD 400 and no later than the early 7th century , During the 7th century AD , negative numbers were used in India to represent debts . The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta , in Brahma - Sphuta - Siddhanta ( written c . AD 630 ) , discussed the use of negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today . He also found negative solutions of quadratic equations and gave rules regarding operations involving negative numbers and zero , such as `` A debt cut off from nothingness becomes a credit ; a credit cut off from nothingness becomes a debt . '' He called positive numbers `` fortunes , '' zero `` a cipher , '' and negative numbers `` debts . '' In the 9th century , Islamic mathematicians were familiar with negative numbers from the works of Indian mathematicians , but the recognition and use of negative numbers during this period remained timid . Al - Khwarizmi in his Al - jabr wa'l - muqabala ( from which we get the word `` algebra '' ) did not use negative numbers or negative coefficients . But within fifty years , Abu Kamil illustrated the rules of signs for expanding the multiplication ( a ± b ) ( c ± d ) ( \ displaystyle ( a \ pm b ) ( c \ pm d ) ) , and al - Karaji wrote in his al - Fakhrī that `` negative quantities must be counted as terms '' . In the 10th century , Abū al - Wafā ' al - Būzjānī considered debts as negative numbers in A Book on What Is Necessary from the Science of Arithmetic for Scribes and Businessmen . By the 12th century , al - Karaji 's successors were to state the general rules of signs and use them to solve polynomial divisions . As al - Samaw'al writes : the product of a negative number -- al - nāqiṣ -- by a positive number -- al - zāʾid -- is negative , and by a negative number is positive . If we subtract a negative number from a higher negative number , the remainder is their negative difference . The difference remains positive if we subtract a negative number from a lower negative number . If we subtract a negative number from a positive number , the remainder is their positive sum . If we subtract a positive number from an empty power ( martaba khāliyya ) , the remainder is the same negative , and if we subtract a negative number from an empty power , the remainder is the same positive number . In the 12th century in India , Bhāskara II gave negative roots for quadratic equations but rejected them because they were inappropriate in the context of the problem . He stated that a negative value is `` in this case not to be taken , for it is inadequate ; people do not approve of negative roots . '' European mathematicians , for the most part , resisted the concept of negative numbers until the 17th century , although Fibonacci allowed negative solutions in financial problems where they could be interpreted as debits ( chapter 13 of Liber Abaci , AD 1202 ) and later as losses ( in Flos ) . In the 15th century , Nicolas Chuquet , a Frenchman , used negative numbers as exponents but referred to them as `` absurd numbers . '' In his 1544 Arithmetica Integra Michael Stifel also dealt with negative numbers , also calling them numeri absurdi . In 1545 , Gerolamo Cardano , in his Ars Magna , provided the first satisfactory treatment of negative numbers in Europe . He did not allow negative numbers in his consideration of cubic equations , so he had to treat , for example , x + ax = b separately from x = ax + b ( with a , b > 0 in both cases ) . In all , Cardano was driven to the study of thirteen different types of cubic equations , each expressed purely in terms of positive numbers . In A.D. 1759 , Francis Maseres , an English mathematician , wrote that negative numbers `` darken the very whole doctrines of the equations and make dark of the things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple '' . He came to the conclusion that negative numbers were nonsensical . In the 18th century it was common practice to ignore any negative results derived from equations , on the assumption that they were meaningless . Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was the first mathematician to systematically employ negative numbers as part of a coherent mathematical system , the infinitesimal calculus . Calculus made negative numbers necessary and their dismissal as `` absurd numbers '' quickly faded . See also ( edit ) Signed zero Additive inverse History of zero Integers Positive and negative parts Rational numbers Real numbers Sign function Sign ( mathematics ) Signed number representations References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ For exceptions , see signed zero . Jump up ^ The convention that zero is neither positive nor negative is not universal . For example , in the French convention , zero is considered to be both positive and negative . The French words positif and négatif mean the same as English `` positive or zero '' and `` negative or zero '' respectively . ^ Jump up to : Struik , page 32 -- 33 . `` In these matrices we find negative numbers , which appear here for the first time in history . '' ^ Jump up to : Luke Hodgkin ( 2005 ) . A History of Mathematics : From Mesopotamia to Modernity . Oxford University Press . p. 88 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 152383 - 0 . Liu is explicit on this ; at the point where the Nine Chapters give a detailed and helpful ' Sign Rule ' ^ Jump up to : Rashed , R. ( 1994 - 06 - 30 ) . The Development of Arabic Mathematics : Between Arithmetic and Algebra . Springer . pp. 36 -- 37 . ISBN 9780792325659 . Jump up ^ Diophantus , Arithmetica . Jump up ^ BBC website Jump up ^ Elitefeet Jump up ^ Forbes , Robert B. ( 6 January 1975 ) . `` Contributions to the Geology of the Bering Sea Basin and Adjacent Regions : Selected Papers from the Symposium on the Geology and Geophysics of the Bering Sea Region , on the Occasion of the Inauguration of the C.T. Elvey Building , University of Alaska , June 26 - 28 , 1970 , and from the 2d International Symposium on Arctic Geology Held in San Francisco , February 1 - 4 , 1971 '' . Geological Society of America . p. 194 . Retrieved 6 January 2018 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Wilks , Daniel S. ( 6 January 2018 ) . `` Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences '' . Academic Press . p. 17 . Retrieved 6 January 2018 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ BBC article Jump up ^ Article in The Independent Jump up ^ BBC article Jump up ^ Think negative interest rates ca n't happen here ? Think again Jump up ^ Swiss National Bank will cut interest rate to minus 0.25 % Jump up ^ Popularity of Miliband and Clegg falls to lowest levels recorded by ICM poll Jump up ^ Grant P. Wiggins ; Jay McTighe ( 2005 ) . Understanding by design . ACSD Publications . p. 210 . ISBN 1 - 4166 - 0035 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Needham , Joseph ; Wang , Ling ( 1995 ) ( 1959 ) . Science and Civilisation in China : Volume 3 ; Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth ( reprint ed . ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . p. 90 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 05801 - 5 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Needham , Joseph ; Wang , Ling ( 1995 ) ( 1959 ) . Science and Civilisation in China : Volume 3 ; Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth ( reprint ed . ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 90 -- 91 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 05801 - 5 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Teresi , Dick . ( 2002 ) . Lost Discoveries : The Ancient Roots of Modern Science -- from the Babylonians to the Mayas . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 684 - 83718 - 8 . Page 65 . Jump up ^ Pearce , Ian ( May 2002 ) . `` The Bakhshali manuscript '' . The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ Takao Hayashi ( 2008 ) , Helaine Selin , ed. , `` Bakhshālī Manuscript '' , Encyclopaedia of the History of Science , Technology , and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures , Springer , 1 , p . B2 , ISBN 9781402045592 Jump up ^ Teresi , Dick . ( 2002 ) . Lost Discoveries : The Ancient Roots of Modern Science -- from the Babylonians to the Mayas . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 684 - 83718 - 8 . Page 65 -- 66 . Jump up ^ Colva M. Roney - Dougal , Lecturer in Pure Mathematics at the University of St Andrews , stated this on the BBC Radio 4 programme `` In Our Time , '' on 9 March 2006 . Jump up ^ Knowledge Transfer and Perceptions of the Passage of Time , ICEE - 2002 Keynote Address by Colin Adamson - Macedo . `` Referring again to Brahmagupta 's great work , all the necessary rules for algebra , including the ' rule of signs ' , were stipulated , but in a form which used the language and imagery of commerce and the market place . Thus ' dhana ' ( = fortunes ) is used to represent positive numbers , whereas ' rina ' ( = debts ) were negative '' . ^ Jump up to : Mat Rofa Bin Ismail ( 2008 ) , Helaine Selin , ed. , `` Algebra in Islamic Mathematics '' , Encyclopaedia of the History of Science , Technology , and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures ( 2nd ed . ) , Springer , 1 , p. 115 , ISBN 9781402045592 Jump up ^ Flegg , Graham ; Hay , C. ; Moss , B. ( 1985 ) , Nicolas Chuquet , Renaissance Mathematician : a study with extensive translations of Chuquet 's mathematical manuscript completed in 1484 , D. Reidel Publishing Co. , p. 354 , ISBN 9789027718723 . Jump up ^ Famous Problems and Their Mathematicians , Greenwood Publishing Group , 1999 , p. 56 , ISBN 9781563084461 . Jump up ^ Maseres , Francis ( 1758 ) . A dissertation on the use of the negative sign in algebra : containing a demonstration of the rules usually given concerning it ; and shewing how quadratic and cubic equations may be explained , without the consideration of negative roots . To which is added , as an appendix , Mr. Machin 's Quadrature of the Circle . Quoting from Maseres ' work : If any single quantity is marked either with the sign + or the sign − without affecting some other quantity , the mark will have no meaning or significance , thus if it be said that the square of − 5 , or the product of − 5 into − 5 , is equal to + 25 , such an assertion must either signify no more than 5 times 5 is equal to 25 without any regard for the signs , or it must be mere nonsense or unintelligible jargon . Jump up ^ Martinez , Alberto A. ( 2006 ) . Negative Math : How Mathematical Rules Can Be Positively Bent . Princeton University Press . a history of controversies on negative numbers , mainly from the 1600s until the early 1900s . Bibliography ( edit ) Bourbaki , Nicolas ( 1998 ) . Elements of the History of Mathematics . Berlin , Heidelberg , and New York : Springer - Verlag . ISBN 3 - 540 - 64767 - 8 . Struik , Dirk J. ( 1987 ) . A Concise History of Mathematics . New York : Dover Publications . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Negative number Maseres ' biographical information BBC Radio 4 series `` In Our Time , '' on Negative Numbers , 9 March 2006 Endless Examples & Exercises : Operations with Signed Integers Math Forum : Ask Dr. Math FAQ : Negative Times a Negative ( hide ) Number systems Countable sets Natural numbers ( N ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( N ) ) ) Integers ( Z ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( Z ) ) ) Rational numbers ( Q ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( Q ) ) ) Constructible numbers Algebraic numbers ( A ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( A ) ) ) Periods Computable numbers Definable real numbers Arithmetical numbers Gaussian integers Division algebras Real numbers ( R ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( R ) ) ) Complex numbers ( C ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( C ) ) ) Quaternions ( H ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( H ) ) ) Octonions ( O ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( O ) ) ) Split Composition algebras over R ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( R ) ) : Split - complex numbers Split - quaternions Split - octonions over C ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( C ) ) : Bicomplex numbers Biquaternions Bioctonions Other hypercomplex Dual numbers Dual quaternions Hyperbolic quaternions Sedenions ( S ( \ displaystyle \ mathbb ( S ) ) ) Split - biquaternions Multicomplex numbers Other types Cardinal numbers Irrational numbers Fuzzy numbers Hyperreal numbers Levi - Civita field Surreal numbers Transcendental numbers Ordinal numbers p - adic numbers Supernatural numbers Superreal numbers Classification List Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negative_number&oldid=842297443 '' Categories : Elementary arithmetic Numbers Chinese mathematical discoveries Negative concepts Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Use dmy dates from June 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Bosanski Brezhoneg Català ChiShona Deutsch Español فارسی Français Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Íslenska Italiano עברית Kiswahili Malagasy മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk پنجابی ភាសា ខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 吴语 粵語 中文 39 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2018 , at 15 : 03 . 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what is the highest mountain peak in hawaii

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mauna_Kea&oldid=798934566

Mauna Kea - wikipedia Mauna Kea Jump to : navigation , search Mauna Kea Maunakea Mauna Kea in December 2007 , with its seasonal snow cap visible Highest point Elevation 4,207.3 m ( 13,803 ft ) Prominence 4,207.2 m ( 13,803 ft ) Isolation 3,947 km ( 2,453 mi ) Listing Highest ocean islands 2nd World most prominent 15th World most isolated peaks 8th Oceania highest peaks 2nd US highest major peaks 57th US most prominent peaks 2nd US most isolated peaks 2nd US state high point 6th Hawaii highest major peaks 1st Coordinates 19 ° 49 ′ 14 '' N 155 ° 28 ′ 05 '' W  /  19.820664075 ° N 155.468066397 ° W  / 19.820664075 ; - 155.468066397 Coordinates : 19 ° 49 ′ 14 '' N 155 ° 28 ′ 05 '' W  /  19.820664075 ° N 155.468066397 ° W  / 19.820664075 ; - 155.468066397 Geography Mauna Kea Position of Mauna Kea in Hawaii Location Hawaii County , Hawaii , United States Parent range Hawaiian Islands Geology Age of rock Oldest dated rock : 237,000 ± 31,000 BP Approximate : ~ 1 million Mountain type Shield volcano Hotspot volcano Volcanic arc / belt Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain Last eruption 2460 BC ± 100 years Climbing First ascent Recorded : Goodrich ( 1823 ) Easiest route Mauna Kea Trail U.S. National Natural Landmark Designated November 1972 Mauna Kea ( / ˌmɔːnə ˈkeɪ. ə / or / ˌmaʊnə ˈkeɪ. ə / , Hawaiian : ( ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə ) ) , is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii . Standing 4,207 m ( 13,802 ft ) above sea level , its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Much of the mountain is under water ; when measured from its oceanic base , Mauna Kea is over 10,000 m ( 33,000 ft ) tall and is the tallest mountain on Earth . Mauna Kea is about a million years old , and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago . In its current post-shield state , its lava is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile . Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes ; contributing factors include the construction of cinder cones , the decentralization of its rift zones , the glaciation on its peak , and the weathering effects of the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now considered dormant . In Hawaiian mythology , the peaks of the island of Hawai ʻi are sacred . An ancient law allowed only high - ranking aliʻi to visit its peak . Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food , and quarried the dense volcano - glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century , settlers introduced cattle , sheep and game animals , many of which became feral and began to damage the mountain 's ecological balance . Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a Sophora chrysophylla -- Myoporum sandwicense ( or māmane -- naio ) forest on its flanks , and an Acacia koa -- Metrosideros polymorpha ( or koa -- ʻōhiʻa ) forest , now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base . In recent years , concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources to eradicate all feral species on the mountain . With its high elevation , dry environment , and stable airflow , Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation . Since the creation of an access road in 1964 , thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit . The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio , and comprise the largest such facility in the world . Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate . Contents ( hide ) 1 Geology 1.1 Future activity 2 Human history 2.1 Native history 2.2 Modern era 2.3 Ascents 3 Ecology 3.1 Background 3.2 Alpine environment 3.3 Māmane -- naio forest 3.4 Lower environment 4 Summit observatories 5 Climate 6 Recreation 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Geology ( edit ) Clickable imagemap of Hawaii island showing the location of Mauna Kea , making up 22.8 percent of the island 's surface area . Mauna Kea is one of five hotspot volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii , the largest and youngest island of the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain . Of these five volcanoes , Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active . It began as a preshield volcano driven by the Hawaii hotspot around one million years ago , and became exceptionally active during its shield stage until 500,000 years ago . Mauna Kea entered its quieter post-shield stage 250,000 to 200,000 years ago , and is currently dormant . Mauna Kea does not have a visible summit caldera , but contains a number of small cinder and pumice cones near its summit . A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits . Mauna Kea is over 3,200 km ( 770 cu mi ) in volume , so massive that it and its neighbor , Mauna Loa , depress the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km ( 4 mi ) . The volcano continues to slip and flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than 0.2 mm ( 0.01 in ) per year . Much of its mass lies east of its present summit . Mauna Kea stands 4,205 m ( 13,800 ft ) above sea level , just 35 m ( 110 ft ) higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa , and is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Measured from its base on the ocean floor , it rises over 10,000 m ( 33,000 ft ) , significantly greater than the elevation of Mount Everest above sea level . Like all Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Kea has been created as the Pacific tectonic plate has moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that , over 70 million years , has created the 6,000 km ( 3,700 mi ) - long Hawaiian Ridge -- Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing , though not completely settled , view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much , if not all of the Cenozoic Era . However , while Hawaiian volcanism is well understood and extensively studied , there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect . Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth . Most prominently , Mauna Kea is built upon older flows from Kohala to the northwest , and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south . The original eruptive fissures ( rift zones ) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post-shield volcanism . Hilo Ridge , a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea , was once believed to be a part of the volcano ; however , it is now understood to be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows . The shield - stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts , like those of Mauna Loa , created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust . They are covered by the oldest exposed rock strata on Mauna Kea , the post-shield alkali basalts of the Hāmākua Volcanics , which erupted between 250,000 and 70 -- 65,000 years ago . The most recent volcanic flows are hawaiites and mugearites : they are the post-shield Laupāhoehoe Volcanics , erupted between 65,000 and 4,000 years ago . These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit , which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy . The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain more volatiles than the earlier tholeiitic basalts ; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea 's flanks . In addition , explosive eruptions have built cinder cones near the summit . These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea . Its present summit is dominated by lava domes and cinder cones up to 1.5 km ( 0.9 mi ) in diameter and hundreds of meters tall . Scoria and cinder cones on Mauna Kea 's summit in winter Glacial evidence on Mauna Kea , outlining terminal moraines ( `` m '' ) and till ( `` w '' ) Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence of glaciation . Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa , but have been covered by later lava flows . Despite Hawaii 's tropical location , during several past ice ages a drop of only a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the mountain 's summit through summer , triggering the formation of an ice cap . There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180,000 years : the Pōhakuloa ( 180 -- 130 ka ) , Wāihu ( 80 -- 60 ka ) and Mākanaka ( 40 -- 13 ka ) series . These have extensively sculpted the summit , depositing moraines and a circular ring of till and gravel along the mountain 's upper flanks . Subglacial eruptions built cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation , most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action . The most recent cones were built between 9000 and 4500 years ago , atop the glacial deposits , although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3600 years ago . At their maximum extent , the glaciers extended from the summit down to between 3,200 and 3,800 m ( 10,500 and 12,500 ft ) of elevation . A small body of permafrost , less than 25 m ( 80 ft ) across , was found at the summit of Mauna Kea prior to 1974 , and may still be present . Small gullies etch the summit , formed by rain - and snow - fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers . On the windward side of the mountain , stream erosion driven by trade winds has accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala . Mauna Kea is home to Lake Waiau , the highest lake in the Pacific Basin . At an altitude of 3,969 m ( 13,022 ft ) , it lies within the Pu ʻu Waiau cinder cone and is the only alpine lake in Hawaii . The lake is very small and shallow , with a surface area of 0.73 ha ( 1.80 acres ) and a depth of 3 m ( 10 ft ) . Radiocarbon dating of samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12,600 years ago . Hawaiian lava types are typically permeable , preventing the formation of lakes due to infiltration . Here , either sulfur - bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low - permeability clays , or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water ( phreatic eruptions ) formed exceptionally fine ash that also would reduce the permeability of the lake bed . Until 1993 , artesian water was not known to be present in the Island of Hawaii . Drilling by the University of Hawaii at that time encountered an artesian groundwater aquifer at 300 meters below sea level and 100 meters of hole depth within a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of both Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea meet ( Humuula saddle region ) . Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at an elevation higher than 2000 meters above mean sea level . Its presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea 's basal lens . Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea 's fresh water lens than current models may indicate . In 2012 two more bore holes were drilled on Mauna Kea and water discovered at much higher elevations than previously believed but shallower than expected . Donald Thomas , director of the University of Hawaii 's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and ' occupancy ' of the higher elevation areas , stating : `` Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that , in most cases , must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo -- an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels . '' Future activity ( edit ) The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4,600 years ago ( about 2600 BCE ) ; because of this inactivity , Mauna Kea is assigned a United States Geological Survey hazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks , out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 ( which is given to the extinct volcano Kohala ) . Twenty percent of the volcano 's summit has seen lava flows in the past 10,000 years , and its flanks have seen virtually no lava flows during that time . Despite its dormancy , Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again , although there would be sufficient warning to evacuate . The telescopes on Mauna Kea 's summit would be the first to detect the minute amounts of deformation resulting from the volcano 's swelling , acting like expensive tiltmeters . Based on prior eruptions , such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano 's upper flanks and would likely produce extended lava flows , mostly of a'a , of 15 -- 25 km ( 9 -- 16 mi ) in length . Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source . Although not likely in the next few centuries , such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure . Geologically recent Mauna Kea cinder cones and lava flows Hazard mapping of Mauna Kea and nearby Kohala Human History ( edit ) Native History ( edit ) A stone structure or ahu facing Mauna Kea , on Saddle Road between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa . The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores , where food and water were plentiful . Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa -- Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries . Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting , collecting stone material , and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations . The mountain 's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter . Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source . Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions , particularly amongst bird species . Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals , and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion . The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland ; some of this change was caused by the use of fire , but the prevailing cause of forest ecosystem collapse and avian extinction on Hawaii appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian ( or Pacific ) rat . The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains ; and Mauna Kea 's summit , the highest , is the most sacred . For this reason , a kapu ( ancient Hawaiian law ) restricted visitor rights to high - ranking aliʻi . Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities . In Hawaiian mythology , the summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the `` region of the gods '' , a place where benevolent spirits reside . Poli ʻahu , deity of snow , also resides there . In Hawaiian , Mauna Kea is a shortened form of Mauna a Wakea which denotes the mountain 's connection to the sky father Wakea ; however , the English translation of Mauna Kea is `` white mountain '' in reference to its seasonally snow - capped summit . Around AD 1100 , natives established adze quarries high up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely dense basalt ( generated by the quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice during subglacial eruptions ) to make tools . Volcanic glass and gabbro were collected for blades and fishing gear , and māmane wood was preferred for the handles . At peak quarry activity after AD 1400 , there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting ; shelters with food , water , and wood to sustain the workers ; and workshops creating the finished product . Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers . Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water , to give them the strength of the mountain . Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans . As part of the ritual associated with quarrying , the workers erected shrines to their gods ; these and other quarry artifacts remain at the sites , most of which lie within what is now the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve . This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century . Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long - term welfare of the environment . These ahupua ʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast . Mauna Kea 's summit was encompassed in the ahupua ʻa of Ka ʻohe , with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humu ʻula . Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane -- naio forest of its upper slopes , which provided them with vegetation and bird life . Bird species hunted included the ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) , nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ) , and palila ( Loxioides bailleui ) . The lower koa -- ʻōhiʻa forest gave the natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration . Modern era ( edit ) View of the mountain from Mauna Loa Observatory There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaii before the arrival of James Cook , in 1778 . However , the earliest Western depictions of the isle , including Mauna Kea , were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents . Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases ; port cities including Hilo , Kealakekua , and Kailua grew with the establishment of trade ; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools . In 1793 , cattle were brought by George Vancouver as a tribute to King Kamehameha I. By the early 19th century , they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely , greatly damaging its ecosystem . In 1809 John Palmer Parker arrived and befriended Kamehameha I , who put him in charge of cattle management on the island . With an additional land grant in 1845 , Parker established Parker Ranch on the northern slope of Mauna Kea , a large cattle ranch that is still in operation today . Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the native forest for the construction of sugarcane plantations and houses . The Saddle Road , named for its crossing of the saddle - shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa , was completed in 1943 , and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably . The Pohakuloa Training Area on the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaii . The 108,863 - acre ( 44,055 ha ) base extends from the volcano 's lower flanks to 2,070 m ( 6,790 ft ) elevation , on state land leased to the US Army since 1956 . There are 15 threatened and endangered plants , 3 endangered birds , and 1 endangered bat species in the area . Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s . Approximately 27 percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000 , identifying 76 shrines , 4 adze manufacturing workshops , 3 other markers , 1 positively identified burial site , and 4 possible burial sites . By 2009 , the total number of identified sites had risen to 223 , and archaeological research on the volcano 's upper flanks is ongoing . It has been suggested that the shrines , which are arranged around the volcano 's summit along what may be an ancient snow line , are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea . Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history , few sites have been confirmed . The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting the volcano may be because they were reserved for burial . Ascents ( edit ) David Douglas , a Scottish botanist who died on Mauna Kea in 1834 In pre-contact times , natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails , as no evidence of the latter has been found . It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead . Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea 's slopes to visit family - maintained shrines near its summit , and traditions related to ascending the mountain exist to this day . However , very few natives actually reached the summit , because of the strict kapu placed on it . In the early 19th century , the earliest notable recorded ascents of Mauna Kea included the following : On August 26 , 1823 , Joseph F. Goodrich , an American missionary , made the first recorded ascent in a single day ; however , a small arrangement of stones he observed suggested he was not the first human on the summit . He recorded four ecosystems as he travelled from base to summit , and also visited Lake Waiau . On June 17 , 1825 , an expedition from HMS Blonde , led by botanist James Macrae , reached the summit of Mauna Kea . Macrae was the first person to record the Mauna Kea silversword ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense ) , saying : `` The last mile was destitute of vegetation except one plant of the Sygenisia tribe , in growth much like a Yucca , with sharp pointed silver coloured leaves and green upright spike of three or four feet producing pendulous branches with brown flowers , truly superb , and almost worth the journey of coming here to see it on purpose . '' In January 1834 , David Douglas climbed the mountain and described extensively the division of plant species by altitude . On a second climb in July , he was found dead in a pit intended to catch wild cattle . Although murder was suspected , it was probably an accidental fall . The site , Ka lua kauka 19 ° 53 ′ 17 '' N 155 ° 20 ′ 17 '' W  /  19.88806 ° N 155.33806 ° W  / 19.88806 ; - 155.33806  ( Kaluakauka ) , is marked by the Douglas fir trees named for him . In 1881 , Queen Emma traveled to the peak to bathe in the waters of Lake Waiau during competition for the role of ruling chief of the Kingdom of Hawaii . On August 6 , 1889 , E.D. Baldwin left Hilo and followed cattle trails to the summit . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed , often by the movement of game herds , that could be traveled on horseback . However , vehicular access to the summit was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964 , and it continues to be restricted . Today , multiple trails to the summit exist , in various states of use . Ecology ( edit ) Background ( edit ) Hawaii 's geographical isolation strongly influences its ecology . Remote islands like Hawaii have a large number of species that are found nowhere else ( see Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands ) . The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated these endemic species from external biotic influence , and also makes them especially vulnerable to extinction and the effects of invasive species . In addition the ecosystems of Hawaii are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture ; an estimated third of the island 's endemic species have already been wiped out . Because of its elevation , Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago . Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation . These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation : alpine -- subalpine , montane , and basal forest . Contact with Americans and Europeans in the early 19th century brought more settlers to the island , and had a lasting negative ecological effect . On lower slopes , vast tracts of koa -- ʻōhiʻa forest were converted to farmland . Higher up , feral animals that escaped from ranches found refuge in , and damaged extensively , Mauna Kea 's native māmane -- naio forest . Non-native plants are the other serious threat ; there are over 4,600 introduced species on the island , whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1,000 . Alpine environment ( edit ) Mauna Kea silversword ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense sandwicense ) growing near the volcano 's summit . The summit of Mauna Kea lies above the tree line , and consists of mostly lava rock and alpine tundra . An area of heavy snowfall , it is inhospitable to vegetation , and is known as the Hawaiian tropical high shrublands . Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures , a short growing season , low rainfall , and snow during winter months . A lack of soil also retards root growth , makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from the ground , and gives the area a very low water retention capacity . Plant species found at this elevation include Styphelia tameiameiae , Taraxacum officinale , Tetramolopium humile , Agrostis sandwicensis , Anthoxanthum odoratum , Trisetum glomeratum , Poa annua , Sonchus oleraceus , and Coprosma ernodiodes . One notable species is Mauna Kea silversword ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense var . sandwicense ) , a highly endangered endemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea 's high elevation cinder deserts . At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants , Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone , but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock , and can grow at lower elevations as well . The Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve on the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea was established in 1981 . The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock , including areas of aeolian desert and Lake Waiau . This ecosystem is a likely haven for the threatened ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) and also the center of a study on wēkiu bugs ( Nysius wekiuicola ) . Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks . This is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genus Nysius , which consists of predominantly seed - eating insects . They can survive at extreme elevations of up to 4,200 m ( 13,780 ft ) because of natural antifreeze in their blood . They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time . Their conservation status is unclear , but the species is no longer a candidate for the Endangered Species List ; studies on the welfare of the species began in 1980 . The closely related Nysius aa lives on Mauna Loa . Wolf spiders ( Lycosidae ) and forest tent caterpillar moths have also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem ; the former survive by hiding under heat - absorbing rocks , and the latter through cold - resistant chemicals in their bodies . Māmane -- naio forest ( edit ) A pair of māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) trees The highest forested zone on the volcano , at an elevation of 2,000 -- 3,000 m ( 6,600 -- 9,800 ft ) , is dominated by māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) and naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ) , both endemic tree species , and is thus known as māmane -- naio forest . Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone , especially the palila ( Loxioides bailleui ) . The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea , Mauna Loa , and Hualālai , but is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea -- only 10 % of its former range -- and has been declared critically endangered . The largest threat to the ecosystem is grazing by feral sheep ( Ovis aries ) , cattle ( Bos primigenius ) , and goats ( Capra hircus ) introduced to the island in the late 18th century . Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as the late 1920s , and continued through to 1949 . One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence of herbaceous and woody plants , both endemic and introduced , that were resistant to browsing . The feral animals were almost eradicated , and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s . However , an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued as game animals , and in 1959 the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources , the governing body in charge of conservation and land use management , changed its policy to a sustained - control program designed to facilitate the sport . Mouflon ( Ovis aries orientalis ) was introduced from 1962 -- 1964 , and a plan to release axis deer ( Axis axis ) in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry , who said that they would damage crops and spread disease . The hunting industry fought back , and the back - and - forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern . With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing , conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea 's ecosystem . A plan was proposed to fence 25 % of the forests for protection , and manage the remaining 75 % for game hunting . Despite opposition from conservationists the plan was put into action . While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence . In the midst of this wrangling the Endangered Species Act was passed ; the National Audubon Society and Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources , claiming that they were violating federal law , in the landmark case Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources ( 1978 ) . The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld the precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife . Having violated the Endangered Species Act , Hawaii state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside . This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981 . A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals , at least temporarily . An active control program is in place , though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of the māmane - naio ecosystem . There are many other species and ecosystems on the island , and on Mauna Kea , that remain threatened by human development and invasive species . The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects 52,500 acres ( 212 km ) of māmane - naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . Ungulate hunting is allowed year - round . A small part of the māmane -- naio forest is encompassed by the Mauna Kea State Recreation Area . Lower environment ( edit ) The ʻalalā or Hawaiian crow ( Corvus hawaiiensis ) is a bird in the crow family . It is extinct in the wild , with plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge . A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea 's lower slopes was formerly Acacia koa -- Metrosideros polymorpha ( koa - ʻōhiʻa ) forest . Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century , as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes . Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations . Most of the houses on the island were built of koa , and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes . The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880 , and by 1900 logging interests had shifted to Kona and the island of Maui . With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s , much of this land lies fallow but portions are used for cattle grazing , small - scale farming and the cultivation of eucalyptus for wood pulp . The Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge is a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea 's windward slope . It was established in 1985 , covering 32,733 acres ( 13,247 ha ) of ecosystem remnant . Eight endangered bird species , twelve endangered plants , and the endangered Hawaiian hoary bat ( Lasiurus cinereus semotus ) have been observed in the area , in addition to many other rare biota . The reserve has been the site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989 . Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem , as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland . Bird species native to the acacia koa -- ʻōhiʻa forest include the Hawaiian crow ( Corvus hawaiiensis ) , the ʻakepa ( Loxops coccineus ) , Hawaii creeper ( Oreomystis mana ) , ʻakiapōlāʻau ( Hemignathus munroi ) , and Hawaiian hawk ( Buteo solitarius ) , all of which are endangered , threatened , or near threatened ; the Hawaiian crow in particular is extinct in the wild , but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve . Summit Observatories ( edit ) Main articles : Mauna Kea Observatories and Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories Sunset over four telescopes of the Mauna Kea Observatories . From left to right : the Subaru Telescope , the twin Keck I and II telescopes , and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation due to favorable observing conditions . The arid conditions are important for submillimeter and infrared astronomy for this region of the electromagnetic spectrum . The summit is above the inversion layer , keeping most cloud cover below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry , and free of atmospheric pollution . The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable , lacking turbulence for some of the world 's best astronomical seeing . The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea 's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes light pollution from the surrounding area ; the darkness level allows the observation of faint astronomical objects . These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing . In the early 1960s , the Hawaii Island Chamber of Commerce encouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea , as economic stimulus ; this coincided with University of Arizona astronomer Gerard Kuiper 's search for sites to use newly improved detectors of infrared light . Site testing by Kuiper 's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed the summit 's outstanding suitability . An intense three - way competition for NASA funds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper , Harvard University , and the University of Hawaii ( UH ) , which only had experience in solar astronomy . This culminated in funds being awarded to the `` upstart '' UH proposal . UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a new Institute for Astronomy , and in 1968 the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65 - year lease for all land within a 4 km ( 2.5 mi ) radius of its telescope , essentially that above 11,500 ft ( 3,505 m ) . On its completion in 1970 , the UH 88 in ( 2.2 m ) was the seventh largest optical / infrared telescope in the world . Mauna Kea from the summit of Haleakalā on Maui , approximately 78 mi ( 126 km ) away By 1970 , two 24 in ( 0.6 m ) telescopes had been constructed by the US Air Force and Lowell Observatory . In 1973 , Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6 m CFHT on Mauna Kea . However , local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory . This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan , drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980 . In January 1982 , the UH Board of Regents approved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site . In 1998 , 2,033 acres ( 823 ha ) were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve . The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020 : it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management , designated 525 acres ( 212 ha ) for astronomy , and shifted the remaining 10,763 acres ( 4,356 ha ) to `` natural and cultural preservation '' . This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown toward the cultural values of the mountain . Today the Mauna Kea Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities , each funded by as many as 11 countries . There are nine telescopes working in the visible and infrared spectrum , three in the submillimeter spectrum , and one in the radio spectrum , with mirrors or dishes ranging from 0.9 to 25 m ( 3 to 82 ft ) . In comparison , the Hubble Space Telescope has a 2.4 m ( 7.9 ft ) mirror , similar in size to the UH88 , now the second smallest telescope on the mountain . A `` Save Mauna Kea '' movement , believes development of the mountain to be sacrilegious . Native Hawaiian non-profit groups such as Kahea , concerned with cultural heritage and the environment also oppose development for cultural and religious reasons . The multi-telescope `` outrigger '' , proposed in 2006 was eventually canceled . A planned new telescope , the Thirty Meter Telescope ( TMT ) , has attracted controversy and protests . The TMT was approved in April 2013 . In October 2014 , the groundbreaking ceremony for the telescope was interrupted by protesters causing the project to temporarily halt . In late March 2015 , demonstrators blocked access of the road to the summit again . On April 2 , 2015 , 300 protestors were gathered near the visitor 's center when 12 people were arrested with 11 more arrested at the summit . Among the concerns of the protest groups are the land appraisals and Native Hawaiians consultation . Construction was halted on April 7 , 2015 after protests expanded over the state . After several halts , the project has been voluntarily postponed . Governor Ige announced substantial changes to the management of Mauna Kea in the future but stated the project can move forward . A pending court case has been accepted by the Supreme Court of Hawaii over the project by a number of groups . Climate ( edit ) The summit of Mauna Kea has an alpine climate . Due to the influence of its tropical latitude , temperature swings are very low in spite of its high elevation . Frosts are common year round , but in spite of the elevation no month is nearly below freezing in terms of average high , although March almost falls below 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) in average means . ( hide ) Climate data for Mauna Kea Observatory , Elevation : 13,800 ft ( 4,200 m ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° F ( ° C ) 55 ( 13 ) 56 ( 13 ) 54 ( 12 ) 55 ( 13 ) 59 ( 15 ) 58 ( 14 ) 75 ( 24 ) 57 ( 14 ) 60 ( 16 ) 59 ( 15 ) 54 ( 12 ) 55 ( 13 ) 75 ( 24 ) Average high ° F ( ° C ) 42.0 ( 5.6 ) 42.5 ( 5.8 ) 40.3 ( 4.6 ) 41.4 ( 5.2 ) 47.5 ( 8.6 ) 49.3 ( 9.6 ) 50.9 ( 10.5 ) 49.9 ( 9.9 ) 50.5 ( 10.3 ) 43.8 ( 6.6 ) 45.1 ( 7.3 ) 42.7 ( 5.9 ) 46.0 ( 7.8 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 26.3 ( − 3.2 ) 26.1 ( − 3.3 ) 24.9 ( − 3.9 ) 26.2 ( − 3.2 ) 29.0 ( − 1.7 ) 29.4 ( − 1.4 ) 30.3 ( − 0.9 ) 30.9 ( − 0.6 ) 31.3 ( − 0.4 ) 29.5 ( − 1.4 ) 27.8 ( − 2.3 ) 27.6 ( − 2.4 ) 28.4 ( − 2 ) Record low ° F ( ° C ) 19 ( − 7 ) 12 ( − 11 ) 18 ( − 8 ) 18 ( − 8 ) 12 ( − 11 ) 23 ( − 5 ) 22 ( − 6 ) 17 ( − 8 ) 23 ( − 5 ) 20 ( − 7 ) 20 ( − 7 ) 17 ( − 8 ) 12 ( − 11 ) Average precipitation inches ( mm ) 0.81 ( 20.6 ) 0.24 ( 6.1 ) 1.05 ( 26.7 ) 0.50 ( 12.7 ) 0.92 ( 23.4 ) 0.14 ( 3.6 ) 0.29 ( 7.4 ) 0.77 ( 19.6 ) 0.51 ( 13 ) 0.58 ( 14.7 ) 1.04 ( 26.4 ) 0.52 ( 13.2 ) 7.36 ( 186.9 ) Source : http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/ Recreation ( edit ) Mauna Kea from the Saddle Road near Hilo Mauna Kea 's coastline is dominated by the Hamakua Coast , an area of rugged terrain created by frequent slumps and landslides on the volcano 's flank . The area includes several recreation parks including Kalopa State Recreation Area , Wailuku River State Park and Akaka Falls State Park . There are over 3,000 registered hunters on Hawaii island , and hunting , for both recreation and sustenance , is a common activity on Mauna Kea . A public hunting program is used to control the numbers of introduced animals including pigs , sheep , goats , turkey , pheasants , and quail . The Mauna Kea State Recreation Area functions as a base camp for the sport . Birdwatching is also common at lower levels on the mountain . A popular site is Kīpuka Pu'u Huluhulu , a kīpuka on Mauna Kea 's flank that formed when lava flows isolated the forest on a hill . Mauna Kea 's great elevation and the steepness of its flanks provide a better view and a shorter hike than the adjacent Mauna Loa . The high elevation with its risk of altitude sickness , weather concerns , steep road grade , and overall inaccessibility make the volcano dangerous and summit trips difficult . Until the construction of roads in the mid-20th century , only the hardy visited Mauna Kea 's upper slopes ; hunters tracked game animals , and hikers traveled up the mountain . These travelers used stone cabins constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s as base camps , and it is from these facilities that the modern mid-level Onizuka Center for International Astronomy telescope support complex is derived . The first Mauna Kea summit road was built in 1964 , making the peak itself accessible to larger numbers of people . Today , multiple hiking trails exist , including the Mauna Kea Trail , and by 2007 over 100,000 tourists and 32,000 vehicles were going each year to the Visitor Information Station ( VIS ) adjacent to the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy . The Mauna Kea Access Road is paved up to the Center at 2,804 m ( 9,199 ft ) . One study reported that around a third of visitors and two thirds of professional astronomers working on the mountain have experienced symptoms of acute altitude sickness ; visitors traveling up the volcano 's flanks are advised to stop for at least half an hour and preferably longer at the visitor center to acclimate to the higher elevation . It is strongly recommended to use a four - wheel drive vehicle to drive all the way to the top . Brakes often overheat on the way down and there is no fuel available on Mauna Kea . A free Star Gazing Program is held at the VIS every night from 6 - 10 pm . Between 5,000 and 6,000 people visit the summit of Mauna Kea each year , and to help ensure safety , and protect the integrity of the mountain , a ranger program was implemented in 2001 . See also ( edit ) Oceania portal United States portal Hawaii portal Mountains portal Volcanoes portal List of mountain peaks of the United States List of volcanoes of the United States List of mountain peaks of Hawaii List of the highest major summits of the United States List of the most prominent summits of the United States List of the most isolated major summits of the United States List of Ultras of Oceania Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes List of tallest mountains in the Solar System References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Mauna Kea '' . NGS Station Datasheet . United States National Geodetic Survey . Retrieved October 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Mauna Kea '' . Summits of the World . peakbagger.com . Retrieved October 27 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mauna Kea : Hawai'i's Tallest Volcano '' . Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -- United States Geological Survey . May 22 , 2002 . Retrieved August 8 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Hartt , Constance E ; Neal , Marie C. ( April 1940 ) . `` The Plant Ecology of Mauna Kea , Hawaii '' . Ecology . Ecological Society of America . 21 ( 2 ) : 237 -- 266 . JSTOR 1930491 . doi : 10.2307 / 1930491 . ( subscription required ) ^ Jump up to : Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii ( January 2009 ) . `` Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan : UH Management Areas '' ( PDF ) . Hawai ` i State Department of Land and Natural Resources . Retrieved August 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Burials on Mauna Kea ^ Jump up to : Watson , Jim ( May 5 , 1999 ) . `` The long trail of the Hawaiian hotspot '' . United States Geological Survey . Retrieved August 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Blichert - Toft , J. ; Weis , D. ; Maerschalk , C. ; Agranier , A. & Albarède , F. ( February 19 , 2003 ) . `` Hawaiian hotspot dynamics as inferred from Hf and Pb isotope evolution of Mauna Kea volcano '' ( PDF ) . Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems . American Geophysical Union . 4 ( 2 ) : 8704 . 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Retrieved September 19 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Sherrod , David R. ; Sinton , John M. ; Watkins , Sarah E. ; Brunt , Kelly M. ( 2007 ) . `` Geological Map of the State of Hawaii '' ( PDF ) . Open File report 2007 - 1089 . United States Geological Survey . pp. 44 -- 48 . Retrieved April 12 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Foulger , G.R ; Anderson , Don L. ( March 11 , 2006 ) . `` The Emperor and Hawaiian Volcanic Chains : How well do they fit the plume hypothesis ? '' . MantlePlumes.org . Retrieved April 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Clague , David A. ; Dalrymple , G. Brent ( 1987 ) . `` The Hawaiian - Emperor Volcanic Chain -- Geological Evolution '' . In Decker , Robert W. ; Wright , Thomas L. ; Straffer , Peter H. Volcanism in Hawaii : papers to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the founding of the Hawaii Volcano Observatory ( PDF ) . Professional Paper 1350 . 1 . Washington , D.C. : Volcano Hazards Team , United States Geological Survey , United States Government Printing Office . p. 32 . Jump up ^ `` What in the world is the Hilo Ridge ? '' . Hawaii Volcano Observatory -- United States Geological Survey . January 8 , 1998 . Retrieved August 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Herzberg , Claude ( November 30 , 2006 ) . `` Petrology and thermal structure of the Hawaiian plume from Mauna Kea volcano '' . Nature . Nature Publishing Group . 444 ( 7119 ) : 605 -- 9 . Bibcode : 2006Natur. 444 ... 605H . PMID 17136091 . doi : 10.1038 / nature05254 . Jump up ^ Frey , F.A. ; Garcia , M.O. ; Wise , W.S. ; Kennedy , A. ; Gurriet , P. ; Albarede , F. ( 1991 ) . `` The Evolution of Mauna Kea Volcano , Hawaii : Petrogenesis of Tholeiitic and Alkalic Basalts '' . Journal of Geophysical Research . 96 ( B9 ) : 14,347 . Bibcode : 1991JGR ... 9614347F . doi : 10.1029 / 91JB00940 . ^ Jump up to : Hon , Ken . `` GEOL205 -- Fire and Ice -- Mauna Kea : Lecture Notes '' . University of Hawaii at Hilo . Retrieved September 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Hawaiian Volcano Observatory : Photo Information '' . Photo description . United States Geological Survey . March 13 , 1998 . Retrieved August 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Porter , Stephen C. ( April 23 , 1971 ) . `` Holocene Eruptions of Mauna Kea Volcano , Hawaii '' . Science . American Association for the Advancement of Science . 172 ( 3981 ) : 375 -- 7 . Bibcode : 1971Sci ... 172 ... 375P . PMID 17756040 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 172.3981. 375 . Retrieved September 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Porter , Stephen C. ( June 1973 ) . `` Stratigraphy and Chronology of Late Quaternary Tephra along the South Rift Zone of Mauna Kea Volcano , Hawaii '' . Geological Society of America Bulletin . Geological Society of America . 84 ( 6 ) : 1923 -- 40 . Bibcode : 1973GSAB ... 84.1923 P. ISSN 0016 - 7606 . doi : 10.1130 / 0016 - 7606 ( 1973 ) 84 < 1923 : SACOLQ > 2.0.CO ; 2 . Jump up ^ Gregory , Herbert Ernest ; Wentworth , Chester Keeler ( December 1937 ) . `` General features and glacial geology of Mauna Kea , Hawaii '' . GSA Bulletin . Geological Society of America . 47 ( 12 ) : 1719 -- 42 . doi : 10.1130 / gsab - 48 - 1719 . Retrieved September 19 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Hawaiʻi : Hawaii 's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy '' ( PDF ) . Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . October 1 , 2005 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on August 19 , 2010 . Retrieved August 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Stearns , Harold Thornton ; MacDonald , Gordon Andrew ( 1946 ) . Geology and ground - water resources of the island of Hawaii . Bulletin . 9 . United States Geological Survey . p. 245 . Jump up ^ `` Impermeable beds trap rain and snow at Mauna Kea 's Lake Waiau '' . Hawaii Volcano Observatory -- United States Geological Survey . June 19 , 2003 . Retrieved August 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` University plans to drill for water beneath Mauna Kea '' . Big Island Video News . Big Island Video News . Jul 26 , 2012 . Retrieved 16 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Miller , Erin ( February 18 , 2014 ) . `` Mauna Kea aquifers shallower than expected '' . Oahu Publications , Inc . West Hawaii Today . Retrieved 16 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Watson , John ( July 18 , 1997 ) . `` Lava Flow Hazard Maps : Kohala and Mauna Kea '' . United States Geological Survey . Archived from the original on January 29 , 2009 . Retrieved August 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The next eruption of Mauna Kea '' . Hawaii Volcano Observatory -- United States Geological Survey . June 5 , 2000 . Retrieved August 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Final Environmental Statement for the Outrigger Telescopes Project : Volume II '' ( PDF ) . NASA . February 2005 . p. C -- 9 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on April 21 , 2009 . Retrieved August 22 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Culture : The First Arrivals : Native Hawaiian Uses '' ( PDF ) . Mauna Kea Mountain Reserve Master Plan . University of Hawaii . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on November 8 , 2012 . Retrieved August 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kirch , Patrick V. ( January 1982 ) . `` The Impact of the Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian Ecosystem '' . Pacific Science . University of Hawaiʻi Press . 36 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14 . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Athens , Stephen ; Tuggle , H. David ; Ward , Jerome V. ; Welch , David J. ( 2002 ) . `` Avifaunal Extinctions , Vegetation Change and Polynesian Impacts in Prehistoric Hawai'i '' ( PDF ) . Archaeology in Oceania. 37 ( 2 ) : 57 . Jump up ^ Martin Gray ; Graham Hancock ( 2007 ) . Sacred Earth : Places of Peace and Power . Sterling Pub. Company . p. 254 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4027 - 4737 - 3 . Jump up ^ Luci Yamamoto ; Alan Tarbell ( 2005 ) . Hawai'i : The Big Island . Lonely Planet . p. 137 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 74059 - 691 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Mauna Kea = `` White Mountain '' ? `` . mauna-a-wakea.info . Na Maka o ka Aina . n.d . Retrieved May 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pukui , Mary Kawena ; Elbert , Samuel H. ( 1986 ) . Hawaiian dictionary . University of Hawaii Press . p. 242 . ISBN 0 - 8248 - 0703 - 0 . Jump up ^ William Mission Ellis ( 1827 ) . Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii , Or , Owhyhee , with Observations on the Natural History of the Sandwich Islands . H. Fisher , son , and P. Jackson . pp. 446 -- 448 . Jump up ^ Alton Pryor ( 2004 ) . Little Known Tales in Hawaii History . Stagecoach Pub . pp. 144 -- 147 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9747551 - 1 - 3 . Jump up ^ Daniel Ethan Chapman ( 2010 ) . Examining Social Theory : Crossing Borders / reflecting Back . Peter Lang . p. 8 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4331 - 0479 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Juvik , J. O ; Juvik , S.P. ( August 1984 ) . `` Mauna Kea and the Myth of Multiple Use : Endangered Species and Mountain Management in Hawaii '' . Mountain Research and Development . International Mountain Society . 4 ( 3 ) : 191 -- 202 . JSTOR 3673140 . doi : 10.2307 / 3673140 . ( subscription required ) Jump up ^ `` Kaluakauka Revisited : the Death of David Douglas in Hawaii '' . Hawaiian Journal of History . Hawaiian Historical Society , Honolulu . 22 : 147 -- 69 . 1988 . ^ Jump up to : `` Recreation : Enjoying Mauna Kea 's Unique Natural Resources '' ( PDF ) . Mauna Kea Mountain Reserve Master Plan . Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on August 19 , 2010 . Retrieved August 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Sakai , Ann K. ; Wagner , Warren L. ; Mehrhoff , Loyal A. ( 2002 ) . `` Patterns of Endangerment in the Hawaiian Flora '' ( PDF ) . Systematic Biology . Oxford University Press . 51 ( 2 ) : 276 -- 302 . PMID 12028733 . doi : 10.1080 / 10635150252899770 . ^ Jump up to : Stone , Charles P. ; Cuddihy , Linda W. ( 1990 ) . `` Changes in Vegetation Since 1850 '' . Alteration of native Hawaiian vegetation - Effects of humans , their activities and introductions ( PDF ) . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 0 - 8248 - 1308 - 1 . Jump up ^ Stone , Charles P. ; Cuddihy , Linda W. ( 1990 ) . `` Alien Plants '' . Alteration of native Hawaiian vegetation - Effects of humans , their activities and introductions . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 0 - 8248 - 1308 - 1 . Jump up ^ Walker , Lawrence R. ; Powell , Elizabeth Ann ( July 1999 ) . `` Regeneration of the Mauna Kea silversword Argyroxiphium sandwicense ( Asteraceae ) in Hawaii '' . Biological Conservation . Elsevier B.V. 88 ( 1 ) : 61 -- 70 . doi : 10.1016 / S0006 - 3207 ( 98 ) 00132 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Mauna Kea Ice Age '' . Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . Retrieved August 13 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Ashlock , Peter D. ; Gagné , Wayne C. ( April 26 , 1983 ) . `` A Remarkable New Micropterous Nysius Species from the Aelion Zone of Mauna Kea , Hawaii island '' ( PDF ) . International Journal of Entomology . Bernice P. Bishop Museum . 25 ( 1 ) : 47 -- 55 . Retrieved August 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Wekiu bugs - life on top of a volcano '' . Volcano Watch . Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -- United States Geological Survey . Retrieved August 14 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Scrowcroft , Paul G. ( 1983 ) . `` Tree Cover Changes in Mamane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) Forests Grazed by Sheep and Cattle '' ( PDF ) . Pacific Science . University of Hawaii Press . 37 ( 2 ) : 109 -- 20 . Retrieved August 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Hess , Steven ; Kawakami , Jr. , Ben ; Okita , Davivd ; Medeiros , Keola ( 2006 ) . `` A Preliminary Assessment of Mouflon Abundance at the Kahuku Unit of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park '' . United States Geological Survey . p. 1 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) See : Giffin , J.G. ( 1982 ) . Ecology of mouflon sheep on Mauna Kea ( Report ) . Honolulu , HI : Department of Land and Natural Resources , Division of Forestry and Wildlife . Jump up ^ Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land & Natural Resources , 639 F. 2d 495 , 79 - 4636 ( United States Court of Appeals , Ninth Circuit February 9 , 1981 ) . Jump up ^ Banko , Paul et al. Surveys reveal decline of the palila . Endangered Species Bulletin , Fall 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Mauna Kea State Recreation Area '' . Hawaii State Parks . Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . Archived from the original on 2007 - 04 - 19 . Retrieved August 15 , 2010 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Cai , Junning ; Leung , Ping Sun ( April 2004 ) . `` Economic Impact of Shutting Down Hawaii 's Sugar Industry '' ( PDF ) . Economic Issues . College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources . Retrieved September 27 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Welcome to Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge '' . US Fish and Wildlife Service . April 6 , 2010 . Retrieved August 16 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` About Mauna Kea Observatories '' . Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii . Retrieved August 19 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mauna Kea Science Reserve Astronomy Development Plan 2000 -- 2020 -- Summary '' ( PDF ) . Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii . August 1999 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on August 21 , 2010 . Retrieved August 19 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Pickles , Andrew ( 2003 ) . `` Timeline of Astronomy in Hawai'i '' . Mauna Kea Observatories Outreach Committee . Retrieved October 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ University of Hawai ` i ( January 2009 ) . `` Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan '' ( PDF ) . Hawai ` i State Department of Land and Natural Resources . pp. 6 -- 1 . Retrieved January 18 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mauna Kea Telescopes '' . Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii . Retrieved August 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Robert F. Oaks ( 1 November 2003 ) . Hawaii : : A History of the Big Island . Arcadia Publishing . p. 131 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4396 - 1403 - 7 . Jump up ^ Ned Kaufman ( 11 September 2009 ) . Place , Race , and Story : Essays on the Past and Future of Historic Preservation . Routledge . p. 14 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 135 - 88972 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Ruling could block Mauna Kea projects '' . Pacific Business News . August 8 , 2006 . Retrieved November 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Thirty Meter Telescope Selects Mauna Kea '' . Press release . Caltech , University of California , and the Association of Canadian Universities for Research in Astronomy . August 21 , 2009 . Retrieved August 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` University of Hawaii Develop New Telescope for `` Killer '' Asteroid Search `` . Press release . Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii . October 8 , 2002 . Jump up ^ `` Massive telescope to be built in Hawaii '' . 3 News NZ. April 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kelleher , Jennifer Sinco ( October 7 , 2014 ) . `` Protesters halt Mauna Kea telescope groundbreaking '' . staradvertiser.com . Honolulu Star Advertiser . Retrieved 4 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Davis , Chelsea ( March 26 , 2015 ) . `` Thirty Meter Telescope protesters continue to block construction on Mauna Kea '' . WorldNow and KHNL . KHNL . Retrieved 4 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Clash in Hawaii Between Science and Sacred Land '' . AP / US News and World Report . Associated Press . April 3 , 2015 . Retrieved 4 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Police , TMT Issue Statements on Mass Arrests on Mauna Kea '' . Big Island Video News . Big Island Video News . April 2 , 2015 . Retrieved 4 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Amid controversy , construction of telescope in Hawaii halted - US News '' . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Gov : Hawaii has ' failed ' Mauna Kea ; telescope can continue '' . Hearst Stations Inc. on behalf of KITV - TV . Associated Press / KITV . May 26 , 2015 . Retrieved 24 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Gill , Lorin Eleni ( Jun 8 , 2015 ) . `` Thirty Meter Telescope case headed to Hawaii Supreme Court '' . Pacific business news . Pacific business News . Retrieved 24 July 2015 . Jump up ^ WRCC . `` Western U.S. Climate Historical Summaries Weather '' . Western Regional Climate Center . Retrieved November 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Juvik , Sonia P. ; Juvik , James O. ; Paradise , Thomas R. ( 1998 ) . Atlas of Hawaii ( 3rd ed . ) . Hilo : University of Hawaii Press . p. 71 . ISBN 0 - 8248 - 2125 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` Hawaii Island '' . Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . Retrieved July 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tarbell , Alan ; Yamamoto , Luci ( August 1 , 2005 ) . `` Around Mauna Kea '' . Hawai'i : the big island . Lonely Planet . pp. 145 -- 46 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 74059 - 691 - 6 . Jump up ^ Onopa , J. ; Haley , A. ; Yeow , M.E. ( 2007 ) . `` Survey of acute mountain sickness on Mauna Kea '' . High Altitude Medicine & Biology . Mary Ann Liebert , Inc. 8 ( 3 ) : 200 -- 5 . PMID 17824820 . doi : 10.1089 / ham. 2007.8307 . Jump up ^ `` Mauna Kea Hazards : Please Read Before Travelling Above Hale Pohaku '' ( PDF ) . Safety Leaflet . Institute for Astronomy -- University of Hawaii . Retrieved August 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Star Gazing Program '' . Mauna Kea Support Services . Retrieved September 18 , 2014 . Further reading ( edit ) Ciotti , Joseph E. `` Historical Views of Mauna Kea : From the Vantage Points of Hawaiian Culture and Astronomical Research , '' Hawaiian Journal of History , 45 ( 2011 ) , 147 -- 66 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mauna Kea . Geology USGS : Mauna Kea Volcano , Hawai ʻi Mauna Kea Summary -- Global Volcanism Program . Mauna Kea . Hawaii Center for Volcanology . Astronomy and culture Mauna Kea Observatories . Tour of Mauna Kea 's summit facilities . Mauna Kea Visitor Information . Information pertaining to visiting the summit telescopes . `` Mauna - a-Wakea '' . cultural information site for Mauna Kea . Ecology and management Office of Mauna Kea Management . Plan for land management . Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve . Department of Land and Natural Resources . Hawaiian volcanism topics ( list ) Windward Isles Lō ʻihi Māhukona Hawai ʻi Kīlauea ( Kīlauea Iki , Puʻu ʻŌʻō ) Mauna Loa Hualālai Mauna Kea Kohala Kaho ʻolawe Kaua ʻi Ka ʻula Lāna ʻi Maui Haleakalā West Maui Moloka ʻi Penguin Bank West Molokai Volcano East Molokai Volcano Ni ʻihau Oʻahu Ka ʻena Ko ʻolau Wai ʻanae Leeward Isles French Frigate Shoals Gardner Pinnacles Kure Atoll Laysan Lisianski Island Maro Reef Midway Atoll Necker Island Nihoa Pearl and Hermes Atoll Emperor Seamounts Abbott Colahan Daikakuji Detroit Hancock Jingu Kammu Kimmei Koko Meiji Nintoku Ojin Suiko Yomei Yuryaku Topics 1955 Hawaiian submarine eruption ʻAʻā ( lava ) Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Haleakalā National Park Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain Hawaiian eruption Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Lava fountain Limu o Pele Pāhoehoe ( lava ) Pele 's hair Pele 's tears Highest Natural Points of U.S. States and Selected Additional Areas Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Additional Areas American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands VIAF : 247677643 GND : 4115045 - 4 BNF : cb125097848 ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mauna_Kea&oldid=798934566 '' Categories : Volcanoes of the Island of Hawaii Mountains of Hawaii National Natural Landmarks in Hawaii Highest points of U.S. states Inactive volcanoes Sacred mountains Shield volcanoes of the United States Hawaiian words and phrases Polygenetic shield volcanoes Pleistocene volcanoes Holocene volcanoes Pleistocene Oceania Holocene Oceania Cenozoic Hawaii Four - thousanders of Hawaii Hidden categories : Pages containing links to subscription - only content CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 maint : Unfit url Use mdy dates from March 2012 Pages using deprecated image syntax Coordinates on Wikidata Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Featured articles Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans አማርኛ Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Rumantsch Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska తెలుగు ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 September 2017 , at 17 : 35 . 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what is aws and what services are provided

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Amazon_Web_Services&oldid=846470453

Amazon Web Services - wikipedia Amazon Web Services This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 18 June 2018 . Editing of this article by new or unregistered users is currently disabled until July 2 , 2018 , or until editing disputes have been resolved . This protection is not an endorsement of the current version . See the protection policy and protection log for more details . If you can not edit this article and you wish to make a change , you can submit an edit request , discuss changes on the talk page , request unprotection , log in , or create an account . `` AWS '' redirects here . For other uses , see AWS ( disambiguation ) . hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement . Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links , and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view . ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose . You can help by converting this article to prose , if appropriate . Editing help is available . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Amazon Web Services , Inc . Owner Amazon Key people Andy Jassy ( CEO ) Industry Web service , cloud computing Revenue $17.4 billion ( 2017 ) Operating income $1.3 billion Subsidiaries Annapurna Labs AWS Elemental Website aws.amazon.com Launched March 2006 ; 12 years ago ( 2006 - 03 ) Amazon Web Services ( AWS ) is a subsidiary of Amazon.com that provides on - demand cloud computing platforms to individuals , companies and governments , on a paid subscription basis . The technology allows subscribers to have at their disposal a virtual cluster of computers , available all the time , through the Internet . AWS 's version of virtual computers emulate most of the attributes of a real computer including hardware ( CPU ( s ) & GPU ( s ) for processing , local / RAM memory , hard - disk / SSD storage ) ; a choice of operating systems ; networking ; and pre-loaded application software such as web servers , databases , CRM , etc . Each AWS system also virtualizes its console I / O ( keyboard , display , and mouse ) , allowing AWS subscribers to connect to their AWS system using a modern browser . The browser acts as a window into the virtual computer , letting subscribers log - in , configure and use their virtual systems just as they would a real physical computer . They can choose to deploy their AWS systems to provide internet - based services for themselves and their customers . The AWS technology is implemented at server farms throughout the world , and maintained by the Amazon subsidiary . Fees are based on a combination of usage , the hardware / OS / software / networking features chosen by the subscriber , required availability , redundancy , security , and service options . Subscribers can pay for a single virtual AWS computer , a dedicated physical computer , or clusters of either . As part of the subscription agreement , Amazon provides security for subscribers ' system . AWS operates from many global geographical regions including 6 in North America . In 2017 , AWS comprised more than 90 services spanning a wide range including computing , storage , networking , database , analytics , application services , deployment , management , mobile , developer tools , and tools for the Internet of Things . The most popular include Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud ( EC2 ) and Amazon Simple Storage Service ( S3 ) . Most services are not exposed directly to end users , but instead offer functionality through APIs for developers to use in their applications . Amazon Web Services ' offerings are accessed over HTTP , using the REST architectural style and SOAP protocol . Amazon markets AWS to subscribers as a way of obtaining large scale computing capacity more quickly and cheaply than building an actual physical server farm . All services are billed based on usage , but each service measures usage in varying ways . As of 2017 , AWS owns a dominant 34 % of all cloud ( IaaS , PaaS ) while the next three competitors Microsoft , Google , and IBM have 11 % , 8 % , 6 % respectively according to Synergy Group . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Growth and profitability 1.2 Customer base 1.3 Significant service outages 2 Availability and topology 3 Pop - up lofts 4 Charitable work 5 Key people 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History Further information : Timeline of Amazon Web Services AWS Summit 2013 event in NYC . The AWS platform was launched in July 2002 , in the beginning , the platform consisted of only a few disparate tools and services . Then in late 2003 , the AWS concept was publicly reformulated when Chris Pinkham and Benjamin Black presented a paper describing a vision for Amazon 's retail computing infrastructure that was completely standardized , completely automated , and would rely extensively on web services for services such as storage and would draw on internal work already underway . Near the end of their paper , they mentioned the possibility of selling access to virtual servers as a service , proposing the company could generate revenue from the new infrastructure investment . In November 2004 , the first AWS service launched for public usage : Simple Queue Service ( SQS ) . Thereafter Pinkham and lead developer Christopher Brown developed the Amazon EC2 service , with a team in Cape Town , South Africa . Amazon Web Services was officially re-launched on March 14 , 2006 , combining the three initial service offerings of Amazon S3 cloud storage , SQS , and EC2 . The AWS platform finally provided an integrated suite of core online services , as Chris Pinkham and Benjamin Black had proposed back in 2003 , as a service offered to other developers , web sites , client - side applications , and companies . Andy Jassy , AWS founder and vice president in 2006 , said at the time that Amazon S3 ( one of the first and most scalable elements of AWS ) `` helps free developers from worrying about where they are going to store data , whether it will be safe and secure , if it will be available when they need it , the costs associated with server maintenance , or whether they have enough storage available . Amazon S3 enables developers to focus on innovating with data , rather than figuring out how to store it . '' . In 2016 Jassy was promoted to CEO of the division . Reflecting the success of AWS , his annual compensation in 2017 hit nearly $36 million . To support industry - wide training and skills standardization , AWS began offering a certification program for computer engineers , on April 30 , 2013 , to highlight expertise in cloud computing . James Hamilton , an AWS engineer , wrote a retrospective article in 2016 to highlight the ten - year history of the online service from 2006 to 2016 . As an early fan and outspoken proponent of the technology , he had joined the AWS engineering team in 2008 . In 2016 AWS partnered with Digital Currency Group to create a laboratory environment allowing companies to experiment with blockchain technologies . In January 2018 , Amazon launched an autoscaling service on AWS . Growth and profitability In November 2010 , it was reported that all of Amazon. com 's retail sites had been completely moved under the AWS umbrella . Prior to 2012 , AWS was considered a part of Amazon.com and so its revenue was not delineated in Amazon financial statements . In that year industry watchers for the first time estimated AWS revenue to be over $1.5 billion . In April 2015 , Amazon.com reported AWS was profitable , with sales of $1.57 billion in the first quarter of the year and $265 million of operating income . Founder Jeff Bezos described it as a fast - growing $5 billion business ; analysts described it as `` surprisingly more profitable than forecast '' . In October 2015 , Amazon.com said in its Q3 earnings report that AWS 's operating income was $521 million , with operating margins at 25 percent . AWS 's 2015 Q3 revenue was $2.1 billion , a 78 % increase from 2014 's Q3 revenue of $1.17 billion . 2015 Q4 revenue for the AWS segment increased 69.5 % y / y to $2.4 billion with 28.5 % operating margin , giving AWS a $9.6 billion run rate . In 2015 , Gartner estimated that AWS customers are deploying 10x more infrastructure on AWS than the combined adoption of the next 14 providers . In 2016 Q1 , revenue was $2.57 billion with net income of $604 million , a 64 % increase over 2015 Q1 that resulted in AWS being more profitable than Amazon 's North American retail business for the first time . In the first quarter of 2016 , Amazon experienced a 42 % rise in stock value as a result of increased earnings , of which AWS contributed 56 % to corporate profits . AWS had $17.46 billion in annual revenue in 2017 . Customer base On March 14 , 2006 , Amazon said in a press release : `` More than 150,000 developers have signed up to use Amazon Web Services since its inception . '' In November 2012 , AWS hosted its first customer event in Las Vegas . On May 13 , 2013 , AWS was awarded an Agency Authority to Operate ( ATO ) from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services under the Federal Risk and Authorization Management Program . In October 2013 , it was revealed that AWS was awarded a $600 M contract with the CIA . During August 2014 , AWS received Department of Defense - Wide provisional authorization for all U.S. Regions . During the 2015 re : Invent keynote , AWS disclosed that they have more than a million active customers every month in 190 countries , including nearly 2,000 government agencies , 5,000 education institutions and more than 17,500 nonprofits . On April 5 , 2017 , AWS and DXC Technology ( formed from a merger of CSC and HPE ) announced an expanded alliance to increase access of AWS features for enterprise clients in existing data centers . Notable customers include NASA , the Obama presidential campaign of 2012 , Kempinski Hotels , and Netflix . Significant service outages On April 20 , 2011 , AWS suffered a major outage . Parts of the Elastic Block Store ( EBS ) service became `` stuck '' and could not fulfill read / write requests . It took at least two days for service to be fully restored . On June 29 , 2012 , several websites that rely on Amazon Web Services were taken offline due to a severe storm in Northern Virginia , where AWS ' largest data center cluster is located . On October 22 , 2012 , a major outage occurred , affecting many sites such as Reddit , Foursquare , Pinterest , and others . The cause was a memory leak bug in an operational data collection agent . On December 24 , 2012 , AWS suffered another outage causing websites such as Netflix to be unavailable for customers in the Northeastern United States . AWS cited their Elastic Load Balancing ( ELB ) service as the cause . On February 28 , 2017 , AWS experienced a massive outage of S3 services in its Northern Virginia region . A majority of websites which relied on AWS S3 either hung or stalled , and Amazon reported within five hours that AWS was fully online again . No data has been reported to have been lost due to the outage . The outage was caused by a human error made while debugging , that resulted in removing more server capacity than intended , which caused a domino effect of outages . Availability and topology Map showing Amazon Web Services ' availability zones within geographic regions around the world . Amazon Web Services in Kenya ( 2017 ) . As of 2017 , AWS has distinct operations in 16 geographical `` regions '' : 6 in North America , 1 in South America , 4 in EMEA , and 6 in Asia Pacific . AWS has announced 6 new regions that will be coming online in China , Bahrain , France , Hong Kong , Sweden , and in the US - East region for government usage . Each region is wholly contained within a single country and all of its data and services stay within the designated region . Each region has multiple `` Availability Zones '' , which consist of one or more discrete data centers , each with redundant power , networking and connectivity , housed in separate facilities . Availability Zones do not automatically provide additional scalability or redundancy within a region , since they are intentionally isolated from each other to prevent outages from spreading between Zones . Several services can operate across Availability Zones ( e.g. , S3 , DynamoDB ) while others can be configured to replicate across Zones to spread demand and avoid downtime from failures . As of December 2014 , Amazon Web Services operated an estimated 1.4 million servers across 28 availability zones . The global network of AWS Edge locations consists of 54 points of presence worldwide , including locations in the United States , Europe , Asia , Australia , and South America . In 2014 , AWS claimed its aim was to achieve 100 % renewable energy usage in the future . In the United States , AWS 's partnerships with renewable energy providers include Community Energy of Virginia , to support the US East region ; Pattern Development , in January 2015 , to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm Fowler Ridge ; Iberdrola Renewables , LLC , in July 2015 , to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm US East ; EDP Renewables North America , in November 2015 , to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm US Central ; and Tesla Motors , to apply battery storage technology to address power needs in the US West ( Northern California ) region . Pop - up lofts AWS also has `` pop - up lofts '' in different locations around the world . These market AWS to entrepreneurs and startups in different tech industries in a physical location . Visitors can work or relax inside the loft , or learn more about what they can do with AWS . In June 2014 , AWS opened their first temporary pop - up loft in San Francisco . In May 2015 they expanded to New York City , and in September 2015 expanded to Berlin . AWS opened their fourth location , in Tel Aviv from March 1 , 2016 to March 22 , 2016 . A pop - up loft was open in London from September 10 to October 29 , 2015 . Charitable work In 2017 AWS launched a program in the United Kingdom to help young adults and military veterans retrain in technology - related skills . In partnership with the Prince 's Trust and the Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) , AWS will help to provide re-training opportunities for young people from disadvantaged backgrounds and former soldiers . AWS is working alongside a number of partner companies including Cloudreach , Sage , EDF Energy and Tesco Bank . Key people Andrew Jassy ( CEO ) Werner Vogels ( CTO , VP ) See also Cloud computing comparison Comparison of file hosting services Predix ( software ) References Jump up ^ `` Amazon Now Has Three CEOs '' . fortune.com . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . Jump up ^ https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/01/aws-earnings-q4-2017.html Jump up ^ https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/01/amazon-earnings-q4-2017.html ^ Jump up to : `` Amazon Web Services About Us '' . Amazon.com . September 2011 . Retrieved 16 May 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Amazon - Press Room - Press Release '' . phx.corporate-ir.net . Retrieved 8 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` AWS Customer Agreement '' . Amazon Web Services , Inc . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : `` AWS Global Infrastructure '' . 2016 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` What is Cloud Computing by Amazon Web Services AWS '' . Aws.amazon.com . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ https://awsinsider.net/articles/2017/08/01/aws-market-share-3x-azure.aspx?m=1 Jump up ^ http://uk.businessinsider.com/amazon-web-services-is-battling-microsoft-azure-and-google-cloud-2017-10?r=US&IR=T ^ Jump up to : `` Benjamin Black -- EC2 Origins '' . Blog.b3k.us. 2009 - 01 - 25 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon Web Services Blog : Amazon Simple Queue Service Beta '' . Aws.typepad.com. 2004 - 11 - 09 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ Bort , Julie ( 28 March 2012 ) . `` Amazon 's Game - Changing Cloud Was Built By Some Guys In South Africa '' . Business Insider . Retrieved 16 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Jordan , Novet . `` Andy Jassy is finally named CEO of Amazon Web Services '' . venturebeat.com . Retrieved July 26 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Balakrishnan , Anita ( 12 April 2017 ) . `` AWS CEO Andrew Jassy 's 2016 pay hits $35.6 million '' . cnbc.com . Retrieved 8 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` AWS began offering a certification program for computer engineers with expertise in cloud computing '' . www.pcworld.com. 2013 - 05 - 01 . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` A Decade of Innovation -- Perspectives '' . Jump up ^ Coleman , Lester ( 4 May 2016 ) . `` Amazon Web Services Teams with DCG on Blockchain Endeavor '' . CryptoCoinsNews . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 25 . Jump up ^ Miller , Ron . `` Amazon launches autoscaling service on AWS '' . TechCrunch . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` New AWS Auto Scaling -- Unified Scaling For Your Cloud Applications Amazon Web Services '' . Amazon Web Services . 2018 - 01 - 16 . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` 2011 AWS Tour Australia , Closing Keynote : How Amazon.com migrated to AWS , by Jon Jenkins '' . Amazon Web Services . 2011 - 07 - 14 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Cloud Computing 2013 : The Amazon Gorilla Invades The Enterprise '' . Wikibon . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon web services ' growing fast ' '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ Get Used to Amazon Being a Profitable Company Wired . October 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Gartner Reprint '' . www.gartner.com . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ Amazon 's earnings soar as its hardware takes the spotlight The Verge , Retrieved 28 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Revecka Natalia ( May 25 , 2016 ) . `` Wake up retail , it 's not just ' Amazon Effect ' '' . Jump up ^ Daniel Roberts ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` Here 's why Amazon stock is up 42 % in just 3 months '' . Yahoo Finance . Jump up ^ https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/01/aws-earnings-q4-2017.html Jump up ^ `` Amazon Web Services Announces First Global Customer and Partner Conference : AWS re : Invent '' . aws.amazon.com. 2012 - 05 - 09 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` AWS was awarded an Agency Authority to Operate ( ATO ) from the US Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS ) '' . www.gsa.gov. 2013 - 05 - 13 . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` US court rules for Amazon.com in CIA cloud contract dispute '' . Reuters. 2013 - 10 - 08 . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` AWS GovCloud Earns DoD CSM Level 3 - 5 Provisional Authorization '' . blogs.aws.amazon.com . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` DXC Technology Announces Expanded Alliance with Amazon Web Services '' . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The tech behind NASA 's Martian chronicles -- GCN '' . Jump up ^ Lohr , Steve . `` The Obama Campaign 's Technology Is a Force Multiplier '' . Jump up ^ `` How Kempinski Hotels used cloud to improve staff efficiency '' . Cloud Pro . Jump up ^ `` Netflix Case Study '' . Amazon Web Services , Inc . Jump up ^ `` Summary of outage occurring April 20 -- 22 , 2011 '' . Aws.amazon.com. 2011 - 04 - 29 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Summary of the AWS Service Event in the US East Region '' . Aws.amazon.com. 2012 - 07 - 02 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Summary of the October 22 , 2012 AWS Service Event in the US - East Region '' . Aws.amazon.com. 2012 - 10 - 22 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Bryan . `` Netflix streaming down on some devices due to Amazon issues '' . The Verge . Retrieved 5 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Summary of the December 24 , 2012 Amazon ELB Service Event in the US - East Region '' . Aws.amazon.com. 2012 - 12 - 24 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Summary of the Amazon S3 Service Disruption in the Northern Virginia ( US - EAST - 1 ) Region '' . amazon.com . Retrieved 2 March 2017 . Jump up ^ A typo blew up part of the internet Tuesday CNET , Retrieved March 2 , 2017 Jump up ^ `` AWS Global Infrastructure '' . About AWS . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Just how big is Amazon 's AWS business ? ( hint : it 's absolutely massive ) '' . Geek.com . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Global Infrastructure '' . Amazon Web Services , Inc . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ Pomerantz , David . `` AWS and Sustainable Energy '' . Amazon . Retrieved 15 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Burt , Jeffrey ( 10 June 2015 ) . `` AWS to Build Solar Farm to Help Power Cloud Data Centers '' . eWeek . Jump up ^ `` Pattern Development Completes Financing and Starts Construction of Amazon Wind Farm Project in Indiana '' . Pattern Energy Group LP . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` AWS & Sustainability '' . Amazon Web Services , Inc . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` AWS Pop - up Lofts '' . Amazon Web Services , Inc . Jump up ^ `` Head in the cloud : Amazon Web Services ' SoMa pop - up now permanent '' . Jump up ^ Zipkin , Nina . `` Why Amazon Added a Pop - Up Loft in NYC '' . Jump up ^ `` Like Target and Porsche , Amazon Web Services opens pop - up shop in NYC '' . 19 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon Web Services opens Pop - up Loft in Berlin '' . 22 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon 's Pop - up loft heading to Tel Aviv '' . Jump up ^ Tung , Liam . `` Amazon gets startup - friendly with AWS Loft space in London ZDNet '' . ZDNet . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` AWS re : Start to teach digital skills to young people and military veterans '' . itpro.co.uk . 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what was the movie fried green tomatoes about

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Fried_Green_Tomatoes&oldid=824701118

Fried Green Tomatoes - wikipedia Fried Green Tomatoes Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Fried Green Tomatoes ( disambiguation ) . Fried Green Tomatoes Theatrical release poster Directed by Jon Avnet Produced by Jon Avnet Norman Lear Screenplay by Fannie Flagg Carol Sobieski Based on Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe by Fannie Flagg Starring Kathy Bates Jessica Tandy Mary Stuart Masterson Mary - Louise Parker Cicely Tyson Music by Thomas Newman Cinematography Geoffrey Simpson Edited by Debra Neil - Fisher Production company Act III Communications Avnet / Kerner Productions Electric Shadow Productions Fried Green Tomatoes Productions Distributed by Universal Pictures Release date December 27 , 1991 ( 1991 - 12 - 27 ) Running time 130 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $11 million Box office $119.4 million Fried Green Tomatoes is a 1991 comedy - drama film based on the novel Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe by Fannie Flagg . Directed by Jon Avnet and written by Flagg and Carol Sobieski , it stars Kathy Bates , Jessica Tandy , Mary Stuart Masterson , and Mary - Louise Parker . It tells the story of a Depression - era friendship between two women , Ruth and Idgie , and a 1980s friendship between Evelyn , a middle - aged housewife , and Ninny , an elderly woman . The centerpiece and parallel story concerns the murder of Ruth 's abusive husband , Frank , and the accusations that follow . It received a generally positive reception from film critics and was nominated for two Academy Awards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Differences between the film and novel 4 Production 4.1 Conception and casting 4.2 Setting 5 Release 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical reception 6.3 Awards and honors 7 Soundtrack 7.1 Track listing 8 References 9 External links Plot ( edit ) Evelyn Couch , a timid , unhappy housewife in her forties , meets elderly Ninny Threadgoode in an Anderson , Alabama , nursing home . Over several encounters with Evelyn , Ninny tells her the story of the now abandoned town of Whistle Stop , and the people who lived there . The film 's subplot concerns Evelyn 's dissatisfaction with her marriage , her life , her growing confidence , and her developing friendship with Ninny . The narrative switches several times between Ninny 's story , which is set between World War I and World War II , and Evelyn 's life in 1980s Birmingham . Ninny 's story begins with tomboy Idgie Threadgoode , the youngest of the Threadgoode children , whom Ninny describes as her sister - in - law . Idgie 's close relationship with her charming older brother , Buddy , is cut short when he is hit by a train and killed . Devastated , she recedes from formal society for much of her childhood and adolescence until Buddy 's former girlfriend , the straitlaced Ruth Jamison , intervenes at the request of the concerned Threadgoode family . Idgie initially resists Ruth 's attempts at friendship , but gradually a deep attachment develops between them . Ruth leaves Whistle Stop to marry Frank Bennett and moves to Valdosta , Georgia . Idgie tries to forget her but later visits her house to find her pregnant and subject to physical abuse from Frank . Against his wishes and violent attempts to stop her , she returns to Whistle Stop with Idgie , where her baby , a boy whom she names Buddy , Jr. , is born . Papa Threadgoode gives Idgie money to start a business so she can care for Ruth and Buddy , Jr . She and Ruth open the Whistle Stop Cafe , employing the family cook , Sipsey , and her son , Big George , who excels with a barbecue that becomes popular with their patrons . Frank eventually returns to Whistle Stop to kidnap Buddy , Jr. , but his attempt is thwarted by an unseen assailant , and he is later reported missing . Once his truck appears at the bottom of a nearby drying lake without its owner , Idgie is immediately a suspect , as she had publicly threatened violence against him for beating Ruth . She is detained along with Big George for his murder by Grady Kilgore , the local sheriff , who offers to release her and pin the crime solely on Big George ; she refuses to sacrifice him . During the subsequent trial , the local minister , Reverend Scroggins , has no problem lying , providing Idgie and Big George with sound alibi for the time of Frank 's disappearance . Taking into account his reputation for getting drunk , the judge rules his death an accident and dismisses the case . Idgie and Big George are cleared of all charges . After the trial , Ruth is diagnosed with cancer , becomes very ill , and eventually dies . Following her death , the café closes . Over time , many Whistle Stop residents eventually move away , bringing Ninny to the end of her story , but not before the revelation of what really happened to Frank . Sipsey killed him with a blow to the head with a heavy cast iron frying pan while trying to prevent him from kidnapping Buddy , Jr . Idgie got Big George to barbecue Frank 's body , which was later served to an investigator from Georgia searching for him . The investigator ate with gusto , proclaiming his meal the best pork barbecue he 'd ever tasted . Evelyn discovers that during Ninny 's temporary stay at the nursing home , her house was condemned and torn down . Evelyn , having become friends with her , offers her a room in her house which she accepts . As they walk away from the empty lot where her house used to be , they pass Ruth 's grave , freshly adorned with a jar of honey , a honeycomb , and a card which reads , `` I 'll always love you , the Bee Charmer '' . The Bee Charmer is Ruth 's old nickname for Idgie , and the note reveals that she is still alive . Cast ( edit ) Kathy Bates as Evelyn Couch Mary Stuart Masterson & Nancy Moore Atchison as Imogene `` Idgie '' Threadgoode Mary - Louise Parker as Ruth Jamison Jessica Tandy as Ninny Threadgoode Cicely Tyson as Sipsey Chris O'Donnell as Buddy Threadgoode Stan Shaw as Big George Gailard Sartain as Ed Couch Timothy Scott as Smokey Lonesome Gary Basaraba as Grady Kilgore Lois Smith as Mama Threadgoode Danny Nelson as Papa Threadgoode Jo Harvey Allen as Women 's Awareness Teacher Macon McCalman as Prosecutor Richard Riehle as Reverend Scroggins Raynor Scheine as Curtis Smoot Grace Zabriskie as Eva Bates Reid Binion as Young Julian Nick Searcy as Frank Bennett Constance Shulman as Missy Differences between the film and novel ( edit ) Unlike the novel , the film does not make the lesbian romance between the two central characters explicit , instead leaving the relationship between Idgie and Ruth ambiguous . The DVD contains an audio commentary in which the director acknowledges the relationship and points out that a scene between Idgie and Ruth engaging in a food fight was intended to be seen as symbolic love - making . At the time of the film 's debut , it was criticized by reviewers and activists for what was seen as `` glossing over '' the lesbian relationship . However , it won an award from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation for best feature film with lesbian content . It shows examples of discrimination against African Americans , women , and the disabled , but the novel 's examination of sexuality - based prejudice through a robust lesbian plot , is made more ambiguous . Though in the book , Idgie and Ninny are two separate characters , at the end of the film it 's largely hinted that they are one and the same , although this runs counter to Ninny 's earlier comment that `` I was practically adopted by the Threadgoodes ; I married her ( Idgie 's ) brother , Cleo '' . Production ( edit ) Conception and casting ( edit ) Avnet first read the novel in 1987 . He was introduced to it by producer Lisa Lindstrom , with whom he worked on television films Heat Wave and Breaking Point . Although he wanted her to give him a synopsis of the story , she insisted he read the book and like her , he loved it . He decided to turn the story into a film and pitched the idea to Norman Lear 's company , Act III Communications , who were interested and gave him a small budget for a screenwriter . He hired Carol Sobieski who had written the screenplay for 1982 's Annie . She wrote a draft for it as a musical , which he was unhappy with . Sobieski left the project and he hired Flagg , who had been surprised that anyone would want to turn the novel into a film , to develop the script . Although she had some screenwriting experience , she found the process of turning her own novel into a script a strange one . The job was made somewhat easier by the work done by Sobieski and Avnet in choosing which characters from the book were going to be featured , but she found it difficult and also left the project , after writing 70 pages of the screenplay . With no money left to hire another writer , Avnet took the script over himself and spent the next 2 -- 3 years developing it . Flagg gave her blessing to the final draft . Avnet wrote the film with Jessica Tandy in mind ; she expressed excitement about making the film . He had worked with Kathy Bates and Chris O'Donnell on the 1990 film Men Do n't Leave before offering them the roles of Evelyn Couch and Buddy Threadgoode respectively . When Bates read the script she loved the characters and was particularly keen to work with Tandy . Mary - Louise Parker was casting director David Rubin 's first choice for the role of Ruth Jamison . She read for the part several times , initially unhappy with her own tests . When she read along with Mary Stuart Masterson , they -- and the producers -- agreed that they had good chemistry . Setting ( edit ) Inside the Whistle Stop Cafe , Juliette , Georgia . Avnet hired Barbara Ling as production designer . Scouting for a location , she found Juliette , Georgia , a town that was , according to Avnet , nearly deserted . The building chosen to be the Whistle Stop Café was formerly an antique and hardware store . It was redesigned as a cafe , with a horseshoe shaped counter to allow for optimal camera angles . After the release of the film , Juliette saw an influx of tourists and , with Jon Avnet 's encouragement , locals opened the Whistle Stop Café , recreated to mirror the film set . Although `` Whistle Stop Café '' is now a registered trademark , other establishments have appeared using that name . While writing the novel , Flagg based Whistle Stop on Irondale , Alabama , and the café on a real - life restaurant , the Irondale Café . She was a frequent visitor there which was formerly owned by her great - aunt . The scene where Idgie goes to collect honey from a beehive for Ruth was originally intended to be performed by a stunt double . However , after the latter backed out at the last minute , Masterson volunteered to do it herself . The footage of her covered in a swarm of live bees is seen in the final version of the film . The steam locomotive used in the film is A&WP 290 , then in use pulling steam excursions for the New Georgia Railroad . Release ( edit ) The film was given a limited release in the US on December 27 , 1991 , opening in five theaters . It got a wide release four weeks later on January 24 , 1992 , in 673 theaters . It ran for 19 weeks in total , with its widest release having been 1,331 theaters . Reception ( edit ) Box office ( edit ) The film grossed a total of $82,418,501 in the United States alone , and took in $37,000,000 outside the US , bringing the total to $119,418,501 worldwide . In its opening weekend it earned $105,317 , and at its wide release opening weekend it earned $5,235,940 , which was 6.4 percent of its total gross . According to Box Office Mojo , it ranked at no . 11 for all films released in the US in 1991 , and no . 5 for PG ‐ 13 rated films released that year . Critical reception ( edit ) The film was generally well received by critics . Film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes gave it a `` fresh '' score of 73 % based on 41 reviews . Critics enjoyed the narrative , but found it conventional and predictable . The adaptation of the separate narrative of book to the screen was criticised by Time Out as `` clumsy '' , Roger Ebert praised the performances , Janet Maslin praised the costume and production design and Emanuel Levy praised the cinematography and score . The cast drew praise for their performances , particularly Masterson and Tandy . Awards and honors ( edit ) The film was nominated at the 64th Academy Awards for Best Actress in a Supporting Role ( Jessica Tandy ) and for Best Writing , Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium ( Fannie Flagg and Carol Sobieski ) . At the 46th British Academy Film Awards in 1992 , Tandy was nominated for the Best Actress award , and Bates was nominated as Best Actress in a Supporting Role . Both also received Golden Globe nominations for their work , and the film got a Best Picture ( Comedy or Musical ) nomination . At the 28th Guldbagge Awards in Sweden , it was nominated for the Best Foreign Film award . The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists : 2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : Evelyn Couch : `` Face it girls , I 'm older and I have more insurance . '' -- Nominated 2006 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers -- Nominated Soundtrack ( edit ) Fried Green Tomatoes Studio album by Various Artists Released December 31 , 1991 Genre Soundtrack Length 39 : 24 Label MCA Fried Green Tomatoes : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack to the film , and featured a new song by Patti LaBelle . For the original score , composed by Thomas Newman , see Fried Green Tomatoes ( score ) . Track listing ( edit ) `` I 'll Remember You '' ( Grayson Hugh ) -- 5 : 08 `` What Becomes of the Brokenhearted '' ( Paul Young ) -- 4 : 34 `` Cherish '' ( Hip Hop Version ) ( Jodeci ) -- 3 : 58 `` Danger Heartbreak Dead Ahead '' ( Taylor Dayne ) -- 3 : 20 `` Rooster Blues '' ( Peter Wolf ) -- 3 : 15 `` Barbecue Bess '' ( Patti LaBelle ) -- 2 : 54 `` If I Can Help Somebody '' ( Aaron Hall ) -- 3 : 49 `` Cool Down Yonder '' ( Marion Williams ) -- 3 : 10 `` Cherish '' ( Movie Version ) ( Jodeci ) -- 2 : 29 `` Ghost Train '' ( Main Title ) ( Thomas Newman ) -- 3 : 11 `` Visiting Ruth '' ( Newman ) -- 1 : 46 `` A Charge To Keep I Have '' ( Newman ) -- 1 : 50 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` ' Green Tomatoes ' : Why a Little Film Bloomed : Movies : Film starts slowly at the box office but word of mouth , themes , strong cast ignite interest in the $11 - million work '' . Los Angeles Times . February 10 , 1992 . Retrieved November 16 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Rockler , Naomi R. ( March 22 , 2001 ) , `` A Wall on the Lesbian Continuum : Polysemy and Fried Green Tomatoes '' , Women 's Studies in Communication , 24 , retrieved June 15 , 2009 ^ Jump up to : Levy , Emanuel ( January 6 , 2006 ) , Fried Green Tomatoes , Emanuel Levy , retrieved June 15 , 2009 Jump up ^ Pryor , Kelli ; Isaak , Sharon ( February 28 , 1992 ) , `` Women in Love '' , Entertainment Weekly , Time , retrieved February 9 , 2010 Jump up ^ Vickers , Lu ( June 1994 ) , `` Fried Green Tomatoes Excuse me , did we see the same movie ? '' , Jump Cut , 39 : 25 -- 30 , retrieved February 12 , 2012 ^ Jump up to : Avnet , Jon ( 1998 ) , Director 's Commentary ( DVD ) format = requires url = ( help ) , Universal Studios ^ Jump up to : Kenny , J.M. ( director ) ( December 15 , 1998 ) , Moments of Discovery : The Making of Fried Green Tomatoes ( DVD ) , Universal Studios Home Video , retrieved April 4 , 2010 ^ Jump up to : Park , Irby ( May 7 , 2003 ) , `` Fannie Flagg Captivates Audience at City Book Event '' , The Chattanoogan , retrieved December 28 , 2009 Jump up ^ `` Little Town Where Movie was Made Finally Gets Café , Fried Tomatoes '' , Rome News - Tribune , April 13 , 1992 , retrieved December 28 , 2009 Jump up ^ Zganjar , Leslie ( November 1 , 2002 ) , `` The Whistle Stop name is just too popular '' , Birmingham Business Journal , retrieved December 28 , 2009 Jump up ^ Nolan , Michael ( October 20 , 2002 ) , `` Fried Green Tomatoes At The Irondale Cafe '' , American Profile , retrieved December 28 , 2009 ^ Jump up to : Fried Green Tomatoes ( 1991 ) , Box Office Mojo , retrieved April 5 , 2008 Jump up ^ Fried Green Tomatoes ( 1991 ) , Rotten Tomatoes , retrieved April 11 , 2008 Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( January 10 , 1992 ) , `` Fried Green Tomatoes '' , Chicago Sun - Times , Sun - Times Media Group , retrieved December 28 , 2009 ^ Jump up to : Maslin , Janet ( December 27 , 1991 ) , `` Women Finding Strength In Women '' , The New York Times , The New York Times Company , retrieved December 28 , 2009 ^ Jump up to : `` Fried Green Tomatoes ( 1991 ) Awards '' , The New York Times , The New York Times Company , retrieved June 19 , 2009 Jump up ^ `` Fried Green Tomatoes ( 1991 ) '' . Swedish Film Institute . March 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes Nominees '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers Nominees '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 14 . 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where does the royal family of england get their income

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Finances_of_the_British_royal_family&oldid=845984358

