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Music1TheOriginoftheComfortWomanTheword‘body’isdefinedasaphysicalstructureandmaterialsubstanceofananimalorahumanbeing.Alongsidewar,peaceandotherbasicconstructsofhumanity,thebodyhasbeenconceptualizedandspanningoverhistoryandtime,consistentlyaffectinghumaninteraction,statecraftandpolicy.Kokutai,acombinationoftheChinesewordsfor‘nation’and‘body’,thathasbeentranslatedbytheJapanesetomeanthe‘nationalbody’,the‘nationalentity’or‘nationalpolity’,referringexclusivelytonotonlyempirebuttothemakeupofthisbody,inotherwords,itssubjects.Althoughthemalebodyreadilycomestomindintheconsiderationofstateandpolicy,thefemalebodyinallofitsformsisacritical,yetoftendownplayed,factorintheriseofnations,statesandempires.InJapanesehistory,theviewofawoman’sbodyasanationalentityhascreatedaconsistentlyshiftingnarrativeofthefemale,creatinganddestroyingconceptionsinitspath.Fromcommodity,towife,toconcubineandtoprostitute,eachformtaken,ormoreaptly,createdforJapan’swomen,bothnativeandimperial,culminatedinthemidcenturyintoauniqueyetterrifyingnewform:thecomfortwoman.Intheestablishmentofthecomfortwomanconstruct,however,bothgenderedbodies,maleandfemale,playsignificantroles.TheanalysisoftheriseofthisphenomenonconsiderstheJapanesemenandwomen,occupied,or,forourpurposes,Chinesemenandwomenandfinallycolonized,specificallyKorean,menandwomen.Thesesixcharactersfindaplaceintheanalysisofthethreemaintenantsthatcontributedtothecomfortwoman:history,racismandnecessity.ThehistoricalaspectexplorestheroleJapanesemenandwomenhadintheconstructionofnationalism,themasculineidealandtheriseofmilitarism.Contributingtothehistorical,althoughstandingaloneinimportance,isthedevelopmentofaracismthatspawnedasuperioritycomplexafflictedbytheJapaneseuponbothChineseandKoreanplayers.Finally,theanalysisisconcludedbyanexaminationoftheroleofnecessityinalliancewithhistoryandracismtospawnthesocialandpoliticalacceptanceofthecomfortwoman,thussolidifyingherplaceinJapanesehistory.Theassessmentwillproceedbyusingahistoricalstructure,spanningfromtheTokugawaperiodtoWorldWarIIthatframestheanalysisandincorporatesthefactorsofracismandnecessitytofleshouttheargumentasthecomfortwomanaroseintheJapanesehistoricalnarrative.ThusthroughastudyoftheoverarchingconstructsofJapanesehistory,racismandnecessity,inconcertwithavailabledata,theestablishmentofthecomfortwomanasaforciblycreated,statecommissionedconstructuniquetoJapanwillbepresentedandexplained.Asitemergedfromanalmosttwocenturylongwarringperiod,JapanfounditselfundertherelativelyunifiedandlargelypeacefulruleoftheTokugawashogunate(1600-1868).Thisinitiallyfeudalregime,aswithallnovelgovernmentalstructures,strovetoreplacepreviouslawsandsystemswithpoliciesthatmarkedaneweraofgovernancewhichincludedareexaminationoftherolesofmaleandfemalebodieswithinthestate.InthisexaminationofpoliticalandsocialconstructsoftheTokugawashogunate,itisusefultoconsiderthisregimeinthreemainparts:Theearlyperiod,from1600totheearly1700s,theEdoperiod,fromabout1700totheearly1800s,andfinallythelateperiodwhichspannedfromthemid1800stotheendoftheshogunateera.Eachpartcharacterizesashiftinthepoliticalandsocialconsiderationofthefemalebodycrucialtodevelopinganunderstandingoftheearlynotionofthe‘nationalbody’thatwouldlaterspreadtotheoccupiedandcolonizedpolitiesaswell.TheearlyperiodoftheTokugawashogunate’sreignischaracterizedbypoliciesthatreflectalackofconsiderationanddistinctionofthefemalebodyaswellasthestruggleofanascentregimetosolidifyitsrulethroughoutJapan.Markingtheendofcenturiesofcontinuouswarandconflict,theTokugawashogunatewasfacedwiththeinitialtaskofsolidifyingitsrulethroughoutthemanyprovincescomposingtheJapanesestate.Asaresult,numerousprovincialandgrouplawsthatexistedpriortothisnewregimeremainedinplaceastheTokugawastrovetoconstructaformofunificationappropriateforJapan.Itsettleduponfeudalism,whichallowed,atleastintheinitialperiods,eachfeudalentitytomaintaintheirgeneralsystemsofgovernance.Forwomen,thepersistenceoflargelymedievallawmadesuretheirpositionsremainedstatic.Thesepractices,however,provideimportantinsightintothebasisuponwhichfuturepolicieswouldbebuilt.LawcodesfromtheKamakuraperiod(1185-1333)“consideredwomen’sbodiestobepartoftheirhusband’sorfather’sestates”andheldtheoverarchingbeliefthat“therewasnocleardistinctionbetweenwomenwhomadealivingsellingsexandthosewhodidnot…therewasnomeaningfuldifferencebetweenagiftfromaloverandapaymentfromaclient”TheseideasremainedlargelyintactintheearlyperiodofTokugawareignasevidencedinthestatementsandaccountsgivenbyMasakage,aminemagistrateintheprovinceofInnai.Asanappointedtaxcollectorofhisprovince,Masakage’saccountsarenumerous,yetdisplayaconsistencyinthemannerinwhichwomenwereperceivedandtreated.Oneaccountdescribesthegeneralprocedureoftaxcollection:“whentownsmendefaultedontheirtaxes,he[Masakage]frequentlycommendedthemtoselltheirbelongings—includingfamilymembers…whendebtorsrefusedtoliquidatetheirwivesandchildren,[he]seized.Togivethisdescriptionsomelife,MasakagedescribeshisdealingswiththemasterofanestablishmentcalledKyo-no-shio-yawho“owedseveralkaninoutstandingtaxes…Masakagepredictedthathewouldneverbeabletocompeltheprosecutortoreturn,sohedrewupalistofhisassetsanddecidedtoholdhisresidence,hiswifeandchild…ascollateralonunpaidtaxes”.Voidofanyambiguity,Masakage’saccountsarebare,leavingnothingtodoubtandprovingwithallcertaintythelegalcommoditizationofwomen.Asamanappointedbylocalgovernance,thereisnodenyingthelinkbetweenMasakage’sactionsandprovincialdecree.Furthermore,Masakage’slanguageprovesthelackofdistinctiongiventowomeninthisera.Thevocabularyusedinhisaccountsdistinguishedbetweenpurchasedwomen,prostitutes,wives,daughters...[however]hisjudgmentplacedtheminauniformmassof‘women,’allofwhomwereavailableforpurchaseandeligibleforsale…hemadethepointthatallwomen—eventhosewhoweremarried—wereassetsthatcouldbeliquidatedandexchangedatwill.”Stanley,Amy,SellingWomen:Prostitution,Markets,andtheHouseholdinEarlyModernJapan.(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,2012),p.30Ibid.,p.30Ibid.,p.29Ibid.,p.33Ibid.,p.42ThedealingsofMasakageinInnaiareonlyamicrocosmforsimilardealingswithinprovincesthroughoutJapanatthetime.Withthewarringperiodonlyrecentlyconcluded,menmaintainedacontrolandaviewofwomeninformedbypoliciesfrommuchearlierperiods.Womeninthiscontextwerewithoutnuance,unshieldedfromthethreatofthewillofmaninthenameofbusinessandeconomics.AstheTokugawamovedtosolidifytheirpolicies,thisperiodofindistinctfemalebodiesisdiscontinuedasexemplifiedintheEdoperiod,buttheconceptofcommoditycontinuestoblankettheclassificationofthefemale.AstheTokugawashogunateenteredtheEdoperiod,prostitutionasatradehadproveditseconomicsignificanceandinturnbroughtsocialandpoliticalconsiderationsofwomentotheforefrontoflawsandpolicy.TheshiftsinpolicyareillustratedbyanexchangebetweenabrothelkeepernamedJine’monandtheshogunate.Inhispetitionforanewplotoflandforhisenterprise,Jine’mon“appealedtotheshogunate’sinterestinpreservingsocialandpoliticalorder…[and]proposedasolution:iftheshogunatewouldgranthimaplotoflandandamonopolyonthesextrade,hewouldguaranteethatthesedangerswouldbecontained”promiseofcontainmentnotonlyunderscoredtheincreasinglylucrativesextrade,butalso“thecreationofanewcategoryofwomen,yujoorprostitutes,whowouldbeseparatedfromtherestofthecity’sfemalepopulation”.HousedintherestrictedandcontrolledYoshiwaradistrict,thedivisionbetweenwomenofsocietyandtheprostitutewasbeginningtotakeformbothliterallyandfiguratively,demonstratingaprominentshiftinshogunatepolicies.Nolongerwerewomenalarge,undistinguishablegrouptobetradedasmensawfit;therenowexistedaclearseparationbetweenthosewhodidusetheirbodiesandthosewhodidnot,inotherwordswomenofthegeneralsociety,mainlywives,andtheprostitutesofInadditiontoemphasizingadistinctionbetweenwomen,thisshiftestablishestheincreasinglyimportantroleeconomicswasbeginningtoplayintherevitalizationofsocialandpoliticalpoliciestowardswomenintermsofConfucianIbid.,p.45Ibid.,p.46filialideals.ThelongheldConfuciantraditionsofJapanesesocietywereasourceoflegitimacybetweenstateandsubject.ItshouldcometonosurprisethattheTokugawaregimereturnedtosuchidealswhenestablishingtheirlegalandsocietalframework.Inanattempttoapplytheroleofbenevolentgovernmentto“themostvulnerablemembersofthepopulation”thegovernmentstressedthedecommodificationofwomen,transformingtheminsteadintosubjectswithroleswithinthehouseholdandsocietalgroups.Thusthefemalebodyofwomeninsocietywasregulatedbythefilialrelationshipofhusbandandwife.Prostitutes,althoughpositionedinaseparatepartofsociety,werenotexcludedfromsuchresponsibilityandwerethusbroughtundertheroleoffilialdaughter,servingtheirfathersandhouseholdsalthoughoutsideofthehome.Byservicetheshogunatereferredtothemonetaryexchangeofthisfemalebody,whichmaintaineditsattributeasacommoditybutcouldnowclaimaneconomicedgeabsentfromwomenofgeneralsociety,adistinctseparatingfactor.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatdespitethiseconomicdifferencethefactthatthebodiesofbothgroupsofwomenwereblanketedbyConfucianidealsspeakstotheirequalizedstandinginsocietydespitethephysicalandphilosophicaldistinctions.Theequalizationstemsfromtheircontinued,yetnowstatepromoted,dependencyuponamaleentity,ahusbandorafather,thatcreatedapatriarchalsystemthat“‘confirmedthelegalpowersofahusband/fatheroverhiswife’”withapaternalisticedge,“inthatitconferredadegreeofprotectiononthosewhoaccepteditsstructures”.HenceitisduringthisEdoperiodthatmasculineundertonesbegintoconvergeupontheTokugawashogunateinamannersimilaryetlargelydistinguishablefromthepastera.Insteadofconsiderationsolelyascommoditytobeboughtorsold,women,bothmarriedandprostitutesalike,wereplacedina‘protected’positionbybothhusbandandfatherandinturnthestatewhichactedasthe‘benevolentgovernment’.TheplacementofthestateasprotectoranddictatorofthefemalebodyispivotalinthisperiodforwardasitgivesthestateapowerovertheJapanesewomanthatwillextendastheJapanesegrowIbid.,p.47theirempiretoencompassoccupiedandcolonialterritoriesandbodies.However,intheEdoperiod,althoughmasculinitymaintaineditssenseofentitlementtothefemaleJapanesebody,theConfucian,nurturingandcompassionateaspectslacedthismasculinitywithagentlertone.Aswillbeshownintheproceedingperiod,however,thissensitivityhasitslimitsastheconnectionbetweenprostituteandtheeconomyisdisputedheavilybysociety.ThelateperiodoftheTokugawashogunateexemplifiestheshiftinthepositionofthefemalebodyinJapanesepoliticsasprostitutesgarneredalargerplaceintheeconomicsphere—conflictingtheConfucianandmasculineidealsofthestateaswellasbringingtotheforetheconflictbetweenthemarketeconomyandthehousehold.BythemidtolatenineteenthcenturytheelitesectorofTokugawasocietybegantofocustheirattentionuponthelinkbetweentheConfucianidealsdictatingthefamilyandthemarketsurroundingthesextrade.Whattheysawwasaweaknessinthefilialbondsofsocietyasitcameintodirectcontactwiththeeconomyintheformofprostitution.IntheEdoperiodthewidelyheldsentimentwasthataslongasthedaughtersofprostitutionheldallegiancetotheirfathers,theywereacceptedbysociety.Inthelateperiod,however,“therapidexpansionofabusinessthatseparatedwomenfromtheirfamiliesandmarketedsexraisedthealarmingpossibilitythatsocialrelationsmightbesubsumedbymarketrelations”ThisfearbegantotakeholdandgraduallytransformedthewayprostituteswereviewedinsocietyasembodiedinthetrialofTora,ayoungprostituteaccusedofattemptingtoseduceherbrothelkeeper’sson,Sobei.ThroughouthertrialToracontinuouslyclaimsfilialresponsibilitytoherparentsaswellasherbrothelowner.Whenaskedwhyshereturnedtoherbrotheltoworkafteranabsence,Torareplies,“thatshe[had]returnedoutofadesiretobefilialtoherparentsandfulfillherobligationstoSadaemon[thebrothelowner]”Bymentioningdutytobothherhouseholdandthebrothel,sheequatesthetwoentities,callingintoquestionhersupposedhigher,filialresponsibilitytoherfather.Asthetrialproceeds,questionsturntoherrelationshipwithSobei,specificallyIbid.,p.186Ibid.,p.180concerningtheinitiatoroftheseduction,towhichTorareplies,“‘It’sallmyfault,’shesaid,‘Sobeiisblameless’(Nanigotomowatakushinotsumi,Sobeinotsuminiwakorenaku)”.ThisadmissionpointstoasenseofindependenceandautonomyofactionToraherselfadmitstoandclaimsresponsibilityfor,exemplifyinganothershiftfromtheConfucianrolesoccupiedbyprostitutes.Inherbook,SellingWomen:Prostitution,MarketsandtheHouseholdinEarlyModernJapanwherethisaccountisfound,AmyStanleyanalyzesTora’stestimonyinthecontextofthepreviouslyunderstoodrolesofprostitutesduringtheEdoperiod.“Toraneverdeniedherobligationstoherparents,butshebalancedeverymentionofthisresponsibilitywithanassertionthatshewasalsoindebtedtothebrothelkeeper.Thisplacedtherelationshipbetweenparentandchild,whichhadoccupiedaprivilegedplaceinthegenderedorder,onequalfootingwiththecontractualrelationshipbetweenemployerandemployee…byinsistingthatshehadbeenthesexualaggressorinherrelationshipwithSobei,Toradescribedherselfasatemptress,arolethatwascompletelyatoddswiththeimpressionherstepfatherhadhopedtocreate”Inresponsetohertestimony,SadaemonbacksupTora’sclaimsbyreinforcingherobligationtohimandhisbusinessanditsequalfootingwithherresponsibilitytoherfatheraswellasherabilitytomakeherownchoices.HistestimonycompoundeduponTora’sown,especiallyhis“assertionof[Tora’s]agency—wasanawkwardfitwiththenarrativethatportrayedprostitutesasfilialdaughterswhoworkedtoservetheirparents’…interests”.Moreover,Tora’sadmittedagencyalsopredeterminedherguiltintheseductionofSobei.Notonlydidsheseparateherselffromherfather’shome,sheprovedthatshehadusedhersexualityforherowngain,thusclaimingculpabilityandplacingtheblamesquarelyonhershoulders.ThisepisodeisrevealingofthegreaterdevelopmentunderwayinJapanesesocietyintheconsiderationoftheprostitute.Theideaoftheagency,orindependence,wasbeingattributed,althoughunwelcomed,totheprostitutesduringthiseraasaresultoftheconsiderationsandreformsmadebypoliticalelites.Theywerebeingstrippedoftheirfilialstatusandtheirtiestothehomewerebecomingseveredasthemarketeconomybegantoengulfsociety.Insocietaleyes“adutifuldaughterwasafiguretoIbid.,p.181Ibid.,pp.181-182Ibid.,p.185bepraisedandadmired,butalustfulwomendidnotdeservethesamekindof.Thusreplacingtheprostitute’srespectedfilialstatuswasasenseofshameplaceduponherbyexternalentitiesandshroudingherpositioninJapanesesocietyfromthenon.Furthermore,thenurturingaspectthathadonceblanketedallaspectsofthefemalebodyintheEdoperiodwasnowbecomingselectiveinitscoverings.Agencyandshamebecameattributedtotheprostitute,distancingherfromthewomenofsocietyandthusrupturingtheequilibriumbetweenthetwo.Hereconomicstandingwasapartofa“broaderdiscourseaboutfemaleagencythatflourished…aspeopleacrossJapangrappledwithwomen’sengagementinthemarketeconomy”.Asthemostobviousindicatorofthis‘flourishing’,prostituteswere“harbingersofthisdystopianfuture”andwereconsistentlyexaminedforanysign,largeorsmall,thattheywerebenefittingfromtheirpositions.Thisscrutinyalongwiththeshamewasaproductofelitemaledissidenceaswellasadesiretoseparateawomanfromtheeconomicsfromthestate