Finances of the British Royal family - wikipedia Finances of the British Royal family The British royal family on the balcony of Buckingham Palace after the annual Trooping the Colour in 2013 The finances of the British royal family come from a number of sources . The UK Parliament supports the monarch and other members of the royal household financially by means of the Sovereign Grant , a percentage of the annual profits of the Crown Estate which is intended to meet the costs of the sovereign 's official expenditures . This includes the costs of the upkeep of the various royal residences , staffing , travel and state visits , public engagements , and official entertainment . Other sources of income include revenues from the Duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall , a parliamentary annuity , and income from private investments . The Keeper of the Privy Purse is Head of the Privy Purse and Treasurer 's Office and has overall responsibility for the management of the sovereign 's financial affairs . Contents ( hide ) 1 Income 1.1 Civil List 1.2 Sovereign Grant 1.3 Duchy of Lancaster 1.4 Duchy of Cornwall 1.5 Parliamentary annuities 1.6 Taxation 2 Assets 2.1 Private wealth of the Queen 2.2 Crown Estate 2.3 Assets held in trust 3 References Income ( edit ) Civil List ( edit ) Main article : Civil list Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues , which included the profits of the Crown Estate ( the royal property portfolio ) . King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List . Under this arrangement the Crown Estate remained the property of the sovereign , but the hereditary revenues of the crown were placed at the disposal of the House of Commons . The Civil List was paid from public funds and was intended to support the exercise of the monarch 's duties as head of state of the United Kingdom . This arrangement persisted from 1760 until 2012 . In modern times , the Government 's profits from the Crown Estate always significantly exceeded the Civil List . Under the Civil List arrangements the royal family faced criticism for the lack of transparency surrounding Royal finances . The National Audit Office was not entitled to audit the Royal Household . The Queen received an annual £ 7.9 million a year from the Civil List between 2001 and 2012 . The total income of the Royal Household from the Treasury was always significantly larger than the Civil List because it included additional income such as Grants - in - Aid from the Treasury and revenues from the Duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster . The total Royal Household income for the financial years 2011 -- 12 and 2012 -- 13 was £ 30 million per annum , followed by a 14 % cut in the following year . However , the Treasury provided an additional £ 1 million to pay for Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012 . Royal expenditure differs from income due to the use of a Reserve Fund , which can be added to or drawn from . The official reported annual expenditure of the Head of State was £ 41.5 million for the 2008 -- 09 financial year . This figure did not include the cost of security provided by the police and the Army and some other expenses . Sovereign Grant ( edit ) Main article : Sovereign Grant Act 2011 Under the Sovereign Grant Act 2011 , the system of funding the Royal Household by a mixture of Civil List payments and Grants - in - Aid was replaced . From 1 April 2012 a single annual Sovereign Grant has been paid by the Treasury . The level of funding for the Royal Household is now linked to the Government 's revenue from The Crown Estate . The Sovereign Grant Annual Report states that the Sovereign Grant was £ 31 million for 2012 - 13 , £ 36.1 million for 2013 - 14 and £ 37.9 million for 2014 - 15 . The amount of the Sovereign Grant is 15 % of the income account net surplus of the Crown Estate for the financial year that began two years previously . The arrangements will be reviewed by 2016 ( subsection 7 ( 5 ) of the Act ) . Step 4 of subsection 6 ( 1 ) , and subsection 6 ( 4 ) , of the Act provide a mechanism to prevent the amount of the Sovereign Grant increasing beyond what is necessary because of the growth in Crown Estate revenue . Under the Sovereign Grant the National Audit Office is able to audit the Royal Household . On November 18 , 2016 a plan was announced to increase the Sovereign Grant from 15 % to 25 % to renovate and repair Buckingham Palace . The percentage is set to revert to 15 % when the project is finished in 2027 . Duchy of Lancaster ( edit ) Main article : Duchy of Lancaster The Duchy of Lancaster is the private estate of the British Sovereign ( now Queen Elizabeth II ) consisting of land holdings and other assets . As it is held in perpetual trust for future generations of Sovereigns , the Sovereign is not entitled to the estate 's capital . The revenue profits of the Duchy are presented to the Sovereign each year and form part of the Privy Purse , providing income for both the official and private expenses of the monarch . In the financial year ending 31 March 2015 , the Duchy was valued at £ 472 million , providing £ 16 million in income . In 2017 , the Paradise Papers revealed that the Duchy held investments in two offshore financial centres , the Cayman Islands and Bermuda . Both are British Overseas Territories of which Queen Elizabeth II is monarch , and nominally appoints governors . Britain handles foreign policy for both islands to a large extent , but Bermuda has been self - governing since 1620 . The Duchy 's investments included First Quench Retailing off - licences and rent - to - own retailer BrightHouse . Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn posited that the Queen should apologize , saying anyone with money offshore for tax avoidance should `` not just apologise for it , ( but ) recognise what it does to our society '' . A spokesman for the Duchy said that all of their investments are audited and legitimate and that the Queen voluntarily pays taxes on income she receives from Duchy investments . Duchy of Cornwall ( edit ) Main article : Duchy of Cornwall The Duchy of Cornwall is a Crown entity holding land and other assets to produce an income for the monarch 's eldest son . The Duke of Cornwall ( currently , Charles , Prince of Wales ) receives revenue which he applies towards charitable work and official activities , supported by the Queen 's grant - in - aid funding to provide assistance with official travel and property . These financial arrangements also cover the official expenditure of some members of his immediate family . The Duchess of Cornwall , the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and the Duke of Sussex all have their official expenses paid from Duchy income , assisted by grants - in aid from the Queen . For the fiscal year 2011 -- 12 the Duchy was valued at £ 728 million with an annual profit of £ 18.3 million paid to the Prince . Parliamentary annuities ( edit ) The Duke of Edinburgh receives a parliamentary annuity of £ 359,000 per year from the Treasury . In the past some other members of the British royal family also received funding in the form of parliamentary annuities . The Civil List Act 1952 provided for an allowance to Princess Margaret as well as allowances to the queen 's younger children among others . The Civil List Act 1972 added further members of the royal family to the annuity list . By 2002 there were eight recipients of parliamentary annuities ( all children or cousins of the Queen ) receiving a combined total of £ 1.5 million annually . Between 1993 and 2012 the Queen voluntarily refunded the cost of these annuities to the Treasury . The Sovereign Grant Act 2011 abolished all of these other than that received by the Duke of Edinburgh . Subsequently , the living costs of the members of the royal family who carry out official duties , including the Princess Royal , the Duke of York , and the Earl and Countess of Wessex , have mainly been met through the Queen 's income from the Duchy of Lancaster . Taxation ( edit ) The Crown has a legal tax - exempt status because certain acts of parliament do not apply to it . Crown bodies such as The Duchy of Lancaster are not subject to legislation concerning income tax , capital gains tax or inheritance tax . Furthermore , the Sovereign has no legal liability to pay such taxes . The Duchy of Cornwall has a Crown exemption and the Prince of Wales is not legally liable to pay income tax on Duchy revenues . A `` Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation '' was published on 5 February 1993 and amended in 1996 , 2009 and 2013 . It is intended that the arrangements in the memorandum will be followed by the next monarch . The memorandum describes the arrangements by which The Queen and The Prince of Wales make voluntary payments to the HM Revenue and Customs in lieu of tax to compensate for their tax exemption . The details of the payments are private . The Queen voluntarily pays a sum equivalent to income tax on her private income and income from the Privy Purse ( which includes the Duchy of Lancaster ) that is not used for official purposes . The Sovereign Grant is exempted . A sum equivalent to capital gains tax is voluntarily paid on any gains from the disposal of private assets made after 5 April 1993 . Many of the Sovereign 's assets were acquired earlier than this date but payment is only made on the gains made afterwards . Arrangements also exist for a sum in lieu of inheritance tax to be voluntarily paid on some of the Queen 's private assets . Property passing from monarch to monarch is exempted , as is property passing from the consort of a former monarch to the current monarch . The Prince of Wales voluntarily pays a sum equivalent to income tax on that part of his income from the Duchy of Cornwall that is in excess of what is needed to meet official expenditure . From 1969 he made voluntary tax payments of 50 % of the profits , but this reduced to 25 % in 1981 when he married Lady Diana Spencer . These arrangements were replaced by the memorandum in 1993 . The income of the Prince of Wales from sources other than the Duchy of Cornwall is subject to tax in the normal way . Assets ( edit ) Private wealth of the Queen ( edit ) The Queen has a private income from her personal investment portfolio , though her personal wealth and income are not known . Jock Colville , a former private secretary to the Queen ( when she was Princess Elizabeth ) and a director of her bank , Coutts , estimated her wealth at £ 2 million in 1971 ( the equivalent of about £ 26 million today ) . An official statement from Buckingham Palace in 1993 called estimates of £ 100 million `` grossly overstated '' . In 2002 , she inherited her mother 's estate , thought to have been worth £ 70 million ( the equivalent of about £ 105 million today ) . Forbes magazine estimated the Queen 's net worth at around $500 million ( about £ 325 million ) in 2011 , while an analysis by the Bloomberg Billionaires Index put it at $425 million ( about £ 275 million ) in 2015 . In 2012 the Sunday Times estimated the Queen 's wealth as being £ 310 million ( $504 million ) , and that year the Queen received a Guinness World Record as Wealthiest Queen . The Sunday Times Rich List 2015 estimated her wealth at £ 340 million , making her the 302nd richest person in the United Kingdom ; that was the first year she was not among the Sunday Times Rich List 's top 300 most wealthy since the list began in 1989 . She was number one on the list when it began in 1989 . Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are privately owned by the Queen . Crown Estate ( edit ) Main article : Crown Estate The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom , producing £ 211 million for the Treasury in the financial year 2007 -- 8 . and with holdings of £ 7.3 billion in 2011 . The Crown Estate is not the private property of the Monarch . It can not be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity , nor do any revenues , or debts , from the estate accrue to her . Instead the Crown Estate is owned by the Crown , a corporation representing the legal embodiment of the State . It is held in trust and governed by Act of Parliament , to which it makes an annual report . Revenue from the Crown Estate is thought to be due to double in real terms between 2010 and 2020 with additional lease revenues deriving from the development of offshore wind farms within Britain 's Renewable Energy Zone , the rights of which were granted to the Crown Estate by the Energy Act 2004 . Assets held in trust ( edit ) A number of State possessions are held in trust by the Sovereign . The Royal Collection is the art collection of the British royal family . It is one of the largest and most important art collections in the world , containing over 7,000 paintings , 40,000 watercolours and drawings , about 150,000 old master prints , historical photographs , tapestries , furniture , ceramics , books , gold and silver plate , arms and armour , jewellery and other works of art . The collection includes the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London ( including the crown , orb and sceptre ) . It is physically dispersed between thirteen Royal residences and former residences across Britain . Although the collection belongs to the sovereign , it is not the personal property of Elizabeth II as a private individual . Instead the collection is held in trust by the Queen for her successors and the nation . The Treasury refers to these assets as `` vested in the sovereign and can not be alienated '' . Income is generated by the collection from public admissions and other sources . This income is received by the Royal Collection Trust , the collection 's management charity , and not by the Queen . The occupied royal palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle are held in trust by the sovereign . The Royal Household is expected to use the Sovereign Grant to maintain the palaces . In May 2009 the Queen requested an extra £ 4 million annually from the government to carry out a backlog of repairs to Buckingham Palace . In 2010 , the Royal Household requested an additional grant from the Department for Culture , Media and Sport but were refused on the basis that the scheme was `` aimed at schools , hospitals , councils and housing associations for heating programmes which benefit low - income families '' . Over a third of the Royal estate was in disrepair by 2012 -- 13 according to a report by the Public Accounts Committee . The cost of restoration was estimated to be £ 50 million , but the Reserve Fund was at a historic low of £ 1m . The Monarch is also responsible for using the Sovereign Grant to pay the wages of 431 of the approximately 1200 Royal Household staff , amounting to £ 18.2 million in 2014 -- 15 . In 2013 , the Guardian newspaper reported that Buckingham Palace was using zero - hour contract for its summer staff and in 2015 it was reported that at least four senior officials had been made redundant to reduce costs . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` The Sovereign 's gracious message to the House of Commons re : The Sovereign Grant Bill '' ( PDF ) . Buckingham Palace . 29 June 2011 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 January 2013 . Retrieved 28 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Sovereign Grant Bill -- Further background information provided to Members of Parliament in advance of the Bill 's Second Reading Debate on 14 July 2011 '' ( PDF ) . Her Majesty 's Treasury . July 2011 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 01 - 29 . Retrieved 28 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Royal Finances : The Civil List , Official web site of the British Monarchy , retrieved 18 June 2010 Jump up ^ The Privy Purse and Treasurer 's Office , accessed 13 June 2010 Jump up ^ `` Royals ' cost the taxpayer £ 37.4 m ' '' . BBC News . 28 June 2006 . Jump up ^ Verkaik , Robert ( 28 June 2002 ) . `` First look at royal finances fails to satisfy MPs '' . The Independent . London . ^ Jump up to : Royal Finances : Head of State Expenditure , Official web site of the British Monarchy , archived from the original on 14 May 2010 , retrieved 18 June 2010 Jump up ^ `` Spending Review : Royal family to face 14 % cuts '' . BBC News . 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Verkaik , Robert ( 21 October 2010 ) . `` Royal ' cuts ' could make Charles the richest king in British history '' . The Independent . London . Jump up ^ `` Cost of Royal Family rises £ 1.5 m '' . BBC News . 29 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Sovereign Grant Annual Report 2012 - 13 '' . The Official Website of the British Monarchy . Archived from the original on 2 February 2014 . Retrieved 26 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Royal funding changes become law '' . BBC News . 18 October 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Determination of the amount of Sovereign Grant '' . www.legislation.gov.uk . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Davies , Caroline ( 2016 - 11 - 18 ) . `` Buckingham Palace to undergo ' essential ' £ 370m refurbishment '' . The Guardian . ISSN 0261 - 3077 . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Duchy of Lancaster - FAQs '' . Duchy of Lancaster . Retrieved 9 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Privy Purse and Duchy of Lancaster '' . Royal Household . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Annual Report 2013 '' ( PDF ) . Duchy of Lancaster. 31 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Royal Finances : Privy Purse and Duchy of Lancaster , Official web site of the British Monarchy , retrieved 18 June 2010 Jump up ^ `` Duchy of Lancaster - Management and Finance '' . Duchy of Lancaster . Archived from the original on 17 May 2015 . Retrieved 9 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Osborne , Hilary ( 5 November 2017 ) . `` Revealed : Queen 's private estate invested millions of pounds offshore '' . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 5 November 2017 . Retrieved 5 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Paradise Papers : Queen should apologise , suggests Corbyn '' . BBC . 6 November 2017 . Archived from the original on 7 November 2017 . Retrieved 6 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Who pays for The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry ? '' . The Prince of Wales and The Duchess of Cornwall Website . Retrieved 30 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Annual Report and Accounts Year Ended 31st March 2012 '' ( PDF ) . Duchy Of Cornwall. 1 June 2012 . Retrieved 2 February 2014 . Jump up ^ The amount was set by the Civil List ( Increase of Financial Provision ) Order 1990 . It was initially set at £ 40,000 in the Civil List Act 1952 , raised to £ 65,000 by the Civil List Act 1972 , and raised to £ 165,000 by the Civil List ( Increase of Financial Provision ) Order 1984 . Jump up ^ `` What Is The True Cost Of The Monarchy ? '' . Royal Central . 17 February 2013 . Retrieved 26 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Civil List Act 1952 : Chapter 37 '' . legislation.gov.uk . Retrieved 23 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Verkaik , Robert ( 30 May 2002 ) . `` Royal aides want to see abolition of Civil List '' . The Independent . London . Retrieved 1 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Further provision for members of the Royal Family '' . www.legislation.gov.uk . Retrieved 1 February 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation '' ( PDF ) . HM Government . 2013 . Retrieved 25 February 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Rayner , Gordon ( 21 Jun 2015 ) . `` Queen 's finances are safe from cuts for two years '' . The Telegraph . London . Retrieved 3 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldsmith , Vivien ( 12 February 1993 ) . `` The Queen 's Finances : Ordinary tax allowances for royals '' . The Independent . London . Jump up ^ Philip Hall , 1992 , Royal Fortune , Tax , Money and the Monarchy , page xxii , Bloomsbury , ISBN 0 - 7475 - 1098 - 9 Jump up ^ `` Royal overspend prompts call to open palace doors '' . BBC News . 28 January 2014 . ^ Jump up to : UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark , Gregory ( 2017 ) . `` The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain , 1209 to Present ( New Series ) '' . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 6 November 2017 . Jump up ^ The Times , 9 July 1971 ; Pimlott , p. 401 . Jump up ^ Lord Chamberlain Lord Airlie quoted in Hoey , p. 225 and Pimlott , p. 561 Jump up ^ `` Queen inherits Queen Mother 's estate '' . 17 May 2002 . Retrieved 25 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Luisa . `` Just How Rich Are Queen Elizabeth And Her Family ? '' . Forbs , com . Forbs . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Tom . `` Queen Elizabeth II Is n't as Rich as You Think '' . bloomberg.com . bloomberg . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Wealthiest Queen '' . Guinness World Records . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Helen Nianias ( 26 April 2015 ) . `` The Queen drops off the top end of the Sunday Times Rich List for the first time since its inception '' . The Independent . Retrieved 17 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : The Royal Residences : Overview , Royal Household , archived from the original on 1 May 2011 , retrieved 9 December 2009 ^ Jump up to : About Us , Crown Estate , 6 July 2011 , archived from the original on 1 September 2011 , retrieved 1 September 2011 Jump up ^ FAQs , Crown Estate , archived from the original on 3 September 2011 , retrieved 1 September 2011 Jump up ^ `` Royal Special : Sovereign wealth '' . The Independent . London . 31 May 2002 . Jump up ^ `` The Royal Collection '' . The Royal Household . Retrieved 28 December 2015 . Jump up ^ What is the Royal Collection ? , The Royal Collection , retrieved 12 November 2008 Jump up ^ Pierce , Andrew ( 30 May 2009 ) . `` Queen must open palace more in return for extra funds '' . The Daily Telegraph . UK . Retrieved 4 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Queen asked for heating grant from Government '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . 24 September 2010 . Jump up ^ Younger , Rachel ( 28 January 2014 ) . `` Royal Estate Overspend Leaves £ 50m Repair Bill '' . Sky News . London . Retrieved 27 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Palmer , Richard ( 30 May 2015 ) . `` Royal Family faces major financial review as costs soar by a third in three years '' . Daily Express . London . Retrieved 3 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Simon Neville , Matthew Taylor and Phillip Inman . `` Buckingham Palace uses zero - hours contracts for summer staff Money '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 07 . Jump up ^ Sabur , Rozina ( 23 May 2015 ) . `` Buckingham Palace ' axes at least four ' of the Queen 's senior officials '' . The telegraph . London . Retrieved 27 May 2015 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finances_of_the_British_royal_family&oldid=845984358 '' Categories : British monarchy British royal family Finance in the United Kingdom Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from January 2015 Use British English from January 2015 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from August 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 15 June 2018 , at 13 : 45 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what happens to eric northman in true blood

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Eric_Northman&oldid=801106911

Eric Northman - wikipedia Eric Northman Jump to : navigation , search This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( September 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Eric Northman Southern Vampire Mysteries character Alexander Skarsgård as Eric Northman in True Blood . First appearance Novel : Dead Until Dark Television : `` Escape from Dragon House '' Created by Charlaine Harris Portrayed by Alexander Skarsgård Information Nickname ( s ) Viking Species Vampire Gender Male Occupation Bar owner Vampire Sheriff of Area 5 Louisiana Chancellor of the Vampire Authority ( in TV series ) Family Novels Unnamed Parents ( human ; deceased ) Unnamed brother ( human ; deceased ) Appius Livius Ocella ( Maker ; deceased ) Alexei Romanov ( vampire brother ; deceased ) TV series Unnamed Parents ( human ; deceased ) Unnamed sister ( human ; deceased ) Godric ( Maker ; deceased ) Nora Gainesborough ( vampire sister ; deceased ) Spouse ( s ) Novels Aude ( human wife ; deceased ) Sookie Stackhouse ( human wife ) Children Novels Pam Ravenscroft ( progeny ; vampire offspring ) Karin ( progeny ; vampire offspring ) Six unnamed children ( human ; deceased ) TV series Pamela Swynford De Beaufort ( progeny / lover ; vampire offspring ) Willa Burrell ( progeny ; vampire offspring ) Eric Northman is a fictional character in The Southern Vampire Mysteries , a series of thirteen books written by New York Times bestselling author Charlaine Harris . He is a vampire , slightly over one thousand years old , and is first introduced in the first novel , Dead Until Dark and appears in all subsequent novels . Since the book series is told from the first person perspective of Sookie Stackhouse , what readers perceive of his character is influenced by what Sookie comprehends . HBO 's television series True Blood is based on this book series and the character of Eric Northman is portrayed somewhat differently . A list of True Blood characters has a detailed description of Eric 's character from the TV show . Contents ( hide ) 1 Human life 2 Physical description and personality 3 Work and position within the vampire hierarchy 4 Relationship with Sookie Stackhouse 5 Television portrayal 6 Origin 7 References Human life ( edit ) In the early books , little was revealed about his past . In the ninth book , Dead and Gone Eric revealed details about his human life as a Viking . He was deemed a man at the age of twelve . At sixteen he married Aude , his brother 's widow . The couple had six children , but only three were living at the time of his turning , two boys and a girl . Aude and their sixth child died of a fever shortly after the birth when Eric was in his early twenties . It is revealed in the television series that the vampire king of Mississippi murdered his entire family before stealing his father 's Viking crown . In the books , he was ambushed one night by a Roman vampire named Appius Livius Ocella and subsequently turned . In the television series , he was made a vampire by Godric . In the television show , it is also shown that Eric was a Viking prince , in the novels Eric says that his father was a chief . The name `` Eric '' or `` Erik '' comes from Old Norse and means `` One ruler '' or `` eternal ruler '' . The name `` Norseman '' was the name given to people who could speak the Old Norse Language , especially in Sweden , Norway , Finland and Denmark . The name `` Norseman '' means `` man from the north '' , hence Eric 's last name being `` Northman '' . Physical description and personality ( edit ) In the first novel , Dead Until Dark , Sookie Stackhouse thinks Eric Northman is a `` hunk . '' Sookie describes him as `` handsome , in fact , radiant ; blond and blue - eyed , tall and broad shouldered . He was wearing boots , jeans , and a vest . Period . Kind of like the guys on the cover of romance books . '' He 's approximately six - foot - four . When Sookie sees him naked for the first time in Dead to the World , she thinks , `` if there were an international butt competition , Eric would win , hands down -- or cheeks up . '' In the series ' True Blood ' he is tall with long blonde hair . By the end of the first season , and a little bit into the second , Pam ( his progeny ) cuts his hair shorter than expected because he gets blood in it . Eric is always shown in dark blue jeans with a black singlet and a black leather jacket . When his hair is cut shorter , he parts it and combs it diagonally backwards . His personality in the series is mostly the same , Eric Northman is ruthless and does not care much for human life . His relationship with his progeny , Pam , is where you see the softer side of him come through . When they face difficult challenges and situations , Eric would put her needs above his own . By the middle of season 2 Eric begins to pursue Sookie Stackhouse because of his interest in her abilities , and by the end of season 2 Eric Northman has cunningly tricked her into drinking his blood . Near the beginning of the third season , it is implied that he is beginning to develop feelings for her , even helping her when it is disadvantageous for him to do so . Eric is portrayed in the books as being somewhat arrogant , but having a true joie de vivre . He is confident almost to a fault , once reprimanding a thug in the third book , Club Dead , for threatening Sookie and referring to her as his `` future lover '' although no potentially romantic relationship between Eric and Sookie yet existed . He can be manipulative to suit his needs . He is not above using deceit though it seems to be a last resort when it comes to Sookie . However , he is typically upfront regarding any action he takes and if he is manipulative he is very frank and open regarding his wishes . Due to his frank nature , Sookie comments to herself how she can always know where she stands with Eric . Indeed , Sookie frequently remarks how conversations with Eric are seldom single layered and how he never says something without reason . He is not sentimental in the least but shows a great deal of concern over Sookie and her happiness and well - being , perhaps making the relationship between Eric and Sookie all the more impressive . Sookie believes that , although Eric has created a modest , but thriving business empire and carved out a position of authority in the delicate vampire hierarchy , at heart he remains a born - Viking warrior , ready to leap into battle at any instant . Work and position within the vampire hierarchy ( edit ) The vampires in Charlaine Harris ' world are organized according to a feudal system with each state divided into `` Areas '' , each of which are governed by a sheriff who then owes allegiance to the queen or king of that particular state . Some states , like California , are so large and so heavily populated with humans ( and therefore vampires who prey on humans ) they are divided into multiple kingdoms . For example , what humans see as California , vampires see as California Sacramento , California San Jose , and California Los Angeles . Louisiana is not such a state and is ruled by one monarch . However , it is possible for a monarch to control multiple states . At one point in the series Louisiana is controlled by the same vampire who also controlled Arkansas . Later in the series a different ruler controls Louisiana , Arkansas , and Nevada . Eric is the most powerful vampire in Area Five of northern Louisiana : a territory that includes the small town of Bon Temps . Eric serves as Sheriff of area 5 , or local boss , of that area and owns a vampire bar in Shreveport called `` Fangtasia , '' that also serves as his headquarters . He runs the bar with the help of his vampire progeny Pam and a few of his underlings , or vampires who owe allegiance to Eric as their sheriff . Eric takes his responsibilities and role within the vampire hierarchy very seriously . In the sixth novel , Definitely Dead , Eric mentions that he has paid a significant fine to the arbitrator for killing a former Fangtasia bartender , Long Shadow . This demonstrates that he did not hide his crime , as killing another vampire is a `` serious thing . '' . Precisely what a Vampire Sheriff does , aside from owe allegiance to their monarch , do their monarch 's bidding , and rule their Area , is still somewhat unclear . Sookie makes a conscious effort not to pry too hard into vampire affairs and Eric does nothing to encourage her learning much more than she already knows . Eric surprised Sookie in the tenth book , Dead in the Family , when he explained the vampire hierarchy in more detail , simply so she , as his wife according to vampire law , was better informed for her safety . The state of Louisiana was in disarray after the results of Hurricane Katrina , and after queen of Louisiana , Eric 's hierarch , was crippled in an explosion and eventually killed by the vampires of Nevada under Felipe de Castro 's order . Eric was spared since he was the most practical of the Sheriffs and had one of the largest money makers , Bill Compton , living in his area and owing fealty to him . As the last surviving sheriff of Louisiana , Eric pledges his allegiance to the new regime in order to protect those under him , a tactical move that highlights his capabilities both as a leader and a political survivor . Had Eric resisted , he and all of the vampires serving under him ( possibly with the exception of Bill ) would have been killed , including Sookie . After accepting the new King , Felipe de Castro , he is then allowed to maintain control of his area and his followers when the other sheriffs of Louisiana and a number of their minions were all killed . Under the new regime , Eric has spent a significant amount of time acclimating himself to his new overlords . Despite his oath , however , Eric remains ever vigilant for opportunities to either further secure his position or free himself entirely from scrutiny of Felipe 's Louisiana representative , Victor . Relationship with Sookie Stackhouse ( edit ) The author introduces Sookie to Eric in her first novel , Dead Until Dark . Eric then appears in all the subsequent novels and has either saved or attempted to save Sookie 's life in every book . From the second book onward , Eric and Sookie share at least one intimate moment together per book . In the second one there are several : when he asks her to suck out a bullet in his chest that he took for her , and when Sookie invites him to an orgy they have to play the part ; in the third , they almost have sex before being interrupted by Bubba and also when he gives her blood after she is staked ; the fourth , they experience a sexual relationship when he is cursed with amnesia , which he forgets all about promptly after being un-cursed ; the fifth , they kiss ; the sixth , during battle Eric sneaks a kiss on Sookie after saving her ; the seventh , they exchange blood tying them to each other in a blood bond and Eric kisses her ; the eighth , they kiss again after Eric smells fairy blood all over Sookie ; and in the ninth , they consummate their relationship after being wed by vampire laws and seem to be moving in the direction of an official relationship . In the later books , she has also saved his life several times before . After appearing to develop an affection for Sookie in the third book in the series , Club Dead , Eric has a brief romance with her in Dead to the World , the fourth book , though , due to a curse , he lost his memories of that time until From Dead to Worse , the eighth book . In the eighth book , after sitting in Sookie 's room , he reveals that he remembers the days he spent with her when the curse was put on him . He asks her to discuss it , and she refuses . He seemingly likes Bill Compton but feels arrogantly competitive in an emotional battle for Sookie 's affections . In the seventh book , All Together Dead , when Sookie is accosted into forming a blood bond with Andre , another powerful vampire , Eric steps in opportunistically as the lesser of two evils and bonds with her himself . A blood bond is formed when a human and vampire exchange blood by drinking it from them . Vampire blood can heal any human wounds within seconds as can human blood do the same for vampires . In Dead and Gone , Eric sends Sookie a velvet parcel that he instructs her to give to him in front of King Felipe de Castro 's representative , Victor Madden . Without looking inside the parcel first , Sookie presents Eric the bag which contains a ceremonial knife that is used in marriage ceremonies . The king 's representative reveals that the act of giving and receiving the knife means that Eric and Sookie are pledged to one another . Eric claims that he deceived Sookie because the King of Nevada had the power and desire to take her away from her home . Because they are wed , Eric is the only vampire that can have access to Sookie on pain of final death . He also reveals that the curse that had been placed on him made him unconsciously seek out the presence of his heart 's desire ( Sookie ) . In `` Dead in the Family '' Eric and Sookie are in an actual relationship , and Eric admits that he sees Sookie as his wife in the only way that matters to him , which left her puzzled . In the 12th Sookie Stackhouse novel , Deadlocked , Sookie and Eric 's relationship takes a turn . Eric was promised by his maker , Appius , to marry the Queen of Oklahoma , and he has spent much of his time figuring out how to get out of the promise . Sookie wants Eric to choose her outright and Eric explains that he just ca n't ignore a command from his maker even though he is dead . They do not see each other too much in the book ; Eric does tell Sookie that she has the power to make him stay , which she finds out near the end of the book that he knows about her cluviel dor which will grant her one wish . She ends up using it at the end of the book to save Sam Merlotte 's life and Eric just walks away after he sees this . The book ends with them basically in the same spot , not knowing if Eric is going to marry the Queen of Oklahoma or stay with Sookie . In the 13th Sookie Stackhouse novel , Dead Ever After , Eric and Sookie 's relationship has crashed and burned . Eric is set to officially marry Freyda , the Queen of Oklahoma , and he has been banned from ever seeing Sookie again . Also , Sookie has been banned from Fangtasia and Oklahoma . In one of the last conversations Eric and Sookie have , he tells her that he was considering making her a vampire even though she never wanted to become one . By the end of the novel , Eric is in Oklahoma with his new wife and without either of his progeny . Television portrayal ( edit ) In True Blood , an HBO series based on the earliest books in the series , the character of Eric Northman is played by Swedish actor Alexander Skarsgård . Some details of the character are portrayed somewhat differently on True Blood than in the books . In the series , Eric is created by Godric , with whom he shares a deep bond of loyalty and devotion . In season 2 Godric commits suicide by exposing himself to sunlight , causing Eric to shed bloody vampire tears , however , in the novels he cries for the first time in book 9 . In the series , Bill , rather than Eric , saves Sookie from Long Shadow ( in the books Eric kills him ) . Eric has not demonstrated the outward concern for Sookie that he exhibited in the early novels , but he appears to be developing an uneasy , guarded affection for her and the series seems to portray a reluctance on his part to show people , particularly Sookie , his genuine emotions . Often Eric has presented himself to Sookie as violent , arrogant , mischievous and consciously manipulative . Thus far in the series he has usually acted in a manner with little apparent concern for Sookie 's feelings or immediate safety , although ultimately he seems to protect her . However , his growing feelings for Sookie are showcased in episode 4 of Season 3 when he daydreams about Sookie . After the daydream he spurns Yvetta and Pam looks on at him concerned . In episode 10 , Eric kissed Sookie , after proclaiming that if he were to die a true death without having at least kissed her , that would be his greatest regret . He chained her up in his basement a few minutes later as bait for Russell . He again reveals his guarded affection for her when prompted by Russell to drink her blood , he hesitates and strokes her affectionately on the cheek . Finally , in the season three finale , he tells her that he regrets seeing her in such pain , referring to her heartbreak over ending her relationship with Bill - although he was the one who deliberately gave her the information that caused her to banish Bill from her house . Eric 's back story is more deeply explored in Season 3 , as his youth and human life as a Viking prince was shown ; his family was slaughtered in their castle by a pack of werewolves , under the command of the ancient vampire Russell Edgington . Eric gave his dying father a vow to avenge them all . During World War II , he and Godric were shown tracking Russell 's wolfpack across Germany disguised as SS officers , though they never found Russell himself . In Season 3 , when Eric defects to Russell Edginton ( now the King of Mississippi ) instead of Queen Sophie - Anne in an effort to save Pam from torture by the Magister , he notices a crown in Russell 's antique collection that he recognizes as his father 's , stolen the night of the attack . Realizing Russell is the target he has sought for over 1,000 years , he continues to play up his loyalty to Russell to keep him from becoming suspicious , even displaying callous indifference to Sookie when she is captured and asks for help . However , later on , when Russell is attacking Bill and Sookie with his wolves , Eric murders his progeny and husband Talbot ; Russell , sensing Talbot 's death , is driven insane by grief and rage . He hunts down Eric and prepares to kill him until Eric reveals that he can show Russell how to daywalk , Russell 's oldest obsession . After consuming much of Sookie 's blood against her will ( which visibly discomforts Eric ) they are indeed able to daywalk , but it wears off very quickly ; Eric cuffs Russell to himself with silver , intending for both of them to burn . Sookie brings Eric back inside and , at the request of Eric , retrieves the badly - injured Russell as well . Eric only spared Russell because he thought death would be too merciful for him ; after knocking out one of his fangs , he buried the crippled vampire in silver chains and wet concrete , intending to let him starve in agony for 100 years but never die . In Season 4 , we see the relationship of Sookie and Eric develop after he loses his memory to the witch coven ; first , Sookie shelters him in her house from Bill ( though the house is technically Eric 's ) . Endeared by the new Eric 's innocence and his regret over his previous crimes as a vampire , Sookie eventually enters a sexual relationship with him , though in the Season 4 finale , Sookie is choosing between Eric and Bill , and chooses neither . Sources have said of Season 5 that Sookie 's `` independent streak '' will continue ( as Alan Ball , executive producer ) claimed in an interview concerning the upcoming season . By the end of the season , Eric has regained his memories , though he retains his memory and part of the gentler personality he had when he was with Sookie . In Season Five , after previously killing Nan Flanagan , Eric and Bill are arrested by the Vampire Authority . However , Nora , Eric 's ' sister ' ( with whom he also has a sexual history ) rescues them . Later , all three are caught by the Authority . While Eric steers clear of the Sanguinista movement stirring in the authority and attempts to escape , Bill accepts the Book of Lilith and betrays him . Eric manages to successfully escape with Nora and searches for Sookie to enlist her help ; in the process , he manages to kill his archenemy Russell Edgington , fulfilling a vengeance that he began when he was still human . He attempts to save Bill but apparently fails . Later , he returns Sookie 's house to her for her protection ; while she is grateful to him and considers him a friend , she still banishes him from the house , and Eric tells Nora they will stay away from her now . In Season 6 , Eric finds his latest threat to be the humans , especially Governor Truman Burrell , who declares war on vampires . In an effort to challenge the Governor 's stance on vampires , Eric turns Willa Burrell , Truman 's more open - minded daughter . Regardless , the Governor has them both placed in `` Vamp Camp '' , where Eric is later forced to watch his sister , Nora , receive a lethal injection of `` Hep V '' . Eric uses Willa to escape the camp ( promising to get her and Pam out ) and takes Nora to the Lilith - enhanced Bill , but they are unable to save her . Devastated by her death , Eric violently slaughters the humans running the concentration camp to seek revenge and free both his progenies , among others . Notably , Eric spares Jason Stackhouse , though he kills the vampire Steve Newlin , stating `` Every time I lost someone I loved , you were there . '' After freeing the imprisoned vampires , Eric flies off to grieve his sister Nora 's death in solitude . In the finale , Warlow , the fairy - vampire hybrid whose blood made it possible for Eric and the other vampires to walk in the sun , is killed by Jason to save Sookie . When Warlow dies , the effects of his blood wears off in the vampires who drank it and they are no longer able to walk in the sun . Eric is shown in the sun on a mountain top in Åre , Sweden when Warlow 's blood wears off , causing Eric to burn . In Season 7 , Pam tracks down Eric , who somehow avoided meeting the true death . However , he has been infected with the Hepatitis V virus . After learning that Sarah Newlin is still alive , he and Pam decide to go after her . Eric and Pam soon learn that Newlin drank the antidote and it permeated her body , making Sarah a living antidote for Hep V. They are forced to work with Yakuza ninjas from the Yakanomo Corporation ( the company which originally made True Blood ) in order to find her , but neither party trusts the other . Upon capturing Sarah , Eric drinks her blood and rids himself of the Hep V virus . Learning that Bill is dying , Eric secretly reveals the cure ( contrary to the Yakuza 's wishes ) to Sookie and offers to heal Bill , despite their long rivalry ; he is stunned when Bill refuses . However , after talking with Bill he understands his motives and tells Sookie to talk with him , making his final peace with both Bill and Sookie . Eric and Pam later kill all of the Yakuza members that want to use Newlin to make a new food source for vampires . By the end of the series , they are running a multibillion - dollar corporation called New Blood , derived from Sarah Newlin 's blood , which is both a new vampire food source and a universal cure for Hep V. Eric and Pam tell the world that Sarah got away from them , but they found a drop of her blood to make New Blood with , and thereby save every infected vampire in the world . In actuality , they are keeping Sarah chained in the basement at Fangtasia , and charging vampires small fortunes to feed on her , as she slowly goes insane . All the while , Eric sits on his throne on the Fangtasia stage , relishing his accomplishments . Origin ( edit ) Eric is frequently referred to as a Viking . In episode 4 of season 3 of True Blood , Eric says he played by the North Sea as a child . In episode 10 of season 3 , Pam alludes to Eric being Swedish when she says , `` I have no interest in inheriting your farm on Öland . That place is a windy shit - hole '' . Eric also speaks Swedish with Pam and Godric in some episodes . We have seen a flashback of the time before Pam 's turning , which was portrayed differently in True Blood than in the books . In the television series , Pam slits her own wrists after Eric denies her request to be turned , forcing him to do it to save her life . In the books , it is said that Eric offered her immortality . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Eric Northman ( Character ) '' . IMDb . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ Dead Until Dark Charlaine Harris Jump up ^ Dead to the World ( novel ) Charlaine Harris Jump up ^ Harris , Charlaine . Dead to the World . ACE . p. 149 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 441 - 01218 - 3 . Jump up ^ Club Dead , Charlaine Harris Jump up ^ Dead in the Family , Charlaine Harris Jump up ^ From Dead to Worse , Charlaine Harris Jump up ^ Dead in the Family , Charlaine Harris Jump up ^ Definitely Dead , Harris , Charlaine Charlaine Harris 's The Southern Vampire Mysteries Novels Dead Until Dark Living Dead in Dallas Club Dead Dead to the World Dead as a Doornail Definitely Dead All Together Dead From Dead to Worse Dead and Gone Dead in the Family Dead Reckoning Deadlocked Dead Ever After Short story collections A Touch of Dead Short stories `` Two Blondes '' Characters Sookie Stackhouse Bill Compton Eric Northman Sam Merlotte Pam Ravenscroft Jason Stackhouse Alcide Herveaux Niall Brigant Tara Thornton Dahlia Lynley - Chivers See also True Blood Category True Blood Seasons Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Episodes Strange Love Beyond Here Lies Nothin ' Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! Authority Always Wins Whatever I Am , You Made Me Hopeless Somebody That I Used to Know Sunset Save Yourself Characters Sookie Stackhouse Bill Compton Eric Northman Alcide Herveaux Sam Merlotte Jason Stackhouse Tara Thornton Lafayette Reynolds Pamela Swynford De Beaufort Jessica Hamby See also The Southern Vampire Mysteries `` Bad Things '' Alan Ball Charlaine Harris Category Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eric_Northman&oldid=801106911 '' Categories : Novel series navigational boxes Characters in American novels of the 21st century Fictional characters introduced in 2001 Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds Fictional characters with accelerated healing Fictional characters with superhuman strength Fictional vampires Fictional Vikings Fictional World War II veterans Fictional Swedish people Fictional businesspeople Fictional sheriffs Hidden categories : Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from September 2010 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Italiano Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2017 , at 18 : 15 . About Wikipedia

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where is the tv show the ozarks filmed

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Ozark_(TV_series)&oldid=804175461

Ozark ( TV series ) - wikipedia Ozark ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search Ozark Genre Crime drama Thriller Created by Bill Dubuque Mark Williams Starring Jason Bateman Laura Linney Sofia Hublitz Skylar Gaertner Julia Garner Jordana Spiro Jason Butler Harner Esai Morales Peter Mullan Lisa Emery Composer ( s ) Danny Bensi Saunder Jurriaans Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 10 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Jason Bateman Chris Mundy Bill Dubuque Mark Williams Location ( s ) Lake Allatoona , Georgia Lake Lanier , Georgia Running time 52 -- 80 minutes Production company ( s ) Media Rights Capital Aggerate Films Zero Gravity Management Headhunter Films Man , Woman & Child Productions Distributor Netflix Release Original network Netflix Original release July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) -- present External links Website www.netflix.com/title/80117552 Ozark is an American crime drama thriller web - television series created by Bill Dubuque and produced by Media Rights Capital . Jason Bateman stars in the series ; he also directed the first two and last two episodes of season 1 . The first season is composed of nine one - hour episodes and a final 80 minute episode ; it was released on Netflix on July 21 , 2017 . Bateman portrays financial planner Marty Byrde , and Laura Linney portrays his wife , a homemaker turned real estate agent Wendy Byrde . Marty suddenly relocates the family from a Chicago suburb to a summer resort community in the Missouri Ozarks after a money laundering scheme goes wrong , and he must pay off a debt to a Mexican drug lord . The series was renewed for a 10 - episode second season on August 15 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Cast 1.1 Main 1.2 Recurring 2 Production 3 Episodes 4 Critical reception 5 References 6 External links Cast ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Jason Bateman as Martin `` Marty '' Byrde , a self - employed financial advisor , based in Chicago . In 2007 , he and his business partner began to launder money for a Mexican drug cartel . Laura Linney as Wendy Byrde , Marty 's wife , and Charlotte and Jonah 's mother . After moving to the Ozarks , Wendy becomes a realtor and starts to identify businesses for Marty to use to launder money . Sofia Hublitz as Charlotte Byrde , Marty and Wendy 's 15 - year - old daughter , who strives to return to Chicago . Skylar Gaertner as Jonah Byrde , Marty and Wendy 's 13 - year - old son , who begins to show strange interests in dead animals and guns . Julia Garner as Ruth Langmore , a 19 - year - old woman who has the potential to become a dangerous criminal . She becomes part of Marty 's money laundering operation and is in charge of the day - to - day operations of a local strip club , known as `` Lickety Splitz '' . Jordana Spiro as Rachel Garrison , a local hotel owner and Byrde 's business partner Jason Butler Harner as Roy Petty , an FBI agent investigating Marty Esai Morales as Camino Del Rio , a ruthless crime lord for a Mexican cartel for whom Marty launders money Peter Mullan as Jacob Snell , an established local crime lord Lisa Emery as Darlene Snell , Jacob 's wife Recurring ( edit ) Josh Randall as Bruce Liddell , Marty Byrde 's Chicago business partner . Harris Yulin as Buddy Dyker , the Byrdes ' terminally ill tenant . Marc Menchaca as Russ Langmore , Wyatt and Three 's father , Ruth 's uncle , and Boyd and Cade 's brother . Christopher James Baker as Boyd Langmore , uncle of Ruth , Wyatt and Three , and Russ and Cade 's brother . Charlie Tahan as Wyatt Langmore , Russ 's elder son and Ruth 's cousin . Carson Holmes as Three Langmore , Russ 's younger son and Ruth 's cousin . Trevor Long as Cade Langmore , Ruth 's incarcerated father , brother of Russ and Boyd . McKinley Belcher III as Trevor Evans , FBI agent and Roy Petty 's former lover . Robert C. Treveliar as Sheriff John Nix . Kevin L. Johnson as Sam Dermody , a real estate agent in the Ozarks . Adam Boyer as Bobby Dean , owner of the Lickety Splitz strip club . Michael Mosley as Pastor Mason Young . Bethany Anne Lind as Grace Young , Pastor Mason Young 's pregnant wife . Evan George Vourazeris as Tuck , employee at the Blue Cat and Jonah 's first friend in the Ozarks . Sharon Blackwood as Eugenia Dermody , Sam 's controlling , overbearing mother who works for her son 's real estate business . Joseph Melendez as Garcia , an enforcer for Del and watchdog of the Byrdes . Michael Tourek as Ash , an enforcer for the Snells . Production ( edit ) The show is set at a modest waterfront resort at Lake of the Ozarks , inspired by the Alhonna Resort and Marina where series creator Dubuque worked as a dock hand while attending school in Missouri during the 1980s . Most of the shooting locations are in the Atlanta area at Lake Allatoona and Lake Lanier , rather than at the Lake of the Ozarks , because of tax breaks offered by the State of Georgia . The film crew constructed a set in Georgia after extensively studying the Alhonna Resort property . Some scenes are filmed at Chicago locations . Only a few scenes from the pilot were shot in the actual city of Lake Ozark , Missouri , which include shots of the locally famous `` Welcome To Lake Of the Ozarks '' sign and the `` Injun Joe Muffler Man '' statue . The series was renewed for a 10 - episode second season on August 15 , 2017 . Episodes ( edit ) No . Title Directed by Written by Original release date `` Sugarwood '' Jason Bateman Story by : Bill Dubuque & Mark Williams Teleplay by : Bill Dubuque July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) After his business partner cheats a dangerous client , financial adviser Marty must devise a radical plan to save his and his family 's lives . `` Blue Cat '' Jason Bateman Story by : Bill Dubuque & Mark Williams Teleplay by : Bill Dubuque July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) In the Ozarks , Marty struggles to find a local business he can use for money laundering , while his kids make new friends but neglect a crucial duty . `` My Dripping Sleep '' Daniel Sackheim Ryan Farley July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) Marty finds a way to control Ruth . Wendy worms her way into a job . FBI Agent Evans confronts Marty & Wendy . Looking for another business to invest in , Marty digs for info on the strip bar . Ruth reveals her big picture plans to her family . Marty has the song `` Still the Same '' stuck in his head . `` Tonight We Improvise '' Daniel Sackheim Paul Kolsby July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) Marty hires Ruth to pull off a heist . Agent Petty forges a relationship with a member of the Langmore family . Jonah exhibits disturbing behavior . Charlotte feels she can not trust her parents . Bobby Dean visits his boss , Jacob Snell , after finding out about Marty 's latest actions . 5 `` Ruling Days '' Andrew Bernstein Martin Zimmerman July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) Marty decides to invest in the religious sector , unaware he will disrupt a discreet business operation . A surprise visitor shows up at the Byrde home . 6 `` Book of Ruth '' Andrew Bernstein Whit Anderson July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) Jacob educates Marty on his business . Ruth devises and sets in motion a deadly plan . Rachel learns Marty is cooking the books at the Blue Cat Lodge . 7 `` Nest Box '' Ellen Kuras Alyson Feltes July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) To stop Jacob from carrying out his threat , Marty makes an offer . Agent Petty gets what he needs to turn Russ . Charlotte grows desperate to escape . 8 `` Kaleidoscope '' Ellen Kuras Ryan Farley July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) In a flashback to 10 years prior , Wendy struggles with depression , Del asks Marty to be his financial adviser , and Agent Petty faces a family crisis . 9 `` Coffee , Black '' Jason Bateman Whit Anderson July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) Russ learns Agent Petty 's true identity and makes plans to murder , steal and flee . Wendy stumbles on an ideal business to add to the Byrde portfolio . 10 `` The Toll '' Jason Bateman Chris Mundy July 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 21 ) During his next sermon , Mason falters . Wendy and the kids plan to flee their home . Marty brokers a deal between Jacob and Del . Critical reception ( edit ) Ozark has received positive reviews , particularly for Bateman 's non-comedic performance . On Metacritic , the series has a score of 67 out of 100 based on 28 reviews , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . On Rotten Tomatoes , it has a 64 % approval rating with an average score of 6.81 out of 10 based on 53 reviews . The site 's critical consensus reads , `` Ozark has n't yet reached the same level as the classic crime dramas to which it will inevitably be compared , but its satisfyingly complex plot -- and a gripping performance from Jason Bateman -- suggest greater potential . '' Brian Lowry of CNN wrote , `` While the fish - out - of - water concept is one of TV 's oldest , Ozark carves out its own path with clever twists -- including a late - in - the - run flashback explaining how the cartel came into his life -- and the sheer strength of the performances . '' TV critic Sonia Saraiya of Variety wrote that Ozark is `` smart , well - crafted , and says something , '' and that the series `` comes together under Bateman 's disarming and deceptively complex performance as Marty . '' Tim Dowling of The Guardian wrote `` Laura Linney is , as ever , magnificent '' . Critics compared Ozark positively to Breaking Bad , both of which involve a seemingly normal protagonist suddenly immersed in a world of crime . According to Film Daily , `` Once you get past the surface similarities , Ozark shines as something special and inventive , an intense crime opera where the scenery is as much the star as anyone in the cast . '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Johnson , Julie ( March 2 , 2016 ) . `` New Netflix Series ' Ozark ' Starring Jason Bateman Slated to Debut in 2017 '' . Inquisitr . Retrieved March 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( February 25 , 2016 ) . `` Netflix Picks Up Jason Bateman 's Drama Series ' Ozark ' From MRC '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved February 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Netflix Lands Jason Bateman Drama ' Ozark ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . February 25 , 2016 . Retrieved February 25 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Jason Bateman 's New Series Goes To Netflix , Will Be Dark Dangerous Drama '' . Slashfilm . February 25 , 2016 . Retrieved February 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Netflix Lands Jason Bateman Drama ' Ozark ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . February 25 , 2016 . Retrieved February 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ozark trailer : Exclusive look at Netflix 's gritty , dark new drug trade drama '' . The Independent . May 25 , 2017 . Retrieved May 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Petski , Denise ( July 27 , 2016 ) . `` Laura Linney To Star In Jason Bateman 's Netflix Drama Series ' Ozark'Ozark '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved July 27 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Roshanian , Arya ( October 25 , 2016 ) . `` Netflix Drama ' Ozark ' Adds Julia Garner Opposite Jason Bateman and Laura Linney '' . Variety . Retrieved October 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ozark trailer : Exclusive look at Netflix 's gritty , dark new drug trade drama '' . The Independent . May 25 , 2017 . Retrieved May 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Goldberg , Lesley ( August 15 , 2017 ) . `` ' Ozark ' Renewed for Season 2 at Netflix '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Keegan , Harrison ( July 1 , 2016 ) . `` Fame anticipated as Jason Bateman 's Netflix series explores Lake of the Ozarks '' . Springfield News - Leader . Retrieved May 1 , 2017 . Some Hollywood types , including Bateman , have been visiting Alhonna -- as well as area restaurants , attractions and police officials -- this spring and summer scouting locations , taking photos and measuring dimensions . Jump up ^ Watson , Nick ( October 15 , 2016 ) . `` Coming Netflix series to shoot scene at Flowery Branch restaurant '' . The Gainesville Times . Georgia ( U.S. state ) . Retrieved May 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Coyne , Amanda C. ( February 2 , 2017 ) . `` Jason Bateman Netflix series filming in Gwinnett County '' . The Atlanta Journal - Constitution . Retrieved May 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Metz , Nina ( August 19 , 2016 ) . `` Netflix series ' Ozark ' to film a few days next week in Chicago '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved May 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ozark -- Season 1 Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ozark : Season 1 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lowry , Brian ( July 20 , 2017 ) . `` Jason Bateman shines in Netflix 's grim ' Ozark ' '' . CNN . Retrieved July 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Saraiya , Sonia ( July 12 , 2017 ) . `` TV Review : Netflix 's ' Ozark , ' Starring Jason Bateman and Laura Linney '' . Variety . Retrieved July 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Nature is the true star of Netflix 's impressive Ozark '' . Film Daily . July 19 , 2017 . Retrieved July 21 , 2017 . 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( 2018 ) Spy Kids : Mission Critical ( 2018 ) The Ballad of Buster Scruggs ( 2018 ) The Legend of Monkey ( 2018 ) Lost Song ( 2018 ) Carmen Sandiego ( 2019 ) Altered Carbon ( TBA ) Black Earth Rising ( TBA ) Collateral ( TBA ) Raising Dion ( TBA ) Ratched ( TBA ) Requiem ( TBA ) Seven Seconds ( TBA ) The Dark Crystal : Age of Resistance ( TBA ) The Eddy ( TBA ) The Good Cop ( TBA ) The Green Beret 's Guide to Surviving the Apocalypse ( TBA ) The Kominsky Method ( TBA ) The Letdown ( TBA ) The Spy ( TBA ) Troy : Fall of a City ( TBA ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ozark_(TV_series)&oldid=804175461 '' Categories : American drama television series English - language television programs Netflix original programming American crime drama television series Serial drama television series 2017 American television series debuts Television shows set in Missouri Television series by Media Rights Capital Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from July 2017 Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Norsk Polski Português Русский Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 October 2017 , at 07 : 34 . 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where do the clicks in south african languages come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Xhosa_language&oldid=838707580

Xhosa language - wikipedia Xhosa language Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Xhosa isiXhosa Native to South Africa , Zimbabwe , Lesotho Region Eastern Cape , Western Cape , KwaZulu - Natal , Northern Cape , Free State Ethnicity Xhosa people Native speakers 8.2 million ( 2011 census ) 11 million L2 speakers ( 2002 ) Language family Niger -- Congo Atlantic -- Congo Benue -- Congo Southern Bantoid Bantu Southern Bantu Nguni Zunda Xhosa Writing system Latin ( Xhosa alphabet ) Xhosa Braille Signed forms Signed Xhosa Official status Official language in South Africa Zimbabwe Language codes ISO 639 - 1 xh ISO 639 - 2 xho ISO 639 - 3 xho Glottolog xhos1239 Guthrie code S. 41 Linguasphere 99 - AUT - fa incl . varieties 99 - AUT - faa to 99 - AUT - faj + 99 - AUT - fb ( isiHlubi ) Proportion of the South African population that speaks Xhosa at home 0 -- 20 % 20 -- 40 % 40 -- 60 % 60 -- 80 % 80 -- 100 % This article contains IPA phonetic symbols . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks , boxes , or other symbols instead of Unicode characters . For an introductory guide on IPA symbols , see Help : IPA . The Xhosa language Person umXhosa People amaXhosa Language isiXhosa Country kwaXhosa Xhosa ( English : / ˈkɔːsə / or / ˈkoʊsə / ; Xhosa : isiXhosa ( isikǁhɔ́ːsa ) ) is a Nguni Bantu language with click consonants ( `` Xhosa '' begins with a click ) and one of the official languages of South Africa . Although not widely spoken there , it is also an official language of Zimbabwe . `` Xhosa is spoken as a first language by 8.2 million people and by 11 million as a second language in South Africa , mostly in Eastern Cape Province . Total number of users in all countries is 19.2 million ( Ethnologue ) '' . Like most other Bantu languages , Xhosa is a tonal language ; the same sequence of consonants and vowels can have different meanings , depending on intonation . Xhosa has two tones : high and low . Xhosa is written with the Latin alphabet . Three letters are used to indicate the basic clicks : c for dental clicks , x for lateral clicks and q for post-alveolar clicks ( for a more detailed explanation , see the table of consonant phonemes below ) . Tones are not normally indicated in writing . Contents ( hide ) 1 Classification 2 Geographical distribution 3 Dialects 4 Phonology 4.1 Vowels 4.2 Tones 4.3 Consonants 4.3. 1 Consonant changes with prenasalisation 5 Morphology 5.1 Examples 6 History 7 Role in modern society 7.1 Anthem 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Classification ( edit ) Main article : Xhosa calendar Xhosa is part of the branch of Nguni languages , known as Zunda languages , which also include Zulu , Southern Ndebele and Northern Ndebele . Zunda languages effectively form a dialect continuum of variously mutually intelligible varieties . Xhosa is also mutually intelligible with other Nguni languages to a lesser extent . Nguni languages are , in turn , part of the much larger group of Bantu languages . Geographical distribution ( edit ) Geographical distribution of the Xhosa in South Africa : density of Xhosa home - language speakers . < 1 / km2 1 -- 3 / km2 3 -- 10 / km2 10 -- 30 / km2 30 -- 100 / km2 100 -- 300 / km2 300 -- 1000 / km2 1000 -- 3000 / km2 > 3000 / km2 Trilingual government building sign in Afrikaans , English and Xhosa Sign outside the AmaZink township theatre restaurant in Kayamandi welcoming visitors in Xhosa Xhosa is the most widely distributed African language in South Africa , though the most widely spoken African language is Zulu . It is the second most common home language in South Africa as a whole . As of 2003 approximately 5.3 million Xhosa - speakers , the majority , live in the Eastern Cape , followed by the Western Cape ( approximately 2 million ) , Gauteng ( 671,045 ) , the Free State ( 246,192 ) , KwaZulu - Natal ( 219,826 ) , North West ( 214,461 ) , Mpumalanga ( 46,553 ) , the Northern Cape ( 51,228 ) , and Limpopo ( 14,225 ) . There is a small but significant Xhosa community of about 200,000 in Zimbabwe . Also , a small community of Xhosa speakers ( 18,000 ) live in Quthing District , Lesotho . Dialects ( edit ) Xhosa has several dialects . Maho ( 2009 ) lists Mpondo ( Pondo ) , Xesibe , Bomvana , Gaika ( Ngqika ) , Gcaleka , Thembu , Mpondomise , Ndlambe , and Hlubi . Hlubi is the dialect in the former Ciskei ; there is the more distinct Hlubi language further north , where Xhosa meets SeSotho . Phonology ( edit ) Spoken Xhosa Vowels ( edit ) Xhosa has an inventory of ten vowels : ( a ) , ( ɛ ~ e ) , ( i ) , ( ɔ ~ o ) and ( u ) written as a , e , i , o and u in order , all occurring in both long and short . Xhosa vowel phonemes Front Back short long short long Close i ( i ) iː ( ii ) u ( u ) uː ( uu ) Mid ɛ ( e ) eː ( ee ) ɔ ( o ) oː ( oo ) Open a ( a ) aː ( aa ) Tones ( edit ) Xhosa is a tonal language with two inherent , phonemic tones : low and high . Tones are rarely marked in the written language , but they can be indicated a ( à ) , á ( á ) , â ( áà ) , ä ( àá ) . Long vowels are phonemic but are usually not written except for â and ä , which are the results of gemination of two vowels , both with different tones ; they have thus become long vowels with contour tones ( â high - low = falling , ä low - high = rising ) . Consonants ( edit ) Xhosa is rich in uncommon consonants . Besides pulmonic egressive sounds , which are found in all spoken languages , it has 18 clicks ( in comparison , Juǀ'hoan , spoken by roughly 10,000 people in Botswana and Namibia , has 48 clicks , and Taa , with roughly 4,000 speakers in Botswana , has 83 click sounds , the largest consonant inventory of any known language ) . Also , Xhosa has ejectives and an implosive . Although 15 of the clicks also occur in Zulu , they are used less frequently than in Xhosa . The first six are dental clicks ( represented by the letter `` c '' ) , made with the tongue on the back of the teeth , and they are similar to the sound represented in English by `` tut - tut '' or `` tsk - tsk '' to reprimand someone . The next six are lateral ( represented by the letter `` x '' ) , made by the tongue at the sides of the mouth , and they are similar to the sound used to call horses . The last six are alveolar ( represented by the letter `` q '' ) , made with the tip of the tongue at the roof of the mouth , and they sound somewhat like a cork pulled from a bottle . The following table lists the consonant phonemes of the language , with the pronunciation in IPA on the left and the orthography on the right : Labial Dental / Alveolar Postalveolar Velar Glottal central lateral Click tenuis / ejective ( kǀʼ ) c ( kǁʼ ) x ( kǃʼ ) q aspirated ( kǀh ) ch ( kǁh ) xh ( kǃh ) qh slack voice ( ɡ̊ǀɦ ) gc ( ɡ̊ǁɦ ) gx ( ɡ̊ǃɦ ) gq nasal ( ŋǀ ) nc ( ŋǁ ) nx ( ŋǃ ) nq slack - voice nasal ( ŋǀɦ ) ngc ( ŋǁɦ ) ngx ( ŋǃɦ ) ngq glottalised nasal ( ŋǀˀ ) nkc ( ŋǁˀ ) nkx ( ŋǃˀ ) nkq Plosive tenuis / ejective ( pʼ ) p ( tʼ ) t ( t̠jʼ ) ty ( kʼ ) k aspirated ( ph ) ph ( th ) th ( t̠jh ) tyh ( kh ) kh slack voice ( b̥ɦ ) bh ( d̥ɦ ) d ( d̠̥jɦ ) dy ( ɡ̊ɦ ) g implosive ( ɓ ) b Affricate ejective ( tsʼ ) ts ( t̠ʃʼ ) tsh ( kxʼ ) kr aspirated ( tsh ) ths ( t̠ʃh ) thsh slack voice ( d̥zɦ ) dz ( d̠̥ʒɦ ) j Fricative voiceless ( f ) f ( s ) s ( ɬ ) hl ( ʃ ) sh ( x ) rh ( h ) h slack voice ( v̤ ) v ( z̤ ) z ( ɮ̈ ) dl ( ʒ̈ ) zh ( ɣ̈ ) gr ( ɦ ) hh Nasal fully voiced ( m ) m ( n ) n ( n̠j ) ny ( ŋ ) ng ' slack voice ( m̤ ) mh ( n̤ ) nh ( n̤j ) nyh ( ŋ̈ ) ngh Approximant fully voiced ( l ) l ( j ) y ( w ) w slack voice ( l̤ ) lh ( j̈ ) yh ( w̤ ) wh Trill fully voiced ( r ) r breathy voiced ( r̤ ) r Two additional consonants , ( r ) and ( r̤ ) , are found in borrowings . Both are spelled r . Two additional consonants , ( ʒ ) and ( ʒ̈ ) , are found in borrowings . Both are spelled zh . Two additional consonants , ( dz ) and ( dz̤ ) , are found in loans . Both are spelled dz . An additional consonant , ( ŋ̈ ) is found in loans . It is spelled ngh . In addition to the ejective affricate ( tʃʼ ) , the spelling tsh may also be used for either of the aspirated affricates ( tsh ) and ( tʃh ) . The breathy voiced glottal fricative ( ɦ ) is sometimes spelled h . The ejectives tend to be elective only in careful pronunciation or in salient positions and , even then , only for some speakers . Otherwise , they tend to be tenuis ( plain ) stops . Similarly , the tenuis ( plain ) clicks are often glottalised , with a long voice onset time , but that is uncommon . The murmured clicks , plosives and affricates are only partially voiced , with the following vowel murmured for some speakers . That is , da may be pronounced ( dɦa̤ ) ( or , equivalently , ( d̥a̤ ) ) . They are better described as slack voiced than as breathy voiced . They are truly voiced only after nasals , but the oral occlusion is then very short in stops , and it usually does not occur at all in clicks . Therefore , the absolute duration of voicing is the same as in tenuis stops . ( They may also be voiced between vowels in some speaking styles . ) The more notable characteristic is their depressor effect on the tone of the syllable . Consonant changes with prenasalisation ( edit ) Main article : Fortition When consonants are prenasalised , their pronunciation and spelling may change . The murmur no longer shifts to the following vowel . Fricatives become africated and , if voiceless , they become ejectives as well , at least with some speakers : mf is pronounced ( ɱp̪fʼ ) , ndl is pronounced ( ndɮ ) , n + hl becomes ntl ( ntɬʼ ) , n + z becomes ndz ( ndz ) , etc . The orthographic b in mb is the voiced plosive ( mb ) . When voiceless clicks ( c , x , q ) are prenasalised , the silent letter k is added ( kc , nkx , nkq ) to prevent confusion with the nasal clicks nc , nx , nq . Morphology ( edit ) In keeping with many other Southern Bantu languages , Xhosa is an agglutinative language , with an array of prefixes and suffixes that are attached to root words . Like in other Bantu languages , nouns in Xhosa are classified into morphological classes , or genders ( 15 in Xhosa ) , with different prefixes for both singular and plural . Various parts of speech that qualify a noun must agree with the noun according to its gender . Agreements usually reflect part of the original class with which the word agrees . The word order is subject -- verb -- object , like in English . The verb is modified by affixes to mark subject , object , tense , aspect and mood . The various parts of the sentence must agree in both class and number . Examples ( edit ) ukudlala -- to play ukubona -- to see umntwana -- a child abantwana -- children umntwana uyadlala -- the child is playing abantwana bayadlala -- the children are playing indoda -- a man amadoda -- men indoda iyambona umntwana -- the man sees the child amadoda ayababona abantwana -- the men see the children History ( edit ) Henry Hare Dugmore , an Englishman who became fluent in Xhosa , jointly produced the first translation of the Bible into the language in 1859 Nelson Mandela was a famous Xhosa man . Xhosa - speaking people have inhabited coastal regions of southeastern Africa since before the 16th century . They refer to themselves as the amaXhosa and their language as Xhosa . AmaXhosa migrated to the east coast of Africa and came across Khoisan - speaking people which `` as a result of this contact , the Xhosa people borrowed some Khoisan words along with their pronunciation , for instance , the click sounds of the Khoisan languages '' . The Bantu ancestor of Xhosa did not have clicks , which attest to a strong historical contact with a San language that did . An estimated 15 % of Xhosa vocabulary is of San origin . In the modern period , it has also borrowed , slightly , from both Afrikaans and English . Role in modern society ( edit ) The role of indigenous languages in South Africa is complex and ambiguous . Their use in education has been governed by legislation , beginning with the Bantu Education Act , 1953 . At present , Xhosa is used as the main language of instruction in many primary schools and some secondary schools , but is largely replaced by English after the early primary grades , even in schools mainly serving Xhosa - speaking communities . The language is also studied as a subject . The language of instruction at universities in South Africa is English or Afrikaans , and Xhosa is taught as a subject , both for native and for non-native speakers . Literary works , including prose and poetry , are available in Xhosa , as are newspapers and magazines . The first printed word in Xhosa came out in 1823 from the Lovedale Press in the Alice region of the Eastern Cape . But , as with any language , Xhosa had a rich history of oral traditions from which the society taught , informed , and entertained one another . The first Bible translation was in 1859 , produced in part by Henry Hare Dugmore . The South African Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts in Xhosa on both radio ( on Umhlobo Wenene FM ) and television , and films , plays and music are also produced in the language . The best - known performer of Xhosa songs outside South Africa was Miriam Makeba , whose Click Song # 1 ( Xhosa Qongqothwane ) and `` Click Song # 2 '' ( Baxabene Ooxam ) are known for their large number of click sounds . In 1996 , the literacy rate for first - language Xhosa speakers was estimated at 50 % . Anthem ( edit ) Nkosi Sikelel ' iAfrika is part of the national anthem of South Africa , national anthem of Tanzania and Zambia , and the former anthem of Zimbabwe and Namibia . It is a Methodist hymn written in Xhosa by Enoch Sontonga in 1897 . The original stanza was : Nkosi , sikelel ' iAfrika ; Maluphakamis ' uphondo lwayo ; Yiva imithandazo yethu Nkosi sikelela , thina lusapho lwayo . Lord , bless Africa ; May her horn rise high up ; Hear Thou our prayers Lord , bless us , your family . Additional stanzas were written later by Sontonga and other writers , with the original verse translated into Sotho and Afrikaans , as well as English . See also ( edit ) South Africa portal Lesotho portal Languages portal Xhosa calendar Henry Hare Dugmore , the first translator of the Scriptures into Xhosa U-Carmen eKhayelitsha , a 2005 Xhosa film adaptation of Bizet 's Carmen UCLA Language Materials Project , an online project for teaching languages , including Xhosa . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Xhosa at Ethnologue ( 18th ed. , 2015 ) Jump up ^ Webb , Vic. 2002 . `` Language in South Africa : the role of language in national transformation , reconstruction and development . '' Impact : Studies in language and society , 14 : 78 Jump up ^ Aarons & Reynolds , 2003 , `` South African Sign Language '' , in Monaghan , ed. , Many Ways to be Deaf : International Variation in Deaf Communities Jump up ^ Hammarström , Harald ; Forkel , Robert ; Haspelmath , Martin , eds. ( 2017 ) . `` Xhosa '' . Glottolog 3.0 . Jena , Germany : Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History . ^ Jump up to : Jouni Filip Maho , 2009 . New Updated Guthrie List Online Jump up ^ `` Xhosa -- Definition and pronunciation '' . Oxford Learner 's Dictionaries . Oxford University Press . Retrieved 16 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Xhosa -- pronunciation of Xhosa '' . Macmillan Dictionary . Macmillan Publishers Limited . Retrieved 16 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Laurie Bauer , 2007 , The Linguistics Student 's Handbook , Edinburgh ^ Jump up to : `` Xhosa alphabet , pronunciation and language '' . www.omniglot.com . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ The following languages , namely Chewa , Chibarwe , English , Kalanga , Koisan , Nambya , Ndau , Ndebele , Shangani , Shona , sign language , Sotho , Tonga , Tswana , Venda , and Xhosa are the officially recognised languages of Zimbabwe. l ( CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBABWE ( final draft ) Archived 2013 - 10 - 02 at the Wayback Machine . ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Xhosa About World Languages '' . aboutworldlanguages.com . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 11 . Jump up ^ Anonymous ( 2011 - 04 - 03 ) . `` Xhosa '' . www.sahistory.org.za . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Xhosa '' . Ethnologue : Languages of the World , Nineteenth edition . SIL International . Retrieved 30 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Xhosa Language Effective Language Learning '' . www.effectivelanguagelearning.com . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ Online Xhosa - English Dictionary Archived 13 April 2004 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : UCLA Xhosa Language Materials Project Jump up ^ South Africa Population grows to 44.8 Million . Archived 22 May 2005 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Hlenze Welsh Kunju , 2017 Isixhosa Ulwimi Lwabantu Abangesosininzi eZimbabwe : Ukuphila Nokulondolozwa Kwaso , PhD Dissertation , Rhodes University ^ Jump up to : Ethnologue report for language code : xho Jump up ^ Jessen , Michael ( 2002 ) . `` An acoustic study of contrasting plosives and click accompaniments in Xhosa . '' Phonetica , 59 : 150 -- 179 . Jump up ^ These are analogous to the slack - voice nasals mh , nh , etc . They are not prenasalized , as can be seen in words such as umngqokolo ( overtone singing ) and umngqusho in which they are preceded by a nasal . Jump up ^ per Derek Nurse , The Bantu Languages , p 616 . Zulu does not have this series . Jump up ^ Michael Jessen ; Justus C. Roux ( 2002 ) . `` Voice quality differences associated with stops and clicks in Xhosa '' . Journal of Phonetics . Elsevier . 30 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 52 . doi : 10.1006 / jpho. 2001.0150 . External links ( edit ) Xhosa edition of Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia Look up Xhosa in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Xhosa phrasebook . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xhosa language . Xhosa language profile ( at UCLA Language Materials Project ) PanAfrican L10n page on Xhosa Learn Xhosa Xhosa basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database Paradisec has a collections of Arthur Capell 's materials ( AC1 ) , which include Xhosa language materials Languages of Lesotho Official languages English Sesotho ( national language ) Non-official languages Phuthi Xhosa Zulu Languages of South Africa Pan South African Language Board Commission for Cultural , Religious and Linguistic Community Rights Department of Arts and Culture Official West Germanic Afrikaans English Southern Bantu Sotho - Tswana Northern Sotho ( Sesotho sa Leboa ) Southern Sotho ( Sesotho ) Tswana ( Setswana ) Nguni Southern Ndebele ( isiNdebele ) Swazi ( siSwati ) Xhosa ( isiXhosa ) Zulu ( isiZulu ) Tswa - Ronga Tsonga ( Xitsonga ) Venda Venda ( Tshivenḓa ) Recognised unofficial languages mentioned in the 1996 constitution Indigenous Bhaca Khoi Lala Lozi Nama Nhlangwini Northern Ndebele Phuthi San Tuu Foreign German Greek Gujarati Hindi Portuguese Malay ( historical ) Tamil Telugu Urdu Religious Arabic Hebrew Sanskrit Other LGBT slang Gayle IsiNgqumo Other Tsotsitaal and Camtho Oorlams Creole Fanagalo Pretoria Sotho Scamto SA Sign Language Languages of Zimbabwe Official languages Chewa Chibarwe English Kalanga Koisan Nambya Ndau Ndebele Shona Sotho Tonga Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa Zimbabwe Sign Unofficial languages Dombe Fanagalo Kunda Lozi Manyika Ndau Tsoa Tswa Narrow Bantu languages ( by Guthrie classification ) Zones A -- B Zone A A10 A11 ( 101 ) Londo A12 ( 101 ) Barue A13 Balong A14 Bonkeng A15 Mbo ( A141 Bafo A151 Nkongho ) A20 A21 Bomboko A22 Baakpe A23 Su A24 Duala A25 Oli A26 Pongo A27 Mulimba ( A221 Bubia A231 Kole ) A30 A31a North Bobe A31b Southwest Bobe A31c Southeast Bobe A32a Banoo A32b Bapoko A33a Yasa A33b Kombe A34 Benga A40 A41 Lombi A42 Bankon A43a Mbene A43b North Kogo A43c South Kogo A44 Banen A45 Nyokon A46 Mandi ( A441 Aling'a A461 Bonek A462 Yambeta A50 A51 Fa ' A52 Kaalong A53 Kpa A54 Ngayaba ( A501 Hijuk ) A60 A61 ( 601 ) Ngoro A62 Yambasa A63 Mangisa A64 ( 601 ) Bacenga A65 Bati ( A621 Baca A622 Gunu A623 Mbule ) A70 A71 Eton A72a Ewondo A72b Mvele A72c Bakja A72d Yangafek A73a Bëbëlë A73b Gbïgbïl A74 Bulu A75 Fang ( A751 South - West Fang ) A80 A81 Mvumbo A82 So A83 Makaa A84 Njem A85a Konabem A85b Bekwil A86a Medjime A86b Mpompo A86c Mpiemo A87 Bomwali ( A801 Gyele A802 Ukwedjo A803 Shiwe A831 Byep A832 Bekol A841 Bajue A842 Koonzime ) A90 A91 Kwakum A92a Pol A92b Pomo A93 Kako Zone B B10 B11a Mpongwe B11b Rongo B11c Galwa B11d Dyumba B11e Nkomi B20 B21 Sekiyani B22a West Kele B22b Ngom B22c Bubi B23 Mbangwe B24 Wumbvu B25 Kota ( B201 Ndasa B202 Sighu B203 Sama B204 Ndambomo B205 Metombola B221 Molengue B251 Shake B252 Mahongwe ) B30 B31 Tsogo B32 Kande ( B301 Viya B302 Himbaka B303 Bongwe B304 Pinzi B305 Vove ) B40 B41 Sira B42 Sangu B43 Punu B44 Lumbu ( B401 Bwisi B402 Varama B403 Vungu B404 Ngubi B411 Bwali ) B50 B51 Duma B52 Nzebi B53 Tsaangi ( B501 Wanzi B502 Mwele B503 Vili ) B60 B61 Mbete B62 Mbaama B63 Nduumo ( B602 Kaning'i B603 Yangho ) B70 B71a Tege - Kali B71b Njiningi B72a Ngungwele B72b Mpumpu B73a Tsaayi B73b Laali B73c Yaa B73d Kwe B74a Ndzindziu B74b Boma B75 Bali B76a Musieno B76b Ngee B77a Kukwa B77b Fumu B78 Wuumu ( B701 Tsitsege ) B80 B81 Tiene B82 Boma B83 Mfinu B84a ( 84 ) Mpuon B84b ( 84 ) Mpuun B85a Mbiem B85b East Yans B85c Yeei B85d Ntsuo B85e Mpur B86 Di B87 ( 84 ) Mbuun ( B821 Mpe B822 Nunu B861 Ngul ( Ngwi ) B862 Lwel B863 Mpiin B864 West Ngongo B865 Nzadi ) Zones C -- D Zone C C10 C11 Ngondi C12a Pande C12b Bogongo C13 Mbati C14 Mbomotaba C15 Bongili C16 Lobala ( C101 Dibole C102 Ngando C103 Kota C104 Yaka C105 Mbenga C141 Enyele C142 Bondongo C143 Mbonzo C161 Bomboli C162 Bozaba ) C20 C21 Mboko C22 Akwa C23 ( 21 ) Ngare C24 Koyo C25 Mbosi C26 Kwala C27 Kuba ( C201 Bwenyi ) C30 C31a Loi C31b Ngiri C31c Nunu C32 Bobangi C33 Sengele C34 Sakata C35a Ntomba C35b Bolia C36a Poto C36b Mpesa C36c Mbudza C36d Mangala C36e Boloki C36f Kangana C36g Ndolo C37 Buja ( C301 Doko C302 Bolondo C311 Mabaale C312 Ndoobo C313 Litoka C314 Balobo C315 Enga C321 Binza C322 Dzamba C323 Mpama C371 Tembo C372 Kunda C373 Gbuta C374 Babale ) C40 C41 Ngombe C42 Bwela C43 Bati C44 Boa C45 Angba ( C401 Pagibete C403 Kango C411 Bomboma C412 Bamwe C413 Dzando C414 Ligendza C415 Likula C441 Bango ) C50 C51 Mbesa C52 So C53 Poke C54 Lombo C55 Kele C56 Foma ( C501 Likile C502 Linga ) C60 C61a Northeast Mongo C61b Northwest Mongo C62 Lalia ( C63 Ngando C611 Bafoto ) C70 C71 Tetela C72 Kusu C73 Nkutu C74 Yela C75 Kela C76 Ombo ( C701 Langa ) C80 C81 Dengese C82 Songomeno C83 Busoong C84 Lele C85 Wongo Zone D D10 D11 Mbole D12 Lengola D13 Metoko D14 Enya ( D141 Zura ) D20 D21 Bali D22 Amba D23 Komo D24 Songola D25 Lega D26 Zimba D27 Bangubangu D28a West Holoholo D28b East Holoholo ( D201 Liko D211 Kango D251 Lega - Malinga D281 Tumbwe D282 Lumbwe ) D30 D31 Peri D32 Bira D33 Nyali ( D301 Kari D302 Guru D303 Ngbinda D304 Homa D305 Nyanga - li D306 Gbati - ri D307 Mayeka D308 Bodo D311 Bila D312 Kaiku D313 Ibutu D331 Bvanuma D332 Budu D333 Ndaaka D334 Mbo D335 Beeke D336 Ngbee ) ( J ) D40 ( J ) D41 Konzo ( J ) D42 Ndandi ( J ) D43 Nyanga ( J ) D50 ( J ) D51 Hunde ( J ) D52 Haavu ( J ) D53 Nyabungu ( J ) D54 Bembe ( J ) D55 Buyi ( J ) D56 Kabwari ( JD501 Nyindu ( J ) JD502 Yaka ( J ) JD531 Tembo ) ( J ) D60 ( J ) D61 Ruanda ( J ) D62 Rundi ( J ) D63 Fuliiro ( J ) D64 Subi ( J ) D65 Hangaza ( J ) D66 Ha ( J ) D67 Vinza ( JD631 Vira ) Zones E -- H Zone E ( J ) E10 ( J ) E11 Nyoro ( J ) E12 Tooro ( J ) E13 Nyankore ( J ) E14 Ciga ( J ) E15 Ganda ( J ) E16 Soga ( J ) E17 Gwere ( J ) E18 Nyala ( JE101 Gungu JE102 Talinga - Bwisi JE103 Ruli JE121 Hema ) ( J ) E20 ( J ) E21 Nyambo ( J ) E22 Ziba ( J ) E23 Dzindza ( J ) E24 Kerebe ( J ) E25 Jita ( JE221 Rashi JE251 Kwaya JE252 Kara JE253 Ruri ) ( J ) E30 ( J ) E31a Gisu ( J ) E31b Kisu ( J ) E31c Bukusu ( J ) E32a Hanga ( J ) E32b Tsotso ( J ) E33 Nyore ( J ) E34 Saamia ( J ) E35 Nyuli ( JE341 Xaayo JE342 Marachi JE343 Songa ) ( J ) E40 ( J ) E41 Logooli ( J ) E42 Gusii ( J ) E43 Koria ( J ) E44 Zanaki ( J ) E45 Nata E46 Sonjo ( JE401 Nguruimi JE402 Ikizu JE403 Suba / Suba - Simbiti JE404 Shashi JE405 Kabwa JE406 Singa JE407 Ware JE411 Idaxo JE412 Isuxa JE413 Tiriki JE431 Simbiti JE432 Hacha JE433 Surwa JE434 Sweta ) E50 E51 Kikuyu E52 Embu E53 Meru E54 Saraka E55 Kamba E56 Daiso ( E531 Mwimbi - Muthambi E541 Cuka ) E60 E61 ( 621a ) Rwo E62a ( 621b , 622a ) Hai E62b ( 622c ) Wunjo E62c ( 623 ) Rombo E63 Rusa E64 Kahe E65 Gweno E70 E71 Pokomo E72a Gyriama E72b Kauma E72c Conyi E72d Duruma E72e Rabai E73 Digo E74a Dabida E74b ( 741 ) Sagala ( E701 Elwana E731 Segeju E732 Degere E74 Taita ) Zone F F10 F11 Tongwe F12 Bende ( J ) F20 ( J ) F21 Sukuma ( J ) F22 Nyamwezi ( J ) F23 Sumbwa ( J ) F24 Kimbu ( J ) F25 Bungu F30 F31 Nilamba F32 Remi F33 Langi F34 Mbugwe Zone G G10 G11 Gogo G12 Kaguru G20 G21 ( E74a ) Tubeta G22 Asu G23 Shambala G24 Bondei ( G221 Mbugu ) G30 G31 Zigula G32 Ngwele G33 Zaramo G34 Ngulu G35 Ruguru G36 Kami G37 Kutu G38 Vidunda G39 Sagala ( G301 Doe G311 Mushungulu ) G40 G41 Tikuu G42a Amu G42b Mvita G42c Mrima G42d Unguja G43a Phemba G43b Tumbatu G43c Hadimu G44a Ngazija G44b Njuani ( G402 Makwe G403 Mwani G404 Sidi G411 Socotra Swahili G412 Mwiini ) G50 G51 Pogolo G52 Ndamba G60 G61 Sango G62 Hehe G63 Bena G64 Pangwa G65 Kinga G66 Wanji G67 Kisi ( G651 Magoma ) Zone H H10 H11 Beembe H12 Vili H13 Kunyi H14 Ndingi H15 Mboka H16a South Kongo H16b Central Kongo H16c Yombe H16d Fiote H16e Bwende H16f Laadi H16g East Kongo H16h Southeast Kongo ( H111 Hangala H112 Kamba - Doondo H131 Suundi ) H20 H21a ( North ) Mbundu H21b Mbamba H22 Sama H23 Bolo H24 Songo H30 H31 Yaka H32 Suku H33 ( L12b ) Hungu H34 Mbangala H35 Sinji ( H321 Soonde ) H40 H41 Mbala H42 Hunganna Zones J -- M Zone J * ( J ) D40 ( J ) D41 Konzo ( J ) D42 Ndandi ( J ) D43 Nyanga ( J ) D50 ( J ) D51 Hunde ( J ) D52 Haavu ( J ) D53 Nyabungu ( J ) D54 Bembe ( J ) D55 Buyi ( J ) D56 Kabwari ( JD501 Nyindu ( J ) JD502 Yaka ( J ) JD531 Tembo ) ( J ) D60 ( J ) D61 Ruanda ( J ) D62 Rundi ( J ) D63 Fuliiro ( J ) D64 Subi ( J ) D65 Hangaza ( J ) D66 Ha ( J ) D67 Vinza ( JD631 Vira ) ( J ) E10 ( J ) E11 Nyoro ( J ) E12 Tooro ( J ) E13 Nyankore ( J ) E14 Ciga ( J ) E15 Ganda ( J ) E16 Soga ( J ) E17 Gwere ( J ) E18 Nyala ( JE101 Gungu JE102 Talinga - Bwisi JE103 Ruli JE121 Hema ) ( J ) E20 ( J ) E21 Nyambo ( J ) E22 Ziba ( J ) E23 Dzindza ( J ) E24 Kerebe ( J ) E25 Jita ( JE221 Rashi JE251 Kwaya JE252 Kara JE253 Ruri ) ( J ) E30 ( J ) E31a Gisu ( J ) E31b Kisu ( J ) E31c Bukusu ( J ) E32a Hanga ( J ) E32b Tsotso ( J ) E33 Nyore ( J ) E34 Saamia ( J ) E35 Nyuli ( JE341 Xaayo JE342 Marachi JE343 Songa ) ( J ) E40 ( J ) E41 Logooli ( J ) E42 Gusii ( J ) E43 Koria ( J ) E44 Zanaki ( J ) E45 Nata E46 Sonjo ( JE401 Nguruimi JE402 Ikizu JE403 Suba / Suba - Simbiti JE404 Shashi JE405 Kabwa JE406 Singa JE407 Ware JE411 Idaxo JE412 Isuxa JE413 Tiriki JE431 Simbiti JE432 Hacha JE433 Surwa JE434 Sweta ) ( J ) F20 ( J ) F21 Sukuma ( J ) F22 Nyamwezi ( J ) F23 Sumbwa ( J ) F24 Kimbu ( J ) F25 Bungu Zone K K10 K11 Chokwe K12a Luimbi K12b Nyemba K13 Lucazi K14 Lwena K15 Mbunda K16 Nyengo K17 Mbwela K18 Nkangala K20 K21 Lozi K30 K31 Luyana K32 Mbowe K33 Kwangali K34 Mashi K35 Simaa K36 Sanjo K37 Kwangwa ( K321 Mbume K322 Liyuwa K332 Manyo K333 Mbukushu K334 Mbogedu K351 Mulonga K352 Mwenyi K353 Koma K354 Imilangu K371 Kwandi ) K40 K41 Totela K42 Subiya ( K402 Fwe K411 Totela of Namibia ) Zone L L10 L11 Pende L12 Samba & Holu L13 Kwese ( L101 Sonde ) L20 L21 Kete L22 Binji ( Mbagani ) L23 Songe L24 Luna ( L201 Budya L202 Yazi L221 Lwalwa L231 Binji ) L30 L31a Luba - Kasai L31b Lulua L32 Kanyoka L33 Luba - Katanga L34 Hemba L35 Sanga ( L301 Kebwe L331 Zeela ) L40 L41 Kaonde L50 L51 Salampasu L52 Lunda L53 Ruund ( L511 Luntu ) L60 L61 Mbwera L62 Nkoya ( L601 Kolwe L602 Lushangi L603 Shasha ) Zone M M10 M11 Pimbwe M12 Rungwa M13 Fipa M14 Rungu M15 Mambwe ( M131 Kuulwe ) M20 M21 Wanda M22 Mwanga M23 Nyiha M24 Malila M25 Safwa M26 Iwa M27 Tambo ( M201 Lambya M202 Sukwa ) M30 M31 Nyakyusa ( M301 Ndali M302 Penja ) M40 M41 Taabwa M42 Bemba ( M401 Bwile M402 Aushi ) M50 M51 Biisa M52 Lala M53 Swaka M54 Lamba M55 Seba ( M521 Ambo M522 Luano M541 Lima M542 Temba ) M60 M61 Lenje M62 Soli M63 Ila M64 Tonga ( M611 Lukanga Twa M631 Sala M632 Lundwe M633 Kafue Twa ) Zones N -- S Zone N N10 N11 Manda N12 Ngoni N13 Matengo N14 Mpoto N15 Tonga ( N101 Ndendeule N102 Nindi N121 Ngoni of Malawi ) N20 N21 Tumbuka ( N201 Mwera of Mbamba Bay ) N30 N31a Nyanja N31b Cewa N31c Manganja N40 N41 Nsenga N42 Kunda N43 Nyungwe N44 Sena N45 ( 44 ) Rue N46 ( 44 ) Podzo ( N441 Sena - Malawi ) Zone P P10 P11 Ndengereko P12 Ruihi P13 Matumbi P14 Ngindo P15 Mbunga P20 P21 Yao P22 Mwera P23 Makonde P24 Ndonde P25 Mabiha P30 P31 Makua P32 Lomwe P33 Ngulu P34 Cuabo ( P311 Koti P312 Sakati P331 Lomwe of Malawi P341 Moniga ) Zone R R10 R11 Umbundu R12 Ndombe R13 Nyaneka R14 Khumbi ( R101 Kuvale R102 Kwisi R103 Mbali ) R20 R21 Kwanyama R22 Ndonga R23 Kwambi R24 Ngandyera ( R211 Kafima R212 Evale R213 Mbandja R214 Mbalanhu R215 Ndongwena R216 Kwankwa R217 Dombondola R218 Esinga R241 Kwaluudhi R242 Kolonkadhi - Eunda ) R30 R31 Herero ( R311 North - West Herero R312 Botswana Herero ) R40 R41 Yei Zone S S10 S11 Korekore S12 Zezuru S13a Manyika S13b Tebe S14 Karanga S15 Ndau S16 Kalanga S20 S21 Venda S30 S31a Tswana S31b Kgatla S31c Ngwatu S31d ( 311 ) Khalaxadi S32a Pedi S32b Lobedu S33 Sotho ( S301 Phalaborwa S302 Kutswe S303 Pai S304 Pulana ) S40 S41 Xhosa S42 Zulu S43 Swati S44 ( Northern ) Ndebele ( S401 Old Mfengu S402 Bhaca S403 Hlubi S404 Phuthi S405 Nhlangwini S406 Lala S407 South Ndebele S408 Sumayela Ndebele ) S50 S51 Tswa S52 ( 53 ) Gwamba S53 Tsonga S54 Ronga ( S511 Hlengwe ) S60 S61 Copi S62 Tonga ( S611 Lenge ) Note : The Guthrie classification is geographic and its groupings do not imply a relationship between the languages within them . 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when was the trade embargo placed on cuba

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=United_States_embargo_against_Cuba&oldid=800332980

United States embargo against Cuba - wikipedia United States embargo against Cuba Jump to : navigation , search `` Cuban blockade '' redirects here . For the 1962 weaponry blockade , see Cuban Missile Crisis § Quarantine . John F. Kennedy and Fidel Castro The United States embargo against Cuba ( in Cuba called el bloqueo , `` the blockade '' ) is a commercial , economic , and financial embargo imposed by the United States on Cuba . An embargo was first imposed by the United States on sale of arms to Cuba on March 14 , 1958 , during the Fulgencio Batista regime . Again on October 19 , 1960 ( almost two years after the Batista regime was deposed by the Cuban Revolution ) the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized American - owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation . On February 7 , 1962 the embargo was extended to include almost all imports . Currently , the Cuban embargo is enforced mainly through six statutes : the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 , the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 , the Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963 , the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 , the Helms -- Burton Act of 1996 , and the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000 . The stated purpose of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 is to maintain sanctions on Cuba so long as the Cuban government refuses to move toward `` democratization and greater respect for human rights '' . The Helms -- Burton Act further restricted United States citizens from doing business in or with Cuba , and mandated restrictions on giving public or private assistance to any successor government in Havana unless and until certain claims against the Cuban government were met . In 1999 , President Bill Clinton expanded the trade embargo by also disallowing foreign subsidiaries of U.S. companies to trade with Cuba . In 2000 , Clinton authorized the sale of `` humanitarian '' U.S. products to Cuba . Despite the Spanish - language term bloqueo ( blockade ) , there has been no physical , naval blockade of the country by the United States after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 . The United States does not block Cuba 's trade with third parties : other countries are not under the jurisdiction of U.S. domestic laws , such as the Cuban Democracy Act ( although , in theory , foreign countries that trade with Cuba could be penalised by the U.S. , which has been condemned as an `` extraterritorial '' measure that contravenes `` the sovereign equality of States , non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs . '' ) . Cuba can , and does , conduct international trade with many third - party countries ; Cuba has been a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) since 1995 . Beyond criticisms of Human rights in Cuba , the United States holds $6 billion worth of financial claims against the Cuban government . The pro-embargo position is that the U.S. embargo is , in part , an appropriate response to these unaddressed claims . The Latin America Working Group argues that pro-embargo Cuban - American exiles , whose votes are crucial in Florida , have swayed many politicians to also adopt similar views . The Cuban - American views have been opposed by some business leaders who argue that trading freely would be good for Cuba and the United States . At present , the embargo , which limits American businesses from conducting business with Cuban interests , is still in effect and is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history . Despite the existence of the embargo , the United States is the fifth largest exporter to Cuba ( 6.6 % of Cuba 's imports are from the US ) . Cuba must , however , pay cash for all imports , as credit is not allowed . The UN General Assembly has , since 1992 , passed a resolution every year condemning the ongoing impact of the embargo and declaring it to be in violation of the Charter of the United Nations and international law . In 2014 , out of the 193 - nation assembly , 188 countries voted for the nonbinding resolution , the United States and Israel voted against and the Pacific island nations Palau , Marshall Islands and Micronesia abstained . Human rights groups including Amnesty International , Human Rights Watch , and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have also been critical of the embargo . Critics of the embargo say that the embargo laws are too harsh , citing the fact that violations can result in up to 10 years in prison . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Eisenhower era 1.2 Kennedy era 1.2. 1 The Bay of Pigs invasion and Cuba 's declaration of Marxism 1.2. 2 The Cuban Missile Crisis 1.3 Temporary lapse of restrictions , and reinstatement 1.4 Helms -- Burton Act 2 Details of Cuban embargo 2.1 Impacts of the embargo 2.2 Economic impacts of the embargo 2.3 Restrictions on tourism by U.S. citizens and residents 3 Easing the embargo 3.1 Cuban - Americans 3.2 General changes 3.3 Investment in Cuba by Americans 4 Socio - economic effects of the embargo 5 Criticism of embargo laws and rules 6 2010 Bill to end the travel ban 7 Reestablishment of diplomatic relations 8 Polling data and public opinion 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History ( edit ) Eisenhower era ( edit ) Fidel Castro at a meeting of the United Nations General Assembly The United States imposed an arms embargo on Cuba on March 14 , 1958 during the armed conflict between rebels led by Fidel Castro and the Fulgencio Batista regime . The armed conflict violated U.S. policy which had permitted the sale of weapons to Latin - American countries that were a part of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance ( Rio Treaty ) as long as they were not used for hostile purposes . The arms embargo had more of an impact on Batista than the rebels . After the Castro socialist government came to power on January 1 , 1959 , Castro made overtures to the United States , but was rebuffed by the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration , which by March began making plans to help overthrow him . Congress does not want to lift the embargo . In May 1960 , the Cuban government began to openly purchase regular armaments from the Soviet Union , citing the US arms embargo . In July 1960 , the United States reduced the Cuban import quota of brown sugar to 700,000 tons , under the Sugar Act of 1948 ; and the Soviet Union responded by agreeing to purchase the sugar instead . In October 1960 , a key incident occurred that led to the Cuban government nationalizing all three American - owned oil refineries in the nation . Cuba nationalized the refineries following Eisenhower 's decision to cancel 700,000 tons of sugar imports from Cuba to the U.S. and refused to export oil to the island , leaving it reliant on Soviet crude oil that the American companies refused to refine , which led to Cuba 's nationalization response . The refinery owners were never compensated for the nationalization of their property . Today the refineries are owned & operated by the state - run company , Unión Cuba - Petróleo . This prompted the Eisenhower administration to launch the first trade embargo -- a prohibition against selling all products to Cuba except food and medicine . The Cuban regime responded with nationalization of all American businesses and most American privately owned properties on the island . No compensation was given for the seizures , and a number of diplomats were expelled from Cuba . The second wave of nationalizations prompted the Eisenhower administration , in one of its last actions , to sever all diplomatic relations with Cuba , in January 1961 . The U.S. partial trade embargo with Cuba was continued , under the Trading with the Enemy Act 1917 . Kennedy era ( edit ) The Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuba 's declaration of marxism ( edit ) After the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961 , which had been largely planned under the Eisenhower administration , but which Kennedy had been informed of and approved during the months preceding his presidency and in his first few months as president , the Cuban government declared that it now considered itself Marxist and socialist , and aligned with the Soviet Union . On September 4 , 1961 , partly in response , Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act , a Cold War Act ( among many other measures ) which prohibited aid to Cuba and authorized the President to impose a complete trade embargo against Cuba . On January 21 , 1962 , Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States ( OAS ) by a vote of 14 in favor , one ( Cuba ) against with six abstentions . ( See Cuban relations with the Organization of American States for details of the proceedings . ) Mexico and Ecuador , two abstaining members , argued that the expulsion was not authorized in the OAS Charter . ( Multilateral sanctions were imposed by the OAS on July 26 , 1964 , which were later rescinded on July 29 , 1975 . Cuban relations with the Organization of American States have since improved , and as of June 3 , 2009 , membership suspension was lifted . ) President John F. Kennedy extended measures by Executive order , first widening the scope of the trade restrictions on February 8 , 1962 ( announced on February 3 and again on March 23 , 1962 ) . These measures expanded the embargo to include all imports of products containing Cuban goods , even if the final products had been made or assembled outside Cuba . On August 3 , 1962 the Foreign Assistance Act was amended to prohibit aid to any country that provides assistance to Cuba . On September 7 , 1962 President Kennedy formally expanded the Cuban embargo to include all Cuban trade , except for non-subsidized sale of food and medicines . The Cuban Missile Crisis ( edit ) Following the Cuban Missile Crisis ( October 1962 ) , Kennedy imposed travel restrictions on February 8 , 1963 , and the Cuban Assets Control Regulations were issued on July 8 , 1963 , again under the Trading with the Enemy Act in response to Cubans hosting Soviet nuclear weapons . Under these restrictions , Cuban assets in the U.S. were frozen and the existing restrictions were consolidated . Temporary lapse of restrictions , and reinstatement ( edit ) The restrictions on U.S. citizens traveling to Cuba lapsed on March 19 , 1977 ; the regulation was renewable every six months , but President Jimmy Carter did not renew it and the regulation on spending U.S. dollars in Cuba was lifted shortly afterwards . President Ronald Reagan reinstated the trade embargo on April 19 , 1982 , though it was now only restricted to business and tourist travel and did not apply to travel by U.S. government officials , employees of news or film making organizations , persons engaging in professional research , or persons visiting their close relatives . This has been modified subsequently with the present regulation , effective June 30 , 2004 , being the Cuban Assets Control Regulations , 31 C.F.R. part 515 . The current regulation does not prohibit travel by U.S. citizens to Cuba per se , but it makes it illegal for U.S. citizens to have transactions ( spend money or receive gifts ) in Cuba under most circumstances without a US government Office of Foreign Assets Control issued license . Since even paying unavoidable airfare ticket taxes into a Cuban airport would violate this transaction law , it is effectively impossible for ordinary tourists to visit Cuba without breaking the monetary transaction rule . Helms -- Burton Act ( edit ) The embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act ( the `` Torricelli Law '' ) and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act ( known as the Helms -- Burton Act ) which penalizes foreign companies that do business in Cuba by preventing them from doing business in the U.S. Justification provided for these restrictions was that these companies were trafficking in stolen U.S. properties , and should , thus , be excluded from the United States . However , Obama has tried to lift the embargo , but congress will not allow it . The European Union resented the Helms - Burton Act because it felt that the U.S. was dictating how other nations ought to conduct their trade and challenged it on that basis . The EU eventually dropped its challenge in favor of negotiating a solution . After Cuba shot down two unarmed Brothers to the Rescue planes in 1996 , killing three Americans and a U.S. resident , a bi-partisan coalition in the United States Congress approved the Helms - Burton Act . The Title III of this law also states that any non-U.S. company that `` knowingly trafficks in property in Cuba confiscated without compensation from a U.S. person '' can be subjected to litigation and that company 's leadership can be barred from entry into the United States . Sanctions may also be applied to non-U.S. companies trading with Cuba . This restriction also applies to maritime shipping , as ships docking at Cuban ports are not allowed to dock at U.S. ports for six months . It 's important to note that this title includes waiver authority , so that the President might suspend its application . This waiver must be renewed every six months and traditionally it has been . In response to pressure from some American farmers and agribusiness , the embargo was relaxed by the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act , which was passed by the Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton . The relaxation allowed the sale of agricultural goods and medicine to Cuba for humanitarian reasons . Although Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade ( having even refused U.S. food aid in the past , seeing it as a half - measure serving U.S. interests ) , the Cuban government began to allow the purchase of food from the U.S. as a result of Hurricane Michelle in November 2001 . These purchases have grown since then , even though all sales are made in cash . In 2007 , the U.S. was the largest food supplier of Cuba , which nevertheless is largely self - sufficient , and its fifth largest trading partner . In some tourist spots across the island , American brands such as Coca - Cola can be purchased . Ford tankers refuel planes in airports and some computers use Microsoft software . The origin of the financing behind such goods is not always clear . The goods often come from third parties based in countries outside the U.S. , even if the product being dealt originally has U.S. shareholders or investors . This can be seen , for example , with Nestlé products ( which have a 10 % US ownership ) that can be bought in Cuba with Cuban convertible pesos ( CUCs ) . These CUC pesos are hard currency that are traded in foreign exchange against the US dollar , Euro and other currencies . Details of Cuban embargo ( edit ) Impacts of the embargo ( edit ) In November 1991 , the Cuban ambassador , Ricardo Alarcon , in a speech to the UN General Assembly , cited 27 recent cases of trade contracts interrupted by US pressure . The British journal Cuba Business claimed that British Petroleum was seemingly dissuaded by US authorities from investing in offshore oil exploration in Cuba despite being initially keenly interested . The Petroleum economist claimed , in September 1992 , that the US State Department vigorously discouraged firms like Royal Dutch Shell and Clyde Petroleum from investing in Cuba . This pressure did not work in all cases . According to the Mexican Newspaper El Financiero , the US ambassador to Mexico , John Negroponte travelled to meet two Mexican business men who had signed a textile deal with Cuba on October 17 , 1992 . Despite the representation , the deal went ahead and was eventually worth $500 million in foreign capital . All of this happened before the signing of the Cuban Democracy Act . Economic impacts of the embargo ( edit ) The Economic impacts of the U.S. embargo on Cuba are the monetary long - term and short - term outcomes that the embargo has had on both countries in relation to trade , industry , and the creation of wealth . The U.S. sanctions on Cuba and their economic impacts can be traced back to when they were first implemented in the 1960s . According to the United States Chamber of Commerce , the embargo is currently costing the United States economy $1.2 billion per year due to the legal structures that are preventing U.S. based exporters from entering Cuban markets . The Cuba Policy Foundation ( CPF ) has provided more extreme data . Their estimates put the cost that the embargo has had on the U.S. at $4.84 billion per year while costing Cuba $685 million per year. ( 3 ) As of today , Cuba is estimated to have lost over $28.6 billion in trade according to Cuba 's Institute of Economic Research . Between 1954 and 1958 , trade between Cuba and the United States was at a higher level than what it is today . 65 % of Cuba 's total exports were sent to the United States while imports from the U.S. totaled to 74 % percent of Cuba 's international purchases . After the formal implementation of the embargo and the passage of Proclamation 3355 , there was a 95 % decrease in Cuba 's sugar quota , which canceled roughly 700,000 tons of the 3,119,655 tons previously allotted to the United States . A year later , Cuba 's sugar quota was reduced to zero when President Eisenhower issued Proclamation 3383 . This substantially effected Cuba 's total exports as Cuba was one of the world 's leading sugar exporters at the time . By 1989 , with the continuation of the United States ' embargo on Cuba and the collapse of the Soviet bloc , Cuba witnessed its most devastating economic crises . Cuba 's GDP plummeted 34 % and trade with the nations apart of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance ( CMEA ) declined by 56 % . Between 1989 and 1992 the termination of traditional trade partnerships with the Soviet bloc caused the total value of Cuba 's exports to fall by 61 % and imports to drop by approximately 72 % . According to a report released in 2001 by the U.S. International Trade Commission in response to a request made by the U.S. House of Representatives , the total value of U.S. exports of selected agricultural products , intermediate goods , and manufactured goods to Cuba in the absence of U.S. sanctions was estimated to be at $146 and $658 million for U.S. imports from Cuba between 1996 and 1998 . Recently , the United States Commerce 's Bureau of Industry and Security ( BIS ) has become more lenient with some of the sanctions imposed upon Cuba by introducing new streamlined procedures to expedite processing of license applications for exporting eligible agricultural commodities to Cuba . As a result , annual U.S. exports to Cuba have risen from $6 million to about $350 million between 2000 and 2006 . Over this period U.S. exports to Cuba have totaled to more than $1.5 billion . As of 2006 agricultural products have comprised 98 % of total U.S. exports to Cuba . Restrictions on tourism by U.S. citizens and residents ( edit ) Cuba is 90 miles ( 145 kilometres ) south of Florida Cuban Assets Control Regulations require that persons subject to U.S. jurisdiction be licensed in order to engage in any travel - related transactions pursuant to travel to , from , and within Cuba . Transactions related solely to tourist travel are not licensable . Spurred by a burgeoning interest in the assumed untapped product demand in Cuba , a growing number of free - marketers in Congress , backed by Western and Great Plains lawmakers who represent agribusiness , have tried each year since 2000 to water down or lift regulations preventing Americans from traveling to Cuba . Four times over that time period the United States House of Representatives has adopted language lifting the travel ban , and in 2003 the U.S. Senate followed suit for the first time . Each time President George W. Bush threatened to veto the bill . Faced with a veto threat , each year Congress dropped its attempt to lift the travel ban before sending legislation to the president . Some United States nationals circumvent the ban by traveling to Cuba from a different country ( such as Mexico , The Bahamas , Canada or Costa Rica ) , as Cuban immigration authorities do not routinely stamp passports , but instead stamp a Cuban visa page which is provided , and not permanently affixed to the passport . In doing so , however , U.S. citizens still risk prosecution and fines by the U.S. government if discovered . Until July 20 , 2015 there was no U.S. Embassy or consulate in Cuba and United States representation was limited to a United States Interests Section . The United States Treasury Department 's Office of Foreign Assets Control ( OFAC ) considers any visit of more than one day to be prima facie proof of violation . OFAC also holds that U.S. citizens may not receive goods or services for free from any Cuban national , eliminating any attempts to circumvent the regulation based on that premise . On July 25 , 2011 , OFAC declared that the `` people to people '' relaxation of restrictions on travel conceded by the Obama administration should not be mistakenly interpreted as promoting tourism . On October 10 , 2006 , the United States announced the creation of a task force made up of officials from several U.S. agencies that will pursue more aggressively violators of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba , with severe penalties . The regulations are still in force and are administered by the U.S. Treasury Department , Office of Foreign Assets Control . Criminal penalties for violating the embargo range up to ten years in prison , $1 million in corporate fines , and $250,000 in individual fines ; civil penalties up to $55,000 per violation . Newsweek reported in September 2016 that the future President Donald Trump 's hotel company violated this embargo , spending a minimum of $68,000 for its 1998 foray into Cuba - at a time when the corporate expenditure of even a penny in the Caribbean country was prohibited without U.S. government approval . With Trump 's knowledge , executives funneled the cash for the Cuba trip through an American consulting firm called Seven Arrows Investment and Development Corp . Once the business consultants traveled to the island and incurred the expenses for the venture , Seven Arrows instructed senior officers with Trump 's company -- then called Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts -- how to make it appear legal by linking it after the fact to a charitable effort . Easing the embargo ( edit ) Cuban - Americans ( edit ) On April 13 , 2009 , President Barack Obama eased the travel ban , allowing Cuban - Americans to travel freely to Cuba ; and on January 14 , 2011 , he further eased the ban , by allowing students and religious missionaries to travel to Cuba if they meet certain restrictions . General changes ( edit ) On July 16 , 2012 , the Ana Cecilia became the first officially sanctioned direct ship to sail from Miami to Cuba . It carried food , medicine and personal hygiene goods sent by Cuban - Americans to family members . In 2014 , the Obama administration announced its intention to re-establish relations with Cuba . In January 2015 , the Administration lightened restrictions on U.S. citizen travel to Cuba . While restrictions on travel for missionary work and education have been loosened , visits for tourism remain banned . President Obama and President Raúl Castro of Cuba met on April 11 , 2015 , which was the first meeting between distinct leaders of the two countries in over fifty years . In May 2015 , several American companies reported they had been granted licenses to establish ferry travel between Florida and Cuba , with a U.S. Department of Treasury spokeswoman confirming they had begun issuing licenses . So far the general ban on travel to Cuba remains in effect for Americans , so the ferry service will not be accessible to Americans who have not received special approval for travel to Cuba . On September 21 , 2015 , the Commerce and Treasury Departments took additional coordinated actions in support of the President 's Cuba policy . These actions included a rule published by the Commerce Department 's Bureau of Industry and Security ( BIS ) that amended the terms of existing license exceptions that are available for Cuba , increased the number of license exception provisions that are available for Cuba , created a new Cuba licensing policy to help ensure the safety of civil aviation and the safe operation of commercial passenger aircraft , and made the deemed export and deemed reexport license requirements for Cuba consistent with other sanctioned destinations . Investment in Cuba by Americans ( edit ) In February 2016 , the U.S. Government allowed two American men from Alabama to build a factory that will assemble as many as 1,000 small tractors a year for sale to private farmers in Cuba . The $5 million to $10 million plant would be the first significant U.S. business investment on Cuban soil since 1959 . They expect to start making deliveries in 2017 . Socio - economic effects of the embargo ( edit ) The U.S. Chamber of Commerce estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $1.2 billion per year in lost sales and exports , while the Cuban government estimates that the embargo has cost the island itself $753.69 billion . The self - proclaimed non-partisan Cuba Policy Foundation estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $3.6 billion per year in economic output . The 1998 U.S. State Department report Zenith and Eclipse : A Comparative Look at Socio - Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba attributed Cuba 's economic penury not as a result of the embargo , but instead the lack of foreign currency due to the unwillingness of Cuba to liberalize its economy and diversify its export base during the years of abundant Soviet aid . Cuba also amassed substantial debts owed to its Japanese , European , and Latin American trading partners during the years of abundant Soviet aid . According to critics , one of the major problems with the embargo is that the United States is the only major country that has such an embargo against Cuba in place . Cuba still receives tourists and trade from other countries making the embargo appear both illegitimate and pointless . Criticism of embargo laws and rules ( edit ) Main article : Freedom to Travel to Cuba Act The UN General Assembly has , from 1992 , passed a resolution each year criticizing the ongoing impact of the embargo . ( show ) UN Resolutions against the US embargo on Cuba year date resolution number link for against abstention voting against November 24 47 / 19 https://undocs.org/A/RES/47/19 ( The 19th resolution of the 47th session of the UN General Assembly ) 59 71 U.S. , Israel , Romania November 3 48 / 16 https://undocs.org/A/RES/48/16 88 57 U.S. , Israel , Albania , Paraguay October 26 49 / 9 https://undocs.org/A/RES/49/9 101 48 U.S. , Israel 1995 November 2 50 / 10 https://undocs.org/A/RES/50/10 117 38 U.S. , Israel , Uzbekistan November 12 51 / 17 https://undocs.org/A/RES/51/17 138 25 U.S. , Israel , Uzbekistan November 5 52 / 10 https://undocs.org/A/RES/52/10 143 17 U.S. , Israel , Uzbekistan 1998 October 14 53 / 4 https://undocs.org/A/RES/53/4 157 12 U.S. , Israel 1999 November 9 54 / 21 https://undocs.org/A/RES/54/21 155 8 U.S. , Israel 2000 November 9 55 / 20 https://undocs.org/A/RES/55/20 167 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands November 27 56 / 9 https://undocs.org/A/RES/56/9 167 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands 2002 November 12 57 / 11 https://undocs.org/A/RES/57/11 173 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands 2003 November 4 58 / 7 https://undocs.org/A/RES/58/7 179 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands October 28 59 / 11 https://undocs.org/A/RES/59/11 179 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2005 November 8 60 / 12 https://undocs.org/A/RES/60/12 182 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2006 November 8 61 / 11 https://undocs.org/A/RES/61/11 183 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2007 October 30 62 / 3 https://undocs.org/A/RES/62/3 184 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2008 October 29 63 / 7 https://undocs.org/A/RES/63/7 185 U.S. , Israel , Palau 2009 October 28 64 / 6 https://undocs.org/A/RES/64/6 187 U.S. , Israel , Palau October 26 65 / 6 https://undocs.org/A/RES/65/6 187 U.S. , Israel 2011 October 25 66 / 6 https://undocs.org/A/RES/66/6 186 U.S. , Israel 2012 November 13 67 / 4 https://undocs.org/A/RES/67/4 188 U.S. , Israel , Palau `` Future students of American history will be scratching their heads about this case for decades to come . Our embargo and refusal to normalize diplomatic relations has nothing to do with communism . Otherwise , we would n't have had diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War , with China since Nixon , and with Vietnam despite our bitter war there . No , Cuba was pure politics . Though it started out to be a measure of an administration 's resistance to Castro 's politics , it very soon became a straitjacket whereby first - generation Cuban - Americans wielded inordinate political power over both parties and constructed a veto over rational , mature diplomacy . '' -- Gary Hart , former U.S. Senator , March 2011 The embargo has been criticized for its effects on food , clean water , medicine , and other economic needs of the Cuban population . Criticism has come from both Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro , citizens and groups from within Cuba , and international organizations and leaders . Some academic critics , outside Cuba , have also linked the embargo to shortages of medical supplies and soap which have resulted in a series of medical crises and heightened levels of infectious diseases . It has also been linked to epidemics of specific diseases , including neurological disorders and blindness caused by poor nutrition . Travel restrictions embedded in the embargo have also been shown to limit the amount of medical information that flows into Cuba from the United States . An article written in 1997 suggests malnutrition and disease resulting from increased food and medicine prices have affected men and the elderly , in particular , due to Cuba 's rationing system which gives preferential treatment to women and children . Cuban Foreign Minister Felipe Pérez Roque called the embargo `` an act of genocide '' , quoting a classified State Department memo dated April 6 , 1960 that called on the US to use every tool at its disposal to bring down Fidel Castro through hunger and disease . On May 1 , 2009 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez , while speaking about his meeting U.S. President Barack Obama at a summit days earlier , stated `` if President Obama does not dismantle this savage blockade of the Cuban people , then it is all a lie , it will all be a great farce and the U.S. empire will be alive and well , threatening us . '' In June 2009 , Moisés Naím wrote in Newsweek : `` The embargo is the perfect example used by anti-Americans everywhere to expose the hypocrisy of a superpower that punishes a small island while cozying to dictators elsewhere . '' The Helms - Burton Act has been the target of criticism from Canadian and European governments in particular , who object to what they say is the extraterritorial pretensions of a piece of legislation aimed at punishing non-U.S. corporations and non-U.S. investors who have economic interests in Cuba . In the Canadian House of Commons , Helms - Burton was mocked by the introduction of the Godfrey - Milliken Bill , which called for the return of property of United Empire Loyalists seized by the American government as a result of the American Revolution ( the bill never became law ) . The European Council has stated that it : while reaffirming its concern to promote democratic reform in Cuba , recalled the deep concern expressed by the European Council over the extraterritorial effects of the `` Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity ( Libertad ) Act '' adopted by the United States and similar pending legislation regarding Iran and Libya . It noted the widespread international objections to this legislation . It called upon President Clinton to waive the provisions of Title III and expressed serious concern at the measures already taken to implement Title IV of the Act . The Council identified a range of measures which could be deployed by the EU in response to the damage to the interests of EU companies resulting from the implementation of the Act . Among these are the following : a move to a WTO dispute settlement panel ; ' changes in the procedures governing entry by representatives of US companies to EU Member States ; the use / introduction of legislation within the EU to neutralize the extraterritorial effects of the US legislation ; the establishment of a watch list of US companies filing Title III actions . Some critics say that the embargo actually helps the regime more than it hurts it , by providing it with a bogeyman for all of Cuba 's misfortunes . Hillary Clinton publicly shared the view that the embargo helps the Castros , noting that `` It is my personal belief that the Castros do not want to see an end to the embargo and do no want to see normalization with the United States . '' Clinton said in the same interview that `` we 're open to changing with them . '' In a 2005 interview , George P. Shultz , who served as Secretary of State under Reagan , called the embargo `` insane '' . Daniel Griswold , director of the Cato Institute 's Center for Trade Policy Studies , criticized the embargo in a June 2009 article : The embargo has been a failure by every measure . It has not changed the course or nature of the Cuban government . It has not liberated a single Cuban citizen . In fact , the embargo has made the Cuban people a bit more impoverished , without making them one bit more free . At the same time , it has deprived Americans of their freedom to travel and has cost US farmers and other producers billions of dollars of potential exports . Some American business leaders openly call for an end to the embargo . They argue , as long as the embargo continues , non-U.S. foreign businesses in Cuba that violate the embargo , do not have to compete with U.S. businesses , and thus , will have a head start when and if the embargo is lifted . José Azel , a Senior Research Associate at the Institute for Cuban and Cuban - American Studies , University of Miami and the author of the recently published book , Mañana in Cuba ( Tomorrow in Cuba ) took a different view : Currently over 190 nations engage economically and politically with Cuba while the United States remains alone in enforcing its economic sanctions policy . If indeed U.S. policy is deemed as one case of failure to change the nature of the Cuban government , there are 190 cases of failure on the same grounds . By a preponderance of evidence ( 190 to 1 ) the case can be made that engagement with that regime has been a dismal failure . Some religious leaders oppose the embargo for a variety of reasons , including humanitarian and economic hardships the embargo imposes on Cubans . Pope John Paul II called for the end to the embargo during his 1979 pastoral visit to Mexico . Patriarch Bartholomew I called the embargo a `` historic mistake '' while visiting the island on January 25 , 2004 . A joint letter in 1998 from the Disciples of Christ and the United Church of Christ to the U.S. Senate called for the easing of economic restrictions against Cuba . While also opposing the embargo , the General Secretary of the National Council of Churches stated , `` We did not understand the depth of the suffering of Christians under communism . And we failed to really cry out under the communist oppression . '' Rev. Jesse Jackson , Rev. Al Sharpton , and Minister Louis Farrakhan have also publicly opposed the embargo . On May 15 , 2002 former President Jimmy Carter spoke in Havana , calling for an end to the embargo , saying `` Our two nations have been trapped in a destructive state of belligerence for 42 years , and it is time for us to change our relationship . '' The US bishops called for an end to the embargo on Cuba , after Pope Benedict XVI 's 2012 visit to the island . The United Nations General Assembly has condemned the embargo as a violation of international law every year since 1992 . Israel is the only country that routinely joins the U.S. in voting against the resolution as has Palau every year from 2004 to 2008 . On October 26 , 2010 , for the 19th time , the General Assembly condemned the embargo , 187 to 2 with 3 abstentions . Israel sided with the U.S. , while Marshall Islands , Palau and Micronesia abstained . Film director Michael Moore challenged the embargo by bringing 9 / 11 rescue workers in need of health care to Cuba to obtain subsidized health care . In June 2011 , former Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern blamed `` embittered Cuban exiles in Miami '' for keeping the embargo alive . Before visiting Cuba , he said : It 's a stupid policy . There 's no reason why we ca n't be friends with the Cubans , and vice versa . A lot of them have relatives in the United States , and some Americans have relatives in Cuba , so we should have freedom of travel ... We seem to think it 's safe to open the door to a billion communists in China but for some reason , we 're scared to death of the Cubans . Barack Obama discussed easing the embargo during his 2008 campaign for president of the U.S. , though he promised to maintain it . In December 2014 , he called the embargo a failure , asking the U.S. Congress to enact legislation to lift it entirely . 2010 bill to end the travel ban ( edit ) On February 23 , 2010 , U.S. Congressman Rep. Collin Peterson of Minnesota introduced a bill that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba or preventing transactions required for such trips . On June 10 , 2010 seventy - four of Cuba 's dissidents signed a letter to the United States Congress in support of a bill that would lift the U.S. travel ban for Americans wishing to visit Cuba . The signers included Yoani Sánchez , Guillermo Farinas , Elizardo Sánchez , and Damas de Blanco founder Miriam Levi . The letter supported a bill introduced by Democrat Minnesota Representative Collin Peterson , that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba and from blocking transactions required to make the trip . The bill also prohibited the president from stopping direct transfers between U.S. and Cuban banks . Reestablishment of diplomatic relations ( edit ) Main article : Cuban Thaw In concert with a prisoner exchange with Cuba , Presidents Barack Obama and Raúl Castro announced moves on December 17 , 2014 to reestablish diplomatic relations and to loosen travel and economic policies . Cuba released Alan Gross , an American prisoner , on humanitarian grounds and exchanged an unnamed American spy for the three remaining members of the Cuban Five . Obama also announced a review of Cuba 's status as a terrorist state and an intention to ask Congress to remove the embargo entirely . Cuba agreed to release 53 political prisoners and to allow Red Cross and UN human - rights investigators access . On May 29 , 2015 , according to the U.S. State Department , `` Cuba 's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism was rescinded '' . Under the announced changes by the President , there will be an increased ability to transact with Cuban nationals and businesses , including Cuban financial institutions . Additionally , permitted U.S. banks will now be able to open accredited accounts in Cuban banks . On January 12 , 2017 , President Barack Obama announced the immediate cessation of the wet feet , dry feet policy , eight days before his term ended . The Cuban government agreed to accept the return of Cuban nationals . Beginning in 2014 , anticipation of the end of the policy had led to increased numbers of Cuban immigrants . Polling data and Public Opinion ( edit ) A 2008 a USA Today / Gallup Poll indicated that Americans believed that diplomatic relations `` should '' be re-established with Cuba . ( 61 % in favor , 31 % opposed . ) In January 2012 an Angus Reid Public Opinion poll showed that 57 % of Americans called for ending the travel ban that prevented most Americans from visiting Cuba , with 27 % disagreeing and 16 % not sure . Polls show declining support for sanctions among Cuban Americans . A June 2014 poll showed 52 % of Cuban Americans in Miami - Dade County , Florida , opposed the embargo and 48 % supported it . In the United States lobbying groups such as Engage Cuba advocate for the end of the embargo . See also ( edit ) Sanctions against Iraq Sanctions against Iran Sanctions against Japan Sanctions against Russia List of vetos exercised by the US government in the UN Security Council References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Case Studies in Economic Sanctions and Terrorism : US v. Gta 5 ( 1960 -- : Castro ) '' ( PDF ) . Peterson Institute for International Economics . October 2011 . 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Jump up ^ Obama hails ' new chapter ' in US - Cuba ties , BBC News , December 17 , 2014 Jump up ^ ( in French ) `` Un `` nouveau chapitre '' s'ouvre entre les Etats - Unis et Cuba '' Archived December 18 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine. , Yann Schreiber , avec Camille Grange et Antoine Boyet , Ijsberg Magazine , 17 décembre 2014 Jump up ^ Obama : Isolating Cuba has n't worked , Alexandra Jaffe and Elise Labott , CNN , December 17 , 2014 Jump up ^ `` Country Reports on Terrorism 2015 , Chapter 2 . Country Reports : Western Hemisphere Overview '' . U.S. Department of State . Retrieved June 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` First take : Key points from the President 's announcement on Cuba Sanctions '' ( PDF ) . PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice , December 2014 . Jump up ^ Obama . `` Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy '' . The White House . Retrieved 12 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Whitefield , Mimi ( 12 January 2017 ) . `` Obama ending ' wet foot , dry foot ' Cuban immigration policy '' . Miami Herald . Jump up ^ Gomez , Alan ( January 12 , 2017 ) . `` Obama to end ' wet foot , dry foot ' policy for Cubans '' . USA Today . Jump up ^ `` Polling Report on Cuba , AP / Ipsos Poll , Jan 30 -- Feb 1 , 2007 '' . Pollingreport.com . Retrieved June 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Most Americans Willing to Re-establish Ties with Cuba '' . Angus-reid.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` FIU Cuba poll : support for embargo wanes among Miami Cuban - Americans - Naked Politics '' . Retrieved March 21 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Boycotting Cuba : Whose Interest Does it Serve ? by Jean Daniel , The New Republic , December 28 , 1963 United States embargo against Cuba at DMOZ White House Fact Sheet : Cuba Policy The New York Times , April 13 , 2009 CNN Video Report : Is Trade Embargo with Cuba Hurting U.S. Interests ? by Jim Acosta & Ed Hornick , May 4 , 2009 Virginia , Maryland Prepare for Cuban Detente by Fredrick Kunkle , The Washington Post , May 4 , 2009 Nothing Succeeds Like Failure : The Cuban Embargo by Saul Landau October 30 , 2009 The Cuban Embargo : An Interview with Naval Academy Professor Daniel Masterson by History News Network Cuba Embargo Myopia Misses the Strategic Point by Shawn Lansing , December 6 , 2016 Cuba -- United States relations pre-1902 Spanish -- American War Teller Amendment Platt Amendment 1902 -- 1959 Cuban -- American Treaty of Relations ( 1903 ) First Occupation Second Occupation Sugar Intervention Hay - Quesada Treaty ( 1925 ) Cuban -- American Treaty of Relations ( 1934 ) 1959 -- present Groups and individuals Brothers to the Rescue Balseros ( rafters ) Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations Cuban - American lobby Cuban Five Luis Posada Carriles Military and activities Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban Project Elián González affair Cuba -- United States aircraft hijackings Mariel boatlift Operation Northwoods Operation Peter Pan Legislation and offices United States embargo against Cuba United States Interests Section in Havana ( 1977 -- 2015 ) United States -- Cuban Thaw Embassy of the United States , Havana Embassy of Cuba in Washington , D.C. 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describe the impact the minnie ball had on the battlefield during the civil war

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mini%C3%A9_ball&oldid=816023985

Minié ball - wikipedia Minié ball Jump to : navigation , search Various types of Minié balls . The four on the right are provided with Tamisier ball grooves for aerodynamic stability . James H. Burton 's 1855 Minié ball design from the Harpers Ferry Armory The Minié ball , or Minni ball , is a type of muzzle - loading spin - stabilized rifle bullet named after its co-developer , Claude - Étienne Minié , inventor of the Minié rifle . It came to prominence in the Crimean War and American Civil War . The development of the Minié ball was significant because it was the first projectile which was small enough to be easily put down the barrel of a rifled long gun . Rifling -- the addition of spiral grooves inside the gun barrel , which imparted a spin to the bullet -- greatly increased the range and accuracy of the gun . Prior to the Minié ball , bullets had to be jammed down the rifle barrel , sometimes with a mallet , and after a relatively small number of shots , gunpowder residue built up in the spiral grooves , which then had to be cleaned out . Both the American Springfield and the British Enfield rifles -- the most common rifles used during the American Civil War -- used the Minié ball . Contents ( hide ) 1 Designs 2 Use 3 Effects 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Notes 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Designs ( edit ) The Minié ball was a conical bullet with three exterior grease - filled grooves and a conical hollow in its base . The bullet was designed by Minié with a small iron plug and a lead skirting . Its intended purpose was to expand under the pressure and obturate the barrel and increase muzzle velocity . The precursor to the Minié ball was created in 1848 by the French Army captains Montgomery and Henri - Gustave Delvigne . Their design was made to allow rapid muzzle loading of rifles , an innovation that brought about the widespread use of the rifle rather than the smoothbore musket as a mass battlefield weapon . Delvigne had invented a ball that could expand upon ramming to fit the grooves of a rifle in 1826 . The design of the ball had been proposed in 1832 as the cylindro - conoidal bullet by Captain John Norton , but had not been adopted . Captain James H. Burton , who was an armorer at the Harper 's Ferry Armory , developed an improvement on Minié 's design when he added a deep cavity at the base of the ball , which filled up with gas and expanded the bullet 's rim upon firing . The result was not only better range , but also a cheaper bullet , which was used in the Crimean War and then the American Civil War . Burton 's version of the ball weighed two ounces . Use ( edit ) The bullet could be quickly removed from the paper cartridge with the gunpowder poured down the barrel and the bullet pressed past the muzzle rifling and any detritus from prior shots . It was then rammed down the barrel with the ramrod , which ensured that the charge was packed and the hollow base was filled with powder . When the rifle was fired , the expanding gas pushed forcibly on the base of the bullet , deforming the skirt to engage the rifling . This provided spin for accuracy , a better seal for consistent velocity and longer range , and cleaning of barrel detritus . Effects ( edit ) Wounds inflicted by the conical Minié ball were different from those caused by the round balls from smoothbore muskets , since the conical ball had a higher muzzle velocity and greater mass , and easily penetrated the human body . Round balls tended to remain lodged in the flesh , and they were often observed to take a winding path through the body . Flexed muscles and tendons , as well as bone , could cause the round ball to deviate from a straight path . The Minié ball tended to cut a straight path and usually went all the way through the injured part ; the ball seldom remained lodged in the body . If a Minié ball struck a bone , it usually caused the bone to shatter . The damage to bones and resulting compound fractures were usually severe enough to necessitate amputation . The entire point of the minie ball was to damage the bones , and have them do the damage themselves . A hit on a major blood vessel could also have serious consequences . One of the more famous documented cases involving Minié ball injuries concerned a Confederate soldier wounded during Jubal Early 's raid on Washington D.C on July 12 , 1864 . The soldier , a private in the 53rd North Carolina Infantry , was hit in the side of the head by a . 58 caliber Minié ball , which shattered his skull and lodged in the right hemisphere of the brain . He went into convulsions and became paralyzed on one side of his body , but started recovering within eight days of being hospitalized . However , within three more days , his condition deteriorated and he eventually lost consciousness and died , having survived with his wound for 16 days . An autopsy of the soldier found that the right hemisphere of the brain was extensively damaged and large areas of it had necrosed . The brain was removed , preserved in formaldehyde and donated to the Army Museum in Washington . The primary cause of death had been infection caused by both the initial injury and subsequent necrosis of brain tissue . With 21st - century medical treatment , the soldier may well have survived with some degree of physical disability . See also ( edit ) Military history portal Cap gun Caplock mechanism Gun barrel Gunpowder Internal ballistics Muzzle ( firearms ) Muzzleloader Nessler ball Projectile Rifling Tubes and primers for ammunition References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ( 1988 ) Battle Cry of Freedon : The Civil War Era Oxford University Press . p. 474 ISBN 0 - 19 - 503863 - 0 Jump up ^ Keegan , John ( 2009 ) The American Civil War : A Military History New York ; Knopf . p. 55 ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 26343 - 8 Jump up ^ Fadala , Sam ( 2006 ) . The Complete Black Powder Handbook : The Latest Guns and Gear ( 5th ed . ) . Gun Digest Books . p. 144 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 14 . Jump up ^ O'Connelll , Robert L. ( 1990 ) . Of Arms and Men : A History of War , Weapons , and Aggression . Oxford University Press US . p. 191 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Keegan , John ( 2009 ) The American Civil War : A Military History New York ; Knopf . pp. 314 - 15 ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 26343 - 8 ^ Jump up to : Manring , M.M. ; Hawk , Alan ; Calhoun , Jason H. ; Andersen , Romney C. ( 14 February 2009 ) . `` Treatment of War Wounds : A Historical Review '' . Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research ® . 467 ( 8 ) : 2168 -- 2191 . doi : 10.1007 / s11999 - 009 - 0738 - 5 . PMC 2706344 . PMID 19219516 . Jump up ^ Chisolm , Julian ( 1864 ) . A manual of military surgery , for the use of surgeons in the Confederate States army ; with explanatory plates of all useful operations . Columbia : Evans and Cogswell . p. 119 . Jump up ^ `` Medical and Surgical Reporter '' , 1865 Vol XIII Bibliography ( edit ) Brent Nosworthy ( 2003 ) . The Bloody Crucible of Courage , Fighting Methods and Combat Experience of the Civil War . Carroll and Graf Publishers . ISBN 0 - 7867 - 1147 - 7 . `` The lead minie ball '' . CivilWar@Smithsonian . External links ( edit ) Weaponry : The Rifle - Musket and the Minié Ball - Allan W. Howey , for the Civil War Times magazine French weapons of the 19th century Small arms Delvigne rifle ( 1826 ) Thouvenin Carabine à tige ( 1846 ) Lefaucheux M1858 revolver Minié rifle ( 1849 ) Tabatière rifle ( 1864 ) Chassepot rifle ( 1866 ) Gras rifle ( 1874 ) Lebel rifle ( 1886 ) Modèle 1892 revolver Machine guns Reffye mitrailleuse ( 1866 ) Hotchkiss `` Canon - Revolver '' ( 1872 ) Mitrailleuse Gatling modèle APX 1895 ( 1895 ) Mle 1897 Hotchkiss Machine gun ( 1897 ) Cannons Year XI system ( 1803 ) Paixhans gun ( 1823 ) Valée system ( 1828 ) Canon obusier de 12 ( 1853 ) La Hitte system ( 1858 ) Reffye 85 mm ( 1870 ) Reffye 75 mm ( 1873 ) Lahitolle 95 mm ( 1873 ) de Bange 80 mm ( 1877 ) de Bange 90 mm ( 1877 ) Canet 320 mm ( 1880 ) Canon de 75 ( 1897 ) Warships Steam battleship Napoléon ( 1850 ) Ironclad floating battery Lave ( 1854 ) Ironclad Gloire ( 1858 ) Mechanical powered submarine Plongeur ( 1863 ) Steel battleship Redoutable ( 1876 ) Armoured cruiser Dupuy de Lôme ( 1890 ) Electrical submarine Gymnote ( 1888 ) Ammunition Lepage fulminate ( 1807 - 10 ) Pauly - Prélat integrated cartridge ( 1808 ) Prélat percussion cap ( 1818 ) Lefaucheux cartridge ( 1836 ) Tamisier ball ( 1841 ) Minié ball ( 1847 ) 8 mm Lebel smokeless powder cartridge ( 1886 ) Systems Lepage percussion system ( 1807 ) Marié - Davy naval periscope ( 1854 ) De Bange breech obturator ( 1872 ) Du Temple high - circulation steam engine ( 1876 ) Krebs naval electric gyrocompass ( 1880 ) Smokeless powder Poudre B ( 1886 ) Operational usage Napoleonic Wars French Intervention in Spain French conquest of Algeria Crimean War Second Italian War of Independence French Intervention in Mexico French weapons in the American Civil War Franco - Prussian War Tonkin Campaign Sino - French War Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Minié_ball&oldid = 816023985 '' Categories : Projectiles American Civil War weapons Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latviešu Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk Polski Română Русский தமிழ் Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2017 , at 19 : 22 . 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when did we start putting shoes on horses

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Horseshoe&oldid=853463492

Horseshoe - wikipedia Horseshoe For other uses , see Horseshoe ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Modern horseshoes are most commonly made of steel and nailed into the hoof wall . A variety of horseshoes , including aluminum racing plates ( light coloured ) and shoes used on cattle in lower right A horseshoe is a fabricated product , normally made of metal , although sometimes made partially or wholly of modern synthetic materials , designed to protect a horse 's hoof from wear . Shoes are attached on the palmar surface ( ground side ) of the hooves , usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human toenail , although much larger and thicker . However , there are also cases where shoes are glued . The fitting of horseshoes is a professional occupation , conducted by a farrier , who specializes in the preparation of feet , assessing potential lameness issues , and fitting appropriate shoes , including remedial features where required . In some countries , such as the United Kingdom , horseshoeing is legally restricted to only people with specific qualifications and experience . In others , such as the United States , where professional licensing is not legally required , professional organizations provide certification programs that publicly identify qualified individuals . People sometimes put decorative horseshoes on their horses if they are going to a competition . Horseshoes are available in a wide variety of materials and styles , developed for different types of horse and for the work they do . The most common materials are steel and aluminium , but specialized shoes may include use of rubber , plastic , magnesium , titanium , or copper . Steel tends to be preferred in sports in which a strong , long - wearing shoe is needed , such as polo , eventing , show jumping , and western riding events . Aluminium shoes are lighter , making them common in horse racing , where a lighter shoe is desired ; and often facilitate certain types of movement , and so are favored in the discipline of dressage . Some horseshoes have `` caulkins '' , `` caulks '' , or `` calks '' : protrusions at the toe or heels of the shoe , or both , to provide additional traction . When kept as a talisman , a horseshoe is said to bring good luck . Some believe that to hang it with the ends pointing upwards is good luck as it acts as a storage container of sorts for any good luck that happens to be floating by , whereas to hang it with the ends pointing down , is bad luck as all the good luck will fall out . Others believe that the horseshoe should be hung the other way ( with the ends pointing down ) , as it will then release its luck to the people around it . A stylized variation of the horseshoe is used for a popular throwing game , horseshoes . Contents 1 History 2 Reasons for use of horseshoes 2.1 Environmental changes linked to domestication 2.2 Physical stresses requiring horseshoes 3 Horseshoeing theories and debates 4 Process of shoeing 4.1 Shoeing mistakes 5 In culture 5.1 Superstition 5.2 Heraldry 5.3 Sport 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) A hipposandal , a predecessor to the horseshoe Since the early history of domestication of the horse , working animals were found to be exposed to many conditions that created breakage or excessive hoof wear . Ancient people recognized the need for the walls ( and sometimes the sole ) of domestic horses ' hooves to have additional protection over and above any natural hardness . An early form of hoof protection was seen in ancient Asia , where horses ' hooves were wrapped in rawhide , leather or other materials for both therapeutic purposes and protection from wear . From archaeological finds in Great Britain , the Romans appeared to have attempted to protect their horses ' feet with a strap - on , solid - bottomed `` hipposandal '' that has a slight resemblance to the modern hoof boot . Historians differ on the origin of the horseshoe . Because iron was a valuable commodity , and any worn out items were generally reforged and reused , it is difficult to locate clear archaeological evidence . Although some credit the Druids , there is no hard evidence to support this claim . In 1897 four bronze horseshoes with what are apparently nail holes were found in an Etruscan tomb dated around 400 B.C. The assertion by some historians that the Romans invented the `` mule shoes '' sometime after 100 BC is supported by a reference by Catullus who died in 54 BC . However , these references to use of horseshoes and muleshoes in Rome , may have been to the `` hipposandal '' -- leather boots , reinforced by an iron plate , rather than to nailed horseshoes . Existing references to the nailed shoe are relatively late , first known to have appeared around AD 900 , but there may have been earlier uses given that some have been found in layers of dirt . There are no extant references to nailed horseshoes prior to the reign of Emperor Leo VI and by 973 occasional references to them can be found . The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to `` crescent figured irons and their nails '' in AD 910 . There is very little evidence of any sort that suggests the existence of nailed - on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600 , though there is a find dated to the 5th century A.D. of a horseshoe , complete with nails , found in the tomb of the Frankish King Childeric I at Tournai , Belgium . English horseshoes from the 11th to the 19th centuries Around 1000 AD , cast bronze horseshoes with nail holes became common in Europe . Common was a design with a scalloped outer rim and six nail holes . The 13th and 14th centuries brought the widespread manufacturing of iron horseshoes . By the time of the Crusades ( 1096 -- 1270 ) , horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources . In that period , due to the value of iron , horseshoes were even accepted in lieu of coin to pay taxes . By the 13th century , shoes were forged in large quantities and could be bought ready - made . Hot shoeing , the process of shaping a heated horseshoe immediately before placing it on the horse , became common in the 16th century . From the need for horseshoes , the craft of blacksmithing became `` one of the great staple crafts of medieval and modern times and contributed to the development of metallurgy . '' A treatise titled `` No Foot , No Horse '' was published in England in 1751 . In 1835 , the first U.S. patent for a horseshoe manufacturing machine capable of making up to 60 horseshoes per hour was issued to Henry Burden . In the mid 19th century Canada , marsh horseshoes kept horses from sinking into the soft intertidal mud during dike - building . In a common design , a metal horseshoe holds a flat wooden shoe in place . Reasons for use of horseshoes ( edit ) A horseshoe maker / blacksmith in India . Environmental changes linked to domestication ( edit ) A hot horseshoe in a forge . The metal is softened so that it can be more precisely shaped to the horse 's hoof . Many changes brought about by the domestication of the horse have led to a need for shoes for numerous reasons , mostly linked to management that results in horses ' hooves hardening less and being more vulnerable to injury . In the wild , a horse may travel up to 50 miles per day to obtain adequate forage . While horses in the wild cover large areas of terrain , they usually do so at relatively slow speeds , unless being chased by a predator . They also tend to live in arid steppe climates . The consequence of slow but nonstop travel in a dry climate is that horses ' feet are naturally worn to a small , smooth , even and hard state . The continual stimulation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard . However , in domestication , the ways horses are used differ from what they would encounter in their natural environment . Domesticated horses are brought to colder and wetter areas than their ancestral habitat . These softer and heavier soils soften the hooves and make them prone to splitting , making hoof protection necessary . Consequently , it was in northern Europe that the nailed horseshoe arose in its modern form . Domesticated horses are also subject to inconsistent movement between stabling and work ; they must carry or pull additional weight , and in modern times , they are often kept and worked on very soft footing , such as irrigated land , arena footing , or stall bedding . In some cases , management is also inadequate . The hooves of horses that are kept in stalls or small turnouts , even when cleaned adequately , are exposed to more moisture than would be encountered in the wild , as well as to ammonia from urine . The hoof capsule is mostly made from keratin , a protein , and is weakened by this exposure , becoming even more fragile and soft . Shoes do not prevent or reduce damage from moisture and ammonia exposure . Rather , they protect already weakened hooves . Further , without the natural conditioning factors present in the wild , the feet of horses grow overly large and long unless trimmed regularly . Hence , protection from rocks , pebbles , and hard , uneven surfaces is lacking . A balanced diet with proper nutrition also is a factor . Without these precautions , cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a danger , as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot because of inadequately thick and hard sole material . Physical stresses requiring horseshoes ( edit ) Abnormal stress : Horses ' hooves can become quite worn out when subjected to the added weight and stress of a rider , pack load , cart , or wagon . These bar shoes are commonly used in corrective shoeing , to help support the heels . Corrective shoeing : The shape , weight , and thickness of a horseshoe can significantly affect the horse 's gait . Farriers may forge custom shoes to help horses with bone or musculature problems in their legs , or fit commercially available remedial shoes . Traction : Traction devices such as borium for ice , horse shoe studs for muddy or slick conditions , calks , carbide - tipped road nails and rims are useful for performance horses such as eventers , show jumpers , polo ponies , and other horses that perform at high speeds , over changing terrain , or in less - than - ideal footing . Gait manipulation : Some breeds such as the Saddlebred , Tennessee Walking Horse , and other gaited horses are judged on their high - stepping movement . Special shoeing can help enhance their natural movement . Racing horses with weakness in their foot or leg require specialized horseshoes . Horseshoeing theories and debates ( edit ) Horseshoes have long been viewed as an aid to assist horses ' hooves when subjected to the various unnatural conditions brought about by domestication , whether due to work conditions or stabling and management . Many generations of domestic horses bred for size , color , speed , and other traits with little regard for hoof quality and soundness make some breeds more dependent on horseshoes than feral horses such as mustangs , which develop strong hooves as a matter of natural selection . A hoof boot can be used in place of a horseshoe or as a temporary substitute for a thrown shoe Nonetheless , domestic horses do not always require shoes . When possible , a `` barefoot '' hoof , at least for part of every year , is a healthy option for most horses . However , horseshoes have their place and can help prevent excess or abnormal hoof wear and injury to the foot . Many horses go without shoes year - round , some using temporary protection such as hoof boots for short - term use . Process of shoeing ( edit ) See also : Farrier Farrier tools Nailing on a horseshoe The shoe , showing a toe clip , has just had the nails driven in through the hoof . The farrier will then cut the nails , and bend the cut end over to form a clinch . Shoeing , when performed correctly , causes no pain to the animal . Farriers trim the insensitive part of the hoof , which is the same area into which they drive the nails . This is analogous to a manicure on a human fingernail , only on a much larger scale . Before beginning to shoe , the farrier removes the old shoe using pincers ( shoe pullers ) and trims the hoof wall to the desired length with nippers , a sharp pliers - like tool , and the sole and frog of the hoof with a hoof knife . Shoes do not allow the hoof to wear down as it naturally would in the wild , and it can then become too long . The coffin bone inside the hoof should line up straight with both bones in the pastern . If the excess hoof is not trimmed , the bones will become misaligned , which would place stress on the legs of the animal . Shoes are then measured to the foot and bent to the correct shape using a hammer and anvil , and other modifications , such as taps for shoe studs , are added . Farriers may either cold shoe , in which he bends the metal shoe without heating it , or hot shoe , in which he places the metal in a forge before bending it . Hot shoeing can be more time - consuming , and requires the farrier to have access to a forge ; however , it usually provides a better fit , as the mark made on the hoof from the hot shoe can show how even it lies . It also allows the farrier to make more modifications to the shoe , such as drawing toe - and quarter - clips . The farrier must take care not to hold the hot shoe against the hoof too long , as the heat can damage the hoof . Hot shoes are placed in water to cool them off . The farrier then nails the shoes on , by driving the nails into the hoof wall at the white line of the hoof . The nails are shaped in such a way that they bend outward as they are driven in , avoiding the sensitive inner part of the foot , so they emerge on the sides of the hoof . When the nail has been completely driven , the farrier cuts off the sharp points and uses a clincher ( a form of tongs made especially for this purpose ) or a clinching block with hammer to bend the rest of the nail so it is almost flush with the hoof wall . This prevents the nail from getting caught on anything , and also helps to hold the nail , and therefore the shoe , in place . The farrier then uses a rasp ( large file ) , to smooth the edge where it meets the shoe and eliminate any sharp edges left from cutting off the nails . Shoeing mistakes ( edit ) Mistakes are sometimes made by even a skilled farrier , especially if the horse does not stand still . This may sometimes result in a nail coming too close to the sensitive part of the hoof ( putting pressure on it ) , or a nail that is driven slightly into the sensitive hoof , called quicking or nail pricking . This occurs when a nail penetrates the wall and hits the sensitive internal structures of the foot . Quicking results in bleeding and pain and the horse may show signs of lameness or may become lame in following days . Whenever it happens , the farrier must remove the offending nail . Usually a horse that is quicked will react immediately , though some cases where the nail is close to sensitive structures may not cause immediate problems . These mistakes are made occasionally by anyone who shoes horses , and in most cases is not an indication that the farrier is unskilled . It happens most commonly when horses move around while being shod , but also may occur if the hoof wall is particularly thin ( common in Thoroughbreds ) , or if the hoof wall is brittle or damaged . It may also occur with an inexperienced or unskilled horseshoer who misdrives a nail , uses a shoe that is too small , or has not fitted the shoe to the shape of the horse 's hoof . Occasionally , manufacturing defects in nails or shoes may also cause a misdriven nail that quicks a horse . However , the term `` farrier '' implies a professional horseshoer with skill , education , and training . Some people who shoe horses are untrained or unskilled , and likely to do more harm than good for the horse . People who do not understand the horse 's foot will not trim the hoof correctly . This can cause serious problems for the animal , resulting in chronic lameness and damage to the hoof wall . Poor trimming will usually place the hoof at an incorrect angle , leave the foot laterally unbalanced and may cut too much off certain areas of the hoof wall , or trim too much of the frog or sole . Some horseshoers will rasp the hoof down to fit an improperly shaped or too - small size of shoe , which is damaging to the movement of the horse and can damage the hoof itself if trimmed or rasped too short . A poor horseshoer can also make mistakes in the shoeing process itself , not only quicking a horse , but also putting the shoe on crooked , using the wrong type of shoe for the job at hand , shaping the shoe improperly , or setting it on too far forward or back . In Culture ( edit ) Superstition ( edit ) Saint Dunstan shoes the Devil A horseshoe on a door is regarded a protective talisman in some cultures See also : Iron in mythology § Luck Horseshoes have long been considered lucky . They were originally made of iron , a material which was believed to ward off evil spirits , and traditionally were held in place with seven nails , seven being the luckiest number . The superstition acquired a further Christian twist due to a legend surrounding the 10th century saint Dunstan , who worked as a blacksmith before becoming Archbishop of Canterbury . The legend recounts that , one day , the Devil walked into Dunstan 's shop and asked him to shoe his horse . Dunstan pretended not to recognize him , and agreed to the request ; but rather than nailing the shoe to the horse 's hoof , he nailed it to the Devil 's own foot , causing him great pain . Dunstan eventually agreed to remove the shoe , but only after extracting a promise that the Devil would never enter a household with a horseshoe nailed to the door . Opinion is divided as to which way up the horseshoe ought to be nailed . Some say the ends should point up , so that the horseshoe catches the luck , and that the ends pointing down allow the good luck to be lost ; others say they should point down , so that the luck is poured upon those entering the home . Superstitious sailors believe that nailing a horseshoe to the mast will help their vessel avoid storms . Heraldry ( edit ) Flag of Rutland In heraldry , horseshoes most often occur as canting charges , such as in the arms of families with names like Farrier , Marshall and Smith . A horseshoe ( together with two hammers ) also appears in the arms of Hammersmith and Fulham , a borough in London . The flag of Rutland , England 's smallest historic county , consists of a golden horseshoe laid over a field scattered with acorns . This references an ancient tradition in which every noble visiting Oakham , Rutland 's county town , presents a horseshoe to the Lord of the Manor , which is then nailed to the wall of Oakham Castle . Over the centuries , the Castle has amassed a vast collection of horseshoes , the oldest of which date from the 15th century . Sport ( edit ) Main article : Horseshoes The sport of horseshoes involves a horseshoe being thrown as close as possible to a rod in order to score points . As far as it is known , the sport is as old as horseshoes themselves . While traditional horseshoes can still be used , most organized versions of the game use specialized sport horseshoes , which do not fit on horses ' feet . See also ( edit ) Farrier Horse care Horse hoof Laminitis Natural hoof care References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Price , Steven D. ( ed . ) The Whole Horse Catalog : Revised and Updated New York : Fireside 1998 ISBN 0 - 684 - 83995 - 4 pp. 84 -- 87 Jump up ^ Evans , J. Warren , et al . The Horse Second Edition New York : Freeman 1990 ISBN 0 - 7167 - 1811 - 1 pp. 731 -- 739 Jump up ^ `` Luck and Horseshoes '' . Indepthinfo.com . Retrieved 19 December 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Rachel . `` The History of Horseshoes '' . Equisearch.com . Archived from the original on 6 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 November 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Iron hipposandal '' . Google Arts & Culture . Retrieved 20 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments , Inventions , and Discoveries of the Ancient World by Robert E. Krebs ISBN 0313313423 ( Greenword / ABC - CLIO ) pp. 27 -- 28 ^ Jump up to : `` Who Invented Horseshoeing ? '' . archive.org . Archived from the original on 8 February 1998 . Archived 8 February 1998 . Jump up ^ Bates , W.N. ( 1902 ) . `` Etruscan Horseshoes from Corneto '' . American Journal of Archaeology. 6 ( 4 ) : 398 -- 403 . doi : 10.2307 / 496665 . JSTOR 496665 . Retrieved 1 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries by Rodney Carlisle ( 2 August 2004 ) ISBN 0471244104 John Wiley p. 117 Jump up ^ Clark , Bracy ( 1831 ) . An essay on the knowledge of the ancients respecting the art of shoeing the horse , and of the probable period of the commencement of this art . p. 33 . ^ Jump up to : `` Horseshoe . '' Encyclopædia Britannica . 15th ed . Vol. 20 . 2005 . 651 -- 51 . Print . ^ Jump up to : Bellis , Mary ( 16 June 2010 ) . `` Horseshoes , Nails , Saddles , and Riding '' . Inventors.about.com . Retrieved 19 November 2011 . Jump up ^ Gray , Charlotte `` The Museum Called Canada : 25 Rooms of Wonder '' Random House , 2004 Jump up ^ Ensminger , M.E. Horses and Horsemanship : Animal Agriculture Series . Sixth Edition . Interstate Publishers , 1990 . ISBN 0 - 8134 - 2883 - 1 pp. 367 -- 371 Jump up ^ Ensminger , M.E. Horses & Tack : A Complete One Volume Reference on Horses and Their Care Rev. ed . Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co. 1991 ISBN 0 - 395 - 54413 - 0 pp. 267 -- 269 Jump up ^ `` Race Horses Require Shoes of Special Design and Weight '' . Popular Mechanics. 65 ( 4 ) . April 1936 . Retrieved 19 December 2011 . Jump up ^ McBane , Susan A Natural Approach to Horse Management London : Methuen 1992 ISBN 0 - 413 - 62370 - X pp. 57 -- 60 ^ Jump up to : Evans , J. Warren , et al . The Horse Second Edition New York : Freeman 1990 ISBN 0 - 7167 - 1811 - 1 pp. 742 -- 747 ^ Jump up to : `` Superstition Bash : Horseshoes '' . Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . Jump up ^ `` Who was St Dunstan ? '' . St Dunstan Episcopal Church . Jump up ^ Eyers , Jonathan ( 2011 ) . Do n't Shoot the Albatross ! : Nautical Myths and Superstitions . A&C Black , London , UK . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4081 - 3131 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Hammersmith and Fulham , London Borough of '' . Civic Heraldry of England and Wales . Jump up ^ `` Flag of Rutland '' . Flag Institute . Retrieved 12 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Clough , Timothy ( 1987 ) . The Horseshoes of Oakham Castle . Leicestershire Museums . This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm , Hugh , ed. ( 1911 ) . `` Horse - shoes '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Horseshoes . Historical development of the horseshoe 1891 Scientific American article from Project Gutenberg The True Legend of St. Dunstan and the Devil by Edward G. 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where is the show last tango in halifax filmed

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Last_Tango_in_Halifax&oldid=849351974

Last Tango in Halifax - wikipedia Last Tango in Halifax Last Tango in Halifax Genre Comedy - drama Written by Sally Wainwright Starring Derek Jacobi Anne Reid Sarah Lancashire Nicola Walker Composer ( s ) Murray Gold Country of origin United Kingdom Original language ( s ) English No. of series No. of episodes 20 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Nicola Shindler Production location ( s ) Yorkshire Running time 60 minutes Production company ( s ) Red Production Company Release Original network BBC One Original release 20 November 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 20 ) -- 20 December 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 20 ) External links Website Production website Last Tango in Halifax is a British comedy - drama series that broadcast on BBC One , beginning November 2012 and ending with a two - part Christmas special in December 2016 . Screenwriter Sally Wainwright loosely adapted the story of her mother 's second marriage . Starring Sir Derek Jacobi and Anne Reid as Alan and Celia , former childhood sweethearts , who are now in their seventies . Reunited via Facebook , they meet , fall in love , and plan to marry . Reid and Jacobi enjoyed having the chance to play out a love story between older people . Sarah Lancashire and Nicola Walker star as Caroline , Celia 's daughter , and Gillian , Alan 's daughter , respectively . Other characters are played by Nina Sosanya , Tony Gardner , Ronni Ancona , Dean Andrews , Sacha Dhawan and Josh Bolt . The series has been praised for its depiction of the older generation , strong acting , and believable dialogue . A critic for The Daily Telegraph summarised the series as `` a triumph against TV 's ageism '' , and it has been endorsed by an executive member of the charity Age UK . Ahead of the American premiere , a critic for the Los Angeles Times described it as `` the best new show of the fall '' . Last Tango in Halifax accrued four nominations for the 2013 British Academy Television Awards and won the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series . The United States broadcast television network PBS began airing the first series in September 2013 . A second series was commissioned , and filming began in summer 2013 . It was broadcast on BBC One from 19 November 2013 to 24 December 2013 . A third series was commissioned prior to the final episode of the second , aired between 28 December 2014 and 1 February 2015 . Immediately following the end of Series Three , the BBC announced that a fourth series had been commissioned . The fourth series consists of only two episodes , described as Christmas Specials . They were broadcast on 19 and 20 December 2016 . Contents 1 Overview 2 Production 2.1 Concept and writing 2.2 Characters and casting 2.3 Filming 3 Episodes 4 Broadcast and reception 4.1 Critical reception 4.2 Accolades 5 Possible adaptations 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Overview ( edit ) Celia Dawson and Alan Buttershaw are both widowed and in their seventies . They were attracted to each other in the 1950s , but never expressed their feelings , and Celia moved away with her parents . In the present day , they are reunited after being persuaded to join Facebook by their respective grandchildren . Alan has loved Celia since he was 16 years old , whilst Celia is described as a woman who is `` unfulfilled '' and was unhappily married to a man she grew to hate . After their reunion , Alan and Celia discover that they still feel as passionately for each other as they did when they were teenagers . Their story is described as a `` testament of the uplifting power of love at any age '' . Alan and Celia 's romance is depicted alongside the troubles of their own grown - up daughters , and the series ' official description says that its portrayal of family is `` as dark as it is comic '' . Alan 's daughter Gillian and Celia 's daughter Caroline are complete opposites : widowed Gillian runs a farm and works part - time in a supermarket , whilst Oxford - educated Caroline is the headmistress of a successful school . Their parents ' engagement affects both daughters ' lives . Gillian wonders how she and her son will cope without her father around to help , whilst Caroline , struggling with depression and her feelings for a female colleague , feels that her mother 's unconventional romance gives her `` permission to finally admit to being who she really is '' . Production ( edit ) Concept and writing ( edit ) The series is based on lead writer Sally Wainwright 's personal experiences . She described it as `` the most personal thing I 've ever written '' . Her mother , Dorothy , lost contact with a childhood friend , Alec Walker , when she was 15 , but they reconnected on the social networking website Friends Reunited 60 years later and within six months were married . Wainwright said the relationship between her mother and Alec `` was so beautiful and uplifting that it inspired everyone around them '' . When she told the story to her colleague Nicola Shindler , Shindler suggested she turn her experience into a television series . Shindler became the series ' executive producer and according to Wainwright , the script was sold `` instantly '' . The character of Celia is based on Dorothy ; Wainwright has noted that her mother `` became so passionate and emotional '' after falling in love again . Some scenes in the series are based on true events . In one episode Celia and Alan are shown laughing at an argument between Caroline and her husband in the next room ; Wainwright recalls discovering her mother and stepfather in the same situation after Wainwright had had an argument with her husband Austin . Caroline 's discomfort with Celia 's discussing her sex life is based on a conversation Wainwright had with her mother . Alec died three years into their marriage , but according to Wainwright she was `` delighted '' to have their relationship dramatised ; Wainwright believes Last Tango in Halifax is `` a celebration of how fantastic the whole thing was '' . Though largely biographical , the series does contain some invented story lines . In real life , Alec and Dorothy 's families had a good relationship from the start ; in the TV series , Caroline and Gillian initially have a feud . Whilst Jacobi and Reid 's storyline is predominantly uplifting , the actions of their onscreen families were intended to provide a contrast . With regard to Alan and Celia 's dysfunctional families , Wainwright states that they `` bring drama and chaos at every turn '' and that the series aims to `` get under the skin of these characters '' . Through Caroline , the series explores various LGBT themes . A source of contention for Celia is her daughter entering into a same sex relationship and later coming out to her . Anne Reid spoke positively of the storyline , stating that she believes a lot of people of her own generation are homophobic . She felt that her own character `` might show them ( and ) might change them '' just as Celia must become more accepting to avoid losing Alan . Jacobi concurred : Alan has `` a streak of tolerance in him ... that perhaps Celia does n't '' . In series three , the division between Celia and Caroline widens after Celia refuses to attend Caroline 's wedding to another woman . Wainwright felt that killing off Caroline 's partner Kate would be the most effective way to propel the drama onwards and to develop the emotional lives of the remaining characters going forward . She was conflicted over this decision , having grown attached to the character of Kate , and actress Nina Sosanya , and wrote two versions of the fourth episode ; the unaired one would have seen Kate survive . Characters and casting ( edit ) Derek Jacobi , renowned for his theatre work , enjoyed the chance to explore a different type of character . Discussing the casting of Derek Jacobi and Anne Reid , Wainwright stated : `` we went for the best and we got them '' . The Guardian felt that one of the series ' successes was the unlikely casting of a `` theatrical knight '' ( Jacobi ) and a `` TV Stalwart '' ( Reid ) . Wainwright had not anticipated being able to secure an actor of Jacobi 's calibre for the role of Alan , stating that she `` never imagined getting someone like him in one of my dramas '' , believing him to be in `` a different stratosphere '' . Upon casting Jacobi , Wainright felt that in addition to looking similar to Alec Walker , Jacobi embodied his personality perfectly , particularly his sense of humour . Jacobi was surprised to be offered the role of Alan ; as his reputation centred on parts that were either `` posh '' , `` classical '' or `` costume '' . He enjoyed having the chance to play someone who is `` an ordinary fellow '' . He also felt the series provided a chance to depict a `` love story between two older characters that is n't patronising or stereotyped in any way '' . Wainwright felt that the two lead actors had a palpable chemistry that reflected her mother 's second marriage . Reid and Jacobi also influenced the creative process -- after Reid discovered Jacobi could jive , they implored Wainright to include a dance scene in an episode . Jacobi also inspired a scene in which two of Alan 's friends ( played by Roy Barraclough and Paul Copley ) vie to be his best man . A teenage version of Alan is portrayed in flashback by Nico Mirallegro . Reid was Wainwright 's personal choice for the role of Celia , describing the actress as `` so down to earth and compelling to watch '' . Reid had tired of playing older characters for whom their age was a defining characteristic , stating that she had been sent lots of scripts wherein `` where the minute anyone 's over 65 , they turn into a doddering old idiot '' . She hoped that Last Tango in Halifax would `` give hope to older people '' , opining that the relationship between Celia and Alan was free from ageism . Reid identified herself with Celia 's personality -- believing herself to be quite reckless and outgoing -- though stated that unlike her character she has no desire to enter another relationship . She enjoyed working with her friend Sarah Lancashire , who previously played her onscreen daughter in Rose and Maloney , and suggested that the two share similar looks . Reid described filming the series as `` one of the best times in my career '' and stated that she was proud of the work put in . Amelia Young plays a teenage Celia during a flashback sequence in episode six . Sarah Lancashire portrays Celia 's daughter Caroline , whose lesbian relationship forms a prominent subplot . Lancashire opted to focus on the `` humanity '' of her character instead of her sexuality . Lancashire discerned that the series was `` very special '' within reading two pages of the script . Other factors that persuaded her to commit to the series included the casting of Reid and Jacobi , and the series ' juxtaposition of a heart - warming story with elements of humour . In terms of her character , Lancashire identified with Caroline being `` a working woman trying to keep everything under control '' . She stated the series ' ensemble cast was `` the closest I 've come to being in a theatre company on television '' due to how well the actors worked together . The cast had all assumed that Last Tango in Halifax would only run for one series . Filming of the second series clashed with filming of the second series of the BBC One period drama The Paradise , which also starred Sarah Lancashire . This necessitated her having to leave her role in The Paradise halfway through the second series in order to reprise her role as Caroline in Last Tango in Halifax . In an interview in 2013 Lancashire stated that the decision to return to Last Tango in Halifax was the easiest she had made in her working life stating `` as an actor you can wait an entire career to be involved in a project like this . '' The role resulted in her receiving the most fan mail of her career . Lancashire was surprised and humbled by the responses from women stating that Caroline 's same sex relationship had personally inspired them . She stated that in her approach to the character she did not focus on Caroline 's sexuality , but the `` humanity of her '' . Due to the underrepresentation of gay characters on television , Lancashire felt it particularly important that Caroline 's experience would not be portrayed inaccurately . In 2014 Wainwright recalled being `` blown away '' by Lancashire 's performances in the rushes for the series , which partly inspired her to script the series Happy Valley in which Lancashire plays the lead role . Nicola Walker completes the main cast as Gillian . She admired the character 's honesty , bravery and lack of self - pity , and identified strongly with her tendency to speak before thinking things through and her deep love for her father . In 2014 The Daily Telegraph described the role as a `` game - changer '' in the trajectory of Walker 's career . Though ultimately successful in winning the role Walker initially believed that she would not get the part due to a lack of confidence in her northern accent , and the presence of northern actresses in the audition . Her approach to the character saw her delve into Gillian 's psychology with Walker particularly interested in the contradiction between Gillian 's sexual confidence and her use of sex as a form of self - punishment . She felt the series showed a very adult approach to storytelling , stating that she had `` never come across a character like Gillian before '' and praising the variety of strong female roles . The Independent noted the significance of the series having three female leads over the age of 40 , stating that this , alongside Caroline 's lesbian storyline and Gillian 's attitude towards sex made the series `` quietly subversive '' when compared against primetime television as a whole . In addition to its main characters , Last Tango in Halifax features a regular supporting cast . Nina Sosanya plays Caroline 's romantic partner Kate , who she decides to marry over the course of the series . Gerard Gilbert of The Independent describes the relationship between the couple as `` one of the most normalised lesbian relationships ever shown on the small screen . '' Nina Sosanya noted that she enjoyed filming with Sarah Lancashire and that the pair would `` giggle a lot like completely juvenile idiots '' whilst filming their love scenes . Other characters introduced in the first series include Caroline 's husband John ( Tony Gardner ) and his lover Judith ( Ronni Ancona ) , Gillian 's brother - in - law , Robbie ( Dean Andrews ) , and Paul ( Sacha Dhawan ) , a youth with whom Gillian has a sexual relationship . Josh Bolt plays Gillian 's son Raff , whilst Edward Ashley and Louis Greatorex play Caroline 's teenage sons William and Lawrence . The second series expanded the families of Alan and Celia . Timothy West appears as Alan 's brother Ted whilst Gemma Jones plays Celia 's sister Muriel . The third series later introduces Rupert Graves as Gary , who is revealed to be Alan 's illegitimate son , and Michelle Hurst as Kate 's mother Ginika . Filming ( edit ) The first series was filmed in Yorkshire and in Altrincham between January and April 2012 . Altrincham was used to represent scenes set in Harrogate , such as those set at Caroline 's house . The second series began filming in July 2013 . Filming took place at Holdsworth House in Halifax in August 2013 and also at Hoghton Tower , a fortified manor house in Lancashire , in August 2013 . This resulted in the Tower 's being closed to the public between 19 and 28 August . In September the University of York supplied ten students from the Department of Theatre , Film and Television to work as extras on the series . Filming for the third series began in Yorkshire and at Peover Hall , near Knutsford , Cheshire in July 2014 . Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of Last Tango in Halifax episodes Series Episodes Originally aired Series premiere Series finale 6 20 November 2012 19 December 2012 6 19 November 2013 24 December 2013 6 28 December 2014 1 February 2015 19 December 2016 20 December 2016 Broadcast and reception ( edit ) Consolidated viewing figures The series premièred to overnight ratings of 6.160 million viewers , 25.6 % of the available audience , as the highest rated show at 9 pm on 20 November . The series finale , airing 19 December 2012 , also won its time - slot , achieving an overnight series high of 6.290 million viewers , 26.6 % of the available audience . Consolidated figures released by the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board ( BARB ) revealed that the series première achieved a consolidated rating of 7.304 million viewers , whilst the finale had 7.480 million . The overall series average in terms of viewing figures was 7.316 million viewers . The Independent reported that the early consolidated ratings received by the programme made it the highest rated new mid-week television drama of 2012 . In September 2013 , the series began airing on the American broadcast television network PBS . Critical reception ( edit ) The series has attracted mostly positive reviews , largely focused on the depiction of its two septuagenarian lead characters . Jane Shilling of The Daily Telegraph labelled the series `` a triumph against TV 's ageism '' in an examination of the portrayal of elderly people in the media . Shilling singled out Jacobi and Reid 's performances , stating that they provide a `` mixture of gravity and levity '' that `` brings a transcendent quality to their characters ' resolute ordinariness '' . Lucy Harmer , an executive member of the charity Age UK , also praised the series for portraying two `` normal , healthy and sane '' older characters , citing the depiction of Internet use by the elderly as something ordinary . She compared the treatment of older characters in the series to Hilary Boyd 's novel Thursdays in the Park and the film The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel ( 2012 ) . The Huffington Post 's Caroline Frost thought the series was reminiscent of the dialogue and sensibility of the playwright Alan Bennett . She wrote the story was poignant and praised a central theme underlining `` how many people make do with their day - to - day business and responsibilities , while still holding on to their private dreams '' , Andrew Anthony of The Guardian had his `` low expectations ... squarely confounded '' , giving particular praise to the dialogue and the central performances . Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror felt that Last Tango in Halifax experienced a mid-series dip , though she praised what she felt was a triumphant finale . She also praised Wainwright 's script and the lead quartet of Jacobi , Reid , Lancashire , and Walker for creating `` characters you can believe in even when they 're behaving appallingly '' . The series was reviewed favourably by the American website AfterEllen , which reports on the depiction of gay and bisexual women in the media . Correspondent Jill Guccini stated that she `` started off watching this series thinking it was a cute little show about some oldies falling in love '' , but at the end of the series believed it was `` some of the finest television I 've seen , anywhere , ever '' . Critical reception in the United States was also largely positive following PBS ' acquisition of the show . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times labelled the series as `` the best new show of the fall '' describing it as `` a rapturous mix of absurdly fairy - tale - romance and frantic modern complications , set in the picturesque drear of Yorkshire and brought to life by masterfully shaded performances . '' She opined that Reid and Jacobi `` are capable of doing more with a startled look or careful smile ... than most actors can do in seven pages of dialogue '' . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe acknowledged that the public might not find the series appealing based on its title and premise alone , stating that PBS ' description of the programme made it sound `` as saccharine and hackneyed as a Geritol commercial '' . Upon viewing the series however , he praised the added dimensions of the series and wrote that it was `` so much more interesting '' than the central premise suggested . He also felt that Walker and Lancashire played an important part ; `` both add ( ing ) a necessary amount of bitter to the sweet '' . Mike Hale of The New York Times was more cynical about the series , describing it as a `` warm comforter of a series '' and `` treacle '' . However he felt that series also distinguished itself from this category of media by its `` relatively dry style and careful modulation of tone and volume '' in addition to `` a crackerjack cast '' . Accolades ( edit ) The first series of Last Tango in Halifax was nominated for four awards at the 2013 British Academy Television Awards , which took place on 12 May 2013 . Actors Derek Jacobi , Anne Reid , and Sarah Lancashire earned respective nominations in the Best Actor , Best Actress , and Best Supporting Actress categories . The series itself was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series , and ultimately won . Additionally , Wainwright was named best Drama Writer at the 2013 British Academy Television Craft Awards for her writing of the series . The series was nominated for Best Drama Series at the 2013 Broadcasting Press Guild Awards whilst Sally Wainwright was nominated for the writer 's award for her contribution to both Last Tango in Halifax and Scott & Bailey . In 2014 , Sarah Lancashire and Nicola Walker were both nominated for a British Academy Television Award in the category for `` Best Supporting Actress '' for their roles in Last Tango in Halifax . Lancashire won the award for her role as Caroline . Possible adaptations ( edit ) In October 2013 , it was reported in news outlets that American actress , screenwriter , and producer Diane Keaton had acquired the rights to remake Last Tango in Halifax for American audiences on the subscription cable channel HBO . Sally Wainwright mentioned this development at a Broadcasting Press Guild event and stated that though she did not expect to be closely involved in the remake , she would have an associate producer role . However , the following day Red Production Company released a statement stating that a remake would likely be delayed since the original series was still airing on American channel PBS . In April 2014 , it was reported that the series would be remade for French television by BBC Worldwide France and the production company NEWEN . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Calculated by combining the individual viewing figures for each episode , sourced from the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board ( 7.304 million , 6.779 million , 7.508 million , 7.334 million , 7.492 million , 7.480 million ) and dividing by six . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Harp , Justin ( 4 November 2017 ) . `` Derek Jacobi says Last Tango in Halifax ' is finished ' '' . Digital Spy . ^ Jump up to : `` Interview with writer , Sally Wainwright '' . BBC Press Office . BBC Online . 13 August 2012 . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax : Anne Reid interview '' . The Telegraph . 19 November 2013 . Retrieved 8 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Anne Reid 's slow - burn success : The Our Zoo star on the surgeon 's knife , bedding Daniel Craig and having a late - blooming career '' . The Independent . 6 September 2014 . Retrieved 8 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax on BBC1 tonight with Sarah Lancashire , Derek Jacobi , Anne Reid and Nicola Walker '' . Scunthorpe Telegraph . 4 January 2015 . Retrieved 8 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` BBC One commissions third series of Last Tango In Halifax '' . BBC Media Centre . 24 December 2013 . Retrieved 7 January 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03h4107/episodes/guide Jump up ^ Gill , James ( 2 February 2015 ) . `` Last Tango in Halifax series four confirmed '' . Radio Times . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Last Tango In Halifax - Derek Jacobi and Anne Reid lead cast in a new drama series for BBC One '' . BBC Press Office . BBC Online . 13 August 2012 . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cast interviews '' . BBC Press Office . BBC Online . 13 August 2012 . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Gillian '' . BBC . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Caroline '' . BBC . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Williamson , Charlotte ( 22 December 2013 ) . `` My mother 's late - life love is charming the nation '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved 6 March 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Wainwright , Sally ( 9 November 2012 ) . `` Can you fall in love at 75 ? Screenwriter Sally Wainwright on how her mother 's sweet late - life romance inspired her new drama '' . Daily Mail . Associated Newspapers . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Halterman , J. ( 9 September 2013 ) . `` '' Last Tango in Halifax '' stars talk about its lesbian component `` . AfterEllen . Retrieved 19 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Lyell , Carrie ( 16 January 2015 ) . `` Last Tango writer : Why I killed off lesbian character '' . Diva . Archived from the original on 20 January 2015 . Retrieved 20 January 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Anthony , Andrew ( 25 November 2012 ) . `` Rewind TV : Last Tango in Halifax ; Homeland ; The Aristocrats : Blenheim Palace ; Gadget Man ; Supersized Earth -- review '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Gilbert , Gerard ( 23 December 2014 ) . `` Sir Derek Jacobi on ' Last Tango in Halifax ' and being just an ordinary fella '' . The Independent . Independent Media Group . Retrieved 13 January 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Fiaca , Nick ( 13 November 2012 ) . `` Anne Reid '' . What 's on TV . IPC Media . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Last Tango in Halifax -- episode five '' . BBC Online . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Last Tango in Halifax -- episode six '' . BBC Online . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Brent , Katy ( 20 November 2012 ) . `` Two to tango '' . The Sun . News International . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Duncan , Andrew ( 20 November 2012 ) . `` Anne Reid : `` I hope Last Tango in Halifax gives hope to older people '' `` . Radio Times . Immediate Media Company . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Duncan , Andrew ( 29 April 2014 ) . `` Sarah Lancashire on Happy Valley : I 'm my own harshest critic '' . Radio Times . Immediate Media Company . Retrieved 20 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Hastings , Chris ( 29 September 2013 ) . `` It 's trouble in Paradise after star Sarah Lancashire quits in the middle of series , blaming clash with other BBC show '' . Daily Mail . DMG Media . Retrieved 2 October 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Myall , Steve ( 19 November 2013 ) . `` Sarah Lancashire says her latest role has had a much bigger impact than Corrie 's Raquel '' . Irish Daily Mirror . Trinity Mirror . Retrieved 19 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Jones , Hannah ( 28 May 2014 ) . `` Happy Valley : Writer Sally Wainwright on TV 's most talked about show '' . Wales Online . Retrieved 19 August 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Rees , Jasper ( 4 April 2014 ) . `` Nicola Walker : ' I 've got a feisty face ' '' . The Daily Telegraph . Telegraph Media Group . Retrieved 21 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Mounford , Fiona ( 4 April 2014 ) . `` Nicola Walker interview : ' There 's more pressure in feeling rated ' '' . The Independent . Independent Media Group . Retrieved 21 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax -- episode one '' . BBC Online . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax -- episode two '' . BBC Online . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax -- episode three '' . BBC Online . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax -- episode four '' . BBC Online . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango In Halifax '' . BBC online . Retrieved 4 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Ward , Rachel ( 17 December 2013 ) . `` Last Tango in Halifax , series 2 , episode five , review '' . The Daily Telegraph . Telegraph Media Group . Retrieved 4 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Benji ( 29 December 2014 ) . `` Rupert Graves : ' If I need cash I 'll do anything , I do n't really care ' '' . The Daily Telegraph . Telegraph Media Group . Retrieved 13 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax : Series 3 - Episode 4 '' . Radio Times . Retrieved 13 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Lancashire , Sarah ( 2 December 2012 ) . `` Last Tango in Halifax ? Let 's try Venice next time , says BBC star Sarah Lancashire '' . Daily Mail . Associated Newspapers . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Filming starts on Last Tango in Halifax 2 '' . What 's on TV . IPC Media . 4 July 2013 . Retrieved 17 September 2013 . Jump up ^ McGrouther , Bridget ( 1 December 2013 ) . `` We 've Been Tangoed ... By the Romance of Yorkshire : Following in the Footsteps of the Stars of Last Tango in Halifax '' . Daily Mail . Associated Newspapers . Retrieved 17 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango at the Tower this Autumn '' . Lancashire Evening Post . Johnston Press . 17 August 2013 . Retrieved 17 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax '' . The University of York . 6 September 2013 . Retrieved 17 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax filming gets underway with Sarah Lancashire , Derek Jacobi and Anne Reid '' . Radio Times . 7 July 2014 . Retrieved 12 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Last Tango in Halifax , Series 3 Episode 1 '' . BBC . Retrieved 7 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Millar , Paul ( 21 November 2012 ) . `` Cheryl Cole 's ITV2 show attracts more than 800,000 viewers '' . Digital Spy . Hearst Corporation . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Millar , Paul ( 20 December 2012 ) . `` ' Last Tango in Halifax ' ends on high note for BBC One '' . Digital Spy . Hearst Corporation . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Viewing Data -- Top Tens '' . BARB . Archived from the original on 18 July 2014 . Retrieved 6 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Wyatt , Daisy ( 11 December 2012 ) . `` BBC One drama Last Tango in Halifax re-commissioned for second series '' . The Independent . Independent Print Limited . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` PBS Premieres New 6 - Part Drama Last Tango In Halifax Tonight '' . BroadwayWorld.com. 8 September 2013 . Retrieved 19 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Shilling , Jane ( 11 December 2012 ) . `` Last Tango in Halifax : a triumph against TV 's ageism '' . The Daily Telegraph . Telegraph Media Group . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Bennett , Laura ( 28 November 2012 ) . `` Last Tango in Halifax : an Age UK executive 's view '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Frost , Caroline ( 21 November 2012 ) . `` TV Review : Last Tango In Halifax -- A Love That Blooms Late And Twice As Sweet '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Simon , Jane ( 19 December 2012 ) . `` Wednesday 's must - see TV : Family in a spin in Last Tango In Halifax plus The Town and Snow Babies '' . Daily Mirror . Trinity Mirror . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Guccini , Gill ( 26 March 2013 ) . `` '' Last Tango in Halifax '' recap : Infected with Lesbian Spores ( Ep. 6 ) `` . AfterEllen . Archived from the original on 28 June 2013 . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ McNamara , Mary ( 7 September 2013 ) . `` Review : ' Last Tango in Halifax ' on PBS is the fall 's best new show '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 19 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Gilbert , Matthew ( 5 September 2013 ) . `` The dimensions of ' Last Tango in Halifax ' '' . The Boston Globe . Retrieved 19 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Hale , Mike ( 6 September 2013 ) . `` After 60 Years , Weak - Kneed and Starry - Eyed '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 19 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Plunkett , John ; Halliday , Josh ( 12 May 2013 ) . `` Last Tango dances off with Bafta prize for ' love story about people over 35 ' '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved 10 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Plunkett , John ( 29 April 2013 ) . `` Bafta TV craft awards : BBC London Olympics coverage takes two '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved 6 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Torin , Douglas ( 7 February 2013 ) . `` Parade 's End leads TV nominations for 39th Broadcasting Press Guild Awards '' . Broadcasting Press Guild . Retrieved 2 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Television in 2014 '' . BAFTA . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Maggie ( 28 October 2013 ) . `` Diane Keaton plans US remake of BBC 's Last Tango in Halifax '' . The Guardian . Guardian Media Group . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Dowell , Ben ( 29 October 2013 ) . `` Diane Keaton 's Last Tango in Halifax US remake delayed '' . Radio Times . Immediate Media Company . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Jeffrey , Morgan ( 9 April 2014 ) . `` Last Tango in Halifax to get remake on French television '' . Digital Spy . Hearst Magazines UK . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . External links ( edit ) Last Tango in Halifax at BBC Programmes Last Tango in Halifax at British Comedy Guide Last Tango in Halifax on IMDb Last Tango in Halifax at TV.com Last Tango in Halifax at epguides.com Last Tango in Halifax on PBS BAFTA TV Award for Best Drama Series Inspector Morse ( 1992 ) Inspector Morse ( 1993 ) Between the Lines ( 1994 ) Cracker ( 1995 ) Cracker ( 1996 ) EastEnders ( 1997 ) Jonathan Creek ( 1998 ) The Cops ( 1999 ) The Cops ( 2000 ) Clocking Off ( 2001 ) Cold Feet ( 2002 ) Spooks ( 2003 ) Buried ( 2004 ) Shameless ( 2005 ) Doctor Who ( 2006 ) The Street ( 2007 ) The Street ( 2008 ) Wallander ( 2009 ) Misfits ( 2010 ) Sherlock ( 2011 ) The Fades ( 2012 ) Last Tango in Halifax ( 2013 ) Broadchurch ( 2014 ) Happy Valley ( 2015 ) Wolf Hall ( 2016 ) Happy Valley ( 2017 ) Peaky Blinders ( 2018 ) Television series created by Sally Wainwright At Home with the Braithwaites ( 2000 -- 03 ) Sparkhouse ( 2002 ) Jane Hall ( 2006 ) The Amazing Mrs Pritchard ( 2006 ) Bonkers ( 2007 ) Unforgiven ( 2009 ) Scott & Bailey ( 2011 -- 2016 ) Last Tango in Halifax ( 2012 -- 2016 ) Happy Valley ( 2014 -- ) Gentleman Jack ( TBA ) Other works The Canturbury Tales : The Wife of Bath ( 2003 ) ShakespeaRe - Told : The Taming of the Shrew ( 2005 ) Dead Clever ( 2007 television film ) To Walk Invisible ( 2016 television film ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Last_Tango_in_Halifax&oldid=849351974 '' Categories : 2012 British television programme debuts 2016 British television programme endings 2010s British drama television series BBC high definition programmes BBC television dramas British comedy - drama television programmes British LGBT - related television shows Lesbian - related television programs Television series created by Sally Wainwright Television shows set in West Yorkshire BAFTA winners ( television series ) English - language television programs Hidden categories : Use British English from December 2016 Use dmy dates from December 2016 TV.com template with ID not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français עברית Edit links This page was last edited on 8 July 2018 , at 11 : 52 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where was the video for life in a northern town filmed

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Life_in_a_Northern_Town&oldid=800216371

Life in a Northern Town - wikipedia Life in a Northern Town Jump to : navigation , search `` Life in a Northern Town '' Single by The Dream Academy from the album The Dream Academy Released March 1985 ( UK and World ) November 1985 ( USA ) Format Vinyl record ( 7 '' and 12 `` ) cassette tape CD Recorded 1984 Genre Baroque pop Length 4 : 19 Label Warner Bros . Blanco y Negro Songwriter ( s ) Gilbert Gabriel Nick Laird - Clowes Producer ( s ) David Gilmour , Nick Laird - Clowes , George Nicholson The Dream Academy singles chronology `` Life in a Northern Town '' ( 1985 ) `` The Edge Of Forever '' ( 1985 ) `` Life in a Northern Town '' ( 1985 ) `` The Edge Of Forever '' ( 1985 ) Audio sample file help `` Life in a Northern Town '' is a song by English group the Dream Academy . The song is the lead single from their self - titled debut studio album The Dream Academy , released in 1985 . The song was written as an elegy to British folk musician Nick Drake , who died in 1974 , and the single 's record sleeve includes a dedication to him . The single reached number 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in February 1986 . It is their highest - peaking chart single in the United States , the UK , and Ireland . Contents ( hide ) 1 Original version 1.1 Content 1.2 Music video 1.3 Track listing 1.4 Chart positions 2 Sugarland cover version 2.1 Chart positions 3 Other versions 4 In popular culture 5 References 6 External links Original version ( edit ) The Dream Academy released the original version in 1985 as the first single from their self - titled album . Content ( edit ) The lyrics include references to English singer - songwriter Nick Drake , who suffered from depression and insomnia throughout his life and often reflected those topics in his lyrics . Gilbert Gabriel , a member of the Dream Academy and co-writer of the song , has also said that the inspiration for the tune came from his experience at Dartington College of Arts . Drake died of an antidepressant overdose in 1974 at the age of 26 , but his music has influenced songwriters and guitarists long after his death . He was best known for sombre pieces composed on his favourite instrument , the guitar , and The Dream Academy intended the song as a tribute to Drake . The song , which took a year to record , also includes elements of classical music , an `` African-esque '' chant ( which was later sampled by dance duo Dario G for their track `` Sunchyme '' ) , and hints of psychedelia . It is in the key of E major with a main chord pattern of E-A - E and a vocal range from B to E . Music video ( edit ) Two different music videos were made for the song . The first was made in 1984 and filmed in Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire , England . It was directed by Tim Pope . The second was filmed in 1985 and was directed by Leslie Libman and Larry Williams . It was filmed in and around Newcastle upon Tyne with some scenes filmed in Manchester in the UK and in Aliquippa , Pennsylvania , United States , using footage of the now - closed LTV Steel and Duquesne Light facilities . The video featured footage from one of their first TV appearances , on The Tube . Track listing ( edit ) 7 '' Single `` Life in a Northern Town '' - 4 : 17 `` Test Tape No. 3 '' - 5 : 01 12 '' Single `` Life in a Northern Town '' ( Extended ) - 5 : 19 `` Test Tape No. 3 '' - 5 : 03 `` Life in a Northern Town '' ( 7 '' Mix ) - 4 : 14 `` Poised on the Edge of Forever '' - 3 : 32 Chart positions ( edit ) Chart ( 1985 -- 86 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) Canada Top Singles ( RPM ) 7 Ireland ( IRMA ) 9 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 15 US Billboard Hot 100 7 U.S. Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks 7 U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks Sugarland cover version ( edit ) `` Life in a Northern Town '' Song by Sugarland featuring Little Big Town and Jake Owen from the album Love on the Inside Released 2008 Recorded 2007 Genre Country Length 4 : 14 Label Mercury Nashville Songwriter ( s ) Gilbert Gabriel Nick Laird - Clowes Producer ( s ) Byron Gallimore Sugarland The song was covered in 2007 by the country music duo Sugarland , along with Little Big Town and Jake Owen , on the Sugarland Change for Change Tour . A live performance from 2007 was made into a music video by Becky Fluke for the network Country Music Television . Although not officially released as a single , this rendition received airplay on country radio , debuting at 57 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart dated for 5 April 2008 and reaching a peak of 28 . It also peaked at 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 based on downloads . This performance was included on the Deluxe Fan Edition of Sugarland 's 2008 album Love on the Inside and on Capitol Records ' late 2008 re-release of Little Big Town 's 2007 album A Place to Land . In addition , it was nominated for Vocal Event of the Year at the Country Music Association awards , Best Country Collaboration with Vocals at the 51st Grammy Awards , and Vocal Event of the Year at the 44th Annual Academy of Country Music awards . Chart positions ( edit ) Chart ( 2008 ) Peak position Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 53 US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) 28 US Billboard Hot 100 43 Other versions ( edit ) In 2014 , Chris Collingwood , lead singer of Fountains of Wayne , released a cover version of the song on the multi-artist compilation album Here Comes The Reign Again : The Second British Invasion . Philip Price and Flora Reed of the indie rock band Winterpills provide backing vocals on this version . Dario G also sampled the African style chant in `` Sunchyme '' . Released in September 1997 as the lead single from the album , Sunmachine , the song reached the top 5 position in many European music charts . It also topped the Billboard Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart in the United States following its release there in May 1998 . In the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart In August 2008 , Roger McGuinn performed the song on the television show Nashville Now . In 2005 , Rick Springfield did his version of the song on The Day After Yesterday , an album of all covers . In popular culture ( edit ) The song was used in the King of the Hill episode `` Wings of the Dope . '' An acoustic version of the song was featured in season 7 , episode 9 ( `` Rock in the Road '' ) of AMC 's series The Walking Dead on 12 February 2017 . It was also featured as an instrumental snippet in the American television series `` Fringe '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Monger , James Christopher . `` The Dream Academy -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . All Media Network . Retrieved 7 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Monger , James . `` The Dream Academy Biography & History AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 12 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : James McNair ( 26 March 1999 ) . `` Apprentice to the stars '' . London : The Independent . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` The Dream Academy '' . Billboard . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` Dream Academy '' . Official Charts . The Official UK Charts Company . Jump up ^ The Irish Charts - All there is to know . IRMA http://www.irishcharts.ie/search/placement . Retrieved 28 June 2016 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Randolph Michaels ( 2005 ) . Flashbacks to Happiness : Eighties Music Revisited . iUniverse , Inc. p. 56 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 595 - 37007 - 8 . Jump up ^ MacDonald , Ian . `` Exiled from Heaven '' . Mojo Magazine , January 2000 . Jump up ^ `` ' Life in a Northern Town ' sheet music '' . MusicNotes.com . Retrieved 24 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` mvdbase.com - the Dream Academy - `` Life in a northern town ( version 1 ) '' `` . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` mvdbase.com - the Dream Academy - `` Life in a northern town ( version 2 ) '' `` . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Kent , David ( 1993 ) . Australian Chart Book 1970 -- 1992 ( Illustrated ed . ) . St. Ives , N.S.W. : Australian Chart Book . p. 96 . ISBN 0 - 646 - 11917 - 6 . N.B. the Kent Report chart was licensed by ARIA between mid 1983 and 19 June 1988 . Jump up ^ `` Canada peak '' . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Search for Irish peaks '' . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Archive Chart : 1985 - 04 - 14 '' UK Singles Chart . Jump up ^ `` The Dream Academy -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for The Dream Academy . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2002 ) . Top Adult Contemporary : 1961 - 2001 . Record Research . p. 82 . ^ Jump up to : `` Sugarland Adds `` Life in a Northern Town '' to New CD `` . CMT. 4 June 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Stars Shining Over CMAs '' . Great American Country . 11 September 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Alison Krauss , Robert Plant Score at Grammys '' . Great American Country . 4 December 2008 . Archived from the original on 9 December 2012 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Academy of Country Music nominees '' . Academy of Country Music . 11 February 2009 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Sugarland -- Chart history '' Canadian Hot 100 for Sugarland . Jump up ^ `` Sugarland -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot Country Songs for Sugarland . Jump up ^ `` Sugarland -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for Sugarland . Jump up ^ Life In A Northern Town Curry Cuts Jump up ^ `` Wings of the Dope '' . Internet Movie Database . IMDb . Retrieved 25 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rock in the Road '' . Internet Movie Database . IMDb . Retrieved 19 February 2017 . External links ( edit ) Video of Sugarland version at CMT Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=633whHMOXWA&sns=fb Roger McGuinn performing the song on Nashville Now in August 1988 . The Dream Academy Gilbert Gabriel Nick Laird - Clowes Kate St John Studio albums The Dream Academy ( 1985 ) Remembrance Days ( 1987 ) A Different Kind of Weather ( 1990 ) Compilation albums Somewhere in the Sun ... Best of the Dream Academy ( 2000 ) The Morning Lasted All Day : A Retrospective ( 2014 ) Singles `` Life in a Northern Town '' `` The Edge of Forever '' `` The Love Parade '' `` Please , Please , Please , Let Me Get What I Want '' `` Love '' Sugarland Kristian Bush Jennifer Nettles Kristen Hall Studio albums Twice the Speed of Life Enjoy the Ride Love on the Inside Gold and Green The Incredible Machine Other albums Live on the Inside Singles `` Baby Girl '' `` Something More '' `` Just Might ( Make Me Believe ) '' `` Down in Mississippi ( Up to No Good ) '' `` Want To '' `` Settlin ' '' `` Everyday America '' `` Stay '' `` All I Want to Do '' `` Already Gone '' `` It Happens '' `` Joey '' `` Stuck Like Glue '' `` Little Miss '' `` Tonight '' `` Run '' ( w / Matt Nathanson ) Jennifer Nettles solo releases That Girl Playing with Fire To Celebrate Christmas `` That Girl '' `` Unlove You '' Kristian Bush solo releases Southern Gravity `` Trailer Hitch '' Related articles Discography `` Life in a Northern Town '' Billy Pilgrim `` California King Bed '' Duets Indiana State Fair stage collapse `` We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' `` Who Says You Ca n't Go Home '' Little Big Town Studio albums Little Big Town The Road to Here A Place to Land The Reason Why Tornado Pain Killer Wanderlust The Breaker Notable singles `` Do n't Waste My Time '' `` Boondocks '' `` Bring It On Home '' `` Good as Gone '' `` A Little More You '' `` I 'm with the Band '' `` Fine Line '' `` Little White Church '' `` Pontoon '' `` Tornado '' `` Your Side of the Bed '' `` Sober '' `` Day Drinking '' `` Girl Crush '' `` Pain Killer '' `` Better Man '' `` Happy People '' Guest singles `` Smokin ' and Drinkin ' '' ( with Miranda Lambert ) Karen Fairchild 's Guest singles `` Home Alone Tonight '' ( with Luke Bryan ) Other songs `` Go Tell It on the Mountain '' `` Life in a Northern Town '' ( with Sugarland and Jake Owen ) Related articles Discography Jake Owen Studio albums Startin ' with Me ( 2006 ) Easy Does It ( 2009 ) Barefoot Blue Jean Night ( 2011 ) Days of Gold ( 2013 ) American Love ( 2016 ) Singles `` Yee Haw '' `` Startin ' with Me '' `` Something About a Woman '' `` Do n't Think I Ca n't Love You '' `` Eight Second Ride '' `` Tell Me '' `` Barefoot Blue Jean Night '' `` Alone with You '' `` The One That Got Away '' `` Anywhere with You '' `` Days of Gold '' `` Beachin ' '' `` What We Ai n't Got '' `` Real Life '' `` American Country Love Song '' `` If He Ai n't Gonna Love You '' Other songs `` Back '' `` Life in a Northern Town '' Tours Days of Gold Tour Related topics Discography `` One Little Kiss '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Life_in_a_Northern_Town&oldid=800216371 '' Categories : 1985 singles 1985 songs 2008 singles Debut singles Vocal duets Songs written by Nick Laird - Clowes The Dream Academy songs Sugarland songs Little Big Town songs Jake Owen songs Baroque pop songs Warner Bros. Records singles Mercury Records singles Song recordings produced by Byron Gallimore Blanco y Negro Records singles Music videos directed by Tim Pope Song recordings produced by David Gilmour Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Use dmy dates from July 2012 Use British English from July 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 12 September 2017 , at 03 : 45 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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when did the us place an embargo on cuba

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=United_States_embargo_against_Cuba&oldid=842082595