,yetatthesametimereapthesexualandmonetarybenefitsofherbody.Prostitutionwasneveroutlawedorbanned,butshunnedandplacedoutsidesocietybothliterally,asdisplayedbeforeintheEdoperiod,andfigurativelyastheirpositionbecamereexaminedinthelateperiod.Thusthepatriarchalattitudesofthepreviousperiodbegantoslowlydistanceitselffromtheprostitute,notentirely,outoffearoflosingasourceofrevenue,butenoughtobegintoshowageneraldisdainforherpositionthatresultedintheloweringofherstatus.Theattributionofagency,theshame,theloweringofherbodytosecondclassstatusduetoaharshermaleidealcontinuedastheTokugawashogunatecametoacloseandtheMeijirestorationbegantoreform,butnotcompletelymodify,thevaluesthedifferentconceptionsofthefemalebodynowheldinthestate.AstheMeijierabegan,apropensitytowardsstatesponsorshipofthesextradehadapowerfulimpactonthesocialstandingofprostitutesandwomenalikeandsolidifiedwithinsocietytheideaofthe‘nationalbody’.ForthenewleadersoftheMeijiera,economicprosperity,andasaresultthesextrade,washeldasapriorityasitcommandedastrongplaceinthebusinesssectorofJapan.Althoughnotanexplicitlylistedgoal,theMeiji,liketheTokugawashogunate,hadamonetarystakeinprostitutionthatforcedthemtovacillatebetweenanoutwardlimitationofthepracticeandamorehiddendesireforitssuccess.Soonthiscontradictorypositionfoundmiddleground,however,astheJapanesebecame‘open’toforeignersandthusturnedtothemforinspirationonnavigatingthesocialandeconomicneedsatloggerheadswithintheempire.AccountsgivenbyKawajiToshiyoshi,astatesman,wholaterbecamethechiefofpolice,senttoEuropetoobservesociety,illustratetheintensityofhisinterestinthestateregulatedprostitutionsystemshediscovered.InParis,Toshiyoshinotedthat“‘RegulationsforStreetwalkers’wereenforcedwhereby‘astreetwalkerwhopossessanofficiallyissuedlicensemustgothehospitaltwiceamonthinordertoreceiveamedicalexam,isaskedtoshowherlicensetothepoliceandgovernmentofficials,andmustobeytheirorders”Berlin,‘justasFrance,prostitutes,streetwalkers,aswellaswomenemployedinbrothels,areregulatedbypoliceobservation.Regulationsstatethattheymustgotothepolice’smoralsofficeforanexaminationonceaweekandreceiveastamp”ForexactlyoneyearstartinginSeptember1872,Toshiyoshiobservedasystemoflicensedprostitutionthatnotonlybroughttheregulationofprostitutionfirmlyunderstateandpolicecontrol,butalsomandatedasystemofperiodicalmedicalexaminationstopreventcertainvenerealdiseases,asubjectincreasinglyrelevantinJapanduetotheir‘opening’.UponhisreturntoJapan,Toshiyoshi,alongwiththeGovernorofTokyoandtheViceMinisterofStateOkuboToshimichi,“tightenedtheinstitutionalfoundationsofthepolicemechanismcontrolledbytheMinistryofHomeAffairs.And…[he]usedhispowerstointroduceaEuropean-stylelicensedprostitutionsystem”.Suchordinancesincludedthe“theMinistryofPopularAffairsNoticeof1871andtheFinanceMinistryProclamation127of1872whichYuki,F."TheLicensedProstitutionSystemandtheProstitutionAbolitionMovementinModernJapan."Positions:EastAsiaCulturesCritique5.1(1997):135-71Ibid.,p.138prohibitedbondageandrestrictedprostitutiontoavoluntarycontractsystem”TheimpactofthisrevolutionarysysteminJapanesesocietywaslargelytwo-fold:First,theJapaneseundertheMeijierawantedtocentralizepowerandemulatethesenseofnationalismfoundinEuropebyunifyingallfeudalprovincesunderoneumbrellaoftheJapanesestate.Anyoutlierstothisunificationhadtobebroughtunderstate-controlbysomemeansandwiththeblueprintprovidedbytheEuropeanstates,MeijiJapancouldnowbringprostitutionundertheunifiedstate.Secondly,theJapanesestatenowpossessedawaytouseprostitutiontoitseconomicgainwithoutmakingthemonetaryaspectexplicitlyclearbyjustifyingstatecontrolwiththethreatofvenerealdisease.ThisnewfoundcentralizationandsenseofnationalismaswellastheawarenessofvenerealdiseaseareaspectsofJapanesesocietythatgrowinimportance,commandingmoreattentionfromsocietyandstate,especiallyasJapanbeginstomilitarizeinthe20Beforeturningtotheimpactofdiseaseuponthiseraandthenext,however,itisimperativetoconsidernotonlytheimpactthisstate-sanctionedsystemhaduponprostitutes,butalsouponwives,asthetwogohandinhand.Accordingtothecivilcodeof1898,“Wivesweredefinedaslegallyincompetent,andthepracticeofhusbandskeepingconcubineswaslegalized.”.Suchalawdemonstratesthatamanorhusband’ssexualself-indulgencewasnowfullysanctionedandcondonedby.Aconcubine,althoughnotonthesamelevelofsocietyasaprostitute,remainedafemaleentitythatmencouldcontrolbothinandoutsideofthehomenotformarriagebutforthefulfillmentofsexualpolygamousdesiresandprocreation.Inordertoproperlybalancethisnewfoundrightformen,womenhadtobeconstrainedastomaintainorderwithinsocietyasprovenbytheirnowlegallyrecognizedincompetency.ThisaspectofMeijilegalcodeisevenfurtherexemplifiedinthe1908criminalcodeonadulterythatheld“Incaseswhereawifecommittedadultery,thewomanandherpartnerwouldbepunished…butincaseswhereaStetz,MargaretDiane,andBonnieB.C.Oh.LegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.5Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitaryduringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.200 24Ibid.,p.201husbandcommittedadultery,hewasnotpunishedunlesshispartnerwassomeoneelse’swife”.Thislawisextraordinaryinthatitnotonlyprovestheadditionalconstrainplaceduponwivesintheirfilialroleandthelooseningthereofforthemen,butitalsoillustratestheupheldsanctityofmarriageandthedangersof‘tainting’another’sspouse.ItiswiththislawthatthesexualdoublestandardthatconstrainsJapanesebodies,bothmaleandfemale,becomesexceptionallyclear.Insuchasystem,awoman’srolebecameexcruciatinglydefinedandbinding:awomanwasawife,aconcubineoraprostitute,eachroleequallyconstrainedbythestate.AsSarahSohaptlysummarizesinherbook,TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,“state-ledproductionofanewsocialandpoliticaldiscourseonhumansexuality…engagedtheJapanesepublicinrethinkingthenatureofthebody,thepublicimplicationsofdisease,andnotionsoffemalesocialrolesandsexualityintheconstructionofanemergentconcept,the‘nationalbody’(kokutai)”The‘nationalbody’,referringnotonlytofemalebutmaleentitiesaswell,becameestablishedasaconsciouspoliticalconsiderationthatinformedtherulescreatedbythestate.Fromthispointforward,thecollectivebodyoftheJapanesepeoplewouldbecontrolled.Whetheritwastosendmentowarorwomentothebrothel,theideaofthedepersonalizationofthebodywasnowaseriousconsiderationoftheJapanesegovernment.Couplethisconceptionofa‘nationalbody’,nodoubtaproductoftheintensifyingnationalismoftheperiod,withtherisingconcernsofdiseaseaswellasthestaterecognitionofwhatmaybedefinedas‘theruleofmalesexright’orthestate-sanctionedallowanceofmalesexualfreedomattheexpenseofwomen,andthescenehasbeensetfortheriseofthe‘comfortstation’asfurtherdictatedbyearly20centuryfascismandmilitarism.Inadditiontotheaforementionedshiftsinpolicyconcerningthesolidificationofthe‘nationalbody’concept,theriseofJapanesenationalismthatcoincidedwiththecentralizationofgovernmentcanalsobeattributedtotheSoh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.111Ibid.,p.116subsequentriseinJapanesesuperiorityandwithit,racism.Inadditiontothestateregulatedprostitutionsystem,theJapanesealsoadoptedtheracialphilosophiesandtheoriescirculatinginEuropethroughoutthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.TheideasofHerbertSpencerandCharlesDarwinwereeagerlydisseminatedthroughoutJapanpartlybecausetheyfellinlinewithracialideasalreadyheldwithinthestate.InearlyJapanesehistory,thecategorizationofpeopleswasseenasusefulandextendedfromChinese“notionsoftheworldasmadeupofconcentriccirclesofincreasingstrangeness”,largelybaseduponhabitsandcustomsheldbytheirAsiaticneighbors.Thisledto“ethnographicdescriptions”byJapaneseexplorersthateasilylentthemselvestothedivisionoftheworldinto“fivemajorraces…jinshu.”