United States embargo against Cuba - wikipedia United States embargo against Cuba Jump to : navigation , search `` Cuban blockade '' redirects here . For the 1962 weaponry blockade , see Cuban Missile Crisis § Quarantine . John F. Kennedy and Fidel Castro The United States embargo against Cuba ( in Cuba called el bloqueo , `` the blockade '' ) is a commercial , economic , and financial embargo imposed by the United States on Cuba . An embargo was first imposed by the United States on sale of arms to Cuba on March 14 , 1958 , during the Fulgencio Batista regime . Again on October 19 , 1960 ( almost two years after the Batista regime was deposed by the Cuban Revolution ) the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized American - owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation . On February 7 , 1962 the embargo was extended to include almost all imports . Currently , the Cuban embargo is enforced mainly through six statutes : the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 , the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 , the Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963 , the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 , the Helms -- Burton Act of 1996 , and the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000 . The stated purpose of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 is to maintain sanctions on Cuba as long as the Cuban government refuses to move toward `` democratization and greater respect for human rights '' . The Helms -- Burton Act further restricted United States citizens from doing business in or with Cuba , and mandated restrictions on giving public or private assistance to any successor government in Havana unless and until certain claims against the Cuban government were met . In 1999 , President Bill Clinton expanded the trade embargo by also disallowing foreign subsidiaries of U.S. companies to trade with Cuba . In 2000 , Clinton authorized the sale of `` humanitarian '' U.S. products to Cuba . Despite the Spanish - language term bloqueo ( blockade ) , there has been no physical , naval blockade of the country by the United States after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 . The United States does not block Cuba 's trade with third parties : other countries are not under the jurisdiction of U.S. domestic laws , such as the Cuban Democracy Act ( although , in theory , foreign countries that trade with Cuba could be penalised by the U.S. , which has been condemned as an `` extraterritorial '' measure that contravenes `` the sovereign equality of States , non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs . '' ) . Cuba can , and does , conduct international trade with many third - party countries ; Cuba has been a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) since 1995 . Beyond criticisms of human rights in Cuba , the United States holds $6 billion worth of financial claims against the Cuban government . The pro-embargo position is that the U.S. embargo is , in part , an appropriate response to these unaddressed claims . The Latin America Working Group argues that pro-embargo Cuban - American exiles , whose votes are crucial in Florida , have swayed many politicians to also adopt similar views . The Cuban - American views have been opposed by some business leaders who argue that trading freely would be good for Cuba and the United States . At present , the embargo , which limits American businesses from conducting business with Cuban interests , is still in effect and is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history . Despite the existence of the embargo , the United States is the fifth largest exporter to Cuba ( 6.6 % of Cuba 's imports are from the US ) . Cuba must , however , pay cash for all imports , as credit is not allowed . The UN General Assembly has , since 1992 , passed a resolution every year condemning the ongoing impact of the embargo and declaring it to be in violation of the Charter of the United Nations and international law . In 2014 , out of the 193 - nation assembly , 188 countries voted for the nonbinding resolution , the United States and Israel voted against and the Pacific island nations Palau , Marshall Islands and Micronesia abstained . Human rights groups including Amnesty International , Human Rights Watch , and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have also been critical of the embargo . Critics of the embargo say that the embargo laws are too harsh , citing the fact that violations can result in up to 10 years in prison . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Eisenhower era 1.2 Kennedy era 1.2. 1 The Bay of Pigs invasion and Cuba 's declaration of Marxism 1.2. 2 The Cuban Missile Crisis 1.3 Temporary lapse of restrictions , and reinstatement 1.4 Helms -- Burton Act 2 Details of Cuban embargo 2.1 Impacts of the embargo 2.2 Economic impacts of the embargo 2.3 Restrictions on tourism by U.S. citizens and residents 3 Easing the embargo 3.1 Cuban - Americans 3.2 General changes 3.3 Investment in Cuba by Americans 4 Socio - economic effects of the embargo 5 Criticism of embargo laws and rules 6 2010 Bill to end the travel ban 7 Reestablishment of diplomatic relations 8 Polling data and public opinion 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History ( edit ) Eisenhower era ( edit ) Fidel Castro at a meeting of the United Nations General Assembly The United States imposed an arms embargo on Cuba on March 14 , 1958 during the armed conflict between rebels led by Fidel Castro and the Fulgencio Batista regime . The armed conflict violated U.S. policy which had permitted the sale of weapons to Latin - American countries that were a part of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance ( Rio Treaty ) as long as they were not used for hostile purposes . The arms embargo had more of an impact on Batista than the rebels . After the Castro socialist government came to power on January 1 , 1959 , Castro made overtures to the United States , but was rebuffed by the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration , which by March began making plans to help overthrow him . Congress did not want to lift the embargo . In May 1960 , the Cuban government began to openly purchase regular armaments from the Soviet Union , citing the US arms embargo . In July 1960 , the United States reduced the import quota of brown sugar from Cuba to 700,000 tons , under the Sugar Act of 1948 ; and the Soviet Union responded by agreeing to purchase the sugar instead . In October 1960 , a key incident occurred that led to the Cuban government nationalizing all three American - owned oil refineries in the nation . Cuba nationalized the refineries following Eisenhower 's decision to cancel 700,000 tons of sugar imports from Cuba to the U.S. and refused to export oil to the island , leaving it reliant on Soviet crude oil that the American companies refused to refine , which led to Cuba 's nationalization response . The refinery owners were never compensated for the nationalization of their property . Today the refineries are owned & operated by the state - run company , Unión Cuba - Petróleo . This prompted the Eisenhower administration to launch the first trade embargo -- a prohibition against selling all products to Cuba except food and medicine . The Cuban regime responded with nationalization of all American businesses and most American privately owned properties on the island . No compensation was given for the seizures , and a number of diplomats were expelled from Cuba . The second wave of nationalizations prompted the Eisenhower administration , in one of its last actions , to sever all diplomatic relations with Cuba , in January 1961 . The U.S. partial trade embargo with Cuba was continued , under the Trading with the Enemy Act 1917 . Kennedy era ( edit ) The Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuba 's declaration of marxism ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) After the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961 , which had been largely planned under the Eisenhower administration , but which Kennedy had been informed of and approved during the months preceding his presidency and in his first few months as president , the Cuban government declared that it now considered itself Marxist and socialist , and aligned with the Soviet Union . On September 4 , 1961 , partly in response , Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act , a Cold War Act ( among many other measures ) which prohibited aid to Cuba and authorized the President to impose a complete trade embargo against Cuba . On January 21 , 1962 , Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States ( OAS ) by a vote of 14 in favor , one ( Cuba ) against with six abstentions . ( See Cuban relations with the Organization of American States for details of the proceedings . ) Mexico and Ecuador , two abstaining members , argued that the expulsion was not authorized in the OAS Charter . ( Multilateral sanctions were imposed by the OAS on July 26 , 1964 , which were later rescinded on July 29 , 1975 . Cuban relations with the Organization of American States have since improved , and as of June 3 , 2009 , membership suspension was lifted . ) President John F. Kennedy extended measures by Executive order , first widening the scope of the trade restrictions on February 8 , 1962 ( announced on February 3 and again on March 23 , 1962 ) . These measures expanded the embargo to include all imports of products containing Cuban goods , even if the final products had been made or assembled outside Cuba . On August 3 , 1962 the Foreign Assistance Act was amended to prohibit aid to any country that provides assistance to Cuba . On September 7 , 1962 President Kennedy formally expanded the Cuban embargo to include all Cuban trade , except for non-subsidized sale of food and medicines The Cuban Missile Crisis ( edit ) Following the Cuban Missile Crisis ( October 1962 ) , Kennedy imposed travel restrictions on February 8 , 1963 , and the Cuban Assets Control Regulations were issued on July 8 , 1963 , again under the Trading with the Enemy Act in response to Cubans hosting Soviet nuclear weapons . Under these restrictions , Cuban assets in the U.S. were frozen and the existing restrictions were consolidated . Temporary lapse of restrictions , and reinstatement ( edit ) The restrictions on U.S. citizens traveling to Cuba lapsed on March 19 , 1977 ; the regulation was renewable every six months , but President Jimmy Carter did not renew it and the regulation on spending U.S. dollars in Cuba was lifted shortly afterwards . President Ronald Reagan reinstated the trade embargo on April 19 , 1982 , though it was now only restricted to business and tourist travel and did not apply to travel by U.S. government officials , employees of news or film making organizations , persons engaging in professional research , or persons visiting their close relatives . This has been modified subsequently with the present regulation , effective June 30 , 2004 , being the Cuban Assets Control Regulations , 31 C.F.R. part 515 . The current regulation does not prohibit travel by U.S. citizens to Cuba per se , but it makes it illegal for U.S. citizens to have transactions ( spend money or receive gifts ) in Cuba under most circumstances without a US government Office of Foreign Assets Control issued license . Since even paying unavoidable airfare ticket taxes into a Cuban airport would violate this transaction law , it is effectively impossible for ordinary tourists to visit Cuba without breaking the monetary transaction rule . Helms -- Burton Act ( edit ) The embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act ( the `` Torricelli Law '' ) and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act ( known as the Helms -- Burton Act ) which penalizes foreign companies that do business in Cuba by preventing them from doing business in the U.S. Justification provided for these restrictions was that these companies were trafficking in stolen U.S. properties , and should , thus , be excluded from the United States . However , Obama has tried to lift the embargo , but congress will not allow it . The European Union resented the Helms - Burton Act because it felt that the U.S. was dictating how other nations ought to conduct their trade and challenged it on that basis . The EU eventually dropped its challenge in favor of negotiating a solution . After Cuba shot down two unarmed Brothers to the Rescue planes in 1996 , killing three Americans and a U.S. resident , a bi-partisan coalition in the United States Congress approved the Helms - Burton Act . The Title III of this law also states that any non-U.S. company that `` knowingly trafficks in property in Cuba confiscated without compensation from a U.S. person '' can be subjected to litigation and that company 's leadership can be barred from entry into the United States . Sanctions may also be applied to non-U.S. companies trading with Cuba . This restriction also applies to maritime shipping , as ships docking at Cuban ports are not allowed to dock at U.S. ports for six months . It 's important to note that this title includes waiver authority , so that the President might suspend its application . This waiver must be renewed every six months and traditionally it has been . In response to pressure from some American farmers and agribusiness , the embargo was relaxed by the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act , which was passed by the Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton . The relaxation allowed the sale of agricultural goods and medicine to Cuba for humanitarian reasons . Although Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade ( having even refused U.S. food aid in the past , seeing it as a half - measure serving U.S. interests ) , the Cuban government began to allow the purchase of food from the U.S. as a result of Hurricane Michelle in November 2001 . These purchases have grown since then , even though all sales are made in cash . In 2007 , the U.S. was the largest food supplier of Cuba , which nevertheless is largely self - sufficient , and its fifth largest trading partner . In some tourist spots across the island , American brands such as Coca - Cola can be purchased . Ford tankers refuel planes in airports and some computers use Microsoft software . The origin of the financing behind such goods is not always clear . The goods often come from third parties based in countries outside the U.S. , even if the product being dealt originally has U.S. shareholders or investors . This can be seen , for example , with Nestlé products ( which have a 10 % US ownership ) that can be bought in Cuba with Cuban convertible pesos ( CUCs ) . These CUC pesos are hard currency that are traded in foreign exchange against the US dollar , Euro and other currencies . Details of Cuban embargo ( edit ) Impacts of the embargo ( edit ) In November 1991 , the Cuban ambassador , Ricardo Alarcon , in a speech to the UN General Assembly , cited 27 recent cases of trade contracts interrupted by US pressure . The British journal Cuba Business claimed that British Petroleum was seemingly dissuaded by US authorities from investing in offshore oil exploration in Cuba despite being initially keenly interested . The Petroleum economist claimed , in September 1992 , that the US State Department vigorously discouraged firms like Royal Dutch Shell and Clyde Petroleum from investing in Cuba . This pressure did not work in all cases . According to the Mexican Newspaper El Financiero , the US ambassador to Mexico , John Negroponte travelled to meet two Mexican business men who had signed a textile deal with Cuba on October 17 , 1992 . Despite the representation , the deal went ahead and was eventually worth $500 million in foreign capital . All of this happened before the signing of the Cuban Democracy Act . Economic impacts of the embargo ( edit ) The Economic impacts of the U.S. embargo on Cuba are the monetary long - term and short - term outcomes that the embargo has had on both countries in relation to trade , industry , and the creation of wealth . The U.S. sanctions on Cuba and their economic impacts can be traced back to when they were first implemented in the 1960s . According to the United States Chamber of Commerce , the embargo is currently costing the United States economy $1.2 billion per year due to the legal structures that are preventing U.S. based exporters from entering Cuban markets . The Cuba Policy Foundation ( CPF ) has provided more extreme data . Their estimates put the cost that the embargo has had on the U.S. at $4.84 billion per year while costing Cuba $685 million per year. ( 3 ) As of today , Cuba is estimated to have lost over $28.6 billion in trade according to Cuba 's Institute of Economic Research . Between 1954 and 1958 , trade between Cuba and the United States was at a higher level than what it is today . 65 % of Cuba 's total exports were sent to the United States while imports from the U.S. totaled to 74 % percent of Cuba 's international purchases . After the formal implementation of the embargo and the passage of Proclamation 3355 , there was a 95 % decrease in Cuba 's sugar quota , which canceled roughly 700,000 tons of the 3,119,655 tons previously allotted to the United States . A year later , Cuba 's sugar quota was reduced to zero when President Eisenhower issued Proclamation 3383 . This substantially affected Cuba 's total exports as Cuba was one of the world 's leading sugar exporters at the time . By 1989 , with the collapse of the Soviet bloc , Cuba witnessed its most devastating economic crises . Cuba 's GDP plummeted 34 % and trade with the nations apart of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance ( CMEA ) declined by 56 % . Between 1989 and 1992 the termination of traditional trade partnerships with the Soviet bloc caused the total value of Cuba 's exports to fall by 61 % and imports to drop by approximately 72 % . This period is known as the Special Period . Supporters of the embargo and many international economists believed that the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the resultant economic crisis would lead to the downfall of Fidel Castro 's government . Cuba 's government however instituted a campaign of macroeconomic adjustment and liberalization which helped significant economic recovery . According to a report released in 2001 by the U.S. International Trade Commission in response to a request made by the U.S. House of Representatives , the total value of U.S. exports of selected agricultural products , intermediate goods , and manufactured goods to Cuba in the absence of U.S. sanctions was estimated to be at $146 and $658 million for U.S. imports from Cuba between 1996 and 1998 . Recently , the United States Commerce 's Bureau of Industry and Security ( BIS ) has become more lenient with some of the sanctions imposed upon Cuba by introducing new streamlined procedures to expedite processing of license applications for exporting eligible agricultural commodities to Cuba . As a result , annual U.S. exports to Cuba have risen from $6 million to about $350 million between 2000 and 2006 . Over this period U.S. exports to Cuba have totaled to more than $1.5 billion . As of 2006 agricultural products have comprised 98 % of total U.S. exports to Cuba . Restrictions on tourism by U.S. citizens and residents ( edit ) Cuba is 90 miles ( 145 kilometres ) south of Florida Cuban Assets Control Regulations require that persons subject to U.S. jurisdiction be licensed in order to engage in any travel - related transactions pursuant to travel to , from , and within Cuba . Transactions related solely to tourist travel are not licensable . Spurred by a burgeoning interest in the assumed untapped product demand in Cuba , a growing number of free - marketers in Congress , backed by Western and Great Plains lawmakers who represent agribusiness , have tried each year since 2000 to water down or lift regulations preventing Americans from traveling to Cuba . Four times over that time period the United States House of Representatives has adopted language lifting the travel ban , and in 2003 the U.S. Senate followed suit for the first time . Each time President George W. Bush threatened to veto the bill . Faced with a veto threat , each year Congress dropped its attempt to lift the travel ban before sending legislation to the president . Some United States nationals circumvent the ban by traveling to Cuba from a different country ( such as Mexico , The Bahamas , Canada or Costa Rica ) , as Cuban immigration authorities do not routinely stamp passports , but instead stamp a Cuban visa page which is provided , and not permanently affixed to the passport . In doing so , however , U.S. citizens still risk prosecution and fines by the U.S. government if discovered . Until July 20 , 2015 there was no U.S. Embassy or consulate in Cuba and United States representation was limited to a United States Interests Section . The United States Treasury Department 's Office of Foreign Assets Control ( OFAC ) considers any visit of more than one day to be prima facie proof of violation . OFAC also holds that U.S. citizens may not receive goods or services for free from any Cuban national , eliminating any attempts to circumvent the regulation based on that premise . On July 25 , 2011 , OFAC declared that the `` people to people '' relaxation of restrictions on travel conceded by the Obama administration should not be mistakenly interpreted as promoting tourism . On October 10 , 2006 , the United States announced the creation of a task force made up of officials from several U.S. agencies that will pursue more aggressively violators of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba , with severe penalties . The regulations are still in force and are administered by the U.S. Treasury Department , Office of Foreign Assets Control . Criminal penalties for violating the embargo range up to ten years in prison , $1 million in corporate fines , and $250,000 in individual fines ; civil penalties up to $55,000 per violation . Newsweek reported in September 2016 that the future President Donald Trump 's hotel company violated this embargo , spending a minimum of $68,000 for its 1998 foray into Cuba - at a time when the corporate expenditure of even a penny in the Caribbean country was prohibited without U.S. government approval . With Trump 's knowledge , executives funneled the cash for the Cuba trip through an American consulting firm called Seven Arrows Investment and Development Corp . Once the business consultants traveled to the island and incurred the expenses for the venture , Seven Arrows instructed senior officers with Trump 's company -- then called Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts -- how to make it appear legal by linking it after the fact to a charitable effort . Easing the embargo ( edit ) Cuban - Americans ( edit ) On April 13 , 2009 , President Barack Obama eased the travel ban , allowing Cuban - Americans to travel freely to Cuba ; and on January 14 , 2011 , he further eased the ban , by allowing students and religious missionaries to travel to Cuba if they meet certain restrictions . General changes ( edit ) On July 16 , 2012 , the Ana Cecilia became the first officially sanctioned direct ship to sail from Miami to Cuba . It carried food , medicine and personal hygiene goods sent by Cuban - Americans to family members . In 2014 , the Obama administration announced its intention to re-establish relations with Cuba . In January 2015 , the Administration lightened restrictions on U.S. citizen travel to Cuba . While restrictions on travel for missionary work and education have been loosened , visits for tourism remain banned . President Obama and President Raúl Castro of Cuba met on April 11 , 2015 , which was the first meeting between distinct leaders of the two countries in over fifty years . In May 2015 , several American companies reported they had been granted licenses to establish ferry travel between Florida and Cuba , with a U.S. Department of Treasury spokeswoman confirming they had begun issuing licenses . So far the general ban on travel to Cuba remains in effect for Americans , so the ferry service will not be accessible to Americans who have not received special approval for travel to Cuba . On September 21 , 2015 , the Commerce and Treasury Departments took additional coordinated actions in support of the President 's Cuba policy . These actions included a rule published by the Commerce Department 's Bureau of Industry and Security ( BIS ) that amended the terms of existing license exceptions that are available for Cuba , increased the number of license exception provisions that are available for Cuba , created a new Cuba licensing policy to help ensure the safety of civil aviation and the safe operation of commercial passenger aircraft , and made the deemed export and deemed reexport license requirements for Cuba consistent with other sanctioned destinations . Investment in Cuba by Americans ( edit ) In February 2016 , the U.S. Government allowed two American men from Alabama to build a factory that will assemble as many as 1,000 small tractors a year for sale to private farmers in Cuba . The $5 million to $10 million plant would be the first significant U.S. business investment on Cuban soil since 1959 . They expect to start making deliveries in 2017 . Socio - economic effects of the embargo ( edit ) The U.S. Chamber of Commerce estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $1.2 billion per year in lost sales and exports , while the Cuban government estimates that the embargo has cost the island itself $753.69 billion . The self - proclaimed non-partisan Cuba Policy Foundation estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $3.6 billion per year in economic output . The 1998 U.S. State Department report Zenith and Eclipse : A Comparative Look at Socio - Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba attributed Cuba 's economic penury not as a result of the embargo , but instead the lack of foreign currency due to the unwillingness of Cuba to liberalize its economy and diversify its export base during the years of abundant Soviet aid . Cuba also amassed substantial debts owed to its Japanese , European , and Latin American trading partners during the years of abundant Soviet aid . According to critics , one of the major problems with the embargo is that the United States is the only major country that has such an embargo against Cuba in place . Cuba still receives tourists and trade from other countries making the embargo appear both illegitimate and pointless . Criticism of embargo laws and rules ( edit ) Main article : Freedom to Travel to Cuba Act The UN General Assembly has , from 1992 , passed a resolution each year criticizing the ongoing impact of the embargo . ( show ) UN Resolutions against the US embargo on Cuba year date resolution number link for against abstention voting against November 24 47 / 19 https://undocs.org/A/RES/47/19 ( The 19th resolution of the 47th session of the UN General Assembly ) 59 71 U.S. , Israel , Romania November 3 48 / 16 https://undocs.org/A/RES/48/16 88 57 U.S. , Israel , Albania , Paraguay October 26 49 / 9 https://undocs.org/A/RES/49/9 101 48 U.S. , Israel 1995 November 2 50 / 10 https://undocs.org/A/RES/50/10 117 38 U.S. , Israel , Uzbekistan November 12 51 / 17 https://undocs.org/A/RES/51/17 138 25 U.S. , Israel , Uzbekistan November 5 52 / 10 https://undocs.org/A/RES/52/10 143 17 U.S. , Israel , Uzbekistan 1998 October 14 53 / 4 https://undocs.org/A/RES/53/4 157 12 U.S. , Israel 1999 November 9 54 / 21 https://undocs.org/A/RES/54/21 155 8 U.S. , Israel 2000 November 9 55 / 20 https://undocs.org/A/RES/55/20 167 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands November 27 56 / 9 https://undocs.org/A/RES/56/9 167 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands 2002 November 12 57 / 11 https://undocs.org/A/RES/57/11 173 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands 2003 November 4 58 / 7 https://undocs.org/A/RES/58/7 179 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands October 28 59 / 11 https://undocs.org/A/RES/59/11 179 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2005 November 8 60 / 12 https://undocs.org/A/RES/60/12 182 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2006 November 8 61 / 11 https://undocs.org/A/RES/61/11 183 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2007 October 30 62 / 3 https://undocs.org/A/RES/62/3 184 U.S. , Israel , Marshall Islands , Palau 2008 October 29 63 / 7 https://undocs.org/A/RES/63/7 185 U.S. , Israel , Palau 2009 October 28 64 / 6 https://undocs.org/A/RES/64/6 187 U.S. , Israel , Palau October 26 65 / 6 https://undocs.org/A/RES/65/6 187 U.S. , Israel 2011 October 25 66 / 6 https://undocs.org/A/RES/66/6 186 U.S. , Israel 2012 November 13 67 / 4 https://undocs.org/A/RES/67/4 188 U.S. , Israel , Palau `` Future students of American history will be scratching their heads about this case for decades to come . Our embargo and refusal to normalize diplomatic relations has nothing to do with communism . Otherwise , we would n't have had diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War , with China since Nixon , and with Vietnam despite our bitter war there . No , Cuba was pure politics . Though it started out to be a measure of an administration 's resistance to Castro 's politics , it very soon became a straitjacket whereby first - generation Cuban - Americans wielded inordinate political power over both parties and constructed a veto over rational , mature diplomacy . '' -- Gary Hart , former U.S. Senator , March 2011 The embargo has been criticized for its effects on food , clean water , medicine , and other economic needs of the Cuban population . Criticism has come from both Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro , citizens and groups from within Cuba , and international organizations and leaders . Some academic critics , outside Cuba , have also linked the embargo to shortages of medical supplies and soap which have resulted in a series of medical crises and heightened levels of infectious diseases . Academic critics have also been linked to epidemics of specific diseases , including neurological disorders and blindness caused by poor nutrition . Travel restrictions embedded in the embargo have also been shown to limit the amount of medical information that flows into Cuba from the United States . An article written in 1997 suggests malnutrition and disease resulting from increased food and medicine prices have affected men and the elderly , in particular , due to Cuba 's rationing system which gives preferential treatment to women and children . Cuban Foreign Minister Felipe Pérez Roque called the embargo `` an act of genocide '' , quoting a classified State Department memo dated April 6 , 1960 that called on the US to use every tool at its disposal to bring down Fidel Castro through hunger and disease . On May 1 , 2009 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez , while speaking about his meeting U.S. President Barack Obama at a summit days earlier , stated `` if President Obama does not dismantle this savage blockade of the Cuban people , then it is all a lie , it will all be a great farce and the U.S. empire will be alive and well , threatening us . '' In June 2009 , Moisés Naím wrote in Newsweek : `` The embargo is the perfect example used by anti-Americans everywhere to expose the hypocrisy of a superpower that punishes a small island while cozying to dictators elsewhere . '' The Helms - Burton Act has been the target of criticism from Canadian and European governments in particular , who object to what they say is the extraterritorial pretensions of a piece of legislation aimed at punishing non-U.S. corporations and non-U.S. investors who have economic interests in Cuba . In the House of Commons of Canada , Helms - Burton was mocked by the introduction of the Godfrey - Milliken Bill , which called for the return of property of United Empire Loyalists seized by the American government as a result of the American Revolution ( the bill never became law ) . The European Council has stated that it : while reaffirming its concern to promote democratic reform in Cuba , recalled the deep concern expressed by the European Council over the extraterritorial effects of the `` Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity ( Libertad ) Act '' adopted by the United States and similar pending legislation regarding Iran and Libya . It noted the widespread international objections to this legislation . It called upon President Clinton to waive the provisions of Title III and expressed serious concern at the measures already taken to implement Title IV of the Act . The Council identified a range of measures which could be deployed by the EU in response to the damage to the interests of EU companies resulting from the implementation of the Act . Among these are the following : a move to a WTO dispute settlement panel ; ' changes in the procedures governing entry by representatives of US companies to EU Member States ; the use / introduction of legislation within the EU to neutralize the extraterritorial effects of the US legislation ; the establishment of a watch list of US companies filing Title III actions . Some critics say that the embargo actually helps the regime more than it hurts it , by providing it with a bogeyman for all of Cuba 's misfortunes . Hillary Clinton publicly shared the view that the embargo helps the Castros , noting that `` It is my personal belief that the Castros do not want to see an end to the embargo and do no want to see normalization with the United States . '' Clinton said in the same interview that `` we 're open to changing with them . '' In a 2005 interview , George P. Shultz , who served as Secretary of State under Reagan , called the embargo `` insane '' . Daniel Griswold , director of the Cato Institute 's Center for Trade Policy Studies , criticized the embargo in a June 2009 article : The embargo has been a failure by every measure . It has not changed the course or nature of the Cuban government . It has not liberated a single Cuban citizen . In fact , the embargo has made the Cuban people a bit more impoverished , without making them one bit more free . At the same time , it has deprived Americans of their freedom to travel and has cost US farmers and other producers billions of dollars of potential exports . Some American business leaders openly call for an end to the embargo . They argue , as long as the embargo continues , non-U.S. foreign businesses in Cuba that violate the embargo , do not have to compete with U.S. businesses , and thus , will have a head start when and if the embargo is lifted . José Azel , a Senior Research Associate at the Institute for Cuban and Cuban - American Studies , University of Miami and the author of the recently published book , Mañana in Cuba ( Tomorrow in Cuba ) took a different view : Currently over 190 nations engage economically and politically with Cuba while the United States remains alone in enforcing its economic sanctions policy . If indeed U.S. policy is deemed as one case of failure to change the nature of the Cuban government , there are 190 cases of failure on the same grounds . By a preponderance of evidence ( 190 to 1 ) the case can be made that engagement with that regime has been a dismal failure . Some religious leaders oppose the embargo for a variety of reasons , including humanitarian and economic restrictions the embargo imposes on Cubans . Pope John Paul II called for the end to the embargo during his 1979 pastoral visit to Mexico . Patriarch Bartholomew I called the embargo a `` historic mistake '' while visiting the island on January 25 , 2004 . A joint letter in 1998 from the Disciples of Christ and the United Church of Christ to the U.S. Senate called for the easing of economic restrictions against Cuba . While also opposing the embargo , the General Secretary of the National Council of Churches stated , `` We did not understand the depth of the suffering of Christians under communism . And we failed to really cry out under the communist oppression . '' Rev. Jesse Jackson , Rev. Al Sharpton , and Minister Louis Farrakhan have also publicly opposed the embargo . On May 15 , 2002 former President Jimmy Carter spoke in Havana , calling for an end to the embargo , saying `` Our two nations have been trapped in a destructive state of belligerence for 42 years , and it is time for us to change our relationship . '' The US bishops called for an end to the embargo on Cuba , after Pope Benedict XVI 's 2012 visit to the island . The United Nations General Assembly has condemned the embargo as a violation of international law every year since 1992 . Israel is the only country that routinely joins the U.S. in voting against the resolution as has Palau every year from 2004 to 2008 . On October 26 , 2010 , for the 19th time , the General Assembly condemned the embargo , 187 to 2 with 3 abstentions . Israel sided with the U.S. , while Marshall Islands , Palau and Micronesia abstained . Film director Michael Moore challenged the embargo by bringing 9 / 11 rescue workers in need of health care to Cuba to obtain subsidized health care . In June 2011 , former Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern blamed `` embittered Cuban exiles in Miami '' for keeping the embargo alive . Before visiting Cuba , he said : It 's a stupid policy . There 's no reason why we ca n't be friends with the Cubans , and vice versa . A lot of them have relatives in the United States , and some Americans have relatives in Cuba , so we should have freedom of travel ... We seem to think it 's safe to open the door to a billion communists in China but for some reason , we 're scared to death of the Cubans . Barack Obama discussed easing the embargo during his 2008 campaign for president of the U.S. , though he promised to maintain it . In December 2014 , he called the embargo a failure , asking the U.S. Congress to enact legislation to lift it entirely . Alicia Barcena , Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean , estimated on May 2018 that the blockade has cost Cuba over 130 billion US dollars over the last five decades and that `` This country ( Cuba ) ... is testing its own ways to face the brutal human costs that it has sustained during an unjust blockade . '' 2010 bill to end the travel ban ( edit ) On February 23 , 2010 , U.S. Congressman Rep. Collin Peterson of Minnesota introduced a bill that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba or preventing transactions required for such trips . On June 10 , 2010 seventy - four of Cuba 's dissidents signed a letter to the United States Congress in support of a bill that would lift the U.S. travel ban for Americans wishing to visit Cuba . The signers included Yoani Sánchez , Guillermo Farinas , Elizardo Sánchez , and Damas de Blanco founder Miriam Levi . The letter supported a bill introduced by Democrat Minnesota Representative Collin Peterson , that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba and from blocking transactions required to make the trip . The bill also prohibited the president from stopping direct transfers between U.S. and Cuban banks . Reestablishment of diplomatic relations ( edit ) Main article : Cuban Thaw In concert with a prisoner exchange with Cuba , Presidents Barack Obama and Raúl Castro announced moves on December 17 , 2014 to reestablish diplomatic relations and to loosen travel and economic policies . Cuba released Alan Gross , an American prisoner , on humanitarian grounds and exchanged an unnamed American spy for the three remaining members of the Cuban Five . Obama also announced a review of Cuba 's status as a terrorist state and an intention to ask Congress to remove the embargo entirely . Cuba agreed to release 53 political prisoners and to allow Red Cross and UN human - rights investigators access . On May 29 , 2015 , according to the U.S. State Department , `` Cuba 's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism was rescinded '' . Under the announced changes by the President , there will be an increased ability to transact with Cuban nationals and businesses , including Cuban financial institutions . Additionally , permitted U.S. banks will now be able to open accredited accounts in Cuban banks . On January 12 , 2017 , President Barack Obama announced the immediate cessation of the wet feet , dry feet policy , eight days before his term ended . The Cuban government agreed to accept the return of Cuban nationals . Beginning in 2014 , anticipation of the end of the policy had led to increased numbers of Cuban immigrants . On November 8 , 2017 , it was announced that US President Donald Trump 's Administration had enacted new rules which would re-enforce the business and travel restrictions which were loosened by the Obama Administration and would go into effect on November 9 . Polling data and Public Opinion ( edit ) A 2008 USA Today / Gallup Poll indicated that Americans believed that diplomatic relations `` should '' be re-established with Cuba . ( 61 % in favor , 31 % opposed . ) In January 2012 an Angus Reid Public Opinion poll showed that 57 % of Americans called for ending the travel ban that prevented most Americans from visiting Cuba , with 27 % disagreeing and 16 % not sure . Polls show declining support for sanctions among Cuban Americans . A June 2014 poll showed 52 % of Cuban Americans in Miami - Dade County , Florida , opposed the embargo and 48 % supported it . In the United States lobbying groups such as Engage Cuba advocate for the end of the embargo . See also ( edit ) Sanctions against Iraq Sanctions against Iran Sanctions against Japan Sanctions against Russia List of vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Case Studies in Economic Sanctions and Terrorism : US v. Gta 5 ( 1960 -- : Castro ) '' ( PDF ) . Peterson Institute for International Economics . October 2011 . Retrieved December 29 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The US Embargo Against Cuba : Its Impact on Economic and Social Rights '' ( PDF ) . Amnesty International . September 2009 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on February 28 , 2013 . Retrieved December 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 '' . U.S. Department of State . Archived from the original on August 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` 515 - The President 's News Conference November 20 , 1962 '' . White House Audio Recordings , 1961 - 1963 . John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum . Jump up ^ `` Speakers Denounce Cuban Embargo as ' Sad Echo ' of Failed Cold War Politics ; General Assembly , for Twentieth Year , Demands Lifting of Economic Blockade '' . Un.org . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` European Union , Trade in goods with Cuba '' ( PDF ) . Trade.ec.europa.eu . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cuba - Member information '' . WTO . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Claims Against Cuba Buyer Beware '' . The Poblete DC , 08 / 04 / 08 ^ Jump up to : `` Cuba 's Economic Sanctions and Property Rights '' . `` Focus '' Issue 165 , 05 / 21 / 12 . Jump up ^ `` Ignored Majority -- The Moderate Cuban - American Community '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Eyes on Cuba : U.S. Business and the Embargo '' . Foreign Affairs . Jump up ^ `` CIA 's The World Factbook '' . Cia.gov . Retrieved June 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` End embargo on Cuba , US is urged '' . BBC News . September 2 , 2009 . Retrieved May 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` For 23rd time , U.N. nations urge end to U.S. embargo on Cuba '' . Reuters . Retrieved September 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Cuba : A Step Forward on US Travel Regulations '' . Human Rights Watch . January 19 , 2011 . Retrieved January 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` IACHR Annual Report 2011 '' . Inter-American Commission on Human Rights . Retrieved January 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Wiskari , Werner ( April 3 , 1958 ) . `` U.S. Embargo Set on Arms to Cuba ; Shipment Halted '' . The New York Times . Retrieved February 8 , 2017 -- via latinamericanstudies.org . Jump up ^ Haass , Richard N. Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy. 1998 . Jump up ^ Ike Slashes Sugar Quotas , Chicago Tribune , July 7 1960 Jump up ^ Cuba Seizes Oil Plants of Two More Firms , Chicago Tribune , July 2 1960 Jump up ^ Matt Peppe ( January 12 , 2015 ) . `` How Obama Could End The Cuban Embargo '' . www.counterpunch.org . Retrieved March 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ CounterPunch , June 18 , 2009 , `` U.S. Cuba Policy : A Case of Post Diplomatic Stress Disorder '' . Jump up ^ Franklin , Jane ( 1997 ) . Cuba and the United States : A Chronological History ( PDF ) . Ocean Press . p. 132 . ISBN 9781875284924 . Retrieved September 28 , 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.historyofcuba.com/embargo/EmbargoTimeline.pdf ^ Jump up to : http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a487629.pdf Jump up ^ `` Recent OFAC Actions '' . Office of Foreign Assets Control , United States Department of the Treasury . June 16 , 2004 . Archived from the original on November 2 , 2006 . Retrieved November 5 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Cuban Assets Control Regulations , 31 C.F.R. part 515 '' . Jump up ^ `` Cuban Assets Control Regulations '' ( PDF ) . Office of Foreign Assets Control . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on May 28 , 2008 . Retrieved May 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` EU suspends challenge against controversial US law '' . BBC News . April 22 , 1998 . Retrieved October 29 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Cuba to reject US aid '' . BBC . September 11 , 1998 . Jump up ^ `` US Remains Cuba 's Top Food Source , Exported $600 M in Agricultural Products to Island in 2007 '' . Associated Press . January 22 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Patchy blockade '' . The Economist . August 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. goods , people , cash pour into Cuba '' . Jump up ^ Cuba in the International System : Normalization and integration , 1995 - editors Archibald Ritter and John Kirk , St. Martin 's Press ISBN 0 - 312 - 12653 - 0 - article by Andrew Zimbalist Jump up ^ U.S. International Trade Commission ( February 2001 ) . The Economic Impact of U.S. Sanctions With Respect to Cuba . Washington , DC : U.S. International Trade Commission . pp. 332 -- 414 . Jump up ^ `` The Costs of the Embargo Dollars & Sense '' . www.dollarsandsense.org . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Embargo against Cuba under Growing Siege '' . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : Caraway , Rose ( 2004 ) . `` Post-embargo Cuba : Economic Implications and the Future of Socialism '' ( PDF ) . Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies : 30 . Jump up ^ Spadoni , Paolo ( 2010 ) . Failed sanctions : why the U.S. embargo against Cuba could never work . Gainesville : University Press of Florida . pp. xvi . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8130 - 3515 - 4 . Jump up ^ U.S. International Trade Commission ( February 2001 ) . `` The Economic Impact of U.S. Sanctions With Respect to Cuba '' ( PDF ) . U.S. International Trade Commission Investigation . Investigation No. 332 - 413 : 390 -- via U.S. International Trade Commission Website . Jump up ^ United States Government Accountability Office ( November 2007 ) . `` Economic Sanctions : Agencies Face Competing Priorities in Enforcing the U.S. Embargo on Cuba '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Governmental Accountability Office . Retrieved March 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` US tightens Cuba embargo enforcement '' . turkishpress.com . Agence France Presse . October 10 , 2006 . Retrieved November 5 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Eichenwald , Kurt ( 29 September 2016 ) . `` How Donald Trump 's Company Violated the United States Embargo Against Cuba '' . Newsweek . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Eichenwald , Kurt ( 30 September 2016 ) . `` Donald Trump Still Wo n't Tell the Truth About Cuba '' . Newsweek . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Obama Lifting Cuba Travel Restrictions '' . Huffington Post . April 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Memorandum : Promoting Democracy and Human Rights in Cuba '' . White House . April 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Reaching Out to the Cuban People '' ( Press release ) . The White House . January 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Cuba receives first US shipment in 50 years - Americas '' . Al Jazeera English . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Chris Arsenault . `` US aid ship in Cuba : Ending the embargo ? - Features '' . Al Jazeera English . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` How America 's Relationship With Cuba Will Change '' . Jump up ^ `` US approves ferry service between Cuba and Florida '' . Jump up ^ `` US approves ferry service to Cuba by four Florida companies '' . Jump up ^ `` US Department of Commerce guidance on Cuba '' . Jump up ^ `` The Obama administration has approved the first U.S. factory in Cuba in more than half a century , allowing a pair of former software engineers to build a plant assembling as many as 1,000 small tractors a year '' . US News & World Report . February 15 , 2016 . Retrieved February 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Weissenstein , Michael . `` US OK 's first factory in Cuba since revolution '' . thenewstribune . Associated Press . Retrieved February 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Pepper , Margot ( March -- April 2009 ) . `` The Costs of the Embargo : The 47 - year - old blockade now costs the United States far more than it costs Cuba '' . Dollars & Sense . Retrieved May 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Informe de Cuba -- Sobre la resolución 70 / 5 de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas , titulada `` Necesidad de poner fin al bloqueo económico , comercial y financiero impuesto por los Estados Unidos de América contra Cuba '' '' ( Report of Cuba -- On resolution 70 / 5 of the United Nations General Assembly , entitled `` Necessity of ending the economic , commercial and financial embargo imposed by the United States of America against Cuba '' ) ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . June 2016 . Retrieved 24 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Luxner , Larry ( September 1 , 2002 ) . `` Sally Cowal : from ambassador to anti-embargo activist '' . Cuba News . Retrieved May 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived September 22 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` It 's Time For The U.S. To End Its Senseless Embargo Of Cuba '' . Forbes . January 16 , 2013 . Retrieved March 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hart , Gary ( March 7 , 2011 ) . `` Fiction in Foreign Policy '' . Huffington Post . The Huffington Post . ^ Jump up to : American Association for World Health . `` Denial of Food and Medicine : The Impact Of The U.S. Embargo On The Health And Nutrition In Cuba . '' March 1997 . ^ Jump up to : Barry , Michèle ( January 18 , 2000 ) . `` Effect of the U.S. Embargo and Economic Decline on Health in Cuba '' ( PDF ) . Annals of Internal Medicine . 132 ( 2 ) : 151 . doi : 10.7326 / 0003 - 4819 - 132 - 2 - 200001180 - 00010 . ^ Jump up to : Garfield , R. ; Santana , S. ( January 1997 ) . `` The impact of the economic crisis and the US embargo on health in Cuba '' . American Journal of Public Health . 87 ( 1 ) : 15 -- 20 . doi : 10.2105 / AJPH. 87.1. 15 . PMC 1380757 . PMID 9065219 . Jump up ^ Kirkpatrick , Anthony F. ( November 30 , 1996 ) . `` Role of the USA in shortage of food and medicine in Cuba '' ( PDF ) ( 348 ) . The Lancet . pp. 1489 -- 1491 . Jump up ^ `` Document 499 - Foreign Relations of the United States , 1958 -- 1960 , Cuba , Volume VI - Historical Documents - Office of the Historian '' . Retrieved March 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Chavez says Obama Must Prove Change After Handshake '' . by Fabian Cambero , Reuters , May 1 , 2009 Jump up ^ Naím , Moisés ( June 22 , 2009 ) . `` The Havana Obsession : Why All Eyes are on a Bankrupt Island '' . Retrieved February 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Report on the proposal for a Council Regulation ( EC ) on protecting against the effects of the application of certain legislation of certain third countries , and actions based thereon or resulting therefrom ( COM ( 96 ) 0420 - C4 - 0519 / 96 - 96 / 0217 ( CNS ) ) '' . European Parliament Official Report Jump up ^ George Shultz , Charlie Rose ( December 22 , 2005 ) . Charlie Rose interview with George Shultz . Charlie Rose Inc . Jump up ^ Griswold , Daniel ( June 15 , 2009 ) . `` The US embargo of Cuba is a Failure '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Chirinos , Fanny S. ( March 30 , 2006 ) . `` Bonilla calls for end to Cuba trade embargo '' . caller.com . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2007 . Retrieved October 22 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Moore , Molly ( January 25 , 1998 ) . `` Pope Urges Catholics To Speak Out Cuban Church Must Take Stands For Freedom , Pontiff Says '' . Spokesman - Review . Washington Post . Jump up ^ `` Patriarch Bartholomew 's Visit to Cuba : A Missed Opportunity for Human Rights '' . OrthodoxyToday.org : Rev. Johannes L. Jacobse . Jump up ^ `` The Patriarch and Fidel '' . FrontPage Magazine , 02 / 05 / 04 . Jump up ^ `` US bishops call for end to Cuba embargo '' . News.va. April 22 , 2012 . Retrieved June 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ ' With the lonely support of only one ally , Israel , Washington has insisted on continuing six decades of crippling boycott on trade with Cuba despite overwhelming condemnation of it in the UN for the past 19 years . ' Hugh O'Shaughnessy , O'Shaughnessy , Hugh ( February 11 , 2012 ) . `` ' Young Castro steers Cuba to a new revolution , ' '' . The Independent . London . Retrieved February 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` El Mundo '' . ( in Spanish ) Jump up ^ Depalma , Anthony ( May 27 , 2007 ) . `` ' Sicko ' , Castro and the ' 120 Years Club ' '' . New York Times . Retrieved August 17 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Beck , Margery A. ( 30 June 2011 ) . `` George McGovern heading to Cuba to visit Castro '' . Associated Press . Retrieved 24 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Luo , Michael ( 20 May 2008 ) . `` McCain Attacks Obama on Cuba '' . New York Times . Retrieved 1 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Zeleny , Jeff ( 23 May 2008 ) . `` Obama Discusses Cuba Policy '' . New York Times . Retrieved 1 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Statement by the President on Cuba Policy Changes '' ( Press release ) . 17 December 2014 . Retrieved 1 April 2016 . Jump up ^ https://www.telesurtv.net/english/news/Unjust-US-Blockade-Has-Cost-Cuba-Over-130-Billion-UN-Says-20180509-0007.html Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Archived June 14 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Obama hails ' new chapter ' in US - Cuba ties , BBC News , December 17 , 2014 Jump up ^ ( in French ) `` Un `` nouveau chapitre '' s'ouvre entre les Etats - Unis et Cuba '' Archived December 18 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine. , Yann Schreiber , avec Camille Grange et Antoine Boyet , Ijsberg Magazine , 17 décembre 2014 Jump up ^ Obama : Isolating Cuba has n't worked , Alexandra Jaffe and Elise Labott , CNN , December 17 , 2014 Jump up ^ `` Country Reports on Terrorism 2015 , Chapter 2 . Country Reports : Western Hemisphere Overview '' . U.S. Department of State . Retrieved June 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` First take : Key points from the President 's announcement on Cuba Sanctions '' ( PDF ) . PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice , December 2014 . Jump up ^ Obama . `` Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy '' . The White House . Retrieved 12 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Whitefield , Mimi ( 12 January 2017 ) . `` Obama ending ' wet foot , dry foot ' Cuban immigration policy '' . Miami Herald . Jump up ^ Gomez , Alan ( January 12 , 2017 ) . `` Obama to end ' wet foot , dry foot ' policy for Cubans '' . USA Today . Jump up ^ http://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/travel/ct-us-cuba-travel-restrictions-20171108-story.html Jump up ^ http://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-pol-essential-washington-updates-u-s-sets-new-restrictions-on-business-1510154085-htmlstory.html Jump up ^ `` Polling Report on Cuba , AP / Ipsos Poll , Jan 30 -- Feb 1 , 2007 '' . Pollingreport.com . Retrieved June 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Most Americans Willing to Re-establish Ties with Cuba '' . Angus-reid.com . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` FIU Cuba poll : support for embargo wanes among Miami Cuban - Americans - Naked Politics '' . Retrieved March 21 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Boycotting Cuba : Whose Interest Does it Serve ? by Jean Daniel , The New Republic , December 28 , 1963 United States embargo against Cuba at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) White House Fact Sheet : Cuba Policy The New York Times , April 13 , 2009 CNN Video Report : Is Trade Embargo with Cuba Hurting U.S. Interests ? by Jim Acosta & Ed Hornick , May 4 , 2009 Virginia , Maryland Prepare for Cuban Detente by Fredrick Kunkle , The Washington Post , May 4 , 2009 Nothing Succeeds Like Failure : The Cuban Embargo by Saul Landau October 30 , 2009 The Cuban Embargo : An Interview with Naval Academy Professor Daniel Masterson by History News Network Cuba Embargo Myopia Misses the Strategic Point by Shawn Lansing , December 6 , 2016 Cuba -- United States relations pre-1902 Spanish -- American War Teller Amendment Platt Amendment 1902 -- 1959 Cuban -- American Treaty of Relations ( 1903 ) First Occupation Second Occupation Sugar Intervention Hay - Quesada Treaty ( 1925 ) Cuban -- American Treaty of Relations ( 1934 ) 1959 -- present Groups and individuals Brothers to the Rescue Balseros ( rafters ) Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations Cuban - American lobby Cuban Five Luis Posada Carriles Military and activities Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban Project Elián González Cuba -- United States aircraft hijackings Mariel boatlift Operation Northwoods Operation Peter Pan Legislation and offices United States embargo against Cuba United States Interests Section in Havana ( 1977 -- 2015 ) Cuban thaw Embassy of the United States , Havana Embassy of Cuba in Washington , D.C. 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what is the function of the endoplasmic reticulm

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Endoplasmic_reticulum&oldid=835411809

Endoplasmic reticulum - wikipedia Endoplasmic reticulum Jump to : navigation , search Cell biology The animal cell Components of a typical animal cell : Nucleolus Nucleus Ribosome ( little dots ) Vesicle Rough endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus ( or `` Golgi body '' ) Cytoskeleton Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion Vacuole Cytosol ( fluid that contains organelles , comprising the cytoplasm ) Lysosome Centrosome Cell membrane Micrograph of rough endoplasmic reticulum network around the nucleus ( shown in lower right - hand side of the picture ) . Dark small circles in the network are mitochondria . The endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) is a type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of flattened , membrane - enclosed sacs or tube - like structures known as cisternae . The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane . The endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells , but is absent from red blood cells and spermatozoa . There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum : rough and smooth . The outer ( cytosolic ) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis . The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes . The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid manufacture and metabolism , the production of steroid hormones , and detoxification . The smooth ER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells . The lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 using electron microscopy . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Structure 2.1 Rough endoplasmic reticulum 2.2 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 2.2. 1 Sarcoplasmic reticulum 3 Functions 3.1 Protein transport 4 Clinical significance 5 References 6 External links History ( edit ) The ER was observed with light microscopy by Garnier in 1897 , who coined the term `` ergastoplasm '' . With electron microscopy , the lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 by Keith R. Porter , Albert Claude , Brody Meskers and Ernest F. Fullam . Later , the word `` reticulum '' , which means `` network '' , was applied by Porter in 1953 to describe this fabric of membranes . Structure ( edit ) 1 Nucleus 2 Nuclear pore 3 Rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER ) 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ( SER ) 5 Ribosome on the rough ER 6 Proteins that are transported 7 Transport vesicle 8 Golgi apparatus 9 Cis face of the Golgi apparatus 10 Trans face of the Golgi apparatus 11 Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus 3D rendering of endoplasmic reticulum The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae . These sac - like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton . The phospholipid membrane encloses the cisternal space ( or lumen ) , which is continuous with the perinuclear space but separate from the cytosol . The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids , but varies between ER and cell type and cell function . The quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from one type to the other , depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell . Transformation can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes . Changes in protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes . Rough endoplasmic reticulum ( edit ) An animation showing how a protein destined for the secretory pathway is synthesized into the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( which appears at upper right in animation when approximately half of animation is done ) . The total animation time is about 2 minutes . The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( often abbreviated RER or Rough ER ) ( also called granular endoplasmic reticulum ) is studded with protein - manufacturing ribosomes giving it a `` rough '' appearance ( hence its name ) . The binding site of the ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the translocon . However , the ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle 's structure as they are constantly being bound and released from the membrane . A ribosome only binds to the RER once a specific protein - nucleic acid complex forms in the cytosol . This special complex forms when a free ribosome begins translating the mRNA of a protein destined for the secretory pathway . The first 5 -- 30 amino acids polymerized encode a signal peptide , a molecular message that is recognized and bound by a signal recognition particle ( SRP ) . Translation pauses and the ribosome complex binds to the RER translocon where translation continues with the nascent ( new ) protein forming into the RER lumen and / or membrane . The protein is processed in the ER lumen by an enzyme ( a signal peptidase ) , which removes the signal peptide . Ribosomes at this point may be released back into the cytosol ; however , non-translating ribosomes are also known to stay associated with translocons . The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum forms large double membrane sheets that are located near , and continuous with , the outer layer of the nuclear envelope . The double membrane sheets are stacked and connected through several right or left - handed helical ramps , the so - called Terasaki ramps , giving rise to a structure resembling a multi-storey car park . Although there is no continuous membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus , membrane - bound transport vesicles shuttle proteins between these two compartments . Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII . COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and COPI marks them to be brought back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum . The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations . A second method of transport out of the endoplasmic reticulum involves areas called membrane contact sites , where the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles are held closely together , allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules . The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions : Manufacture of lysosomal enzymes with a mannose - 6 - phosphate marker added in the cis - Golgi network . Manufacture of secreted proteins , either secreted constitutively with no tag or secreted in a regulatory manner involving clathrin and paired basic amino acids in the signal peptide . Integral membrane proteins that stay embedded in the membrane as vesicles exit and bind to new membranes . Rab proteins are key in targeting the membrane ; SNAP and SNARE proteins are key in the fusion event . Initial glycosylation as assembly continues . This is N - linked ( O - linking occurs in the Golgi ) . N - linked glycosylation : If the protein is properly folded , Oligosaccharyltransferase recognizes the AA sequence N X S or N X T ( with the S / T residue phosphorylated ) and adds a 14 - sugar backbone ( 2 - N - acetylglucosamine , 9 - branching mannose , and 3 - glucose at the end ) to the side - chain nitrogen of Asn . Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ( edit ) Electromicrograph showing smooth ER ( arrow ) in mouse tissue , at 110,510 x magnification . In most cells the smooth endoplasmic reticulum ( abbreviated SER ) is scarce . Instead there are areas where the ER is partly smooth and partly rough , this area is called the transitional ER . The transitional ER gets its name because it contains ER exit sites . These are areas where the transport vesicles that contain lipids and proteins made in the ER , detach from the ER and start moving to the Golgi apparatus . Specialized cells can have a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and in these cells the smooth ER has many functions . It synthesizes lipids , phospholipids , and steroids . Cells which secrete these products , such as those in the testes , ovaries , and sebaceous glands have an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum . It also carries out the metabolism of carbohydrates , detoxification of natural metabolism products and of alcohol and drugs , attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins , and steroid metabolism . In muscle cells , it regulates calcium ion concentration . Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in a variety of cell types ( both animal and plant ) , and it serves different functions in each . The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also contains the enzyme glucose - 6 - phosphatase , which converts glucose - 6 - phosphate to glucose , a step in gluconeogenesis . It is connected to the nuclear envelope and consists of tubules that are located near the cell periphery . These tubes sometimes branch forming a network that is reticular in appearance . In some cells , there are dilated areas like the sacs of rough endoplasmic reticulum . The network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum allows for an increased surface area to be devoted to the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes . Sarcoplasmic reticulum ( edit ) Main article : Sarcoplasmic reticulum See also : Calcium - induced calcium release Skeletal muscle fiber , with sarcoplasmic reticulum colored in blue . The sarcoplasmic reticulum ( SR ) , from the Greek σάρξ sarx ( `` flesh '' ) , is smooth ER found in myocytes . The only structural difference between this organelle and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the medley of proteins they have , both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens . This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions : The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes molecules , while the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and pumps them out into the sarcoplasm when the muscle fiber is stimulated . After their release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum , calcium ions interact with contractile proteins that utilize ATP to shorten the muscle fiber . The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in excitation - contraction coupling . Functions ( edit ) The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions , including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus . Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins , including protein disulfide isomerase ( PDI ) , ERp29 , the Hsp70 family member BiP / Grp78 , calnexin , calreticulin , and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family . Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus -- unfolded proteins cause an unfolded protein response as a stress response in the ER . Disturbances in redox regulation , calcium regulation , glucose deprivation , and viral infection or the over-expression of proteins can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress response ( ER stress ) , a state in which the folding of proteins slows , leading to an increase in unfolded proteins . This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia / ischemia , insulin resistance , and other disorders . Protein transport ( edit ) Secretory proteins , mostly glycoproteins , are moved across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane . Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence . The N - terminus ( one end ) of a polypeptide chain ( i.e. , a protein ) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag , which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination . Nascent peptides reach the ER via the translocon , a membrane - embedded multiprotein complex . Proteins that are destined for places outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the cytoskeleton toward their destination . In human fibroblasts , the ER is always co-distributed with microtubules and the depolymerisation of the latter cause its co-aggregation with mitochondria , which are also associated with the ER . The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway . It is , in essence , the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell . The majority of its resident proteins are retained within it through a retention motif . This motif is composed of four amino acids at the end of the protein sequence . The most common retention sequences are KDEL for lumen located proteins and KKXX for transmembrane protein . However , variations of KDEL and KKXX do occur , and other sequences can also give rise to endoplasmic reticulum retention . It is not known whether such variation can lead to sub-ER localizations . There are three KDEL ( 1 , 2 and 3 ) receptors in mammalian cells , and they have a very high degree of sequence identity . The functional differences between these receptors remain to be established . Clinical significance ( edit ) Abnormalities in XBP1 lead to a heightened endoplasmic reticulum stress response and subsequently causes a higher susceptibility for inflammatory processes that may even contribute to Alzheimer 's disease . In the colon , XBP1 anomalies have been linked to the inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn 's disease . The unfolded protein response ( UPR ) is a cellular stress response related to the endoplasmic reticulum . The UPR is activated in response to an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum . The UPR functions to restore normal function of the cell by halting protein translation , degrading misfolded proteins , and activating the signaling pathways that lead to increasing the production of molecular chaperones involved in protein folding . Sustained overactivation of the UPR has been implicated in prion diseases as well as several other neurodegenerative diseases and the inhibition of the UPR could become a treatment for those diseases . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Endoplasmic Reticulum ( Rough and Smooth ) '' . Retrieved 21 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Garnier , C. 1897 . Les filaments basaux des cellules glandulaires . Note préliminaire . Bibliographie anatomique , 5 , 278 -- 289 . Jump up ^ Buvat , R. 1963 . Electron microscopy of plant protoplasm . Int. Rev. Cytol. 14 : 41 -- 155 . link . Jump up ^ Porter KR , Claude A , Fullam EF ( March 1945 ) . `` A study of tissue culture cells by electron microscopy : methods and preliminary observations '' . The Journal of Experimental Medicine . 81 ( 3 ) : 233 -- 46 . doi : 10.1084 / jem. 81.3. 233 . PMC 2135493 . PMID 19871454 . Jump up ^ Porter , K.R. Observations on a submicroscopic basophilic component of cytoplasm . J Exp Med. 1953 May ; 97 ( 5 ) : 727 -- 750 . link . ^ Jump up to : Alberts B , Johnson A , Lewis J , Raff M , Roberts K , Walter P ( 2002 ) . Molecular biology of the cell ( 4th ed . ) . New York : Garland Science . ISBN 0 - 8153 - 3218 - 1 . Jump up ^ Cooper GM ( 2000 ) . The cell : a molecular approach ( 2nd ed . ) . Washington ( DC ) : ASM Press . ISBN 0 - 87893 - 106 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` reticulum '' . The Free Dictionary . 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Jump up ^ Terasaki M , Shemesh T , Kasthuri N , Klemm RW , Schalek R , Hayworth KJ , Hand AR , Yankova M , Huber G , Lichtman JW , Rapoport TA , Kozlov MM ( July 2013 ) . `` Stacked endoplasmic reticulum sheets are connected by helicoidal membrane motifs '' . Cell. 154 ( 2 ) : 285 -- 96 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cell. 2013.06. 031 . PMC 3767119 . PMID 23870120 . Jump up ^ Guven J , Huber G , Valencia DM ( October 2014 ) . `` Terasaki spiral ramps in the rough endoplasmic reticulum '' . Physical Review Letters. 113 ( 18 ) : 188101 . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevLett. 113.188101 . PMID 25396396 . Jump up ^ Endoplasmic reticulum . ( n.d. ) . McGraw - Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology . Retrieved September 13 , 2006 , from Answers.com Web site : http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic-reticulum Jump up ^ Levine T ( September 2004 ) . `` Short - range intracellular trafficking of small molecules across endoplasmic reticulum junctions '' . Trends in Cell Biology . 14 ( 9 ) : 483 -- 90 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tcb. 2004.07. 017 . PMID 15350976 . Jump up ^ Levine T , Loewen C ( August 2006 ) . `` Inter-organelle membrane contact sites : through a glass , darkly '' . Current Opinion in Cell Biology . 18 ( 4 ) : 371 -- 8 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ceb. 2006.06. 011 . PMID 16806880 . Jump up ^ `` Functions of Smooth ER '' . University of Minnesota Duluth . Jump up ^ Maxfield FR , Wüstner D ( October 2002 ) . `` Intracellular cholesterol transport '' . The Journal of Clinical Investigation . 110 ( 7 ) : 891 -- 8 . doi : 10.1172 / JCI16500 . PMC 151159 . PMID 12370264 . Jump up ^ Toyoshima C , Nakasako M , Nomura H , Ogawa H ( June 2000 ) . `` Crystal structure of the calcium pump of sarcoplasmic reticulum at 2.6 A resolution '' . Nature . 405 ( 6787 ) : 647 -- 55 . doi : 10.1038 / 35015017 . PMID 10864315 . Jump up ^ Goodman SR . Medical Cell Biology ( 3rd ed . ) . Academic Press . p. 69 . Jump up ^ Martini F , Nath J , Bartholomew E ( 2014 ) . Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology ( 10th ed . ) . ISBN 978 - 0321909077 . Jump up ^ Xu C , Bailly - Maitre B , Reed JC ( October 2005 ) . `` Endoplasmic reticulum stress : cell life and death decisions '' . The Journal of Clinical Investigation . 115 ( 10 ) : 2656 -- 64 . doi : 10.1172 / JCI26373 . PMC 1236697 . PMID 16200199 . Jump up ^ Kober L , Zehe C , Bode J ( October 2012 ) . `` Development of a novel ER stress based selection system for the isolation of highly productive clones '' . Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 109 ( 10 ) : 2599 -- 611 . doi : 10.1002 / bit. 24527 . PMID 22510960 . Jump up ^ Ozcan U , Cao Q , Yilmaz E , Lee AH , Iwakoshi NN , Ozdelen E , Tuncman G , Görgün C , Glimcher LH , Hotamisligil GS ( October 2004 ) . `` Endoplasmic reticulum stress links obesity , insulin action , and type 2 diabetes '' . Science . 306 ( 5695 ) : 457 -- 61 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1103160 . PMID 15486293 . Jump up ^ Soltys BJ , Gupta RS . `` Interrelationships of endoplasmic reticulum , mitochondria , intermediate filaments , and microtubules -- a quadruple fluorescence labeling study '' . Biochemistry and Cell Biology = Biochimie Et Biologie Cellulaire. 70 ( 10 -- 11 ) : 1174 -- 86 . doi : 10.1139 / o92 - 163 . PMID 1363623 . Jump up ^ Stornaiuolo M , Lotti LV , Borgese N , Torrisi MR , Mottola G , Martire G , Bonatti S ( March 2003 ) . `` KDEL and KKXX retrieval signals appended to the same reporter protein determine different trafficking between endoplasmic reticulum , intermediate compartment , and Golgi complex '' . Molecular Biology of the Cell. 14 ( 3 ) : 889 -- 902 . doi : 10.1091 / mbc. E02 - 08 - 0468 . PMC 151567 . PMID 12631711 . Jump up ^ Raykhel I , Alanen H , Salo K , Jurvansuu J , Nguyen VD , Latva - Ranta M , Ruddock L ( December 2007 ) . `` A molecular specificity code for the three mammalian KDEL receptors '' . The Journal of Cell Biology . 179 ( 6 ) : 1193 -- 204 . doi : 10.1083 / jcb. 200705180 . PMC 2140024 . PMID 18086916 . Jump up ^ Casas - Tinto S , Zhang Y , Sanchez - Garcia J , Gomez - Velazquez M , Rincon - Limas DE , Fernandez - Funez P ( June 2011 ) . `` The ER stress factor XBP1s prevents amyloid - beta neurotoxicity '' . Human Molecular Genetics . 20 ( 11 ) : 2144 -- 60 . doi : 10.1093 / hmg / ddr100 . PMC 3090193 . PMID 21389082 . Jump up ^ Kaser A , Lee AH , Franke A , Glickman JN , Zeissig S , Tilg H , Nieuwenhuis EE , Higgins DE , Schreiber S , Glimcher LH , Blumberg RS ( September 2008 ) . `` XBP1 links ER stress to intestinal inflammation and confers genetic risk for human inflammatory bowel disease '' . Cell. 134 ( 5 ) : 743 -- 56 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cell. 2008.07. 021 . PMC 2586148 . PMID 18775308 . Jump up ^ Walter , Peter . `` Peter Walter 's short talk : Unfolding the UPR '' . iBiology . Jump up ^ Moreno JA , Halliday M , Molloy C , Radford H , Verity N , Axten JM , Ortori CA , Willis AE , Fischer PM , Barrett DA , Mallucci GR ( October 2013 ) . `` Oral treatment targeting the unfolded protein response prevents neurodegeneration and clinical disease in prion - infected mice '' . Science Translational Medicine . 5 ( 206 ) : 206ra138 . doi : 10.1126 / scitranslmed. 3006767 . PMID 24107777 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Endoplasmic reticulum . Lipid and protein composition of Endoplasmic reticulum in OPM database Animations of the various cell functions referenced here ( hide ) Structures of the cell / organelles Endomembrane system Cell membrane Nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Parenthesome Autophagosome Vesicles Exosome Lysosome Endosome Phagosome Vacuole Acrosome Cytoplasmic granules Melanosome Microbody Glyoxysome Peroxisome Weibel -- Palade body Cytoskeleton Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Prokaryotic cytoskeleton MTOCs Centrosome Centriole Basal body Spindle pole body Myofibril Endosymbionts Mitochondrion Plastids Chloroplast Chromoplast Gerontoplast Leucoplast Amyloplast Elaioplast Proteinoplast Tannosome Other internal Nucleolus RNA Ribosome Spliceosome Vault Cytoplasm Cytosol Inclusions Proteasome External Undulipodium Cilium Flagellum Axoneme Radial spoke Extracellular matrix Cell wall NDL : 00572072 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endoplasmic_reticulum&oldid=835411809 '' Categories : Endoplasmic reticulum Hidden categories : Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 62 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2018 , at 15 : 24 . 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when do the ducks march at the peabody

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Peabody_Hotel&oldid=833086251

Peabody hotel - wikipedia Peabody hotel Jump to : navigation , search `` The template Infobox building is being considered for merging . '' The Peabody Memphis Peabody Hotel Location within Tennessee General information Location Memphis , Tennessee Coordinates 35 ° 08 ′ 33 '' N 90 ° 03 ′ 07 '' W  /  35.1425 ° N 90.0519 ° W  / 35.1425 ; - 90.0519 Coordinates : 35 ° 08 ′ 33 '' N 90 ° 03 ′ 07 '' W  /  35.1425 ° N 90.0519 ° W  / 35.1425 ; - 90.0519 Opening September 1 , 1925 Owner Peabody Hotel Group Technical details Floor count 14 Floor area 80,000 square feet ( 7,432.2 m ) Design and construction Architect Walter W. Ahlschlager Other information Number of rooms 464 Number of suites Number of restaurants 7 Parking 1000 + Website Official website Peabody Hotel U.S. National Register of Historic Places Location 149 Union Ave Memphis , Tennessee Area Downtown Built 1925 Architectural style Italian Renaissance NRHP reference # 77001290 Added to NRHP September 14 , 1977 The Peabody Memphis is a luxury hotel in Downtown Memphis , Tennessee . The hotel is known for the `` Peabody Ducks '' that live on the hotel rooftop and make daily treks to the lobby . The Peabody is a member of Historic Hotels of America , a program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation . Inside the Peabody in 2006 Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 First Peabody Hotel 1.2 Current Peabody hotel 2 Peabody Hotel Group 3 The Peabody Ducks 4 Design features 5 Radio and Television 6 Hotel floor layout 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) First Peabody hotel ( edit ) The original Peabody Hotel was built in 1869 at the corner of Main and Monroe Streets by Robert Campbell Brinkley , who named it to honor his friend , the recently deceased George Peabody , for his contributions to the South . The hotel was a huge success , and Brinkley gave it to his daughter Anna Overton Brinkley and her husband Robert B. Snowden as a wedding gift not long after it opened . The hotel had 75 rooms , with private bathrooms , and numerous elegant public rooms . Among its guests were Presidents Andrew Johnson and William McKinley and Confederate Generals Robert E. Lee and Nathan Bedford Forrest . Jefferson Davis , the former President of the Confederacy , lived there in 1870 when he worked as president of an insurance company . The hotel closed in 1923 in preparation for a move one block away . The building was demolished and Lowenstein 's department store was constructed there . Current Peabody hotel ( edit ) The current Peabody Hotel building , on Union Avenue , is an Italian Renaissance structure designed by noted Chicago architect Walter W. Ahlschlager . Construction began less than a month after the old hotel closed . The new hotel was built on the previous site of the Fransioli Hotel , a structure which looked nearly identical to the original Peabody Hotel . The new hotel opened on September 1 , 1925 . Before the mid-1960s , alcoholic beverages were sold in Tennessee only as sealed bottles in licensed liquor stores . A patron could bring a bottle acquired elsewhere into the hotel bar , The Creel , where the bartender would tag it and mix drinks from it at the patron 's request . The hotel was sold to the Alsonett Hotel Group in 1953 . Deeply in debt by the early 1960s , it went bankrupt in 1965 and was sold in a foreclosure auction to Sheraton Hotels . It became the Sheraton - Peabody Hotel . As downtown Memphis decayed in the early 1970s , the hotel suffered financially , and the Sheraton - Peabody closed in December 1973 . An Alabama investment group purchased the hotel in 1974 and reopened it briefly under its original name , but they declared bankruptcy on April 1 , 1975 , and it closed again . Isadore Edwin Hanover purchased the hotel from the county on July 31 , 1975 , for $400,000 and sold it to his son - in - law , Jack A. Belz , for the same amount . Belz spent the next several years and $25 million renovating the landmark structure . The grand reopening in 1981 is widely considered a major catalyst for the Memphis downtown area 's ongoing revitalization . The Peabody Hotel is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Peabody hotel Group ( edit ) The Peabody Hotel Group ( PHG ) operated two additional properties under the Peabody name for many years . The Peabody Orlando , near Orlando , Florida , opened in 1986 as the second Peabody Hotel . It was sold on August 28 , 2013 and was renamed Hyatt Regency Orlando on October 1 , 2013 . PHG operated a third hotel in Little Rock , Arkansas from 2002 , when they assumed management of the former Excelsior Hotel , which was known as The Peabody Little Rock until 2013 , when the property became a Marriott . They also operated properties for a number of years under the Hilton name in Greenville , South Carolina and Little Rock , Arkansas . The Peabody ducks ( edit ) The Peabody Ducks in the Fountain The Peabody is probably best known for a custom dating back to the 1930s . The General Manager of the time , Frank Schutt , had just returned from a weekend hunting trip in Arkansas . He and his friends found it amusing to leave three of their live English Call Duck decoys in the hotel fountain . The guests loved the idea , and since then , five Mallard ducks ( one drake and four hens ) have played in the fountain every day . Duckmaster giving the ducks a feeding In 1940 , a Bellman by the name of Edward Pembroke volunteered to care for the ducks . Pembroke was given the position of `` Duckmaster '' and served in that position until 1991 . As a former circus animal trainer , he taught the ducks to march into the hotel lobby , which started the famous Peabody Duck March . Every day at 11 : 00 a.m. , the Peabody Ducks are escorted from their penthouse home , on the Plantation Roof , to the lobby via elevator . The ducks , accompanied by the King Cotton March by John Philip Sousa , then proceed across a red carpet to the hotel fountain , made of a solid block of Italian travertine marble . The ducks are then ceremoniously led back to their penthouse at 5 : 00 p.m. Over the years , The Peabody Ducks have gained celebrity status with television appearances ( along with their Duckmaster ) on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , Sesame Street , sitcom Coach and The Oprah Winfrey Show . They have also appeared in People magazine . Ducks marching to the fountain The position of `` Duckmaster '' at the Peabody Memphis is the only such position in the world . Celebrities have also assumed the role of Honorary Duckmaster from time to time , including Zane Lamprey , Paula Deen , Joan Collins , Molly Ringwald , Kevin Bacon , Peter Frampton , Emeril Lagasse , Patrick Swayze , Queen Noor of Jordan , Oprah Winfrey , Stephen Fry , Rudolph van Veen , Gayle King , Roy Williams , Bill Pierce , Shannon The Dude , Matt Jones , Drew Franklin and Ryan Lemond . The custom of keeping ducks in the lobby fountain may date back even further than the 1930s . A pre-1915 postcard highlights the ducks playing in the fountain , and one source claims the custom goes back to the hotel 's opening in 1869 . However , the Peabody itself claims the duck tradition to have started in 1933 , as on December 3 , 2008 , they unveiled a new `` Duck Palace '' located on the rooftop , for the 75th anniversary of the duck tradition . The 24 by 12 foot enclosure features granite flooring , ceiling fans , a scale replica of the hotel , a fountain decorated with a pair of bronze ducks , and a large viewing window for guests to see them in their new home . The Duck Palace cost approximately $200,000 to construct . Design features ( edit ) The Peabody Hotel 's most recognizable features are large red neon `` The Peabody '' signs atop the Skyway Ballroom and the central elevator shaft . The top floor , the Skyway and Plantation Roof , offers views of the surrounding Memphis skyscrapers . The rooftop is often used as a space for bands and other musical acts , especially during the Thursday night `` Rooftop Parties '' in the summer months . In the elevators , one must press `` S '' to access the top floor . If this floor were numbered , one would press `` 13 '' to reach it , but due to superstitions regarding the number thirteen , management decided to call the top floor `` the Skyway . '' Radio and television ( edit ) The studios of radio station WREC and later its television spinoff WREC - TV ( now WREG ) were for many years located in the hotel basement . During the Big Band era , the Skyway was a popular night - spot , and the ballroom was one of only a handful of sites in America from which the CBS radio network would broadcast live weekly programs . Regular headliners included Tommy Dorsey and the Andrews Sisters . Hotel floor layout ( edit ) Peabody Duck Palace Swimming Pool 13 ( S ) -- The Plantation Roof , Duck Palace , The Skyway Ballroom , The Penthouse ( not used ) 12 -- The Peabody Club , The Presidential Suite , Club Level Guest Rooms 11 -- Standard Guest Rooms , Junior Suites , Romeo and Juliet Suites 10 -- Standard Guest Rooms , Junior Suites , Edward Pembroke Suite 09 through 08 -- Standard Guest Rooms 07 -- Standard Guest Rooms , W.C. Handy Suite 06 through 04 -- Standard Guest Rooms 03 -- The Peabody Executive Conference Center 02 ( M ) -- Mezzanine Level , The Peabody Grand Ballroom , Venetian Room , Continental Ballroom , Louis XVI Room , Forest Room , Hernando DeSoto Room , The Tennessee Exhibit Hall , The Peabody Memorabilia Room , Francis Scott Key Piano , Hotel Kitchens , Banquet Offices 01 ( L ) -- The Grand Lobby , Chez Philippe , Cappriccio Grill , The Lobby Bar , Lansky Brothers , The Corner Bar , Peabody Deli and Desserts , The Grand Galleria of Shops , Guest Registration , Valet , Concierge , Bell Stand LL -- Lower Level ( Basement ) , Administrative Offices , Feather 's Day Spa and Salon , Peabody Athletic Club , Shoeshine Parlor , Hotel Pool At one time Northwest Airlines had a ticket office in the Peabody Hotel Arcade . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Peabody Hotel History Archived October 16 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ United States Census , 1870 , Tennessee , Shelby Co. , 4 - WD Memphis , Peabody Hotel , Series : M593 Roll : 1562 Page : 147 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Peabody Hotel ... and the famous ducks in Historic - Memphis '' . historic-memphis.com . Jump up ^ Fransioli Hotel History Jump up ^ `` FindACase 02 / 19 / 74 MEMPHIS HOUSING AUTHORITY v. PEABODY GARAGE COMPANY SUPREME COURT OF TENNESSEE '' . Tn.findacase.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 12 . Jump up ^ Hotel News Resource ( 29 August 2013 ) . `` The Peabody Orlando Sold to Hyatt for $717 Million '' . hotelnewsresource.com . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived May 1 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ The Peabody Ducks Archived October 28 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : `` Peabody Ducks '' . memphistravel.com . Jump up ^ `` UNC Coach Williams marches Peabody Ducks as honorary Duckmaster '' . March 26 , 2017 . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ baby doll Parfitt , Ginny ; Mary L. Martin ( 2005 ) . Memories of Memphis : A History in Postcards . Schiffer Publishing , Ltd. p. 48 . ISBN 0 - 7643 - 2288 - 5 . Jump up ^ Fontenay , Blake . `` Gilding the nest : Peabody spares no expense in building a quacktacular rooftop roost '' . Commercial Appeal . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 12 . Jump up ^ Peabody Rooftop Parties Schedule Archived July 25 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` The History Of WREG - TV '' . Wreg.com . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Ticket Offices and Phone Numbers . '' ( Archive ) Northwest Airlines . June 13 , 1998 . Retrieved on November 20 , 2012 . `` Northwest Airlines Peabody Hotel Arcade 149 Union Ave . Memphis , TN 38103 '' External links ( edit ) Tennessee portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peabody Hotel , Memphis . 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what was the role of drama in ancient greece

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&oldid=824602256

Theatre of ancient Greece - wikipedia Theatre of ancient Greece Jump to : navigation , search Bronze statue of a Greek actor . The half - mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor . He wears a man 's conical cap but female garments , following the Greek custom of men playing the roles of women . 150 - 100 BCE . The ancient Greek drama was a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece from c. 700 BC . The city - state of Athens , which became a significant cultural , political , and military power during this period , was its center , where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia , which honoured the god Dionysus . Tragedy ( late 500 BC ) , comedy ( 490 BC ) , and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there . Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common cultural identity . Only men were allowed to play female parts . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Origins 3 New inventions during the Classical Period 4 Hellenistic period 5 Characteristics of the buildings 5.1 Scenic elements 6 Masks 6.1 Masks 6.2 Mask details 6.3 Mask functions 6.4 Other costume details 7 See also 8 Further reading 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 External links Etymology ( edit ) The word τραγῳδία ( tragoidia ) , from which the word `` tragedy '' is derived , is a compound of two Greek words : τράγος ( tragos ) or `` goat '' and ᾠδή ( ode ) meaning `` song '' , from ἀείδειν ( aeidein ) , `` to sing '' . This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults . It is impossible , however , to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy . Origins ( edit ) Main article : Greek tragedy Panoramic view of the ancient theatre at Epidaurus . The classical Greeks valued the power of spoken word , and it was their main method of communication and storytelling . Bahn and Bahn write , `` To Greeks the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language . '' Socrates himself believed that once something was written down , it lost its ability for change and growth . For these reasons , among many others , oral storytelling flourished in Greece . Greek tragedy as we know it was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC , when Thespis was the earliest recorded actor . Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens , he was the exarchon , or leader , of the dithyrambs performed in and around Attica , especially at the rural Dionysia . By Thespis ' time , the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots . Under the influence of heroic epic , Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet Arion , it had become a narrative , ballad - like genre . Because of these , Thespis is often called the `` Father of Tragedy '' ; however , his importance is disputed , and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians ; the statesman Solon , for example , is credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice , and spoken performances of Homer 's epics by rhapsodes were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC . Thus , Thespis 's true contribution to drama is unclear at best , but his name has been given a longer life , in English , as a common term for performer -- i.e. , a `` thespian . '' The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians -- this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the City Dionysia . This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica ( recently created by Cleisthenes ) . The festival was created roughly around 508 BC . While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC , we do know the names of three competitors besides Thespis : Choerilus , Pratinas , and Phrynichus . Each is credited with different innovations in the field . More is known about Phrynichus . He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC . He produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the golden age such as the Danaids , Phoenician Women and Alcestis . He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject -- his Fall of Miletus , produced in 493 - 2 , chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians . Herodotus reports that `` the Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways , but especially in this : when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled `` The Fall of Miletus '' and produced it , the whole theatre fell to weeping ; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally and forbade the performance of that play forever . '' He is also thought to be the first to use female characters ( though not female performers ) . Until the Hellenistic period , all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once , so that today we primarily have the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable ( the accidents of survival , as well as the subjective tastes of the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history , also played a role in what survived from this period ) . New inventions during the classical period ( edit ) Theater of Dionysus , Athens , Greece . Brooklyn Museum Archives , Goodyear Archival Collection After the Great Destruction of Athens by the Persian Empire in 480 BCE , the town and acropolis were rebuilt , and theatre became formalized and an even greater part of Athenian culture and civic pride . This century is normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama . The centre - piece of the annual Dionysia , which took place once in winter and once in spring , was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus . Each submitted three tragedies , plus a satyr play ( a comic , burlesque version of a mythological subject ) . Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy . Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor ( deuteragonist ) , and that Sophocles introduced the third ( tritagonist ) . Apparently the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre . Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate genres , and no plays ever merged aspects of the two . Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies , but in a purely comedic manner . Hellenistic period ( edit ) Roman , Republican or Early Imperial , Relief of a seated poet ( Menander ) with masks of New Comedy , 1st century B.C. -- early 1st century A.D. , Princeton University Art Museum The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the Peloponnesian War against the Spartans . From that time on , the theatre started performing old tragedies again . Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality , Greek theatre continued into the Hellenistic period ( the period following Alexander the Great 's conquests in the fourth century BCE ) . However , the primary Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but ' New Comedy ' , comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens . The only extant playwright from the period is Menander . One of New Comedy 's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy , an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of Plautus and Terence . Characteristics of the buildings ( edit ) Ancient Greek theatre in Delos The Ancient Theatre of Delphi . The plays had a chorus from 12 to 15 people , who performed the plays in verse accompanied by music , beginning in the morning and lasting until the evening . The performance space was a simple circular space , the orchestra , where the chorus danced and sang . The orchestra , which had an average diameter of 78 feet , was situated on a flattened terrace at the foot of a hill , the slope of which produced a natural theatron , literally `` seeing place '' . Later , the term `` theatre '' came to be applied to the whole area of theatron , orchestra , and skené . The coryphaeus was the head chorus member who could enter the story as a character able to interact with the characters of a play . A drawing of an ancient theatre . Terms are in Greek language and Latin letters . The theatres were originally built on a very large scale to accommodate the large number of people on stage , as well as the large number of people in the audience , up to fourteen thousand . Mathematics played a large role in the construction of these theatres , as their designers had to be able to create acoustics in them such that the actors ' voices could be heard throughout the theatre , including the very top row of seats . The Greek 's understanding of acoustics compares very favourably with the current state of the art . The first seats in Greek theatres ( other than just sitting on the ground ) were wooden , but around 499 BCE the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent , stable seating became more common . They were called the `` prohedria '' and reserved for priests and a few most respected citizens . In 465 BCE , the playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall , which hung or stood behind the orchestra , which also served as an area where actors could change their costumes . It was known as the skênê ( from which the word `` scene '' derives ) . The death of a character was always heard behind the skênê , for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience . Conversely , there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations , and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience . In 425 BC a stone scene wall , called a paraskenia , became a common supplement to skênê in the theatres . A paraskenia was a long wall with projecting sides , which may have had doorways for entrances and exits . Just behind the paraskenia was the proskenion . The proskenion ( `` in front of the scene '' ) was beautiful , and was similar to the modern day proscenium . Greek theatres also had tall arched entrances called parodoi or eisodoi , through which actors and chorus members entered and exited the orchestra . By the end of the 5th century BC , around the time of the Peloponnesian War , the skênê , the back wall , was two stories high . The upper story was called the episkenion . Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the logeion . Scenic elements ( edit ) There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre : mechane , a crane that gave the impression of a flying actor ( thus , deus ex machina ) ekkyklêma , a wheeled platform often used to bring dead characters into view for the audience pinakes , pictures hung to create scenery thyromata , more complex pictures built into the second - level scene ( 3rd level from ground ) phallic props were used for satyr plays , symbolizing fertility in honour of Dionysus . Masks ( edit ) Masks ( edit ) Tragic Comic Masks Hadrian 's Villa mosaic The Ancient Greek term for a mask is prosopon ( lit. , `` face '' ) , and was a significant element in the worship of Dionysus at Athens , likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations . Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC , such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the Pronomos vase , which depicts actors preparing for a Satyr play . No physical evidence remains available to us , as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects , ultimately being dedicated at the altar of Dionysus after performances . Nevertheless , the mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre . Masks were also made for members of the chorus , who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on the events in which they are caught up . Although there are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus , they all wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character . Mask details ( edit ) Mask dating from the 4th / 3rd century BC , Stoa of Attalos Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet - like masks , covering the entire face and head , with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth , as well as an integrated wig . These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance ; they are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance , that liminal space between the audience and the stage , between myth and reality . This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to ' melt ' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role . Effectively , the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text . Therefore , performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character . The mask - makers were called skeuopoios or `` maker of the properties , '' thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks . The masks were most likely made out of light weight , organic materials like stiffened linen , leather , wood , or cork , with the wig consisting of human or animal hair . Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks , it was imperative that the actors hear in order to orient and balance themselves . Thus , it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet - mask itself . The mouth opening was relatively small , preventing the mouth to be seen during performances . Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone , as originally presented in the 1960s . Greek mask - maker , Thanos Vovolis , suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head , thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality . This leads to increased energy and presence , allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character . Mask functions ( edit ) Mosaic detail from the House of the Faun In a large open - air theatre , like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens , the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic , especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions . They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles , thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character . Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex , age , and social status , in addition to revealing a change in a particular character 's appearance , e.g. Oedipus after blinding himself . Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play , such as The Furies in Aeschylus ' Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides ' The Bacchae . Worn by the chorus , the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity , while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group . Only 2 - 3 actors were allowed on the stage at one time , and masks permitted quick transitions from one character to another . There were only male actors , but masks allowed them to play female characters . Other costume details ( edit ) Comedy and tragedy masks See also : Sock and buskin The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called cothurni that elevated them above the other actors . The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin soled shoe called a sock . For this reason , dramatic art is sometimes alluded to as `` Sock and Buskin . '' Melpomene is the muse of tragedy and is often depicted holding the tragic mask and wearing cothurni . Thalia is the muse of comedy and is similarly associated with the mask of comedy and the comedic `` socks '' . Male actors playing female roles would wear a wooden structure on their chests ( posterneda ) to imitate the look of breasts and another structure on their stomachs ( progastreda ) to make them appear softer and more lady like . They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer . Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material , so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time . The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show 's after party . Costuming would give off a sense of character , as in gender , age , social status , and class . For example , characters of higher class would be dressed in nicer clothing , although everyone was dressed fairly nicely . Contrary to popular belief , they did not dress in only rags and sandals , as they wanted to impress . Some examples of Greek theatre costuming include long robes called the chiton that reached the floor for actors playing gods , heroes , and old men . Actors playing Goddesses and women characters that held a lot of power wore purples and golds . Actors playing Queens and Princesses wore long cloaks that dragged on the ground and were decorated with gold stars and other jewels , and warriors were dressed in a variety of armor and wore helmets adorned with plumes . Costumes were supposed to be colourful and obvious to be easily seen by every seat in the audience . See also ( edit ) List of ancient Greek playwrights List of ancient Greek theatres History of theatre Representation of women in Athenian tragedy Agôn Ancient Greek comedy Archon Aulos Buskin Chorêgos Chorus Chorus of the elderly in classical Greek drama Comedy Coryphaeus Deus ex machina Deuteragonist Didascaliae Didaskalos Dionysia festivals Dithyramb Eisodos Ekkyklêma Episode Epode Kommós Mêchanê Melpomene Monody Ode Onomastì komodèin Orchêstra Parabasis Párodos Phlyax play Protagonist Rhapsode Satyr play Skênê Sparagmos Stásimon Stichomythia Strophê Thalia ( Muse ) Theatre of ancient Rome Theatre of Dionysus Theoric fund Thespis Tragedy Tritagonist List of films based on Greek drama Further reading ( edit ) Buckham , Philip Wentworth , Theatre of the Greeks , London 1827 . Davidson , J.A. , Literature and Literacy in Ancient Greece , Part 1 , Phoenix , 16 , 1962 , pp. 141 -- 56 . Davidson , J.A. , Peisistratus and Homer , TAPA , 86 , 1955 , pp. 1 -- 21 . Easterling , P.E. ( editor ) ( 1997 ) . The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy . Cambridge , U.K. : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 41245 - 5 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Easterling , Patricia Elizabeth ; Hall , Edith ( eds . ) , Greek and Roman Actors : Aspects of an Ancient Profession , Cambridge University Press , 2002 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 65140 - 9 Else , Gerald F . Aristotle 's Poetics : The Argument , Cambridge , MA 1967 . The Origins and Early Forms of Greek Tragedy , Cambridge , MA 1965 . The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ , Hermes 85 , 1957 , pp. 17 -- 46 . Flickinger , Roy Caston , The Greek theater and its drama , Chicago , University of Chicago Press , 1918 Freund , Philip , The Birth of Theatre , London : Peter Owen , 2003 . ISBN 0 - 7206 - 1170 - 9 Haigh , A.E. , The Attic Theatre , 1907 . Harsh , Philip Whaley , A handbook of Classical Drama , Stanford University , California , Stanford University Press ; London , H. Milford , Oxford University Press , 1944 . Lesky , A. Greek Tragedy , trans . H.A. , Frankfurt , London and New York 1965 . Ley , Graham . A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theatre . University of Chicago , Chicago : 2006 Ley , Graham . Acting Greek Tragedy . University of Exeter Press , Exeter : 2015 Loscalzo , Donato , Il pubblico a teatro nella Grecia antica , Roma 2008 McDonald , Marianne , Walton , J. Michael ( editors ) , The Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman theatre , Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press , 2007 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 83456 - 2 Moulton , Richard Green , The ancient classical drama ; a study in literary evolution intended for readers in English and in the original , Oxford , The Clarendon Press , 1890 . Padilla , Mark William ( editor ) , `` Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece : Literature , Religion , Society '' , Bucknell University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 8387 - 5418 - X Pickard - Cambridge , Sir Arthur Wallace Dithyramb , Tragedy , and Comedy , Oxford 1927 . The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens , Oxford 1946 . The Dramatic Festivals of Athens , Oxford 1953 . Rabinowitz , Nancy Sorkin ( 2008 ) . Greek Tragedy . Malden , MA : Blackwell Publishers . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 2160 - 6 . Riu , Xavier , Dionysism and Comedy , 1999 . review Ross , Stewart . Greek Theatre . Wayland Press , Hove : 1996 Rozik , Eli , The roots of theatre : rethinking ritual and other theories of origin , Iowa City : University of Iowa Press , 2002 . ISBN 0 - 87745 - 817 - 0 Schlegel , August Wilhelm , Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature , Geneva 1809 . Sommerstein , Alan H. , Greek Drama and Dramatists , Routledge , 2002 . Sourvinou - Inwood , Christiane , Tragedy and Athenian Religion , Oxford : University Press 2003 . Tsitsiridis , Stavros , `` Greek Mime in the Roman Empire ( P. Oxy. 413 : Charition and Moicheutria '' , Logeion 1 ( 2011 ) 184 - 232 . Wiles , David . Greek Theatre Performance : An Introduction . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge : 2000 Wiles , David . The Masks of Menander : Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance , Cambridge , 1991 . Wiles , David . Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy : from ancient festival to modern experimentation , Cambridge , 1997 . Wise , Jennifer , Dionysus Writes : The Invention of Theatre in Ancient Greece , Ithaca 1998 . review Zimmerman , B. , Greek Tragedy : An Introduction , trans . T. Marier , Baltimore 1991 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Merriam - Webster definition of tragedy Jump up ^ Ridgeway ( 1910 ) , p. 83 Jump up ^ Bahn , Eugene & Margaret L. Bahn ( 1970 ) . A History of Oral Interpretation . Minneapolis , MN : Burgess Publishing Company . p. 3 . Jump up ^ Aristotle , Poetics Jump up ^ Brockett ( 1999 ) , pp. 16 -- 17 Jump up ^ Herodotus , Histories , 6 / 21 Jump up ^ Brockett ( 1999 ) , p. 17 Jump up ^ Kuritz ( 1988 ) , p. 21 Jump up ^ Kuritz ( 1988 ) , p. 24 Jump up ^ Jansen ( 2000 ) Jump up ^ Pathmanathan ( 1965 ) Jump up ^ Liddell & Scott via Perseus @ UChicago Jump up ^ Tufts.edu ^ Jump up to : Vervain & Wiles ( 2004 ) , p. 255 Jump up ^ Varakis ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ Vervain & Wiles ( 2004 ) , p. 256 Jump up ^ Brooke ( 1962 ) , p. 76 ^ Jump up to : Vovolis & Zamboulakis ( 2007 ) Jump up ^ Brockett & Ball ( 2000 ) , p. 70 Bibliography ( edit ) Brockett , Oscar G. ( 1999 ) . History of the Theatre ( 8th ed . ) . Allyn and Bacon . ISBN 9780205290260 . Brockett , Oscar G. ; Ball , Robert ( 2000 ) . The Essential Theatre ( 7th ed . ) . Orlando , FL : Harcourt Brace . Brooke , Iris ( 1962 ) . Costume in Greek Classical Drama . London : Methuen . Jansen , Jan ( 2000 ) . Lebensqualität im Theater des demokratischen Athen : Kult , Politik und Alte Komödie ( Quality of life in the theatre of Democratic Athens : cults , politics and ancient comedy ) ( PDF ) ( in German ) . Munich , Germany : GRIN . ISBN 9783638291873 . Kuritz , Paul ( 1988 ) . The Making of Theatre History . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall . ISBN 9780135478615 . Pathmanathan , R. Sri ( 1965 ) . `` Death in Greek tragedy '' . Greece and Rome . 12 ( 1 ) : 2 -- 14 . JSTOR 642398 . Ridgeway , William ( 1910 ) . Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians . Varakis , Angie ( 2004 ) . `` Research on the Ancient Mask '' . Didaskalia. 6 ( 1 ) . Vervain , Chris ; Wiles , David ( 2004 ) . The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance . New Theatre Quarterly . 67 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Vovolis , Thanos ; Zamboulakis , Giorgos ( 2007 ) . `` The acoustical mask of Greek tragedy '' . Didaskalia. 7 ( 1 ) . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original works on the topic : Theatre of ancient Greece Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Greek theatre . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greek and Roman theatre masks . Ancient Greek theatre history and articles Drama lesson 1 : The ancient Greek theatre Ancient Greek Theatre The Ancient Theatre Archive , Greek and Roman theatre architecture -- Dr. Thomas G. Hines , Department of Theatre , Whitman College Greek and Roman theatre glossary Illustrated Greek Theater -- Dr. Janice Siegel , Department of Classics , Hampden -- Sydney College , Virginia Searchable database of monologues for actors from Ancient Greek Theatre Logeion : A Journal of Ancient Theatre with free access which publishes original scholarly articles including its reception in modern theatre , literature , cinema and the other art forms and media , as well as its relation to the theatre of other periods and geographical regions . 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in order to better control the conquistadors in the new world the spanish created

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Conquistador&oldid=833160392

Conquistador - wikipedia Conquistador Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the Spanish and Portuguese explorer - soldiers from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries . For other uses , see Conquistador ( disambiguation ) . Main articles : Age of Exploration , Colonialism , Imperialism , History of colonialism , and Chronology of colonialism Illustration of a typical conquistador by Augusto Ferrer - Dalmau . Conquistadors / kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz / ( from Portuguese or Spanish conquistadores `` conquerors '' ; Spanish pronunciation : ( koŋkistaˈðoɾes ) , Portuguese pronunciation : ( kũkiʃtɐˈdoɾis ) , ( kõkiʃtɐˈðoɾɨʃ ) ) is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense . During the Age of Discovery , conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas , Oceania , Africa and Asia , conquering territory and opening trade routes . They colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th , 17th and 18th centuries . Contents ( hide ) 1 Conquest 2 Background 3 History 3.1 Early Portuguese period 3.2 The Birth of the Spanish Kingdom 3.3 Mediterranean background 3.4 Treaties 4 Portuguese exploration 4.1 After 1500 : West and East Africa , Asia , and the Pacific 4.2 North America 4.3 South America 5 Spanish exploration 5.1 South America and Central America colonization 5.2 North America colonization 5.3 Asia and Oceania colonization , and the Pacific exploration 6 Iberian Union period ( 1580 -- 1640 ) 7 After Iberian Union 8 Disease in the Americas 9 Mythic lands 10 Secrecy and disinformation 11 Financing and governance 12 Military advantages 12.1 Strategy 12.2 Tactics 12.3 Equipment and animals 12.3. 1 Firearms 12.3. 2 Light equipment 12.3. 3 Animals 13 Nautical science 13.1 Navigation 13.2 Ship design 13.3 Winds and currents 13.4 Cartography 14 People in the service of Spain 15 People in the service of Portugal 16 See also 17 References 18 Further reading Conquest ( edit ) The surrender of Granada in 1492 . The last Moorish sultan of Granada , Muhammad XII , before Ferdinand and Isabella . Christopher Columbus 's first landing in the Americas in 1492 Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century , sending ships via the southern coast of Africa and founding numerous coastal enclaves along the route . Following the ' discovery ' of the New World in 1492 by Christopher Columbus and the first circumnavigation of the world by Juan Sebastián Elcano and Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 ( both voyages promoted by the Spanish Crown of Castile ) , expeditions led by conquistadors in the 16th century established trading routes linking Europe with all these areas . Human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time : from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa . The spread of old - world diseases , including smallpox , flu and typhus , decimated the inhabitants of the New World . In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports . By the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one - fifth of Spain 's total budget . Background ( edit ) Hernando de Soto and Spanish conquistadors seeing the Mississippi River for the first time . The conquistadors were professional warriors , using European tactics , firearms , and cavalry . Their units ( Compañia , Companhia ) would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups . Their armies were mostly composed of Iberian and other European soldiers . Native allied troops were largely infantry equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically . Some groups consisted of young men without military experience , Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties , and soldiers with military training . These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans . They not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters , informants , servants , teachers , physicians , and scribes . India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards . Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World . However , not all conquistadors were Castilian . Many foreigners Hispanicised their names and / or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown . For example , Ioánnis Fokás ( known as Juan de Fuca ) was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592 . German - born Nikolaus Federmann , Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán , was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia . The Venetian Sebastiano Caboto was Sebastián Caboto , Georg von Speyer Hispanicised as Jorge de la Espira , Eusebio Francesco Chini Hispanicised as Eusebio Kino , Wenceslaus Linck was Wenceslao Linck , Ferdinand Konščak , was Fernando Consag , Amerigo Vespucci was Américo Vespucio , and the Portuguese Aleixo Garcia was known as Alejo García in the Castilian army . The origin of many people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished . Various occupations , such as sailors , fishermen , soldiers and nobles employed different languages ( even from unrelated language groups ) , so that crew and settlers of Iberian empires recorded as Galicians from Spain were actually using Portuguese , Basque , Catalan , Italian and Languedoc languages , which were wrongly identified . Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband . Women who travelled thus include María de Escobar , María Estrada , Marina Vélez de Ortega , Marina de la Caballería , Francisca de Valenzuela , Catalina de Salazar . Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children . Conquistadors praying before a battle at Tenochtitlan European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty . Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics , writing , theology , Latin , Greek , and history , and wrote letters and official documents for them . King 's army officers taught military arts . An uneducated young recruit could become a military leader , elected by their fellow professional soldiers , perhaps based on merit . Others were born into hidalgo families , and as such they were members of the Spanish nobility with some studies but without economic resources . Even some rich nobility families ' members became soldiers or missionaries , but mostly not the firstborn heirs . The two most famous conquistadors were Hernán Cortés who conquered the Aztec Empire and Francisco Pizarro who led the conquest of the Incan Empire . They were second cousins born in Extremadura , where many of the Spanish conquerors were born . Catholic religious orders that participated and supported the exploration , evangelizing and pacifying , were mostly Dominicans , Carmelites , Franciscans and Jesuits , for example Francis Xavier , Bartolomé de Las Casas , Eusebio Kino , Juan de Palafox y Mendoza or Gaspar da Cruz . In 1536 , Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas went to Oaxaca to participate in a series of discussions and debates among the Bishops of the Dominican and Franciscan orders . The two orders had very different approaches to the conversion of the Indians . The Franciscans used a method of mass conversion , sometimes baptizing many thousands of Indians in a day . This method was championed by prominent Franciscans such as Toribio de Benavente . The conquistadors took many different roles , including religious leader , harem keeper , King or Emperor , deserter and Native American warrior . Caramuru was a Portuguese settler in the Tupinambá Indians . Gonzalo Guerrero was a Mayan war leader for Nachan can , Lord of Chactemal . Gerónimo de Aguilar , who had taken holy orders in his native Spain was captured by Mayan lords too , and later was a soldier with Hernán Cortés . Francisco Pizarro had children with more than 40 women . The chroniclers Pedro Cieza de León , Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo , Diego Durán , Juan de Castellanos and friar Pedro Simón wrote about the Americas . Francisco Pizarro meets with the Inca emperor Atahualpa , 1532 After Mexico fell , Hernán Cortés 's enemies , Bishop Fonseca , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , Diego Columbus and Francisco Garay were mentioned in the Cortés ' fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy . The division of the booty produced bloody conflicts , such as the one between Pizarro and De Almagro . After present - day Peruvian territories fell to Spain , Francisco Pizarro dispatched El Adelantado , Diego de Almagro , before they became enemies to the Inca Empire 's northern city of Quito to claim it . Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar , who had gone forth without Pizarro 's approval , had already reached Quito . The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado from the lands known today as Mexico in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for De Almagro and Belalcázar . De Alvarado left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro . De Almagro was executed in 1538 , by Hernándo Pizarro 's orders . In 1541 Lima , supporters of Diego Almagro II assassinated Francisco Pizarro . In 1546 , De Belalcázar ordered the execution of Jorge Robledo , who governed a neighbouring province in yet another land - related vendetta . De Belalcázar was tried in absentia , convicted and condemned for killing Robledo and other offenses pertaining to his involvement in the wars between armies of conquistadors . Pedro de Ursúa was killed by his subordinate Lope de Aguirre who crowned himself king while searching for El Dorado . In 1544 , Lope de Aguirre and Melchor Verdugo ( a converso Jew ) were at the side of Peru 's first viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela , who had arrived from Spain with orders to implement the New Laws and suppress the encomiendas . Gonzalo Pizarro , another brother of Francisco Pizarro , rose in revolt , killed viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela and most of his Spanish army in the battle in 1546 , and Gonzalo attempted to have himself crowned king . The Emperor commissioned bishop Pedro de la Gasca to restore the peace , naming him president of the Audiencia and providing him with unlimited authority to punish and pardon the rebels . Gasca repealed the New Laws , the issue around which the rebellion had been organized . Gasca convinced Pedro de Valdivia , explorer of Chile , Alonso de Alvarado another searcher for El Dorado , and others that if he were unsuccessful , a royal fleet of 40 ships and 15,000 men was preparing to sail from Seville in June . History ( edit ) Francisco Pizarro Early Portuguese period ( edit ) Hernán Cortés and his counsellor , the Indian woman La Malinche meet Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlan , 8 November 1519 . Facsimile ( c. 1890 ) of Lienzo de Tlaxcala . Infante Dom Henry the Navigator of Portugal , son of King João I , became the main sponsor of exploration travels . In 1415 , Portugal conquered Ceuta , its first overseas colony . Throughout the 15th century , Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa , establishing trading posts for tradable commodities such as firearms , spices , silver , gold , and slaves , in a worldwide route to Japan , crossing Africa , India , China and Korea . In 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon ; slave trading was the most profitable branch of Portuguese commerce until the Indian subcontinent was reached . The birth of the Spanish kingdom ( edit ) After his father 's death in 1479 , Ferdinand II of Aragón unified Castile with Aragón , creating the Kingdom of Spain . He later tried to incorporate by marriage the kingdom of Portugal . Ferdinand notably supported Columbus 's first voyage that launched the conquistadors into action . Mediterranean background ( edit ) In 1492 , the combined populations of Spain and Portugal did not exceed 10 million people . The Spanish kings ' possessions extended around the Mediterranean to southern Italy , but Barbary pirates conducted an escalating war between Christian Habsburg Spain and the Ottoman Empire for control of the Mediterranean . It is estimated that between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries . They attacked the coastal villages and towns of Portugal , Spain , Southern Italy , the Kingdom of Sicily , the Kingdom of Naples , and Mediterranean islands . Long stretches of the Italian , Portuguese and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants and the island of Formentera became uninhabited . The Spanish peninsular Muslims were suspected of connivance with Northern African Muslim pirates . Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros was instrumental in a massive campaign to convert Muslims to Christianity . From 1502 , Ferdinand and later Phillip II forced all Muslims in Castile and Aragon to convert or be expelled . The nominally converted Christian Moriscos were later expelled from Spain between 1609 ( Valencia ) and 1614 ( Castile ) . Treaties ( edit ) The 1492 discovery of the West Indies by Christopher Columbus rendered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration . Thus dividing the world into two exploration and colonizing areas seemed appropriate . This was accomplished by the Treaty of Tordesillas ( 7 June 1494 ) which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI in two bulls issued on 4 May 1493 . The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which might be discovered east of a meridian drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic , at a distance of 370 leagues ( 1,800 km ) west of Cape Verde . Spain received the lands west of this line . The known means of measuring longitude were so inexact that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined , subjecting the treaty to diverse interpretations . Both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to the Moluccas ( see East Indies # History ) depended on the treaty . It was particularly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of their new - found , particularly when , in 1497 -- 1499 , Vasco da Gama completed the voyage to India . Later , when Spain established a route to the Indies from the west , Portugal arranged a second treaty , the Treaty of Zaragoza . Portuguese exploration ( edit ) Main articles : History of Portugal ( 1415 -- 1578 ) , Portuguese India , Portuguese discoveries , Age of exploration , Spanish colonization of the Americas , Bandeirantes , and theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia Bronze figure of a Portuguese soldier made by Benin culture in West Africa around 1500 Two brass plates depicting a bearded Portuguese soldier before 1500 on top and Benin warriors at the bottom A page ( folio 67 ) , depicting indigenous Mexican warriors in the Codex Mendoza 1630 map of the Portuguese fort and the city of Malacca As a seafaring people in the south - westernmost region of Europe , the Portuguese became natural leaders of exploration during the Middle Ages . Faced with the options of either accessing other European markets by sea , by exploiting its seafaring prowess , or by land , and facing the task of crossing Castile and Aragon territory , it is not surprising that goods were sent via the sea to England , Flanders , Italy and the Hanseatic league towns . One important reason was the need for alternatives to the expensive eastern trade routes that followed the Silk Road . Those routes were dominated first by the republics of Venice and Genoa , and then by the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 . He barred European access . For decades the Spanish Netherlands ports produced more revenue than the colonies since all goods brought from Spain , Mediterranean possessions , and the colonies were sold directly there to neighbouring European countries : wheat , olive oil , wine , silver , spice , wool and silk were big businesses . The gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese , and its European neighbours , especially Spain . Apart from their religious and scientific aspects , these voyages of discovery were highly profitable . They had benefited from Guinea 's connections with neighbouring Iberians and north African Muslim states . Due to these connections , mathematicians and experts in naval technology appeared in Portugal . Portuguese and foreign experts made several breakthroughs in the fields of mathematics , cartography and naval technology . Under Afonso V ( 1443 -- 1481 ) , surnamed the African , the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine ( Cabo Santa Caterina ) , and three expeditions in 1458 , 1461 and 1471 , were sent to Morocco ; in 1471 Arzila ( Asila ) and Tangier were captured from the Moors . Portuguese explored the Atlantic , Indian and Pacific oceans before the Iberian Union period ( 1580 -- 1640 ) . Under John II ( 1481 -- 1495 ) the fortress of São Jorge da Mina , the modern Elmina , was founded for the protection of the Guinea trade . Diogo Cão , or Can , discovered the Congo in 1482 and reached Cape Cross in 1486 . In 1483 Diogo Cão sailed up the uncharted Congo River , finding Kongo villages and becoming the first European to encounter the Kongo kingdom . On 7 May 1487 , two Portuguese envoys , Pêro da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva , were sent traveling secretly overland to gather information on a possible sea route to India , but also to inquire about Prester John . Covilhã managed to reach Ethiopia . Although well received , he was forbidden to depart . Bartolomeu Dias crossed the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 , thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea . Vasco da Gama In 1498 , Vasco da Gama reached India . In 1500 , Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil , claiming it for Portugal . In 1510 , Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India , Ormuz in the Persian Strait , and Malacca . The Portuguese sailors sailed eastward to such places as Taiwan , Japan , and the island of Timor . Several writers have also suggested the Portuguese were the first Europeans to discover Australia and New Zealand . Álvaro Caminha , in Cape Verde islands , who received the land as a grant from the crown , established a colony with Jews forced to stay on São Tomé Island . Príncipe island was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement . Attracting settlers proved difficult ; however , the Jewish settlement was a success and their descendants settled many parts of Brazil . From their peaceful settlings in secured islands along Atlantic Ocean ( archipelagos and islands as Madeira , Açores , Cape Verde , Sao Tome , Principe , and Annobon ) they travelled to coastal enclaves trading almost every goods of African and Islander areas like spices ( hemp , opium , garlic ) , wine , dry fish , dried meat , toasted flour , leather , fur of tropical animals and seals , whaling ... but mainly ivory , black slaves , gold and hardwoods . They maintaining trade ports in Congo ( M'banza ) , Angola , Natal ( City of Cape Good Hope , in Portuguese `` Cidade do Cabo da Boa Esperança '' ) , Mozambique ( Sofala ) , Tanzania ( Kilwa Kisiwani ) , Kenya ( Malindi ) to Somalia . The Portuguese following the maritime trade routes of Muslims and Chinese traders , sailed the Indian Ocean . They were on Malabar Coast since 1498 when Vasco da Gama reached Anjadir , Kannut , Kochi and Calicut . Da Gama in 1498 marked the beginning of Portuguese influence in Indian Ocean . In 1503 or 1504 , Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace . Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries . It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general . Around 1571 , Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique . It appears , however , that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar . The first English ship to visit Unguja , the Edward Bonaventure in 1591 , found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison . The extent of their occupation was a trade depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique . `` In other respects , the affairs of the island were managed by the local ' king , ' the predecessor of the Mwinyi Mkuu of Dunga . '' This hands - off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasa 's slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier . After 1500 : west and East Africa , Asia , and the Pacific ( edit ) Main articles : Portuguese India and Portuguese India Armadas In west Africa Cidade de Congo de São Salvador was founded some time after the arrival of the Portuguese , in the pre-existing capital of the local dynasty ruling at that time ( 1483 ) , in a city of the Luezi River valley . Portuguese were established supporting one Christian local dynasty ruling suitor . When Afonso I of Kongo was established the Roman Catholic Church in Kongo kingdom . By 1516 Afonso I sent various of his children and nobles to Europe to study , including his son Henrique Kinu a Mvemba , who was elevated to the status of bishop in 1518 . Afonso I wrote a series of letters to the kings of Portugal Manuel I and João III of Portugal concerning to the behavior of the Portuguese in his country and their role in the developing slave trade , complaining of Portuguese complicity in purchasing illegally enslaved people and the connections between Afonso 's men , Portuguese mercenaries in Kongo 's service and the capture and sale of slaves by Portuguese . The aggregate of Portugal 's colonial holdings in India were Portuguese India . The period of European contact of Ceylon began with the arrival of Portuguese soldiers and explorers of the expedition of Lourenço de Almeida , the son of Francisco de Almeida , in 1505 . The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland . In a series of military conflicts , political manoeuvres and conquests , the Portuguese extended their control over the Sinhalese kingdoms , including Jaffna ( 1591 ) , Raigama ( 1593 ) , Sitawaka ( 1593 ) , and Kotte ( 1594 , ) but the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control failed . The Portuguese , led by Pedro Lopes de Sousa , launched a full - scale military invasion of the Kingdom of Kandy in the Campaign of Danture of 1594 . The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese , with their entire army wiped out by Kandyan guerilla warfare . Afonso de Albuquerque More envoys were sent in 1507 to Ethiopia , after Socotra was taken by the Portuguese . As a result of this mission , and facing Muslim expansion , regent queen Eleni of Ethiopia sent ambassador Mateus to king Manuel I of Portugal and to the Pope , in search of a coalition . Mateus reached Portugal via Goa , having returned with a Portuguese embassy , along with priest Francisco Álvares in 1520 . Francisco Álvares book , which included the testimony of Covilhã , the Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias ( `` A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies '' ) was the first direct account of Ethiopia , greatly increasing European knowledge at the time , as it was presented to the pope , published and quoted by Giovanni Battista Ramusio . In 1509 , the Portuguese under Francisco de Almeida won a critical victory in the battle of Diu against a joint Mamluk and Arab fleet sent to counteract their presence in the Arabian Sea . The retreat of the Mamluks and Arabs enabled the Portuguese to implement their strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean . Afonso de Albuquerque set sail in April 1511 from Goa to Malacca with a force of 1,200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships . Following his capture of the city on 24 August 1511 , it became a strategic base for Portuguese expansion in the East Indies ; consequently the Portuguese were obliged to build a fort they named A Famosa to defend it . That same year , the Portuguese , desiring a commercial alliance , sent an ambassador , Duarte Fernandes , to the kingdom of Ayudhya , where he was well received by king Ramathibodi II . In 1526 , a large force of Portuguese ships under the command of Pedro Mascarenhas was sent to conquer Bintan , where Sultan Mahmud was based . Earlier expeditions by Diogo Dias and Afonso de Albuquerque had explored that part of the Indian Ocean , and discovered several islands new to Europeans . Mascarenhas served as Captain - Major of the Portuguese colony of Malacca from 1525 to 1526 , and as viceroy of Goa , capital of the Portuguese possessions in Asia , from 1554 until his death in 1555 . He was succeeded by Francisco Barreto , who served with the title of `` governor - general '' . Forte de Nossa Senhora da Conceição de Ormuz ( Fort of Our Lady of the Conception ) , the Portuguese Castle on Hormuz Island ( Iran ) Nagasaki in Japan was founded in 1570 by Portuguese explorers To enforce a trade monopoly , Muscat , and Hormuz in the Persian Gulf , were seized by Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507 , and in 1507 and 1515 , respectively . He also entered into diplomatic relations with Persia . In 1513 while trying to conquer Aden , an expedition led by Albuquerque cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al - Mandab , and sheltered at Kamaran island . In 1521 , a force under António Correia conquered Bahrain , ushering in a period of almost eighty years of Portuguese rule of the Persian Gulf . In the Red Sea , Massawa was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 1541 , when a fleet under Estevão da Gama penetrated as far as Suez . In 1511 , the Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the city of Guangzhou by the sea , and they settled on its port for a commercial monopoly of trade with other nations . They were later expelled from their settlements , but they were allowed the use of Macau , which was also occupied in 1511 , and to be appointed in 1557 as the base for doing business with Guangzhou . The quasi-monopoly on foreign trade in the region would be maintained by the Portuguese until the early seventeenth century , when the Spanish and Dutch arrived . The Portuguese Diogo Rodrigues explored the Indian Ocean in 1528 , he explored the islands of Réunion , Mauritius , and Rodrigues , naming it the Mascarene or Mascarenhas Islands , after his countryman Pedro Mascarenhas , who had been there before . Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition that circumnavigated the globe in 1519 -- 1522 The Portuguese presence disrupted and reorganised the Southeast Asian trade , and in eastern Indonesia they introduced Christianity . After the Portuguese annexed Malacca in August 1511 , one Portuguese diary noted ' it is thirty years since they became Moors ' - giving a sense of the competition then taking place between Islamic and European influences in the region . Afonso de Albuquerque learned of the route to the Banda Islands and other ' Spice Islands ' , and sent an exploratory expedition of three vessels under the command of António de Abreu , Simão Afonso Bisigudo and Francisco Serrão . On the return trip , Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island ( northern Ambon ) in 1512 . There he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills . The rulers of the competing island states of Ternate and Tidore also sought Portuguese assistance and the newcomers were welcomed in the area as buyers of supplies and spices during a lull in the regional trade due to the temporary disruption of Javanese and Malay sailings to the area following the 1511 conflict in Malacca . The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize nor disrupt this trade . Allying himself with Ternate 's ruler , Serrão constructed a fortress on that tiny island and served as the head of a mercenary band of Portuguese seamen under the service of one of the two local feuding sultans who controlled most of the spice trade . Such an outpost far from Europe generally only attracted the most desperate and avaricious , and as such the feeble attempts at Christianization only strained relations with Ternate 's Muslim ruler . Serrão urged Ferdinand Magellan to join him in Maluku , and sent the explorer information about the Spice Islands . Both Serrão and Magellan , however , perished before they could meet one another . In 1535 Sultan Tabariji was deposed and sent to Goa in chains , where he converted to Christianity and changed his name to Dom Manuel . After being declared innocent of the charges against him he was sent back to reassume his throne , but died en route at Malacca in 1545 . He had however , already bequeathed the island of Ambon to his Portuguese godfather Jordão de Freitas . Following the murder of Sultan Hairun at the hands of the Europeans , the Ternateans expelled the hated foreigners in 1575 after a five - year siege . The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513 , but it only became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate . European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding , fiercely Islamic and anti-European state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah ( r . 1570 -- 1583 ) and his son Sultan Said . The Portuguese in Ambon , however , were regularly attacked by native Muslims on the island 's northern coast , in particular Hitu which had trading and religious links with major port cities on Java 's north coast . Altogether , the Portuguese never had the resources or manpower to control the local trade in spices , and failed in attempts to establish their authority over the crucial Banda Islands , the nearby centre of most nutmeg and mace production . Following Portuguese missionary work , there have been large Christian communities in eastern Indonesia particularly among the Ambonese . By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area , mostly on Ambon , and by the 1590s there were 50,000 to 60,000 , although most of the region surrounding Ambon remained Muslim . Mauritius was visited by the Portuguese between 1507 ( by Diogo Fernandes Pereira ) and 1513 . The Portuguese took no interest in the isolated Mascarene islands . Their main African base was in Mozambique , and therefore the Portuguese navigators preferred to use the Mozambique Channel to go to India . The Comoros at the north proved to be a more practical port of call . North America ( edit ) Main article : Portuguese colonization of the Americas Portuguese North America ( in present - day Canada ) ; Vaz Dourado , c. 1576 . Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas , Manuel I claimed territorial rights in the area visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 . To that end , in 1499 and 1500 , the Portuguese mariner João Fernandes Lavrador visited the northeast Atlantic coast and Greenland and the north Atlantic coast of Canada , which accounts for the appearance of `` Labrador '' on topographical maps of the period . Subsequently , in 1501 and 1502 the Corte - Real brothers explored and charted Greenland and the coasts of present - day Newfoundland and Labrador , claiming these lands as part of the Portuguese Empire . Whether or not the Corte - Reals expeditions were also inspired by or continuing the alleged voyages of their father , João Vaz Corte - Real ( with other Europeans ) in 1473 , to Terra Nova do Bacalhau ( Newfoundland of the Codfish ) , remains controversial , as the 16th century accounts of the 1473 expedition differ considerably . In 1520 - 1521 , João Álvares Fagundes was granted donatary rights to the inner islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Accompanied by colonists from mainland Portugal and the Azores , he explored Newfoundland and Nova Scotia ( possibly reaching the Bay of Fundy on the Minas Basin ) , and established a fishing colony on Cape Breton Island , that would last some years or until at least 1570s , based on contemporary accounts . South America ( edit ) Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500 , on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral . The Portuguese encountered natives divided into several tribes . The first settlement was founded in 1532 . Cabral 's voyage to Brazil and India , 1500 Some European countries , especially France , were also sending excursions to Brazil to extract brazilwood . Worried about the foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches , the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and combat the French . In 1530 , an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived to patrol the entire coast , ban the French , and to create the first colonial villages , like São Vicente , at the coast . As time passed , the Portuguese created the Viceroyalty of Brazil . Colonization was effectively begun in 1534 , when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies , a model that had previously been used successfully in the colonization of the Madeira Island , but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor - General to administer the entire colony , Tomé de Sousa . The Portuguese frequently relied on the help of Jesuits and European adventurers who lived together with the aborigines and knew their languages and culture , such as João Ramalho , who lived among the Guaianaz tribe near today 's São Paulo , and Diogo Álvares Correia , who lived among the Tupinamba natives near today 's Salvador de Bahia . The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity . By the mid-16th century , sugar had become Brazil 's most important export and the Portuguese imported African slaves to produce it . The Portuguese victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes , ended Dutch presence in Brazil . António Raposo Tavares , a bandeirante , led in 1648 - 1652 the largest continental expedition made in the Americas until then , from São Paulo to the east , near the Andes ( via Mato Grosso , the Paraguay River , the Grande River , the Mamoré River , and the Madeira River ) , and to the Amazon River and the Atlantic Mem de Sá was the third Governor - General of Brazil in 1556 , succeeding Duarte da Costa , in Salvador of Bahia when France founded several colonies . Mem de Sá was supporting of Jesuit priests , Fathers Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta , who founded São Vicente in 1532 , and São Paulo , in 1554 . French colonists tried to settle in present - day Rio de Janeiro , from 1555 to 1567 , the so - called France Antarctique episode , and in present - day São Luís , from 1612 to 1614 the so - called France Équinoxiale . Through wars against the French the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast , taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567 , and to the northwest , taking São Luís in 1615 . The Dutch sacked Bahia in 1604 , and temporarily captured the capital Salvador . In the 1620s and 1630s , the Dutch West India Company established many trade posts or colonies . The Spanish silver fleet , which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain , were seized by Piet Heyn in 1628 . In 1629 Suriname and Guyana were established . In 1630 the West India Company conquered part of Brazil , and the colony of New Holland ( capital Mauritsstad , present - day Recife ) was founded . John Maurice of Nassau prince of Nassau - Siegen , was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1636 by the Dutch West India Company on recommendation of Frederick Henry . He landed at Recife , the port of Pernambuco and the chief stronghold of the Dutch , in January 1637 . By a series of successful expeditions , he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to São Luís de Maranhão in the north . In 1624 most of the inhabitants of the town Pernambuco ( Recife ) , in the future Dutch colony of Brazil were Sephardic Jews who had been banned by the Portuguese Inquisition to this town at the other side of the Atlantic Ocean . As some years afterward the Dutch in Brazil appealed to Holland for craftsmen of all kinds , many Jews went to Brazil ; about 600 Jews left Amsterdam in 1642 , accompanied by two distinguished scholars -- Isaac Aboab da Fonseca and Moses Raphael de Aguilar . In the struggle between Holland and Portugal for the possession of Brazil the Dutch were supported by the Jews . From 1630 to 1654 , the Dutch set up more permanently in the Nordeste and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe , without , however , penetrating the interior . But the colonists of the Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege , in spite of the presence in Recife of John Maurice of Nassau as governor . After several years of open warfare , the Dutch formally withdrew in 1661 . Portuguese sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered British and Dutch strongholds , founding villages and forts from 1669 . In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata , in the Eastern Strip region ( present - day Uruguay ) . In the 1690s , gold was discovered by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais ( General Mines ) in current Mato Grosso and Goiás . Before the Iberian Union period ( 1580 -- 1640 ) , Spain tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into Brazil with the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas . After the Iberian Union period , the Eastern Strip were settled by Portugal . This was disputed in vain , and in 1777 Spain confirmed Portuguese sovereignty . Battle of Cartagena de Indias March -- May 1741 , during this battle the Spanish Empire defeated a British fleet of over 30,000 professional soldiers , 51 warships and 135 transport ships counting the Spanish army only less than 2400 professional soldiers , 600 natives and 6 ships . Spanish exploration ( edit ) South America and Central America colonization ( edit ) Sevilla la Nueva , established in 1509 , was the first Spanish settlement on the island of Jamaica , which the Spaniards called Isla de Santiago . The capital was in an unhealthy location and consequently moved around 1534 to the place they called `` Villa de Santiago de la Vega '' , later named Spanish Town , in present - day Saint Catherine Parish . After first landing on Guanahani island in The Bahamas , Columbus found the island which he called Isla Juana , later named Cuba . In 1511 , the first Adelantado of Cuba , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founded the island 's first Spanish settlement at Baracoa ; other towns soon followed , including Havana , which was founded in 1515 . Hagåtña ( Agaña ) is the capital of the United States territory of Guam , ancient city of the Spanish possessions in Oceania and Asia Don Pedro de Alvarado Diego de Almagro led the first Spanish expedition south of Peru into Chile 1535 -- 37 After he pacified Hispaniola , where the native Indians had revolted against the administration of governor Nicolás de Ovando , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the conquest of Cuba in 1511 under orders from Viceroy Diego Columbus and was appointed governor of the island . As governor he authorized expeditions to explore lands further west , including the 1517 Francisco Hernández de Córdoba expedition to Yucatán . Diego Velázquez , ordered expeditions , one led by his nephew , Juan de Grijalva , to Yucatán and the Hernán Cortés expedition of 1519 . He initially backed Cortés 's expedition to Mexico , but because of his personal enmity for Cortés later ordered Pánfilo de Narváez to arrest him . Grijalva was sent out with four ships and some 240 men . In 1516 Juan Díaz de Solís , discovered the estuary formed by the confluence of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River . In 1517 Francisco Hernández de Córdoba sailed from Cuba in search of slaves along the coast of Yucatán . The expedition returned to Cuba to report on the discovery of this new land . After receiving notice from Juan de Grijalva of gold in the area of what is now Tabasco , the governor of Cuba , Diego de Velasquez , sent a larger force than had previously sailed , and appointed Cortes as Captain - General of the Armada . Cortes then applied all of his funds , mortgaged his estates and borrowed from merchants and friends to outfit his ships . Velasquez may have contributed to the effort , but the government of Spain offered no financial support . Pedro Arias Dávila , Governor of the Island La Española was descended from a converso 's family . In 1519 Dávila founded Darién , then in 1524 he founded Panama City and moved his capital there laying the basis for the exploration of South America 's west coast and the subsequent conquest of Peru . Dávila was a soldier in wars against Moors at Granada in Spain , and in North Africa , under Pedro Navarro intervening in the Conquest of Oran . At the age of nearly seventy years he was made commander in 1514 by Ferdinand of the largest Spanish expedition . Francisco de Orellana and his men became the first to travel the entire length of the Amazon River in 1541 -- 1542 Dávila sent Gil González Dávila to explore northward , and Pedro de Alvarado to explore Guatemala . In 1524 he sent another expedition with Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , executed there in 1526 by Dávila , by then aged over 85 . Dávila 's daughters married Rodrigo de Contreras and conquistador of Florida and Mississippi , the Governor of Cuba Hernando de Soto . Francisco de Villagra Dávila made an agreement with Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro , which brought about the discovery of Peru , but withdrew in 1526 for a small compensation , having lost confidence in the outcome . In 1526 Dávila was superseded as Governor of Panama by Pedro de los Ríos , but became governor in 1527 of León in Nicaragua . An expedition commanded by Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama , reaching Inca territory by 1526 . After one more expedition in 1529 , Pizarro received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy . The approval read : `` In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas . Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in New Castile '' The Viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1542 , encompassing all Spanish holdings in South America . Juan Díaz de Solís arrived again to the renamed Río de la Plata , literally river of the silver , after the Incan conquest . He sought a way to transport the Potosi 's silver to Europe . For a long time due to the Incan silver mines , Potosí was the most important site in Colonial Spanish America , located in the current department of Potosí in Bolivia and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint . The first settlement in the way was the fort of Sancti Spiritu , established in 1527 next to the Paraná River . Buenos Aires was established in 1536 , establishing the Governorate of the Río de la Plata . Africans were also conquistadors in the early Conquest campaigns in the Caribbean and Mexico . After 1521 , the wealth and credit generated by the acquisition of the Mexica Empire funded auxiliary forces of black conquistadors that could number as many as five hundred . Spaniards recognized the value of these fighters . Although they usually chose to forget black contributions in written accounts of Spanish campaigns , Spaniards occasionally admitted that African men were outstanding soldiers ( because so many African men became slaves by being captured on battlefields back in Africa , they already had military experience before coming to the Americas ). One of the black conquistadors who fought against the Aztecs and survived the destruction of their empire was Juan Garrido . Born in Africa , Garrido lived as a young slave in Portugal before being sold to a Spaniard and acquiring his freedom fighting in the conquests of Puerto Rico , Cuba , and other islands . He fought in the Spanish -- American War as a free servant or auxiliary , participating in Spanish expeditions to other parts of Mexico ( including Baja California ) in the 1520s and 1530s . Granted a house plot in Mexico City , he raised a family there , working at times as a guard and town crier . He claimed to have been the first person to plant wheat in Mexico . North America colonization ( edit ) The conquistador Juan Ponce de León ( Santervás de Campos , Valladolid , Spain ) . He was the first European to arrive at the current U.S. and led the first European expedition to Florida , which he named . Monument to Cabeza de Vaca in Houston , Texas . During the 1500s , the Spanish began to travel through and colonize North America . They were looking for gold in foreign kingdoms . By 1511 there were rumours of undiscovered lands to the northwest of Hispaniola . Juan Ponce de León equipped three ships with at least 200 men at his own expense and set out from Puerto Rico on 4 March 1513 to Florida and surrounding coastal area . Another early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold , or `` Cibola '' , rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest . In 1536 Francisco de Ulloa , the first documented European to reach the Colorado River , sailed up the Gulf of California and a short distance into the river 's delta . Route of Narváez expedition ( until November 1528 ) , and a reconstruction of Cabeza de Vaca 's later wanderings The Basques were fur trading , fishing cod and whaling in Terranova ( Labrador and Newfoundland ) in 1520 , and in Iceland by at least the early 17th century . They established whaling stations at the former , mainly in Red Bay , and probably established some in the latter as well . In Terranova they hunted bowheads and right whales , while in Iceland they appear to have only hunted the latter . The Spanish fishery in Terranova declined over conflicts between Spain and other European powers during the late 16th and early 17th centuries . In 1524 the Portuguese Estevão Gomes , who had sailed in Ferdinand Magellan 's fleet , explored Nova Scotia , sailing South through Maine , where he entered New York Harbor and the Hudson River and eventually reached Florida in August 1525 . As a result of his expedition , the 1529 Diego Ribeiro world map outlined the East coast of North America almost perfectly . In 1534 the explorer French Jacques Cartier described and mapped the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River . The Spaniard Cabeza de Vaca was the leader of the Narváez expedition of 600 men that between 1527 and 1535 explored the mainland of North America . From Tampa Bay , Florida , on 15 April 1528 , they marched through Florida . Traveling mostly on foot , they crossed Texas , New Mexico and Arizona , and Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León and Coahuila . After several months of fighting native inhabitants through wilderness and swamp , the party reached Apalachee Bay with 242 men . They believed they were near other Spaniards in Mexico , but there was in fact 1500 miles of coast between them . They followed the coast westward , until they reached the mouth of the Mississippi River near to Galveston Island . The Coronado expedition , 1540 -- 1542 Later they were enslaved for a few years by various Native American tribes of the upper Gulf Coast . They continued through Coahuila and Nueva Vizcaya ; then down the Gulf of California coast to what is now Sinaloa , Mexico , over a period of roughly eight years . They spent years enslaved by the Ananarivo of the Louisiana Gulf Islands . Later they were enslaved by the Hans , the Capoques and others . In 1534 they escaped into the American interior , contacting other Native American tribes along the way . Only four men , Cabeza de Vaca , Andrés Dorantes de Carranza , Alonso del Castillo Maldonado , and an enslaved Moroccan Berber named Estevanico , survived and escaped to reach Mexico City . In 1539 , Estevanico was one of four men who accompanied Marcos de Niza as a guide in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola , preceding Coronado . When the others were struck ill , Estevanico continued alone , opening up what is now New Mexico and Arizona . He was killed at the Zuni village of Hawikuh in present - day New Mexico . The viceroy of New Spain Antonio de Mendoza , for whom is named the Codex Mendoza , commissioned several expeditions to explore and establish settlements in the northern lands of New Spain in 1540 -- 42 . Francisco Vázquez de Coronado reached Quivira in central Kansas . Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the western coastline of Alta California in 1542 -- 43 . A map showing the de Soto route through the Southeast , 1539 -- 1542 Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 's 1540 -- 1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold , but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west , he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it . With the guidance of Hopi Indians , Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon . However , Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon , assuming the width of the Colorado River at six feet ( 1.8 m ) and estimating 300 - foot - tall ( 91 m ) rock formations to be the size of a man . After unsuccessfully attempting to descend to the river , they left the area , defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather . In 1540 , Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the Colorado river , intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado 's expedition . Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present - day California -- Arizona border . However , Coronado never reached the Gulf of California , and Alarcón eventually gave up and left . Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year , intending to establish contact with Alarcón , but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz 's arrival . Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon , while the name Colorado ( `` Red River '' ) was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River . In 1540 , expeditions under Hernando de Alarcon and Melchior Diaz visited the area of Yuma and immediately saw the natural crossing of the Colorado River from Mexico to California by land as an ideal spot for a city , as the Colorado River narrows to slightly under 1000 feet wide in one small point . Later military expeditions that crossed the Colorado River at the Yuma Crossing include Juan Bautista de Anza ( 1774 ) . The Chamuscado and Rodriguez Expedition explored New Mexico in 1581 -- 1582 . They explored a part of the route visited by Coronado in New Mexico and other parts in the southwestern United States between 1540 and 1542 . The viceroy of New Spain Don Diego García Sarmiento sent another expedition in 1648 to explore , conquer and colonize the Californias . Asia and Oceania colonization , and the Pacific exploration ( edit ) This section needs expansion with : Magellan and Villalobos should be mentioned in the correct time sequence . You can help by adding to it . ( June 2012 ) Statue of Miguel López de Legazpi , Cebu City , Philippines In 1525 Charles I of Spain ordered an expedition led by friar García Jofre de Loaísa to go to Asia by the western route to colonize the Maluku Islands ( known as Spice Islands , now part of Indonesia ) , thus crossing first the Atlantic and then the Pacific oceans . Ruy López de Villalobos sailed to the Philippines in 1542 -- 43 . From 1546 to 1547 Francis Xavier worked in Maluku among the peoples of Ambon Island , Ternate , and Morotai , and laid the foundations for the Christian religion there . Areas of Alaska and British Columbia Explored by Spain Spanish possessions in Asia and Oceania In 1564 , Miguel López de Legazpi was commissioned by the viceroy of New Spain , Luis de Velasco , to explore the Maluku Islands where Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543 , respectively . The expedition was ordered by Philip II of Spain , after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Villalobos . El Adelantado Legazpi established settlements in the East Indies and the Pacific Islands in 1565 . He was the first governor - general of the Spanish East Indies . After obtaining peace with various indigenous tribes , López de Legazpi made the Philippines the capital in 1571 . The Spanish settled and took control of Tidore in 1603 to trade spices and counter Dutch encroachment in the archipelago of Maluku . The Spanish presence lasted until 1663 , when the settlers and military were moved back to the Philippines . Part of the Ternatean population chose to leave with the Spanish , settling near Manila in what later became the municipality of Ternate . Spanish galleons travelled across the Pacific Ocean between Acapulco in Mexico and Manila . In 1542 , Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo traversed the coast of California and named many of its features . In 1601 , Sebastián Vizcaíno mapped the coastline in detail and gave new names to many features . Martín de Aguilar , lost from the expedition led by Sebastián Vizcaíno , explored the Pacific coast as far north as Coos Bay in present - day Oregon . Since the 1549 arrival to Kagoshima ( Kyushu ) of a group of Jesuits with St. Francis Xavier missionary and Portuguese traders , Spain was interested in Japan . In this first group of Jesuit missionaries were included Spaniards Cosme de Torres and Juan Fernandez . In 1611 , Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed the east coast of Japan and from the year of 1611 to 1614 he was ambassador of King Felipe III in Japan returning to Acapulco in the year of 1614 . In 1608 , he was sent to search for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro ( island of gold ) and Rico de Plata ( island of silver ) . Iberian Union period ( 1580 -- 1640 ) ( edit ) In 1578 the Saadi sultan Ahmad al - Mansur , contemporary of Queen Elizabeth I , defeated Portugal at the Battle of Ksar El Kebir , beating the young king Sebastian I , a devout Christian who believed in the crusade to defeat Islam . Portugal had landed in North Africa after Abu Abdallah asked him to help recover the Saadian throne . Abu Abdallah 's uncle , Abd Al - Malik , had taken it from Abu Abdallah with Ottoman Empire support . The defeat of Abu Abdallah and the death of Portugal 's king led to the end of the Portuguese Aviz dynasty and later to the integration of Portugal and its empire at the Iberian Union for 60 years under Sebastian 's uncle Philip II of Spain . Philip was married to his relative Mary I cousin of his father , due to this , Philip was King of England and Ireland in a dynastic union with Spain . As a result of the Iberian Union , Phillip II 's enemies became Portugal 's enemies , such as the Dutch in the Dutch -- Portuguese War , England or France . War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia , including Ceylon and commercial interests in Japan , Africa ( Mina ) , and South America . Even though the Portuguese were unable to capture the entire island of Ceylon , they were able to control its coastal regions for a considerable time . From 1580 to 1670 mostly , the Bandeirantes in Brazil focused on slave hunting , then from 1670 to 1750 they focused on mineral wealth . Through these expeditions and the Dutch -- Portuguese War , Colonial Brazil expanded from the small limits of the Tordesilhas Line to roughly the same borders as current Brazil . The combined Spanish and Portuguese empires during the Iberian Union ( 1580 -- 1640 ) In the 17th century , taking advantage of this period of Portuguese weakness , the Dutch occupied many Portuguese territories in Brazil . John Maurice , Prince of Nassau - Siegen was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1637 by the Dutch West India Company . He landed at Recife , the port of Pernambuco , in January 1637 . In a series of expeditions , he gradually expanded from Sergipe on the south to São Luís de Maranhão in the north . He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of Elmina Castle , Saint Thomas , and Luanda and Angola . The Dutch intrusion into Brazil was long lasting and troublesome to Portugal . The Seventeen Provinces captured a large portion of the Brazilian coast including the provinces of Bahia , Pernambuco , Paraíba , Rio Grande do Norte , Ceará , and Sergipe , while Dutch privateers sacked Portuguese ships in both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . The large area of Bahia and its city , the strategically important Salvador , was recovered quickly by an Iberian military expedition in 1625 . After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640 , Portugal re-established authority over its lost territories including remaining Dutch controlled areas . The other smaller , less developed areas were recovered in stages and relieved of Dutch piracy in the next two decades by local resistance and Portuguese expeditions . Spanish Formosa was established in Taiwan , first by Portugal from 1544 and later renamed and repositioned by Spain in Keelung . It became a natural defence site for the Iberian Union . The colony was designed to protect Spanish and Portuguese trade from interference by the Dutch base in the south of Taiwan . The Spanish colony was short - lived due to the unwillingness of Spanish colonial authorities in Manila to defend it . After Iberian Union ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Alexander von Humboldt 's American expedition at service of Spain 's King China gained control of Taiwan in 1683 , but the Portuguese and Spanish maintained a hold on trade with Chinese cities ; the Portuguese operated from Macau and other cities , the Spanish controlled Manila . Arabs from the Middle East and Muslims from India were actively trading in the port by the 1690s . Dutch , French , and English later frequented the port through the Canton System . By 1767 , Jesuit missionaries on The Californias had established approximately twenty - three missions over a period of seventy - two years . The Viceroy of New Spain , Antonio María Bucareli y Ursúa , demanded to explore the area north of Alta California in response to information that there were colonial Russian settlements there . Near the end of 1771 the Portolà expedition arrived at San Francisco Bay ( discovered in 1769 ) . Between 1774 and 1791 , the Spanish Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to explore the Pacific Northwest . Bruno de Heceta first explored the Pacific Northwest . In 1774 Juan Pérez , was exploring the islands in present - day British Columbia , and Canada . From 1769 to 1776 the Franciscan missionary Francisco Garcés of converso morisco descent , was exploring Sonora , Baja California , California , Arizona , and Nevada . The criollo Spaniard and later Governor of New Mexico Juan Bautista de Anza explored Arizona , Colorado and Alta California , founding the first overland route to San Francisco Bay . In 1781 , the Yuma tribe attacked and damaged the Spanish mission settlements of San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer and Puerto de Purísima Concepción , killing Lieutenant Governor Fernando Rivera , the mission Father , and others . The following year , the Spanish retaliated with military action against the tribe by José Antonio Roméu governor of Las Californias . The Spanish were unable to defeat the Yuma , and the tribe remained in control of the land for the following seventy years . The event closed the Anza Trail , crippling the overland population growth of the colony . The minister Don Mariano Luis de Urquijo recommended Alexander von Humboldt 's American expedition to the King of Spain , the Humboldt expedition reached South America in 1799 and departed from North America in 1804 . Less known nationals from Spain and Portugal continued to conduct exploration work , support conquest and colonization . After the Napoleonic Wars when both Peninsular countries were powers of second order , Portugal sought to form an alliance with the French rulers , but the British offered to support Portugal in return for free trade agreements and to remove their French rivals . Thus , Portugal was allied with Britain and preserved its possessions for a longer time . Spain with its few remnant colonies on every continent tried the same alliance with France , for example in the Cochinchina Campaign in Asia and the Spanish Protectorate of Morocco and the Spanish Sahara ( the Scramble for Africa ) . Disease in the Americas ( edit ) Aztecs dying of smallpox , ( `` The Florentine Codex '' 1540 -- 85 ) While technological superiority and cultural factors played an important role in the victories of the conquistadors in the Americas , their conquest was greatly facilitated by old world diseases : smallpox , chicken pox , diphtheria , typhus , influenza , measles , malaria and yellow fever . The diseases were carried to distant tribes and villages . This typical path of disease transmission moved much faster than the conquistadors , so that as they advanced , resistance weakened . Epidemic disease is commonly cited as the primary reason for the population collapse . The American natives lacked immunity to these infections . Most American native peoples lived in isolated communities , with only limited trade contact and no regular communication , further reducing their ability to build up immunity . Trading was the only ongoing contact between most New World cultures . When Francisco Coronado and the Spaniards first explored the Rio Grande Valley in 1540 , in modern New Mexico , some of the chieftains complained of new diseases that affected their tribes . Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528 , when the Spanish landed in Texas , `` half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us . '' When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Incan empire , a large portion of the population had already died in a smallpox epidemic . The first epidemic was recorded in 1529 and killed the emperor Huayna Capac , the father of Atahualpa . Further epidemics of smallpox broke out in 1533 , 1535 , 1558 and 1565 , as well as typhus in 1546 , influenza in 1558 , diphtheria in 1614 and measles in 1618 . Recently developed tree - ring evidence shows that the illness which reduced the population in Aztec Mexico was aided by a great drought in the 16th century , and which continued through the arrival of the Spanish conquest . This has added to the body of epidemiological evidence indicating that cocoliztli epidemics ( Nahuatl name for viral haemorrhagic fever ) were indigenous fevers transmitted by rodents and aggravated by the drought . The cocoliztli epidemic from 1545 to 1548 killed an estimated 5 to 15 million people , or up to 80 % of the native population . The cocoliztli epidemic from 1576 to 1578 killed an estimated , additional 2 to 2.5 million people , or about 50 % of the remainder . The American researcher H.F. Dobyns said that 95 % of the total population of the Americas died in the first 130 years , and that 90 % of the population of the Inca Empire died in epidemics . Cook and Borah of the University of California at Berkeley believe that the indigenous population in Mexico declined from 25.2 million in 1518 to 700,000 people in 1623 , less than 3 % of the original population . Mythic lands ( edit ) The conquistadors found new animal species , but reports confused these with monsters such as giants , dragons , or ghosts . Stories about castaways on mysterious islands were common . An early motive for exploration was the search for Cipango , the place where gold was born . Cathay and Cibao were later goals . The Seven Cities of Gold , or `` Cibola '' , was rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest . As early as 1611 , Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed the east coast of Japan and searched for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro ( Rich in Gold ) and Rico de Plata ( Rich in Silver ) . Books such as The Travels of Marco Polo fuelled rumours of mythical places . Stories included the half - fabulous Christian Empire of `` Prester John '' , the kingdom of the White Queen on the `` Western Nile '' ( Sénégal River ) , the Fountain of Youth , cities of Gold in North and South America such as Quivira , Zuni - Cibola Complex , and El Dorado , and wonderful kingdoms of the Ten Lost Tribes and women named Amazons . In 1542 , Francisco de Orellana reached the Amazon River , naming it after a tribe of warlike women he claimed to have fought there . Others claimed that the similarity between `` Indio '' and `` Iudio '' , the word for Jew in Spanish language about 1500 , revealed the indigenous peoples ' origin . Portuguese traveller Antonio de Montezinos reported that some of the Lost Tribes were living among the Native Americans of the Andes in South America . Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés wrote that Ponce de León was looking for the waters of Bimini to cure his aging . A similar account appears in Francisco López de Gómara 's Historia General de las Indias of 1551 . Then in 1575 , Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda , a shipwreck survivor who had lived with the Native Americans of Florida for 17 years , published his memoir in which he locates the Fountain of Youth in Florida , and says that Ponce de León was supposed to have looked for them there . This land somehow also became confused with the Boinca or Boyuca mentioned by Juan de Solis , although Solis 's navigational data placed it in the Gulf of Honduras . Sir Walter Raleigh and some Italian , Spanish , Dutch , French and Portuguese expeditions were looking for the wonderful Guiana empire that gave its name to the present day countries of the Guianas . Several expeditions went in search of these fabulous places , but returned empty - handed , or brought less gold than they had hoped . They found other precious metals such as silver , which was particularly abundant in Potosí , in modern - day Bolivia . They discovered new routes , ocean currents , trade winds , crops , spices and other products . In the sail era knowledge of winds and currents was essential , for example , the Agulhas current long prevented Portuguese sailors from reaching India . Various places in Africa and the Americas have been named after the imagined cities made of gold , rivers of gold and precious stones . Shipwrecked off Santa Catarina island in present - day Brazil , Aleixo Garcia living among the Guaranís heard tales of a `` White King '' who lived to the west , ruling cities of incomparable riches and splendour . Marching westward in 1524 to find the land of the `` White King '' , he was the first European to cross South America from the East . He discovered a great waterfall and the Chaco Plain . He managed to penetrate the outer defences of the Inca Empire on the hills of the Andes , in present - day Bolivia , the first European to do so , eight years before Francisco Pizarro . Garcia looted a booty of silver . When the army of Huayna Cápac arrived to challenge him , Garcia then retreated with the spoils , only to be assassinated by his Indian allies near San Pedro on the Paraguay River . Secrecy and disinformation ( edit ) Map of the Island of California , circa 1650 ; restored . Columbus ' discovery of what they thought at that time was India , and the constant competition of Portugal and Spain led to a desire for secrecy about every trade route and every colony . As a consequence , many documents that could reach other European countries included fake dates and faked facts , to mislead any other nation 's possible efforts . For example , the Island of California refers to a famous cartographic error propagated on many maps during the 17th and 18th centuries , despite contradictory evidence from various explorers . The legend was initially infused with the idea that California was a terrestrial paradise , peopled by black women Amazons . The tendency to secrecy and falsification of dates casts doubts about the authenticity of many primary sources . Several historians have hypothesized that John II may have known of the existence of Brazil and North America as early as 1480 , thus explaining his wish in 1494 at the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas , to push the line of influence further west . Many historians suspect that the real documents would have been placed in the Library of Lisbon . Unfortunately , a fire following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake destroyed nearly all of the library 's records , but an extra copy available in Goa was transferred to Lisbon 's Tower of Tombo , during the following 100 years . The Corpo Cronológico ( Chronological Corpus ) , a collection of manuscripts on the Portuguese explorations and discoveries in Africa , Asia and Latin America , was inscribed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register in 2007 in recognition of its historical value `` for acquiring knowledge of the political , diplomatic , military , economic and religious history of numerous countries at the time of the Portuguese Discoveries . '' Financing and governance ( edit ) Main article : Council of the Indies 1541 founding of Santiago de Chile Bronze equestrian statue of Francisco Pizarro in Lima , Peru Ferdinand incorporated the American territories into his domain and then withdrew the authority granted to governor Christopher Columbus and the first conquistadors . He established direct royal control with the Council of the Indies , the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire , both in the Americas and in Asia . After unifying Castile , Ferdinand introduced to Castile many laws , regulations and institutions such as the Inquisition , that were typical in Aragon . These laws were later used in the new lands . The Laws of Burgos , created in 1512 -- 1513 , were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of settlers in Spanish colonial America , particularly with regards to Native Americans . They forbade the maltreatment of indigenous people , and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism . The evolving structure of colonial government was not fully formed until the third quarter of the 16th century ; however , los Reyes Católicos designated Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca to study the problems related to the colonization process . Rodríguez de Fonseca effectively became minister for the Indies and laid the foundations for the creation of a colonial bureaucracy , combining legislative , executive and judicial functions . Rodríguez de Fonseca presided over the council , which contained a number of members of the Council of Castile ( Consejo de Castilla ) , and formed a Junta de Indias of about eight counsellors . Emperor Charles V was already using the term `` Council of the Indies '' in 1519 . Philip II of Spain ( 1527 -- 1598 ) . The Crown reserved for itself important tools of intervention . The `` capitulacion '' clearly stated that the conquered territories belonged to the Crown , not to the individual . On the other hand , concessions allowed the Crown to guide the Companies conquests to certain territories , depending on their interests . In addition , the leader of the expedition received clear instructions about their duties towards the army , the native population , the type of military action . A written report about the results was mandatory . The army had a royal official , the `` veedor '' . The `` veedor '' or notary , ensured they complied with orders and instructions and preserved the King 's share of the booty . In practice the Capitán had almost unlimited power . Besides the Crown and the conquistador , they were very important the backers who were charged with anticipating the money to the Capitán and guarantee payment of obligations . Armed groups sought supplies and funds in various ways . Financing was requested from the King , delegates of the Crown , the nobility , rich merchants or the troops themselves . The more professional campaigns were funded by the Crown . Campaigns were sometimes initiated by inexperienced governors , because in Spanish Colonial America , offices were bought or handed to relatives or cronies . Sometimes , an expedition of conquistadors were a group of influential men who had recruited and equipped their fighters , by promising a share of the booty . The conquistador borrowed as little as possible , preferring to invest all their belongings . Sometimes , every soldier brought his own equipment and supplies , other times the soldiers received gear as an advance from the conquistador . The Pinzón brothers , seamen of the Tinto -- Odiel participated in Columbus 's undertaking . They also supported the project economically , supplying money from their personal fortunes . Sponsors included governments , the king , viceroys , and local governors backed by rich men . The contribution of each individual conditioned the subsequent division of the booty , receiving a portion the pawn ( lancero , piquero , alabardero , rodelero ) and twice a man on horseback ( caballero ) owner of a horse . Sometimes part of the booty consisted of women and / or slaves . Even the dogs , important weapons of war in their own right , were in some cases rewarded . The division of the booty produced conflicts , such as the one between Pizarro and Almagro . Military advantages ( edit ) Alonso de Ovalle 's 1646 engraving of the conquistadors García Hurtado de Mendoza , Pedro de Villagra and Rodrigo de Quiroga Shrunken head of a mestizo man by Jívaro indigenous people . In 1599 , the Jivaro destroyed Spanish settlements in eastern Ecuador and killed all the men . Conquistadors had overwhelming military advantages over the native peoples . They belonged to a more militarily advanced civilization with better techniques , tools , firearms , artillery , iron , steel and domesticated animals . Horses and mules carried them , pigs fed them and dogs fought for them . The indigenous peoples had the advantage of established settlements , determination to remain independent and large numerical superiority . European diseases and divide and conquer tactics contributed to the defeat of the native populations . In the Iberian peninsula , in a situation of constant conflict , warfare and daily life were strongly interlinked . Small , lightly equipped armies were maintained at all times . The state of war continued intermittently for centuries and created a very warlike culture in Iberia . Strategy ( edit ) Another factor was the ability of the conquistadors to manipulate the political situation between indigenous peoples . To beat the Inca civilization , they supported one side of a civil war . They overthrew the Aztec civilization by allying with natives who had been subjugated by more powerful neighbouring tribes and kingdoms . These tactics had been used since antiquity , for example , in the Granada War , the conquest of the Canary Islands and conquest of Navarre . Throughout the conquest , the indigenous people greatly outnumbered the conquistadors ; the conquistador troops never exceeded 2 % of the native population . The army with which Hernán Cortés besieged Tenochtitlan was composed of 200,000 soldiers , of which fewer than 1 % were Spaniards . The Europeans practiced war within the terms and laws of their concept of a just war . While Spanish soldiers went to the battlefield to kill their enemies , the Aztecs and Mayas captured their enemies for use as sacrificial victims to their gods -- a process called `` flower war '' by Spanish historians . The cultural context of the Iberian Peninsula was different from that of the rest of Continental Europe from the Middle Age , due to contact with Moorish culture and the isolation provided by the Pyrenees . Doctrines , equipment , and tactics differed from those found in the rest of Europe . In traditional cultures of the Stone Age , Bronze Age , and hunter - gatherer societies the warfare was mostly ' endemic ' , long duration , low intensity , usually evolving into almost a ritualized form . By contrast , Europe had moved to ' sporadic ' warfare in the Middle Ages due to the availability of professionally mercenary armies . When Italy was ransacked by French and Spanish Armies in the early 1500s , most Italian states were easily defeated by armies practicing sporadic - warfare . Aztec and other native peoples practiced an endemic system of warfare as well , and so were easily defeated by Spanish and Portuguese sporadic - warfare armies in the early 1500s . Tactics ( edit ) These forces were capable of quickly moving long distances , allowing a quick return home after battle . Wars were mainly between clans , expelling intruders . On land , these wars combined some European methods with techniques from Muslim bandits in Al - Andalus . These tactics consisted of small groups who attempted to catch their opponents by surprise , through an ambush . In Mombasa , Dom Vasco da Gama resorted to piracy , looting Arab merchant ships , which were generally unarmed trading vessels without heavy cannons . Equipment and animals ( edit ) Firearms ( edit ) The introduction of gunpowder in Europe in the late 14th century led to the increased preference for infantry - oriented professional armies and gave birth to heavy infantry armoured like a knight , with mailed armour and maybe an iron helmet and gunpowder artillery . Other heavy infantry would probably be armed with little armour and maybe a gunpowder weapon that was capable of penetrating armour . When traders from Portugal introduced arquebuses and muskets , Iberian warlords were quick to adapt them , giving them a large advantage . Iberian kingdoms developed expertise in both cannon manufacturing and shipbuilding . Aragon 's Crown and Portugal constructed warships equipped with firearms and advanced gunpowder cannons . Portuguese and Spanish conquerors made use of these weapons , including Vasco da Gama and his sons Cristóvão da Gama and the younger brother Estêvão da Gama . Arquebuses played an important role in the victories of Cristóvão da Gama 's small and outnumbered army in his 1541 -- 42 campaign in Ethiopia . Arquebuses were carried by some of the soldiers of Hernán Cortés in his conquest of Mexico in the 1520s . In their first contacts with native peoples , the firearms , including arquebuses , used by the conquistadors were formidable weapons . A few effective artillery hits would stop the charging warriors and destroy morale because of the noise and carnage . The small weapons carried by native warriors had little advantage . The procedure to reload an arquebus was lengthy , rarely allowing more than ten shots per battle . Alano Español , or Spanish bulldog , carried by the Spanish conquistadors on their expeditions . The most famous of these dogs of war , called Becerrillo , belonged to Ponce de Leon and was the first European dog known to reach North America . Although many American civilizations had developed methods for working soft metals , including gold , silver , bronze , tin and copper , this knowledge was applied mainly to the development of religious and artistic objects , as well as household utensils . Few metals were used for military applications . One exception was that the Quechuas and Purépecha developed weapons of copper and bronze , but these could not match the hardness or durability of iron and steel . Most indigenous cultures were limited to weapons of wood , flint and obsidian . Light equipment ( edit ) Spanish Morion helmet used from the middle 16th to early 17th centuries The armament consisted of a spear , a steel shield , a helmet called a `` Morion '' , a hilted sword , and sometimes a horse saddle with leather shell . Rodeleros ( also called espadachines , `` swordsmen '' ) were equipped with steel shields or bucklers known as rodela and swords , usually of the side - sword type . A Spanish sword made of steel was considered the pinnacle of craftsmanship and a well trained swordsman could be a dominant foe . To the Spanish , the sword represented their honour and devotion as a Christian knight . Armor worn by the Spanish conquistadors . The Spanish also adopted halberdiers and the colunella , the first of the mixed pike and shot formations . They used small groups of sword - and - buckler men to break the deadlock of the push of pike . When they took control of a territory , the conquistadors usually banned possession of steel swords by their subjects . The majority of Hernán Cortés 's troops during his campaigns in the New World were rodeleros . In 1520 , over 1000 of his 1300 men were so equipped , and in 1521 he had 700 rodeleros , but only 118 arquebusiers and crossbowmen . Bernal Díaz , the author of an account of Cortés ' conquest of the Aztecs , served as a rodelero under Cortés . The bow and the crossbow was used by the conquistadors for hunting and warfare when firearms or gunpowder were unavailable because of economic hardships or isolation . The cavalry mostly used steel breastplates and armour during Cortés ' campaign . The high heat and humidity of Central and South America could make heavy iron armour and steel items mostly impractical. The Spanish , from a country with very hot summers , usually had lighter armour . Commonly mail and leather were worn by the Spaniards . However , some indigenous cultures had used woven grasses and leathers for protection for centuries . Animals ( edit ) Basque Countrymen near the France -- Spain border in 1898 , with characteristic horse , donkey and dogs . These were the type of animals introduced to America . Animals were another important factor for Spanish triumph . On the one hand , the introduction of the horse and other domesticated pack animals allowed them greater mobility unknown to the Indian cultures . However , in the mountains and jungles , the Spaniards were less able to use narrow Amerindian roads and bridges made for pedestrian traffic , which were sometimes no wider than a few feet . In places such as Argentina , New Mexico and California , the indigenous people learned horsemanship , cattle raising , and sheep herding . The use of the new techniques by indigenous groups later became a disputed factor in native resistance to the colonial and American governments . The Spaniards were also skilled at breeding dogs for war , hunting and protection . The Molossers , Spanish war dogs and sheep dogs they used in battle were effective as a psychological weapon against the natives , who , in many cases , had never seen domesticated dogs . Although some indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere did have domestic dogs , including the current Southwestern US , Aztec and other Central American peoples , the inhabitants of the Arctic / Tundra regions ( Inuit , Aleut , Cree ) , and possibly some South American groups similar to South American fox ( Pseudalopex culpaeus ) or Yagan dog , during the conquest of the Americas , Spanish conquistadors used Spanish Mastiffs and other Molossers in battle against the Taínos , Aztecs and Mayans . These specially trained dogs were feared because of their strength and ferocity . The strongest big breeds of broad - mouthed dogs were specifically trained for battle . These war dogs were used against barely clothed troops . They were armoured dogs trained to kill and disembowel . Spanish Mastiff used in expeditions and guard The most famous of these dogs of war was a mascot of Ponce de Leon called Becerrillo , the first European dog known to reach North America ; another famous dog called Leoncico , the son of Becerillo , and the first European dog known to see the Pacific Ocean , was a mascot of Vasco Núñez de Balboa and accompanied him on several expeditions . Nautical science ( edit ) Ephemeris by Abraham Zacuto in Almanach Perpetuum , 1496 A Portuguese caravel The successive expeditions and experience of the Portuguese pilots led to a rapid evolution of Portuguese nautical science . Navigation ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In the thirteenth century they were guided by the sun position . For celestial navigation like other Europeans , they used Greek tools , like the astrolabe and quadrant , which they made easier and simpler . They also created the cross-staff , or cane of Jacob , for measuring at sea the height of the sun and other stars . The Southern Cross became a reference upon the arrival of João de Santarém and Pedro Escobar in the Southern hemisphere in 1471 , starting its use in celestial navigation . The results varied throughout the year , which required corrections . To address this the Portuguese used the astronomical tables ( Ephemeris ) , a precious tool for oceanic navigation , which spread widely in the fifteenth century . These tables revolutionized navigation , enabling latitude calculations . The tables of the Almanach Perpetuum , by astronomer Abraham Zacuto , published in Leiria in 1496 , were used along with its improved astrolabe , by Vasco da Gama and Pedro Alvares Cabral . Ship design ( edit ) Main article : Iberian ship development , 1400 -- 1600 The ship that truly launched the first phase of the discoveries along the African coast was the Portuguese caravel . Iberians quickly adopted it for their merchant navy . It was a development based on African fishing boats . They were agile and easier to navigate , with a tonnage of 50 to 160 tons and one to three masts , with lateen triangular sails allowing luffing . The caravel particularly benefited from a greater capacity to tack . The limited capacity for cargo and crew were their main drawbacks , but have not hindered its success . Limited crew and cargo space was acceptable , initially , because as exploratory ships , their `` cargo '' was what was in the explorer 's discoveries about a new territory , which only took up the space of one person . Among the famous caravels are Berrio and Caravela Annunciation . Columbus also used them in his travels . Long oceanic voyages led to larger ships . `` Nau '' was the Portuguese archaic synonym for any large ship , primarily merchant ships . Due to the piracy that plagued the coasts , they began to be used in the navy and were provided with cannon windows , which led to the classification of `` naus '' according to the power of its artillery . The carrack or nau was a three - or four - masted ship . It had a high rounded stern with large aftcastle , forecastle and bowsprit at the stem . It was first used by the Portuguese , and later by the Spanish . They were also adapted to the increasing maritime trade . They grew from 200 tons capacity in the 15th century to 500 . In the 16th century they usually had two decks , stern castles fore and aft , two to four masts with overlapping sails . In India travels in the sixteenth century used carracks , large merchant ships with a high edge and three masts with square sails , that reached 2,000 tons . Winds and currents ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Map of the five major oceanic gyres Besides coastal exploration , Portuguese ships also made trips further out to gather meteorological and oceanographic information . These voyages revealed the archipelagos of Bissagos Islands where the Portuguese were defeated by native people in 1535 , Madeira , the Azores , Cape Verde , Sao Tome , Trindade and Martim Vaz , Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago , Fernando de Noronha , Corisco , Elobey Grande , Elobey Chico Annobon Island , Ascension Island , Bioko Island , Falkland Islands , Principe Island , Saint Helena Island , Tristan da Cunha Island and Sargasso Sea . The knowledge of wind patterns and currents , the trade winds and the oceanic gyres in the Atlantic , and the determination of latitude led to the discovery of the best ocean route back from Africa : crossing the Central Atlantic to the Azores , using the winds and currents that spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere because of atmospheric circulation and the effect of Coriolis , facilitating the way to Lisbon and thus enabling the Portuguese to venture farther from shore , a manoeuvre that became known as the `` volta do mar '' ( return of the sea ) . In 1565 , the application of this principle in the Pacific Ocean led the Spanish discovering the Manila Galleon trade route . Cartography ( edit ) Portolan of Angelino Dulcert ( 1339 ) showing Lanzarote island In 1339 Angelino Dulcert of Majorca produced the portolan chart map . Evidently drawing from the information provided in 1336 by Lanceloto Malocello sponsored by King Dinis of Portugal . It showed Lanzarote island , named Insula de Lanzarotus Marocelus and marked by a Genoese shield , as well as the island of Forte Vetura ( Fuerteventura ) and Vegi Mari ( Lobos ) , although Dulcert also included some imaginary islands himself , notably Saint Brendan 's Island , and three islands he names Primaria , Capraria and Canaria . Mestre Jacome was a Majorcan cartographer induced by Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator to move to Portugal in the 1420s to train Portuguese map - makers in Majorcan - style cartography . ' Jacome of Majorca ' is even sometimes described as the head of Henry 's observatory and `` school '' at Sagres . Pre-mercator navigation chart of the Coast of Africa ( 1571 ) , by Fernão Vaz Dourado ( Torre do Tombo , Lisbon ) It is thought that Jehuda Cresques , son of Jewish cartographer Abraham Cresques of Palma in Majorca , and Italian - Majorcan Angelino Dulcert were cartographers at the service of Prince Henry . Majorca had many skilled Jewish cartographers . However , the oldest signed Portuguese sea chart is a Portolan made by Pedro Reinel in 1485 representing the Western Europe and parts of Africa , reflecting the explorations made by Diogo Cão . Reinel was also author of the first nautical chart known with an indication of latitudes in 1504 and the first representation of a wind rose . With his son , cartographer Jorge Reinel and Lopo Homem , they participated in the making of the atlas known as `` Lopo Homem - Reinés Atlas '' or `` Miller Atlas '' , in 1519 . They were considered the best cartographers of their time . Emperor Charles V wanted them to work for him . In 1517 King Manuel I of Portugal handed Lopo Homem a charter giving him the privilege to certify and amend all compass needles in vessels . The third phase of nautical cartography was characterized by the abandonment of Ptolemy 's representation of the East and more accuracy in the representation of lands and continents . Fernão Vaz Dourado ( Goa ~ 1520 -- ~ 1580 ) , produced work of extraordinary quality and beauty , giving him a reputation as one of the best cartographers of the time . Many of his charts are large scale . Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire Iberian Union ( 1581 -- 1640 ) The Magellan -- Elcano voyage . The first travel around the world . The Manila - Acapulco trade route started in 1568 and Spanish treasure fleets ( white ) and its eastwards rivals , the Portuguese India Armadas routes of 1498 -- 1640 ( blue ) People in the service of Spain ( edit ) Conquest of the Canary Islands ( 1402 -- 1496 ) Inés de Suárez was a Spanish conquistadora , successfully defending Santiago de Chile against a Mapuche attack in 1541 Gonzalo Guerrero , a shipwrecked Spanish mariner who married a Maya woman and later fought with the Mayas against the conquista Alonso Fernández de Lugo ( Canary Islands , 1492 -- 1496 ) Hernán Cortés ( Mexico , 1518 -- 1522 , Baja California , 1532 -- 1536 ) Pedro de Alvarado ( Mexico , 1519 -- 1521 , Guatemala , El Salvador 1523 -- 1527 , Peru , 1533 -- 1535 , Mexico , 1540 -- 1541 ) Francisco Pizarro ( Perú , 1509 -- 1535 ) Pedro de Candia ( Panama , 1527 , Colombia and Ecuador , 1528 , Peru , 1530 ) Francisco Vásquez de Coronado ( United States , 1540 -- 1542 ) Juan de Oñate ( New Mexico , United States , 1598 -- 1608 ) Juan Vásquez de Coronado y Anaya ( Costa Rica ) Diego de Almagro ( Perú , 1524 -- 1535 , Chile , 1535 -- 1537 ) Rodrigo de Bastidas ( Colombia and Panamá , 1500 -- 1527 ) Vasco Núñez de Balboa ( Panamá , 1510 -- 1519 ) Juan Ponce de León ( Puerto Rico , 1508 , Florida , 1513 -- 1521 ) Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca ( United States , 1527 -- 1536 , 1540 -- 1542 ) Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón ( United States , 1524 -- 1527 ) Sebastián de Belalcázar ( Ecuador and Colombia , 1533 -- 1536 ) Domingo Martínez de Irala ( Argentina and Paraguay , 1535 -- 1556 ) Gonzalo Pizarro ( Perú , 1532 -- 1542 ) Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar ( Cuba , 1511 -- 1519 ) Diego de Ordaz ( Venezuela , 1532 ) Juan Pizarro ( Perú , 1532 -- 1536 ) Francisco Hernández de Córdoba ( Yucatán , 1517 ) Francisco Hernández de Córdoba ( Nicaragua , 1524 ) Hernando Pizarro ( Perú , 1532 -- 1560 ) Jerónimo de Alderete ( Perú , 1535 - 1540 ; Chile , 1550 - 1552 ) Diego Hernández de Serpa ( Venezuela , 1510 -- 1570 ) Juan de Grijalva ( Yucatán , 1518 ) Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada ( Colombia , 1536 -- 1537 , Venezuela , 1569 -- 1572 ) Francisco de Montejo ( Yucatán , 1527 -- 1546 ) Nicolás Federmann ( Venezuela and Colombia , 1537 -- 1539 ) . Pánfilo de Narváez ( Spanish Florida , 1527 -- 1528 ) Diego de Nicuesa ( Panama , 1506 -- 1511 ) Cristóbal de Olid ( Honduras , 1523 -- 1524 ) Francisco de Orellana ( Amazon River , 1541 -- 1543 ) Hernando de Soto ( United States , 1539 -- 1542 ) Inés Suárez , ( Chile , 1541 ) Francisco de Aguirre , Peru , ( 1536 -- 40 ) , Bolivia , ( 1538 -- 39 ) Chile , ( 1540 - 1553 ) and Argentina ( 1562 - 64 ) Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi , count of Lizárraga , ( Petén , Guatemala , 1696 -- 1697 ) Pedro de Valdivia ( Chile , 1540 -- 1552 ) Pedro Menéndez de Avilés ( Florida , 1565 -- 1567 ) Pedro de Mendoza ( Argentina , 1534 -- 1537 ) Alonso de Ribera ( Chile 1599 -- 1617 ) Alonso de Sotomayor ( Chile 1583 -- 1592 , Panamá 1592 -- 1604 ) Martín Ruiz de Gamboa ( Chile 1552 -- 1590 ) Juan Garrido ( Multiple campaigns 1502 -- 1530 , Hispaniola , Puerto Rico , Cuba , Florida , Mexico ) Miguel López de Legazpi ( Philippines , 1565 -- 1572 ) Juan de Salcedo ( Philippines , 1565 -- 1576 ) People in the service of Portugal ( edit ) Bandeirantes were crucial in Portuguese exploration , colonization , and pacification of the Brazilian interior . Afonso de Albuquerque Álvaro Martins António de Noli Antão Gonçalves Bartolomeu Dias Cadamosto Cristóvão de Mendonça Lourenço de Almeida Diogo Cão Diogo de Azambuja Diogo Gomes Dinis Dias Duarte Fernandes Fernão do Pó Fernão Magalhães also known as Ferdinand Magellan and Magallanes , served Spain too . Fernão Pires de Andrade Francisco de Almeida Francisco Álvares Henry the Navigator Gaspar Corte - Real Gil Eanes Gonçalo Velho João Afonso de Aveiro João da Nova João Grego João Álvares Fagundes João Fernandes Lavrador João Gonçalves Zarco João Infante João Vaz Corte - Real Jorge Álvares Lopo Soares de Albergaria Luís Pires Luís Vaz de Torres Martin Behaim Martim Afonso de Sousa Miguel Corte - Real Nicolau Coelho Nuno Álvares Pereira Nuno da Cunha Paulo da Gama Nuno Tristão Paulo Dias de Novais Pedro Álvares Cabral Pedro Teixeira Pêro de Alenquer Pêro de Barcelos Pêro da Covilhã Pêro Dias Pêro Vaz de Caminha Tristão da Cunha Tristão Vaz Teixeira Vasco da Gama See also ( edit ) Spain portal Portugal portal New Spain portal Colonialism portal Bandeirantes , members of Portuguese 16th -- 18th century South American expeditions that captured slaves and mineral wealth Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia Colonial Brazil , the Viceroyalty of Brazil , in the period from 1500 until 1815 European colonization of the Americas List of conquistadors Price revolution Tercio , a Renaissance - era military formation sometimes referred to as the Spanish Square Libertadores , leaders of the Latin American wars of independence from Spain and Portugal ( contrast to the Conquistadors ) New Spain , the Viceroyalty of New Spain , at its greatest extent included much of North and Central America References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mary Hill , Gold : The California Story Jump up ^ Vanhanen , Tatu ( 1997 ) . Prospects of democracy : a study of 172 countries . New York : Routledge . p. 112 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 14405 - 1 . Jump up ^ Martinez VP , Bellomo C , San Juan J , Pinna D , Forlenza R , Elder M , Padula PJ ( 2005 ) . `` Person - to - person transmission of Andes virus '' . Emerging Infect . Dis. 11 : 1848 -- 53 . doi : 10.3201 / eid1112. 050501 . PMC 3367635 . PMID 16485469 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 18 March 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` CDC Yellow Fever '' . Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America '' by James Axtell Archived 17 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ The Spanish Colonial System , 1550 -- 1800 . Population Development Archived 4 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Conquest in the Americas . Archived from the original on 31 October 2009 . Jump up ^ p30 - 31 of J.H. Elliot , introductory essay to Anthony Pagdens translation of Cortés 's letters `` Hernán Cortés '' letters from Mexico '' 2001 ( 1971 , 1986 ) Yale University NotaBene books ^ Jump up to : Mann , Charles ( 2006 ) . 1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus . Madrid : Taurus . Jump up ^ The Crypt : Slaves in the Islamic world Archived 8 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` ' ' When Europeans were slaves : Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed ' ' '' . ResearchNews.OSU.edu . Archived from the original on 25 July 2011 . Retrieved 4 December 2011 . Jump up ^ ``. : ELBACOMUNICO : . Sito di impegno civico per le nuove comunicazioni al ... '' . ElbaComunico.com. 9 June 2007 . Archived from the original on 9 June 2007 . Retrieved 30 May 2017 . Jump up ^ arbulan ( 28 April 2007 ) . `` Islamic Expansion and Decline : Chapter 8 : The Slave Society '' . Islamicexpansionanddecline.blogspot.com . Retrieved 4 December 2011 . Jump up ^ http://www.materialesdehistoria.org/doc_pdf/EL%20MUSULMAN%20HEROICO.pdf Jump up ^ Boeglin , Michel , Entre la Cruz y el Corán . Los moriscos en Sevilla ( 1570 -- 1613 ) , ( Instituto Cultural de las Artes de Sevilla , Sevilla , 2010 ) . Jump up ^ J. de Andrade Corvo in Journal das Ciências Matemáticas , xxxi. 147 -- 176 , Lisbon , 1881 Jump up ^ Collins , Robert O. ; Burns , James M. ( 2007 ) . `` Part II , Chapter 12 : The arrival of Europeans in sub-Saharan Africa '' . A History of Sub-Saharan Africa . Cambridge University Press . p. 179 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 86746 - 0 . in 1475 when his contract expired Rui de Sequeira had reached Cabo Santa Caterina ( Cape Saint Catherine ) south of the equator and the Gabon River . Jump up ^ Arthur Percival , Newton ( 1970 ) ( 1932 ) . `` Vasco da Gama and The Indies '' . The Great Age of Discovery . Ayer Publishing . p. 48 . ISBN 0 - 8337 - 2523 - 8 . and about the same time Lopo Gonçalves crossed the Equator , while Ruy de Sequeira went on to Cape St. Catherine , two degrees south of the line . Jump up ^ Koch , Peter O. ( 2003 ) . `` Following the Dream of Prince Henry '' . To the Ends of the Earth : The Age of the European Explorers . McFarland & Company . p. 62 . ISBN 0 - 7864 - 1565 - 7 . Gomes was obligated to pledge a small percentage of his profits to the royal treasury . Starting from Sierra Leone in 1469 , this monetarily motivated entrepreneurial explorer spent the next five years extending Portugal 's claims even further than he had been required , reaching as far south as Cape St. Catherine before his contract came up for renewal . Jump up ^ Gates , Louis ; Anthony Appiah ( 1999 ) . Africana : The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience . p. 1105 . Jump up ^ The standard view of historians is that Cabral was blown off course as he was navigating the currents of the South Atlantic , sighted the coast of South America , and thereby accidentally discovered Brazil . However , for an alternative account of the discovery of Brazil , see History of Brazil Jump up ^ Taonga , New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu . `` Proof of Spanish discovery ? '' . www.Teara.govt.nz . Retrieved 30 May 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10429904 Jump up ^ Stirling , Rose ( 10 August 2011 ) . `` Ancient facts unfold '' . Retrieved 30 May 2017 -- via Stuff.co.nz . Jump up ^ http://tvnz.co.nz/content/57589/2539670/article.html Jump up ^ Map proves Portuguese discovered Australia : new book , in Reuters ( Wed 21 March 2007 ) -- ( see Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia ) Jump up ^ `` The Expulsion 1492 Chronicles '' . AISH.com . Retrieved 30 May 2017 . Jump up ^ Ingrams , W.H. ( 1 June 1967 ) . `` Zanzibar : Its History and Its People '' . Psychology Press . Retrieved 30 May 2017 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ The East Africa Protectorate , Sir Charles Eliot , K.C.M.G. , published by Edward Arnold , London , 1905 , digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 ( PDF format ) . Jump up ^ Pearce , Francis Barrow ( 30 May 2017 ) . `` Zanzibar : The Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa '' . Dutton . Retrieved 30 May 2017 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade Archived 16 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Sri Lanka History '' . Thondaman Foundation . Retrieved 22 August 2011 . Jump up ^ K.M. De Silva ( January 1981 ) . A History of Sri Lanka . University of California Press . pp. 101 -- 102 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 04320 - 6 . Jump up ^ Chandra Richard De Silva ( 2009 ) . Portuguese Encounters with Sri Lanka and the Maldives : Translated Texts from the Age of Discoveries . Ashgate Publishing , Ltd. p. 153 . 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A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1300 . Stanford University Press . p. 23 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 2194 - 3 . Jump up ^ Patit Paban Mishra ( 2010 ) . The History of Thailand . ABC - CLIO . p. 50 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 34091 - 8 . Jump up ^ Robert Kerr ( 1824 ) . `` Conquest of India '' . A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels ( Complete ) . VI . W. Blackwood and T. Cadell . pp. 441 -- 442 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Sacred Space and Holy War , Juan Ricardo Cole , I.B. Tauris ( 2002 ) Jump up ^ Ricklefs , M.C. ( 1991 ) . A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 , 2nd Edition . London : MacMillan . p. 26 . ISBN 0 - 333 - 57689 - 6 . Jump up ^ Lach , DF. ( 1994 ) Asia in the Making of Europe : The Century of Discovery ( Vol 1 ) , Chicago University Press Jump up ^ E.C. Abendanon ; E. Heawood ( December 1919 ) . `` Missing Links in the Development of the Ancient Portuguese Cartography of the Netherlands East Indian Archipelago '' . The Geographical Journal . Blackwell Publishing . 54 ( 6 ) : 347 -- 355 . doi : 10.2307 / 1779411 . JSTOR 1779411 . ^ Jump up to : Ricklefs , M.C. ( 1991 ) . A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 , 2nd Edition . London : MacMillan . p. 24 . ISBN 0 - 333 - 57689 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Ricklefs , M.C. ( 1991 ) . A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 , 2nd Edition . London : MacMillan . p. 25 . ISBN 0 - 333 - 57689 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` John Cabot 's voyage of 1498 '' . Memorial University of Newfoundland ( Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage ) . 2000 . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ Bailey Bailey Wallys Diffie ( 1977 ) . Foundations of the Portuguese Empire : 1415 - 1580 . U of Minnesota Press . p. 464 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8166 - 0782 - 2 . Jump up ^ Mount Allison University , Marshlands : Records of Life on the Tantramar : European Contact and Mapping , 2004 Jump up ^ Tratado das ilhas novas e descombrimento dellas e outras couzas , 1570 , Francisco de Souza , Typ . do Archivo dos Açores , 1884 - University of Harvard , Page 6 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Boxer , p. 98 . Jump up ^ Boxer , pp. 100 -- 101 . ^ Jump up to : Skidmore , p. 27 . Jump up ^ Boxer , p. 101 . Jump up ^ Boxer , p. 108 Jump up ^ Boxer , p. 102 . Jump up ^ Skidmore , pp. 30 , 32 . Jump up ^ Boxer , p. 100 . Jump up ^ Skidmore , p. 36 . Jump up ^ Boxer , p. 110 Jump up ^ Skidmore , p. 34 . Jump up ^ Bueno , pp. 80 -- 81 . Jump up ^ Facsimiles of multiple original documents relating about the events in Brazil in the 17th century that led to a Dutch influence and their final defeat Jump up ^ Calmon , p. 294 . Jump up ^ Bueno , p. 86 . Jump up ^ `` History of Jamaica '' . Jamaica National Heritage Trust . Archived from the original on 26 September 2010 . 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( pg 12 ) ISBN 0 - 521 - 37981 - 4 Jump up ^ William Prescott -- Mexico and the Life of the Conqueror -- Volume I , Book 2 , Chapter 2 , circa 1843 Jump up ^ Juan de Samano ( 9 October 2009 ) . `` Relacion de los primeros descubrimientos de Francisco Pizarro y Diego de Almagro , 1526 '' . bloknot.info ( A. Skromnitsky ) . Retrieved 2009 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ Somervill , Barbara ( 2005 ) . Francisco Pizarro : Conqueror of the Incas . Compass Point Books . p. 52 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7565 - 1061 - 9 . Jump up ^ Bolivia & Main Cities / Potosí Archived 6 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine . from boliviaweb.com . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 27 . Jump up ^ Abad de Santillán , pp. 96 -- 140 Jump up ^ Latin America in Colonial Times . Cambridge University Press . 2011 . Jump up ^ `` John Wesley Powell 's Exploration of the Colorado River '' . U.S. Geological Survey . 28 March 2006 . Archived from the original on 5 April 2015 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 19 . Jump up ^ Barkham ( 1984 ) , p. 515 . 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The Grand Strategy of Philip II , ( 2000 ) Jump up ^ Whether several diseases from `` the New World '' ( America ) struck Europe shortly after Columbus 's voyage is also debated among scholars . Goodling , Stacy . `` Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World '' . Archived from the original on 10 May 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Journey of Alvar Nuńez Cabeza de Vaca Archived 5 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine . '' Jump up ^ ( 3 ) Jump up ^ ( 4 ) Jump up ^ ( 5 ) Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 3 September 2011 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 08 . Jump up ^ Dobyns , H.F. American population dynamics in Eastern North Americas . Knoxville ( Tenn . ) : University of Tennessee Press . Jump up ^ Dobyns , H.F. ( 1983 ) . Their number become thined : Native American population dynamics in Eastern North America . Knoxville ( Tenn . ) : University of Tennessee Press . Jump up ^ Cook , S.F. ; Borah , W.W. ( 1963 ) . The Indian population of Central Mexico . Berkeley ( Cal . ) : University of California Press . Jump up ^ `` El imaginario del conquistador español ( página 3 ) '' ( in Spanish ) . Jump up ^ Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo . Historia General y Natural de las Indias , book 16 , chapter XI . Jump up ^ Francisco López de Gómara . Historia General de las Indias , second part . Jump up ^ `` Fontaneda 's Memoir , translation by Buckingham Smith , 1854 . From keyshistory.org . Retrieved 28 March 2007 '' . Jump up ^ `` Corpo Cronológico ( Collection of Manuscripts on the Portuguese Discoveries ) '' . UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 May 2008 . Retrieved 2009 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ Ortega 1980 , Tomo III , p. 37 - 110 Jump up ^ de las Casas , Bartolomé . `` Tomo I. Capítulo XXXIV , pág. 256 '' . Historia de las Indias . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 18 . On the website of the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes . Jump up ^ Derr , Mark ( 2004 ) . A Dog 's History of America . North Point Press . pp. 23 -- 45 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 86547 - 631 - 8 . Lay summary . Jump up ^ Paul . `` Monday Mammal # 10 : Yagán `` dog '' `` . TheObligateScientist.Blogspot.com . Retrieved 30 May 2017 . Jump up ^ Stannard , David . American holocaust : the conquest of the New World . Jump up ^ Roger Smith , `` Vanguard of the Empire '' , Oxford University Press , 1993 , p. 30 Jump up ^ Meliá ( p. 45 ) Jump up ^ `` Mestre Jacome '' the Majorcan cartographer is first mentioned by Duarte Pacheco Pereira in his Esmeraldo de situ Orbis ( c. 1507 , p. 58 ) . João de Barros , in his Decadas de Asia ( 1552 : I. 16 p. 133 ) adds that he was also a master instrument - maker . Jump up ^ `` He also from Majorca caused one Master James , a man skilfull in Navigation and in Cards and Sea Instruments , to be brought into Portugall , there at his charge as it were , to erect a Schoole of Marinership , and to instruct his Countreymen in that Mysterie . '' Samuel Purchas , Hakluytus Posthumus , ( 1625 , vol. 2 , pt. 2 p. 11 ) Further reading ( edit ) Chasteen , John Charles ( 2001 ) . Born In Blood And Fire : A Concise History of Latin America . New York : W.W. Norton & Co . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 97613 - 7 . Hinz , Felix ( 2014 ) : Spanish - Indian encounters : the conquest and creation of new empires , in : Robert Aldrich , Kirsten McKenzie ( eds . ) : The Routledge History of Western Empires , Routledge , London / New York , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 63987 - 3 , pp. 17 -- 32 . Innes , Hammond ( 2002 ) . The Conquistadors . London : Penguin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 139122 - 9 . Kirkpatrick , F.A. ( 1934 ) . The Spanish Conquistadores . London : A. & C. Black . Wood , Michael ( 2000 ) . Conquistadors . London : BBC Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 563 - 48706 - 7 . 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who was the song cinnamon girl written about

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cinnamon_Girl&oldid=799544102

Cinnamon Girl - wikipedia Cinnamon Girl Jump to : navigation , search For the song by Prince , see Cinnamon Girl ( Prince song ) . `` Cinnamon Girl '' Cover of German issue single Single by Neil Young and Crazy Horse from the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere B - side `` Sugar Mountain '' Released April 20 , 1970 Format 45 rpm Record Recorded March 20 , 1969 at Wally Heider Recording , Hollywood , CA Genre Hard rock Length 2 : 58 Label Reprise Songwriter ( s ) Neil Young Producer ( s ) Neil Young David Briggs Neil Young and Crazy Horse singles chronology `` Down by the River '' ( 1969 ) `` Cinnamon Girl '' ( 1970 ) `` Only Love Can Break Your Heart '' ( 1970 ) `` Down by the River '' ( 1969 ) `` Cinnamon Girl '' ( 1970 ) `` Only Love Can Break Your Heart '' ( 1970 ) `` Cinnamon Girl '' is a song by Neil Young . It debuted on the 1969 album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere , which was also Young 's first album with backing band Crazy Horse . Released as a single the following year , it reached # 55 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1970 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Songwriting 1.1 Music 1.2 Lyrics 2 Cover versions 3 References 4 External links Songwriting ( edit ) Music ( edit ) Like two other songs from Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere , `` Cowgirl in the Sand '' and `` Down by the River '' , Young wrote `` Cinnamon Girl '' while he was suffering from the flu with a high fever at his home in Topanga , California . This song displays the very prominent role played by Danny Whitten in the sound of Young 's early recordings . The vocals are a duet , with Whitten singing the high harmony against Young 's low harmony . ( The 45 rpm single mix of the song , in addition to being in mono and cutting off the guitar outro , features Whitten 's vocal more prominently than the album version . ) Young performed the song on his then - recently acquired Gibson Les Paul , `` Old Black '' . The song was written in Double drop D tuning ( DADGBD ) . This tuning is used in several of his most famous songs , such as `` The Loner '' , `` The Old Laughing Lady '' , `` When You Dance I Can Really Love '' , `` Ohio '' , and `` Cortez the Killer '' . The music features a prominent descending bass guitar line . The song 's `` one note guitar solo '' , consisting largely of a repeating , sharply played jangling D note , has often been singled out for praise . Lyrics ( edit ) The lyrics have the singer daydreaming for a girl to love , singing that he waits `` between shows '' for his lover . Young has claimed that he wrote the song `` for a city girl on peeling pavement coming at me through Phil Ochs ' eyes playing finger cymbals . It was hard to explain to my wife . '' The city girl playing finger cymbals is a reference to folk singer Jean Ray . Music critic Johnny Rogan described the lyrics as `` exotic and allusive without really saying anything at all . '' Critic Toby Creswell describes the lyrics as `` cryptic love lyrics '' noting that they are sung `` over the crunching power of Crazy Horse . '' Critic John Mendelsohn felt the song conveyed a message of `` desperation begetting brutal vindictiveness , '' hinted at by the `` almost impenetrably subjective words '' but carried strongly by the sound of Crazy Horse 's `` heavy , sinister accompaniment . '' Introducing the song at a performance associated with Writer 's Week at Whittier College ( California ) in April , 2015 , Los Lobos co-founder Louie Perez said that when he first heard `` Cinnamon Girl '' , he was sure it was about a Mexican girl . In an interview with Q magazine , singer Beck named the `` Cinnamon Girl '' riff as his all - time favourite , equal with Black Sabbath 's `` Supernaut '' . Cover versions ( edit ) `` Cinnamon Girl '' has been covered by many artists : The Gentrys recorded a version for a 1970 single release on Sun Records . Hole recorded an instrumental cover of the song on their 1991 album Pretty on the Inside . Type O Negative on their 1996 album October Rust . Replicants on their 1995 self - titled album . John Entwistle of The Who recorded a version of the song as an outtake for his 1971 solo album Smash Your Head Against the Wall . The Smashing Pumpkins released a version on the 2012 reissue of Pisces Iscariot . Wilco and members of My Morning Jacket have performed the song at various stops on the 2013 Americanarama Music Festival tour . Matthew Sweet and Susanna Hoffs on their album , Under the Covers , Vol. 1 ( 2006 ) . Danish band Kashmir performed a cover version on their live CD / DVD The Aftermath . Phish has covered the song a total of four times , once at Gallagher 's in Vermont on 3 / 1 / 1989 , twice during their 1997 tours , and once at Madison Square Garden on 07 / 29 / 2017 . The Dream Syndicate included a version on their 1986 album Out of the Grey . Radiohead is known to have played the song live on several occasions and bootlegs are common on YouTube . JEFF The Brotherhood plays a heavy version of the song live . Foo Fighters covered this song live at their first of two Toronto , Ontario , Canada shows on July 8 , 2015 The Madison , Wisconsin - based noise rock band Killdozer ( band ) covered this song for their 1985 album Snake Boy . The 8th track on Boyd Tinsley 's solo album True Reflections . Mudhoney incorporated the outro of `` Cinnamon Girl '' into the song `` Broken Hands '' on their 1991 album Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Williamson , N. ( 2002 ) . Journey Through the Past : The Stories Behind the Classic Songs of Neil Young . Hal Leonard . pp. 27 -- 28 . ISBN 9780879307417 . ^ Jump up to : Creswell , T. ( 2006 ) . 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time . Thunder 's Mouth Press . pp. 267 , 372 . ISBN 1560259159 . ^ Jump up to : Rogan , J. ( 1996 ) . The Complete Guide to the Music of Neil Young . Omnibus Press . p. 18 . ISBN 0711953996 . Jump up ^ Ben , Party . `` Music : Great One - Note Guitar Solos '' . Mother Jones . Mother Jones . Retrieved 5 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bielen , K. ( 2008 ) . The Words and Music of Neil Young . Praeger . p. 11 . ISBN 0275999025 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 05 - 05 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Cinnamon Girl History '' . Phish.net . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . External links ( edit ) Neil Young portal Planer , Lindsay ( 2008 ) . `` ' Cinnamon Girl ' review '' , AllMusic . Neil Young Crazy Horse The Stray Gators Promise of the Real Studio albums Neil Young Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere After the Gold Rush Harvest On the Beach Tonight 's the Night Zuma American Stars ' n Bars Comes a Time Hawks & Doves Re ac tor Trans Everybody 's Rockin ' Old Ways Landing on Water This Note 's for You Freedom Ragged Glory Harvest Moon Sleeps with Angels Mirror Ball Broken Arrow Silver & Gold Are You Passionate ? Greendale Prairie Wind Living with War Chrome Dreams II Fork in the Road Le Noise Americana Psychedelic Pill A Letter Home Storytone The Monsanto Years Peace Trail Hitchhiker EPs Eldorado Live albums Time Fades Away Rust Never Sleeps Live Rust Life Arc Weld Unplugged Year of the Horse Road Rock Vol. 1 Earth Soundtracks Journey Through the Past Where the Buffalo Roam Philadelphia Dead Man Compilations Decade Lucky Thirteen Greatest Hits Archives series The Archives Vol. 1 1963 -- 1972 Archives Performance series Live at the Fillmore East Live at Massey Hall 1971 Sugar Mountain -- Live at Canterbury House 1968 Live at the Riverboat 1969 Dreamin ' Man Live ' 92 A Treasure Live at the Cellar Door Bluenote Café Unreleased albums Homegrown Chrome Dreams Songs `` Mr. Soul '' `` Broken Arrow '' `` Expecting to Fly '' `` Sugar Mountain '' `` The Loner '' `` I 've Been Waiting for You '' `` Cinnamon Girl '' `` Down by the River '' `` Cowgirl in the Sand '' `` Helpless '' `` Ohio '' `` Tell Me Why '' `` After the Gold Rush '' `` Only Love Can Break Your Heart '' `` Southern Man '' `` Do n't Let It Bring You Down '' `` When You Dance I Can Really Love '' `` Bad Fog of Loneliness '' `` A Man Needs a Maid '' `` Heart of Gold '' `` Are You Ready for the Country ? '' `` Old Man '' `` The Needle and the Damage Done '' `` Cortez the Killer '' `` Will to Love '' `` Like a Hurricane '' `` Love Is a Rose '' `` Lotta Love '' `` Hey Hey , My My ( Into the Black ) '' `` Pocahontas '' `` Powderfinger '' `` Sedan Delivery '' `` Rockin ' in the Free World '' `` No More '' `` Wrecking Ball '' `` Downtown '' `` Let 's Impeach the President '' `` Angry World '' `` A Rock Star Bucks a Coffee Shop '' Films and Videos Journey Through the Past Human Highway Neil Young in Berlin Solo Trans Year of the Horse Greendale Neil Young : Heart of Gold CSNY / Déjà Vu Neil Young Trunk Show Neil Young Journeys Books Waging Heavy Peace : A Hippie Dream Related Discography The Squires The Mynah Birds Buffalo Springfield Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young The Stills -- Young Band The Bridge : A Tribute to Neil Young Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi Pono Old Black Farm Aid Bridge School Benefit Pegi Young ( former wife ) Carrie Snodgress Portal Type O Negative Peter Steele Josh Silver Kenny Hickey Johnny Kelly Sal Abruscato Studio albums Slow , Deep and Hard The Origin of the Feces Bloody Kisses October Rust World Coming Down Life Is Killing Me Dead Again Compilations The Least Worst Of The Best of Type O Negative Videos For When It Rains After Dark Symphony for the Devil Songs `` Hey Pete '' `` Paranoid '' `` Black Sabbath ( From the Satanic Perspective ) '' `` Summer Breeze '' `` My Girlfriend 's Girlfriend '' `` Cinnamon Girl '' `` Pictures of Matchstick Men '' ( with Ozzy Osbourne ) `` Everything Dies '' `` Santana Medley '' `` The Profit of Doom '' `` September Sun '' Related articles Discography Vinnland flag Carnivore Danzig Seventh Void Fallout Life of Agony Pist. On A Pale Horse Named Death Roadrunner United Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cinnamon_Girl&oldid=799544102 '' Categories : 1969 songs 1970 singles Neil Young songs Reprise Records singles Song recordings produced by David Briggs ( producer ) Songs written by Neil Young The Gentrys songs Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Simple English Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 8 September 2017 , at 10 : 44 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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when was the first known case of the bubonic plague

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Bubonic_plague&oldid=830827455

Bubonic plague - wikipedia Bubonic plague Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the disease . For information about the medieval plague , see Black Death . Bubonic plague A bubo on the upper thigh of a person infected with bubonic plague . Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Fever , headaches , vomiting , swollen lymph nodes Usual onset 1 - 7 days after exposure Causes Yersinia pestis spread by fleas Diagnostic method Finding the bacteria in the blood , sputum , or lymph nodes Treatment Antibiotics such as streptomycin , gentamicin , or doxycycline Frequency 650 cases reported a year Deaths 10 % mortality with treatment ( edit on Wikidata ) Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by bacterium Yersinia pestis . One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria , flu like symptoms develop . These include fever , headaches , and vomiting . Swollen and painful lymph nodes occur in the area closest to where the bacteria entered the skin . Occasionally the swollen lymph nodes may break open . The three types of plague are the result of the route of infection : bubonic plague , septicemic plague , and pneumonic plague . Bubonic plague is mainly spread by infected fleas from small animals . It may also result from exposure to the body fluids from a dead plague - infected animal . In the bubonic form of plague , the bacteria enter through the skin through a flea bite and travel via the lymphatic vessels to a lymph node , causing it to swell . Diagnosis is made by finding the bacteria in the blood , sputum , or fluid from lymph nodes . Prevention is through public health measures such as not handling dead animals in areas where plague is common . Vaccines have not been found to be very useful for plague prevention . Several antibiotics are effective for treatment , including streptomycin , gentamicin , and doxycycline . Without treatment , plague results in the death of 30 % to 90 % of those infected . Death , if it occurs , is typically within ten days . With treatment the risk of death is around 10 % . Globally there are about 650 documented cases a year , which result in ~ 120 deaths . In the 21st century , the disease is most common in Africa . The plague is believed to be the cause of the Black Death that swept through Asia , Europe , and Africa in the 14th century and killed an estimated 50 million people . This was about 25 % to 60 % of the European population . Because the plague killed so many of the working population , wages rose due to the demand for labor . Some historians see this as a turning point in European economic development . The term bubonic is derived from the Greek word βουβών , meaning `` groin '' . The term `` buboes '' is also used to refer to the swollen lymph nodes . Contents ( hide ) 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Cause 3 Diagnosis 4 Treatment 5 History 5.1 First pandemic 5.2 Second pandemic 5.3 Third pandemic 6 Society and culture 6.1 Biological warfare 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Signs and symptoms Acral necrosis of the nose , the lips , and the fingers and residual ecchymoses over both forearms in a person recovering from bubonic plague that disseminated to the blood and the lungs . At one time , the person 's entire body was ecchymotic . The best - known symptom of bubonic plague is one or more infected , enlarged , and painful lymph nodes , known as buboes . After being transmitted via the bite of an infected flea , the Y. pestis bacteria become localized in an inflamed lymph node , where they begin to colonize and reproduce . Buboes associated with the bubonic plague are commonly found in the armpits , upper femoral , groin and neck region . Acral gangrene ( i.e. , of the fingers , toes , lips and nose ) is another common symptom . Because of its bite - based mode of transmission , the bubonic plague is often the first of a progressive series of illnesses . Bubonic plague symptoms appear suddenly a few days after exposure to the bacterium . Symptoms include : Chills General ill feeling ( malaise ) High fever > 39 ° C ( 102.2 ° F ) Muscle cramps Seizures Smooth , painful lymph gland swelling called a bubo , commonly found in the groin , but may occur in the armpits or neck , most often near the site of the initial infection ( bite or scratch ) Pain may occur in the area before the swelling appears Gangrene of the extremities such as toes , fingers , lips and tip of the nose . Other symptoms include heavy breathing , continuous vomiting of blood ( hematemesis ) , aching limbs , coughing , and extreme pain caused by the decay or decomposition of the skin while the person is still alive . Additional symptoms include extreme fatigue , gastrointestinal problems , lenticulae ( black dots scattered throughout the body ) , delirium , and coma . Cause Oriental rat flea ( Xenopsylla cheopis ) infected with the Yersinia pestis bacterium which appears as a dark mass in the gut . The foregut of this flea is blocked by a Y. pestis biofilm ; when the flea attempts to feed on an uninfected host , Y. pestis from the foregut is regurgitated into the wound , causing infection . Bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system , usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea , Xenopsylla cheopis ( the rat flea ) . In very rare circumstances , as in the septicemic plague , the disease can be transmitted by direct contact with infected tissue or exposure to the cough of another human . The flea is parasitic on house and field rats , and seeks out other prey when its rodent hosts die . The bacteria remain harmless to the flea , allowing the new host to spread the bacteria . The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood , which is now infected , into the bite site of a rodent or human host . Once established , bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply . Y. pestis bacilli can resist phagocytosis and even reproduce inside phagocytes and kill them . As the disease progresses , the lymph nodes can haemorrhage and become swollen and necrotic . Bubonic plague can progress to lethal septicemic plague in some cases . The plague is also known to spread to the lungs and become the disease known as the pneumonic plague . Diagnosis Laboratory testing is required in order to diagnose and confirm plague . Ideally , confirmation is through the identification of Y. pestis culture from a patient sample . Confirmation of infection can be done by examining serum taken during the early and late stages of infection . To quickly screen for the Y. pestis antigen in patients , rapid dipstick tests have been developed for field use . Samples taken for testing include : Buboes : Swollen lymph nodes ( buboes ) characteristic of bubonic plague , a fluid sample can be taken from them with a needle . Blood Lungs Treatment Several classes of antibiotics are effective in treating bubonic plague . These include aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and gentamicin , tetracyclines ( especially doxycycline ) , and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin . Mortality associated with treated cases of bubonic plague is about 1 -- 15 % , compared to a mortality of 40 -- 60 % in untreated cases . People potentially infected with the plague need immediate treatment and should be given antibiotics within 24 hours of the first symptoms to prevent death . Other treatments include oxygen , intravenous fluids , and respiratory support . People who have had contact with anyone infected by pneumonic plague are given prophylactic antibiotics . Using the broad - based antibiotic streptomycin has proven to be dramatically successful against the bubonic plague within 12 hours of infection . History See also : Epidemiology of plague and Timeline of plague First pandemic Main article : Plague of Justinian The first recorded epidemic affected the Eastern Roman Empire ( Byzantine Empire ) and was named the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I , who was infected but survived through extensive treatment . The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million ( 6th century outbreak ) to 50 million people ( two centuries of recurrence ) . The historian Procopius wrote , in Volume II of History of the Wars , of his personal encounter with the plague and the effect it had on the rising empire . In the spring of 542 , the plague arrived in Constantinople , working its way from port city to port city and spreading around the Mediterranean Sea , later migrating inland eastward into Asia Minor and west into Greece and Italy . Because the infectious disease spread inland by the transferring of merchandise through Justinian 's efforts in acquiring luxurious goods of the time and exporting supplies , his capital became the leading exporter of the bubonic plague . Procopius , in his work Secret History , declared that Justinian was a demon of an emperor who either created the plague himself or was being punished for his sinfulness . Second pandemic Main articles : Black Death and Second plague pandemic Citizens of Tournai bury plague victims . Miniature from The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis ( 1272 -- 1352 ) . Bibliothèque royale de Belgique , MS 13076 - 77 , f. 24v . People who died of bubonic plague in a mass grave from 1720 -- 1721 in Martigues , France In the Late Middle Ages ( 1340 -- 1400 ) Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history when the Black Death , the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague , hit in 1347 , killing a third of the human population . Some historians believe that society subsequently became more violent as the mass mortality rate cheapened life and thus increased warfare , crime , popular revolt , waves of flagellants , and persecution . The Black Death originated in Central Asia and spread from Italy and then throughout other European countries . Arab historians Ibn Al - Wardni and Almaqrizi believed the Black Death originated in Mongolia . Chinese records also showed a huge outbreak in Mongolia in the early 1330s . Research published in 2002 suggests that it began in early 1346 in the steppe region , where a plague reservoir stretches from the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea into southern Russia . The Mongols had cut off the trade route , the Silk Road , between China and Europe which halted the spread of the Black Death from eastern Russia to Western Europe . The epidemic began with an attack that Mongols launched on the Italian merchants ' last trading station in the region , Caffa in the Crimea . In late 1346 , plague broke out among the besiegers and from them penetrated into the town . When spring arrived , the Italian merchants fled on their ships , unknowingly carrying the Black Death . Carried by the fleas on rats , the plague initially spread to humans near the Black Sea and then outwards to the rest of Europe as a result of people fleeing from one area to another . Third pandemic Main article : Third plague pandemic The plague resurfaced for a third time in the mid-19th century . Like the two previous outbreaks , this one also originated in Eastern Asia , most likely in Yunnan Province of China , where there are several natural plague foci . The initial outbreaks occurred in the second half of the eighteenth century . The disease remained localized in Southwest China for several years before spreading . In the city of Canton , beginning in January 1894 , the disease killed 80,000 people by June . Daily water - traffic with the nearby city of Hong Kong rapidly spread the plague there , killing over 2,400 within two months . Also known as the modern pandemic , the third pandemic spread the disease to port cities throughout the world in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century via shipping routes . The plague inflicted people in Chinatown in San Francisco from 1900 - 1904 , and the people of Oakland and east bay again from 1907 - 1909 . During the outbreak from 1900 - 1904 in San Francisco is when authorities made permanent the Chinese Exclusion Act . This law was originally signed into existence by President Chester A. Arthur in 1882 . The Chinese Exclusion Act was supposed to last for ten years but was renewed in 1892 with the Geary Act and subsequently made permanent in 1902 during the outbreak of plague in Chinatown , San Francisco . The last major outbreak in the United States occurred in Los Angeles in 1924 , though the disease is still present in wild rodents , and can be passed to humans that come in contact with them . According to the World Health Organization , the pandemic was considered active until 1959 , when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year . In 1994 , a plague outbreak in five Indian states caused an estimated 700 infections ( including 52 deaths ) and triggered a large migration of Indians within India as they tried to avoid the plague . For over a decade since 2001 , Zambia , India , Malawi , Algeria , China , Peru , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo had the most plague cases with over 1,100 cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo alone . From 1,000 to 2,000 cases are conservatively reported per year to the WHO . From 2012 and to 2017 and reflecting political unrest and poor hygienic conditions , Madagascar began to host regular epidemics . Between 1900 and 2015 , the United States had 1,036 human plague cases with an average of 9 cases per year . In 2015 , 16 people in the Western United States developed plague , including 2 cases in Yosemite National Park . These US cases usually occur in rural northern New Mexico , northern Arizona , southern Colorado , California , southern Oregon , and far western Nevada . In November 2017 , the Madagascar Ministry of Health reported an outbreak to WHO ( World Health Organization ) with more cases and deaths than any recent outbreak in the country . Unusually most of the cases were pneumonic rather than bubonic . Society and culture See also : Black Death in medieval culture The scale of death and social upheaval associated with plague outbreaks has made the topic prominent in a number of historical and fictional accounts since the disease was first recognized . The Black Death in particular is described and referenced in numerous contemporary sources , some of which , including works by Chaucer , Boccaccio , and Petrarch , are considered part of the Western canon . The Decameron , by Boccaccio , is notable for its use of a frame story involving individuals who have fled Florence for a secluded villa to escape the Black Death . First person , sometimes sensationalized or fictionalized , accounts of living through plague years have also been popular across centuries and cultures . Later works , such as Albert Camus 's novel The Plague or Ingmar Bergman 's film The Seventh Seal have used bubonic plague in settings , such quarantined cities in either medieval or modern times , as a backdrop to explore a variety of concepts . Common themes include the breakdown of society , institutions , and individuals during the plague , the cultural and psychological existential confrontation with mortality , and the allegorical use of the plague in reference to contemporary moral or spiritual questions . Biological warfare Some of the earliest instances of biological warfare were said to have been products of the plague , as armies of the 14th century were recorded catapulting diseased corpses over the walls of towns and villages to spread the pestilence . Later , plague was used during the Second Sino - Japanese War as a bacteriological weapon by the Imperial Japanese Army . These weapons were provided by Shirō Ishii 's units and used in experiments on humans before being used on the field . For example , in 1940 , the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague . During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials , the accused , such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima , testified that , in 1941 , 40 members of Unit 731 air - dropped plague - contaminated fleas on Changde . These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks . See also List of cutaneous conditions List of epidemics Miasma theory Plague ( disease ) Plague doctor References ^ Jump up to : World Health Organization ( November 2014 ) . `` Plague Fact sheet N ° 267 '' . Archived from the original on 24 April 2015 . Retrieved 10 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Plague Symptoms '' . 13 June 2012 . Archived from the original on 19 August 2015 . Retrieved 21 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Prentice MB , Rahalison L ( 2007 ) . `` Plague '' . Lancet . 369 ( 9568 ) : 1196 -- 207 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 07 ) 60566 - 2 . PMID 17416264 . ^ Jump up to : `` Plague Resources for Clinicians '' . 13 June 2012 . Archived from the original on 21 August 2015 . Retrieved 21 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Plague Ecology and Transmission '' . 13 June 2012 . Archived from the original on 22 August 2015 . Retrieved 21 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Keyes , Daniel C. ( 2005 ) . Medical response to terrorism : preparedness and clinical practice . Philadelphia ( u.a. ) : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . p. 74 . ISBN 9780781749862 . ^ Jump up to : `` Plague History '' . 13 June 2012 . Archived from the original on 21 August 2015 . Retrieved 21 August 2015 . Jump up ^ LeRoux , Neil ( 2007 ) . Martin Luther As Comforter : Writings on Death Volume 133 of Studies in the History of Christian Traditions . BRILL . p. 247 . ISBN 9789004158801 . Jump up ^ Edman , Bruce F. Eldridge , John D. ( 2004 ) . Medical Entomology a Textbook on Public Health and Veterinary Problems Caused by Arthropods ( Rev ... ed . ) . Dordrecht : Springer Netherlands . p. 390 . ISBN 9789400710092 . Jump up ^ `` Symptoms of Plague '' . Brief Overview of Plague . iTriage . Healthagen , LLC . Archived from the original on 4 February 2016 . Retrieved 26 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Inglesby TV , Dennis DT , Henderson DA , et al. ( May 2000 ) . `` Plague as a biological weapon : medical and public health management . Working Group on Civilian Biodefense '' . JAMA. 283 ( 17 ) : 2281 -- 90 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 283.17. 2281 . PMID 10807389 . Jump up ^ `` Plague , Laboratory testing '' . Health Topics A to Z . Archived from the original on 17 November 2010 . Retrieved 23 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Plague - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic '' . www.mayoclinic.org . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Plague '' . Archived from the original on 5 March 2010 . Retrieved 25 February 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Plague '' . Healthagen , LLC . Archived from the original on 6 June 2011 . Retrieved 4 April 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Echenberg , Myron ( 2002 ) . Pestis Redux : The Initial Years of the Third Bubonic Plague Pandemic , 1894 -- 1901 . Journal of World History , vol 13 , 2 Jump up ^ Little , Lester K. ( 2007 ) . `` Life and Afterlife of the First Plague Pandemic . '' In : Little , Lester K. editor . ( 2007 ) , Plague and the End of Antiquity : The Pandemic of 541 -- 750 . Cambridge University Press . ( 2007 ) . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 84639 - 4 pp. 8 -- 15 Jump up ^ McCormick , Michael ( 2007 ) . `` Toward a Molecular History of the Justinian Pandemic . '' In : Little , Lester K. editor . ( 2007 ) , Plague and the End of Antiquity : The Pandemic of 541 -- 750 . Cambridge University Press . ( 2007 ) . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 84639 - 4 pp. 290 -- 312 . Jump up ^ Rosen , William ( 2007 ) , Justinian 's Flea : Plague , Empire , and the Birth of Europe Archived 25 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine ... Viking Adult ; pg 3 ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 670 - 03855 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Moorshead Magazines , Limited . `` The Plague Of Justinian . '' History Magazine 11.1 ( 2009 ) : 9 -- 12 . History Reference Center Jump up ^ Cohn , Samuel K. ( 2002 ) . The Black Death : End of a Paradigm . American Historical Review , vol 107 , 3 , pg. 703 -- 737 Jump up ^ Sean Martin ( 2001 ) . Black Death : Chapter One . Harpenden , GBR : Pocket Essentials . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Nicholas Wade ( 31 October 2010 ) . `` Europe 's Plagues Came From China , Study Finds '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 4 November 2010 . Retrieved 1 November 2010 . The great waves of plague that twice devastated Europe and changed the course of history had their origins in China , a team of medical geneticists reported Sunday , as did a third plague outbreak that struck less harmfully in the 19th century . Jump up ^ Benedict , Carol ( 1996 ) . Bubonic plague in nineteenth - century China . Stanford , Calif. : Stanford Univ . Press . ISBN 978 - 0804726610 . Jump up ^ Cohn , Samuel K. ( 2003 ) . The Black Death Transformed : Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe . A Hodder Arnold . p. 336 . ISBN 0 - 340 - 70646 - 5 . Jump up ^ Pryor , E.G. ( 1975 ) . `` The Great Plague OF Hong Kong '' ( PDF ) . Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch . Hong Kong : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - Hong Kong Branch. 15 : 69 . ISSN 1991 - 7295 . Retrieved June 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` History Plague CDC '' . www.cdc.gov . Retrieved 26 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Dorothy ( 2003 - 09 - 11 ) . `` Book Review '' . New England Journal of Medicine . 349 ( 11 ) : 1098 -- 1099 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJM200309113491124 . ISSN 0028 - 4793 . Jump up ^ `` On This Day : San Francisco Bubonic Plague Outbreak Begins '' . www.findingdulcinea.com . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ Griggs , Mary Beth . `` 30,000 People In Quarantine After Bubonic Plague Kills One in China '' . Smithsonian . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Maps and Statistics Plague CDC '' . www.cdc.gov. 2017 - 10 - 23 . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : Filip , Julia . `` Avoiding the Black Plague Today '' . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ Regan , Michael . `` Human Plague Cases Drop in the US '' . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Plague in the United States Plague CDC '' . www.cdc.gov. 2017 - 10 - 23 . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Emergencies Preparedness , Response , Plague , Madagascar , Disease Outbreak News Plague CDC '' . www.who.int. 2017 - 11 - 15 . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` The Independent - 404 '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on 12 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Daniel Barenblatt , A Plague upon Humanity. , 2004 , pages 220 -- 221 . Further reading Alexander , John T. ( 2003 ) ( First published 1980 ) . Bubonic Plague in Early Modern Russia : Public Health and Urban Disaster . Oxford , UK ; New York , NY : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 515818 - 0 . OCLC 50253204 . Carol , Benedict ( 1996 ) . Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth - Century China . Stanford , CA : Stanford University Press . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 2661 - 2 . OCLC 34191853 . Biddle , Wayne ( 2002 ) . A Field Guide to Germs ( 2nd Anchor Books ed . ) . New York : Anchor Books . ISBN 1 - 4000 - 3051 - X . OCLC 50154403 . Little , Lester K. ( 2007 ) . Plague and the End of Antiquity : The Pandemic of 541 -- 750 . New York , NY : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 84639 - 4 . OCLC 65361042 . Rosen , William ( 2007 ) . Justinian 's Flea : Plague , Empire and the Birth of Europe . London , England : Viking Penguin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 670 - 03855 - 8 . Scott , Susan , and C.J. Duncan ( 2001 ) . Biology of Plagues : Evidence from Historical Populations . Cambridge , UK ; New York , NY : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 80150 - 8 . OCLC 44811929 . Batten - Hill , David ( 2011 ) . This Son of York . Kendal , England : David Batten - Hill . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78176 - 094 - 9 . Kool , J.L. ( 2005 ) . `` Risk of Person - to - Person Transmission of Pneumonic Plague '' . Clinical Infectious Diseases . 40 ( 8 ) : 1166 -- 1172 . doi : 10.1086 / 428617 . PMID 15791518 . External links Classification V T D ICD - 10 : A20. 0 ICD - 9 - CM : 020.0 DiseasesDB : 14226 External resources MedlinePlus : 000596 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Death . Infectious diseases Bacterial disease : Proteobacterial G − primarily A00 -- A79 , 001 -- 041 , 080 -- 109 α Rickettsiales Rickettsiaceae / ( Rickettsioses ) Typhus Rickettsia typhi Murine typhus Rickettsia prowazekii Epidemic typhus , Brill -- Zinsser disease , Flying squirrel typhus Spotted fever Tick - borne Rickettsia rickettsii Rocky Mountain spotted fever Rickettsia conorii Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia japonica Japanese spotted fever Rickettsia sibirica North Asian tick typhus Rickettsia australis Queensland tick typhus Rickettsia honei Flinders Island spotted fever Rickettsia africae African tick bite fever Rickettsia parkeri American tick bite fever Rickettsia aeschlimannii Rickettsia aeschlimannii infection Mite - borne Rickettsia akari Rickettsialpox Orientia tsutsugamushi Scrub typhus Flea - borne Rickettsia felis Flea - borne spotted fever Anaplasmataceae Ehrlichiosis : Anaplasma phagocytophilum Human granulocytic anaplasmosis , Anaplasmosis Ehrlichia chaffeensis Human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis Ehrlichia ewingii Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection Rhizobiales Brucellaceae Brucella abortus Brucellosis Bartonellaceae Bartonellosis : Bartonella henselae Cat - scratch disease Bartonella quintana Trench fever Either B. henselae or B. quintana Bacillary angiomatosis Bartonella bacilliformis Carrion 's disease , Verruga peruana β Neisseriales M+ Neisseria meningitidis / meningococcus Meningococcal disease , Waterhouse -- Friderichsen syndrome , Meningococcal septicaemia M − Neisseria gonorrhoeae / gonococcus Gonorrhea ungrouped : Eikenella corrodens / Kingella kingae HACEK Chromobacterium violaceum Chromobacteriosis infection Burkholderiales Burkholderia pseudomallei Melioidosis Burkholderia mallei Glanders Burkholderia cepacia complex Bordetella pertussis / Bordetella parapertussis Pertussis γ Enterobacteriales ( OX − ) Lac+ Klebsiella pneumoniae Rhinoscleroma , Klebsiella pneumonia Klebsiella granulomatis Granuloma inguinale Klebsiella oxytoca Escherichia coli : Enterotoxigenic Enteroinvasive Enterohemorrhagic O157 : H7 O104 : H4 Hemolytic - uremic syndrome Enterobacter aerogenes / Enterobacter cloacae Slow / weak Serratia marcescens Serratia infection Citrobacter koseri / Citrobacter freundii Lac − H2S+ Salmonella enterica Typhoid fever , Paratyphoid fever , Salmonellosis H2S − Shigella dysenteriae / sonnei / flexneri / boydii Shigellosis , Bacillary dysentery Proteus mirabilis / Proteus vulgaris Yersinia pestis Plague / Bubonic plague Yersinia enterocolitica Yersiniosis Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Far East scarlet - like fever Pasteurellales Haemophilus : H. influenzae Haemophilus meningitis Brazilian purpuric fever H. ducreyi Chancroid H. parainfluenzae HACEK Pasteurella multocida Pasteurellosis Actinobacillus Actinobacillosis Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans HACEK Legionellales Legionella pneumophila / Legionella longbeachae Legionnaires ' disease Coxiella burnetii Q fever Thiotrichales Francisella tularensis Tularemia Vibrionaceae Vibrio cholerae Cholera Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio parahaemolyticus Vibrio alginolyticus Plesiomonas shigelloides Pseudomonadales Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas infection Moraxella catarrhalis Acinetobacter baumannii Xanthomonadaceae Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Cardiobacteriaceae Cardiobacterium hominis HACEK Aeromonadales Aeromonas hydrophila / Aeromonas veronii Aeromonas infection ε Campylobacterales Campylobacter jejuni Campylobacteriosis , Guillain -- Barré syndrome Helicobacter pylori Peptic ulcer , MALT lymphoma , Gastric cancer Helicobacter cinaedi Helicobacter cellulitis Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bubonic_plague&oldid=830827455 '' Categories : History of medieval medicine Plague ( disease ) Rabbit diseases Rodent - carried diseases Zoonotic bacterial diseases Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Use dmy dates from November 2011 Infobox medical condition ( new ) Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from August 2017 RTT RTTEM Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Brezhoneg Čeština Deutsch Diné bizaad Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Português Русский Sicilianu Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська 粵語 中文 27 more Edit links This page was last edited on 17 March 2018 , at 04 : 50 . 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where are the four chambers of the heart located