.What’smore,risinginterestsingeneticsandeugenicsbegantotakerootinJapanesesocietyleadingtoperceptionsoftheJapaneseassomethingofasuperiorracenotunliketheirGermanNazicounterparts.Baseduponearlyconceptionsoftheirorigins,theJapanesebegantorevitalizeprevioustheoriesoftheirdecentfromthegods,exceptthistimewithinthecontextofthescientificracialmovement.TheJapanesebegantoviewthemselvesasa‘Chosenpeople’or‘gods’thatneedednomorallawlikethe‘bad’Chinesebutcoulddependontheirheartstoshowthemtheway.Withtheadventofracialsciencealongwithbroaderknowledgeofgeography,Japanesecouldnow‘sensibly’placethemselvesandtheAsiancontinentatthecenteroftheworldand,further,claimraciallinktoallpeoplesoftheglobe.Dr.TsunekichiKomakioftheKyotoImperialUniversitybroadcastedhisthoughtsonthesubjectbystakingJapaneseclaimtoabsolutelyeverything.America,heclaimed,“originallybelongedtoAsia…thecoldandwarmoceancurrentsmeetneartheJapanSea,whichisoneindicationofAsia’sclaimastheworldcenter.”IntermsofAsia,naturally“theAsiaticracecamefromaJapanesestrain”andthus“allcultureandreligious[activity]areunitedunderMorris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75. 29Ibid.,p.358Padover,SaulK."JapaneseRacePropaganda."PublicOpinionQuarterly7(1943):191-204. 31Ibid.,p.195Japan’semperor.”ToSouthAmericaheclaimedPeru,amongothercountries,basedupon“culturalconnectionwithsunworshipwhichisacharacteristicofAfricawasapartoftheAsianpeninsula,aclaimbaseduponideaspopularwiththeancientGreeks.EveninEurope,“therewasAsiaticbloodrunningthickintheveinsoftheinhabitants[innorthernEurope].InsouthernEurope,inFrance,wefindmanyancienttoolsformallyusedbythepeopleofAsia.”continents,Dr.Komakialsoheldthat“therewerenoSevenseas,butonlyonesea,anditisconnectedtoJapan,wherethesunisrising.AlloceansaretoberecognizedasagreatJapanesesea.”TheideasofthisJapaneseacademicpointtooneconclusion:Japanwasthe‘centerofAsia’andAsiawasthecenteroftheworldSuchwasJapan’sconceptionofitself,butitsideasofothernationswithintheAsiansphere,specificallyKoreaandChina,heldthe‘other’asstrikinglyinferior.Since1868,JapanhaddevelopedadisdainforotherAsiannationsfor“failingtorespondsuccessfully,asithaddone…totheWesternencroachment.AsacountryinAsia,Japancouldnotbutfeelasenseofshame,especiallybecauseithadbenefittedculturallyfromotherolderAsiancountries,suchasChina…andevenKorea.”theJapanesesettheirsightsonotherAsiannations,justificationsforinvasionaswellastheaforementionedcontemptwerenuancedbyracialperceptions.Ononehand,theJapanesesawtheirfellowAsiansassimilartothemselves,acharacterizationthatjustifiedtheir“rightto‘guide’or‘lead’thepoliticalandeconomicdestinyofneighboringcountries.”Ontheotherhand,however,racialandethnicdistinctionswereusedofficiallyandunofficiallytojustifydiscriminationofthe‘other’.Asiansingeneralwereseenasinferior,butKoreanswereheldasespeciallyinferiortotheJapanese.Describedas“dependent,dirty,sly,emotionallyvolatileandlackinginanysenseofhygiene,ignorant,impatient,extravagant,Ibid.,p.196(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.7Morris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75.dissolute,pronetogambling,[and]filledwithvanity”,Koreanswereidentifiedassecond-rateandwerethusseenasagroupneedingtobemadesimilartothe.NishimuraShinji,aprominentculturalanthropologist,assignednumericalrankingstoJapananditscoloniestomeasure‘nationalspirit’.InTable1,Nishimura’sfindingsarepresented,clearlydisplayingthatKorea,rankednumbersixoutofthesixcountriesexamined,heldthelowestlevelsofspirit,andthuspresentedan‘enigma’thatneededtobesolved,accordingtoNishimuraAlthoughnottheonlyexplanation,Nishimura’sfindingscoincidewiththeoverhaulofJapaneselegalcodes,traditionsandculturalaspectsthatwereblanketedoverKoreabothbeforeandespeciallyaftertheirannexationin1910.ForKoreanandChinesewomen,theyremaineddistinctfromtheirJapanesecounterpartswho“weredefinedunderthenationalgenderideologyof‘goodwifeandwisemother’whereascolonizedwomenweredisposablesexualcommoditiestobemobilized”muchlikeJapaneseprostitutesofthatage.Thus,whenJapanbegantocarrytheirlicensedprostitutionsystemovertothatofKoreabetween1881and1916,itshouldcometonosurprisethattheKoreanprostituteandtheJapaneseprostitutewerenotPark,Kyeyoung."TheUnspeakableExperiencesofKoreanWomenUnderJapaneseRule."WhittierLawReview(2000):567-619BEBATINO BACIAL SCIENCE IN WABTIME JAFAN 373 TaIIe 1. SlvenglI oJ NalionaI Spivil, BanIed I¸ Begion Adapl- Becep- Coopev- Feace- aIiIil¸ MoIiIil¸ livil¸ alion JuIness MovaIil¸ Avevage BanI Japan pvopev 2 3 2 1 2 4 2.33 1 HoIIaido* 4 2 4 3 3 6 3.67 4 Taivan 3 5 3 4 1 2 3.00 3 Kovea 6 4 6 5 5 3 4.83 6 MancIuvia 5 1 1 2 4 5 3.00 2 CIina 1 6 5 6 6 1 4.17 5 SOUBCE.-NisIinuva SIinji, NiIon ninzoIu no vis6 |TIe ideaI oJ lIe Japanese elInic gvoup) |ToI¸o· ToI¸odo, 1939), p. 282. * IncIudes KavaJulo. nineleenlI cenluv¸, il vas onI¸ in lIe 1930s lIal lIe slalislicaI slud¸ oJ nass sociel¸ Iegan lo give lIese specuIalions a scienliJic veneev. In nan¸ va¸s, lIis slalislicaI anaI¸sis oJ ¨elInic cuIluve,¨ vilI ils avIilvav¸ avevaging oJ pveseIecled gvoups avound pvedeJined cvilevia oJ diJJevence, vesenIIed lIe Iionelvic lecIniques oJ scienliJic vacisn, vIicI veve nov Ieginning lo Ie cvilicized I¸ vvilevs IolI in Weslevn Eu- vope and in Japan. WIiIe eugenic lIeovies and Iionelv¸ veve aIandoned I¸ nan¸ lIeovisls aJlev lIe FaciJic Wav, Iovevev, eJJovls lo noIiIize ps¸cIoIog¸, socioIog¸, and slalislicaI suvve¸ lecIniques Jov lIe ¨scienliJic¨ anaI¸sis oJ lIe pecuIiavilies oJ Japanese cuIluve conlinued lo JIouvisI-and indeed gained nev nonenlun vilI lIe vise oJ so-caIIed NiIonjinvon |¨lIeovies oJ lIe Japanese¨) in lIe 1960s and 1970s. FOSTWAB LEOACIES A gIance al sone oJ lIe vavline deIales suvvounding vaciaI science suggesls lIal lIe Iislov¸ oJ vaciaI lIougIl in Japan Ias Ieen nove conpIex and, in sone va¸s, nove lvouIIing lIan is oJlen assuned. Suppovl Jov Japan's inpeviaI expansion in Asia vas sonelines associaled vilI a IilevaI IeIieJ in lIe vaciaI puvil¸ oJ lIe Japanese Iul couId aIso Ie suslained I¸ quile diJJevenl pevspeclives on vace. BaciaI lIeovisls IiIe Ko¸ana Eizo accepled lIe divevse ovigins oJ lIe Japanese peopIe vIiIe sliII IeIieving in lIe genelic supeviovil¸ oJ lIe nodevn Japanese and in lIeiv gIoIaI nis- sion lo coIonize and vuIe Easl Asia. CuIluvaI anaI¸sls IiIe NisIinuva SIinji veve nove caulious aIoul lIe signiJicance oJ Iionelvic sludies Iul nonelIeIess nanaged lo deveIop lIeiv ovn slalislicaI pseudo-science lo suppovl nolions oJ Japan's elInic supeviovil¸. MeanvIiIe, SIinnei MasanicIi and Kada Telsuji, vIiIe vejecling sci- enliJic vacisn, luvned univevsaIisl nolions oJ lIe navcI oJ Iunan pvogvess inlo an eIaIovale apoIogia Jov Japanese inpeviaI expansion in Asia. In eacI case, lIe lIeovisls oJ lIe Iale 1930s and eavI¸ 1940s dvev on a vange oJ Euvopean and Anevican souvces and ¸el vevovIed lIese souvces inlo lIeovies lIal veve dislincliveI¸ adapled lo lIe civcunslances oJ vavline Japan. Indeed, valIev lIan sinpI¸ adopling pvevaiIing Euvopean lIeovies oJ vace, lIe¸ oJlen seen lo Iave deIiIevaleI¸ sougIl oul veIaliveI¸ oIscuve Weslevn I¸polIeses lIal veve veadiI¸ naI- IeaIIe lo lIeiv ovn pevspeclives on Japan's poIilicaI