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Heart&oldid=815299589

Heart - wikipedia Heart Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the internal organ . For other uses , see Heart ( disambiguation ) . `` Cardiac '' redirects here . For the comics character , see Cardiac ( comics ) . Heart The human heart Details System Circulatory Artery Aorta , pulmonary trunk and right and left pulmonary arteries Right coronary artery , left main coronary artery Vein Superior vena cava , inferior vena cava , right and left pulmonary veins , great cardiac vein , middle cardiac vein , small cardiac vein , anterior cardiac veins . Nerve Accelerans nerve , vagus nerve Identifiers Latin cor Greek kardía ( καρδία ) MeSH A07. 541 TA A12. 1.00. 001 FMA 7088 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) Normal heart sounds Normal heart sounds as heard with a stethoscope Problems playing this file ? See media help . The heart is a muscular organ in most animals , which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system . Blood provides the body with oxygen and nutrients , as well as assists in the removal of metabolic wastes . In humans , the heart is located between the lungs , in the middle compartment of the chest . In humans , other mammals , and birds , the heart is divided into four chambers : upper left and right atria ; and lower left and right ventricles . Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart . Fish , in contrast , have two chambers , an atrium and a ventricle , while reptiles have three chambers . In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves , which prevent backflow . The heart is enclosed in a protective sac , the pericardium , which also contains a small amount of fluid . The wall of the heart is made up of three layers : epicardium , myocardium , and endocardium . The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaking cells in the sinoatrial node . These generate a current that causes contraction of the heart , traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart . The heart receives blood low in oxygen from the systemic circulation , which enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle . From here it is pumped into the pulmonary circulation , through the lungs where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide . Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium , passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta to the systemic circulation − where the oxygen is used and metabolized to carbon dioxide . The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute . Exercise temporarily increases the rate , but lowers resting heart rate in the long term , and is good for heart health . Cardiovascular diseases ( CVD ) are the most common cause of death globally as of 2008 , accounting for 30 % of deaths . Of these more than three quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke . Risk factors include : smoking , being overweight , little exercise , high cholesterol , high blood pressure , and poorly controlled diabetes , among others . Cardiovascular diseases frequently do not have symptoms or may cause chest pain or shortness of breath . Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history , listening to the heart - sounds with a stethoscope , ECG , and ultrasound . Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists , although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Location and shape 1.2 Chambers 1.2. 1 Valves 1.2. 2 Right heart 1.2. 3 Left heart 1.3 Heart wall 1.4 Pericardium 1.5 Coronary circulation 1.6 Nerve supply 2 Development 3 Physiology 3.1 Blood flow 3.1. 1 Cardiac cycle 3.1. 2 Cardiac output 3.2 Electrical conduction 3.3 Heart rate 3.3. 1 Influences 4 Clinical significance 4.1 Diseases 4.1. 1 Ischaemic heart disease 4.1. 2 Heart failure 4.1. 3 Cardiomyopathies 4.1. 4 Valvular heart disease 4.1. 5 Cardiac arrhythmias 4.1. 6 Pericardial disease 4.1. 7 Congenital heart disease 4.2 Diagnosis 4.2. 1 Examination 4.2. 1.1 Heart sounds 4.2. 2 Blood tests 4.2. 3 Electrocardiogram 4.2. 4 Imaging 4.3 Treatment 4.3. 1 Ischaemic heart disease 4.3. 1.1 Valvular heart disease 4.3. 1.2 Cardiac arrhythmias 4.3. 2 Heart failure 5 History 5.1 Ancient 5.2 Pre-modern 5.3 Modern 6 Society and culture 6.1 Symbolism 6.2 Food 7 Other animals 7.1 Other vertebrates 7.2 Double circulatory systems 7.3 The fully divided heart 7.4 Fish 7.5 Invertebrates 8 Additional images 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Structure Photograph of a human heart Computer generated animation of a beating human heart Location and shape Play media Real - time MRI of the human heart The human heart is in the middle of the thorax , with its apex pointing to the left . The human heart is situated in the middle mediastinum , at the level of thoracic vertebrae T5 - T8 . A double - membraned sac called the pericardium surrounds the heart and attaches to the mediastinum . The back surface of the heart lies near the vertebral column , and the front surface sits behind the sternum and rib cartilages . The upper part of the heart is the attachment point for several large blood vessels -- the venae cavae , aorta and pulmonary trunk . The upper part of the heart is located at the level of the third costal cartilage . The lower tip of the heart , the apex , lies to the left of the sternum ( 8 to 9 cm from the midsternal line ) between the junction of the fourth and fifth ribs near their articulation with the costal cartilages . The largest part of the heart is usually slightly offset to the left side of the chest ( though occasionally it may be offset to the right ) and is felt to be on the left because the left heart is stronger and larger , since it pumps to all body parts . Because the heart is between the lungs , the left lung is smaller than the right lung and has a cardiac notch in its border to accommodate the heart . The heart is cone - shaped , with its base positioned upwards and tapering down to the apex . An adult heart has a mass of 250 -- 350 grams ( 9 -- 12 oz ) . The heart is typically the size of a fist : 12 cm ( 5 in ) in length , 8 cm ( 3.5 in ) wide , and 6 cm ( 2.5 in ) in thickness . Well - trained athletes can have much larger hearts due to the effects of exercise on the heart muscle , similar to the response of skeletal muscle . Chambers Heart being dissected showing right and left ventricles , from above The heart has four chambers , two upper atria , the receiving chambers , and two lower ventricles , the discharging chambers . The atria open into the ventricles via the atrioventricular valves , present in the atrioventricular septum . This distinction is visible also on the surface of the heart as the coronary sulcus . There is an ear - shaped structure in the upper right atrium called the right atrial appendage , or auricle , and another in the upper left atrium , the left atrial appendage . The right atrium and the right ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the right heart . Similarly , the left atrium and the left ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the left heart . The ventricles are separated from each other by the interventricular septum , visible on the surface of the heart as the anterior longitudinal sulcus and the posterior interventricular sulcus . The cardiac skeleton is made of dense connective tissue and this gives structure to the heart . It forms the atrioventricular septum which separates the atria from the ventricles , and the fibrous rings which serve as bases for the four heart valves . The cardiac skeleton also provides an important boundary in the heart 's electrical conduction system since collagen can not conduct electricity . The interatrial septum separates the atria and the interventricular septum separates the ventricles . The interventricular septum is much thicker than the interatrial septum , since the ventricles need to generate greater pressure when they contract . Valves Main article : Heart valves With the atria and major vessels removed , all four valves are clearly visible . The heart , showing valves , arteries and veins . The white arrows show the normal direction of blood flow . Frontal section showing papillary muscles attached to the tricuspid valve on the right and to the mitral valve on the left via chordae tendineae . The heart has four valves , which separate its chambers . One valve lies between each atrium and ventricle , and one valve rests at the exit of each ventricle . The valves between the atria and ventricles are called the atrioventricular valves . Between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve . The tricuspid valve has three cusps , which connect to chordae tendinae and three papillary muscles named the anterior , posterior , and septal muscles , after their relative positions . The mitral valve lies between the left atrium and left ventricle . It is also known as the bicuspid valve due to its having two cusps , an anterior and a posterior cusp . These cusps are also attached via chordae tendinae to two papillary muscles projecting from the ventricular wall . The papillary muscles extend from the walls of the heart to valves by cartilaginous connections called chordae tendinae . These muscles prevent the valves from falling too far back when they close . During the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle , the papillary muscles are also relaxed and the tension on the chordae tendineae is slight . As the heart chambers contract , so do the papillary muscles . This creates tension on the chordae tendineae , helping to hold the cusps of the atrioventricular valves in place and preventing them from being blown back into the atria . Two additional semilunar valves sit at the exit of each of the ventricles . The pulmonary valve is located at the base of the pulmonary artery . This has three cusps which are not attached to any papillary muscles . When the ventricle relaxes blood flows back into the ventricle from the artery and this flow of blood fills the pocket - like valve , pressing against the cusps which close to seal the valve . The semilunar aortic valve is at the base of the aorta and also is not attached to papillary muscles . This too has three cusps which close with the pressure of the blood flowing back from the aorta . Right heart The right heart consists of two chambers , the right atrium and the right ventricle , separated by a valve , the tricuspid valve . The right atrium receives blood almost continuously from the body 's two major veins , the superior and inferior venae cavae . A small amount of blood from the coronary circulation also drains into the right atrium via the coronary sinus , which is immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava . In the wall of the right atrium is an oval - shaped depression known as the fossa ovalis , which is a remnant of an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale . Most of the internal surface of the right atrium is smooth , the depression of the fossa ovalis is medial , and the anterior surface has prominent ridges of pectinate muscles , which are also present in the right atrial appendage . The right atrium is connected to the right ventricle by the tricuspid valve . The walls of the right ventricle are lined with trabeculae carneae , ridges of cardiac muscle covered by endocardium . In addition to these muscular ridges , a band of cardiac muscle , also covered by endocardium , known as the moderator band reinforces the thin walls of the right ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction . It arises from the lower part of the interventricular septum and crosses the interior space of the right ventricle to connect with the inferior papillary muscle . The right ventricle tapers into the pulmonary trunk , into which it ejects blood when contracting . The pulmonary trunk branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries that carry the blood to each lung . The pulmonary valve lies between the right heart and the pulmonary trunk . Left heart The left heart has two chambers : the left atrium , and the left ventricle , separated by the mitral valve . The left atrium receives oxygenated blood back from the lungs via one of the four pulmonary veins . The left atrium has an outpouching called the left atrial appendage . Like the right atrium , the left atrium is lined by pectinate muscles . The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle by the mitral valve . The left ventricle is much thicker as compared with the right , due to the greater force needed to pump blood to the entire body . Like the right ventricle , the left also has trabeculae carneae , but there is no moderator band . The left ventricle pumps blood to the body through the aortic valve and into the aorta . Two small openings above the aortic valve carry blood to the heart itself , the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery . Heart wall Further information : Cardiac muscle Layers of the heart wall , including visceral and parietal pericardium . The heart wall is made up of three layers : the inner endocardium , middle myocardium and outer epicardium . These are surrounded by a double - membraned sac called the pericardium . The innermost layer of the heart is called the endocardium . It is made up of a lining of simple squamous epithelium , and covers heart chambers and valves . It is continuous with the endothelium of the veins and arteries of the heart , and is joined to the myocardium with a thin layer of connective tissue . The endocardium , by secreting endothelins , may also play a role in regulating the contraction of the myocardium . The swirling pattern of myocardium helps the heart pump effectively The middle layer of the heart wall is the myocardium , which is the cardiac muscle -- a layer of involuntary striated muscle tissue surrounded by a framework of collagen . The cardiac muscle pattern is elegant and complex , as the muscle cells swirl and spiral around the chambers of the heart , with the outer muscles forming a figure 8 pattern around the atria and around the bases of the great vessels , and inner muscles formining a figure 8 around the two ventricles and proceed toward the apex . This complex swirling pattern allows the heart to pump blood more effectively . There are two types of cells in cardiac muscle : muscle cells which have the ability to contract easily , and pacemaker cells of the conducting system . The muscle cells make up the bulk ( 99 % ) of cells in the atria and ventricles . These contractile cells are connected by intercalated discs which allow a rapid response to impulses of action potential from the pacemaker cells . The intercalated discs allow the cells to act as a syncytium and enable the contractions that pump blood through the heart and into the major arteries . The pacemaker cells make up 1 % of cells and form the conduction system of the heart . They are generally much smaller than the contractile cells and have few myofibrils which gives them limited contractibility . Their function is similar in many respects to neurons . Cardiac muscle tissue has autorhythmicity , the unique ability to initiate a cardiac action potential at a fixed rate -- spreading the impulse rapidly from cell to cell to trigger the contraction of the entire heart . There are specific proteins expressed in cardiac muscle cells . These are mostly associated with muscle contraction , and bind with actin , myosin , tropomyosin , and troponin . They include MYH6 , ACTC1 , TNNI3 , CDH2 and PKP2 . Other proteins expressed are MYH7 and LDB3 that are also expressed in skeletal muscle . Pericardium The pericardium is the sack that surrounds the heart . The tough outer surface of the pericardium is called the fibrous membrane . This is lined by a double inner membrane called the serous membrane that produces pericardial fluid to lubricate the surface of the heart . The part of the serous membrane attached to the fibrous membrane is called the parietal pericardium , while the part of the serous membrane attached to the heart is known as the visceral pericardium . The pericardium is present in order to lubricate its movement against other structures within the chest , to keep the heart 's position stabilised within the chest , and to protect the heart from infection . Coronary circulation Arterial supply to the heart ( red ) , with other areas labelled ( blue ) . Main article : Coronary circulation Heart tissue , like all cells in the body , needs to be supplied with oxygen , nutrients and a way of removing metabolic wastes . This is achieved by the coronary circulation , which includes arteries , veins , and lymphatic vessels . Blood flow through the coronary vessels occurs in peaks and troughs relating to the heart muscle 's relaxation or contraction . Heart tissue receives blood from two arteries which arise just above the aortic valve . These are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery . The left main coronary artery splits shortly after leaving the aorta into two vessels , the left anterior descending and the left circumflex artery . The left anterior descending artery supplies heart tissue and the front , outer side , and the septum of the left ventricle . It does this by branching into smaller arteries -- diagonal and septal branches . The left circumflex supplies the back and underneath of the left ventricle . The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium , right ventricle , and lower posterior sections of the left ventricle . The right coronary artery also supplies blood to the atrioventricular node ( in about 90 % of people ) and the sinoatrial node ( in about 60 % of people ) . The right coronary artery runs in a groove at the back of the heart and the left anterior descending artery runs in a groove at the front . There is significant variation between people in the anatomy of the arteries that supply the heart The arteries divide at their furtherst reaches into smaller branches that join together at the edges of each arterial distribution . The coronary sinus is a large vein that drains into the right atrium , and receives most of the venous drainage of the heart . It receives blood from the great cardiac vein ( receiving the left atrium and both ventricles ) , the posterior cardiac vein ( draining the back of the left ventricle ) , the middle cardiac vein ( draining the bottom of the left and right ventricles ) , and small cardiac veins . The anterior cardiac veins drain the front of the right ventricle and drain directly into the right atrium . Small lymphatic networks called plexuses exist beneath each of the three layers of the heart . These networks collect into a main left and a main right trunk , which travel up the groove between the ventricles that exists on the heart 's surface , receiving smaller vessels as they travel up . These vessels then travel into the atrioventricular groove , and receive a third vessel which drains the section of the left ventricle sitting on the diaphragm . The left vessel joins with this third vessel , and travels along the pulmonary artery and left atrium , ending in the inferior tracheobronchial node . The right vessel travels along the right atrium and the part of the right ventricle sitting on the diaphragm . It usually then travels in front of the ascending aorta and then ends in a brachiocephalic node . Nerve supply Autonomic innervation of the heart The heart receives nerve signals from the vagus nerve and from nerves arising from the sympathetic trunk . These nerves act to influence , but not control , the heart rate . Sympathetic nerves also influence the force of heart contraction . Signals that travel along these nerves arise from two paired cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata . The vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system acts to decrease the heart rate , and nerves from the sympathetic trunk act to increase the heart rate . These nerves form a network of nerves that lies over the heart called the cardiac plexus . The vagus nerve is a long , wandering nerve that emerges from the brainstem and provides parasympathetic stimulation to a large number of organs in the thorax and abdomen , including the heart . The nerves from the sympathetic trunk emerge through the T1 - T4 thoracic ganglia and travel to both the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes , as well as to the atria and ventricles . The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers . Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine ( also known as noradrenaline ) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves . This shortens the repolarization period , thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction , which results in an increased heart rate . It opens chemical or ligand - gated sodium and calcium ion channels , allowing an influx of positively charged ions . Norepinephrine binds to the beta -- 1 receptor . Development Main articles : Heart development and Human embryogenesis Development of the human heart during the first eight weeks ( top ) , and the formation of the heart chambers ( bottom ) . In this figure , the blue and red colors represent blood inflow and outflow ( not venous and arterial blood ) . Initially , all venous blood flows from the tail / atria to the ventricles / head , a very different pattern from that of an adult . The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at about three weeks into embryogenesis . This early start is crucial for subsequent embryonic and prenatal development . The heart derives from splanchnopleuric mesenchyme in the neural plate which forms the cardiogenic region . Two endocardial tubes form here that fuse to form a primitive heart tube known as the tubular heart . Between the third and fourth week , the heart tube lengthens , and begins to fold to form an S - shape within the pericardium . This places the chambers and major vessels into the correct alignment for the developed heart . Further development will include the septa and valves formation and remodelling of the heart chambers . By the end of the fifth week the septa are complete and the heart valves are completed by the ninth week . Before the fifth week , there is an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale . The foramen ovale allowed blood in the fetal heart to pass directly from the right atrium to the left atrium , allowing some blood to bypass the lungs . Within seconds after birth , a flap of tissue known as the septum primum that previously acted as a valve closes the foramen ovale and establishes the typical cardiac circulation pattern . A depression in the surface of the right atrium remains where the foramen ovale once walls , called the fossa ovalis . The embryonic heart begins beating at around 22 days after conception ( 5 weeks after the last normal menstrual period , LMP ) . It starts to beat at a rate near to the mother 's which is about 75 -- 80 beats per minute ( bpm ) . The embryonic heart rate then accelerates and reaches a peak rate of 165 -- 185 bpm early in the early 7th week ( early 9th week after the LMP ) . After 9 weeks ( start of the fetal stage ) it starts to decelerate , slowing to around 145 ( ± 25 ) bpm at birth . There is no difference in female and male heart rates before birth . Physiology Main article : Cardiac physiology Blood flow Blood flow through the valves Play media Blood flow through the heart from the Khan academy The heart functions as a pump in the circulatory system to provide a continuous flow of blood throughout the body . This circulation consists of the systemic circulation to and from the body and the pulmonary circulation to and from the lungs . Blood in the pulmonary circulation exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen in the lungs through the process of respiration . The systemic circulation then transports oxygen to the body and returns carbon dioxide and relatively deoxygenated blood to the heart for transfer to the lungs . The right heart collects deoxygenated blood from two large veins , the superior and inferior venae cavae . Blood collects in the right and left atrium continuously . The superior vena cava drains blood from above the diaphragm and empties into the upper back part of the right atrium . The inferior vena cava drains the blood from below the diaphragm and empties into the back part of the atrium below the opening for the superior vena cava . Immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava is the opening of the thin - walled coronary sinus . Additionally , the coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood from the myocardium to the right atrium . The blood collects in the right atrium . When the right atrium contracts , the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle . As the right ventricle contracts , the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve . The pulmonary trunk divides into pulmonary arteries and progressively smaller arteries throughout the lungs , until it reaches capillaries . As these pass by alveoli carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen . This happens through the passive process of diffusion . In the left heart , oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins . It is then pumped into the left ventricle through the mitral valve and into the aorta through the aortic valve for systemic circulation . The aorta is a large artery that branches into many smaller arteries , arterioles , and ultimately capillaries . In the capillaries , oxygen and nutrients from blood are supplied to body cells for metabolism , and exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products . Capillary blood , now deoxygenated , travels into venules and veins that ultimately collect in the superior and inferior vena cavae , and into the right heart . Cardiac cycle Main articles : Cardiac cycle , Systole , and Diastole The cardiac cycle as correlated to the ECG The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events in which the heart contracts and relaxes with every heartbeat . The period of time during which the ventricles contract , forcing blood out into the aorta and main pulmonary artery , is known as systole , while the period during which the ventricles relax and refill with blood is known as diastole . The atria and ventricles work in concert , so in systole when the ventricles are contracting , the atria are relaxed and collecting blood . When the ventricles are relaxed in diastole , the atria contract to pump blood to the ventricles . This coordination ensures blood is pumped efficiently to the body . At the beginning of the cardiac cycle , the ventricles are relaxing . As they do so , they are filled by blood passing through the open mitral and tricuspid valves . After the ventricles have completed most of their filling , the atria contract , forcing further blood into the ventricles and priming the pump . Next , the ventricles start to contract . As the pressure rises within the cavities of the ventricles , the mitral and tricuspid valves are forced shut . As the pressure within the ventricles rises further , exceeding the pressure with the aorta and pulmonary arteries , the aortic and pulmonary valves open . Blood is ejected from the heart , causing the pressure within the ventricles to fall . Simultaneously , the atria refill as blood flows into the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae , and into the left atrium through the pulmonary veins . Finally , when the pressure within the ventricles falls below the pressure within the aorta and pulmonary arteries , the aortic and pulmonary valves close . The ventricles start to relax , the mitral and tricuspid valves open , and the cycle begins again . Cardiac output Main article : Cardiac output The x-axis reflects time with a recording of the heart sounds . The y - axis represents pressure . Cardiac output ( CO ) is a measurement of the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle ( stroke volume ) in one minute . This is calculated by multiplying the stroke volume ( SV ) by the beats per minute of the heart rate ( HR ) . So that : CO = SV x HR . The cardiac output is normalized to body size through body surface area and is called the cardiac index . The average cardiac output , using an average stroke volume of about 70mL , is 5.25 L / min , with a normal range of 4.0 -- 8.0 L / min . The stroke volume is normally measured using an echocardiogram and can be influenced by the size of the heart , physical and mental condition of the individual , sex , contractility , duration of contraction , preload and afterload . Preload refers to the filling pressure of the atria at the end of diastole , when they are at their fullest . A main factor is how long it takes the ventricles to fill -- if the ventricles contract faster , then there is less time to fill and the preload will be less . Preload can also be affected by a person 's blood volume . The force of each contraction of the heart muscle is proportional to the preload , described as the Frank - Starling mechanism . This states that the force of contraction is directly proportional to the initial length of muscle fiber , meaning a ventricle will contract more forcefully , the more it is stretched . Afterload , or how much pressure the heart must generate to eject blood at systole , is influenced by vascular resistance . It can be influenced by narrowing of the heart valves ( stenosis ) or contraction or relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels . The strength of heart muscle contractions controls the stroke volume . This can be influenced positively or negatively by agents termed inotropes . These agents can be a result of changes within the body , or be given as drugs as part of treatment for a medical disorder , or as a form of life support , particularly in intensive care units . Inotropes that increase the force of contraction are `` positive '' inotropes , and include sympathetic agents such as adrenaline , noradrenaline and dopamine . `` Negative '' inotropes decrease the force of contraction and include calcium channel blockers . Electrical conduction Main articles : Electrical conduction system of the heart and Heart rate Transmission of a cardiac action potential through the heart 's conduction system The normal rhythmical heart beat , called sinus rhythm , is established by the sinoatrial node , the heart 's pacemaker . Here an electrical signal is created that travels through the heart , causing the heart muscle to contract . The sinoatrial node is found in the upper part of the right atrium near to the junction with the superior vena cava . The electrical signal generated by the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium in a radial way that is not completely understood . It travels to the left atrium via Bachmann 's bundle , such that the muscles of the left and right atria contract together . The signal then travels to the atrioventricular node . This is found at the bottom of the right atrium in the atrioventricular septum -- the boundary between the right atrium and the left ventricle . The septum is part of the cardiac skeleton , tissue within the heart that the electrical signal can not pass through , which forces the signal to pass through the atrioventricular node only . The signal then travels along the bundle of His to left and right bundle branches through to the ventricles of the heart . In the ventricles the signal is carried by specialized tissue called the Purkinje fibers which then transmit the electric charge to the heart muscle . Conduction system of the heart Heart rate Main article : Heart rate The prepotential is due to a slow influx of sodium ions until the threshold is reached followed by a rapid depolarization and repolarization . The prepotential accounts for the membrane reaching threshold and initiates the spontaneous depolarization and contraction of the cell ; there is no resting potential . The normal resting heart rate is called the sinus rhythm , created and sustained by the sinoatrial node , a group of pacemaking cells found in the wall of the right atrium . Cells in the sinoatrial node do this by creating an action potential . The cardiac action potential is created by the movement of specific electrolytes into and out of the pacemaker cells . The action potential then spreads to nearby cells . When the sinoatrial cells are resting , they have a negative charge on their membranes . However a rapid influx of sodium ions causes the membrane 's charge to become positive . This is called depolarisation and occurs spontaneously . Once the cell has a sufficiently high charge , the sodium channels close and calcium ions then begin to enter the cell , shortly after which potassium begins to leave it . All the ions travel through ion channels in the membrane of the sinoatrial cells . The potassium and calcium only start to move out of and into the cell once it has a sufficiently high charge , and so are called voltage - gated . Shortly after this , the calcium channels close and potassium channels open , allowing potassium to leave the cell . This causes the cell to have a negative resting charge and is called repolarization . When the membrane potential reaches approximately − 60 mV , the potassium channels close and the process may begin again . The ions move from areas where they are concentrated to where they are not . For this reason sodium moves into the cell from outside , and potassium moves from within the cell to outside the cell . Calcium also plays a critical role . Their influx through slow channels means that the sinoatrial cells have a prolonged `` plateau '' phase when they have a positive charge . A part of this is called the absolute refractory period . Calcium ions also combine with the regulatory protein troponin C in the troponin complex to enable contraction of the cardiac muscle , and separate from the protein to allow relaxation . The adult resting heart rate ranges from 60 to 100 bpm . The resting heart rate of a newborn can be 129 beats per minute ( bpm ) and this gradually decreases until maturity . An athlete 's heart rate can be lower than 60 bpm . During exercise the rate can be 150 bpm with maximum rates reaching from 200 to 220 bpm . Influences The normal sinus rhythm of the heart , giving the resting heart rate , is influenced a number of factors . The cardiovascular centres in the brainstem that control the sympathetic and parasympathetic influences to the heart through the vagus nerve and sympathetic trunk . These cardiovascular centres receive input from a series of receptors including baroreceptors , sensing stretch the stretching of blood vessels and chemoreceptors , sensing the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and its pH . Through a series of reflexes these help regulate and sustain blood flow . Baroreceptors are stretch receptors located in the aortic sinus , carotid bodies , the venae cavae , and other locations , including pulmonary vessels and the right side of the heart itself . Baroreceptors fire at a rate determined by how much they are stretched , which is influenced by blood pressure , level of physical activity , and the relative distribution of blood . With increased pressure and stretch , the rate of baroreceptor firing increases , and the cardiac centers decrease sympathetic stimulation and increase parasympathetic stimulation . As pressure and stretch decrease , the rate of baroreceptor firing decreases , and the cardiac centers increase sympathetic stimulation and decrease parasympathetic stimulation . There is a similar reflex , called the atrial reflex or Bainbridge reflex , associated with varying rates of blood flow to the atria . Increased venous return stretches the walls of the atria where specialized baroreceptors are located . However , as the atrial baroreceptors increase their rate of firing and as they stretch due to the increased blood pressure , the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase heart rate . The opposite is also true . Chemoreceptors present in the carotid body or adjacent to the aorta in an aortic body respond to the blood 's oxygen , carbon dioxide levels . Low oxygen or high carbon dioxide will stimulate firing of the receptors . Exercise and fitness levels , age , body temperature , basal metabolic rate , and even a person 's emotional state can all affect the heart rate . High levels of the hormones epinephrine , norepinephrine , and thyroid hormones can increase the heart rate . The levels of electrolytes including calcium , potassium , and sodium can also influence the speed and regularity of the heart rate ; low blood oxygen , low blood pressure and dehydration may increase it . Clinical significance Diseases The stethoscope is used for auscultation of the heart , and is one of the most iconic symbols for medicine . A number of diseases can be detected primarily by listening for heart murmurs . Atherosclerosis is a condition affecting the circulatory system . If the coronary arteries are affected , angina pectoris may result or at worse a heart attack . Cardiovascular diseases , which include diseases of the heart , are the leading cause of death worldwide . The majority of cardiovascular disease is noncommunicable and related to lifestyle and other factors , becoming more prevalent with ageing . Heart disease is a major cause of death , accounting for an average of 30 % of all deaths in 2008 , globally . This rate varies from a lower 28 % to a high 40 % in high - income countries . Doctors that specialise in the heart are called cardiologists . Many other medical professionals are involved in treating diseases of the heart , including doctors such as general practitioners , cardiothoracic surgeons and intensivists , and allied health practitioners including physiotherapists and dieticians . Ischaemic heart disease Main article : Coronary artery disease Coronary artery disease , also known as ischemic heart disease , is caused by atherosclerosis -- a build - up of fatty material along the inner walls of the arteries . These fatty deposits known as atherosclerotic plaques narrow the coronary arteries , and if severe may reduce blood flow to the heart . If a narrowing ( or stenosis ) is relatively minor then the patient may not experience any symptoms . Severe narrowings may cause chest pain ( angina ) or breathlessness during exercise or even at rest . The thin covering of an atherosclerotic plaque can rupture , exposing the fatty centre to the circulating blood . In this case a clot or thrombus can form , blocking the artery , and restricting blood flow to an area of heart muscle causing a myocardial infarction ( a heart attack ) or unstable angina . In the worst case this may cause cardiac arrest , a sudden and utter loss of output from the heart . Obesity , high blood pressure , uncontrolled diabetes , smoking and high cholesterol can all increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease . Heart failure Main article : heart failure Heart failure is defined as a condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the demands of the body . Patients with heart failure may experience breathlessness especially when lying flat , as well as ankle swelling , known as peripheral oedema . Heart failure is the end result of many diseases affecting the heart , but is most commonly associated with ischaemic heart disease , valvular heart disease , or high blood pressure . Less common causes include various cardiomyopathies . Heart failure is frequently associated with weakness of the heart muscle in the ventricles ( systolic heart failure ) , but can also be seen in patients with heart muscle that is strong but stiff ( diastolic heart failure ) . The condition may affect the left ventricle ( causing predominantly breathlessness ) , the right ventricle ( causing predominantly swelling of the legs and an elevated jugular venous pressure ) , or both ventricles . Patients with heart failure are at higher risk of developing dangerous heart rhythm disturbances or arrhythmias . Cardiomyopathies Main article : Cardiomyopathy Cardiomyopathies are diseases affecting the muscle of the heart . Some cause abnormal thickening of the heart muscle ( hypertrophic cardiomyopathy ) , some cause the heart to abnormally expand and weaken ( dilated cardiomyopathy ) , some cause the heart muscle to become stiff and unable to fully relax between contractions ( restrictive cardiomyopathy ) and some make the heart prone to abnormal heart rhythms ( arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy ) . These conditions are often genetic and can be inherited , but some such as dilated cardiomyopathy may be caused by damage from toxins such as alcohol . Some cardiomyopathies such as hypertrophic cardiomopathy are linked to a higher risk of sudden cardiac death , particularly in athletes . Many cardiomyopathies can lead to heart failure in the later stages of the disease . Valvular heart disease Main article : Valvular heart disease Healthy heart valves allow blood to flow easily in one direction , but prevent it from flowing in the other direction . Diseased heart valves may have a narrow opening and therefore restrict the flow of blood in the forward direction ( referred to as a stenotic valve ) , or may allow blood to leak in the reverse direction ( referred to as valvular regurgitation ) . Valvular heart disease may cause breathlessness , blackouts , or chest pain , but may be asymptomatic and only detected on a routine examination by hearing abnormal heart sounds or a heart murmur . In the developed world , valvular heart disease is most commonly caused by degeneration secondary to old age , but may also be caused by infection of the heart valves ( endocarditis ) . In some parts of the world rheumatic heart disease is a major cause of valvular heart disease , typically leading to mitral or aortic stenosis and caused by the body 's immune system reacting to a streptococcal throat infection . Cardiac arrhythmias Main article : Heart arrhythmia While in the healthy heart , waves of electrical impulses originate in the sinus node before spreading to the rest of the atria , the atrioventricular node , and finally the ventricles ( referred to as a normal sinus rhythm ) , this normal rhythm can be disrupted . Abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias may be asymptomatic or may cause palpitations , blackouts , or breathlessness . Some types of arrhythmia such as atrial fibrillation increase the long term risk of stroke . Some arrhythmias cause the heart to beat abnormally slowly , referred to as a bradycardia or bradyarrhythmia . This may be caused by an abnormally slow sinus node or damage within the cardiac conduction system ( heart block ) . In other arrhythmias the heart may beat abnormally rapidly , referred to as a tachycardia or tachyarrhythmia . These arrhythmias can take many forms and can originate from different structures within the heart -- some arise from the atria ( e.g. atrial flutter ) , some from the atrioventricular node ( e.g. AV nodal re-entrant tachycardia ) whilst others arise from the ventricles ( e.g. ventricular tachycardia ) . Some tachyarrhythmias are caused by scarring within the heart ( e.g. some forms of ventricular tachycardia ) , others by an irritable focus ( e.g. focal atrial tachycardia ) , while others are caused by additional abnormal conduction tissue that has been present since birth ( e.g. Wolff - Parkinson - White syndrome ) . The most dangerous form of heart racing is ventricular fibrillation , in which the ventricles quiver rather than contract , and which if untreated is rapidly fatal . Pericardial disease The sack which surrounds the heart , called the pericardium , can become inflamed in a condition known as pericarditis . This condition typically causes chest pain that may spread to the back , and is often caused by a viral infection ( glandular fever , cytomegalovirus , or coxsackievirus ) . Fluid can build up within the pericardial sack , referred to as a pericardial effusion . Pericardial effusions often occur secondary to pericarditis , kidney failure , or tumours , and frequently do not cause any symptoms . However , large effusions or effusions which accumulate rapidly can compress the heart in a condition known as cardiac tamponade , causing breathlessness and potentially fatal low blood pressure . Fluid can be removed from the pericardial space for diagnosis or to relieve tamponade using a syringe in a procedure called pericardiocentesis . Congenital heart disease Main article : Congenital heart defect Some people are born with hearts that are abnormal and these abnormalities are known as congenital heart defects . They may range range from the relatively minor ( e.g. patent foramen ovale , arguably a variant of normal ) to serious life - threatening abnormalities ( e.g. hypoplastic left heart syndrome ) . Common abnormalities include those that affect the heart muscle that separates the two side of the heart ( a ' hole in the heart ' e.g. ventricular septal defect ) . Other defects include those affecting the heart valves ( e.g. congenital aortic stenosis ) , or the main blood vessels that lead from the heart ( e.g. coarctation of the aorta ) . More complex syndromes are seen that affect more than one part of the heart ( e.g. Tetralogy of Fallot ) . Some congenital heart defects allow blood that is low in oxygen that would normally be returned to the lungs to instead be pumped back to the rest of the body . These are known as cyanotic congenital heart defects and are often more serious . Major congenital heart defects are often picked up in childhood , shortly after birth , or even before a child is born ( e.g. transposition of the great arteries ) , causing breathlessness and a lower rate of growth . More minor forms of congenital heart disease may remain undetected for many years and only reveal themselves in adult life ( e.g. atrial septal defect ) . Diagnosis Heart disease is diagnosed by the taking of a medical history , a cardiac examination , and further investigations , including blood tests , echocardiograms , ECGs and imaging . Other invasive procedures such as cardiac catheterisation can also play a role . Examination Main articles : Cardiac examination and Heart sounds The cardiac examination includes inspection , feeling the chest with the hands ( palpation ) and listening with a stethoscope ( auscultation ) . It involves assessment of signs that may be visible on a person 's hands ( such as splinter haemorrhages ) , joints and other areas . A person 's pulse is taken , usually at the radial artery near the wrist , in order to assess for the rhythm and strength of the pulse . The blood pressure is taken , using either a manual or automatic sphygmomanometer or using a more invasive measurement from within the artery . Any elevation of the jugular venous pulse is noted . A person 's chest is felt for any transmitted vibrations from the heart , and then listened to with a stethoscope . Heart sounds 3D echocardiogram showing the mitral valve ( right ) , tricuspid and mitral valves ( top left ) and aortic valve ( top right ) . The closure of the heart valves causes the heart sounds . Typically , healthy hearts have only two audible heart sounds , called S1 and S2 . The first heart sound S1 , is the sound created by the closing of the atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction and is normally described as `` lub '' . The second heart sound , S2 , is the sound of the semilunar valves closing during ventricular diastole and is described as `` dub '' . Each sound consists of two components , reflecting the slight difference in time as the two valves close . S2 may split into two distinct sounds , either as a result of inspiration or different valvular or cardiac problems . Additional heart sounds may also be present and these give rise to gallop rhythms . A third heart sound , S3 usually indicates an increase in ventricular blood volume . A fourth heart sound S4 is referred to as an atrial gallop and is produced by the sound of blood being forced into a stiff ventricle . The combined presence of S3 and S4 give a quadruple gallop . Heart murmurs are abnormal heart sounds which can be either related to disease or benign , and there are several kinds . There are normally two heart sounds , and abnormal heart sounds can either be extra sounds , or `` murmurs '' related to the flow of blood between the sounds . Murmurs are graded by volume , from 1 ( the quietest ) , to 6 ( the loudest ) , and evaluated by their relationship to the heart sounds , position in the cardiac cycle , and additional features such as their radiation to other sites , changes with a person 's position , the frequency of the sound as determined by the side of the stethoscope by which they are heard , and site at which they are heard loudest . Murmurs may be caused by damaged heart valves , congenital heart disease such as ventricular septal defects , or may be heard in normal hearts . A different type of sound , a pericardial friction rub can be heard in cases of pericarditis where the inflamed membranes can rub together . Blood tests Blood tests play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of many cardiovascular conditions . Troponin is a sensitive biomarker for a heart with insufficient blood supply . It is released 4 -- 6 hours after injury , and usually peaks at about 12 -- 24 hours . Two tests of troponin are often taken -- one at the time of initial presentation , and another within 3 -- 6 hours , with either a high level or a significant rise being diagnostic . A test for brain natriuretic peptide ( BNP ) can be used to evaluate for the presence of heart failure , and rises when there is increased demand on the left ventricle . These tests are considered biomarkers because they are highly specific for cardiac disease . Testing for the MB form of creatine kinase provides information about the heart 's blood supply , but is used less frequently because it is less specific and sensitive . Other blood tests are often taken to help understand a person 's general health and risk factors that may contribute to heart disease . These often include a full blood count investigating for anaemia , and basic metabolic panel that may reveal any disturbances in electrolytes . A coagulation screen is often required to ensure that the right level of anticoagulation is given . Fasting lipids and fasting blood glucose ( or an HbA1c level ) are often ordered to evaluate a person 's cholesterol and diabetes status , respectively . Electrocardiogram Main article : Electrocardiography Cardiac cycle shown against ECG Using surface electrodes on the body , it is possible to record the electrical activity of the heart . This tracing of the electrical signal is the electrocardiogram ( ECG ) or ( EKG ) . An ECG is a bedside test and involves the placement of ten leads on the body . This produces a `` 12 lead '' ECG ( three extra leads are calculated mathematically , and one lead is a ground ) . There are five prominent features on the ECG : the P wave ( atrial depolarisation ) , the QRS complex ( ventricular depolarisation ) and the T wave ( ventricular repolarisation ) . As the heart cells contract , they create a current that travels through the heart . A downward deflection on the ECG implies cells are becoming more positive in charge ( `` depolarising '' ) in the direction of that lead , whereas an upward inflection implies cells are becoming more negative ( `` repolarising '' ) in the direction of the lead . This depends on the position of the lead , so if a wave of depolarising moved from left to right , a lead on the left would show a negative deflection , and a lead on the right would show a positive deflection . The ECG is a useful tool in detecting rhythm disturbances and in detecting insufficient blood supply to the heart . Sometimes abnormalities are suspected , but not immediately visible on the ECG . Testing when exercising can be used to provoke an abnormality , or an ECG can be worn for a longer period such as a 24 - hour Holter monitor if a suspected rhythm abnormality is not present at the time of assessment . Imaging Main article : Cardiac imaging Several imaging methods can be used to assess the anatomy and function of the heart , including ultrasound ( echocardiography ) , angiography , CT scans , MRI and PET . An echocardiogram is an ultrasound of the heart used to measure the heart 's function , assess for valve disease , and look for any abnormalities . Echocardiography can be conducted by a probe on the chest ( `` transthoracic '' ) or by a probe in the esophagus ( `` transoesophageal '' ) . A typical echocardiography report will include information about the width of the valves noting any stenosis , whether there is any backflow of blood ( regurgitation ) and information about the blood volumes at the end of systole and diastole , including an ejection fraction , which describes how much blood is ejected from the left and right ventricles after systole . Ejection fraction can then be obtained by dividing the volume ejected by the heart ( stroke volume ) by the volume of the filled heart ( end - diastolic volume ) . Echocardiograms can also be conducted under circumstances when the body is more stressed , in order to examine for signs of lack of blood supply . This cardiac stress test involves either direct exercise , or where this is not possible , injection of a drug such as dobutamine . CT scans , chest X-rays and other forms of imaging can help evaluate the heart 's size , evaluate for signs of pulmonary oedema , and indicate whether there is fluid around the heart . They are also useful for evaluating the aorta , the major blood vessel which leaves the heart . Treatment Diseases affecting the heart can be treated by a variety of methods including lifestyle modification , drug treatment , and surgery . Ischaemic heart disease Main articles : Coronary artery disease , Coronary artery bypass surgery , and Coronary stent Narrowings of the coronary arteries ( ischaemic heart disease ) are treated to relieve symptoms of chest pain caused by a partially narrowed artery ( angina pectoris ) , to minimise heart muscle damage when an artery is completely occluded ( myocardial infarction ) , or to prevent a myocardial infarction from occurring . Medications to improve angina symptoms include nitroglycerin , beta blockers , and calcium channel blockers , while preventative treatments include antiplatelets such as aspirin and statins , lifestyle measures such as stopping smoking and weight loss , and treatment of risk factors such as high blood pressure and diabetes . In addition to using medications , narrowed heart arteries can be treated by expanding the narrowings or redirecting the flow of blood to bypass an obstruction . This may be performed using a percutaneous coronary intervention , during which narrowings can be expanded by passing small balloon - tipped wires into the coronary arteries , inflating the balloon to expand the narrowing , and sometimes leaving behind a metal scaffold known as a stent to keep the artery open . If the narrowings in coronary arteries are unsuitable for treatment with a percutaneous coronary intervention , open surgery may be required . A coronary artery bypass graft can be performed , whereby a blood vessel from another part of the body ( the saphenous vein , radial artery , or internal mammary artery ) is used to redirect blood from a point before the narrowing ( typically the aorta ) to a point beyond the obstruction . Valvular heart disease Main article : Artificial heart valve Diseased heart valves that have become abnormally narrow or abnormally leaky may require surgery . This is traditionally performed as an open surgical procedure to replace the damaged heart valve with a tissue or metallic prosthetic valve . In some circumstances , the tricuspid or mitral valves can be repaired surgically , avoiding the need for a valve replacement . Heart valves can also be treated percutaneously , using techniques that share many similarities with percutaneous coronary intervention . Transcatheter aortic valve replacement is increasingly used for patients consider very high risk for open valve replacement . Cardiac arrhythmias Main articles : Heart arrhythmia , Radiofrequency ablation , and Artificial cardiac pacemaker Abnormal heart rhythms ( arrhythmias ) can be treated using antiarrhythmic drugs . These may work by manipulating the flow of electrolytes across the cell membrane ( such as calcium channel blockers , sodium channel blockers , amiodarone , or digoxin ) , or modify the autonomic nervous system 's effect on the heart ( beta blockers and atropine ) . In some arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation which increase the risk of stroke , this risk can be reduced using anticoagulants such as warfarin or novel oral anticoagualants . If medications fail to control an arrhythmia , another treatment option may be catheter ablation . In these procedures , wires are passed from a vein or artery in the leg to the heart to find the abnormal area of tissue that is causing the arrhythmia . The abnormal tissue can be intentionally damaged , or ablated , by heating or freezing to prevent further heart rhythm disturbances . Whilst the majority of arrhythmias can be treated using minimally invasive catheter techniques , some arrhythmias ( particularly atrial fibrillation ) can also be treated using open or thoracoscopic surgery , either at the time of other cardiac surgery or as a standalone procedure . A cardioversion , whereby an electric shock is used to stun the heart out of an abnormal rhythm , may also be used . Cardiac devices in the form of pacemakers or implantable defibrillators may also be required to treat arrhythmias . Pacemakers , comprising a small battery powered generator implanted under the skin and one or more leads that extend to the heart , are most commonly used to treat abnormally slow heart rhythms . Implantable defibrillators are used to treat serious life - threatening rapid heart rhythms . These devices monitor the heart , and if dangerous heart racing is detected can automatically deliver a shock to restore the heart to a normal rhythm . Implantable defibrillators are most commonly used in patients with heart failure , cardiomyopathies , or inherited arrhythmia syndromes . Heart failure Main article : Heart failure As well as addressing the underlying cause for a patient 's heart failure ( most commonly ischaemic heart disease or hypertension ) , the mainstay of heart failure treatment is with medication . These include drugs to prevent fluid from accumulating in the lungs by increasing the amount of urine a patient produces ( diuretics ) , and drugs that attempt to preserve the pumping function of the heart ( beta blockers , ACE inhibitors and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists ) . In some patients with heart failure , a specialised pacemaker known as cardiac resynchronisation therapy can be used to improve the heart 's pumping efficiency . These devices are frequently combined with a defibrillator . In very severe cases of heart failure , a small pump called a ventricular assist device may be implanted which supplements the heart 's own pumping ability . In the most severe cases , a cardiac transplant may be considered . History Ancient Heart and its blood vessels , by Leonardo da Vinci , 15th century Humans have known about the heart since ancient times , although its precise function and anatomy were not clearly understood . From the primarily religious views of earlier societies towards the heart , ancient Greeks are considered to have been the primary seat of scientific understanding of the heart in the ancient world . Aristotle considered the heart to be organ responsible for creating blood ; Plato considered the heart as the source of circulating blood and Hippocrates noted blood circulating cyclically from the body through the heart to the lungs . Erasistratos ( 304 -- 250 BCE ) noted the heart as a pump , causing dilation of blood vessels , and noted that arteries and veins both radiate from the heart , becoming progressively smaller with distance , although he believed they were filled with air and not blood . He also discovered the heart valves . The Greek physician Galen ( 2nd century CE ) knew blood vessels carried blood and identified venous ( dark red ) and arterial ( brighter and thinner ) blood , each with distinct and separate functions . Galen , noting the heart as the hottest organ in the body , concluded that it provided heat to the body . The heart did not pump blood around , the heart 's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves . Galen believed the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right through ' pores ' between the ventricles . Air from the lungs passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart and created arterial blood . These ideas went unchallenged for almost a thousand years . Pre-modern The earliest descriptions of the coronary and pulmonary circulation systems can be found in the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna 's Canon , published in 1242 by Ibn al - Nafis . In his manuscript , al - Nafis wrote that blood passes through the pulmonary circulation instead of moving from the right to the left ventricle as previously believed by Galen . His work was later translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago . In Europe , the teachings of Galen continued to dominate the academic community and his doctrines were adopted as the official canon of the Church . Andreas Vesalius questioned some of Galen 's beliefs of the heart in De humani corporis fabrica ( 1543 ) , but his magnum opus was interpreted as a challenge to the authorities and he was subjected to a number of attacks . Michael Servetus wrote in Christianismi Restitutio ( 1553 ) that blood flows from one side of the heart to the other via the lungs . Modern Animated heart A breakthrough in understanding the flow of blood through the heart and body came with the publication of De Motu Cordis ( 1628 ) by the English physician William Harvey . Harvey 's book completely describes the systemic circulation and the mechanical force of the heart , leading to an overhaul of the Galenic doctrines . Otto Frank ( 1865 -- 1944 ) was a German physiologist ; among his many published works are detailed studies of this important heart relationship . Ernest Starling ( 1866 -- 1927 ) was an important English physiologist who also studied the heart . Although they worked largely independently , their combined efforts and similar conclusions have been recognized in the name `` Frank -- Starling mechanism '' . Although Purkinje fibers and the bundle of His were discovered as early as the 19th century , their specific role in the electrical conduction system of the heart remained unknown until Sunao Tawara published his monograph , titled Das Reizleitungssystem des Säugetierherzens , in 1906 . Tawara 's discovery of the atrioventricular node prompted Arthur Keith and Martin Flack to look for similar structures in the heart , leading to their discovery of the sinoatrial node several months later . These structures form the anatomical basis of the electrocardiogram , whose inventor , Willem Einthoven , was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1924 . The first successful heart transplantation was performed in 1967 by the South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town . This marked an important milestone in cardiac surgery , capturing the attention of both the medical profession and the world at large . However , long - term survival rates of patients were initially very low . Louis Washkansky , the first recipient of a donated heart , died 18 days after the operation while other patients did not survive for more than a few weeks . The American surgeon Norman Shumway has been credited for his efforts to improve transplantation techniques , along with pioneers Richard Lower , Vladimir Demikhov and Adrian Kantrowitz . As of March 2000 , more than 55,000 heart transplantations have been performed worldwide . By the middle of the 20th century , heart disease had surpassed infectious disease as the leading cause of death in the United States , and it is currently the leading cause of deaths worldwide . Since 1948 , the ongoing Framingham Heart Study has shed light on the effects of various influences on the heart , including diet , exercise , and common medications such as aspirin . Although the introduction of ACE inhibitors and beta blockers has improved the management of chronic heart failure , the disease continues to be an enormous medical and societal burden , with 30 to 40 % of patients dying within a year of receiving the diagnosis . Society and culture Further information : Sacred Heart , Heart symbol , and Blood § Cultural and religious beliefs jb ( F34 ) `` heart '' in hieroglyphs Symbolism Common heart symbol Letter ღ of the Georgian script is often used as a `` heart '' symbol . The seal script glyph for `` heart '' ( Middle Chinese sim ) As one of the vital organs , the heart was long identified as the center of the entire body , the seat of life , or emotion , or reason , will , intellect , purpose or the mind . The heart is an emblematic symbol in many religions , signifying `` truth , conscience or moral courage in many religions -- the temple or throne of God in Islamic and Judeo - Christian thought ; the divine centre , or atman , and the third eye of transcendent wisdom in Hinduism ; the diamond of purity and essence of the Buddha ; the Taoist centre of understanding . '' In the Hebrew Bible , the word for heart , lev , is used in these meanings , as the seat of emotion , the mind , and referring to the anatomical organ . It is also connected in function and symbolism to the stomach . An important part of the concept of the soul in Ancient Egyptian religion was thought to be the heart , or ib . The ib or metaphysical heart was believed to be formed from one drop of blood from the child 's mother 's heart , taken at conception . To ancient Egyptians , the heart was the seat of emotion , thought , will , and intention . This is evidenced by Egyptian expressions which incorporate the word ib , such as Awi - ib for `` happy '' ( literally , `` long of heart '' ) , Xak - ib for `` estranged '' ( literally , `` truncated of heart '' ) . In Egyptian religion , the heart was the key to the afterlife . It was conceived as surviving death in the nether world , where it gave evidence for , or against , its possessor . It was thought that the heart was examined by Anubis and a variety of deities during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony . If the heart weighed more than the feather of Maat , which symbolized the ideal standard of behavior . If the scales balanced , it meant the heart 's possessor had lived a just life and could enter the afterlife ; if the heart was heavier , it would be devoured by the monster Ammit . The Chinese character for `` heart '' , 心 , derives from a comparatively realistic depiction of a heart ( indicating the heart chambers ) in seal script . The Chinese word xīn also takes the metaphorical meanings of `` mind '' , `` intention '' , or `` core '' . In Chinese medicine , the heart is seen as the center of 神 shén `` spirit , consciousness '' . The heart is associated with the small intestine , tongue , governs the six organs and five viscera , and belongs to fire in the five elements . The Sanskrit word for heart is hṛd or hṛdaya , found in the oldest surviving Sanskrit text , the Rigveda . In Sanskrit , it may mean both the anatomical object and `` mind '' or `` soul '' , representing the seat of emotion . Hrd may be a cognate of the word for heart in Greek , Latin , and English . Many classical philosophers and scientists , including Aristotle , considered the heart the seat of thought , reason , or emotion , often disregarding the brain as contributing to those functions . The identification of the heart as the seat of emotions in particular is due to the Roman physician Galen , who also located the seat of the passions in the liver , and the seat of reason in the brain . The heart also played a role in the Aztec system of belief . The most common form of human sacrifice practiced by the Aztecs was heart - extraction . The Aztec believed that the heart ( tona ) was both the seat of the individual and a fragment of the Sun 's heat ( istli ) . To this day , the Nahua consider the Sun to be a heart - soul ( tona - tiuh ) : `` round , hot , pulsating '' . In Catholicism , there has been a long tradition of veneration of the heart , stemming from worship of the wounds of Jesus Christ which gained prominence from the mid sixteenth century . This tradition influenced the development of the medieval Christian devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the parallel worship of Immaculate Heart of Mary , made popular by John Eudes . The expression of a broken heart is a cross-cultural reference to grief for a lost one or to unfulfilled romantic love . The notion of `` Cupid 's arrows '' is ancient , due to Ovid , but while Ovid describes Cupid as wounding his victims with his arrows , it is not made explicit that it is the heart that is wounded . The familiar iconography of Cupid shooting little heart symbols is a Renaissance theme that became tied to Valentine 's day . Food Animal hearts are widely consumed as food . As they are almost entirely muscle , they are high in protein . They are often included in dishes with other offal , for example in the pan-Ottoman kokoretsi . Chicken hearts are considered to be giblets , and are often grilled on skewers : Japanese hāto yakitori , Brazilian churrasco de coração , Indonesian chicken heart satay . They can also be pan-fried , as in Jerusalem mixed grill . In Egyptian cuisine , they can be used , finely chopped , as part of stuffing for chicken . Many recipes combined them with other giblets , such as the Mexican pollo en menudencias and the Russian ragu iz kurinyikh potrokhov . The hearts of beef , pork , and mutton can generally be interchanged in recipes . As heart is a hard - working muscle , it makes for `` firm and rather dry '' meat , so is generally slow - cooked . Another way of dealing with toughness is to julienne the meat , as in Chinese stir - fried heart . Beef heart may be grilled or braised . In the Peruvian anticuchos de corazón , barbecued beef hearts are grilled after being tenderized through long marination in a spice and vinegar mixture . An Australian recipe for `` mock goose '' is actually braised stuffed beef heart . Pig heart is stewed , poached , braised , or made into sausage . The Balinese oret is a sort of blood sausage made with pig heart and blood . A French recipe for cœur de porc à l'orange is made of braised heart with an orange sauce . Other animals See also : Circulatory system Other vertebrates The size of the heart varies among the different animal groups , with hearts in vertebrates ranging from those of the smallest mice ( 12 mg ) to the blue whale ( 600 kg ) . In vertebrates , the heart lies in the middle of the ventral part of the body , surrounded by a pericardium . which in some fish may be connected to the peritoneum . The SA node is found in all amniotes but not in more primitive vertebrates . In these animals , the muscles of the heart are relatively continuous and the sinus venosus coordinates the beat which passes in a wave through the remaining chambers . Indeed , since the sinus venosus is incorporated into the right atrium in amniotes , it is likely homologous with the SA node . In teleosts , with their vestigial sinus venosus , the main centre of coordination is , instead , in the atrium . The rate of heartbeat varies enormously between different species , ranging from around 20 beats per minute in codfish to around 600 in hummingbirds and up to 1200 bpm in the ruby - throated hummingbird . Double circulatory systems A cross section of a three chambered adult amphibian heart , note the single ventricle . The purple regions represent areas where mixing of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood occurs . Pulmonary vein Left atrium Right atrium Ventricle Conus arteriosus Sinus venosus Adult amphibians and most reptiles have a double circulatory system , meaning a circulatory system divided into arterial and venous parts . However , the heart itself is not completely separated into two sides . Instead , it is separated into three chambers -- two atria and one ventricle . Blood returning from both the systemic circulation and the lungs is returned , and blood is pumped simultaneously into the systemic circulation and the lungs . The double system allows blood to circulate to and from lungs which deliver oxygenated blood directly to the heart . In reptiles , the heart is usually situated around the middle of the thorax , and in snakes , usually between the junction of the upper first and second third . There is a heart with three chambers : two atria and one ventricle . The ventricle is incompletely separated into two halves by a wall ( septum ) , with a considerable gap near the pulmonary artery and aortic openings . In most reptilian species , there appears to be little , if any , mixing between the bloodstreams , so the aorta receives , essentially , only oxygenated blood . The exception to this rule is crocodiles , which have a four - chambered heart . In the heart of lungfish , the septum extends part - way into the ventricle . This allows for some degree of separation between the de-oxygenated bloodstream destined for the lungs and the oxygenated stream that is delivered to the rest of the body . The absence of such a division in living amphibian species may be partly due to the amount of respiration that occurs through the skin ; thus , the blood returned to the heart through the venae cavae is already partially oxygenated . As a result , there may be less need for a finer division between the two bloodstreams than in lungfish or other tetrapods . Nonetheless , in at least some species of amphibian , the spongy nature of the ventricle does seem to maintain more of a separation between the bloodstreams . Also , the original valves of the conus arteriosus have been replaced by a spiral valve that divides it into two parallel parts , thereby helping to keep the two bloodstreams separate . The fully divided heart Archosaurs ( crocodilians and birds ) and mammals show complete separation of the heart into two pumps for a total of four heart chambers ; it is thought that the four - chambered heart of archosaurs evolved independently from that of mammals . In crocodilians , there is a small opening , the foramen of Panizza , at the base of the arterial trunks and there is some degree of mixing between the blood in each side of the heart , during a dive underwater ; thus , only in birds and mammals are the two streams of blood -- those to the pulmonary and systemic circulations -- permanently kept entirely separate by a physical barrier . Fish Main article : Fish anatomy § Heart Blood flow through the fish heart : sinus venosus , atrium , ventricle , and outflow tract Fish have what is often described as a two - chambered heart , consisting of one atrium to receive blood and one ventricle to pump it , However , the fish heart has entry and exit compartments that may be called chambers , so it is also sometimes described as three - chambered or four - chambered , depending on what is counted as a chamber . The atrium and ventricle are sometimes considered `` true chambers '' , while the others are considered `` accessory chambers '' . Primitive fish have a four - chambered heart , but the chambers are arranged sequentially so that this primitive heart is quite unlike the four - chambered hearts of mammals and birds . The first chamber is the sinus venosus , which collects deoxygenated blood , from the body , through the hepatic and cardinal veins . From here , blood flows into the atrium and then to the powerful muscular ventricle where the main pumping action will take place . The fourth and final chamber is the conus arteriosus which contains several valves and sends blood to the ventral aorta . The ventral aorta delivers blood to the gills where it is oxygenated and flows , through the dorsal aorta , into the rest of the body . ( In tetrapods , the ventral aorta has divided in two ; one half forms the ascending aorta , while the other forms the pulmonary artery ) . In the adult fish , the four chambers are not arranged in a straight row but , instead form an S - shape with the latter two chambers lying above the former two . This relatively simpler pattern is found in cartilaginous fish and in the ray - finned fish . In teleosts , the conus arteriosus is very small and can more accurately be described as part of the aorta rather than of the heart proper . The conus arteriosus is not present in any amniotes , presumably having been absorbed into the ventricles over the course of evolution . Similarly , while the sinus venosus is present as a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds , it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable . Invertebrates The tube - like heart ( green ) of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae extends horizontally across the body , interlinked with the diamond - shaped wing muscles ( also green ) and surrounded by pericardial cells ( red ) . Blue depicts cell nuclei . Basic arthropod body structure -- heart shown in red Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system . In this system , deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities ( sinuses ) . This blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one - way channels . The heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel , a cavity between the organs . The heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body , under the back and from the base of the head . Instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment , copper - based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter ; iron - based haemoglobin is used by only a few arthropods . In some other invertebrates such as earthworms , the circulatory system is not used to transport oxygen and so is much reduced , having no veins or arteries and consisting of two connected tubes . Oxygen travels by diffusion and there are five small muscular vessels that connect these vessels that contract at the front of the animals that can be thought of as `` hearts '' . Squids and other cephalopods have two `` gill hearts '' also known as branchial hearts , and one `` systemic heart '' . The brachial hearts have two atria and one ventricle each , and pump to the gills , whereas the systemic heart pumps to the body . Additional images The human heart viewed from the front The human heart viewed from behind The coronary circulation The human heart viewed from the front and from behind Frontal section of the human heart An anatomical specimen of the heart Heart illustration with circulatory system Notes Jump up ^ From the heart to the body Jump up ^ Arteries that contain deoxygenated blood , from the heart to the lungs Jump up ^ Supplying blood to the heart itself Jump up ^ From the body to the heart Jump up ^ Veins containing oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart Jump up ^ Veins that drain blood from the cardiac tissue itself Jump up ^ Note the muscles do not cause the valves to open . The pressure difference between the blood in the atria and the ventricles does this . Jump up ^ Depolarisation of the ventricles occurs concurrently , but is not significant enough to be detected on an ECG . 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Annual Review of Medicine . 53 ( 1 ) : 189 -- 205 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. med. 53.082901. 104050 . Jump up ^ Neubauer , Stefan ( 15 March 2007 ) . `` The Failing Heart -- An Engine Out of Fuel '' . New England Journal of Medicine . 356 ( 11 ) : 1140 -- 51 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJMra063052 . PMID 17360992 . ^ Jump up to : `` Heart '' . The Watkins Dictionary of Symbols . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78028 - 357 - 9 . Jump up ^ Rosner , Fred ( 1995 ) . Medicine in the Bible and the Talmud : selections from classical Jewish sources ( Augm . ed . ) . Hoboken , NJ : KTAV Pub . House . pp. 87 -- 96 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 88125 - 506 - 5 . Jump up ^ Britannica , Ib Archived 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. ; Slider , Ab , Egyptian heart and soul conception . The word was also transcribed by Wallis Budge as Ab . Jump up ^ Allen , James P. ( 2014 ) . Middle Egyptian : an introduction to the language and culture of hieroglyphs ( 3rd ed . ) . pp. 453 , 465 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 107 - 66328 - 2 . Jump up ^ Taylor , John H. ( 2001 ) . Death and the afterlife in ancient Egypt . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press . pp. 35 -- 38 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 79164 - 7 . Jump up ^ Xigui , Qiu ; Mattos , Gilbert L ( 2000 ) . Chinese writing = Wenzi - xue - gaiyao . Berkeley : Society for the Study of Early China ( u.a. ) p. 176 . ISBN 1 - 55729 - 071 - 7 . Jump up ^ MDBG online dictionary . `` 心 '' Archived 4 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ Rogers , Flaws , Bob ( 2007 ) . Statements of fact in traditional Chinese medicine ( 3rd ed . ) . Boulder , Colo. : Blue Poppy Press . p. 47 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 936185 - 52 - 1 . Jump up ^ Wiseman , Nigel and Ye , Feng ( 1998 ) . A practical dictionary of Chinese medicine ( 1st ed . ) . Brookline , Mass. : Paradigm Publications . p. 260 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 912111 - 54 - 4 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Sellmer , Sven ( 2004 ) , `` The Heart in the Ŗg veda '' , in Piotr Balcerowicz ; Marek Mejor , Essays in Indian Philosophy , Religion and Literature , Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers , pp. 71 -- 83 , ISBN 978 - 81 - 208 - 1978 - 8 , archived from the original on 6 December 2016 Jump up ^ Lanman , Charles Rockwell ( 1996 ) . A Sanskrit reader : text and vocabulary and notes ( repr ed . ) . Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass . p. 287 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 208 - 1363 - 2 . Jump up ^ Aristotle . On the Parts of Animals . book 3 , ch. 4 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2016 ( De partibus animalium ) Jump up ^ Galen , De usu partium corporis humani ( `` The Use of the Parts of the Human Body '' ) , book 6 . Jump up ^ Sandstrom , Alan ( 1991 ) Corn is Our Blood . University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 239 -- 40 . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 2403 - 2 . Jump up ^ Kurian G ( 2001 ) . `` Sacred Heart of Jesus '' . Nelson 's Dictionary of Christianity : The Authoritative Resource on the Christian World . Thomas Nelson Inc . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4185 - 3981 - 8 . Jump up ^ Murray , Tom Devonshire Jones ; Linda Murray ; Peter ( 2013 ) . `` Heart '' . The Oxford dictionary of christian art and architecture ( Second ed . ) . Corby : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 968027 - 6 . Jump up ^ Indonesia Magazine , 25 ( 1994 ) , p. 67 Jump up ^ Abdennour , Samia ( 2010 ) `` Firakh mahshiya wi mihammara '' , recipe 117 , Egyptian Cooking : And Other Middle Eastern Recipes , American University in Cairo Press . ISBN 977 - 424 - 926 - 7 . Jump up ^ Kennedy , Diana ( 2013 ) My Mexico : A Culinary Odyssey with Recipes , University of Texas Press . p. 100 . ISBN 0 - 292 - 74840 - X . Jump up ^ Sacharow , Alla ( 1993 ) Classic Russian Cuisine : A Magnificent Selection of More Than 400 Traditional Recipes . ISBN 1 - 55970 - 174 - 9 Jump up ^ Rombauer , Irma S. ; Becker , Marion Rombauer ; Becker , Ethan ( 1975 ) . The Joy of Cooking . The Bobbs - Merrill Company . p. 508 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 02 - 604570 - 4 . Jump up ^ Schwabe , Calvin W. ( 1979 ) Unmentionable Cuisine , University of Virginia Press , ISBN 0 - 8139 - 1162 - 1 , p. 96 Jump up ^ Rombauer , Irma S. and Rombauer Becker , Marion ( 1975 ) The Joy of Cooking , p. 508 Jump up ^ Torode , John ( 2009 ) Beef : And Other Bovine Matters , Taunton Press , ISBN 1 - 60085 - 126 - 6 , p. 230 Jump up ^ Milsom , Jennie ( 2009 ) The Connoisseur 's Guide to Meat . Sterling Publishing Company . p. 171 . ISBN 1 - 4027 - 7050 - 2 Jump up ^ Dobson , Geoffrey P ( August 2003 ) . `` On Being the Right Size : Heart Design , Mitochondrial Efficiency and Lifespan Potential '' . Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology. 30 ( 8 ) : 590 -- 97 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1440 - 1681.2003. 03876. x . Jump up ^ Hyman , L. Henrietta ( 15 September 1992 ) . Hyman 's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy . University of Chicago Press . pp. 448 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 87013 - 7 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Shuttleworth , Trevor J. , ed. ( 1988 ) . Physiology of Elasmobranch Fishes . Berlin , Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg . p. 3 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 642 - 73336 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Romer , Alfred Sherwood ; Parsons , Thomas S. ( 1977 ) . The Vertebrate Body . Philadelphia , PA : Holt - Saunders International . pp. 437 -- 42 . ISBN 0 - 03 - 910284 - X . Jump up ^ Osborne , June ( 1998 ) . The Ruby - Throated Hummingbird . University of Texas Press . p. 14 . ISBN 0 - 292 - 76047 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Grimm , Kurt A. ; Lamont , Leigh A. ; Tranquilli , William J. ; Greene , Stephen A. ; Robertson , Sheilah A. ( 16 March 2015 ) . Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia . John Wiley & Sons . p. 418 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 52620 - 0 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Colville , Thomas P. ; Bassert , Joanna M. ( 10 March 2015 ) . Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians . Elsevier Health Sciences . p. 547 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 323 - 35620 - 6 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Crigg , Gordon ; Johansen , Kjell ( 1987 ) . `` Cardiovascular Dynamics In Crocodylus Porosus Breathing Air And During Voluntary Aerobic Dives '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Comparative Physiology B. Springer - Verlag. 157 ( 3 ) : 381 -- 92 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00693365 . Archived from the original on 3 July 2012 . Retrieved 3 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Axelsson , Michael ; Craig , Franklin ; Löfman , Carl ; Nilsson , Stefan ; Crigg , Gordon ( 1996 ) . `` Dynamic Anatomical Study Of Cardiac Shunting In Crocodiles Using High - Resolution Angioscopy '' ( PDF ) . The Journal of Experimental Biology . The Company of Biologists Limited . 199 ( 2 ) : 359 -- 65 . PMID 9317958 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 3 March 2015 . Retrieved 3 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Jurd , Richard David ( January 2004 ) . Instant Notes Animal Biology . Garland Science . p. 134 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85996 - 325 - 8 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Ostrander , Gary Kent ( 2000 ) . The Laboratory Fish . Elsevier . pp. 154 -- 55 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 12 - 529650 - 2 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Farrell , Anthony P , ed. ( 1 June 2011 ) . Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology : From Genome to Environment . Stevens , E Don ; Cech , Jr. , Joseph J ; Richards , Jeffrey G. Academic Press . p. 2315 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 08 - 092323 - 9 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Shukla , J.P. Fish & Fisheries . Rastogi Publications . pp. 154 -- 55 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7133 - 800 - 9 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Solomon , Eldra ; Berg , Linda ; Martin , Diana W. ( 15 September 2010 ) . Biology . Cengage Learning . p. 939 . ISBN 1 - 133 - 17032 - 3 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Meet our animals '' . Smithsonian National Zoological Park . Archived from the original on 29 July 2016 . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Ladd , Prosser C ( 18 March 1991 ) . Comparative Animal Physiology , Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology . John Wiley & Sons . pp. 537 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 471 - 85767 - 9 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2016 . Bibliography Hall , John ( 2011 ) . Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology ( 12th ed . ) . Philadelphia , Pa. : Saunders / Elsevier . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4160 - 4574 - 8 . Longo , Dan ; Fauci , Anthony ; Kasper , Dennis ; Hauser , Stephen ; Jameson , J. ; Loscalzo , Joseph ( August 11 , 2011 ) . Harrison 's Principles of Internal Medicine ( 18 ed . ) . McGraw - Hill Professional . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 174889 - 6 . Susan Standring ; Neil R. Borley ; et al. , eds. ( 2008 ) . Gray 's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice ( 40th ed . ) . London : Churchill Livingstone . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2371 - 8 . Nicki R. Colledge ; Brian R. Walker ; Stuart H. Ralston , eds. ( 2010 ) . Davidson 's principles and practice of medicine ( 21st ed . ) . Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7020 - 3085 - 7 . External links Find more aboutHeartat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity What Is the Heart ? -- NIH Atlas of Human Cardiac Anatomy Dissection review of the anatomy of the Human Heart including vessels , internal and external features Prenatal human heart development Animal hearts : fish , squid ( hide ) Anatomy of the heart General Surface base apex sulci coronary interatrial anterior interventricular posterior interventricular borders right left Internal atria interatrial septum pectinate muscles terminal sulcus ventricles interventricular septum trabeculae carneae chordae tendineae papillary muscle valves cusps atrioventricular septum cardiac skeleton intervenous tubercle Chambers Right heart ( venae cavae , coronary sinus ) → right atrium ( atrial appendage , fossa ovalis , limbus of fossa ovalis , crista terminalis , valve of inferior vena cava , valve of coronary sinus ) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle ( infundibulum , moderator band / septomarginal trabecula ) → pulmonary valve → ( pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation ) Left heart ( pulmonary veins ) → left atrium ( atrial appendage ) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve ( aortic sinus ) → ( aorta and systemic circulation ) Layers Endocardium heart valves Myocardium Conduction system cardiac pacemaker SA node Bachmann 's bundle AV node bundle of His bundle branches Purkinje fibers Pericardial cavity pericardial sinus Pericardium fibrous pericardium sternopericardial ligaments serous pericardium epicardium / visceral layer fold of left vena cava Blood supply Circulatory system Coronary circulation Coronary arteries Physiology of the cardiovascular system Heart Cardiac output Cardiac cycle Cardiac output Heart rate Stroke volume Stroke volume End - diastolic volume End - systolic volume Afterload Preload Frank -- Starling law Cardiac function curve Venous return curve Wiggers diagram Pressure volume diagram Ultrasound Fractional shortening = ( End - diastolic dimension End - systolic dimension ) / End - diastolic dimension Aortic valve area calculation Ejection fraction Cardiac index Heart rate Cardiac pacemaker Chronotropic ( Heart rate ) Dromotropic ( Conduction velocity ) Inotropic ( Contractility ) Bathmotropic ( Excitability ) Lusitropic ( Relaxation ) Conduction Conduction system Cardiac electrophysiology Action potential cardiac atrial ventricular Effective refractory period Pacemaker potential Electrocardiography P wave PR interval QRS complex QT interval ST segment T wave U wave Hexaxial reference system Chamber pressure Central venous Right atrial ventricular pulmonary artery wedge Left atrial ventricular Aortic Other Ventricular remodeling Vascular system / Hemodynamics Blood flow Compliance Vascular resistance Pulse Perfusion Blood pressure Pulse pressure Systolic Diastolic Mean arterial pressure Jugular venous pressure Portal venous pressure Regulation of BP Baroreflex Kinin -- kallikrein system Renin -- angiotensin system Vasoconstrictors Vasodilators Autoregulation Myogenic mechanism Tubuloglomerular feedback Cerebral autoregulation Paraganglia Aortic body Carotid body Glomus cell GND : 4024632 - 2 NDL : 00571194 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heart&oldid=815299589 '' Categories : Heart Cardiac anatomy Organs ( anatomy ) Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected biographies of living people Use dmy dates from July 2013 Articles with hAudio microformats Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Articles containing video clips RTT Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Armãneashti অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bahasa Banjar Bân - lâm - gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Bikol Central Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue IsiXhosa Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Кырык мары Лакку Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála La . lojban . 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what's the purpose of the english bill of rights

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Bill_of_Rights_1689&oldid=864677801

Bill of Rights 1689 - wikipedia Bill of Rights 1689 The Bill of Rights Parliament of England Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown . Citation 1 William & Mary Sess 2 c 2 Dates Royal assent 16 December 1689 Commencement 1689 Status : Amended Revised text of statute as amended The Bill of Rights Created 1689 Location Parliamentary Archives Author ( s ) Parliament of England Purpose Assert the rights of Parliament and the individual , and ensure a Protestant political supremacy The Bill of Rights , also known as the English Bill of Rights , is an Act of the Parliament of England that sets out certain basic civil rights and clarifies who would be next to inherit the Crown . It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689 , inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England . The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament , including the requirement for regular parliaments , free elections , and freedom of speech in Parliament . It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the right of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law . Furthermore , the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England . These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they quickly became popular in England . It also sets out -- or , in the view of its drafters , restates -- certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people , as represented in Parliament . In the United Kingdom , the Bill of Rights is further accompanied by Magna Carta , the Petition of Right , the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution . A separate but similar document , the Claim of Right Act 1689 , applies in Scotland . The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights . Along with the Act of Settlement 1701 , the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms . Following the Perth Agreement in 2011 , legislation amending both of them came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 . Contents 1 Background 1.1 Glorious Revolution 1.2 Declaration of Right 2 Provisions of the Act 3 Date and title 4 Augmentation and effect 5 Legal status 5.1 United Kingdom 5.2 Australia 5.3 Canada 5.4 New Zealand 5.5 Republic of Ireland 6 Modern recognition 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Background ( edit ) During the 17th century , there was renewed interest in Magna Carta . The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects . The English Civil War ( 1642 -- 1651 ) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament , during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647 . Subsequently , the Protectorate ( 1653 -- 1659 ) and the English Restoration ( 1660 ) restored more autocratic rule although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 , which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence . Glorious Revolution ( edit ) Main article : Glorious Revolution Objecting to the policies of King James II of England ( James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland ) , a group of English Parliamentarians invited the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange - Nassau ( William of Orange ) to overthrow the King . William 's successful invasion with a Dutch fleet and army led to James fleeing to France . In December 1688 , William took over the provisional government by appointment of the peers of the realm , as was the legal right of the latter in circumstances when the King was incapacitated , and summoned an assembly of certain members of parliament . This assembly called for an English Convention Parliament to be elected , which convened on 22 January 1689 . Declaration of Right ( edit ) Main article : Declaration of Right , 1689 An 18th century engraving , based on a drawing by Samuel Wale , of the Bill of Rights being presented to William III and Mary II The proposal to draw up a statement of rights and liberties and James 's violation of them was first made on 29 January 1689 in the House of Commons , with members arguing that the House `` can not answer it to the nation or Prince of Orange till we declare what are the rights invaded '' and that William `` can not take it ill if we make conditions to secure ourselves for the future '' in order to `` do justice to those who sent us hither '' . On 2 February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23 Heads of Grievances , which the Commons approved and added some of their own . However , on 4 February the Commons decided to instruct the committee to differentiate between `` such of the general heads , as are introductory of new laws , from those that are declaratory of ancient rights '' . On 7 February the Commons approved this revised Declaration of Right , and on 8 February instructed the committee to put into a single text the Declaration ( with the heads which were `` introductory of new laws '' removed ) , the resolution of 28 January and the Lords ' proposal for a revised oath of allegiance . It passed the Commons without division . On 13 February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right , and the Marquess of Halifax , in the name of all the estates of the realm , asked William and Mary to accept the throne . William replied for his wife and himself : `` We thankfully accept what you have offered us '' . They then went in procession to the great gate at Whitehall . The Garter King at Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England , France , and Ireland , whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal , with the Bishop of London preaching the sermon . They were crowned on 11 April , swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament . The Coronation Oath Act 1688 had provided a new coronation oath , whereby the monarchs were to `` solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England , and the dominions thereunto belonging , according to the statutes in parliament agreed on , and the laws and customs of the same '' . They were also to maintain the laws of God , the true profession of the Gospel , and the Protestant Reformed faith established by law . This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch . The previous oath required the monarch to rule based on `` the laws and customs ... granted by the Kings of England '' . Provisions of the Act ( edit ) The Declaration of Right was enacted in an Act of Parliament , the Bill of Rights 1689 , which received the Royal Assent in December 1689 . The Act asserted `` certain ancient rights and liberties '' by declaring that : the pretended power of suspending the laws and dispensing with laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal ; the commission for ecclesiastical causes is illegal ; levying taxes without grant of Parliament is illegal ; it is the right of the subjects to petition the king , and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal ; keeping a standing army in time of peace , unless it be with consent of Parliament , is against law ; Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law ; election of members of Parliament ought to be free ; the freedom of speech and debates or proceedings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament ; excessive bail ought not to be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted ; jurors in trials for high treason ought to be freeholders ; promises of fines and forfeitures before conviction are illegal and void ; for redress of all grievances , and for the amending , strengthening and preserving of the laws , Parliaments ought to be held frequently . The Act declared James ' flight from England following the Glorious Revolution to be an abdication of the throne . It listed twelve of James 's policies by which James designed to `` endeavour to subvert and extirpate the protestant religion , and the laws and liberties of this kingdom '' . These were : by assuming and exercising a power of dispensing with and suspending of laws and the execution of laws without consent of Parliament ; by prosecuting the Seven Bishops ; by establishing of the court of commissioners for ecclesiastical causes ; by levying taxes for the use of the Crown by pretence of prerogative as if the same was granted by Parliament ; by raising and keeping a standing army within this kingdom in time of peace without consent of Parliament ; by causing Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law ; by violating the freedom of election of members to serve in Parliament ; by prosecutions in the Court of King 's Bench for matters and causes cognizable only in Parliament , and by divers other arbitrary and illegal courses ; by employing unqualified persons on juries in trials , and jurors in trials for high treason which were not freeholders ; by imposing excessive bail on persons committed in criminal cases against the laws made for the liberty of the subjects ; by imposing excessive fines and illegal and cruel punishments ; by making several grants and promises made of fines and forfeitures before any conviction or judgment against the persons upon whom the same were to be levied ; all which are utterly and directly contrary to the known laws and statutes and freedom of this realm . In a prelude to the Act of Settlement to come twelve years later , the Bill of Rights barred Roman Catholics from the throne of England as `` it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince '' ; thus William III and Mary II were named as the successors of James II and that the throne would pass from them first to Mary 's heirs , then to her sister , Princess Anne of Denmark and her heirs ( and , thereafter , to any heirs of William by a later marriage ) . Date and title ( edit ) The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688 . This convention arises from the legal fiction ( prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament ( Commencement ) Act 1793 ) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed . The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 ( New Style ) , or , under the Old Style calendar in use at the time , 13 February 1688 . Under the Short Titles Act 1896 , the Bill was given the official short title of `` The Bill of Rights '' , without a calendar year suffix . Augmentation and effect ( edit ) See also : Glorious Revolution § Legacy The Bill of Rights was later supplemented by the Act of Settlement 1701 ( which was agreed to by the Parliament of Scotland as part of the Treaty of Union ) . The Act of Settlement altered the line of succession to the throne laid out in the Bill of Rights . However , both the Bill of Rights and the Claim of Right contributed a great deal to the establishment of the concept of parliamentary sovereignty and the curtailment of the powers of the monarch . Leading , ultimately , to the establishment of constitutional monarchy , while also ( along with the penal laws ) settling the political and religious turmoil that had convulsed Scotland , England and Ireland in the 17th century . The Bill of Rights ( 1689 ) reinforced the Petition of Right ( 1628 ) and the Habeas Corpus Act ( 1679 ) by codifying certain rights and liberties . Described by William Blackstone as Fundamental Laws of England , the rights expressed in these Acts became associated with the idea of the rights of Englishmen . The Bill of Rights directly influenced the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights , which in turn influenced the Declaration of Independence . Although not a comprehensive statement of civil and political liberties , the Bill of Rights stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in the United Kingdom and a model for later , more general , statements of rights ; these include the United States Bill of Rights , the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights . For example , as with the Bill of Rights 1689 , the US Constitution prohibits excessive bail and `` cruel and unusual punishment '' . Similarly , `` cruel , inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment '' is banned under Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights . Legal status ( edit ) The Bill of Rights remains in statute and continues to be cited in legal proceedings in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms , particularly Article 9 on parliamentary freedom of speech . Following the Perth Agreement in 2011 , legislation amending the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement 1701 came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 which changed the laws of succession to the British throne . Part of the Bill of Rights remains in statute in the Republic of Ireland . United Kingdom ( edit ) The Bill of Rights applies in England and Wales ; it was enacted in the Kingdom of England which at the time included Wales . Scotland has its own legislation , the Claim of Right Act 1689 , passed before the Act of Union between England and Scotland . There are doubts as to whether , or to what extent , the Bill of Rights applies in Northern Ireland . On 21 July 1995 a libel case brought by Neil Hamilton ( then a member of parliament ) against The Guardian was stopped after Justice May ruled that the Bill of Rights ' prohibition on the courts ' ability to question parliamentary proceedings would prevent The Guardian from obtaining a fair hearing . Section 13 of the Defamation Act 1996 , was subsequently enacted to permit MPs to waive their parliamentary privilege and thus cite their own speeches if relevant to litigation . Following the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum in 2016 , the Bill of Rights was quoted in a court ruling on a legal challenge seeking a judicial declaration that triggering EU exit must first be authorised by an act of Parliament . Australia ( edit ) The ninth article , regarding parliamentary freedom of speech , is actively used in Australia . Canada ( edit ) The article on parliamentary freedom of speech is in active use in Canada . New Zealand ( edit ) The Bill of Rights was invoked in New Zealand in the 1976 case of Fitzgerald v Muldoon and Others , which centred on the purporting of newly appointed Prime Minister Robert Muldoon that he would advise the Governor - General to abolish a superannuation scheme established by the New Zealand Superannuation Act , 1974 , without new legislation . Muldoon felt that the dissolution would be immediate and he would later introduce a bill in parliament to retroactively make the abolition legal . This claim was challenged in court and the Chief Justice declared that Muldoon 's actions were illegal as they had violated Article 1 of the Bill of Rights , which provides `` that the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority ... is illegal . '' Republic of Ireland ( edit ) The Act was retained in the Republic of Ireland although sections were repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 2007 section 2 ( 2 ) ( a ) , and Part 2 of Schedule 1 . Section 2 ( 3 ) of that Act repealed : all of the Preamble down to `` Upon which Letters Elections having been accordingly made '' the seventh paragraph `` Subjects ' Arms . That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law . '' all words from `` And they doe Claime Demand and Insist '' down to , but not including , section 2 , bars Roman Catholics from Crown or Government , succession et cetera . Modern recognition ( edit ) Two special designs of commemorative two pound coins were issued in the United Kingdom in 1989 to celebrate the tercentenary of the Glorious Revolution . One referred to the Bill of Rights and the other to the Claim of Right . Both depict the Royal Cypher of William and Mary and the mace of the House of Commons , one also shows a representation of the St Edward 's Crown and the other the Crown of Scotland . In May 2011 , the Bill of Rights was inscribed in UNESCO 's UK Memory of the World Register recognizing that : All the main principles of the Bill of Rights are still in force today , and the Bill of Rights continues to be cited in legal cases in the UK and in Commonwealth countries . It has a primary place in a wider national historical narrative of documents which established the rights of Parliament and set out universal civil liberties , starting with Magna Carta in 1215 . It also has international significance , as it was a model for the US Bill of Rights 1789 , and its influence can be seen in other documents which establish rights of human beings , such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man , the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights . As part of the Parliament in the Making programme , the Bill of Rights was on display at the Houses of Parliament in February 2015 and at the British Library from March through September 2015 . See also ( edit ) Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689 English Civil War Financial Revolution History of liberalism Toleration Act 1689 Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Act is cited as `` The Bill of Rights '' in the United Kingdom , as authorised by section 1 of , and the First Schedule to , the Short Titles Act 1896 . Owing to the repeal of those provisions , it is now authorised by section 19 ( 2 ) of the Interpretation Act 1978 . In the Republic of Ireland , it is cited as `` The Bill of Rights 1688 '' , as authorised by section 1 of , and the First Schedule to , the Short Titles Act 1896 ( as amended by section 5 ( a ) of the Statute Law Revision Act 2007 ) . The short title of this Act was previously `` The Bill of Rights '' . Jump up ^ i.e. ignoring Jump up ^ Arguably , this right is subject to continuing derogation in modern times ; see , for example , Armed Forces Act and discussion of the same in Military Covenant . Jump up ^ Section Seven of the Virginia Declaration of Rights reads , That all power of suspending laws , or the execution of laws , by any authority , without consent of the representatives of the people , is injurious to their rights and ought not to be exercised . which strongly echoes the first two `` ancient rights and liberties '' asserted in the Bill of Rights 1689 : That the pretended power of suspending the laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal ; That the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority , as it hath been assumed and exercised of late , is illegal ; And the Virginia Declaration 's Section Nine , That excessive bail ought not to be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted . is borrowed word for word from the Bill of Rights 1689 . Jump up ^ In Quebec the validity of the Canadian parliament 's legislation is under judicial review . Blanchfield , Mike ( 22 July 2013 ) . `` Quebec government to mount legal challenge to new royal succession law '' . National Post . Jump up ^ The United Kingdom consists of four countries and three distinct legal systems : England and Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland . These jurisdictions have particular legal considerations of their own , arising from differences in English law , Scots law and Northern Ireland law . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The key landmark is the Bill of Rights ( 1689 ) , which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown ... The Bill of Rights ( 1689 ) then settled the primacy of Parliament over the monarch 's prerogatives , providing for the regular meeting of Parliament , free elections to the Commons , free speech in parliamentary debates , and some basic human rights , most famously freedom from ' cruel or unusual punishment ' . `` Britain 's unwritten constitution '' . British Library . Retrieved 27 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Schwoerer 1990 , pp. 531 -- 548 . Jump up ^ Maurice Adams ; Anne Meuwese ; Ernst Hirsch Ballin ( 2017 ) . Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law : Bridging Idealism and Realism . Cambridge University Press . p. 97 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ `` From legal document to public myth : Magna Carta in the 17thth century '' . The British Library . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 16 Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta : Magna Carta in the 17th century '' . The Society of Antiquaries of London . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Origins and growth of Parliament '' . The National Archives . Retrieved 7 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rise of Parliament '' . The National Archives . Retrieved 7 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Putney debates '' . The British Library . Retrieved 22 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Anon. 2010 , pp. 2 -- 4 . Jump up ^ `` Bill of Rights '' . British Library . Retrieved 23 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Horwitz 1977 , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Carpenter 1956 , pp. 145 -- 146 . Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , pp. 37 -- 39 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Convention and Bill of Rights '' . UK Parliament . Retrieved 2 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Thatcher 1907 , pp. 10 . Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , pp. 28 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , p. 26 . Jump up ^ Williams 1960 , p. 27 . Jump up ^ `` Bill of Rights ( 1688 ) '' . legislation.gov.uk . note X1 . Retrieved 14 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Act of Settlement '' . UK Parliament . Retrieved 8 November 2014 . Jump up ^ This vigorous assertion of the rights of the subject meant that the Bill of Rights is often seen as parallel in importance with Magna Carta itself . `` The Bill of Rights '' . British Library . Retrieved 27 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Although the Bill of Rights attacked the abuse of prerogative power rather than prerogative power itself , it had the virtue of enshrining in statute what many regarded as ancient rights and liberties . However , some historians maintain that a more profound change in the relationship between sovereign and Parliament emerged as a result of the financial settlement that Parliament negotiated with William and Mary . `` Rise of Parliament '' . The National Archives . Retrieved 22 August 2010 . Jump up ^ The earliest , and perhaps greatest , victory for liberalism was achieved in England . The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th , and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and , eventually , of the House of Commons . What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law ( although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism ) . This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages . What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced . Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects ... However , as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights , the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property ( in the narrow sense ) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth . The `` rights of man '' enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England , notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789 . `` Constitutionalism : America & Beyond '' . Bureau of International Information Programs . U.S. Department of State . Archived from the original on 24 October 2014 . Retrieved 30 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Walker 2009 , p. 2 : `` thereby establishing a constitutional monarchy '' . Jump up ^ Billias 2011 , p. 54 . Jump up ^ Maier 1997 , pp. 126 -- 28 . ^ Jump up to : All the main principles of the Bill of Rights are still in force today , and the Bill of Rights continues to be cited in legal cases in the UK and in Commonwealth countries . It has a primary place in a wider national historical narrative of documents which established the rights of Parliament and set out universal civil liberties , starting with Magna Carta in 1215 . It also has international significance , as it was a model for the US Bill of Rights 1789 , and its influence can be seen in other documents which establish rights of human beings , such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man , the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights . `` 2011 UK Memory of the World Register '' . United Kingdom National Commission for UNESCO . 23 May 2011 . Retrieved 4 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Facts About the Bill of Rights on Its 220th Anniversary '' . History.com. 15 December 2011 . Archived from the original on 4 October 2013 . Retrieved 29 September 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Lock 1989 , pp. 540 -- 561 . Jump up ^ Toporoski , Richard ( Summer 1996 ) . `` Monarchy Canada : The Invisible Crown '' . Archived from the original on 17 June 1997 . Jump up ^ `` A Guide to the UK Legal System '' . Hauser Global Law School Program . New York University School of Law . November 2005 . Retrieved 16 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Legal System of the United Kingdom '' . The Chartered Institute of Legal Executives . Archived from the original on 13 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Alexander Horne ; Oonagh Gay ( 21 May 2014 ) . `` Ending the Hamilton Affair ? '' . UK Constitutional Law Association Blog . Retrieved 19 March 2015 . Jump up ^ This subordination of the Crown ( i.e. the executive government ) to law is the foundation of the rule of law in the United Kingdom . It has its roots well before the war between the Crown and Parliament in the seventeenth century but was decisively confirmed in the settlement arrived at with the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and has been recognised ever since , Sir Edward Coke reports the considered view of himself and the senior judges of the time in The Case of Proclamations ( 1610 ) 12 Co . Rep. 74 , that : the King by his proclamation or other ways can not change any part of the common law , or statute law , or the customs of the realm '' and that : the King hath no prerogative , but that which the law of the land allows him . '' The position was confirmed in the first two parts of Section 1 of the Bill of Rights 1688 : Suspending power -- That the pretended power of suspending of laws or the execution of laws by regall authority without consent of Parlyament is illegall . Late dispensing power -- That the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regall authoritie as it hath beene assumed and exercised of late is illegall . '' `` Miller & Anor , R ( On the Application Of ) v The Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union ( 2016 ) EWHC 2768 ( Admin ) '' . England and Wales High Court ( Administrative Court ) Decisions. 3 November 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Brexit court ruling : Your questions answered '' . BBC . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Constitutional Setting '' . States Services Commission , New Zealand . Archived from the original on 16 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The legitimacy of judicial review of executive decision - making '' . New Zealand Law Society . Archived from the original on 4 February 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Statute Law Revision Act 2007 Section 2 '' . Irish Statute Book . Jump up ^ `` Statute Law Revision Act 2007 Schedule 1 '' . Irish Statute Book . Jump up ^ `` Two Pound Coin '' . The Royal Mint . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Life , death and everything in between '' . UK Parliament . 23 May 2011 . Retrieved 4 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta & Parliament Exhibition '' . UK Parliament . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Magna Carta : Law , Liberty , Legacy '' . The British Library . Retrieved 24 January 2015 . Bibliography ( edit ) Anon. ( 2010 ) . `` The Glorious Revolution '' . Factsheet General Series . G4 . House of Commons Information Office . Billias , George Athan ( 2011 ) . American constitutionalism heard round the world , 1776 - 1989 : A global perspective . New York : New York University Press . ISBN 9780814725177 -- via Google Books . Blick , Andrew ( 2015 ) . `` Magna Carta and contemporary constitutional change '' . History and Policy . Carpenter , Edward ( 1956 ) . The Protestant Bishop . Being the Life of Henry Compton , 1632 -- 1713 . Bishop of London . London : Longmans , Green and Company . OCLC 1919768 . Horwitz , Henry ( 1977 ) . Parliament , Policy and Politics in the Reign of William III . Manchester University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7190 - 0661 - 6 . Lock , Geoffrey ( 1989 ) . `` The 1689 Bill of Rights '' . Political Studies . 37 ( 4 ) : 540 -- 561 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 9248.1989. tb00288. x . Maier , Pauline ( 1997 ) . American Scripture : Making the Declaration of Independence . New York : Knopf . ISBN 0 - 679 - 45492 - 6 . Schwoerer , Lois G. ( 1990 ) . `` Locke , Lockean Ideas , and the Glorious Revolution '' . Journal of the History of Ideas . University of Pennsylvania Press . 51 ( 4 ) . JSTOR 2709645 . Thatcher , Oliver Joseph , ed. ( 1907 ) . The library of original sources . University Research Extension . Walker , Aileen ; Gay , Oonagh ; Maer , Lucinda ( 2009 ) . `` Bill of Rights 1689 '' . House of Commons Library . Williams , E.N. ( 1960 ) . The Eighteenth - Century Constitution . 1688 -- 1815 . Cambridge University Press . OCLC 1146699 . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Bill of Rights 1689 Wikimedia Commons has media related to English Bill of Rights of 1689 . Text of the Bill of Rights Yale Law School Law Library Text of the Bill of Rights 1689 as in force today ( including any amendments ) within the United Kingdom , from legislation.gov.uk `` The Parliamentary Archives '' . holds the original document Succession to the British throne Legislation Succession Act 1533 Succession Act 1536 Succession Act 1543 Coronation Oath Act 1688 Bill of Rights 1689 Act of Settlement 1701 Act of Union 1706 Accession Declaration Act 1910 Perth Agreement 2011 Succession to the Crown Act 2013 Regency Acts United Kingdom legislation Pre-Parliamentary legislation List of English statutes Charter of Liberties Magna Carta Acts of Parliament by states preceding the Kingdom of Great Britain Parliament of England to 1483 1485 -- 1601 1603 -- 1641 Interregnum ( 1642 -- 1660 ) 1660 -- 1699 1700 -- 1706 Parliament of Scotland to 1707 Acts of Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain 1707 -- 1719 1720 -- 1739 1740 -- 1759 1760 -- 1779 1780 -- 1800 Acts of the Parliament of Ireland to 1700 1701 -- 1800 Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1801 -- 1819 1820 -- 1839 1840 -- 1859 1860 -- 1879 1880 -- 1899 1900 -- 1919 1920 -- 1939 1940 -- 1959 1960 -- 1979 1980 -- 1999 2000 to date Halsbury 's Statutes Legislation.gov.uk Short titles relating to the European Union ( formally European Communities ) 1972 to date Church of England measures List Church of England Assembly ( Powers ) Act 1919 Legislation of devolved institutions Acts of the Scottish Parliament List Acts and Measures of the National Assembly for Wales List Acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland Orders in Council 1994 to date for Northern Ireland 1972 -- 2009 Secondary legislation United Kingdom statutory instruments Scottish statutory instruments Acts of Sederunt Acts of Adjournal Constitution of Canada List of constitutional documents Quasi-constitutional law Pre-Confederation constitutional documents Iroquois constitution Mi'kmaq constitution Constitution of New France Royal Proclamation of 1763 Quebec Act of 1774 Constitutional Act of 1791 Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada ( 1838 ) Report on the Affairs of British North America ( 1839 ) Act of Union 1840 Confederation Charlottetown Conference , 1864 Quebec Conference , 1864 Quebec Resolutions London Conference , 1866 Fathers of Confederation Constitution Act , 1867 Canadian federalism Preamble Section 121 Section 125 Powers under Section 91 Peace , order , and good government Trade and commerce Criminal law Matters excepted from s . 92 Powers under Section 92 Licensing Works and undertakings Property and civil rights Administration of justice Fines and penalties for provincial laws Matters of a local or private nature Amendments and other constitutional documents 1867 -- 1982 British North America Acts , 1867 -- 1982 Manitoba Act , 1870 Alberta Act , 1905 Saskatchewan Act , 1905 Statute of Westminster , 1931 Newfoundland Act , 1949 Patriation Fulton -- Favreau formula Victoria Charter Kitchen Accord / Night of the Long Knives Constitution Act , 1982 Part I -- Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Preamble 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16.1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Part II -- Rights of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada 35 Part III -- Equalization and regional disparities 36 Part VII -- General 52 59 Conventions At Her Majesty 's pleasure Cabinet collective responsibility Disallowance and reservation Responsible government Fusion of powers Queen - 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who failed the boards in grey's anatomy

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=April_Kepner&oldid=843385541

April Kepner - wikipedia April Kepner Jump to : navigation , search April Kepner Grey 's Anatomy character The Season 9 Gallery Picture of Sarah Drew as Dr. April Kepner First appearance `` Invasion '' ( 6.05 ) October 15 , 2009 ( as recurring cast ) `` With You I 'm Born Again '' ( 7.01 ) September 23 , 2010 ( as main cast ) Last appearance `` All of Me '' ( 14.24 ) May 17 , 2018 Created by Shonda Rhimes Portrayed by Sarah Drew Information Nickname ( s ) Virgin Mary Apes Shepherd 's flunkey Ducky Dud Keps The Machine The Party Occupation Attending trauma surgeon ( former ) Interim Chief of General Surgery ( former ) Title M.D. F.A.C.S. Family Joe Kepner ( father ) Karen Kepner ( mother ) Libby Kepner ( sister ) Kimmie Kepner ( sister ) Alice Kepner ( sister ) Spouse ( s ) Jackson Avery ( divorced ) Matthew Taylor ( ex-fiance , current husband ) Children Samuel Norbert Avery ( son , with Jackson ; deceased ) Harriet Kepner - Avery ( daughter , with Jackson ) Ruby Taylor ( step - daughter ) Religion Christianity April Kepner M.D. , is a fictional character from the ABC ' s hit medical drama Grey 's Anatomy . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes and is portrayed by actress Sarah Drew . She was introduced in the episode `` Invasion '' as a surgical resident from Mercy West Hospital who joins the staff at Seattle Grace Mercy West after the two hospitals merge to compensate for the absence of some of the central cast members , and was created to be disliked by her colleagues . The character was originally set to appear in two episodes but Drew 's contract was extended to the remainder of the sixth season , with her becoming a series regular in the seventh season . The character 's main storylines involved her professional struggles , her religious beliefs , and her relationship with her best friend and now ex-husband Jackson Avery . The character 's story concludes with the fourteenth season . Although initially focusing on neurosurgery during her residency due to her crush on Derek Shepherd , Kepner finally settles on trauma surgery as a specialty . After failing her boards , Kepner departs but returns as a surgical attending when Chief Owen Hunt offers her job back . ABC noted her determination , thoroughness , and intelligence as her main traits , while her insecurity , over-eagerness and vulnerability were highlighted as her main weakness . The character received mixed reviews from critics initially , but later praise was affirmed from her character growth . Contents ( hide ) 1 Storylines 2 Development 2.1 Casting and creation 2.2 Characterization 2.3 Relationships 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Storylines ( edit ) hide This section has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably . Please consider splitting content into sub-articles , condensing it , or adding or removing subheadings . ( November 2014 ) This section describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( November 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) April Kepner was born in Columbus , Ohio on April 23 , 1982 . Her mother Karen is a teacher and her father Joe is a farmer . She is the second of four daughters ; her sisters are Libby , Kimmie , and Alice . Kepner is initially a surgical resident at Mercy West Hospital . She joins the staff at Seattle Grace Mercy West after the merger of the two hospitals , alongside Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) , Reed Adamson ( Nora Zehetner ) , and Charles Percy ( Robert Baker ) . Kepner is first shown to possess a red diary , in which she writes all her feelings and thoughts which is stolen by Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) . Grey uses the personal information written in the notebook to unnerve and blackmail Kepner but later apologizes . After she made a mistake that led to a patient 's death , she is fired . However , Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) rehires her when he becomes the new Chief of Surgery . As she is not confident anymore , she spends her time doing errands for Shepherd and develops a crush on him , earning her the nickname `` Shepherd 's flunky '' . In the season six finale , she discovers the body of her best friend Reed Adamson , who has been shot . She later runs into the shooter , Gary Clark , who lets her go after she tells him about her life after remembering a technique she says she learned from Oprah . Following the shooting , Kepner and Avery move into Meredith Grey 's ( Ellen Pompeo ) house . Kepner reveals that she is a virgin because she is a Christian and made a promise to God to stay a virgin until she was married , she also states that she thinks men find her annoying after yelling at Alex , Meredith , Lexie and Jackson about secrets , she claims that the fact that she is a 28 year old virgin is not a drinks conversation . She shows potential as a trauma surgeon during a trauma drill . She develops feelings for Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) who almost makes her lose her virginity . When Avery , now her best friend finds out about this , he assaults Karev . Later , Kepner agrees to go on a date with Robert Stark , believing him to have a good side . Her fellow residents make fun of her which prompts her to break up with him . April also impresses Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) and she is ultimately granted the position of Chief Resident in the season seven finale . Kepner initially struggles with her new status as her fellow doctors do not listen to her and do not take her seriously . As the end of the fifth year of residency is near , the surgical residents , including Kepner , prepare for their boards exams for the different fellowships they plan on joining . The night before taking the exam , April loses her virginity to Avery . This causes her to re-evaluate her faith during her Boards Exams , making the examiners feel uncomfortable . It is revealed that she is the only one out of the residents to have failed her Boards Exams . She receives phone calls from other hospital retracting their offers of fellowships and is laid off from Seattle Grace . Although Avery has true feelings for her , she pushes him away because she believes that he feels guilty for having sex with her . As a celebration of the conclusion of their residencies , the former chief of surgery Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) organizes his annual dinner for them . The eighth season ends with Kepner , Avery , Karev and Webber waiting for Meredith and Yang , who are victims of an aviation accident . Months later , Hunt goes to visit April , who had moved back to her parents ' farm in Moline , Ohio . In the wake of the tragic aviation accident , he offers her an attending position at the hospital . When she gets back to Seattle Grace , she resumes her sexual relationship with Avery , despite claiming she wants to re-virginise. April has a pregnancy scare and Jackson promises that he will be there every step of the way , even marry her , if she tests positive . When April finds out that she is not pregnant , she is overjoyed , but inadvertently hurts Jackson 's feelings by saying that they dodged a bullet , seemingly thrilled that they do n't have to get married anymore . Jackson breaks up with April . April suggests to Jackson that they each take a date to Bailey 's wedding in an attempt to move on . Jackson takes intern Stephanie ; the two bond and eventually have sex . When Jackson tells April that he is sleeping with somebody else , she is visibly crushed and tells him that they ca n't be friends again until she has gotten over him . In the next episode , a very attractive paramedic named Matthew ( Justin Bruening ) asks April out for coffee and they start seeing each other . Shortly afterwards she turns to Jackson for dating advice and it is hinted that Jackson is still in love with her when he shows signs of jealousy but Jackson overcomes his jealousy and they then re-establish their friendship . She confesses to Matthew that she is not a virgin anymore as she led him to believe and he breaks up with her because she lied to him . However , in the next episode , Matthew forgives April and they get back together . He asks her to marry him through a flash mob and she says yes . In the season 9 finale , April thinks she lost Jackson when a bus blew up and tells him she loves him , but he only has a few injuries . She remains engaged to Matthew while Jackson dates Stephanie . At the wedding , Jackson realizes he still loves April and stands up professing his love . Jackson and April are seen driving off together at the start of the following episode and later it is revealed that they have secretly eloped . At first April and Jackson do not tell their friends about their marriage , but later they do because of a new rule at the hospital . Catherine Avery is not at all happy about her son 's elopement with April , and the fact that there was n't a prenuptial agreement . They soon make up after April signs a postnuptial agreement . Jackson and April soon hit a rough patch when they realize that they have different views in the way their children should be raised religious . Not long after their fight , April realizes she is pregnant . April and Jackson 's baby is diagnosed during pregnancy with Osteogenesis Imperfecta type 2 , and learn that the baby will not survive long after birth . Jackson believes that termination is the best option , however April would rather give birth to the baby knowing it will not live very long . They scheduled an induction for the next day , at the beginning of the appointment they are asked to sign their baby 's death certificate , which is too hard for the couple to bear . April does n't sign the papers and returns to work the same day praying for a miracle , while at work she has a heart to heart with a lady who lost her fiancé the night before . They decide to give birth to the baby via induction at 24 weeks gestation having it baptized right then . She gave birth to Samuel Norbert Avery , and he died a few hours after birth . In the following weeks after Samuel 's death , April and Jackson find it hard to be around each other and be intimate with one another . After April tries to seduce Jackson in a supply closet , Jackson asks if she is sure she wants this so soon after the death of their son , leaving April to storm out in anger . In the series 11 finale April decides to join Owen Hunt for 3 months as a trauma surgeon with the army ; this not being well received by Jackson . But after April states she needs this in order to grieve Samuel - Jackson lets her leave . Over the following months April lengthens her stay in the army , this having a strain on her and Jackson 's marriage as Jackson can rarely get a hold of her or talk to her over the phone . On Christmas Day after already being away for some time , April announces to Jackson while on video chat that she is staying for a longer service period , Jackson becomes angry with April but the conversation is cut short by sounds of gunfire and explosions from April 's base camp , leaving her to terminate the call ; meanwhile Jackson is unsure whether his wife is hurt or if she is ever coming home . On Valentine 's Day April returns to the hospital surprising Jackson , and they embrace in the foyer . In Season 12 , April and Jackson go through divorce proceedings started by Jackson . The morning before they sign the divorce papers , April discovers that she is expecting a second baby . She does not inform Jackson , and he is told by Arizona Robbins , which leads to additional tension . After Catherine Avery convinces Jackson to fight for full custody of his unborn child , April takes out a restraining order against him . The Averys ' lawyer asks for all documentation of their marriage , when reading through their wedding vows , Jackson realizes that they should fix the situation for their child . He and April decide to raise their son or daughter together as friends . Complications arise when April needs a c - section and Ben Warren has to do it without anesthesia or other medications . In Seasons 13 and 14 , April faces a crisis of faith as she begins to believe that good people get punished and bad people get good things . As a result , she goes into a dark place and uses partying and sex to mask her deep - rooted pain . However , mid-Season 14 , she encounters a terminal patient who helps April reaffirm her faith . In Season 14 , April starts seeing Matthew again , in spite of their broken engagement . near the end of season 14 , April and Matthew ended up in a car accident , where April almost dies . She had a bad case of hypothermia , and ended up surviving . In the season 14 finale April and Matthew get married . Development ( edit ) Casting and creation ( edit ) `` I think it 's a really fun character and , of course , getting to be on that show is wonderful and exciting for any actress in Hollywood . '' Drew on her role in Grey 's Anatomy . Drew was cast in late September 2009 and first appeared on the show in the fifth episode of the sixth season as one of the residents from the Mercy West Hospital after its merger with Seattle Grace . Drew was brought aboard Grey 's Anatomy after former collaborations with the Series ' producer and creator Shonda Rhimes ; she was formally featured as a guest in two episodes of Private Practice in 2008 and was one of the main cast in Rhimes television pilot Inside the Box ( 2009 ) which was eventually not picked up by ABC . Her casting came after the absence of some of the central cast members , notably Katherine Heigl departure after her maternity leave and Ellen Pompeo 's absence due to pregnancy . Drew was originally contracted to guest star in a multi-episodes story arc where her character would be eventually fired from the series after two episodes . She explained : `` I came on to the show and I was told from day one that I was only going to be there for two episodes . I did not expect anything beyond that . The morning my firing episode aired , my agent got a call that they were talking about a contract and I was just completely floored . '' However she was promoted to a series regular on June 9 , 2010 for the seventh season of the show . Rhimes said in the wake of the news : `` Kepner has really been folded into the group '' of Grey 's Anatomy adding `` It 'll depend on what the studio and the network decide to do with those actors , but I fully advocate to have ( the characters ) '' . Drew received the call for her promotion the morning after the sixth episode of season six was telecast on October 29 , 2009 . She described the call as a `` totally happy surprise '' . Characterization ( edit ) `` I love the idea that there 's this person that everybody kind of hates , yet they all have to deal with , ( and even ) lean on . She is one of them , even though they find her terribly annoying , and I think that that 's sort of charming . '' Drew 's character has been called intelligent , hardworking , thorough and determined by Grey 's Anatomy executives . But she is also considered vulnerable , insecure , sensitive and overly eager by her colleagues . Of the character , Drew said : `` April is a very , very good doctor . She really knows what she 's doing , she 's worked really hard , and she certainly wants to do her best and stick around . '' but also described her as `` annoying '' , `` neurotic '' and `` really insecure '' . In the eighth season , April 's position as chief resident and her struggle to get a handle on her fellow residents formed the central arc of her storyline . Rhimes explained : `` Watching April try to be in charge of Cristina and Alex and Jackson is a pretty impossible task , and it 's made for comedy , it 's one of the funniest things we 're working on this season . '' One of Kepner 's central characteristics is her religious belief , notably her chastity and her instance on saving herself for someone she truly loves . In an interview , Drew assessed that : There certainly has never been a 28 - year - old virgin on Grey 's . I do n't even think there 's been a 28 - year - old virgin on television . Unless it 's someone who is sort of a recluse . A normal , smart , doctor .... pretty , healthy ... that in and of itself is really fascinating , and really interesting , and totally different . It 's neat to see someone who is just totally clueless in that area . Everyone else ( On Grey ' Anatomy ) seems like they know exactly what they 're doing . April is totally , totally clueless . Shonda told one of the directors , there are virgins that have sort of done everything else . But not April . April 's really pretty much done nothing . She 's completely untouched . '' Relationships ( edit ) April and Jackson ( Jesse Williams ) 's sexual encounter makes her re-evaluate her faith and jeopardizes the course of her career . Kepner entertained several relationships throughout her time on Grey 's Anatomy . In her early appearances , she is introduced as the best friend and roommate of her fellow Mercy West resident , Reed Adamson . In the season six finale , when Reed is tragically murdered by Gary Clark during the shooting , April is the first to find her when she trips over her dead body . In season seven April forms a friendship with Meredith Grey and she eventually moves into her house . Ellen Pompeo offered regarding their bond : `` Meredith will accept April in order to get the audience to accept her , '' and Drew further explained : `` She 's being plugged into the community . Meredith has really taken her under her wing , is really looking out for her . Having Meredith come around to April helps the audience come around to April . '' She first develops a crush on Derek Shepherd in season six . Carina MacKenzie from The Los Angeles Times called it `` ridiculous '' and added : `` April is drooling all over Chief McDreamy . Vomit . ( ... ) She 's been reduced to a 12 - year - old with hearts in her eyes and a painful inability to be subtle . '' Drew herself was skeptical about it , saying : `` The biggest thing that people did not like about my character was they thought I was a threat for the Mer / Der relationship , which I kind of found was super ridiculous ( ... ) I never saw it as anything that would ever transpire into something that might threaten them . I only saw it as a really pathetic little crush . '' She briefly has feelings for Alex Karev who almost makes her lose her virginity when he tries to sleep with her in Something 's Gotta Give . Wetpaint commented that he made her feel `` worthless and unwanted when she was at her most vulnerable . '' Kepner also briefly dates Dr. Robert Stark , a senior pediatric surgical attending . After her fellow residents make fun of her , she breaks up with him , creating a coldness between them . However , it is Stark who recommends her as chief resident to Dr. Hunt . Drew stated : `` She sees a side to Dr. Stark that he does n't show to anyone else at the hospital , and she finds that part endearing ... I think they enjoy the companionship . '' In the end of season eight , Kepner embarks on a relationship with her best friend turned lover Jackson Avery ( Williams ) , who she loses her virginity to and that eventually leads her to reflect on her faith and fail her boards . Critics praised the chemistry between April and Jackon . Rhimes commented on the dynamic between the two in season nine and said : `` I think it 's going to be funny , sexy , and good . '' Reception ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( May 2018 ) Initially , Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times highly praised the characterization of Kepner . writing : `` One of my favorite Mercy Westers is intern April ( Sarah Drew ) . Her saccharine - sweet attitude and wide - eyed insincerity were hilarious , as was her super-mysterious hot pink notebook full of morale - boosting platitudes . '' However , she criticized the later development of her story , especially her crush on Derek Shepherd calling it `` vomit '' PopSugar noted similarities between Kepner and Lexie Grey , stating : `` Am I the only one who thinks the new doctor is kind of like Lexie 2.0 ? Their dynamic reminded me of when Lexie first started and tries really hard to make nice with Mere , but gets the cold shoulder in return . '' Mariella Mosthof from Wetpaint stated : `` Despite her obnoxious yet well - meaning tendencies , we briefly flirted with the idea of liking April 's character last season , and it looks like there 's plenty of opportunity for her to come back and charm us again yet again this time around . '' Reviewing the first part of the eight season , Courtney Morrison of TV Fanatic wrote : `` Although the girl has grown in terms of likeability , her downfalls still outweigh the positives . She does n't really bring too much to the table . She was n't the best choice for Chief Resident ; she does n't seem to be on the same level surgical wise and she has n't carried a story on her own that makes us care about her . '' Kepner was included in TV Guide 's list of The Most Loathed TV Characters , adding : `` The extremely neurotic April ( she makes Liz Lemon look laid back ) has slowly made strides with fans thanks to her personal setbacks -- she lost her treasured virginity to her best friend and failed her boards -- but she still has a long way to go . '' Entertainment Weekly also named her one of the `` 21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever '' , commenting : `` April 's lightened up a little this season ( season 9 ) , but a few episodes of sympathetic behavior ca n't erase the painful memories of Seattle Grace - Mercy West 's most irritating doctor being . '' TV Fanatic included her in their list of Worst Character on TV . Christina Tran commented : `` Could she be any more annoying ? ! ? '' Drew stated that it was initially `` hard '' for her as an actress to play an unpopular character but deemed her `` interesting '' and when she was informed by the writers that her character would get Dr. Shepherd ( Dempsey ) shot in the season six finale , her reaction was : `` Oh , come on , guys , really ? They already hate my character , now they 're going to hate her even more ! '' Critics reception gradually changed positively . Entertainment Weekly noted : `` April was chirpy , irritating , and immature , and her crush on Derek did n't endear her to us either . But these days , we say hooray for April ; since Meredith declared that the two of them are pals , April 's become a lot more tolerable , instead of being Lexie 2.0 . '' Courtney Morrison of TVFanatic wrote : `` April has grown since her character was introduced . She 's no longer much less annoying than she used to be , and she 's honest . A girl with principles is a girl you want to do well . '' and described her and Avery as `` a couple for whom viewers can root '' . The Hollywood Reporter also remarked : `` It 's nice to see April with a bit of a backbone and putting Alex in his place as the newfound confidence suits her well . '' References ( edit ) Specific Jump up ^ `` Character Bios '' . American Broadcasting Company . Retrieved 2009 . Check date values in : access - date = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Marsi , Steve ( October 21 , 2009 ) . `` Sarah Drew Previews Character , Grey 's Anatomy Role '' . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Marsi , Steve ( November 15 , 2010 ) . `` Sarah Drew Dishes on Dream Grey 's Anatomy Gig '' . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Brian Tanen ( writer ) , Chandra Wilson ( director ) ( October 21 , 2010 ) . `` Almost Grown '' . Grey 's Anatomy . Season 7 . Episode 05 . American Broadcasting Company . Jump up ^ `` Interview with Sarah Drew '' . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Most Loathed TV Characters Pictures , April Photos '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : MacKenzi , Carina ( October 16 , 2009 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : Mercy West is in , Izzie Stevens is out '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Archived from the original on 18 October 2009 . Retrieved October 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Shonda Rhimes ( writer ) ; Rob Corn ( director ) ( May 20 , 2010 ) . `` Death and All His Friends '' . Grey 's Anatomy . Season 6 . Episode 24 . ABC . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Exclusive : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' promotes Sarah Drew '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . June 9 , 2010 . Retrieved June 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( June 8 , 2010 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Exclusive : Jesse Williams Gets Full - Time Upgrade '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Samson , Janalen ( April 26 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Interview with Sarah Drew : April is ' Super Freaked - Out ' '' . BuddyTV . Retrieved September 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Grey 's Anatomy : Shonda Rhimes Talks Mer - Der 's Struggle , Cristina 's Pregnancy '' . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` April Kapner Bio '' . American Broadcasting Company . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2012 . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Diaz , Glenn ( June 27 , 2010 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : Sarah Drew Knows April is ' Annoying ' '' . BuddyTV . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` What is in store for April this season '' . Wetpaint . The Cambio Network . August 31 , 2011 . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Marsi , Steve ( July 29 , 2011 ) . `` Will Grey 's Anatomy Incorporate Sarah Drew 's Pregnancy ? '' . TV Fanatic . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Sarah Drew Exclusive : `` I had no idea ... '' `` . The Star Scoop . October 28 , 2010 . Retrieved October 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Wightman , Catriona ( August 24 , 2010 ) . `` Pompeo : ' Grey 's Meredith , April will bond ' '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Clarendon , Dan ( November 12 , 2010 ) . `` Top 5 OMG Moments From Grey 's Anatomy Season 7 , Episode 8 : `` Something 's Gotta Give '' `` . Wetpaint . The Cambio Network . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` April and Stark ? ! Sarah Drew Speaks on Unexpected Grey 's Anatomy Romance '' . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . March 1 , 2011 . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Highfill , Samantha ( October 1 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Spoiler : Will April and Jackson Get Together in Season 9 ? - Grey 's Anatomy '' . Wetpaint . The Cambio Network . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Morrison , Courtney ( October 21 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Round Table : `` Love the One You 're With '' `` . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' boss Shonda Rhimes explains Eric Dane 's exit , teases unique season opener '' . EW.com . July 28 , 2012 . Retrieved October 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ MacKenzie , Carina ( April 30 , 2010 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : He 's a Sloan all right '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Retrieved August 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Grey 's Anatomy Rundown , `` Invasion '' `` . PopSugar . Sugar Inc . October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Morrison , Courtney ( November 18 , 2011 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Midseason Report Card : B + '' . TV Fanatic . Retrieved March 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . April 1 , 2013 . Retrieved April 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Staff Round Table : Worst Character on TV '' . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . May 3 , 2012 . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Lyons , Margaret ( November 4 , 2010 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : 10 Reasons We Love It Again ! - Finally , April Is Less Annoying '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved October 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Morrison , Courtney ( October 18 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Review : Nothing Left To Squeeze '' . TV Fanatic . SheKnows Entertainment . Retrieved October 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( October 25 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Recap : Get Up , Stand Up '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved October 28 , 2012 . General `` April Kepner 's Character Journey '' . ABC . 2012 . Retrieved June 19 , 2012 . `` Grey 's Anatomy : Episode Recap Guide '' . ABC . Retrieved June 19 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Grey 's Anatomy portal Fictional characters portal April Kepner on IMDb April Kepner at ABC.com ( hide ) Grey 's Anatomy Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Characters ( cast members ) Meredith Grey Cristina Yang Izzie Stevens Alex Karev George O'Malley Miranda Bailey Richard Webber Preston Burke Derek Shepherd Addison Montgomery Mark Sloan Callie Torres Lexie Grey Erica Hahn Owen Hunt Sadie Harris Arizona Robbins Teddy Altman Jackson Avery April Kepner Amelia Shepherd Stephanie Edwards Maggie Pierce Nathan Riggs Spin - offs Private Practice Station 19 Other Awards and nominations Soundtrack Video game A Corazón Abierto ( Mexican telenovela ) A Corazón Abierto ( Colombian telenovela ) Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=April_Kepner&oldid=843385541 '' Categories : Grey 's Anatomy characters Fictional surgeons Fictional characters introduced in 2009 Fictional characters from Ohio Fictional female doctors Hidden categories : CS1 errors : dates Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Pages using deprecated image syntax Articles that may be too long from November 2014 Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from November 2014 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles to be expanded from May 2018 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2018 , at 20 : 18 . 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what was the damage of the haiti earthquake

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Damage_to_infrastructure_in_the_2010_Haiti_earthquake&oldid=836900141

Damage to infrastructure in the 2010 Haiti earthquake - wikipedia Damage to infrastructure in the 2010 Haiti earthquake Main article : 2010 Haiti earthquake Collapsed buildings in Port - au - Prince Damage to infrastructure in the 2010 Haiti earthquake was extensive and affected areas included Port - au - Prince , Petit - Goâve , Léogâne , Jacmel and other settlements in southwestern Haiti . In February Prime Minister Jean - Max Bellerive estimated that 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged . The deputy mayor of Léogâne , which was at the epicenter of the earthquake , reported that 90 % percent of the buildings in that city had been destroyed and Léogâne had `` to be totally rebuilt . '' Many notable landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed , including the Presidential Palace , the National Assembly building , the Port - au - Prince Cathedral , and the main jail . The Ministry of Education estimated that half the nation 's 15,000 primary schools and 1,500 secondary schools were severely damaged , cracked or destroyed . In addition , the three main universities in Port - au - Prince were also severely damaged . Other affected infrastructure included telephone networks , radio station , factories , and museums . Poor infrastructure before the earthquake only made the aftermath worse . It would take half a day to make a trip of a few miles . The roads would also crisscross haphazardly due to disorganized construction . Contents ( hide ) 1 Essential services 2 General infrastructure 3 Toussaint Louverture International Airport 4 See also 5 References Essential services ( edit ) Amongst the widespread devastation and damage throughout Port - au - Prince and elsewhere , vital infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was severely damaged or destroyed . This included all hospitals in the northwest ; air , sea , and land transport facilities ; and communication systems . Due to this infrastructure damage and loss of organizational structures , a spokeswoman from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs called it the worst disaster the UN had ever confronted . The quake affected the three Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ) medical facilities around Port - au - Prince , causing one to collapse completely . A hospital in Pétion - Ville , a wealthy suburb of Port - au - Prince , also collapsed , as did the St. Michel District Hospital in the southern town of Jacmel , which was the largest referral hospital in south - east Haiti . Damaged buildings in Jacmel The quake seriously damaged the control tower at Toussaint L'Ouverture International Airport and the Port - au - Prince seaport . Reported damage to the seaport included the collapse of cranes and containers into the water , structural damage to the pier , waterfront quay areas collapsing into the water with crevassing and slumping of level waterfront ship - unloading dock - work areas , container cranes leaning because of ground subsidence , and an oil spill , rendering the harbor unusable for immediate rescue operations . The Gonaïves seaport , in the northern part of Haiti , remained operational . The main road linking Port - au - Prince with Jacmel remained blocked ten days after the earthquake , hampering delivery of aid to Jacmel . When asked why the road had not been opened , Hazem el - Zein , head of the south - east division of the UN World Food Programme said that `` We ask the same questions to the people in charge ... They promise rapid response . To be honest , I do n't know why it has n't been done . I can only think that their priority must be somewhere else . '' There was considerable damage to communications infrastructure . The public telephone system was not available , and Haiti 's largest cellular telephone provider , Digicel , suffered damage to its network . It was operational by 14 January , but the volume of calls overwhelmed its capacity and most calls could not be connected . Comcel Haiti 's facilities were not severely damaged , but its mobile phone service was temporarily shut down on 12 January . By 14 January the company had re-established 70 % of its services . Service on the spur connection to the BDSNi cable system which provided Haiti with its only direct fibre - optic connectivity to the outside world , was disrupted , with the terminal in Port - au - Prince being completely destroyed . According to Reporters Sans Frontières ( RSF ) , most of the radio stations in the earthquake struck region went off the air after the earthquake and only 20 out of 50 stations in Port - au - Prince were back on air a week after the earthquake . The stations that were completely destroyed include Radio TV Ginen , Radio Soleil , Radio Ibo and Tropic FM . RSF also reported that 12 radio stations in the southwestern town of Petit - Goâve and five of Léogâne 's nine stations were badly damaged . The Committee to Protect Journalists reported that several other stations , including Melodie FM , Radio Caraïbes , Signal FM , and Radio Métropole , continued to operate . The UN mission 's station , Radio Minustah , was disabled by the quake , but returned to the air on 18 January . The Agence France - Presse office was in ruins , but within days of the earthquake the agency resumed operations from new premises . The offices of the capital 's two leading newspapers , Le Nouvelliste and Le Matin , were not severely damaged , but for more than a week after the earthquake they were unable to print . General infrastructure ( edit ) The damage suffered by Port - au - Prince Cathedral The buildings of the finance ministry , the ministry of education , the ministry of public works , the ministry of communication and culture , the Palais de Justice ( Supreme Court building ) , the Superior Normal School , the National School of Administration , the Institut Aimé Césaire , the Palais Législatif ( National Assembly building ) and Port - au - Prince Cathedral were damaged to varying degrees . The National Palace ( Presidential mansion ) was severely damaged , though President René Préval and his wife Elisabeth Delatour Préval , who were about to enter their house when it `` just fell '' , escaped injury . The Prison Civile de Port - au - Prince was also destroyed , allowing 4,000 inmates to escape into the streets . As of 19 January only 12 had been rearrested . Some of the escaped convicts were reported to have stolen official uniforms , vehicles , and weapons , after starting fires and killing four guards during the breakout . Léogâne , close to the earthquake epicentre The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) at Christopher Hotel and offices of the World Bank were destroyed . The building housing the offices of Citibank in Port - au - Prince collapsed , killing five employees . Up to 200 guests at the collapsed Hôtel Montana in Port - au - Prince are presumed dead . Despite the official search being called off , as of 24 January teams were continuing to look for survivors at the Montana . Most of Port - au - Prince 's municipal government buildings were destroyed or heavily damaged in the earthquake , including the City Hall , which was described by the Washington Post as , `` a skeletal hulk of concrete and stucco , sagging grotesquely to the left . '' City officials including Mayor Jean Yves Jason were left without facilities in which to conduct official business or coordinate recovery efforts . Port - au - Prince had no municipal petrol reserves and few city officials had working mobile phones before the earthquake , complicating communications and transportation . Minister of Education Joel Jean - Pierre stated that the education system had `` totally collapsed '' . About half the nation 's 15,000 primary schools and 1,500 secondary schools were affected by the earthquake and the three main universities in Port - au - Prince were also `` almost totally destroyed . '' The earthquake also destroyed a nursing school in the capital , one of three such schools in the country , and severely damaged the country 's primary midwifery school that provided essential training necessary to reduce Haiti 's maternal mortality rate , which is one of the highest in the world . Various Catholic religious institutes reported the destruction and damage of churches , schools and offices . A man in Port - au - Prince exits a restaurant after he looked for his belongings . The clothing industry , which accounts for two - thirds of Haiti 's exports , reported structural damage at manufacturing facilities in Haiti . U.S. - based Hanesbrands Inc. reported that three of its four factories had been affected by the quake , with one facility substantially damaged . The Canadian clothing company Gildan Activewear reported that one of the three textile factories that produce its products had been severely damaged . The Palm Apparel factory complex in Port - au - Prince reported that 500 of its 1800 employees were killed when one of its buildings collapsed . The Haitian art world also suffered great losses . Museums and art galleries were extensively damaged , among them Port - au - Prince 's main art museum , Centre d'Art , where many art works were destroyed . The collection at College Saint Pierre also was devastated , as was the collection of priceless murals in the Holy Trinity Cathedral . Some private art galleries were also severely damaged , including the Monnin Gallery in Pétion - Ville , and the Nader Art Gallery and Musée Nader in Port - au - Prince . Composed of the personal collection of Georges Nader Sr. , the Nader collection was worth an estimated US $30 - US $100 million . Shortly after the earthquake struck , UNESCO assigned special envoy Bernard Hadjadj to evaluate damage to artwork . Buildings shook in Santo Domingo , the capital of the neighboring Dominican Republic , but no major damage was reported there . Toussaint Louverture International airport ( edit ) People awaiting evacuation at the airport , January 15 . Relief operations crowd the airport , January 18 . As the hypocenter or focus of the 2010 Haiti earthquake on January 12 was shallow ( 6 miles ) and very near , Toussaint Louverture International Airport was damaged . The runway , the taxiways and the apron of the airport remained operational , but radio communications were not possible because the control tower was extensively damaged . The airport lighting system was also shut down due to power outages . Nevertheless , the airport could be accessed with UNICOM procedures after the quake . On the morning of January 13 , the U.S. Coast Guard cutter Forward arrived and began running air - traffic control from Port - au - Prince Bay . UN Peacekeeping forces had also moved quickly to secure the airport , thus allowing international rescue and aid forces to start their work . Later in the day , United States Air Force Special Tactics personnel landed at the airport and assumed air traffic control ( ATC ) duties and much of the operation of the airport . Their ATC set - up consisted of a folding table near the runway and handheld transceivers , and a motorcycle to guide aircraft to parking zones . As of January 14 , dozens of cargo planes were landing and taking off , but regular scheduled commercial air service ceased . Meantime , some inbound travelers were reaching Haiti by flying to neighboring Dominican Republic , primarily Las Américas International Airport in Santo Domingo , and then traveling overland . On January 15 , heavy traffic to the airport forced the Federal Aviation Administration 's Air Traffic Control System Command Center to issue a ground stop for all aircraft trying to leave the U.S. for Haitian airspace due to limited space and lack of fuel at Haiti airport . Problems had been compounded by pilots inbound to the airport canceling instrument flight rules operation and proceeding on visual flight rules . That day the United States was formally granted temporary control of the airport per a memorandum of understanding signed by the Haitian Prime Minister . The airport has apparently been operating without radar , although the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson arrived the morning of the 15th and has advanced aircraft tracking capabilities . By the morning of January 18 , less than five days after arriving , a reported 819 aircraft had landed under the direction of the USAF team . That day , 180 flights were handled at the airport according to Lieutenant General Ken Keen , commander of the U.S. joint task force assisting in Haiti . Late in January , US military had plans established to reopen the airport to civilian flights . Some military flights would be shifted to Jacmel Airport , under control of the Canadian Forces . On February 19 , 2010 , partial commercial operation returned to the airport . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2010 Haiti earthquake damage . List of populated places affected by the 2010 Haiti earthquake References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Clarens Renois ( 5 February 2010 ) . `` Haitians angry over slow aid '' . The Age . Melbourne . Archived from the original on 7 February 2010 . Retrieved 5 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Karen Allen ( 28 January 2010 ) . `` Rebuilding Haiti from rubble and dust '' . BBC News . BBC . Retrieved 28 January 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` INTERVIEW - Haitian education system ' totally collapsed ' '' . ReliefWeb . Reuters. 18 January 2010 . Retrieved 26 January 2010 . Jump up ^ http://worldfocus.org/blog/2010/01/14/haiti%E2%80%99s-poor-infrastructure-accelerates-heavy-death-toll/9256/ Jump up ^ Haiti quake ' worst disaster ever ' , The Bangkok Post ( January 16 , 2010 ) . Retrieved on January 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ McQuigge , Michelle ( 13 January 2010 ) . `` Aid workers face frightening challenges in wake of massive quake in Haiti '' . metronews . Metro International . Retrieved 14 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Only one hospital open in Haiti 's quake - hit capital '' . News.com.au. 14 January 2010 . Retrieved 15 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Haitian Earthquake Causes Hospital Collapse '' . The New York Times . 12 January 2010 . Retrieved 12 January 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Fraser , Christian ( 2010 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Haitians show fortitude in face of disaster '' . BBC News . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` UN PROVIDES GENERATOR FOR A HOSPITAL IN HAITI '' ( PDF ) . United Nations . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ Lipton , Eric ( 2010 - 01 - 13 ) . `` Devastation , Seen From a Ship '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Brannigan , Martha ( 15 January 2010 ) . `` Haiti seaport damage complicates relief efforts '' . The Miami Herald . Miami . Retrieved 15 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Katz , Jonathan M. ( 12 January 2010 ) . `` Many casualties expected after big quake in Haiti '' . Atlanta Journal - Constitution . Archived from the original on January 17 , 2010 . Retrieved 12 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Statement From Digicel on Haiti Earthquake , IndiaPRwire ( January 14 , 2010 ) . Retrieved on January 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Countless emergency calls from Haiti earthquake victims simply not getting through , The Associated Press ( January 14 , 2010 ) . Retrieved on January 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Heim , Kristi ( 19 January 2010 ) . `` Update from Trilogy : five employees killed in Haiti '' . The Seattle Times . Jump up ^ `` Update : Earthquake in Haiti '' ( PDF ) . Trilogy International Partners . 13 January 2010 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2010 - 02 - 02 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Update : Earthquake in Haiti '' ( PDF ) . Trilogy International Partners . 14 January 2010 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2010 - 02 - 02 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ Rhoads , Christopher ( 2010 - 01 - 15 ) . `` Earthquake Sets Back Haiti 's Efforts to Improve Telecommunications - WSJ.com '' . Online.wsj.com . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : T. Carter Ross ( 25 January 2010 ) . `` Radio Extends Efforts to Help Haiti '' . Radio World . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Radio stations getting back on the air in Port - au - Prince '' . ReliefWeb . Reporters sans Frontières. 20 January 2010 . Retrieved 26 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Carlos Lauría . `` Haitian journalist describes scenes of death and destruction '' . Committee to Protect Journalists . Retrieved 17 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TV5MONDE : actualites : '' . Tv5.org. 30 September 2008 . Retrieved 13 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Haitian palace collapses '' . The Straits Times . 13 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Haïti : les rescapés évacués à la Martinique décrivent le `` chaos '' `` . Nouvel OBS. 14 January 2010 . Archived from the original on 23 April 2011 . Retrieved 15 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Earthquake Rocks Haiti '' . FOXNews.com . Retrieved 13 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Info -- Séisme à Haïti : les autorités s'attendent au pire '' . tsr.ch . Retrieved 13 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Washington Post : Haiti 's president narrowly missed injury in quake Jump up ^ Lacey , Marc ( 2010 - 01 - 19 ) . `` U.S. Troops Patrol Haiti , Filling a Void '' . New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Sherwell , Philip ; Patrick Sawer ( 16 January 2010 ) . `` Haiti earthquake : looting and gun - fights break out '' . London : Telegraph.co.uk . Retrieved 17 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Latest developments in ongoing Haiti earthquake crisis , The Miami Herald ( January 19 , 2010 ) . Retrieved on January 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Pitts , Byron ( January 19 , 2010 ) . Escaped Prisoners Pose Security Threat , CBS News . Retrieved on January 20 , 2010 Jump up ^ `` Briefing by Martin Nesirky , Spokesperson for the Secretary - General , and Jean Victor Nkolo , Spokesperson for the President of the General Assembly '' . United Nations . 13 January 2010 . Retrieved 13 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Wroughton , Lesley ( 12 January 2010 ) . `` World Bank to assess Haiti damage , plan rebuilding '' . Reuters . Jump up ^ `` Citigroup resumes operations in Haiti '' . IB Times . 2010 - 01 - 24 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Florida College Scrambles for Information on Students in Haiti Fox News Wednesday , 13 January 2010 '' . Foxnews.com. 14 January 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 15 . 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Jump up ^ Kathie Klarreich ( 27 February 2010 ) . `` Haiti earthquake diary : Factories are ' in limbo ' '' . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved 29 January 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Tracy Wilkinson ( 24 January 2010 ) . `` A cultural agony in a nation where art is life '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 24 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Pooja Bhatia ( 25 January 2010 ) . `` Art Trove Is Among Nation 's Losses '' . Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 26 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Dominican Republic feels earthquake in Haiti '' . Retrieved 13 January 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Eric Lipton ( January 13 , 2010 ) . `` Devastation , Seen From a Ship '' . New York Times . Retrieved January 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on January 14 , 2010 . Retrieved January 13 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Fox 10 , WALA TV / Associated Press , Mobile , AL , Jan 14 , `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on February 3 , 2010 . Retrieved January 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Phillips , Michael M. ( January 19 , 2010 ) . `` U.S. Team Directs Traffic in Crowded Skies '' . The Wall Street JOurnal . Retrieved January 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Airlines organizing Haiti earthquake aid '' . CNN . January 14 , 2010 . Retrieved January 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ http://www.fly.faa.gov/adv/adv_otherdis.jsp?advn=33&adv_date=01152010&facId=DCC&title=MTPP+GROUND+STOP&titleDate=01/15/10 Jump up ^ Quinn , Andrew ( 2010 - 01 - 15 ) . `` Haiti gives U.S. control of airport '' . Reuters . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 15 . Jump up ^ Kris Alingod ( January 20 , 2010 ) . `` 28 Americans Confirmed Dead in Haiti '' . All Headline News . Retrieved January 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Washington Post , `` US to help Haiti resume normal airport operations '' , Associated Press , 30 January 2010 ( accessed 31 January 2010 ) Jump up ^ Winnipeg Free Press , `` Canada earns its wings '' , Dan Lett , 30 January 2010 ( accessed 31 January 2010 ) Jump up ^ AFP , `` Haitians return to find family as commercial flights restart '' , M.J. Smith , 20 February 2010 ( accessed 23 February 2010 ) hide 2010 Haiti earthquake Humanitarian response Relief efforts Casualties Damaged infrastructure Cholera outbreak Affected areas Enriquillo - Plantain Garden fault zone Haiti Ouest : Port - au - Prince Arrondissement ( Port - au - Prince , Bel Air , Carrefour , Cité Soleil , Gressier , Pétion - Ville ) Léogâne Arrondissement ( Léogâne , Grand - Goâve , Petit - Goâve ) Sud - Est : Jacmel Arrondissement ( Jacmel ) Humanitarian response National governments NGOs For - profit organizations MINUSTAH Aid operations Unified Response ( USA ) Hestia ( Canada ) Séisme Haiti ( France ) White Crane ( Italy ) Danbi ( Republic of Korea ) Hispaniola ( Spain ) United Nations Security Council Resolution 1908 ( MINUSTAH ) Benefits and fundraising Canada for Haiti Ensemble pour Haïti Hope for Haiti Now ( album ) Hit for Haiti Clinton Bush Haiti Fund Digicel Haiti Earthquake Relief Fund `` Everybody Hurts '' `` We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' `` Somos El Mundo 25 Por Haiti '' Young Artists for Haiti ( `` Wavin ' Flag '' ) `` I Put a Spell on You '' `` We Are the World 25 for Haiti ( YouTube edition ) '' Download to Donate for Haiti See also : List of earthquakes in Haiti and List of 21st - century earthquakes Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Damage_to_infrastructure_in_the_2010_Haiti_earthquake&oldid=836900141 '' Categories : Earthquake engineering 2010 Haiti earthquake Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2010 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Português Edit links This page was last edited on 17 April 2018 , at 14 : 41 . 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when did the first chucky movie come out

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Child%27s_Play_(franchise)&oldid=866120929

Child 's Play ( franchise ) - wikipedia Child 's Play ( franchise ) horror film series Child 's Play Chucky Child 's Play logo as used in the original film ( top ) and the Chucky logo ( bottom ) Created by Don Mancini Original work Child 's Play ( 1988 ) Print publications Comics List of comic books Films and television Film ( s ) List of films Short film ( s ) Chucky 's Vacation Slides ( 2005 ) Chucky Invades ( 2013 ) Television series Child 's Play : The TV Series Games Video game ( s ) Chucky : Slash & Dash ( 2013 ) Child 's Play ( also called Chucky ) is an American horror comedy franchise centered on a series of seven films created by Don Mancini . The films mainly focus on Chucky ( voiced by Brad Dourif ) , a notorious serial killer known as the `` Lakeshore Strangler '' whose soul is transferred inside a Good Guy doll following a voodoo ritual in order to avoid the afterlife and possibly avoid going to Hell . The original film , Child 's Play , was released on November 9 , 1988 . The film has spawned six sequels and has gone into other media , such as comic books , a video game , tie - in merchandise , and an upcoming television show . The first , second , and fourth films were box office successes with all of the films earning over $182 million worldwide . Including revenues from sales of videos , DVDs , VOD and merchandise , the franchise has generated over $250 million . It also won a Saturn Award for Best Horror Franchise . The film series originally started out as straight horror with the first installment Child 's Play , which appears to have more psychological horror elements , while its successors are straightforward slasher films with elements of dark humor . As the films progressed , they became satirical and campy , until the series briefly became a horror comedy , with 1998 's Bride of Chucky and 2004 's Seed of Chucky . In 2012 , it was confirmed that a new film would be made under the title Curse of Chucky and be released direct - to - video . Unlike Bride and Seed , Curse of Chucky is a full - fledged horror film much like the original three installments . However , it does maintain the campy humor to a small degree . Since Bride of Chucky , titles have no longer been released under the Child 's Play brand name and now use Chucky and will continue to do so with future films . The latest installment to the series , titled Cult of Chucky , was released on October 3 , 2017 . Several short films have been made featuring the Chucky character : on the DVD release of Seed of Chucky , a short film entitled Chucky 's Vacation Slides , set during the events of the film , was included , and a series of short films inserting Chucky into the events of other horror films entitled Chucky Invades was released in the run - up to the release of Curse of Chucky . On television , Chucky has appeared in commercials and also on Saturday Night Live , with a separate voice actor voicing the character . Chucky appeared in a pretaped segment during an October 1998 episode of World Championship Wrestling 's Monday Nitro program as a heel , taunting wrestler Rick Steiner who was a face at the time and promoting Bride of Chucky . Contents 1 Franchise 2 Films 2.1 Child 's Play ( 1988 ) 2.2 Child 's Play 2 ( 1990 ) 2.3 Child 's Play 3 ( 1991 ) 2.4 Bride of Chucky ( 1998 ) 2.5 Seed of Chucky ( 2004 ) 2.6 Curse of Chucky ( 2013 ) 2.7 Cult of Chucky ( 2017 ) 3 Future 3.1 Film 3.1. 1 Potential sequels 3.1. 2 Reboot 3.2 Television 4 Short films 4.1 Chucky 's Vacation Slides 4.2 Chucky Invades 5 Cast 6 Crew 7 Reception 7.1 Box office performance 7.2 Critical reaction 8 Music 9 Controversies 10 Comic books 10.1 Innovation Publishing 10.2 Devil 's Due Publishing 11 Video game 12 Halloween Horror Nights 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References Franchise ( edit ) Film Release date Director Screenwriter ( s ) Story by Producers Main series Child 's Play November 9 , 1988 ( 1988 - 11 - 09 ) Tom Holland Don Mancini and John Lafia and Tom Holland Don Mancini David Kirschner Child 's Play 2 November 9 , 1990 ( 1990 - 11 - 09 ) Jon Lafia Don Mancini Child 's Play 3 August 30 , 1991 ( 1991 - 08 - 30 ) Jack Bender Robert Latham Brown Bride of Chucky October 16 , 1998 ( 1998 - 10 - 16 ) Ronnie Yu David Kirschner and Grace Gilroy Seed of Chucky November 12 , 2004 ( 2004 - 11 - 12 ) Don Mancini David Kirschner and Corey Sienega Curse of Chucky September 24 , 2013 ( 2013 - 09 - 24 ) David Kirschner Cult of Chucky October 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 03 ) David Kirschner and Ogden Gavanski Reboot Child 's Play TBA Lars Klevberg Tyler Burton Smith David Katzenberg and Seth Grahame - Smith Films ( edit ) Chucky : Complete 7 - Movie Collection Blu - ray set Child 's Play ( 1988 ) ( edit ) Main article : Child 's Play ( 1988 film ) Child 's Play is the first and only in the series to be distributed by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer / United Artists ( until Seed of Chucky which is distributed by Rogue ) before the franchise was sold by Universal Pictures . The film is directed by Tom Holland , written by Holland , John Lafia , and Don Mancini , and starring Catherine Hicks , Chris Sarandon , Alex Vincent , and Brad Dourif . The film was released on November 9 , 1988 . In the film , a serial killer and voodoo practitioner named Charles Lee `` Chucky '' Ray is mortally wounded and transfers his soul via a voodoo ritual into a child - sized `` Good Guy '' doll . The doll is found by a homeless peddler and sold to Karen Barclay , who gives it to her son Andy as a birthday gift . As time goes on Chucky has to get his soul out of the doll before it turns human and the transfer becomes permanent , and thus has to possess the first person he told his secret to - Andy . Desperate to leave his doll body , Chucky terrorizes the Barclays in order to restore his soul . Child 's Play 2 ( 1990 ) ( edit ) Main article : Child 's Play 2 Child 's Play 2 is the second film in the series and the first film distributed by Universal Pictures . The film directed by John Lafia , written by Mancini , Vincent and Dourif reprise their roles as Andy Barclay and the voice of Chucky . The film was released on November 9 , 1990 . The movie takes place two years after the events of the first film . While Andy is living in foster care , the doll 's manufacturer has taken a positive corporate stance and remade it to prove there is nothing wrong with the Good Guy brand . After a freak electrical malfunction brings Chucky back to life in a new Good Guy doll , he continues to follow Andy in order to transfer his soul from his doll body before it will once again becomes his permanent form . Child 's Play 3 ( 1991 ) ( edit ) Main article : Child 's Play 3 Child 's Play 3 , also known as Child 's Play 3 : Look Who 's Stalking ! , is third film in the series , and last film to be titled as Child 's Play , before title change as Chucky . The film directed by Jack Bender , written by Mancini , and had Dourif reprise once again his role as Chucky , Alex Vincent replaced as Andy Barclay by Justin Whalin as an older version of Andy and a supporting cast of Perrey Reeves and Jeremy Sylvers . The film was released on August 20 , 1991 . Set eight years after the events of the second film , the Good Guy factory has re-opened after the negative publicity , and as Chucky 's remains are removed , some blood from his destroyed human - doll body drips into a vat of melted plastic used to re-mould the Good Guy line . Chucky returns in a new body , going on a hunt for the now 16 - year - old Andy Barclay , who has left to attend a military academy after the results of the first two films . While attempting to reach Andy , Chucky finds a new boy , Ronald Tyler , who he shares his `` secret '' with . With a new `` Good Guy '' doll body brings the possibility of possessing a new human body , Chucky attempts to restore his soul to human form through Tyler as Andy attempts to stop the killer Good Guy doll once and for all . Bride of Chucky ( 1998 ) ( edit ) Main article : Bride of Chucky The film picks up about a year after the events of the Child 's Play 3 . Unlike the first three films , this film focuses entirely on Chucky and Tiffany . Charles Lee Ray 's former girlfriend and his accomplice , Tiffany , acquires Chucky 's remains , stitches them together and via a voodoo ritual revives Charles Lee Ray , albeit in a much different form . Chucky kills Tiffany , transferring her soul into a bride doll , and the two maniacs force a young couple to bring them to Ray 's grave , where Chucky plans to use a voodoo amulet to finally get a new body . In the end , the Tiffany doll gives birth to a new form of life ( Glen / Glenda ) as it flies out of a now dead Tiffany and attacks a detective . No one knows whether the detective is dead or alive as the screen cuts to black and closing credits roll . Seed of Chucky ( 2004 ) ( edit ) Main article : Seed of Chucky Seed of Chucky is the fifth installment , and the first film other than the original Child 's Play not to be distributed by Universal Pictures . Chucky and Tiffany 's child Glen finds his parents six years later and brings them back to life , but is horrified by their murders . Chucky and Tiffany force a pregnancy on actress Jennifer Tilly , which is accelerated by voodoo magic . Glen suffers a split personality disorder , having both a male and female soul in his / her body , and dismembers his father . Tiffany uses the ritual to take over Tilly 's body and as Tilly bears twins , Glen 's dual personality now has a body each of its own . In an epilogue set five years later , one of Chucky 's severed arms is mailed to the home of his family , where it attacks the now - human Glen . Curse of Chucky ( 2013 ) ( edit ) Main article : Curse of Chucky Curse of Chucky is the first direct - to - video film in the series . Nine years after the events of the fifth film , Chucky is delivered to the family home of Nica and Sarah Pierce , where Chucky terrorizes and kills the family one by one . Chucky is driven by revenge , as Sarah was the one who called the police on him while he was still human , leading to his original death in the first film by detective Mike Norris . Nica survives , but is institutionalized , and blamed for the murders . Chucky is collected by Tiffany , who delivers him to Alice . Chucky successfully transfers his soul into Alice 's body which will be explained in Cult of Chucky , as he does the soul ritual the camera moves to reveal Alice 's grandmother emerging from the basement , with a plastic bag around her head , slowly dying . Six months later , Chucky is mailed to his next victim , who just so happens to be none other than his longtime original nemesis from the original first three films , Andy Barclay , who points a shotgun at Chucky and shoots him through the head . Cult of Chucky ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Cult of Chucky Four years after Curse of Chucky , Chucky returns to terrorize Nica at the mental institution where she is admitted . Chucky goes on yet another murderous rampage , killing disbelieved employees & tenants at the institution with various dramatic tricks . When a now vigilante Andy Barclay figures out Chucky 's plan , he breaks into the institution in an attempt to disarm his newly created voodoo plot . But in the end , Nica ends up being possessed by Chucky , which causes her to gain the ability to walk and leaves with Tiffany . Future ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Potential sequels ( edit ) In October 2017 , Don Mancini stated that he intends in having Glen and Glenda from Seed of Chucky return in a future film , and acknowledged that most references to that character had been cut from Cult of Chucky . In February 2018 , it was announced that a Child 's Play television series will be a continuation of the film 's story arc . Mancini also stated that following the TV show , feature films will continue to be developed in the future . In an interview with Bloody Disgusting Mancini discussed the potential of a Child 's Play film set on a train as well as revealing plans for a crossover film with the Nightmare on Elm Street franchise , tentatively referred to as Child 's Play on Elm Street . I would like to do Freddy and Chucky , just because I think they would be a fun double act , '' he explains . `` I 'm more really interested in the characters . My pitch for Freddy vs. Chucky is Child 's Play on Elm Street . Chucky ends up in some kid 's house on Elm Street , and Chucky and Freddy inevitably meet in the dreamscape . Chucky sleeps . Why not ? Chucky sleeps , Chucky dreams . And they have this admiration for each other . But they realize quickly that Elm Street is n't big enough for the two of them , so in a riff on Dirty Rotten Scoundrels they have a contest : who can kill the most teenagers before the sun comes up ? In September 2017 in a separate interview with Cinema Blend , Mancini confirmed his intent to make the crossover film , describing it as `` cool and doable '' , confirming that the film would be titled Child 's Play on Elm Street and that he was currently in discussion with New Line Cinema about the film . The foundation for a crossover film was previously laid in Bride of Chucky , in which Freddy Krueger 's bladed glove had appeared in the Lockport police evidence depository at the beginning of the film . Reboot ( edit ) Main article : Child 's Play ( upcoming film ) In July 2018 , Collider reported that a modern - day version of Child 's Play , a reboot , is in development at MGM without the involvement of Mancini or Kirschner . Lars Klevberg will direct the film , with a script from Tyler Burton Smith ( of Polaroid and Quantum Break fame , respectively ) . David Katzenberg and Seth Grahame - Smith will serve as producers . The plot will reportedly feature a group of kids , similar to Stranger Things , and a hi - tech version of the Good Guy Doll . Production will begin in September , later that year . Later , in September 2018 , Gabriel Bateman , Aubrey Plaza and Brian Tyree Henry as Andy Barclay , and Karen Barclay , and Detective Mike Norris , respectively . Television ( edit ) In February 2018 , it was announced that a television series titled Child 's Play : The TV Series , is in development with involvement from franchise creator Don Mancini , and producer David Kirschner . The show will share continuity with the original film series , and be a continuation of that story . Mancini stated that besides the TV series , feature films will still continue to be developed . By June of the same year , it was confirmed that Brad Dourif would return for the 8 - part series to voice Charles Lee `` Chucky '' Ray . Short films ( edit ) Chucky 's vacation Slides ( edit ) On the home media DVD and Blu - ray release of Seed of Chucky in 2005 , a short film entitled Chucky 's Vacation Slides was included in the special features . The short , set during the events of Seed of Chucky , follows Chucky , Tiffany , and Glen after having returned from a family vacation . The film implies that the events of Seed of Chucky take place over the course of 5 -- 10 years . While browsing through their photographs of their vacation on a slide projector , Tiffany notices various corpses in the background of certain photographs , realizing that Chucky has been killing people again . Tiffany leaves , with a distraught and sickened Glen , while Chucky continues to view the photographs . After a delivery man arrives with a pizza , Chucky leads him to his garage and kills him off - screen . Brad Dourif , Jennifer Tilly and Billy Boyd all reprise their roles from the films . Chucky invades ( edit ) Leading up to the DVD release of Curse of Chucky in 2013 , a series of short film videos were released . The clips showed Chucky interrupting the events of several other horror films . Brad Dourif and Edan Gross reprised their roles as Chucky and the Good Guy Doll , respectively . The first clip , Chucky invades Psycho , has Chucky taking the place of using a stepladder to kill Marion Crane in a shower , he is then discovered by Norman Bates . Janet Leigh and Anthony Perkins appear in archival footage from Psycho . The second video , titled Chucky invades The Purge , has Chucky invading the Sandin family 's home . Ethan Hawke , Lena Headey , Adelaide Kane and Max Burkholder appear in archival footage from The Purge . The film is designed in the form of a trailer for a film . The third clip , Chucky invades Mama , follows Chucky as he hides under the bed of Victoria Desange before attacking her . Jessica Chastain and Isabelle Nélisse appear in archival footage from Mama . The fourth sequence , titled Chucky invades Drag Me to Hell , follows Chucky attacking Christine Brown in her car . Alison Lohman appears in archival footage from Drag Me to Hell . Cast ( edit ) List indicator ( s ) This table shows the recurring characters and the actors who have portrayed them throughout the franchise . A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film , or that the character 's presence in the film has not yet been announced . A indicates an appearance through archival footage taken from a previous film of the franchise . A indicates an appearance as the human form of an occasionally non-human character . A indicates an appearance deleted from the initial release of the film . A indicates an appearance in onscreen photographs only . A indicates a cameo appearance . A indicates a voice - only role . Character Film Television series Child 's Play Child 's Play 2 Child 's Play 3 Bride of Chucky Seed of Chucky Curse of Chucky Cult of Chucky Child 's Play : The TV Series 1991 1998 2013 2017 TBA Chucky Charles Lee Ray The Lakeshore Strangler Brad Dourif Brad Dourif Brad Dourif Brad Dourif Andy Barclay Alex Vincent Justin Whalin Alex Vincent Mentioned Alex Vincent Good Guy Edan Gross Edan Gross TBA Karen Barclay Catherine Hicks Catherine Hicks Catherine Hicks TBA Det . Mike Norris Chris Sarandon Mentioned Mentioned Chris Sarandon TBA Jack Santos Tommy Swerdlow Mentioned Kyle Christine Elise Mentioned Christine Elise Christine Elise Christine Elise Grace Poole Grace Zabriskie Mentioned Miss Kettlewell Beth Grant Mr. Sullivan Peter Haskell Ronald Tyler Jeremy Sylvers Kristen De Silva Perrey Reeves Tiffany Valentine Jennifer Tilly Jennifer Tilly Jade Kincaid Katherine Heigl Mentioned Chief Warren Kincaid John Ritter Glen Glenda Infant Cameo No Physical Actors Billy Boyd Mentioned TBA Beans El - Balawi Kristina Hewitt Jennifer Tilly Herself Mentioned Nica Pierce Fiona Dourif Alice Pierce Summer H. Howell Summer H. Howell Officer Stanton Malcolm Adam Hurtig FedEX Employee Nurse Ashley Ali Tataryn Chucky / Charles Lee Ray ( played by Brad Dourif ) The primary character in the fourth and fifth films and antagonist of the series . A merciless , wisecracking murderer whose soul gets stuck in a doll . He usually kills ' anyone ' who gets in his way with a knife or any other weapon he finds and frames the hero of each film for them . Although being a deranged killer , he has a twisted sense of humor and often spouts comically vulgar insults . He is the only character to appear in all of the films in the franchise and appears in his human body in the first and , in the sixth movie , by flashbacks . Andrew William `` Andy '' Barclay ( played by Alex Vincent and Justin Whalin ) The original protagonist . Pursued by Chucky so he could transfer his soul into the boy 's body , but Andy always prevents Chucky from taking over his body , as well as successfully framing him for the murders . He appears in all three installments of the Child 's Play trilogy and the sixth and seventh Chucky films . He is indirectly mentioned in Bride and Seed . Karen Barclay ( played by Catherine Hicks ) Andy 's mother , and later Mike 's wife . She buys him a Good Guy doll for his birthday , unaware that the one she picked was possessed by a serial killer . Initially , she refuses to believe that Chucky was alive , but she soon finds out when he comes alive and tries to kill her . In Child 's Play 2 , she is written out of the story when she was taken away to an insane asylum when no one believes her about the murderous doll . She appears only in the first film and is mentioned in the second , third and sixth films . In the sixth film , Karen talks to Andy over the phone , which reveals that she is now free from the asylum and plans to cook dinner for Andy 's upcoming birthday . It is also strongly hinted that she has married Mike . Detective Mike Norris ( played by Chris Sarandon ) A detective investigating the murder of Andy 's babysitter . He is also responsible for Chucky 's death prompting him to transfer his soul into a Good Guy doll . He initially refuses to believe the Barclays , but when Chucky tries to kill him , he becomes an ally to the family . In Child 's Play 2 , however , it is mildly implied that both Mike and Jack denied the ordeal to protect the reputation of the Chicago police department . Appears only in the first film , and is indirectly mentioned in the second and fourth films . He appears via archive footage in Curse of Chucky ( namely , pictures on the internet ) . He was originally set to appear in Seed of Chucky but did n't return due to scheduling conflicts . Kyle ( played by Christine Elise ) Andy 's teenage foster sister whom he ends up staying with . At first , she finds Andy to be a pain on her side but starts to back up his story about Chucky when she witnesses him trying to take his soul and later finds their foster mother murdered by Chucky . She then goes to find Andy and ends up saving his life in the Play Pals factory , as well as helping him destroy Chucky after he tries to kill him after the voodoo soul transfer spell goes awry . She appears in the second film and was written out of the series and was never seen again but was briefly mentioned in the third film when Andy re-encounters Chucky again . She was also briefly mentioned to have kept in contact with Andy in Curse as he kept a photo of her . Kyle later returned in Cult in the post-credits scene where actress Christine Elise reprised her role . Mr. Sullivan ( played by Peter Haskell ) The greedy and arrogant CEO of Good Guy Toys Inc. , First appears in Child 's Play 2 upon learning of Andy 's Good Guy Doll supposedly becoming possessed by the soul of Charles Lee Ray , and tries to protect the company 's reputation from angry stockholders . He also appears in Child 's Play 3 when he moves Good Guy Toys forward with producing more dolls , however , he is killed by Chucky when he accesses Sullivan 's office computer to find Andy in Military School . Ronald Tyler ( played by Jeremy Sylvers ) A young private boy who befriends Andy at the military school he is sent to after failing to cope with living at several foster homes . When he finds Chucky ( who mailed himself to the same military school to go after Andy again ) , he decides to go after Tyler instead . At first , Tyler finds Chucky to be a nice guy but realizes the true colours of the doll 's evil murderous ways once he attempts to transfer his soul into his body much like he attempted to do with Andy in the first two films . Appears in the third film , only to be written out of the series but was originally going to be killed off alongside Andy in the original draft to Seed of Chucky . Kristen De Silva ( played by Perrey Reeves ) Andy 's girlfriend at the military school he attends , ends up sticking up for him when Shelton and the other guys take a liking in bullying him . Appears only in the third film . Jack Santos ( played by Tommy Swerdlow ) Mike 's partner who was also investigating Andy 's babysitter 's death . In the beginning of the first film , he was mostly the cop who drove Mike 's car to chase Eddie Caputo in his van . He was also one of the police officers that believed Andy was the killer . During the end , he tried to show Mike that Chucky was n't alive , but was nearly killed by him and then he believed that the Barclays and Mike were telling the truth . He only appeared in the first film . Tiffany Valentine ( played by Jennifer Tilly ) Charles Lee Ray 's former girlfriend ( and later wife / partner ) who later gets her soul stuck in a doll like Chucky . She ultimately transfers her soul into actress Jennifer Tilly ( her doppelganger and portrayer ) in Seed after being fed up with her husband 's intent to remain a doll . In Curse , she is shown to be living a double life as both her regular self and Tilly . Appears in Bride , Seed , Curse and Cult . Jennifer Tilly ( played by herself ) An exaggerated version of Tilly , herself , and Tiffany 's idol . She first appears in Bride under her role as Tiffany . Appears in Seed as herself and the voice of Tiffany . Tiffany was successful in transferring her soul into Tilly 's body . Also appears in Curse and Cult . Glen ( played by Billy Boyd and human form portrayed by Beans Balawi ) Chucky and Tiffany 's original child and Glenda 's twin brother . He was an orphan for the first five or six years of his life until he saw his parents on television . Glen is a good person , and he does n't like violence and definitely does not like murder unlike his parents . Though Tiffany promised him that they will refrain from killing , Chucky tries to get Glen involved in the family business . He fears but still loves his dad due to the fact he killed him in a misunderstanding . He is the only living doll character not to be voiced by an Academy Award nominee . Appears in Bride ( at the end as an infant ) and Seed . He does not appear in Curse , nor is there any mention of him . Glenda Ray ( human form played by Kristina Hewitt ) Chucky and Tiffany 's second child and the twin sister of Glen . She was originally Glen 's alter ego for a brief moment , but was reborn as a human . Unlike Glen , she is violent , sadistic , and cruel . She is even more ruthless than her father , implying she possibly will take on the family business . Appears in Seed . Jesse Miller ( played by Nick Stabile ) The former friend of Tiffany Ray and boyfriend of Jade . He was greatly disliked by Jade 's uncle and believed to be responsible for his death until Chucky and Tiffany reveal themselves . In the end , Jade kills Chucky and she and Jesse leave the scene . He also appears in a Chucky comic continuation . Appears in Bride of Chucky and mentioned in Seed of Chucky . Jade Kincaid ( played by Katherine Heigl ) The girlfriend of Jesse . Her uncle Warren is killed by Chucky and Tiffany early in the film . In the end , Jade shoots Chucky and she and Jesse leave the scene . She also appears with Jesse in another struggle with Chucky in a comic book continuation . Appears in Bride of Chucky and mentioned in Seed of Chucky . Crew ( edit ) Role Films Child 's Play Child 's Play 2 Child 's Play 3 Bride of Chucky Seed of Chucky Curse of Chucky Cult of Chucky Director Tom Holland John Lafia Jack Bender Ronny Yu Don Mancini Writer ( s ) Don Mancini John Lafia Tom Holland Don Mancini Producer ( s ) David Kirschner Robert Latham Brown David Kirschner David Kirschner David Kirschner Ogden Gavanski Grace Gilroy Corey Sienega Composer ( s ) Joe Renzetti Graeme Revell Cory Lerios John D'Andrea Graeme Revell Pino Donaggio Joseph LoDuca Cinematography Bill Butler Stefan Czapsky John R. Leonetti Peter Pau Vernon Layton Michael Marshall Editor ( s ) Edward Warschilka Roy E. Peterson Edward Warschilka Scott Wallace Edward A. Warschilka Jr . David Wu Randy Bricker Chris Dickens James Coblentz Randy Bricker Production company United Artists Living Doll Productions Universal Pictures David Kirschner Productions La Sienega Productions Universal 1440 Entertainment David Kirschner Productions Distributor Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer / United Artists Universal Pictures Rogue / Relativity Media Universal Pictures Running time 87 minutes 84 minutes 90 minutes 89 minutes 86 minutes 97 minutes 91 minutes Release date November 9 , 1988 ( 1988 - 11 - 09 ) November 9 , 1990 ( 1990 - 11 - 09 ) August 30 , 1991 ( 1991 - 08 - 30 ) October 16 , 1998 ( 1998 - 10 - 16 ) November 12 , 2004 ( 2004 - 11 - 12 ) October 8 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 08 ) October 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 03 ) Reception ( edit ) Box Office performance ( edit ) Film Release date Box office revenue Budget Reference North America Other territories Worldwide Worldwide adjusted Child 's Play November 9 , 1988 $33,244,684 $10,952,000 $44,196,684 $83,933,325 $9,000,000 Child 's Play 2 November 9 , 1990 $28,501,605 $7,262,000 $35,763,605 $64,740,872 $13,000,000 Child 's Play 3 August 30 , 1991 $14,960,255 $5,600,000 $20,560,255 $35,716,113 $13,000,000 Bride of Chucky October 16 , 1998 $32,404,188 $18,288,000 $50,692,188 $73,581,099 $25,000,000 Seed of Chucky November 12 , 2004 $17,083,732 $7,745,912 $24,829,644 $31,099,354 $12,000,000 Total $126,194,464 $49,847,912 $176,042,376 $289,070,763 $64,000,000 List indicator ( s ) A dark grey cell indicates the information is not available for the film . ( E ) indicates an estimated figure based on available numbers . Critical reaction ( edit ) Film Rotten Tomatoes CinemaScore Child 's Play 67 % ( 36 reviews ) Child 's Play 2 40 % ( 15 reviews ) A - Child 's Play 3 23 % ( 13 reviews ) B - Bride of Chucky 46 % ( 35 reviews ) Seed of Chucky 32 % ( 75 reviews ) C+ Curse of Chucky 83 % ( 18 reviews ) Cult of Chucky 83 % ( 18 reviews ) Average 53 % List indicator ( s ) A dark grey cell indicates the information is not available for the film . Music ( edit ) Joe Renzetti composed the first Child 's Play , followed by Graeme Revell , who composed the soundtrack for Child 's Play 2 and Bride of Chucky . John D'Andrea and Cory Lerios wrote the score for Child 's Play 3 , while Pino Donaggio composed Seed of Chucky . Joseph LoDuca composed the score for Curse of Chucky and Cult of Chucky . Controversies ( edit ) The following crimes have been associated with the Child 's Play films : In December 1992 four people who tortured and killed 16 - year - old Suzanne Capper were said to be influenced by one of the Child 's Play movies . During the torturing of the girl , the perpetrators taunted her by playing her a song , ( Hi , I 'm Chucky ( Wanna Play ? ) by 150 Volts , featuring samples from the movie Child 's Play . In 1993 , two youths who abducted and murdered a toddler named James Bulger were said to have been influenced by the film Child 's Play 3 . The supposed link between the murder and the film was denied by film censor James Ferman . According to a relative of two boys aged 10 and 12 who brutally attacked a nine - year - old and 11 - year - old boy in Edlington , South Yorkshire in April 2009 , the attackers watched horror movies , including Chucky films , from the age of about six or seven . Elena Lobacheva , a Russian serial killer arrested in 2015 , was reportedly obsessed with the film Bride of Chucky , which she cited as being an inspiration for the murders that she and her gang committed throughout Moscow . Comic books ( edit ) Innovation Publishing ( edit ) Beginning in 1992 , Innovation Publishing released the first comic books based on the films , in the form of a three - issue adaptation of Child 's Play 2 . It was later collected in a trade paperback . The success of the adaptation led to a monthly series of new stories starting in 1991 . The series , titled Child 's Play : The Series , ended in 1992 after only five issues . This was followed by a three - issue adaptation of Child 's Play 3 . Devil 's due Publishing ( edit ) In 2007 , Devil 's Due Publishing obtained the license to publish Child 's Play comics and released a one - shot crossover with Hack / Slash titled Hack / Slash vs. Chucky which takes place after the events of the Seed of Chucky film . This was followed by a four - issue series called Chucky . A second volume began in early 2009 but ceased publication after only one issue . Video game ( edit ) Main article : Chucky : Slash & Dash Slimstown Studios announced an endless runner video game titled Chucky : Slash & Dash . The game is scheduled to be released on iPhone , iPad , iPod Touch and Android devices . It is the result of an agreement with Universal Partnerships & Licensing to develop and publish the first officially licensed smartphone and tablet Child 's Play video game . The gameplay is actually inspired by the second film 's climax . In the game , Chucky is stuck in a never - ending nightmare in which he 's endlessly running through the factory that produces Good Guys dolls . Players control Chucky while sprinting through the factory floor , the catwalks , the warehouse , or even outside , and need to avoid conveyor belts , forklifts , acid pools , barrels and other obstacles . Chucky can also eliminate security guards patrolling the factory using his classic knife or other more outlandish weapons like a cleaver , screwdriver , or hatchet . As they play , gamers collect batteries that can be used to purchase in - game items or power - ups , such as a double battery bonus , a fast start , or extra lives that can extend a run after dying . The app was released on November 1 , 2013 . Halloween horror Nights ( edit ) Since 1992 , Chucky has starred in his own shows at Universal Studios Halloween Horror Nights , entitled , Chucky 's In - Your - Face Insults and Chucky 's Insult Emporium . In 2009 , the climax of Child 's Play 3 received its own maze , entitled Chucky 's Fun House . Curse of Chucky has also received its own scarezone in the 2013 lineup . In 2017 , Chucky played host to the Titans of Terror Tram which featured iconic horror villains Leatherface , Freddy Krueger , and Jason Voorhees . See also ( edit ) Film portal 1980s portal Horror fiction portal Don Mancini David Kirschner Killer toys Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The film originally debuted on VOD before later being released on DVD and Blu - ray . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Bryan Alexander ( October 8 , 2013 ) . `` After 25 years , Chucky is both a blessing and a ' Curse ' '' . USA Today . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` New Child 's Play sequel , Curse of Chucky , Coming to DVD '' . IGN. 2012 - 06 - 23 . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Clark Collins ( January 5 , 2017 ) . `` Cult of Chucky : Horror sequel plot details , teaser video revealed '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Faux , Ronald ; Frost , Bill ( 1993 - 11 - 25 ) . `` Boys guilty of Bulger murder '' . The Times . London . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Interview : Don Mancini Talks CULT OF CHUCKY and the Enduring Controversy of SEED OF CHUCKY - Daily Dead '' . Dailydead.com . October 5 , 2017 . Retrieved October 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Child 's Play TV series coming - Coming Soon '' . Coming soon.net . February 9 , 2018 . Retrieved February 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Referred to as Chucky on the Orient Express . Jump up ^ Brad Miska ( October 28 , 2014 ) . `` ' Child 's Play ' On a Train ? Freddy Vs. Chucky ? Don Mancini Dreams ... '' . Bloody Disgusting . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child Play 's Writer Has The Best Idea For A Chucky Crossover With Freddy Krueger '' . 17 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Langshaw , Mark ( 26 October 2017 ) . `` 10 Things You Did n't Know About Chucky '' . WhatCulture.com . Jump up ^ `` ' Child 's Play ' Reboot In the Works at MGM From ' It ' Producers '' . 3 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Exclusive : Aubrey Plaza , Brian Tyree Henry in Talks to Star in ' Child 's Play ' Reboot '' . 19 September 2018 . Jump up ^ https://screenrant.com/childs-play-movie-reboot-cast-filming-start/ ^ Jump up to : Squires , John ( 22 June 2018 ) . `` Don Mancini Teases `` Child 's Play : The TV Series , '' Coming Soon ! `` . Bloody Disgusting . Jump up ^ Movieclips Trailers ( 1 October 2013 ) . `` Chucky Invades Psycho - Horror Movie MashUp ( 2013 ) Film HD '' -- via YouTube . Jump up ^ Movieclips Trailers ( 4 October 2013 ) . `` Chucky Invades The Purge - Horror Movie MashUp ( 2013 ) Film HD '' -- via YouTube . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play ( 1988 ) '' . AFI Catalog of Feature Films . Retrieved January 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 2 ( 1990 ) '' . AFI Catalog of Feature Films . Retrieved January 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 3 ( 1991 ) '' . AFI Catalog of Feature Films . Retrieved January 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bride of Chucky ( 1998 ) '' . AFI Catalog of Feature Films . Retrieved January 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Seed of Chucky ( 2004 ) '' . AFI Catalog of Feature Films . Retrieved February 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play ( 1988 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play ( 1988 ) '' . The - Numbers . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 2 ( 1990 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Movie Child 's Play 2 - Box Office Data '' . The Numbers . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 3 ( 1991 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bride of Chucky ( 1998 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bride of Chucky - Box Office Data '' . The Numbers . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Seed of Chucky ( 2004 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play '' . CinemaScore . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 2 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 2 '' . CinemaScore . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 3 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Child 's Play 3 '' . CinemaScore . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bride of Chucky '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bride of Chucky '' . CinemaScore . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Seed of Chucky '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Seed of Chucky '' . CinemaScore . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Curse of Chucky '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cult of Chucky '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved October 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Davis , Carol Anne ( 2007 ) . Sadistic Killers : Profiles of pathological predators . Chichester : Summersdale Publishing . pp. 298 -- 304 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84024 - 581 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Film censor Ferman dies '' . BBC News . December 25 , 2002 . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Boys ' mother ' fed them cannabis ' '' . BBC News . September 3 , 2009 . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McIntyre , Niamh ( 26 October 2017 ) . `` Bride of Chucky serial killer who derived sexual pleasure from killing jailed '' . independent.co.uk . The Independent . Retrieved 28 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Webb , Charles ( August 30 , 2013 ) . `` Child 's Play Killer Chucky The Unlikely Hero of Endless Runner Chucky : Slash & Dash '' . MTV . Retrieved October 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Alyse Wax ( August 15 , 2013 ) . `` Universal Studios Halloween Horror Nights Introduces Chucky and Purge Scarezones '' . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2013 . Retrieved August 18 , 2013 . Child 's Play Films Child 's Play ( 1988 ) Child 's Play 2 Child 's Play 3 Bride of Chucky Seed of Chucky Curse of Chucky Cult of Chucky Child 's Play ( TBA ) Characters Charles Lee `` Chucky '' Ray Andy Barclay Tiffany Valentine Nica Pierce Kyle Video games Chucky : Slash & Dash Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Child%27s_Play_(franchise)&oldid=866120929 '' Categories : Child 's Play ( film series ) Universal Studios franchises American serial killer films American slasher films American comedy horror films American black comedy films Horror films by series Films about dolls Films adapted into comics Films adapted into video games Media franchises introduced in 1988 Media franchises Hidden categories : Articles with short description Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Deutsch Español Français עברית Polski Русский Simple English Suomi 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2018 , at 11 : 24 ( UTC ) . 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who are the interns in grey's anatomy season 9

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Grey%27s_Anatomy_(season_9)&oldid=843198984