deslin¸. Table1Morris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75equalsaseveryindiscretioncarriedoutagainstJapaneseprostituteswasworsenedforKoreans,“Itwasillegaltoemploywomenundertheageof18asprostitutesinJapan,whileinKoreatheminimumagewas17…thefreedomtoquitwastheoreticallyestablishedbylaw,butsincequittingwasdifficulteveninJapan,itwasextremelydifficultinKoreawherewomenwereevenmorerestricted”Thisconceptionofracism,mixedinwiththerisingideasofnationalismandmasculinityandpatriarchy,exceptnowtheyincludednewactorsintothenarrative:theoccupiedmenandwomenandthecolonizedmenandwomen.Suchincorporationsimplyexpandedtheviewofthe‘nationalbody’beyondtheJapaneseshoresandtotheirimmediateneighbors.WiththeriseofmilitarismthatstartedwiththeMeijibutgreatlyexpandedinthe20centurywiththeintroductionoffascistideas,thepartnershipofthesebeliefsandracismwouldsetthesceneforthecreationofthecomfortstation,theprecursortothecomfortwoman.AstheMeijieratransitionedintothe20century,theunifiednationalism,racialsuperiority,paternalismandtosomeextentmilitarismextendedintothenewcenturyandwereexpandeduponasImperialJapanincorporatedFascismintoitspsyche.ThelargelyunderstooddefinitionoffascisminJapaninthe1930swasstatedas,“thetotalitarianorganizationofgovernmentandsocietybyasinglepartydictatorship,intenselynationalist,racialist,militaristandimperialist.”1930s,Japanchampionedmostifnotallofthesedescriptorsinitspoliticalandsocialandnowimperialisticstate.StretchingfromtheMeijiperiodtotheearlyShowaerabeginninginthemid1920s,Japanhaddevelopedacentralizedandnationalisticstate,unifiedunderthe‘benevolentgovernance’oftheemperorwhohadbeengivenunlimitedpoweroverthestateanditsmilitary.A‘family’empirehaddeveloped,coupledwiththe‘nationalbody’concept,“designedtohelptheaverageJapanesecitizen[bothmaleandfemale]toseehisplaceintermsofthe…’nation’,and[his]relationshiptotheEmperorinanunbrokenlinethroughduringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.204Willensky,Marcus."JapaneseFascismRevisited."StanfordJournalofEastAsianAffairs5(2005):SuchidealswereinlinewithMussolini’sviewthat“Forthefascist,everythingistheState…theFascistState,thesynthesisandunityofallvalues,interprets,develops,andgivesstrengthtothewholelifeofthepeople.”AddingtonationalismwasthisracialsuperioritycomplexthathadstrengtheneditsplaceinJapanesesocietyasitlookedabroadandincorporateditsneighborsintotheempire.SuchideasbeganintheMeijiera,butwerecompoundedinthe20centuryastheJapanesebecameactivelyinvolvedinWorldWarIanddevelopedadistrustofthewestandasubsequentneedtostrengthentheirimperialholdingsand,asaresult,theirsuperioritycomplex.Basedupontheeventsofthe1904-1905Russo-Japanesewar,theJapanesedefeatofRussia,whichwasperceivedatthattimetobeawesternpower,illustratedtotheJapanesetheWest’sdesiretohaltJapaneseexpansion.Fast-forwardtothe1930swheretheJapanesemilitaristswhotookpowerbelievedthattheWest‘betrayed’anddiscriminatedagainstJapan.Thisfearof“beingbetrayedbyandisolatedfromtheWestledtoxenophobia,whichinturn,evolvedintoanardentemperorcult,andtheresolvetoguidetherestofAsiadevelopedintothegreaterEastAsianCoprosperitySphere,thedeclaredaimofthePacificWar.”Inadditiontothexenophobiaandracialelements,thenationalisticsideofJapanalsoexhibitedfascistideals.ImperialJapanin1932,inthewordsofHiranumaKiichiro,aJapanesepolitician,wasa“nationconstitutedofoneruler,inanunbrokenlineofImperialdescent,andhissubjects…itisthedutyofthepeople,undertheEmperor,toexerttheirbesteffortstowardstheaccomplishmentsoftasksallottedtoThiscallforactionextendedoutwardstothecoloniesandoccupiedterritoriesand,aswillbeshownlater,designatedspecificrolesforwomenbasedupontheirplaceintheJapaneseImperialworldorder.Intermsofmilitarism,theJapanesewerecreatingamilitaryculturethatincludedsoldierandcitizen.KonoyeIbid.,p.65Fumimaro,primeministerofJapanatthetime,passedtheNationalGeneralMobilizationLaw,KokkaSodoinHo,which“aimednotonlytocreateanall-encompassingwareconomybutalsotocoalescetheJapanesecitizenryintoobedientandawe-aspiringsubjectsofthestate”,thusdefiningthedutyofthecitizentotheStateandthestatemilitary.Moreover,thisconceptofdutycoincidedwithfascistideologywhichheldthat“FascismisareligiousconceptioninwhichmanisseeninhisimmanentrelationshipwithasuperiorlawandwithanobjectiveWillthattranscendstheparticularindividualandraiseshimtoconsciousmembershipinaspiritualsociety”,inotherwordsdutytothestatetrumpsalldutytotheself.suchdutyrunsparalleltomilitarism,theJapaneseconsidereditsmilitaryandmilitarismas“oneofthemostimportantnationalpractices…necessaryfortherealizationofthatmorality,whichisthehighestobjectofthisnation.”nationalism,unification,racialsuperiorityandmilitarismallplayedaroleinthefascistconceptionsoftheJapanesestatefromtheMeijiperiodonward.AsMarcusWillenskymostaptlystatesinhiswork“JapaneseFascismRevisited”,“ImperialJapanwasfascistnotbecauseitsuccessfullycopiedwhatwashappeninginItalyandGermanybutbecausethatiswhattheMeijioligarchsintendedittobe,thoughatthetimetheylackedtheparticularwordtodescribeitassuch.”Theimplicationsofsuchastateonwomenandfemalebodiesissimple:byimposingthecollectiveovertheindividual,allbodiesweretobeavailableandwillingtoworkfortheState.WiththeFifteenYearwarringperiodbeginningintheearly1930s,thisdutytothestateincorporatedthewareffort.Forthemalebody,thismeantbearingarmsforthestate,forthefemalebody,theirdutywasdefineddifferentlybasedupontheirstandinginsocietybutwasequalizedintheperceptionofwomeningeneralasvassalsoftheJapanesestatetobeused,andoftenabused,aslongasitbenefitedtheIbid.,p.66Ibid.,p.68Ibid.,p.69Ibid.,p.67AsJapanenteredthe1930s,withallitsnationalisticandnowmilitaristicfervor,itsubsequentlybegantheFifteenYearsWar(1931-1945),acontinuousmilitaryconflictthatwoulddictateJapanesesocietyandmakethesexualuseofthefemalebodyanecessity.The1930sbeganwiththeMukdenIncident,aJapaneseengineeredconflictthatallowedtheirentranceintonorthernChina,thenknownasManchuria,andgaverisetointermittentfightingbetweenthetwostates.Sixyearslaterin1937theJapanesewouldbethrustintoalloutwarwiththeChinese,knownasthesecondSino-Japanesewar,abitterfightforcontroloverChina.ThiswarwouldsoonescalatefouryearslaterintothePacificWar,throwingtheJapaneseintothegreaterconflictknownasWorldWarII.ThisstateofconstantwargeneratedchangewithinaJapanesestatethatwaspoisedpoliticallyandsociallyformilitaristicintervention.Menfulfilledtheirdutytothestateassoldiers,fightingonthefrontlinesofconflict.Women,however,heldamorenuancedrole.Japanesewomenofsociety,thewivesofthemensenttothefrontlines,weretomaintaintheir‘pure’statusandpopulatethebourgeoninggeneration.Beyondthesewives,thesituationtookonamoresinisterlook.TheprostitutesofJapaneseandnowtheimperialsocietyincludingKoreaandChinaweretomaintaintheirpositionassexualcommodityofthestate.AsMargaretStetzandBonnieOh,authorsofLegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,describethesituation,womenhad“twinpatriarchalcommandsof‘providingcomfort’tofightingmenandproducingmalechildrentoreplacesoldierskilledinbattle.”Thisdichotomyofrolesforwomendictatedwhatwasperceivedastheirdutyinthefirstera(1931-1940)oftheFifteenYearWar:raisingchildrenandpopulatingthefastemergingcomfortstations.Accordingtoofficialdocumentation,theJapanesenavyandarmyunitsaroundthetimeoftheShanghaiincidentin1932erectedthefirstcomfortstations.Inlate1938,agovernmentdocumententitled‘InregardtothecurrentstateofregulationsonprivateprostitutionintheconcessionandtheregulationofspecialprostitutesreservedforJapanesecitizensinShanghaiduring1938’makesreferencetothestationsbystating,“withthegreatincreaseinmilitarypersonnelstationedin(