Grey 's Anatomy ( season 9 ) - wikipedia Grey 's Anatomy ( season 9 ) Grey 's Anatomy ( season 9 ) DVD cover art for the ninth season of Grey 's Anatomy Starring Ellen Pompeo Sandra Oh Justin Chambers Chandra Wilson James Pickens , Jr . Sara Ramirez Eric Dane Kevin McKidd Jessica Capshaw Sarah Drew Jesse Williams Patrick Dempsey Country of origin United States No. of episodes 24 Release Original network ABC Original release September 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 27 ) -- May 16 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 8 Next → Season 10 List of Grey 's Anatomy episodes The ninth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy began airing in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on September 27 , 2012 , with the season premiere Going , Going , Gone and consists of 24 episodes with the finale Perfect Storm airing on May 16 , 2013 . The season was produced by ABC Studios , in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company ; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes . The season was officially released on DVD as a six - disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy : The Complete Ninth Season - Everything Changes on August 27 , 2013 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment . The season follows the characters dealing with the aftermath of the season eight plane crash that claimed the life of Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) and upon rescue Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , who dies after sustaining injuries from the crash . Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) finds his surgical career in doubt after badly damaging his hand but Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) ultimately manages to save his hand . The show 's protagonist Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) deals with the loss of her half - sister Lexie and later discovers that she is pregnant . Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) who is severely traumatized upon rescue and later decides to take up her fellowship in Minnesota . Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) another survivor of the plane crash upon return realizes that her leg has to be amputated to save her life , reacts badly to this , becoming bitter and blaming her wife Callie and her former friend Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) . To prevent the doctors ' court case from being thrown out , Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) decides to divorce Yang , but the two agree to start again . The hospital itself becomes liable for the crash , putting its future in extreme doubt prompting the four crash survivors and Torres to purchase the hospital . Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) marries her partner Ben Warren ( Jason George ) , April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) returns home to Ohio , but is brought back by Hunt to rejoin the hospital and she restarts her relationship with Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) . The season ended with an average of 12.51 million viewers and ranked no . 26 which was higher than the previous two seasons and in the 18 - 49 key demographic ranked at no . 10 . Ellen Pompeo won the Favorite TV Drama Actress at the 39th People 's Choice Awards and the show itself won the Favorite Network TV Drama . It was announced by ABC on May 10 , 2013 that the tenth season of Grey 's Anatomy would begin in the fall of 2013 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plots 2 Cast 2.1 Main cast 2.2 Recurring cast 2.3 Casting 2.4 Development 3 Reception 3.1 Ratings 3.2 Critical reception 4 Episodes 5 Ratings 5.1 Live + SD ratings 5.2 Live + 7 Day ( DVR ) ratings 6 DVD release 7 References Plots ( edit ) The season follows the story of surgical interns , residents and their competent mentors , as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen . It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace - Mercy West Hospital , located in Seattle , Washington . A major theme of the season is the characters adapting to change , as all of the fifth - year surgical residents have turned into surgical attendings , and are now teaching interns , and operating on their own surgeries . The early episodes of the season depict the characters dealing with the aftermath of the season eight plane crash that claimed the life of Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) and upon rescue Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , who dies in the first episode . Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) finds his surgical career in doubt after badly damaging his hand but ultimately his sister Liz ( Neve Campbell ) donates a nerve from her leg and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) is able to save his hand . Later , Shepherd receives more good news when his wife Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) discovers that she is pregnant , despite her previously being told that it was unlikely that she could conceive . Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) is severely traumatized upon rescue and suffers from brief reactive psychosis and eventually decides to take up her fellowship in Minnesota , though soon grows unhappy in her new surroundings and returns to Seattle after the death of her friend and mentor , Doctor Thomas . Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) survives the plane crash in spite of her leg injury , but upon return her wound becomes infected and her leg has to be amputated to save her life . Robbins reacts badly to this , becoming bitter and blaming her wife Callie and her former friend Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) and refuses to leave her bed or return to work . Derek discovers that prior to the plane crash , the hospital had recently changed airlines to one with a poorer safety record for budgetary reasons , resulting in the four crash survivors ( Grey , Shepherd , Robbins and Yang ) deciding to pursue a lawsuit , and it soon becomes apparent that chief of surgery Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) had given the go - ahead to the change . To prevent the doctors ' court case from being thrown out , Hunt decides to divorce Yang , but the two secretly resume their relationship and agree to start again . Despite contemplating a settlement , the doctors decide to continue with the lawsuit and eventually are awarded fifteen million dollars each , but the insurance company discovers an unexpected loophole and refuse to pay , resulting in the hospital itself becoming liable , putting its future in extreme doubt . Dr. Alana Cahill ( Constance Zimmer ) is appointed to cut costs at the hospital and she eventually decides the best course of action would be to seek out a new buyer and attracts the interest of a company named Pegasus . Later however , Torres and Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr . ) discover the unpleasant consequences that would fall upon the hospital should they be taken over by Pegasus prompting the four crash survivors ( and Torres on the behalf of Sloan ) to pool their money together in a bid to purchase the hospital themselves and quit their jobs , resulting in Pegasus pulling out . The doctors run into trouble when they fail to secure an extra benefactor , but at the last minute Catherine Avery ( Debbie Allen ) reveals that the Harper Avery Foundation is willing to provide a majority share in the company , on the condition that they have at least one member on the board of directors . The doctors agree and their purchase is complete , only for Catherine to appoint her son Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) to part of the board , effectively putting him in charge of the entire hospital . In other storylines , Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) marries her partner Ben Warren ( Jason George ) , despite suffering from last - minute nerves and missing the original wedding ceremony due to Adele Webber ( Loretta Devine ) being admitted to the hospital . Adele later dies after her surgery , leaving her husband Richard wracked with guilt due to his relationship with Catherine Avery . A new group of interns arrives at Seattle Grace and soon Karev strikes up a close friendship with Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) but the pair fall short of developing a romance , despite other characters commenting on their chemistry . After failing her board exams in season eight , April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) returns home to Ohio , but is later brought back by Hunt and resumes her job at the hospital . Upon her return , Kepner restarts her sexual relationship with Jackson , despite being filled with conflict due to her religious beliefs . The pair eventually split up when Kepner refuses to make a commitment , and Avery starts dating intern Stephanie Edwards ( Jerrika Hinton ) , while Kepner starts dating a paramedic named Matthew ( Justin Bruening ) . Cast ( edit ) Main articles : List of Grey 's Anatomy cast members and List of Grey 's Anatomy characters Main cast ( edit ) Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber Sara Ramirez as Dr. Callie Torres Eric Dane as Dr. Mark Sloan ( Until Episode 2 ) Kevin McKidd as Dr. Owen Hunt Jessica Capshaw as Dr. Arizona Robbins Sarah Drew as Dr. April Kepner Jesse Williams as Dr. Jackson Avery Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd Recurring cast ( edit ) Loretta Devine as Adele Webber Constance Zimmer as Dr. Alana Cahill William Daniels as Dr. Craig Thomas Debbie Allen as Dr. Catherine Avery Justin Bruening as Paramedic Matthew Neve Campbell as Lizzie Shepherd Camilla Luddington as Dr. Jo Wilson Gaius Charles as Dr. Shane Ross Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards Tina Majorino as Dr. Heather Brooks Tessa Ferrer as Dr. Leah Murphy Hilarie Burton as Dr. Lauren Boswell Charles Michael Davis as Dr. Jason Myers Steven Culp as Dr. Darren Parker Eddie Jemison as Stan Grossberg Nicole Cummins as Paramedic Nicole Casting ( edit ) In May 2012 , it was announced that six original cast mates , Ellen Pompeo , Patrick Dempsey , Sandra Oh , Chandra Wilson , Justin Chambers , and James Pickens , Jr. had renewed their contracts for another two seasons , as Meredith Grey , Derek Shepherd , Cristina Yang , Miranda Bailey , Alex Karev , and Richard Webber respectively . In July 2012 , it was announced that cast member Eric Dane would not be returning to Grey 's Anatomy as a series regular , and would leave after two episodes to give his character a proper ending . In addition , Chyler Leigh requested to be released from her contract to spend more time with her family and her character was killed off in the season eight finale , while Kim Raver also departed from the show following the events of the season eight finale , having declined the offer of a contract extension . Other series regulars , Sara Ramirez , Kevin McKidd , Jessica Capshaw , Sarah Drew , and Jesse Williams all returned to the series as regulars , though Capshaw would not have a major role in the first few episodes because of her maternity leave . Eric Dane made his final appearance as Mark Sloan in the second episode as he succumbed to his injuries from the crash . In August 2012 , it was announced that Camilla Luddington , Gaius Charles , and Tina Majorino had been cast as Jo Wilson , Shane Ross , and Heather Brooks , respectively ; these characters would be the new interns of Seattle Grace - Mercy West . TVGuide later reported that even with all of the recurring cast being added to Grey 's Anatomy for the new season that True Blood star Camilla Luddington is the only actress with an option to become a series regular . In September 2012 , it was announced that Jerrika Hinton and Tessa Ferrer had been cast as new interns Stephanie Edwards and Leah Murphy , respectively . In August 2012 , it was announced that Debbie Allen would reprise her role as Catherine Avery at sometime in series , and she is set to direct the third episode . In September 2012 , it was announced that Steven Culp would be cast as a new doctor at a new hospital , and would be known as Dr. Parker . In September 2012 , it was announced that William Daniels , former Boy Meets World star , and Jason George would reprise their roles as Dr. Craig Thomas , and Ben Warren respectively . In September 2012 , TVLine reported that Bones 's Andrew Leeds had been cast in a potentially recurring role for the ninth season . In December 2012 , Wetpaint reported that Constance Zimmer had been cast in a recurring role as Dr. Cahill and would appear in at least four episodes . In November 2012 it was announced that Neve Campbell , known for her role in Scream , would be cast as one of Derek 's sisters . It was not until late November that her role was revealed as Liz Shepherd , a therapist . In November 2012 , it was announced that in 2013 , someone would die on Grey 's Anatomy . TVGuide then reported that Loretta Devine , who is known as Adele Webber , would be reprising her role for two episodes , and that she would be the one to die . In November 2012 , TVLine reported that Nip / Tuck alum Roma Maffia was cast in a recurring role as a member of the hospital board . In December 2012 , TVLine and Wetpaint reported that Ringer and Switched at Birth star , Justin Bruening , was cast as a paramedic known as Matt . In January 2013 , it was announced that Gaius Charles , Tina Majorino , Jerrika Hinton and Tessa Ferrer were all given the option to become series regulars if Grey 's Anatomy were to be renewed . Sarah Chalke is set to guest star in an episode in the spring , as TVLine reported in January 2013 . It was announced by E ! Online on March 29 , One Tree Hill alumni Hilarie Burton will be cast in a recurring role as a specialist in an investigation going on in the hospital . Her character is to arrive on the 22nd episode of the season . However , this later turned out to be untrue as Hilarie Burton ended up portraying a specialist doctor named Lauren Boswell . Development ( edit ) Grey 's Anatomy was renewed by ABC on May 10 , 2012 . In June 2012 , ABC set the premiere date of Grey 's Anatomy to September 27 , 2012 , and it would remain in the Thursday at 9 : 00pm timeslot that it has had since the third season . In October 2012 it was reported that this season would have the same episode count as season eight , meaning it would have a total of 24 episodes . Shonda Rhimes revealed that the season nine finale would not revolve around a ' disaster ' episode . Reception ( edit ) Ratings ( edit ) Grey 's Anatomy 's ninth season opened up to 11.73 million viewers with a 4.4 / 12 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic . The viewership for the episode was an 11 percent increase from the previous season premiere , which was viewed by a total of 10.38 million people . The rating was a 7 percent increase from the previous season premiere , which received a 4.1 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic . The Nielsen score additionally registered the show as the week 's highest - rated drama in the 18 -- 49 demographic . As of December 2012 `` Going , Going , Gone '' has served as the season 's most viewed episode . `` Run , Baby , Run '' is the season 's least viewed episode , with 8.17 million viewers and a 2.9 / 8 Neilsen rating / share in the 18 - 49 demographic . At the time , the season finale was the series lowest watched season finale with 8.99 million viewers and 3.1 in the 18 - 49 rating demo . Loretta Devine made her final appearance as Adele in the first episode of 2013 and garnered positive reviews . Critical reception ( edit ) The season received mostly positive reviews with critics praising numerous aspects of the long running medical drama including the bonds of the characters with each other and its connection with the audience . Robert Bianco of USA Today noted that after 9 seasons , `` There 's still life left in Grey 's . '' What Culture gave a positive review for the season , `` Grey 's Anatomy has developed into a fine example of how a TV show can mature beyond its initial purpose . '' Toronto Star called it `` a solid return to form '' . TV Fanatic gave a largely positive review to the season , `` Grey 's Anatomy always knows how to bring the drama and they did not fail in the Season 9 . '' Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly also gave a generally positive response stating , `` There 's still one good reason to keep watching : Where else can you find such deep friendships between female co-workers ? Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine wrote that the first part of the season `` has been mostly a downer , thanks in part to a whole bunch of people dying at the beginning of the season and also the shocking lack of interesting romances . '' Examiner.com reviewing the season finale wrote , `` ( Greys ) delivered yet another epic and emotional season finale that pushes our characters in challenging new directions '' . The site added , `` Perfect Storm gets 5 out of 5 stars . This storm brought on all kinds of emotional strife and death that truly tests the seasoned doctors and pushes them to their element . They bond together , guiding each other through the dark and as the dust settles from this mayhem , there are casualties of all kinds . The tragedy that leaves us hanging until next fall is one hell of a thrill ride full to the brim with shocks . '' Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of Grey 's Anatomy episodes The number in the `` No. in series '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the `` No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . `` U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 173 `` Going , Going , Gone '' Rob Corn Stacy McKee September 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 27 ) 11.73 Several months after the plane crash , Callie and Derek are heartbroken when they realize that they have to take Mark off of life support . Cristina has moved to Rochester , Minnesota and Meredith encourages her to get on a plane to Seattle . Alex worries that the new pediatric surgeon will destroy Arizona 's program . Frustrated with his past decisions , Owen visits April and offers her her job back . Meanwhile , Meredith 's ruthlessness towards her interns earns her the nickname `` Medusa '' . At the end of the episode , it is revealed that Arizona did survive , but had to have her leg amputated by Callie , whom she resents because of it . 174 `` Remember the Time '' Tony Phelan William Harper October 4 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 04 ) 10.84 A flashback to the aftermath of the plane crash recounts how the doctors dealt with the disaster . Meredith accepts what has happened , and wants to move on with her life , while Derek , afraid he wo n't regain full use of his hand , turns to teaching . Cristina is catatonic , but slowly recovers under Owen 's care . Arizona is afraid of losing her leg , but after the infection takes a turn for the worse , Callie is forced to make the decision to amputate . Mark is in critical condition , but takes a turn for the better before falling into a coma . 175 `` Love the One You 're With '' Debbie Allen Zoanne Clack October 18 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 18 ) 9.69 Meredith , Derek , Cristina , Callie and Arizona are offered a large amount of money as a settlement deal from the plane 's manufacturer , but the decision has to be unanimous . Jackson and April are put in a stressful situation when they 're obligated to work together on a case . Cristina warms up to Dr. Thomas . Callie has to convince a young girl ( Skyler Day ) with a nearly severed foot to postpone her solo sailing trip in order to save her foot . After visiting the hangar where the crashed plane now sits , Derek decides not to accept the settlement and convinces the others as well . Arizona is bitter towards Callie for making the call to cut off her leg . 176 `` I Saw Her Standing There '' Kevin McKidd Austin Guzman October 25 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 25 ) 8.76 Realizing Derek might never perform surgery again , Meredith stops discussing her cases with him in hopes of keeping his spirits up . While Arizona is in the hospital getting a prosthetic leg , Alex and Callie face the consequences of deciding to amputate. Jackson and April continue to have sex together , while Richard asks Catherine Avery to assist him with the surgery of a man whose testicles have grown to great proportions . Cristina starts sleeping with Dr. Parker but stops when she finds out that he has been using her to force Dr. Thomas to retire . 177 5 `` Beautiful Doom '' Stephen Cragg Jeannine Renshaw November 8 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 08 ) 9.26 Meredith is forced to juggle parenting with work when Derek has a lecture in Boston . On her way to work , she comes across a car accident and rushes to help a woman whose injuries remind her of Lexie . Meredith and Cristina lean on each other and maintain their long - distance friendship . Meredith is adamant about saving her patient 's life , despite complications in surgery . Cristina assists Dr. Thomas with a cardiac case , when he suddenly suffers a heart attack during the operation . Following Dr. Thomas ' death , Cristina returns to Seattle . 178 6 `` Second Opinion '' Chandra Wilson William Harper November 15 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 15 ) 8.84 Cristina returns to Seattle Grace . The crash victims meet with the legal team to decide their actions with moving forward with the lawsuit . Alex asks Meredith to sell him her mother 's house . Jo works with a patient dubbed `` Santa Claus '' who constantly vomits over her and realizes he 's been misdiagnosed . Callie feels guilty about Derek 's botched hand surgery , while Bailey asks Arizona for help on a case . Jackson admits to April that he has feelings for her . The victims of the plane crash find out that the legal team is actually going after the hospital and Owen for their settlement deal . 179 7 `` I Was Made for Lovin ' You '' Laura Innes Peter Nowalk November 29 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 29 ) 8.95 Arizona returns to the hospital and works on a case with Alex and April . Owen feels responsible for the crash after finding out he switched the hospital 's airline prior to the crash due to budget cuts . Bailey begins resenting having a Christmas wedding , while she and Cristina work on a patient who needs a liver transplant . April and Jackson have a pregnancy scare but break up when the test is negative . Callie and Jackson research options to fix Derek 's hand . Cristina realizes she wants Owen back , but just before telling him , he asks for a divorce . Meredith tells Derek that she is three weeks pregnant , but does n't want anyone else to know . 180 8 `` Love Turns You Upside Down '' Mark Jackson Stacy McKee December 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 06 ) 9.10 The first - year interns go on their first 24 - hour shift ; Meredith tasks her intern , Heather , with calling Derek 's family to ask if they would donate a nerve for his hand surgery . Alex and Jo work together on a premature baby whose teen mother abandons her , leading Jo to admit to Alex that she was also abandoned as an infant . Cristina 's interns take their rivalry too far and are reprimanded when their negligence almost leads to the death of a patient . Heather finds out that Meredith is pregnant . Derek 's sister , Liz ( Neve Campbell ) comes to Seattle to donate her nerve to Derek . 181 9 `` Run , Baby , Run '' Rob Corn Debora Cahn December 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 13 ) 8.17 With her wedding fast approaching , Bailey enlists April to take care of her patients and asks Meredith , Callie , and Arizona to be her bridesmaids . Meredith and Derek have their first ultrasound . Cristina finds out Owen wants the divorce to avoid being caught in a conflict of interest during the investigation into the crash ; after confronting him , they decide to save their relationship . April and Jackson decide to go the wedding with a date , deciding on Shane and Stephanie , respectively . Callie and Jackson operate on Liz and Derek , and Meredith tells Liz about the pregnancy . When Jo cuts too deep during a surgery with Alex , she feels she was set up and complains to Arizona . On their way to the wedding , Richard comforts Bailey when she starts having cold feet , but when Richard gets a call that Adele is in the ER , they are forced to return to the hospital . 182 10 `` Things We Said Today '' Ron Underwood Austin Guzman January 10 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 10 ) 9.34 As Bailey rushes to save Adele 's life , everyone at the wedding wonders where she is . Arizona tells Callie that she wants to try to have sex for the first time since the plane crash . Cristina and Owen debate whether to go through with the divorce , while a motorcycle gang is brought to the hospital after a car accident . Alex and Jo bond over their similar childhoods in foster care . Meredith and Bailey successfully operate on Adele and Bailey returns to her wedding . Richard shows up after the ceremony and when Meredith walks over he tells her that Adele has died from a heart attack . 183 11 `` The End is the Beginning is the End '' Cherie Nowlan Joan Rater January 17 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 17 ) 8.80 A decision is reached regarding the plane crash case , with the hospital found guilty of negligence , and each of the survivors is awarded $15 million in compensation . Callie decides to throw a celebration dinner . Jackson performs surgery on Sloan 's old patient , and has a disagreement with Arizona over the procedure used . In order to train his hand post-surgery , Derek starts playing ping - pong . Grieving over his wife , Richard has withdrawn , causing the doctors around him to worry . Meredith , Richard and Heather work on a patient who eats her hair as a coping mechanism and to deal with the overbearing mother . At Callie 's dinner , Meredith reveals that she 's pregnant . Meanwhile , at the hospital , Owen finds out that the insurance company wo n't pay the crash compensation due to a loophole in the contract and the hospital paying for it would result in bankruptcy . 184 12 `` Walking on a Dream '' Rob Hardy Tia Napolitano January 24 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 24 ) 9.01 Dr. Alana Cahill , a financial advisor , is hired to find ways to save the hospital money . Meredith tries to deal with unpredictable pregnancy hormones while trying to save the life of a pregnant woman in dire need of a new liver . Arizona , Alex , and Cristina operate on a little girl from the hospital 's Africa program . Owen helps Arizona deal with phantom leg syndrome as she begins feeling pain in her no longer existing leg . Derek returns to performing surgeries and operates on an old patient with a brain tumor . April is asked out on a date by a paramedic . Meredith faces her fear of flying when she has to fly to Oregon to get a liver for her patient while dealing with her pregnancy hormones . At a staff meeting , Dr. Cahill explains that the only way to help save the hospital from closing its doors is to shut down the ER . 185 13 `` Bad Blood '' Steve Robin Jeannine Renshaw January 31 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 31 ) 8.93 As a part of streamlining daily operations , Dr. Cahill has new cameras put in the hospital . Derek and April work together to find a way for the hospital to keep the ER open . Meredith , Bailey , and Richard are given a class on a new technique for hernias , only to learn that the new policies put the number of procedures before patients . Dr. Cahill assists Owen with the case of the ER 's final patient . Cristina and Leah work on a young man who is critically injured , but is not given a blood transfusion due to his beliefs as a Jehovah 's Witness ; Leah is reprimanded when she tries to give him blood in an attempt to save his life . Arizona , Callie , and Alex work on a young gymnast who is depressed following her double hip replacement . It is revealed that Dr. Cahill closed the ER because she 's finding a buyer for the hospital . 186 14 `` The Face of Change '' Rob Greenlea Stacy McKee February 7 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) 8.91 In order to sell the hospital , Dr. Cahill suggests finding a photogenic doctor to be `` the face of the hospital '' in the advertising campaign to attract prospective buyers . During a date with Matthew , April rides along on a call to help a badly injured boy ; with the nearest ER too far away , they secretly bring him back to Seattle Grace . With Dr. Cahill busy showing the hospital to the prospective buyers , Pegasus , April and the other attendings go behind Chief Hunt 's back to pull off the surgery . Meanwhile , Callie and Richard go `` undercover '' to Portland General , another hospital owned by Pegasus , and learn discouraging things about their management practices , leading to Callie proposing a surprising plan . Alex and Jackson operate on a transgender teenager whose father does n't want him to transition . 187 15 `` Hard Bargain '' Tony Phelan William Harper February 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 14 ) 8.57 The plane - crash victims discuss whether they should buy the hospital , with everyone but Arizona on board . Derek is mortified when he finds that agreeing to be the new face of the hospital is more than he intended . April goes to Jackson for dating advice . Dr. Bailey and Arizona work on the case of a young cancer patient who is in need of a genome mapping procedure , but the procedure is not approved by Owen due to the new budget constraints . The crash victims learn that Pegasus is due to buy the hospital that night and , led by Derek , resort to drastic measures to prevent the sale . 188 16 `` This Is Why We Fight '' Jeannot Szwarc Austin Guzman February 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 21 ) 8.75 Dr. Cahill convinces Pegasus to resubmit their bid ; meanwhile , Meredith , Derek , Cristina , Callie , and Arizona meet up with an investor whose capital is needed to buy the hospital . Heather overhears Dr. Cahill saying that Pegasus is buying the hospital only to liquidate its assets and fire the staff . After being turned down due to lack of management experience , Meredith and Cristina work to get Richard and Owen on board , but a second meeting with the investor also goes poorly . Jackson considers moving to Boston , as the news of liquidation plans spreads . After talking with Richard , Catherine offers the Avery Foundation 's investment in the hospital , but only if Jackson sits on the Board of Directors , effectively running the hospital . 189 17 `` Transplant Wasteland '' Chandra Wilson Zoanne Clack March 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 14 ) 8.20 The transition to new management has the doctors at each other 's throats , with much of the frustration directed at an equally frustrated Jackson , whom many felt should not be on the board due to his youth and lack of management experience . Matters become worse when Owen quits as chief , leaving the OR board in complete disarray when the attendings are all swamped with surgeries . At the board meeting , Jackson proposes that the hospital be renamed `` Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital '' and to reopen the ER . 190 18 `` Idle Hands '' David Greenspan Gabriel Llanas March 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 21 ) 9.39 The ER reopens after extensive remodeling and includes new state - of - the - art technology . Meredith worries that something might be wrong with the baby . Cristina is frustrated when her new administrative duties cut into her medical research time . Callie and Arizona work on improving their sex life . Bailey is pushing for the hospital to sponsor her genome sequencing project . Meredith starts `` catastrophizing '' about potential congentinal defects before she and Derek find out the sex . 191 19 `` Ca n't Fight This Feeling '' Mark Jackson Meg Marinis March 28 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 28 ) 9.02 The hospital is overrun by patients following a gas tanker explosion . Owen bonds with a boy whose parents were both injured in the crash . Meredith takes interest in the case of a boy whose mother believes he is more sick than the tests indicate . Callie prepares for her TED conference speech with help from Arizona . Meredith asks Dr. Bailey to map Zola 's genetic history and her genome to check for Alzheimer 's genetic markers . 192 20 `` She 's Killing Me '' Nicole Rubio Debora Cahn April 4 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 04 ) 8.58 Meredith and Derek update their wills and healthcare directives when Meredith tests positive for several genetic markers of Alzheimer 's . The attendings train two Syrian doctors in performing lifesaving surgeries in the field without much modern equipment , anesthesia or electricity . Derek recognizes that Heather has potential for neurosurgery and focuses on teaching her , much to Shane 's chagrin . Owen continues to spend time with the boy whose parents are still in critical condition following the gas tanker crash . Bailey finds herself in hot water when several of her patients are found to have a staph infection . 193 21 `` Sleeping Monster '' Bobby Roth Bronwyn Garrity April 25 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 25 ) 8.24 The CDC comes to the hospital to investigate the post-op infections in Dr. Bailey 's patients . Tensions flare when Jackson does n't side with the rest of the board in supporting Dr. Bailey . Meredith wants Cristina present during her labor . Matthew asks April to give him a second chance . Alex admits to Cristina that he loves Jo . The CDC investigation concludes that the cause of the infection is in the surgical gloves used during Dr. Bailey 's surgeries . 194 22 `` Do You Believe in Magic ? '' Kevin McKidd Dan Bucatinsky May 2 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 02 ) 8.87 Despite being cleared by the CDC , Dr. Bailey locks herself in her lab , feeling betrayed by her colleagues . Meredith and Richard operate on a magician 's assistant literally sawed in half during a magic trick gone awry. April and Jackson rekindle their friendship . Owen continues to care for Ethan , whose father is still in a coma . Dr. Lauren Boswell , a craniofacial surgeon , works with Arizona and Jackson on a complex case of a baby whose brain is on the outside of his skull . Alex tries to avoid Jo , but she comes to him for help when her boyfriend physically abuses her . 195 23 `` Readiness is All '' Tony Phelan William Harper May 9 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 09 ) 8.97 A major storm is heading for Seattle and the hospital is preparing for an influx of patients . Alex brings Jo 's boyfriend to the hospital after finding him badly beaten ; after being treated , Alex threatens him not to report Jo to the police . Matthew proposes to April . Ethan 's father wakes up after nine days in a coma , crushing Owen 's dreams of adopting Ethan . Meredith falls down a staircase , but the baby is confirmed to be fine . Dr. Bailey is still hesitant to have contact with patients . Following their surgery , Arizona and Dr. Boswell have a close encounter in an on - call room . As the storm rolls in and the power goes out , Meredith goes into labor . 196 24 `` Perfect Storm '' Rob Corn Stacy McKee May 16 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) 8.99 The hospital continues to operate despite the power outage . Meredith requires a C - section , which is performed in the dark ; the baby is born healthy , but her earlier fall causes serious abdominal bleeding . Alex , Jo and Arizona must deal with chaos when oxygen machines in the NICU stop working . Cristina operates on Richard 's patient by listening to his heart in the dark . The ER staff rush to help the passengers of a burning bus . April questions her engagement to Matthew when she believes that Jackson has died in the bus explosion . Alex tells Jo he loves her , she reciprocates , and they begin a relationship . Callie finds out about Arizona 's encounter with Dr. Boswell . Cristina breaks up with Owen . Dr. Bailey returns to the OR when she has to perform emergency surgery on Meredith . While trying to fix the emergency generators and restore the lights , Richard is electrocuted due to the water in the basement . Ratings ( edit ) Live + SD ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) Rating / Share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( m ) 18 -- 49 Rank Viewership rank Drama rank 173 `` Going , Going , Gone '' September 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 27 ) Thursdays 9 : 00 P.M. 4.4 / 12 11.73 6 16 174 `` Remember the Time '' October 4 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 04 ) 3.8 / 10 10.84 6 14 175 `` Love the One You 're With '' October 18 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 18 ) 3.4 / 9 9.69 11 21 176 `` I Saw Her Standing There '' October 25 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 25 ) 3.0 / 8 8.76 16 N / A 177 5 `` Beautiful Doom '' November 8 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 08 ) 3.3 / 8 9.26 9 20 178 6 `` Second Opinion '' November 15 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 15 ) 3.2 / 8 8.84 10 N / A 179 7 `` I Was Made for Lovin ' You '' November 29 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 29 ) 3.1 / 8 8.95 15 N / A 180 8 `` Love Turns You Upside Down '' December 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 06 ) 3.0 / 8 9.10 13 22 181 9 `` Run , Baby , Run '' December 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 13 ) 2.9 / 8 8.17 16 23 182 10 `` Things We Said Today '' January 10 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 10 ) 3.2 / 8 9.34 9 18 183 11 `` The End is the Beginning is the End '' January 17 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 17 ) 3.0 / 8 8.80 13 24 184 12 `` Walking on a Dream '' January 24 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 24 ) 3.0 / 8 9.01 12 21 185 13 `` Bad Blood '' January 31 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 31 ) 2.8 / 7 8.93 12 19 5 186 14 `` The Face of Change '' February 7 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) 3.1 / 8 8.91 14 24 187 15 `` Hard Bargain '' February 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 14 ) 2.8 / 7 8.57 11 21 188 16 `` This Is Why We Fight '' February 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 21 ) 3.1 / 8 8.75 13 N / A 189 17 `` Transplant Wasteland '' March 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 14 ) 2.6 / 7 8.20 10 18 190 18 `` Idle Hands '' March 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 21 ) 3.0 / 8 9.39 5 13 191 19 `` Ca n't Fight This Feeling '' March 28 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 28 ) 2.9 / 8 9.02 8 16 192 20 `` She 's Killing Me '' April 4 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 04 ) 2.8 / 8 8.58 13 23 193 21 `` Sleeping Monster '' April 25 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 25 ) 2.7 / 7 8.24 10 22 194 22 `` Do You Believe in Magic ? '' May 2 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 02 ) 3.0 / 9 8.87 7 22 195 23 `` Readiness is All '' May 9 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 09 ) 3.1 / 9 8.97 8 21 196 24 `` Perfect Storm '' May 16 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) 3.1 / 8 8.99 11 18 Live + 7 Day ( DVR ) ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) 18 -- 49 rating increase Viewers ( millions ) increase Total 18 - 49 Total viewers ( millions ) Ref 173 `` Going , Going , Gone '' September 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 27 ) Thursdays 9 : 00 P.M. 1.5 3.28 5.9 15.01 174 `` Remember the Time '' October 4 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 04 ) 1.7 3.49 5.5 14.33 175 `` Love the One You 're With '' October 18 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 18 ) 1.8 3.70 5.2 13.40 176 `` I Saw Her Standing There '' October 25 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 25 ) 1.9 3.96 4.9 12.72 177 5 `` Beautiful Doom '' November 8 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 08 ) 1.9 3.94 5.2 13.20 178 6 `` Second Opinion '' November 15 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 15 ) 1.6 3.27 4.8 12.10 179 7 `` I Was Made for Lovin ' You '' November 29 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 29 ) 1.6 3.42 4.7 12.37 180 8 `` Love Turns You Upside Down '' December 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 06 ) 1.8 3.75 4.8 12.86 181 9 `` Run , Baby , Run '' December 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 12 - 13 ) 1.6 3.49 4.5 11.70 182 10 `` Things We Said Today '' January 10 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 10 ) 1.6 3.46 4.8 12.79 183 11 `` The End is the Beginning is the End '' January 17 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 17 ) 1.6 3.24 4.6 12.04 184 12 `` Walking on a Dream '' January 24 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 24 ) 1.8 3.65 4.8 12.66 185 13 `` Bad Blood '' January 31 , 2013 ( 2013 - 01 - 31 ) 1.7 3.47 4.5 12.40 186 14 `` The Face of Change '' February 7 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) 1.6 3.41 4.7 12.32 187 15 `` Hard Bargain '' February 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 14 ) 1.7 3.73 4.5 12.32 188 16 `` This Is Why We Fight '' February 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 21 ) 1.5 3.20 4.6 11.95 189 17 `` Transplant Wasteland '' March 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 14 ) 1.7 3.64 4.3 11.67 190 18 `` Idle Hands '' March 21 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 21 ) 1.5 3.12 4.5 12.50 191 19 `` Ca n't Fight This Feeling '' March 28 , 2013 ( 2013 - 03 - 28 ) 1.5 3.57 4.4 12.59 192 20 `` She 's Killing Me '' April 4 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 04 ) 1.5 3.27 4.4 11.87 193 21 `` Sleeping Monster '' April 25 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 25 ) 1.3 2.92 4.0 11.17 194 22 `` Do You Believe in Magic ? '' May 2 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 02 ) 1.5 3.16 4.5 12.02 195 23 `` Readiness is All '' May 9 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 09 ) 1.5 3.26 4.6 12.23 196 24 `` Perfect Storm '' May 16 , 2013 ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) 1.4 3.05 4.5 12.04 DVD release ( edit ) Grey 's Anatomy : The Complete Ninth Season - Everything Changes Set Details Special Features 24 Episodes ( 1 extended ) 6 - Disc Set English ( Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround ) Audio Commentaries Finale Extended Episode Spotlight Cast Piece : Jim Pickens , Jr . Spotlight Character Piece : Arizona Robbins Deleted Scenes In Stitches : Season Nine Outtakes Release Dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 August 27 , 2013 November 4 , 2013 October 2 , 2013 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Mitovich , Matt ( July 26 , 2012 ) . `` Fall TV : ABC Announces Premiere Dates -- Which Launches Are Being Held for October ? '' . TV Line . Retrieved July 27 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Ausiello , Michael ( August 29 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Exclusive : Season 9 to Feature a Wedding -- But Who Is Getting Hitched ? '' . TV Line . Retrieved August 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.seriesmonitor.com/greysanatomy/season9.html Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 10 , 2013 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Scandal ' Renewed '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( May 9 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Stars Ink New Deals '' . TV Guide . Retrieved January 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( July 26 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Exclusive : Eric Dane Checks Out ! '' . TV Guide . Retrieved December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Michael Web ( June 1 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Exclusive : Chyler Leigh Breaks Her Silence About Shocking Departure '' . TV Guide . Retrieved December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Gonzalez , Sandra ( May 18 , 2012 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' season finale : Boss exits '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved May 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Michael Web ( September 5 , 2012 ) . `` Exclusive : Grey 's Anatomy Alum Kim Raver Joins in NBC 's Revolution '' . TV Guide . Retrieved December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 16 , 2012 ) . `` Exclusive : True Blood , Veronica Mars Alum Tina Majorino Lands a Grey 's Gig '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt Webb ( July 19 , 2012 ) . `` ' Kate Middleton ' Joins Grey 's Anatomy Season 9 '' . Wetpaint . Retrieved December 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt Webb ( September 7 , 2012 ) . `` Matt 's Inside Line : Exclusive Fringe First Look ! Plus Scoop on Grey 's , Glee , Covert and More '' . TVLine . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate ( August 23 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Admits Newcomer Tessa Ferrer for Recurring Role '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 27 , 2012 ) . `` Exclusive : Debbie Allen Returning to Grey 's Anatomy as Jackson 's Mother '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt ( August 31 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy : Desperate Housewives ' Steven Culp to Play Doctor '' . TV Line . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanada ( September 10 , 2012 ) . `` The Doctors Must Pick Up The Pieces After a Tragic Plane Crash on The Season 9 Premiere of ' Grey 's Anatomy ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( September 19 , 2012 ) . `` Exclusive : Grey 's Anatomy Targets Bones Baddie Andrew Leeds -- Plus , a First Look Clip ! '' . TVLine . Retrieved December 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Martin , Rebecca ( December 3 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Season 9 : First Look at Constance Zimmer 's New Character '' . Wetpaint . Retrieved December 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Abraham , Natalie ( November 26 , 2012 ) . `` First Look : Scream 's Neve Campbell Checks Into Grey 's Anatomy '' . TvGuide . Retrieved December 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( November 20 , 2012 ) . `` Ask Ausiello : Spoilers on NCIS , Grey 's , Army Wives , Glee , Revenge , Shameless and More ! '' . TvGuide . Retrieved December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Keck , William ( November 27 , 2012 ) . `` Keck 's Exclusive : Grey 's Anatomy R.I.P , Adele '' . TvGuide . Retrieved November 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Masters , Megan ( November 15 , 2012 ) . `` TVLine Items : Rebecca Mader Gets 30 Rock 'd , Grey 's Anatomy Adds Nip / Tuck Alum and More '' . TvGuide . Retrieved December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Abrahams , Natalie ( December 4 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Scoop : Ringer 's Justin Bruening Heads to Seattle Grace '' . TvGuide . Retrieved December 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Martin , Rebecca ( December 4 , 2012 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Season 9 Spoiler : Potential Love Interest Paramedic Cast '' . TvGuide . Retrieved December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( January 10 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive : Grey 's Anatomy 's New Interns Are Sticking Around -- But for How Long ? '' . TVLine . Retrieved January 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( January 25 , 2013 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Exclusive : Sarah Chalke Scrubs In -- But Who Is She Playing ? '' . TVLine . Retrieved January 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( March 28 , 2013 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Admits Hilarie Burton '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ Ryan , Maureen ( May 10 , 2012 ) . `` ' Once , ' ' Revenge , ' ' Grey 's ' And Two Comedies Renewed By ABC '' . Huffington Post . Huffington Post TV . Retrieved May 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Grey 's Anatomy Finale Exclusive : No ( Spoiler ) This Year ! Plus -- Vote For Your Fave Season - Ender '' . TVLine . February 4 , 2013 . Retrieved February 28 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 28 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , Adjusted Up ; ' Parks & Rec ' , ' Up All Night ' , ' SNL : Weekend Update ' , ' The Office ' , ' Glee ' , ' Scandal ' , ' Rock Center ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ABC 's Thursday Dramas Open Impressively with Across the Board Gains '' . The Futon Critic . September 28 , 2012 . Retrieved September 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 2 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 1 Viewing Among Adults 18 -- 49 and With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Archived from the original on October 4 , 2012 . Retrieved October 2 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( December 14 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up ; ' Last Resort ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Person of Interest ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ https://www.usatoday.com/life/tv/story/2012/09/27/critics-corner-thursday-big-bang-greys-anatomy-person-of-interest/57846872/1 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/tvreviews/2012/09/28/greys_anatomy_elementary_and_last_resort_thursday_night_tv_reviews.html Jump up ^ http://www.tvfanatic.com/2012/09/greys-anatomy-review-everything-changes/ Jump up ^ http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20651680,00.html Jump up ^ Lyons , Margaret ( January 23 , 2013 ) . `` Now That Private Practice Is Over , Addison Should Go Back to Grey 's Anatomy '' . New York . Retrieved June 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 5 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The X Factor ' , ' Last Resort ' , ' 30 Rock ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' The Office ' Adjusted Up ; ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Person of Interest ' , ' Scandal ' , ' Elementary ' ' Rock Center ' & ' The Next ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2012 . Retrieved October 6 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 19 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' The Office ' Adjusted Up ; ' 30 Rock ' , ' Up All Night ' & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down Plus Final Baseball Numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 19 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 26 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' Adjusted Up ; ' Parks & Rec ' , ' Up All Night ' , ' Rock Center ' , ' The Office ' , ' 30 Rock ' , ' Person of Interest ' & Beauty & the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 26 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 9 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up , ' The Office ' , ' Parks & Rec ' , ' Scandal ' & ' Rock Center ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 9 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 16 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' The Office ' Adjusted Up ; ' Last Resort & ' Scandal ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 16 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 30 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' & ' Beauty and the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 30 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 7 , 2012 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The X Factor ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' and ' Glee ' Adjusted Up ; ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Elementary ' , ' Person of Interest ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 7 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 11 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' 30 Rock ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustment for ' Scandal ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 11 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 18 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' Rock Center ' Adjusted Down , No Adjustment for ' American Idol ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 18 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( January 25 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up ; ' Glee ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 25 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 1 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustments for ' Scandal ' , ' American Idol ' or ' Do No Harm ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 1 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( February 8 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Community ' & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Person of Interest ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . 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Retrieved March 15 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( March 22 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' 1600 Penn ' Adjusted Up ; ' Beauty and the Beast ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 22 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 29 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' & ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Adjusted Up ; ' Raising Hope ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 30 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( April 5 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' The Office ' & ' Wife Swap ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scandal ' & ' The Mindy Project ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 5 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 26 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( May 3 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' American Idol ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' Glee ' , ' Parks and Recreation ' & ' Hannibal ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 3 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 10 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' , ' American Idol ' , ' Vampire Diaries ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' , ' Wipeout ' & ' Elementary ' Adjusted Up ; ' Glee ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 17 , 2013 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' Hannibal ' , ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The Vampire Diaries ' , ' Grey 's Anatomy ' & ' Office ' Retrospective Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 17 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 2 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 1 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 20 , 2014 . Retrieved October 2 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 9 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops Week 2 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 , But ' NCIS ' Wins With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 11 , 2012 . Retrieved October 9 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 23 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 4 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 27 , 2012 . Retrieved October 23 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 30 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 5 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 , ' NCIS ' Number 1 With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 1 , 2012 . Retrieved October 30 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 13 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Again Tops Week 7 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved November 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 20 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Again Tops Week 8 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved November 20 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 4 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 10 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved December 4 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( December 11 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 11 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 11 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 18 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 11 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and is Number 1 With Total ViewersTV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Sunday Night Football Tops Week 12 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 and is Again Number 1 With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 19 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 15 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' NFL Football Playoffs ' Tops Week 15 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved January 15 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( January 23 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' AFC Championship ' Tops Week 17 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved January 23 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 29 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' American Idol ' Tops Week 18 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved January 29 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( February 6 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' Super Bowl ' Tops Week 19 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved February 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Konodjoly , Amanda ( February 12 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' Grammy Awards ' Tops Week 20 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved February 12 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Konodjoly , Amanda ( February 20 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Tops Week 21 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved February 20 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 26 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : The Oscars Tops Week 22 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 26 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( March 19 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Tops Week 25 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 & With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved March 19 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 26 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' American Idol ' Tops Week 26 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 ; ' NCIS ' Wins With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved March 26 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( April 2 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Voice ' Tops Week 27 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 ; ' NCIS ' Wins With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved April 2 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( April 9 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : NCAA Basketball Tops Week 28 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 ; ' The Big Bang Theory ' Wins With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved April 26 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( April 30 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Voice ' Tops Week 31 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 , ' NCIS ' on Top With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved April 30 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 7 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' Big Bang Theory ' Tops Week 32 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 , ' NCIS ' on Top With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved May 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 14 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Tops Week 33 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 , ' NCIS ' on Top With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved May 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( May 21 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Tops Week 34 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 , ' NCIS ' on Top With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved May 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( October 14 , 2012 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Revolution ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Viewership Gains ; ' Grimm ' Leads Percentage Gains in Premiere Week '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 19 , 2012 . Retrieved October 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 22 , 2012 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Revolution ' Again Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Viewership Gains ; ' Grimm ' Leads Percentage Gains in Week 2 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 26 , 2012 . Retrieved October 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 5 , 2012 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Viewership Gains ; ' Grimm ' Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 4 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 12 , 2012 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Viewership Gains ; ' Nikita ' Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 5 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 27 , 2012 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings , ' Revolution ' Tops Viewership Gains ; ' Gossip Girl ' Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 7 '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved November 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Tops Viewership Gains ; ' Private Practice ' Earns Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 8 '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . December 3 , 2012 . Retrieved December 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Tops Viewership Gains ; ' Parks and Recreation ' Earns Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 10 '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . December 17 , 2012 . Retrieved December 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings and Tops Viewership Gains ; ' Private Practice ' Earns Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 11 '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . December 24 , 2012 . Retrieved December 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings &Viewership Gains ; ' Private Practice ' Earns Biggest Percentage Gains in Week 12 '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . December 31 , 2012 . Retrieved December 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 28 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Viewership Gains ; ' Private Practice ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 16 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 4 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Again Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Viewership Gains ; ' Private Practice ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 17 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 11 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Again Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Viewership Gains ; ' Nashville ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 18 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 19 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Gain ; ' Hart of Dixie ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase , ' Elementary ' Scores Biggest Viewership Rise in Week 19 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 25 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Total Viewership Gains ; ' Revenge ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 20 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 4 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Total Viewership Gains ; ' Glee ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 21 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Knodolojy , Amanda ( March 11 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Total Viewership Gains ; ' 90210 ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 22 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Knodolojy , Amanda ( April 1 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings & Total Viewership Gains ; ' 90210 ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 25 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Knodolojy , Amanda ( April 8 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Following ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Castle ' Wins Total Viewership Gains & ' Smash ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 26 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Knodolojy , Amanda ( April 15 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase & Total Viewership Gains , ' Cult ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 27 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Knodolojy , Amanda ( April 22 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase & Total Viewership Gains , ' Grimm ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 28 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Knodolojy , Amanda ( May 13 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase & Tops Total Viewership Gains ; ' Smash ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 31 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 20 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Again Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase & Tops Total Viewership Gains ; ' Smash ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 32 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 28 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Again Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase & Tops Total Viewership Gains ; ' Smash ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 33 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( June 3 , 2013 ) . `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Again Leads Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase & Tops Total Viewership Gains ; ' 90210 ' Earns Biggest Percentage Increase in Week 34 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Lambert , David ( May 23 , 2013 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy - ' The Complete 9th Season ' Press Release Arrives with Extras Listed '' . TV Shows on DVD . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2013 . Retrieved May 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Lambert , David ( May 14 , 2013 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy - Completely Revised Box Art , Possible Earlier Date for ' The Complete 9th Season ' '' . TV Shows on DVD . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2013 . Retrieved May 14 , 2013 . hide Grey 's Anatomy episodes Season 1 `` A Hard Day 's Night '' `` If Tomorrow Never Comes '' Season 2 `` Into You Like a Train '' `` It 's the End of the World '' `` As We Know It '' `` Losing My Religion '' Season 3 `` Time Has Come Today '' `` I Am a Tree '' `` Great Expectations '' `` Wishin ' and Hopin ' '' `` Did n't We Almost Have It All ? '' Season 4 `` A Change Is Gonna Come '' Season 5 `` What a Difference a Day Makes '' `` Stand By Me '' `` Elevator Love Letter '' `` Now or Never '' Season 6 `` Good Mourning '' `` Goodbye '' `` I Always Feel Like Somebody 's Watchin ' Me '' `` Tainted Obligation '' `` Invasion '' `` I Saw What I Saw '' `` Give Peace a Chance '' `` Invest in Love '' `` I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked '' `` Death and All His Friends '' Season 7 `` Song Beneath the Song '' Season 8 `` Flight '' Season 9 `` Going , Going , Gone '' `` Beautiful Doom '' `` Perfect Storm '' Season 10 `` Fear ( of the Unknown ) '' Season 11 `` I Must Have Lost it on the Wind '' `` Puzzle With a Piece Missing '' `` Got to Be Real '' `` Only Mama Knows '' `` Bend & Break '' `` Do n't Let 's Start '' `` One Flight Down '' `` How to Save a Life '' `` She 's Leaving Home '' `` Time Stops '' `` You 're My Home '' Season 12 `` Sledgehammer '' `` Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '' `` Something Against You '' `` Things We Lost in the Fire '' `` The Sound of Silence '' `` Family Affair '' Season 13 `` True Colors '' Season 14 `` Danger Zone '' `` Personal Jesus '' `` All of Me '' hide Grey 's Anatomy Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Characters ( cast members ) Meredith Grey Cristina Yang Izzie Stevens Alex Karev George O'Malley Miranda Bailey Richard Webber Preston Burke Derek Shepherd Addison Montgomery Callie Torres Mark Sloan Lexie Grey Erica Hahn Owen Hunt Sadie Harris Arizona Robbins Teddy Altman Jackson Avery April Kepner Amelia Shepherd Stephanie Edwards Maggie Pierce Nathan Riggs Spin - offs Private Practice Station 19 Other Awards and nominations Soundtrack Video game A Corazón Abierto ( Mexican telenovela ) A Corazón Abierto ( Colombian telenovela ) Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grey%27s_Anatomy_(season_9)&oldid=843198984 '' Categories : Grey 's Anatomy episodes 2012 American television seasons 2013 American television seasons Grey 's Anatomy seasons Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Español Français Italiano Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 27 May 2018 , at 15 : 31 . 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meaning of the breaking of the glass at a jewish wedding

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Jewish_wedding&oldid=850131515

Jewish wedding - wikipedia Jewish wedding Traditional nissu'in in Eastern Europe during the 19th century Signing of the ketubah A decorated ketubah A Jewish wedding is a wedding ceremony that follows Jewish laws and traditions . While wedding ceremonies vary , common features of a Jewish wedding include a ketubah ( marriage contract ) which is signed by two witnesses , a wedding canopy ( chuppah or huppah ) , a ring owned by the groom that is given to the bride under the canopy , and the breaking of a glass . Technically , the Jewish wedding process has two distinct stages : kiddushin ( sanctification or dedication , also called erusin , betrothal in Hebrew ) and nissuin ( marriage ) , when the couple start their life together . The first stage prohibits the woman to all other men , requiring a religious divorce ( get ) to dissolve , and the final stage permits the couple to each other . The ceremony that accomplishes nisuin is known as chuppah . Today , erusin / kiddushin occurs when the groom gives the bride a ring or other object of value with the intent of creating a marriage . There are differing opinions as to which part of the ceremony constitutes nissuin / chuppah ; they include standing under the canopy - itself called a chuppah - and being alone together in a room ( yichud ) . While historically these two events could take place as much as a year apart , they are now commonly combined into one ceremony . Contents 1 Signing of the marriage contract 2 Bridal canopy 3 Covering of the bride 4 Unterfirers 5 Encircling the groom 6 Presentation of the ring ( Betrothal ) 7 Seven blessings 8 Breaking the glass 9 Yichud 10 Special dances 11 Birkat hamazon and sheva brachot 12 Jewish prenuptial agreements 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Signing of the marriage contract ( edit ) Before the wedding ceremony , the chatan ( groom ) agrees to be bound by the terms of the ketubah , or marriage contract , in the presence of two witnesses , whereupon the witnesses sign the ketubah . The ketubah details the obligations of the groom to the kallah ( bride ) , among which are food , clothing , and marital relations . This document has the standing of a legally binding agreement . It is often written as an illuminated manuscript that is framed and displayed in their home . Under the chuppah , it is traditional to read the signed ketubah aloud , usually in the Aramaic original , but sometimes in translation . Traditionally , this is done to separate the two basic parts of the wedding . Non-Orthodox Jewish couples may opt for a bilingual ketubah , or for a shortened version to be read out . Bridal canopy ( edit ) A traditional Jewish wedding ceremony takes place under a Chuppah or wedding canopy , symbolizing the new home being built by the couple when they become husband and wife . Covering of the bride ( edit ) Jewish Wedding , Venice , 1780 Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme Prior to the ceremony , Ashkenazi Jews have a custom to cover the face of the bride ( usually with a veil ) , and a prayer is often said for her based on the words spoken to Rebecca in Genesis 24 : 60 . The veiling ritual is known in Yiddish as badeken . Various reasons are given for the veil and the ceremony , a commonly accepted reason is that it reminds the Jewish people of how Jacob was tricked by Laban into marrying Leah before Rachel , as her face was covered by her veil ( see Vayetze ) . Sephardi Jews do not perform this ceremony . Unterfirers ( edit ) In many Orthodox Jewish communities , the bride is escorted to the chuppah by her father and mother known by Ashkenazi Jews as unterfirers ( Yiddish , lit . ones who lead under ) . Encircling the groom ( edit ) Plain gold wedding bands Outdoor huppa in Vienna A groom breaking the glass Dances at a Jewish wedding in Morocco , early 19th century 1893 painting of a marriage procession in a Russian shtetl by Isaak Asknaziy The bride traditionally walks around the groom three or seven times when she arrives at the Chuppah . This may derive from Jeremiah 31 : 22 , `` A woman shall surround a man '' . The three circuits may represent the three virtues of marriage : righteousness , justice and loving kindness ( see Hosea 2 : 19 ) . Seven circuits derives from the Biblical concept that seven denotes perfection or completeness . Sephardic Jews do not perform this ceremony . Presentation of the ring ( betrothal ) ( edit ) In traditional weddings , two blessings are recited before the betrothal ; a blessing over wine , and the betrothal blessing , which is specified in the Talmud . The wine is then tasted by the couple . The groom gives the bride a ring , traditionally a plain wedding band , and recites the declaration : Behold , you are consecrated to me with this ring according to the law of Moses and Israel . The groom places the ring on the bride 's right index finger . According to traditional Jewish law , two valid witnesses must see him place the ring . During some egalitarian weddings , the bride will also present a ring to the groom , often with a quote from the Song of Songs : `` Ani l'dodi , ve dodi li '' ( I am my beloved 's and my beloved is mine ) , which may also be inscribed on the ring itself . This ring is sometimes presented outside the chuppa to avoid conflicts with Jewish law . Seven blessings ( edit ) The Sheva Brachot or seven blessings are recited by the hazzan or rabbi , or by select guests who are called up individually . Being called upon to recite one of the seven blessings is considered an honour . The groom is given the cup of wine to drink from after the seven blessings . The bride also drinks the wine . In some traditions , the cup will be held to the lips of the groom by his new father - in - law and to the lips of the bride by her new mother - in - law . Traditions vary as to whether additional songs are sung before the seven blessings . Breaking the glass ( edit ) After the bride has been given the ring , or at the end of the ceremony ( depending on local custom ) , the groom breaks a glass , crushing it with his right foot , and the guests shout `` מזל טוב ‎ '' ( mazel tov ! ' congratulations ' ) . At some contemporary weddings , a lightbulb may be substituted because it is thinner and more easily broken , and it makes a louder popping sound . The origin of this custom is unknown , although many reasons have been given . The primary reason is that joy must always be tempered . This is based on two accounts in the Talmud of rabbis who , upon seeing that their son 's wedding celebration was getting out of hand , broke a vessel -- in the second case a glass -- to calm things down . Another explanation is that it is a reminder that despite the joy , Jews still mourn the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem . Because of this , some recite the verses `` If I forget thee / O Jerusalem ... '' ( Ps. 137 : 5 ) at this point . Many other reasons have been given by traditional authorities . Former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel Ovadia Yosef has strongly criticized the way this custom is sometimes carried out , arguing that `` Many unknowledgeable people fill their mouths with laughter during the breaking of the glass , shouting ' mazel tov ' and turning a beautiful custom meant to express our sorrow '' over Jerusalem 's destruction `` into an opportunity for lightheadedness . '' Reform Judaism has a new custom where brides and grooms break the wine glass together . Yichud ( edit ) Yichud ( Hebrew for `` togetherness '' or `` seclusion '' ) refers to the Ashkenazi practice of leaving the bride and groom alone for 10 -- 20 minutes after the wedding ceremony . The couple retreats to a private room . Yichud can take place anywhere , from a rabbi 's study to a synagogue classroom . The reason for yichud is that according to several authorities , standing under the canopy alone does not constitute chuppah , and seclusion is necessary to complete the wedding ceremony . However , Sephardic Jews do not have this custom , as they consider it a davar mechoar , a `` repugnant thing '' , compromising the couple 's modesty . In Yemen , the Jewish practice was not for the groom and his bride to be secluded in a canopy ( chuppah ) , as is widely practiced today in Jewish weddings , but rather in a bridal chamber that was , in effect , a highly decorated room in the house of the groom . This room was traditionally decorated with large hanging sheets of colored , patterned cloth , replete with wall cushions and short - length mattresses for reclining . Their marriage is consummated when they have been left together alone in this room . This ancient practice finds expression in the writings of Isaac ben Abba Mari ( c. 1122 -- c. 1193 ) , author of Sefer ha - ' Ittur , concerning the Benediction of the Bridegroom : `` Now the chuppah is when her father delivers her onto her husband , bringing her into that house wherein is some new innovation , such as the sheets ... surrounding the walls , etc . For we recite in the Jerusalem Talmud , Sotah 46a ( Sotah 9 : 15 ) , ' Those bridal chambers , ( chuppoth hathanim ) , they hang within them patterned sheets and gold - embroidered ribbons , ' etc . '' Special dances ( edit ) Dancing is a major feature of Jewish weddings . It is customary for the guests to dance in front of the seated couple and entertain them . Traditional Ashkenazi dances include : The Krenzl , in which the bride 's mother is crowned with a wreath of flowers as her daughters dance around her ( traditionally at the wedding of the mother 's last unwed daughter ) . The Mizinke , a dance for the parents of the bride or groom when their last child is wed . The `` Horah '' is a Middle Eastern / Israeli style dance usually played as a second dance set . The gladdening of the bride , in which guests dance around the bride , and can include the use of `` shtick '' -- silly items such as signs , banners , costumes , confetti , and jump ropes made of table napkins . The Mitzvah tantz , in which family members and honored rabbis are invited to dance in front of the bride ( or sometimes with the bride in the case of a father or grandfather ) , often holding a gartel , and then dancing with the groom . At the end the bride and groom dance together themselves . Birkat Hamazon and sheva brachot ( edit ) After the meal , Birkat Hamazon ( Grace after meals ) is recited , followed by sheva brachot . At a wedding banquet , the wording of the blessings preceding Birkat Hamazon is slightly different from the everyday version . Prayer booklets called benchers , may be handed out to guests . After the prayers , the blessing over the wine is recited , with two glasses of wine poured together into a third , symbolizing the creation of a new life together . Jewish prenuptial agreements ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In recent years , the governing bodies of several branches of Judaism have developed standard Jewish prenuptial agreements designed to prevent a man from withholding a get ( Jewish bill of divorce ) from his wife , should she want one . Such documents have been developed and widely used in the United States , Israel , the United Kingdom and other places . See also ( edit ) Jewish views on marriage References ( edit ) Jump up ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Singer , Isidore ; et al. , eds. ( 1901 -- 1906 ) . `` marriage ceremonies '' . Jewish Encyclopedia . New York : Funk & Wagnalls Company . ^ Jump up to : Made in Heaven , A Jewish Wedding Guide by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan , Moznaim Publishing Company , New York / Jerusalem , 1983 , Chapter 18 Jump up ^ Talmud Bavli , Ketubot , page 2 Jump up ^ `` Jewish wedding traditions '' . Jump up ^ `` The Jewish Wedding Ceremony by Rabbi Mordechai Becher '' . Jump up ^ Made in Heaven , A Jewish Wedding Guide by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan , Moznaim Publishing Company , New York / Jerusalem , 1983 , Chapter 21 Jump up ^ `` Chuppah '' . Jewish-wedding-planner.com . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` View Chuppah listings and search for Simchas listings '' . Jewpro.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Singer , Isidore ; et al. , eds. ( 1901 -- 1906 ) . `` Veil '' . Jewish Encyclopedia . New York : Funk & Wagnalls Company . and A guide to the marriage ceremony Jump up ^ Made in Heaven , A Jewish Wedding Guide by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan , Moznaim Publishing Company , New York / Jerusalem , 1983 , Chapter 17 ^ Jump up to : `` OzTorah '' Blog Archive '' A guide to the Jewish marriage ceremony `` . Jump up ^ Made in Heaven , A Jewish Wedding Guide by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan , Moznaim Publishing Company , New York / Jerusalem , 1983 , Chapter 19 Jump up ^ Ketuboth 7b ^ Jump up to : Made in Heaven , A Jewish Wedding Guide by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan , Moznaim Publishing Company , New York / Jerusalem , 1983 , Chapters 20 and 21 ^ Jump up to : The Jewish Way in Love & Marriage , Rabbi Maurice Lamm , Harper & Row , 1980 , Chapter 15 Jump up ^ `` Jewish Wedding Ring '' . Judaism.about.com. 2009 - 12 - 17 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Dovii , Mane ( 17 January 2010 ) . `` מון '' . מון אירועים , ( מון סטון ) . www.moon-events.co.il . Retrieved 14 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Marlena Thompson . `` Jewish Life Cycle / Rituals : Marriage '' . Jewishfederations.org . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Shalom ! Rabbi Dina - Hasida Mercy on Marriage '' . Rabbi-mercy.com. 2009 - 02 - 18 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 10 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` June 2010 , Rethinking Jewish Weddings '' . Shmadigital.com. 2010 - 06 - 03 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 10 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Chaplain ( CPT ) Shlomo Shulman ( 2001 - 06 - 30 ) . `` Guide to the Jewish Wedding : Jewish wedding program , jewish wedding traditions , Chuppah , Ketubah '' . Aish.com . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Jewish wedding guide '' . SomethingJewish.co.uk. 2012 - 09 - 30 . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` The Jewish Wedding '' . Beingjewish.com . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Get smashed ... & mazel tov '' . Cleveland Jewish News . 2011 - 10 - 05 . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Made in Heaven , A Jewish Wedding Guide by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan , Moznaim Publishing Company , New York / Jerusalem , 1983 , Chapters 20 and 22 Jump up ^ `` Senior Israeli Rabbi Slams ' Breaking of the Glass '' at Weddings `` . Israel National News . 2010 - 02 - 13 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Yichud -- a romantic oasis - Weddings '' . Jump up ^ `` Marriage '' . Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 1996 - 11 - 08 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Yosef Qafih , Halikhot Teiman ( Jewish Life in Sana ) , Ben - Zvi Institute -- Jerusalem 1982 , pp. 143 and 148 ( Hebrew ) ; Yehuda Levi Nahum , Miṣefunot Yehudei Teman ' , Tel - Aviv 1962 , p. 149 ( Hebrew ) Jump up ^ Isaac ben Abba Mari , Sefer ha'Ittur - Part 1 ( sha'ar sheni ) , Lwów , Ukraine 1860 ^ Jump up to : `` Jewish Wedding Reception Rituals '' . Jump up ^ `` Jewish Wedding Music Videos '' . Jump up ^ `` Birkat HaMazon - Encyclopedia Judaica '' . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jewish weddings . Chabad.org : The Jewish Wedding Jewish life Birth and infancy Hebrew birthday Shalom Zachar Brit milah Zeved habat Hebrew name Pidyon haben Coming of age Upsherin Wimpel Bar and Bat Mitzvah Yeshiva Kollel Daily life Ritual washing Prayers and blessings Prayer services Grace after meals Kashrut Honorifics Marriage Marriageable age Role of women Tzniut Yichus Matchmaking Engagement Jewish wedding Ketubah Chuppah Sheva Brachot Niddah Mikvah Divorce Religious practice 613 commandments Customs Torah study Weekly Torah reading Daf Yomi Shiur Siyum Chavrusa Chavurah Chidush Holidays Tzedakah Religious items Sefer Torah Siddur Machzor Tzitzit Tallit Tefillin Mezuzah Kippah Menorah Shofar Four species Death Chevra Kadisha Shiva Kaddish Tehillim Yahrzeit Yahrzeit candle Yizkor Honorifics Marital life in Judaism Jewish wedding Chuppah Erusin Jewish views on marriage Jewish wedding Ketubah Sheva Brachot Shidduch Yichud Prohibitions and Halakhot Cunnilingus in Halacha Fellatio in Halacha Forbidden relationships in Judaism Jewish views on incest Negiah Prohibition of extracting semen in vain ( Judaism ) Rabbi Zeira 's stringency Tichel Sheitel Yichud You shall not commit adultery Tzniut Women forbidden to their husbands Childbirth Dam betulim Niddah Purity of a woman to her husband Hefsek taharah Mikveh Shivah nekiim Tevilah Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_wedding&oldid=850131515 '' Categories : Jewish marital law Weddings by religion Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Articles containing Hebrew - language text Articles needing additional references from June 2016 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Українська ייִדיש 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2018 , at 20 : 24 ( UTC ) . 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who plays thorn on the bold and the beautiful

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Thorne_Forrester&oldid=803676825

Thorne Forrester - Wikipedia Thorne Forrester Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary . It should be expanded to provide more balanced coverage that includes real - world context . Please edit the article to focus on discussing the work rather than merely reiterating the plot . ( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise . 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( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Thorne Forrester Winsor Harmon as Thorne Forrester The Bold and the Beautiful character Portrayed by Clayton Norcross ( 1987 -- 89 ) Jeff Trachta ( 1989 -- 96 ) Winsor Harmon ( 1996 -- 2016 ) Duration 1987 -- 2016 First appearance March 23 , 1987 ( 1987 - 03 - 23 ) Last appearance October 6 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 06 ) Created by William J. Bell Book appearances Sunset Love ( 2014 ) Classification Former ; recurring ( returning ) Profile Occupation Businessman Home Paris , France ( show ) Family Family Forrester Father Eric Forrester Mother Stephanie Forrester Stepmother Brooke Logan ( 1991 -- 93 , 2005 -- 06 ) Sheila Carter ( 1993 -- 95 ) Donna Logan ( 2008 -- 10 ) Quinn Fuller ( 2016 -- ) Sisters Kristen Forrester Felicia Forrester Angela Forrester Half - brothers Ridge Forrester Rick Forrester Marcus Forrester ( adoptive ) Half - sisters Bridget Forrester Wife Caroline Spencer Forrester ( 1987 -- 89 ) Macy Alexander ( 1990 -- 93 , 1995 -- 97 , 2000 -- 03 ) Brooke Logan ( 2001 ) Darla Einstein ( 2004 -- 06 ) Daughters Alexandria Forrester Uncles John Forrester Aunts Pamela Douglas Nephews Dino Damiano Zende Forrester ( adoptive ) Thomas Forrester R.J. Forrester Logan Knight Nieces Steffy Forrester Phoebe Forrester Rosie Forrester ( adoptive ) Lizzy Forrester Thorne Forrester is a fictional character on CBS soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful . The character was played by Clayton Norcross from the show 's premiere in 1987 until 1989 , by Jeff Trachta from 1989 until 1996 and Winsor Harmon from 1996 to 2016 . In September 2017 , Harmon announced that the role of Thorne was to be recast , and several days after , it was announced that daytime veteran Ingo Rademacher had been cast in the role . Character creation and casting ( edit ) Actor Clayton Nocross first debuted in the role of Thorne in the serial 's premiere episode on March 23 , 1987 . He remained in the role until 1989 , when he was recast with Jeff Trachta . In 1996 , Trachta was let go from the role and was recast with former All My Children actor Winsor Harmon . In May 2010 , it was announced that Harmon had been downgraded to a recurring capacity , following a `` mutual decision '' between Harmon and the higher ups at The Bold and the Beautiful . On September 23 , 2017 , Harmon announced that executive producer Bradley Bell intended to recast the role of Thorne . Two days later , TV Insider 's Michael Logan announced that former General Hospital actor Ingo Rademacher had been cast in the role of Thorne . He will make his first appearance on November 27 , 2017 . Storylines ( edit ) Thorne Forrester is the younger son of Eric and Stephanie Forrester . Thorne was raised in Beverly Hills with his siblings , Ridge , Kristen , and Felicia Forrester . Thorne grew up in the shadow of big brother Ridge . Thorne had a crush on Caroline Spencer , even though she was engaged to Ridge . When Caroline dumped Ridge for having a one - night stand before their wedding , Thorne befriended Caroline , and the friendship turned to romance . But Thorne knew Caroline still loved Ridge , so he convinced Ridge 's new girlfriend , Brooke Logan , to hide a letter in which Ridge professed his devotion to Caroline . Thorne and Caroline married soon after , although Caroline was furious when she learned of Thorne 's part in hiding the letter . Caroline had too much to drink at a party , and Ridge thought it would be funny to slip into Caroline 's bed . But Caroline , thinking Ridge was Thorne , made love to Ridge . Afterwards , Thorne was frustrated by Caroline 's hesitancy to be intimate with him . While recovering from an appendectomy , Thorne overheard Eric and Stephanie discussing Ridge 's prank . Drinking heavily while on painkillers , Thorne grabbed Stephanie 's gun and shot Ridge in the head . Thorne passed out , so Stephanie wiped Thorne 's fingerprints from the gun and told the police she had shot Ridge , thinking he was a prowler . Neither Thorne nor Ridge had any memory of what had happened that night . Thorne 's family worked overtime to keep Thorne from remembering what he had done , fearing a repeat episode . Caroline , who wanted Ridge back , took Thorne to a therapist under the guise of getting marriage counseling , and soon Thorne was strong enough to grant Caroline a divorce . When Thorne finally learned of Ridge 's prank , Thorne cut both Ridge and Caroline out of his life and turned an eye toward Brooke 's sister , Donna Logan . Thorne had grown up thinking his youngest sister , Angela , was dead , but Stephanie was caring for a comatose Angela on the sly . No one knew that Angela 's doctor had replaced Angela , who had died , with an imposter to bilk money out of the Forresters . `` Angela '' was severely burned escaping with the doctor , and later introduced herself to Thorne as Deveney Dickson . Thorne 's empathy and offer of plastic surgery softened `` Deveney '' , who fell in love with Thorne , but `` Deveney '' still went through with drugging Thorne and giving him a gun to shoot Ridge . Thorne responded when Ridge talked him down , and Angela got away with the money Thorne had given her for the surgery . Thorne met Macy Alexander when her mother , Sally Spectra , meant to lock Macy and Ridge in a room on the Queen Mary during a fashion show . Thorne briefly dated Macy and Donna Logan at the same time , but ultimately Thorne chose Macy . The Forresters and the Spectras were fashion rivals , and neither family approved of Thorne and Macy 's relationship . Thorne and Macy married anyway , but separated when the strain of the families ' battle became too much . During the separation , Macy dated Jake Maclaine , while Thorne got close to Karen Spencer , Caroline 's long - lost identical twin sister . Just as Thorne asked Karen to move in with him , Macy asked for a reconciliation , and the three ended up living under the same roof . Macy and Karen got into a food fight over Thorne , who could n't choose between them . Thorne finally decided on Macy , but misinterpreted Macy 's goodbye hug with Jake , prompting Thorne to settle for Karen . Thorne and Macy 's attempts at communication were thwarted by Karen and her father , Bill Spencer , Sr. , as well as Sly Donovan , who capitalized on Macy 's growing drinking problem by getting her drunk to keep her from meeting with Thorne . Karen left Thorne after she realized that Thorne still loved Macy . Thorne found Macy passed out in an alley , after which they cleared up their misunderstandings and reconciled . Thorne refused to support Eric 's marriage to Sheila Carter , so Sheila spiked Macy 's orange juice . When Anthony Armando , who was designing for Spectra , took Macy home and put her to bed , Thorne walked in and punched Anthony . Macy explained that Spectra needed Anthony and refused to fire him , so Thorne left Macy again . Brooke interfered with Ridge 's marriage to Taylor Hayes by arranging an overseas business trip with Ridge , so Thorne punched Ridge at the airport and travelled to Paris with Brooke instead . Thorne returned for Taylor 's funeral , and re-established a friendship with Macy , though he briefly dated Forrester model Ivana Vanderveld . Thorne and Macy began singing together and were signed by Decadent Records . Ivana was jealous when Thorne and Macy performed together in Rotterdam , Holland . But Macy collapsed after the show and was diagnosed with throat cancer . Thorne gave up singing and proposed to Macy after she recovered from her surgery . Ivana retaliated by sending Macy one nasty fan letter , but the letters kept coming and became increasingly threatening . Thorne fought with Ivana when the police found stationery in her apartment , and soon after , Ivana was murdered with Thorne 's letter opener . Thorne was arrested during his wedding to Macy . Anthony had framed Thorne because he wanted Macy for himself . He had proposed to Ivana , then played the devastated fiancé to gain Macy 's sympathy . Thorne found out Anthony had stationery like Ivana 's and broke out of prison to protect Macy , who had gone to Mexico to comfort Anthony . Thorne extracted a confession from Anthony , which Macy overheard . Thorne was recaptured , while Macy pretended to believe in Anthony 's innocence . Macy tried to goad Anthony into confessing on tape but was discovered , and Sally was shot in the ensuing melée . Thorne and Macy finally remarried after Anthony was apprehended . Thorne performed Grease on Broadway for four months . Upon his return , Thorne befriended Claudia Cortez . Claudia had come to the U.S. for political asylum but was in the country illegally . Thorne gave Claudia a job at Forrester anyway , and Claudia fell for Thorne . When Macy caught Claudia giving Thorne a massage , Macy reported Claudia to immigration , which drove a wedge between Macy and Thorne . Meanwhile , Thorne began to see the back - from - the - dead Taylor in a new light . After Macy divorced Thorne , Claudia and Thorne almost made love , but Claudia shied away when she realized the depth of Thorne 's feelings for Taylor . Despondent over Ridge , Taylor got drunk and set her nightgown on fire with a lantern . Thorne saved Taylor and stood by her as she recovered from her burns . While Ridge was in jail for shooting Grant Chambers , Thorne convinced Taylor to lie that Ridge 's baby was Thorne 's and even proposed to Taylor in Hawaii . But soon Taylor wanted to tell Ridge the truth , so Thorne again worked with Brooke to prevent it . Thorne even sedated Taylor with a drugged protein shake when Ridge came to visit . Finally , Thorne relented and agreed to help Taylor stop Ridge and Brooke 's wedding , but Taylor went into labor in Thorne 's car , forcing Thorne to deliver baby Thomas himself . Ridge finally found out he was Thomas ' father and reunited with Taylor , leaving Thorne in the cold , especially since Macy had just married Grant . Thorne moved in next door to the newlyweds , and Macy was jealous when she saw her best friend , Darla Einstein , making a move on Thorne . Grant was diagnosed with untreatable testicular cancer and wanted Thorne to fulfill Macy 's desire to have a family . Thorne shocked Macy by kissing her as Grant lay dying in his hospital bed . After Grant died , Macy would only accept Thorne 's friendship . Thorne , who had quit Forrester Creations over Stephanie 's preferential treatment of Ridge , stepped in and saved Spectra Fashions from bankruptcy . When Macy hedged about accepting Thorne 's proposal because of the Forrester / Spectra feud , Thorne connected with Brooke . Macy saw Brooke hiding under Thorne 's bed and told Stephanie . Thorne arrived at the Big Bear cabin to find Stephanie terrorizing Brooke and saved Brooke from being stabbed by Stephanie . Later , Stephanie had a stroke and did n't remember finding Thorne with Brooke together , so Thorne and Brooke kept their continuing relationship a secret to prevent Stephanie from having another episode . Thorne was conflicted and even dreamt that his relationship with Brooke had killed Stephanie . Thorne reconciled with an unsuspecting Macy to throw Stephanie off the scent , narrowly avoiding a surprise wedding to Macy that Stephanie had arranged . Eric , Ridge , and Taylor plotted to convince Thorne that Brooke still loved Ridge . While in Venice , Italy , Ridge staged a fight with Taylor and then made a move on Brooke . Thorne was devastated to see Brooke kissing Ridge . Thorne followed Macy to the airport , and married her in Amsterdam . Macy was blissfully unaware that Thorne still thought of Brooke , who was trying to lure Thorne back . Macy overheard Eric and Ridge discussing Thorne 's feelings for Brooke and started drinking again . A sober Macy asked Thorne , who wanted a divorce , to come to Big Bear for a last dance before ending their marriage . After Thorne left , Brooke confronted Macy with divorce papers . Macy tried to drive off , but Brooke jumped in the car with her . Macy drove recklessly to frighten Brooke and collided with a tanker . Thorne arrived and saved Brooke , but before he could get to Macy , the car exploded . At Macy 's funeral , Sally exposed Thorne 's continuing relationship with Brooke , causing Stephanie to have another stroke . When Stephanie forced Thorne to choose between Brooke and his family , Thorne chose Brooke , and Stephanie disowned him . Macy 's half - sister , Kimberly Fairchild , decided she wanted Thorne , and set about seducing him away from Brooke . Meanwhile , Brooke 's children , Rick and Bridget , were against Brooke 's relationship with Thorne . Kimberly kissed Thorne backstage at a fashion show , and Bridget raised the curtain so the public would see . Brooke broke things off , and Kimberly took advantage of an inebriated Thorne by lying that they 'd had sex . Kimberly also tried to kill Brooke by rigging a heavy photography light to fall on her ; Thorne was almost hit when a second light dropped . Thorne and Brooke reconciled and married at the Forrester mansion , even managing to get last - minute support from the family . Thorne 's happiness was short - lived when he overheard Brooke telling Deacon Sharpe that Ridge would always be her soul mate . Thorne had a vision of Macy , and , feeling he had made a terrible mistake with Brooke , Thorne asked Brooke for an annulment . Later , after Taylor was again presumed dead , Thorne shared a few quick kisses with grief counselor Tricia Quick . Ridge had defected to Spectra and challenged Forrester to a fashion showdown in Portofino , Italy . Thorne chased Lena , a woman that reminded him of Macy . But `` Lena '' really was Macy : Adam Alexander , Macy 's father , had saved Macy before her car exploded . Adam 's connections to the mob had made it necessary to take Macy on the run , and Thorne was dismayed when Macy insisted on staying in Italy and marrying her fiancé , Lorenzo Barelli . When Sally had a heart attack , Macy returned to Los Angeles , where Thorne informed Macy they were still married because she had never signed their divorce papers . Macy 's marriage to Lorenzo was invalid , leading Thorne and Macy to again reconcile . Like with Jake years earlier , Thorne mistook Macy 's goodbye to Lorenzo . Thorne got drunk and made love to Darla , thinking she was Macy . Thorne and Macy squared things , but now Darla was carrying Thorne 's child and wanted an abortion . After Macy had a recurrence of cancer that required her to have a hysterectomy , Thorne asked Darla to let him and Macy raise Darla 's child . Darla agreed if Thorne would tell Macy he was its father , after which Macy shunned Darla and asked Thorne for an annulment . Thorne drew closer to Darla during her pregnancy . On the night Macy headlined a new club , she made peace with Thorne and Darla . Thorne and the horrified clubgoers watched helplessly as a chandelier crashed down on Macy , who went into a coma . Sally was forced to pull the plug on Macy , and Darla named her child Alexandria in tribute to Macy 's memory . Darla supported Thorne as he asked to be made president of Forrester Creations , and soon Thorne and Darla were married . Ridge initially supported Thorne 's presidency , but soon challenged Thorne 's authority and insulted Darla . Thorne punched Ridge , then attempted a truce . But Darla mistakenly handed Sally photos of the Forrester Ingenue line , which Sally rushed into production . Thorne forgave Darla , but when Ridge banned Darla from the building , the brothers fought and demanded that Eric decide who should leave . Eric chose Ridge , and Thorne raged that he was the only true Forrester son , as it had been revealed that Massimo Marone was really Ridge 's father . Thorne threw a chair through a window and told his family they would regret their choice . Sally made Thorne acting president of Spectra , where Thorne used Forrester 's client list to gain support . Thorne also stole Forrester designs to use in a Spectra fashion show . But eventually , Thorne had original Spectra couture created by Spectra mainstay Clarke Garrison , former designer Amber Moore , and Thorne 's sister , Felicia . Thorne challenged Forrester to a fashion showdown with Spectra . Thorne lost the competition , but gained Eric 's respect . Ridge overheard Eric call Thorne his `` only son '' and tried to stop Spectra 's line from being stocked alongside Forrester in boutiques . Thorne sold his Forrester shares and invested the money in Spectra . But when Spectra lost another fashion showdown featuring Thomas ' designs , Thorne lost his investment . Stephanie discovered she was the sole owner of Forrester and offered Thorne his presidency back . Sally fell ill and lied she was going on a cruise when she was really moving to a retirement home , so Thorne and Darla moved Sally in with them . Thorne also gave Sally a job at Forrester , since Spectra was now owned by Marone Industries . The night of Alexandria 's birthday party , Taylor 's daughter , Phoebe Forrester , had a flat tire on a foggy highway , so Darla raced off to help . But Darla fell into the path of an oncoming car and died . Thorne was devastated , and asked for Taylor 's psychiatric expertise to help explain things to Alexandria . Thorne and Taylor became close and fell in love . But Taylor had a secret : Taylor had driven drunk while also coming to help Phoebe , and was the one who had hit Darla . Phoebe and Stephanie were afraid Taylor would go to jail , and begged Taylor to keep quiet . However , when Thorne proposed to Taylor , Thorne was horrified to hear that Taylor was responsible for Darla 's death . Thorne felt betrayed by Taylor , Stephanie , and Phoebe for keeping the circumstances of Darla 's death from him . Taylor was arrested and pleaded guilty , but , when a witness surfaced who had seen Darla fall into the path of Taylor 's car , Thorne encouraged Taylor to change her plea to not guilty , and Taylor was released . Later , Nick Marone took control of Forrester Creations , and Thorne and Ridge pulled together to help Eric create a new company , Forrester Originals . Meanwhile , Thorne and Taylor moved ahead with their plans to marry , but when Alexandria found out Taylor had killed Darla , Alexandria blacked out Taylor 's pictures with crayon and slashed Taylor 's wedding dress . Thorne and Taylor called off their engagement , realizing Alexandria was n't ready to see them married . Thorne became despondent and again turned to alcohol in his grief over Darla . Thorne reconnected with Donna , seeing Darla 's face as they made love . Thorne soon asked Donna to marry him , unaware that Donna was only using Thorne to get back at Stephanie for constantly hurting Brooke . On Thorne 's wedding day , Donna 's other sister , Katie , overheard Donna admitting she did n't love Thorne . When Katie told Thorne what she 'd heard , Thorne cancelled the ceremony . Thorne was unhappy when Donna moved on to Eric , and briefly found himself bonding with Katie , although a romance never developed . When Eric planned to announce his relationship with Donna at a fashion show , Thorne and Felicia locked Donna in the Forrester steam room to keep her from taking the stage . Thorne and his family fought Eric on his decision to give Donna a position in the company . Later , when Eric fell into a coma , Donna temporarily fired Thorne and his siblings . Thorne knew that Donna was spending time with Owen Knight , so when Eric recovered , Thorne hired Donna and Owen lookalikes to kiss for a hidden camera so Eric would divorce Donna . Thorne 's scheme failed . Thorne was suspected of giving Forrester designs to Jackie M after he made noise about Rick and Ridge getting too much attention at Forrester , but the real culprit was Rick . Thorne expected to take the president position when Rick stepped down , but felt even more underappreciated when Brooke made Rick president instead . Thorne and Felicia , feeling Forrester was overrun with Logans , resigned from Forrester when Brooke , Donna , and Katie became models for the Royalty line . Thorne eventually returned , but soon Bill Spencer , Jr. took control of Forrester and installed his new wife , Katie , as CEO . Katie offered Thorne the vice presidency , but Thorne refused , and Donna was given the position . Thorne joined his family in creating the ugly Dare line in an unsuccessful attempt to sabotage Bill . Thorne was upset when Steffy Forrester got the company back from Bill , but divided the stock between Ridge , Eric , Stephanie , and Taylor , while Thorne got none . Liam Cooper came to town looking for his long - lost father . It turned out both Thorne and Bill had dated Kelly Cooper , Liam 's late mother . Thorne submitted to a DNA test , which showed that Bill was Liam 's father . Later , when Thomas developed a crush on Brooke , Thorne pointed out that Thomas did n't have much experience with women and wondered if Thomas was gay . Ridge returned to Taylor when he thought Brooke had slept with Thomas , but , at the wedding , Stephanie admitted she 'd gotten Thomas to lie in exchange for her 25 % stock . Thorne growled to Eric , saying he was all right being banished in the basement with no stock because he `` did n't want to have to spend that much time around you people '' . Thorne came to Taylor , who had also been hurt by Thomas ' lie , and pointed out that Taylor and her children now controlled 55 % of Forrester since Stephanie had made Taylor the trustee of Thomas ' stock . When Thorne and Taylor realized they could take over the company , they kissed , reigniting their romance . Thorne made a power play at Forrester , but lost Taylor 's support when she realized a takeover would put her children against their father . Thorne and Taylor later made up , with their continuing romance happening primarily off - screen , which has ended due to Taylor 's relationship with Eric Forrester . Most recently , Thorne and Thomas strongly disagreed with Eric 's decision to make Rick president of Forrester Creations . Thorne 's daughter Alexandria Forrester has returned and is working at Forrester Creations with Hope Logan . On January 6 , 2014 , Ridge and Aly revealed to Rick that Thorne has taken over Ridge 's former position as head of Forrester International . Thorne has returned several times a year as follows : after the helicopter crash of his brother Ridge , and late with Taylor , revealing to his relatives that he had started a new relationship with her . This caused Aly lots of anger and anxiety , but was resolved with conversations with Oliver and Thorne . Aly eventually found it okay because it makes Thorne happy until May 2015 when she announced to Oliver Jones that she was still quite angry at her . Thorne appeared for a few episodes in and around the death of his daughter Aly in July 2015 and then in September 2016 in an attempt to stop Eric and Quinn 's wedding . The Bold and the Beautiful Current characters Maya Avant Nicole Avant Sheila Carter Zende Dominguez Pamela Douglas Eric Forrester Ivy Forrester Rick Forrester Ridge Forrester R.J. Forrester Steffy Forrester Thomas Forrester Quinn Fuller Brooke Logan Katie Logan Coco Spectra Sally Spectra Shirley Spectra Bill Spencer Caroline Spencer Liam Spencer Wyatt Spencer Recurring characters Alison Montgomery Justin Barber Bradley Baker Julius Avant Vivienne Avant Sally Spectra Saul Feinberg Antonio Dominguez Thorne Forrester Felicia Forrester Kristen Forrester Bridget Forrester C.J. Garrison Deacon Sharpe Taylor Hayes Donna Logan Hope Logan Sasha Thompson Carter Walton James Warwick Charlie Webber John Forrester Jarrett Maxwell Eva Charlotte Darlita Notable previous characters Ashley Abbott Adam Alexander Macy Alexander Morgan DeWitt Deveney Dixon Dante Damiano Kimberly Fairchild Lauren Fenmore Aly Forrester Caroline Spencer Darla Einstein Margo Lynley Dayzee Leigh Marcus Forrester Maggie Forrester Jessica Forrester Phoebe Forrester Stephanie Forrester Clarke Garrison Agnes Jones Whipple Jones Oliver Jones Owen Knight Beth Logan Stephen Logan Storm Logan Erica Lovejoy Jake Maclaine Mark Maclaine Massimo Marone Jackie Marone Nick Marone Oscar Marone Amber Moore Bill Spencer Karen Spencer Danielle Spencer Production crew Executive Producer Bradley Bell Head Writers Bradley Bell Michael Minnis Creators William J. Bell and Lee Phillip Bell Related articles Cast members Crew Characters Forrester Creations Jackie M Designs Spencer Publications Forrester family Logan family Marone family The Young and the Restless The Forrester family in The Bold and the Beautiful Angela Forrester Kristen Dominguez Ridge Forrester Thorne Forrester Felicia Forrester Eric Forrester Rick Forrester Bridget Forrester Thomas Forrester Phoebe Forrester Steffy Forrester Jessica Forrester R.J. Forrester Alexandria Forrester Zende Forrester Dominguez Dino Damiano Ivy Forrester John Forrester Spouses Stephanie Forrester Brooke Logan Sheila Carter Donna Logan Caroline Spencer Forrester Maggie Forrester Taylor Hayes Macy Alexander Sharpe Darla Einstein Clarke Garrison Antonio Dominguez Amber Moore Deacon Sharpe Dominick Marone Gabriela Moreno Liam Spencer Caroline Spencer Maya Avant Nicole Avant The Spectra family in The Bold and the Beautiful Main characters Sally Spectra Macy Alexander Sharpe C.J. Garrison Darla Forrester Alexandria Forrester Sally Spectra Coco Spectra Shirley Spectra Spouses : Adam Alexander Clarke Garrison Thorne Forrester Grant Chambers Lorenzo Barelli Deacon Sharpe Becky Moore The Logan family in The Bold and the Beautiful Stephen Logan Storm Logan Brooke Logan Donna Logan Katie Logan Rick Forrester Bridget Forrester Hope Logan R.J. Forrester Jack Marone Marcus Forrester Spouses : Beth Logan Eric Forrester Ridge Forrester Grant Chambers Whipple Jones III Thorne Forrester Nick Marone Bill Spencer , Jr . Justin Barber Amber Moore Deacon Sharpe References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kroll , Dan J. ( May 29 , 2010 ) . `` Winsor Harmon dropped to recurring status '' . United States : Soap Central . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Various citations concerning Winsor Harmon 's announcement : Beckley , Bryan ( September 23 , 2017 ) . `` B&B 's Shocking Recast ! '' . Soap Opera Digest . United States : American Media , Inc . Odyssey Magazine Publishing Group Inc . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Fairman , Michael ( September 23 , 2017 ) . `` Winsor Harmon Bombshell : `` I Just Spoke With Brad Bell And At This Time He 's Decided To Recast Thorne '' `` . On - Air On - Soaps . United States : Michael Fairman Soaps , Inc . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Kroll , Dan J. ( September 23 , 2017 ) . `` SHOCKER : The Bold and the Beautiful is recasting Thorne '' . United States : Soap Central . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Bowe , Jillian ( September 25 , 2017 ) . `` Winsor Harmon Says B&B is Recasting Thorne '' . Daytime Confidential . United States : Confidential Media , Inc . ( SAY Media ) . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Various citations concerning the cast of Ingo Rademacher in the role of Thorne Forrester : Eades , Chris ( September 25 , 2017 ) . `` General Hospital Star Ingo Rademacher Cast as Thorne on The Bold & the Beautiful ! '' . CBS Soaps In Depth . United States : Bauer Media Group . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . SOD ( September 25 , 2017 ) . `` Ingo Rademacher Is B&B 's New Thorne '' . Soap Opera Digest . United States : American Media , Inc . Odyssey Magazine Publishing Group Inc . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Giddens , Jamey ( September 25 , 2017 ) . `` Ingo Rademacher is B&B 's New Throne '' . Daytime Confidential . United States : Confidential Media , Inc . ( SAY Media ) . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Fairman , Michael ( September 25 , 2017 ) . `` Ingo Rademacher Is The Bold and the Beautiful 's New Thorne ! '' . On - Air On - Soaps . United States : Michael Fairman Soaps , Inc . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Logan , Michael ( September 25 , 2017 ) . `` The Bold and the Beautiful Casts Ingo Rademacher as the New Thorne Forrester '' . TV Insider . United States : CBS Interactive . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ SOD ( October 2 , 2017 ) . `` B&B Announces Ingo Rademacher 's First Air Date '' . Soap Opera Digest . United States : American Media , Inc . Odyssey Magazine Publishing Group Inc . Archived from the original on October 2 , 2017 . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thorne_Forrester&oldid=803676825 '' Categories : The Bold and the Beautiful characters Fictional characters introduced in 1987 Hidden categories : Articles to be expanded from September 2017 All articles to be expanded Articles lacking sources from September 2017 All articles lacking sources Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from September 2017 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Articles that may contain original research from September 2017 All articles that may contain original research Articles with a promotional tone from September 2017 All articles with a promotional tone Talk About Wikipedia Italiano Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2017 , at 23 : 20 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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where is look what you made me do on the charts

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Look_What_You_Made_Me_Do&oldid=805006160

Look What You Made Me Do - wikipedia Look What You Made Me Do Jump to : navigation , search `` Look What You Made Me Do '' Single by Taylor Swift from the album Reputation Released August 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 24 ) Format Digital download Genre Dance - pop electroclash electropop Length 3 : 31 Label Big Machine Songwriter ( s ) Taylor Swift Jack Antonoff Fred Fairbrass Richard Fairbrass Rob Manzoli Producer ( s ) Jack Antonoff Taylor Swift singles chronology `` I Do n't Wanna Live Forever '' ( 2016 ) `` Look What You Made Me Do '' ( 2017 ) `` ... Ready for It ? '' ( 2017 ) Music video `` Look What You Made Me Do '' on YouTube `` Look What You Made Me Do '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift from her upcoming sixth studio album , Reputation ( 2017 ) . The song was released on August 24 , 2017 , as the lead single from the album . Swift wrote the song with Jack Antonoff . The song samples the melody of the 1991 song `` I 'm Too Sexy '' by the band Right Said Fred , therefore Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , and Rob Manzoli of the band are credited as songwriters . The song received a mixed response from music critics , with division over Swift 's stylistic change . The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and became the most - watched music video within 24 hours . The song broke a string of records , including the record for the most plays in a single day on Spotify . Commercially , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' has topped the charts in Australia , Canada , Croatia , the Czech Republic , Ireland , Israel , Lebanon , Malaysia , the Netherlands , the Philippines , Scotland , Slovakia , Spain , the United Kingdom , and the United States . It has also received Platinum certifications in the United States , Australia , and Canada . Contents ( hide ) 1 Release 2 Composition 3 Critical reception 4 Chart performance 5 Music video 5.1 Production and release 5.2 Synopsis 5.3 Analysis 6 Usage in media 7 Charts 8 Certifications 9 Release history 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Release ( edit ) On August 18 , 2017 , Swift cleared all her social media accounts , which sparked rumours of new music arriving soon . On August 21 , Swift shared a 10 - second video featuring the tail of a snake on all her social platforms ; a second part appeared the next day and on August 23 , she uploaded a third teaser , showing the snake 's head . On the same day , Swift announced that the first single of her upcoming sixth album , titled Reputation , would come out the following night . The song was released to streaming services on August 24 , and earned over eight million streams within twenty - four hours of its Spotify release , breaking the record for the highest first - day streaming for a single track . It impacted American contemporary hit radio on August 29 , 2017 , through Big Machine Records . A lyric video heavily based on the Saul Bass imagery used in the film Vertigo was released through Swift 's official Vevo account on August 25 , 2017 . The video was produced by Swift and Joseph Kahn . It gained more than 19 million views during its first 24 hours on YouTube , surpassing `` Something Just like This '' by The Chainsmokers and Coldplay as the most viewed lyric video within that time period . As of October 2017 , the lyric video on YouTube has amassed over 80 million views . Composition ( edit ) Jack Antonoff ( pictured in 2012 ) produced and co-wrote `` Look What You Made Me Do '' . Music critics have described `` Look What You Made Me Do '' as a hybrid of electroclash and pop , as well as a dance - pop and an electro - pop song . It emphasizes the blame that is placed on an enemy , in special in the line , `` I 've got a list of names , and yours is in red , underlined '' . The middle eight of the song features Swift saying , `` I 'm sorry , the old Taylor ca n't come to the phone right now / Why ? / Oh , ' cause she 's dead ! '' `` Look What You Made Me Do '' is performed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute . Swift 's vocals span from G to F . Critic Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone noted a `` nightmarish aesthetic '' present in the song , and believed it to be a continuation of the `` antagonistic persona '' from `` Bad Blood '' . Richard Fairbrass , Fred Fairbrass and Rob Manzoli , the members of the British dance - pop group Right Said Fred , are credited as songwriters because the song interpolates the melody of their song `` I 'm Too Sexy '' . According to Fred Fairbrass , he and his brother were contacted one week before the release of `` Look What You Made Me Do '' and were asked whether a `` big , contemporary female artist who has n't released anything for a while '' -- whose identity they were not told -- would be able to use a portion of their song for her latest single . Although the brothers agreed to a deal , they did not officially find out that the artist in question was Swift until the morning after the song was released , but had deduced that it was her based on the description they were given . Both of the Fairbrass brothers said that they enjoyed `` Look What You Made Me Do '' ; Fred Fairbrass told Rolling Stone , `` I like the cynical aspect of the lyric , because ' I 'm Too Sexy ' is a cynical song , and I think she channeled that quite well . '' A representative for Swift confirmed that the song interpolated the melody from `` I 'm Too Sexy '' , but did not include sampled audio from the earlier song . Critical reception ( edit ) `` Look What You Made Me Do '' received a mixed reception from critics , with some praising the song as a welcomed dark departure from her earlier work , and others writing it off as petty and vengeful . USA Today said that the polarizing reaction to the song illustrated Swift 's position as a `` ubiquitous cultural force '' . The Telegraph Randy Lewis praised the song , deeming Swift and Antonoff 's work as `` blow ( ing ) past the production clichés of clap tracks and hiccuped syllabic hooks that have proliferated across Top 40 fare in recent years with boldly inventive textures and fresh melodic , rhythmic and sonic accents '' . He also added how the track musically and sonically shifted alongside the lyrics . Sarah Carson of the Los Angeles Times wrote a positive review of the song , saying : `` The reverberating crescendo builds and ever more delicious is the wickedness of Swift 's menacing protagonist '' , praising Swift for her successful embrace of the villain character the media has portrayed her as previous to the song 's release . Variety 's Chris Willman also praised Swift 's embrace of a darker - styled pop music and the stylistic conflict between the song 's pre-chorus and chorus . Mark Harris , in New York magazine 's pop culture blog , thought of Swift 's song as a pop art anthem for the Trump era in how she reappropriates her public feuds as empowering badges of honor without acknowledging her own responsibility or blame . However , Maura Johnston of The Guardian wrote a negative review of the song , faulting the `` sloppy '' lyrics and blaming Swift for not giving a clear context in the lyrics . Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone believed that the song marked a continuation of the feud between Swift and rapper Kanye West ; the latter had previously name - dropped Swift in his song `` Famous '' by using the line , `` I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex / Why ? / I made that bitch famous '' . The single was noted as being a darker , angrier work than what Swift had done before . Hugh McIntye of Forbes was critical of the change in style , saying that it `` did n't sound like ( Swift ) '' and that it `` may have some kinks to work out '' . Meaghan Garvey from Pitchfork referred to it in a review as `` a hardcore self - own '' track . Chart performance ( edit ) In the United States , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number seventy - seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , powered by its first three days of airplay . It also sold slightly under 200,000 digital copies within its first day of sales in the country , where it became the fastest selling download since Ed Sheeran 's `` Shape of You '' . One week later , the song ascended from 77 to one on the Hot 100 after its first full week of tracking , becoming the fifth largest rise to the top position and Swift 's fifth number - one single in the United States . It also topped the nation 's Streaming Songs chart with 84.4 million streams , becoming its most streamed song within a week by a female artist and second overall behind the 103 million that Baauer 's `` Harlem Shake '' gained in 2013 . The track also had more weekly streams in the US than any other song in 2017 . With 353,000 copies sold in its first week , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' opened atop the US Digital Songs chart and had the country 's biggest sales opening since Justin Timberlake 's `` Ca n't Stop the Feeling ! '' in 2016 as well as the best weekly sales for a song by a female artist since Adele 's `` Hello '' in 2015 . The track also became the country 's first number - one song with a female artist since Halsey was featured on `` Closer '' by The Chainsmokers and the first song with a female lead artist since Sia 's `` Cheap Thrills '' with Sean Paul ( both in 2016 ) . It additionally was the first solo song by a female to top the US charts since Adele 's `` Hello '' . It remained atop the Hot 100 and Streaming Songs charts for a second week with 114,000 copies sold and 61.2 million streams , though descended to number two on the Digital Songs chart when another Reputation track titled `` ... Ready for It ? '' debuted at number one with 135,000 digital copies sold and opened at number four on the Hot 100 . As a result , Swift became the first artist to have two tracks sell over 100,000 digital copies in the nation within a week since Sheeran with `` Shape of You '' and `` Castle on the Hill '' . It also became the first time a female had two songs within the top five of the Hot 100 since 2015 when Swift 's previous tracks `` Shake It Off '' and `` Blank Space '' respectively were at numbers four and five on the chart . In the United Kingdom , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' sold 20,000 copies and was streamed 2.4 million times in less than a week . The song debuted at the top the UK Singles Chart on September 1 , 2017 - for the week ending date September 7 , 2017 - with opening sales of 30,000 copies and 5.3 million streams within the week and becoming Swift 's first chart - topping song in Britain . After two weeks at the top spot , it was displaced by Sam Smith 's `` Too Good at Goodbyes '' . `` Look What You Made Me Do '' also opened at number one in Australia , becoming her fifth track to top the ARIA Charts . It spent another week at the nation 's summit before `` Too Good at Goodbyes '' took the top position there as well . The song has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70,000 units . After debuting at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' was also certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 units on September 14 , 2017 . In the Philippines , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number 7 spot on the BillboardPH Hot 100 on its first week . A week later , it soared to the number 1 spot , ending the 10 - week reign of `` Despacito '' by Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber . It descended to the runner - up position the following week , as the latter song reclaimed the top spot for an 11th week . Music video ( edit ) Production and release ( edit ) The official music video premiered on August 27 , 2017 at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards . The song 's music video broke the record for most - watched video within 24 hours by achieving 43.2 million views on YouTube in its first day . It topped the 27.7 million Vevo views Adele 's `` Hello '' attracted in that timeframe , as well as the 36 million YouTube views of Psy 's `` Gentleman '' video . It was viewed at an average 30,000 times per minute in its first 24 hours , with views reaching over 3 million views per hour . Preparation for the music video began in January , while the shooting took place in May . The dance was choreographed by Tyce Diorio , who had worked with Swift on `` Shake It Off '' before . Swift 's make - up as a zombie was done by Bill Corso . Post-production of the video lasted until the morning of its release . A 20 - second music video teaser was released on Good Morning America on August 25 . The teaser , upon release , was criticized on Twitter due to similarities to Beyoncé 's `` Formation '' video . Kahn turned to Twitter to dismiss the claims , stated that he had `` worked with Beyoncé a few times '' , and that the music video is not in the way of her `` art space '' . Kahn also remarked that the video is derived from `` ( an ) obscene K Pop video made in ( a ) North Korean prison in 2006 '' , referencing to when he was accused for plagiarizing 2NE1 's `` Come Back Home '' video with `` Bad Blood '' in 2015 . It was also revealed that the diamonds used in a scene were authentic . The diamonds , loaned from celebrity jeweler Neil Lane , were said to be worth over $10 million , hence triggering tight security measures . As of October 12 , 2017 , the video has over 559 million views and broke the record for the fastest video to reach 200 , 300 and 400 million views on YouTube . It is the 30th most liked video on YouTube . Synopsis ( edit ) The bathtub scene in the music video , where the diamonds were worth over $10 million . The video begins with a zombie Swift crawling out of a grave , where the headstone reads `` Here Lies Taylor Swift 's reputation '' , and digging another grave for herself . The next scene shows Swift in a bathtub filled with diamonds . She is then seen seated on a throne while snakes surround her and serve tea . Swift later crashes her car on a post and sings the song 's chorus holding a Grammy as the paparazzi take photos . She is also seen swinging inside a cage , robbing a bank , and leading a motorcycle gang . Afterwards , she gathers a group of women at `` Squad U '' and dances with a group of men in another room . At the end of the video , various iterations of Swift 's public image bicker with one another , describing each other as `` so fake '' and `` playing the victim '' , ending with one saying `` I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative '' after which the other iterations yell at her to `` shut up ! '' in unison , while the version of Swift in the background watches in silence . Analysis ( edit ) The video contains numerous hidden meanings and references . In the opening scene , there is a subtle `` Nils Sjöberg '' tombstone shown when Swift is digging up a grave , referencing the pseudonym she used for a songwriting credit on Calvin Harris ' 2016 single `` This Is What You Came For '' . Similarly , Swift -- masked as a cadaveric version of herself in the `` Out of the Woods '' music video -- was shown digging a grave for herself in a 2014 Met Gala gown , an event that characterized her first public appearance with short hair . A single dollar bill in the bathtub full of diamonds that she bathes in was also speculated to symbolize the dollar she was awarded for winning a sexual assault trial . Interpretations for the bathtub scene were contrasting . Some believe that it is a response to media statement teasing that she `` cries in a marble bathtub surrounded by pearls '' , while others viewed it as a mockery to Kim Kardashian 's 2016 gunpoint robbery . In a separate scene , Swift is shown sitting atop a golden throne , where a carving of a phrase `` Et tu , Brute ? '' could be seen on the armrest , a reference to Shakespeare 's drama Julius Caesar . Swift 's infamous title as a `` snake '' during her hiatus was also represented when a snake slithers onto the throne to serve Swift some tea . When Swift 's car crashes , some speculated that it may be a jab at Katy Perry as Swift 's hairdo is similar to Perry 's in the scene . The sports car is also reminiscent of a car in Perry 's `` Waking Up in Vegas '' video . She is also holding a Grammy Award in the scene , a possible reference to the fact that Perry has never won any Grammys despite multiple nominations . Swift 's withdrawal of her entire music catalog from streaming services were hinted when Swift and her crew walked out of a streaming company in the video . Swift gathering at `` Squad U '' was also said to be a reply to the media dubbing her close friends as a `` squad '' . During the second chorus , Swift can be seen with eight men , each of which revealed an `` I Heart TS '' crop top after unbuttoning a jacket . This scene is an apparent tribute to her ex-boyfriend Tom Hiddleston , who was seen wearing an `` I Heart TS '' tank top when they were a couple . The eight backup dancers may also have been a possible reference to the idea that Swift has had eight ex-boyfriends during her career . Swift was also seen standing on a pile of her other iterations , reiterating the idea that she is leaving her past self behind . The shirt that an iteration of Swift wore in the `` You Belong with Me '' video was also different , with her close friends ' names scribbled on it this time . In June 2016 , discussing the relationship between her and Kanye West after West 's song `` Famous '' , Swift wrote on Instagram , `` I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative . '' The same line is spoken by one of Swift 's iterations at the end of the video . She is wearing the same outfit Swift had worn during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , when West interrupted her award - winning speech for Best Female Video . Usage in media ( edit ) ABC used the song in a promotional video for its Shonda Rhimes ' Thursday line - up an hour after its release . Sister network ESPN used it in its college football telecast advertisements for the season opening game between Alabama and Florida State , which was aired on ABC on September 2 . Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2017 ) Peak position Argentina Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) 10 Australia ( ARIA ) Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 8 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 39 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) Canada AC ( Billboard ) 33 Canada CHR / Top 40 ( Billboard ) 10 Canada Hot AC ( Billboard ) 10 Chile Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) 6 Colombia Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) Costa Rica ( Monitor Latino ) 11 Croatia ( HRT ) Czech Republic ( Rádio Top 100 ) 39 Czech Republic ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) Denmark ( Tracklisten ) 12 El Salvador ( Monitor Latino ) 7 Euro Digital Songs ( Billboard ) Ecuador Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) 8 Finland Digital Songs ( Billboard ) France ( SNEP ) 26 Germany ( Official German Charts ) Greece Digital Songs ( Billboard ) Guatemala Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) Hungary ( Single Top 40 ) Hungary ( Stream Top 40 ) Ireland ( IRMA ) Israel ( Media Forest ) Israel ( Media Forest TV Airplay ) Italy ( FIMI ) 10 Japan ( Japan Hot 100 ) 7 Japan Hot Overseas ( Billboard ) Latvia ( Latvijas Top 40 ) Lebanon ( Lebanese Top 20 ) Lithuania ( M - 1 Top 40 ) 8 Luxembourg Digital Songs ( Billboard ) 7 Malaysia ( RIM ) Mexico Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) 7 Netherlands ( Mega Top 50 ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 13 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Norway ( VG - lista ) 6 Panama Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) Philippines ( Philippine Hot 100 ) Portugal ( AFP ) Republica Dominicana Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) Romania ( Airplay 100 ) 64 Russia Airplay ( Tophit ) 54 Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) Slovakia ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) South Korea International Chart ( Gaon ) 6 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) 7 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 6 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 19 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) 7 US Dance Club Songs ( Billboard ) 10 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) 20 Venezuela Anglo ( Monitor Latino ) 5 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) Platinum 70,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) Platinum 80,000 Italy ( FIMI ) Gold 25,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Gold 15,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Silver 200,000 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 707,626 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Ref . Worldwide August 24 , 2017 Streaming Big Machine August 25 , 2017 Digital download Italy Contemporary hit radio Universal Music United Kingdom August 26 , 2017 Virgin EMI United States August 29 , 2017 Big Machine See also ( edit ) List of number - one singles of 2017 ( Australia ) List of number - one digital tracks of 2017 ( Australia ) List of number - one streaming tracks of 2017 ( Australia ) List of Canadian Hot 100 number - one singles of 2017 List of number - one digital songs of 2017 ( Canada ) List of number - one singles of 2017 ( Ireland ) List of number - one singles from the 2010s ( New Zealand ) List of Philippine Hot 100 number - one singles of 2017 List of Scottish number - one singles of 2017 List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2010s List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 2017 List of number - one Billboard Streaming Songs of 2017 List of number - one digital songs of 2017 ( U.S. ) List of number - one songs of 2017 ( Malaysia ) List of most liked YouTube videos List of most disliked YouTube videos List of most viewed online videos in the first 24 hours References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Battan , Carrie ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's Radical Transformation in Her New Song , `` Look What You Made Me Do '' `` . The New Yorker . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Aswad , Jem Aswad ( August 18 , 2017 ) . `` Does Taylor Swift 's Social - Media Blackout Mean New Music Is Coming ? '' . Variety . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bruner , Raisa ( August 21 , 2017 ) . `` The Internet Is Excited About This Cryptic Taylor Swift Video '' . Time . Retrieved August 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kaufman , Gil ( August 21 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Ends Social Media Blackout With Cryptic Reptile Tail Tease '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Vain , Medison ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Reveals Snake Head in Latest Cryptic Video '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lynch , Joe ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Reveals New Album ' Reputation ' Coming In Nov. , First Single Out Thursday '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 23 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Aswad , Jem ( August 24 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's New Single , ' Look What You Made Me Do , ' Arrives ( Listen ) '' . Variety . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Rosen , Christopher ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift breaks Spotify , YouTube records '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Top 40 / M Future Releases '' . All Access . All Access Music Group . Archived from the original on August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Johnston , Maura ( August 24 , 2017 ) . `` Acid gossip that borrows from better songs -- Taylor Swift : Look What You Made Me Do review '' . The Guardian . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Whittaker , Alexandra ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Here 's Every Lyric from Taylor Swift 's New Song ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . InStyle . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Knapp , JD ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Lyric Video Breaks 24 - Hour Record '' . Variety . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : McIntyre , Hugh ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Unleashes New Single ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Forbes . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Spanos , Brittany ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Releases Apparent Kanye West Diss Song ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Taylor Swift -- ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Sheet Music ( Digital Download ) '' . Musicnotes.com . Sony / ATV Music Publishing . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lockett , Dee ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Declares the Old Taylor Dead on New Song , ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Vulture . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift releases new song ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Daily News . New York . August 24 , 2017 . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Grow , Cory ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Right Said Fred on Taylor Swift 's ' Cynical ' ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Myers , Owen . `` Right Said Fred Are `` Very Pleased '' With Taylor Swift 's Interpolation Of `` I 'm Too Sexy '' `` . The Fader . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Holterman , Alexandra ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's Lead Singles From Each Album : Which Do You Think Is Best ? Vote ! '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ryan , Patrick ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Look what you made us do : Critics slam Taylor Swift 's comeback single '' . USA Today . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Alexandra Holterman ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Director Defends Taylor Swift , Accuses Public of ' Double Standards ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McDermott , Maeve ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift goes full psycho pop in new song ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . USA Today . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Randy ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift drops ' Look What You Made Me Do ' and it 's aggressive '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Carson , Sarah ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift , Look What You Made Me Do , review : ' Swift has painted herself as a villain , and triumphed ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Willman , Chris ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Song Review : Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Variety . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Harris , Mark ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swifts Look What You Made Me Do Is a Pure Piece of Trump - Era Pop Art '' . Vulture . Retrieved September 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Weatherby , Taylor ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Drops Dark New Song ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Garvey , Meaghan ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` '' Look What You Made Me Do '' by Taylor Swift Review `` . Pitchfork . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Headed for No. 1 on Billboard Hot 100 Next Week '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Caulfield , Keith ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look ' Heads for Half - Million Sales , Biggest Week Since Adele 's ' Hello ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( September 5 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Leaps to No. 1 on Hot 100 With Top Streaming & Sales Week of 2017 '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( September 11 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift at Nos. 1 & 4 on Billboard Hot 100 , as Cardi B Moves Up to No. 2 '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ White , Jack ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift could earn her first UK Number 1 single this Friday '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ White , Jack ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift scores first Number 1 on the Official Singles Chart with ' LWYMMD ' '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ White , Jack ( September 15 , 2017 ) . `` Sam Smith scoops his sixth UK Number 1 single with Too Good at Goodbyes '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved September 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift Scores Fifth # 1 Single '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . September 2 , 2017 . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift holds # 1 for second week '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Anthony Callea Beats The National For # 1 Album On This Week 's ARIA Chart '' . Themusic.com.au . September 16 , 2017 . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` ARIA Australian Top 50 Singles '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . September 18 , 2017 . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian Music : Top 100 Songs Chart '' . Billboard . September 16 , 2017 . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Canadian single certifications -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Music Canada . Retrieved September 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Strauss , Matthew ; Minsker , Evan ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Watch Taylor Swift 's `` Look What You Made Me Do '' Video `` . Pitchfork . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Smashes YouTube 's 24 - Hour Record , Crushing Psy '' . Variety . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Randy ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' video bashes another YouTube record '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McIntyre , Hugh ( August 31 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Video Hit 100 Million Views In Less Than Four Days '' . Forbes . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Cirisano , Tatiana ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift Tops PSY 's 24 - Hour YouTube Record With ' Look What You Made Me Do ' '' . Billboard . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Murphy , Desiree ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Exclusive : Todrick Hall Reveals Secrets From Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Music Video '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Murphy , Desiree ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Video : Everything We Know About the Snakes , Diamonds , Dancing & More '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Maureen Lee Lenker ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Snake slithers up Taylor Swift 's throne in dark , glamorous music video '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lavache , Carina ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` A Lot of People Think Taylor Swift 's New Video Looks Like Beyoncé 's `` Formation '' `` . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Min , Lilian ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's `` Look What You Made Me Do '' Music Video Director Has Thoughts About Those Beyoncé Comparisons `` . Elle . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Spanos , Brittany ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Watch Taylor Swift Mock Herself in Dark ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Video '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift 's MV Director Throws Shade At 2NE1 After Being Accused Of Plagiarism Again '' . Koreaboo . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Gordon , Julie ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's diamond bath cost more than $10 M '' . Page Six . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Fastest to 200 million '' . Kworb . Retrieved October 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Yahr , Emily ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift knows you 've been making fun of her . Here 's how her new video responds '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Whitehead , Mat ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` 8 Things You Might Have Missed In Taylor 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Video '' . HuffPost . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jones , Marcus ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Here 's Why Some People Are Mad At Taylor Swift 's New Video '' . BuzzFeed . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ France , Lisa Respers ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift and snakes : The backstory '' . CNN . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift 's Look What You Made Me Do video : all the references explained '' . The Telegraph . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Chen , Joyce ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's ' Look What You Made Me Do ' Video Decoded : 13 Things You Missed '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Wood , Lucy ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Each and every single dig that Taylor Swift makes in the Look What You Made Me Do music video '' . Metro . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tanzer , Myles ( July 18 , 2016 ) . `` Taylor Swift : `` I Would Very Much Like To Be Excluded From This Narrative '' `` . The Fader . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Taylor Swift vs. Taylor Swift in `` Look What You Made Me Do '' video `` . ABC . August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Schonfeld , Zach ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Taylor Swift 's `` Look What You Made Me Do '' Music Video Is Finally Here `` . Newsweek . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Holmes , Sally ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` All the Old Taylors in Taylor Swift 's `` Look What You Made Me Do '' `` . Elle . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lynch , Jason ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` ABC Is Already Using Taylor Swift 's New Song ' Look What You Made Me Do ' to Promote TGIT '' . Adweek . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Joseph , Andrew ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` ESPN using Taylor Swift 's song for college football ads '' . USA Today . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo Argentina -- Del 4 al 10 de Septiembre , 2017 '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . September 4 , 2017 . Retrieved September 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . 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Jump up ^ `` Top 20 General del 18 de September al 2 de October , 2017 '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . Jump up ^ `` Croatia ARC TOP 40 '' . HRT . Retrieved 2 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ČNS IFPI '' ( in Czech ) . Hitparáda -- Radio Top 100 Oficiální . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201739 into search . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ČNS IFPI '' ( in Czech ) . Hitparáda -- Digital Top 100 Oficiální . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201735 into search . Retrieved September 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Danishcharts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Tracklisten . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo Ecuador '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . 2 October , 2017 . Retrieved 2 October , 2017 . Check date values in : access - date = , date = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Billboard -- Euro Digital Song Sales '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo Ecuador '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . September 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift : Look What You Made Me Do '' ( in Finnish ) . Musiikkituottajat -- IFPI Finland . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Finland Digital Song Sales '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Le Top de la semaine : Top Singles ( téléchargement + streaming ) -- SNEP ( Week 35 , 2017 ) '' ( in French ) . Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Offiziellecharts.de -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved September 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard -- Greece Digital Song Sales '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo del 28 de Agosto al 18 de Septiembre , 2017 '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Single ( track ) Top 40 lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Stream Top 40 slágerlista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IRMA -- Irish Charts '' . Irish Recorded Music Association . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do Media Forest '' . Israeli Airplay Chart . Media Forest . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` מדיה פורסט - לדעת שאתה באוויר '' . Mediaforest.biz . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Italiancharts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Top Digital Download . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Japan Hot 100 for Taylor Swift . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard Japan Hot Overseas -- September 11 , 2017 '' ( in Japanese ) . Billboard Japan . September 11 , 2017 . Retrieved September 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Latvijas Top 40 '' . Latvijas Radio . October 9 , 2017 . Retrieved October 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Official Lebanese Top 20 - Taylor Swift '' . The Official Lebanese Top 20 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` M - 1 Top 40 '' . Archived from the original on September 17 , 2017 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard -- Luxemburg Digital Song Sales '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Most Streamed International & Domestic Singles in Malaysia : Week 35 ( 25 / 8 / 2017 - 31 / 8 / 2017 ) '' ( PDF ) . Recording Industry Association of Malaysia . Retrieved September 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo del 28 de Agosto al 2 de October , 2017 '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- week 37 , 2017 '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 Retrieved September 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Lijst van 9 - 09 - 2017 - MEGA TOP 50 '' ( in Dutch ) . Mega Top 50 Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved September 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NZ Top 40 Singles Chart '' . Recorded Music NZ . September 4 , 2017 . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` VG - lista -- Taylor Swift / Look What You Made Me Do '' . VG - lista . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo Panama '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . 2 October 2017 . Retrieved 2 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BillboardPH Hot 100 '' . Billboard Philippines . September 18 , 2017 . Retrieved September 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Portuguesecharts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . AFP Top 100 Singles . Retrieved September 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo Republica Dominicana '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . 2 October 2017 . Retrieved 2 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Airplay 100 -- 24 September 2017 '' . Retrieved 3 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Official Russia Top 100 Airplay Chart '' ( in Russian ) . Tophit . Retrieved 8 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` SNS IFPI '' ( in Slovak ) . Hitparáda -- Singles Digital Top 100 Oficiálna . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201735 into search . Retrieved September 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Gaon Download Chart -- Issue date : 2017.27. 08 -- 2017.02. 09 '' . Gaon Chart . Retrieved 25 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Spanishcharts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' Canciones Top 50 . Retrieved September 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved September 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for Taylor Swift . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Billboard Adult Contemporary for Taylor Swift . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Billboard Adult Pop Songs for Taylor Swift . Retrieved September 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs for Taylor Swift . Retrieved October 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Billboard Pop Songs for Taylor Swift . Retrieved October 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Taylor Swift -- Chart history '' Billboard Rhythmic Songs for Taylor Swift . Retrieved September 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Anglo Venezuela '' ( in Spanish ) . Monitor Latino . 25 September 2017 . Retrieved 25 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Italian single certifications -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand single certifications -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved September 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Enter Look What You Made Me Do in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- Taylor Swift -- Look What You Made Me Do '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved September 28 , 2017 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ `` Nielsen SoundScan charts -- Digital Songs -- Week Ending : 10 / 05 / 2017 '' ( PDF ) . Nielsen SoundScan . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 8 , 2017 . Retrieved October 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Look What You Made Me Do -- Single by Taylor Swift on Apple Music '' . United States : iTunes Store . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' Look What You Made Me Do ' -- Taylor Swift '' ( in Italian ) . Radio Airplay . Archived from the original on August 27 , 2017 . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BBC -- Radio 1 Playlist : Friday , 25th August '' . BBC . Archived from the original on August 27 , 2017 . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics `` Look What You Made Me Do '' ( Lyric video ) on YouTube ( hide ) Taylor Swift songs Discography Taylor Swift `` Tim McGraw '' `` Picture to Burn '' `` Teardrops on My Guitar '' `` Should 've Said No '' `` Our Song '' Fearless `` Fearless '' `` Fifteen '' `` Love Story '' `` White Horse '' `` You Belong with Me '' `` Breathe '' `` You 're Not Sorry '' `` Forever & Always '' `` Change '' Speak Now `` Mine '' `` Sparks Fly '' `` Back to December '' `` Speak Now '' `` Mean '' `` The Story of Us '' `` Innocent '' `` Ours '' Red `` State of Grace '' `` Red '' `` I Knew You Were Trouble '' `` All Too Well '' `` 22 '' `` We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together '' `` The Last Time '' `` Everything Has Changed '' `` Begin Again '' `` Welcome to New York '' `` Blank Space '' `` Style '' `` Out of the Woods '' `` Shake It Off '' `` Bad Blood '' `` Wildest Dreams '' `` Wonderland '' `` New Romantics '' Reputation `` ... Ready for It ? '' `` Look What You Made Me Do '' Collaborations `` Two Is Better Than One '' `` Half of My Heart '' `` Both of Us '' `` Highway Do n't Care '' Other songs `` Crazier '' `` Today Was a Fairytale '' `` Safe & Sound '' `` Long Live '' `` Eyes Open '' `` Ronan '' `` Sweeter Than Fiction '' `` I Do n't Wanna Live Forever '' `` You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Look_What_You_Made_Me_Do&oldid=805006160 '' Categories : 2017 singles 2017 songs Big Machine Records singles Dance - pop songs Music videos directed by Joseph Kahn Song recordings produced by Jack Antonoff Songs written by Jack Antonoff Songs written by Taylor Swift Taylor Swift songs Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles Canadian Hot 100 number - one singles Irish Singles Chart number - one singles UK Singles Chart number - one singles Number - one singles in Australia Number - one singles in New Zealand Songs about betrayal Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) CS1 errors : dates CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) CS1 Russian - language sources ( ru ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) Use mdy dates from September 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart making named ref Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadaac Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadachrtop40 Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadahotac Singlechart usages for Czech Republic Singlechart called without artist Singlechart usages for Czechdigital Singlechart usages for Denmark Singlechart usages for Finland Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Hungarysingle Singlechart usages for Hungarystream Singlechart usages for Israelairplay Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Billboardjapanhot100 Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for Portugal Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart usages for Slovakdigital Singlechart usages for Spain Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardadultcontemporary Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceclubplay Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrhythmic Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Nederlands Polski Português Русский Scots Simple English ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 October 2017 , at 13 : 24 . 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