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.6theareaduetothesuddenoutbreakoftheShanghaiincident,thenavyestablishednavalcomfortstationsasameanstoaidinsupportingthecomfortofthosetroops,andthosestationshavecontinuedtooperateuptothepresent”,thusprovingthatcomfortstationswereintroducedintothemilitarysystemthroughnavypersonnelaswellasthecomplicityoftheJapanesemilitaryandgovernment.Itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatastatethatalreadyconsideredawomen’sbody,bothwivesandprostitutesalike,tobewithinitssphereofcontrolcouldnow,inwartime,usethesewomentoadvancethewareffortinanywaytheysawfit.Theestablishmentofcomfortstations,therefore,was“inasense,natural.Andforthatreason,theviolationsof…humanrightsbecameinvisible.”Withinthecontextofthetimes,thewomenwerenotseenasbeingharmed,butasfulfillingtheirdutytocountryandthussoldier.Asshownbefore,thenotionofthe‘malesexright’remainedprevalentwithinJapanesesociety,lendingitselfwelltothecreationofthecomfortstationtoservethesoldiers.Theinvolvementofthehigher-levelMilitarycommandprovesthisideabecauseitpositsnootherreasonforerectingcomfortstationsthenforthepleasureofsoldiers,nomentionoffemaledesireorneedispresent.Asthesoldierriskinghislifeforcountryandfulfillinghisrightfuldutyasdictatedbyfascistideology,thestatemustdoallthatitcouldtoensurehiswell-being.Thisideaisfurtherexemplifiedbythenumberofstationsbeingerectedandthesheerprofitgarneredbythosewhoestablishedthem.Recordsreveal“fromthemidtolate1930s,someKoreanresidentsinShanghaibecamebusinessowners…inthe‘customarytrade’andthatfivecomfortstations…wererunbyKoreans.”theseKoreansinparticular,PakIl-sok,anassociateinthe‘customarytrade’aswellasanofficerintheShanghaiKoreanAssociation,recordedanextraordinaryincreaseinbusinessandsalesonceheturnedhiscaféintoabrothel.AccordingtoPak’spersonalbusinessstatements,“PakbeganhisCaféAseaworthcapitalof2,000yenin1937,butwhenheturnedhisbusinessintoacomfortstationinOctober1939,hisduringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.44Ibid.,p.205(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.135officiallyrecordedcapitalwas30,000yen,whichquicklydoubledto60,000yeninNotonlydidPak’ssuccesscomefromhisexploitationofgrowthinabourgeoningmarket,inthiscasecomfortstations,butthisideaalsoshowsthatmen’spleasure,specificallythatofsoldier,wastheforcebehindthedemandthatdrovePak’sprofitmargintomorethanquadrupleinsize.ThisepisodealsodepictsthereachofthisnewfeatureofJapanesemilitarismintotheempire.TheKoreans,aswellastheJapanese,promotedthecomfortstation,anideaadvancedbytheJapaneseandclearlyadoptedbytheirimperialsubjects.ThemotivefortheKoreans,however,wasprofitdrivenandasshownabove,businesswasthriving.Itisimportanttonotethatthisera,referringtothebeginningoftheFifteenYearWarperiod,roughlyfrom1930to1938,didnotproducethecomfortwoman.Rathertheprostitute,ofeverynationality,Japanese,Koreanandthelike,populatedthesestations.AsnotedinthedecreebytheHomeMinistry’sChiefofthePoliceBureauonFebruary23,1938,‘MattersConcerningtheHandingofWomenSailingtoChina,’Japanesewomenmeantforcomfortstationsweretobechosenfromprostitutes,andnoothergroup.Itwasdeemedalegitimatetransitionforawomanwhoalreadyusedherbodyfor‘economicgain’tobetransportedtofulfilltheevengreaterdutytosoldierandstate.Thispolicy,however,wentbeyondthebordersofJapanandseepedintotheotherstatesofempire,specificallythatofKorea.TheworksofAsoTetsuo,amilitarygynecologist,show“thatKoreansmadeup80to90percentofallwomeninbrothels,andsoldiers,aswellasvictims,havetestifiedthatthemajorityofwomeninsouthernAsianandtheSouthSeaIslandsbrothelswereAdditionally,accordingtoareportissuedbyAkamatsuKotora,governorofFukuokaPrefecture,datedNovember30,1937,KoreanwomenreceivedidentitypapersandpermitsfromtheYawatapoliceheadquarters…tobecome‘servingIbid.,p.135duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.100Kratoska,PaulH.AsianLaborintheWartimeJapaneseEmpire:UnknownHistories.Armonk,NY:Sharpe,2005.p.311womeninanavalcomfortstation’.Furthermore,medicalrecordsindicate“35womenoutof38whoreceived[medical]examinationswereKoreans,confirmingthatKoreansmadeupthemajorityofwomenfromthestart.”ThuscomfortstationshadarrivedbythebeginningoftheFifteenYearWarandtheirpresencewasfeltbyall,fromthesoldier,tothebusinessownertotheJapaneseandKoreanprostitute.Thisconfigurationwouldproveunsustainable,however,asthetransitionintothePacificWarbeganinthe1940s,increasingthedemandsoldiersandthus‘comfort’whichprovedthesupplyofprostitutestobeinsufficient.ItisatthisjunctureinhistorywhenthecomfortwomanwouldmakeherappearanceontheJapanesescene,bringinghorribleyet,intheeyesoftheJapanese,justifiabletruthtotheJapanesehistoricalnarrative.AcomfortwomanisafemalebodyoftheJapaneseempire,outsideofthesexualbusinessofprostitution,forciblytaken,kidnappedorintentionallymisledintothesextradeandforcedtoservetheJapanesesoldiersduringwartime.Todate,theactualnumberofcomfortwomenislargelyunknownduetotheattemptederadicationoftheirmemoryfromhistoricalrecordbytheJapaneseandKoreangovernments.Estimatesofthetotalnumberofcomfortwomen,therefore,rangewidelyandfallanywhereinbetween20,000and400,000.Thecontextwithinwhichthesewomencametobeislargelyexplainedabove:theimperialistandlargelyfascistJapaneseempire,fitwithpatriarchalandhypermasculineundertonesfeltthatthebodieswithintheirempire,bothmaleandfemale,hadnohigherdutythantobeusedforgoodofthestate.Inthemidstofwartime,thisideameantthatmenweretobecomesoldiersandwomenweretofulfilltheirtwincommandsofwife,motherandprocreatorforsomeandsexualslaveforothers.AtfirstHoward, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell, 1995) p.13prostituteswithintheempire,mainlyJapaneseandKorean,weretofulfillthisduty,butasthewarbecamelongerandmoremenwerecalledtoservice,demandfor‘comfort’begantooutrunthesupply.Inotherwords,prostituteswerenotnumerousenoughtofillallofthecomfortstationsarisingoneverybattlefronttheJapaneseoccupiedasthewarcreptintothelate30sandearly40s.Higherdemand,however,isonlyonepartofthereasoningbehindthistransferofduty,referringtothetransitionfromprostitutetoregularwomentofilltheroleofthecomfortwoman.Inordertocompletethepicture,theroleofvenerealdisease,sexualatrocityand,onceagain,thisideaofcomfortmustbeexamined.ThehistoryoftheJapaneseawarenessofvenerealdiseasebeganintheMeijierawithexposuretoWesternideasonthetopic,butbecameamorepressingconcernasJapanenteredthe20century.In1918,JapanalongwiththeWesternpowerssenttroopsintoRussiatosupporttheWhiteArmyagainsttheBolshevikRedArmyuprising.Thismilitarycampaign,knownastheSiberianExpedition,isnotofimperativeimportancetotheemergenceofthecomfortwomanexceptwherevenerealdiseaseisconcerned.ThisepidemicwasquicklyspreadingamongthesoldiersandbecominganobstacletotheoverallhealthandthereforeeffectivenessoftheJapanesearmy.Documentsshowthat1109soldiersweretreatedasVDpatientsbetweenAugust1918andOctober1920.Thisnumberbecomesstartlingwhencomparedwiththe1399deathsand1528causalitiesalsosufferedbytheJapanesearmy.Thesenumbersshowtheseverityofthediseaseepidemicamongthesoldiers,buttheyalonedonotcompletethepicture.AccordingtotheNorthChinaAreaArmy’s‘ProceduresfortheHygieneEducationofKeyOfficersissuedin1940,“theaveragenumberofdaysrequiredforrecoveryfromgonorrheawas91,fromsoftchancres(early-stagesyphilis)58,fromsyphilis76,andfromhymphogranulomainguinal1,012.”Thusnotonlyweresoldierscontractingdiseasesatahighrate,butthelongtreatmenttimeforthesoldiersmeantthattheyTanaka,Yuki.Japan'sComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryandProstitutionDuringWorldWarIIandtheUSOccupation,(London:Rouledge,2002)p.11(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)pp.68-69becameuselesstotheJapanesewareffort.ItbecomesclearthatVDposedaprominentproblemtoJapanesemilitaryofficialsinchargeofthesetroopswhosawtheirnumbersdroppingalreadyduetodeathandwoundsbutalsofromdisease.Comfortwomenwereviewedasthesolutiontothisproblem.Asnumbersofinfectionrose,prostituteswereseentobethecarriersofdisease.InoneaccountgivenbyAnazi,aformerfieldnurse,sherecountsanexchangebetweenadoctorandasoliderbeingtreatedfordisease.Anaziwrites,“Ashethankedthephysician,thephysiciantoldhimtoneverforgethowhecontractedtheterriblediseaseinthefirstplace.‘Youhaveawifeandchildren,right?’Thesoldierreplied,‘Yes,Ihaveawifeandtwochildren.’‘Butyoustilllikewomenandbuythemfrequently,right?’‘Yes,Iamnotamanthatdislikeswomen.’”tothephysiciantheonlyexplanationforthesoldier’sdiseasewastheprostitutespopulatingthecomfortstationsatthetimethusperpetuatingthegrowingbeliefthatthesewomenwerethesolecauseofVDinfection.ThusthegoalsoftheMinistryofWarchangedaccordinglyasaddressedinthedecreereleasedonSeptember191940entitled‘MeasuresforenhancingmilitarydisciplinebaseduponexperiencesintheChinaincident’whichclaimedthatthe“Psychologicaleffectsthatthesoldiersreceiveatthecomfortstationsaremostimmediateandprofoundandthereforeitisbelievedthatthe…preventionof…VD[is]dependantonsuccessfulsupervisionofthese[comfortstations].”ThusVDpreventionbecameatoppriorityandcalledforasolutionthatrequiredfemalebodiesthatwereuntouchedbydiseaseandpure.Sinceprostitutesfailedinthisregard,theJapanesemilitarycommandturnedto‘recruiting’womenuninvolvedinthesextradewhowerelesslikelytocarrydiseasesofanyformtobecomecomfortwomen.TheseactionsareexemplifiedinthereportsgivenbyAsoTetsuo,thegynecologistandarmydoctor,whosereportin1939suggested“unmarriedKoreanwomenwithnopriorhistoryassexworkerswouldbefreeofvenerealdiseasesandthusmoreappropriatethanJapaneseFruhstuck,Sabine.ColonizingSex:SexologyandSocialControlinModernJapan.(UniversityofCalifornia,2003)p.144USOccupation,(London:Rouledge,2002)p.23prostitutesas‘giftsfortheimperialtroops’.”AlthoughhisreportcannotbeheldastheprimarybasisoftheMinistry’sactions,itdoesillustratethegreatermindsetofJapaneseofficialswho,atthetime,considerednon-Japanesewomenwhowerenotprostitutestobenotonlypurebutalsothemostadequatereplacementas‘gifts’forthetroops.ThustheneedtoeradicateVDbecameanadditionalfactorintheestablishmentofthecomfortwoman,butsexualatrocitieswouldalsobecomeaproblemthatcomfortwomenwereseentoresolve.ParalleltothisconcernoverdiseasecametherisingproblemofsexualwarfarebeingconductedbothunofficiallyandofficiallybytheJapanesearmy.TurningonceagaintotheSiberianexpedition,surveysdistributedtothesoldiersdemonstratethatinadditiontonottrulyunderstandingwhytheywereinRussiaandwhattheywerefightingfor.Thesoldierswere“bytheirownaccounts,unruly…thereweremanyincidentsofrapeandofpillagingcivilianhouses…behaviorbecameaconsiderableproblemevenfortopmilitaryleaders.”OkabeNaosaburo,anexpertonRussianaffairspresentinSiberiaandwitnesstothebehaviorofthetroopsduringtheexpedition,mostlikelyhadthisknowledgeinmindyearslaterwhen,asaSeniorStaffOfficerduringtheShanghaiExpeditionaryForcein1932,hewrotethefollowingaccount:“RecentlyIhaveheardalotofscandalousstories,includingthatsomeofoursoldierswanderaroundseekingwomen.Suchaphenomenonishardtopreventasfightingbecomeslessfrequent.Thereforetheestablishmentofappropriatefacilitiesmustbeaccepted…Inconsiderationofoursoldiers’problems,wehavedecidedtointroducevariousmeasures.”Yearslater,afterthebrutalandhorrifyingatrocitiescommittedbytheJapaneseinNankingin1937,JapanesemilitarycommandersbegantorecognizenottheatrocitiesbeingcommittedbythesoldiersbuttheunrestitwascreatingamongstciviliansinChina.TheoccupiedmenandwomenofChinawerebeginningtofeelthethreatoftheJapanesearmybearingdownuponthem.ForthewomenitcameintheduringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.46USOccupation,(London:Rouledge,2002)p.45formofunspeakableviolenceandforthemenintheformofaviolationoftheirwomenwhowereviewedasanextensionoftheirpropertyandhighlyacclaimedfortheirpuritynowtarnishedbytheJapanese.Itwasforthisreasonthatcomfortstationsand,withtheincreaseofsoldiersbeingdeployed,comfortwomenwereestablishedatvariousJapanesebasecamps.Tothisend,althoughaprincipleplayerintheestablishmentofcomfortstations,OkamuraYasuji,commanderofthe11Armyin1938andoftheoccupationofWuhanmadethefollowingstatement.“Atpresent,almostallunitsareaccompaniedbycomfortwomencorps.Ithasreachedapointwhere{acomfortwomencorps}isjustonemorelineofcommunicationcorps.Buteventhoughsuchunitsasthe6Divisionmarchwithacomfortwomencorps,thereisnoendtotherapes.”Yasuji’sstatementarerevealingintwodistinctways.Firsttheyprovidesufficientevidenceforthefactthatcomfortwomenwere‘enlisted’tostoptherapescommittedbyJapaneseforces.Inclaiming‘thereisnoendtotherapes’Yasujisuggeststhereasoningbehindthecomfortwomenandsimultaneouslyadmitsdefeatinthisobjective.Tofurtherprovethisfailureamilitarydocumentwrittenin1942reportsthatoutofthe“610crimescommittedbytroopsaftertheyhadinvadedcountriesSoutheastAsiaandthePacificIslandsin1942,anarmydocumentnotedtheprevalenceofrapes,asituationcausedbothby‘insufficientcomfortfacilitiesandinsufficientsupervision’.”Clearlytheprovisionof‘pure’womenfortheJapanesetotakeouttheiraggressiononinsteadofthewomenoftheoccupiedprovinceswasnotasolutiontotheproblem.InfactSarahSohsumsitupquitenicelyinthefollowingstatementontheintentionsoftheJapanesemilitary“Itisimpossibletopreventrapeontheonehandwhileofficiallysanctioningsexualviolenceontheother.Thereisnoreasontoimaginethattherewouldbeanyrelationbetweencomfortstationsystemandasubstantivesolutiontotheproblemofpreventingrapes.”Thus,theplanwaspronetofailurefromthebeginning.(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.66Ibid.,p.140Finally,thelastpurposeforthe‘recruitment’ofcomfortwomenwasofcoursetheprovisionofcomfortforthe‘disparate’and‘pressured’Japanesetroops.AstheyearsofwarbecamelongerandmoreintenseandasthetransitionwasmadeintothePacificWar,Japanesetroopsweregivenlittle,ifanyvacationorchanceforrotation.LongdaysinthefieldandnostandardizedorstructuredsystemofleisureallotmentbroughtJapanesemilitarycommandtotheconclusionthatsexualcomfortwasnecessarytoquelltherestlessness.Toillustratefullythesituationcommandersfaced,MiyazakiShoichi,astaffofficerinthe11Army“describestheconditionsinwhichthemilitarycomfortsystemexpanded.‘Youngofficers,draftedofficers,andthelikehadpoorcommandovertheirmen.Wecan’tignorethefactthattheywereunabletoasserttheirauthorityoverolderenlistedmen’.”Inordertomaintainacontrolledsystem,theJapanesecommandlookedtothestructureandvaluesputinplacebythestatefortheanswers.The‘malesexright’fullycameintoplaywiththedecisionto‘enlist’comfortwomenintheefforttoboostmorale.Thesecondarticleofthecomfortstationregulationsof“the3IndependentMountainArtilleryRegimentdatedNovember14,1939directlystatesthat‘Thepurposeoftheestablishmentofspecialcomfortstationsistopacifyandmoderatethetroopsbrutaltemperamentandtoaidinthepromotionofmilitarydiscipline’”whichplacescomfortanddisciplineinthesamecategory,thusexpoundinguponthethoughtprocessoftheJapanesecommand.Additionally,thedescriptionofcomfortwomenas‘emperor’sgifts”tothetroopslentitselfeasilytotheunwaveringdutythefascistJapanesestatepusheduponitscitizenry.Byplacingtheemperor’sstampofapprovalupontheprovisionofthecomfortwomen,theirpresencewasglorifiedbecauseitrepresentedanacknowledgementbythehighestpowerinJapan,the‘benevolentdictator’,theverystateitself.ThepressuresandthepsychologicalexhaustionofwarareclearlydepictedintheaccountsofaJapanesesoldierdescribinghisexperienceandtherolethecomfortwomenplayedinthemitigationoftheintensity.Ibid.,p.74“Thetimeswhenwe(themenwewereduringthewar)wouldbeholdingdownourpenisesasweranin{tothecomfortstations}were,afterall,whenwehadjustcomebackfromalongbattlejumpingforjoyandheadedimmediatelyoverthere…Theyallwantedtobefreedfromthestressofthesingularexperienceofhavingwalkedthelinebetweenlifeanddeath.Theystoodtherewaiting,withtheirpantsunbuttoned,fumblingwithloinclothslongsinceturnedadingygrayandfidgeting—isitmyturnyet?Isitmyturnyet?...Wethoughttherewasnosenseoffulfillmentthatburnedsointenselyasthis.”Thissincereyetfrankdescriptionofthesituation,probablyrecreatedintheotherJapanesecampsinsimilarways,displaystheintensityofthepressureunderwhichtheJapanesesoldierwasplacedand,asaresult,theintensityand,arguably,brutalitywithwhichtheyapproachedthecomfortwomen.ThustheexplanationofthenecessityofthecomfortwomancompletestheanalysisofhowandwhythecomfortstationsandcomfortwomenaroseinJapanesemilitaryhistory.Tracingtheoriginsofhypermasculinityandthepatriarchalstate,thestrongandunwaveringnationalismandracismthatbledintotheriseoffascistideals,andfinally,theshiftingwaysinwhichwomenandprostituteswerebothconsideredinthehistoricalthreadoftheJapanesestateallleadtothecreationofthecomfortwoman.Althoughtheanalysisspeaksvolumesaboutthecontextofthenarrativeinwhichthecomfortwomenwereplaced,thewordsofanoutsidercannotduringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.74sufficetoshowthetruesituationthatsurroundedthelifeofthecomfortwoman.Itisimportanttoletthewomenspeakforthemselves.Thusapresentationoftherecruitmentmethodsofthecomfortwomenandexcerptsfromtheirstorieswillbeprovidedbelowinordertocompletethetragichistoricalepisodethatsurroundedthecomfortwoman.InaNoticefromtheAdjutanttotheChiefsofStaffoftheNorthChinaAreaArmyandCentralChinaExpeditionaryForce,theMinistryofWarlaidoutitsstrategyforrecruitment.“InrecruitingwomendomesticallytoworkinthemilitarycomfortstationstobesetupintheareasafflictedbytheChinaIncident,itisfearedthatsomepeoplehaveclaimedtobeactingwiththemilitary’sconsentandhavedamagedthehonorofthearmy,invitingthemisunderstandingofthegeneralpublic…Inthefuture,armiesinthefieldwillcontroltherecruitingofwomenandwillusescrupulouscareinselectingpeopletocarryoutthistask.Thetaskwillbeperformedinclosecooperationwiththemilitarypoliceorlocalpoliceforceofthearea.Youareherebynotifiedoftheorder[oftheMinisterofWar]tocarryoutthistaskwiththeutmostregardforpreservingthehonorofthearmyandforavoidingsocialproblems.”ThisdocumentissuedbytheMinistryofWarin1938makesvariousaspectsoftherecruitmentofcomfortwomenexplicitlyclear.Firstandforemost,theJapaneseIbid.,p.59militarywasnotonlyaparticipatoryforceintherecruitmentofcomfortwomenbutitissafetosayitwasthedictatingbodybehindthemethodsofrecruitment.Thechainofcommandcamefromthechiefofstaff,anentityfullyanddirectlyresponsibletotheemperor,toeachcommanderoftheexpeditionaryarmy,tothecampoverseerswhomanagedtheeverydaytasksandoperationsandfinallytothesoldierswhotookadvantageofthesystem,everylevelofthearmysystemwasexplicitintheriseofthecomfortwoman.Later,Japanesedenialofthecomfortwomenincidentisclearlyoutoflinewiththisofficialdocument.ThisstatementissuedbytheMinisterofWaralsodemonstratestheuseofforcesoutsidethemilitarytorecruitwomen,thusshowingthatblamefallsontheshouldersofnotjusttheJapanese,butasthestoriesofthecomfortwomenwillshow,theKoreansandallotherentitiesthatwereinvolvedintherecruitment.Lastly,thedocumentclearlyillustratesthewaymilitaryproprietywasviewedbytheJapanese.Thefactthatsomethingsohorrificastherecruitmentofyoung,innocentwomenwasjustifiedbecauseitwasdone‘honorably’speaksvolumesofthepsycheandmentalityheldbytheJapanesecommandinconsiderationofoccupiedbodies,imperialbodiesandwomenfrombothofthesesegmentsofsociety.Ininterviewsof19formercomfortwomen,theydescribedwithintheirstoriesthemethodsthatwereusedthatledthemtofindthemselvesintheprecarioussituationascomfortwomen.Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell, 1995) Table2illustratesthemethodofrecruitmentusedandthemainpersonwithwhomthewomendirectlyinteracted.OutofallthemethodssanctionedbytheJapanesegovernmentincluding,violence,falseemployment,abduction,andhumantrafficbycivilians,localauthority,militaryandmilitarypoliceandcivilianemployees,itisclearthatpromisesoffalseemploymentbyeverydaycitizenswasthemostpopularandarguablythemostsuccessfulmethod.Moreover,astudyconductedbytheHoward, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell, 1995) 32KoreanCouncilandtheMinistryifGenderEquality(MOGE)revealsthatmostKoreansurvivors“wererecruitedeitherbyKorean(64)orJapanese(35)civilianprocurers,whereaspolice(45)andsoldiersorcivilianemployeesofthemilitaryalsoplayedsignificantrolesasrecruiters.”ItbecomesclearthatciviliansofKoreandescentwerethemostusefulintherecruitmentofcomfortwomen.ThisfactlendsitselfwelltothefactthatanoverwhelmingnumberofcomfortwomenwereinfactKoreanwomen,oftenteenagers.ThesenumbersalsoshedsomelightupontheJapanesecommand’sstrategyofrecruitment.Itisclearthatasenseoffamiliaritywasusedinordertogainthetrustoftheyoungwomen.Itisarguablyeasiertoconvincesomeonetoaccompanyyouortrustyouifyouareofthesamenationalbackground,especiallyinatimeofJapaneseimperialismandoverbearingracism.Morethantrust,however,theciviliansusedforrecruitmentwereusingamethodthatappealedtoKoreanslargelyofthelowestclasses.TheMOGEstudyalsoreveals“atthetimeofrecruitmentmorethanone-thirdof172casesworkedasmaids(26),factoryworkers(20),employeesandrestaurantsorkisaenghouses(9),farmers(5),students(5),ormerchants(1),alljobstakenbythelowerechelonsofKoreanfemaleJapanwasviewedasanationofprosperitythatofferedopportunitytoayounggirloflowstatus,thusapromiseofoccupationinJapanwasviewedasanopportunityfewgirlswouldturndown.ThisdataprovestheexplicitexploitationofthesocialstatusoftheKoreanyoungwomen.Byusingatacticthatwasbaseduponofferingadesiredopportunitytopoorwomenwhohadlittlechoicebuttoaccept,theJapanesegovernmentwasintentionallylookingtomisleadtheseyoungwomentoalifeunimaginabletomanyofthem.ThestoriesofKimHaksun,KimTokchinandYiYongsukaresullenandterriblydetailed,butonlythroughtheirvoicemaytheaforementionedtacticsbetrulyunderstoodandonlythroughtheirstoriesmaythejourneyofthecomfortwomanbegivenlife.(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.139Ibid.,p.139Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean 33KimHaksun-“BitterMemoriesIAmLoathtoRecall”KimHaksunwasbornin1924inJilin,ChinatoKoreanparents“Whenwefinallyarrived[inJapan],wehadlunchinarestaurant.WewereabouttoleavewhenaJapanesesoldierbeckonedourfosterfatherover.HewasamilitaryofficerwithtwostarsonhislapelandheaskedifwewereKoreans...’Youmustbeaspy,comewithme’.MyfriendandIwerebustledawaybyothersoldiers.Wewereledalongabackstreetandcametoaplacewhereanopentruckwasparked…Theytoldustojumpinand,whenweresisted,theyliftedusintothemassofsoldiers.Afterafewminutestheofficerwhohadtakenourfosterfatheroffreturned,andthetruckimmediatelyspedof…Crouchedinacorneratthebackofthetruckwewept,shockedatwhatjusthappened.Wewereterrified.Someminuteslaterwenoticedanothertruck,justlikeours,followingus”“Itwasdark.Weweren’tawareofwhatwasgoingonandcouldn’tevenguesswherewewere.MyfriendandIweresentintoaroom,wherewesatandlookedateachother.Wehadnoideawhatwasgoingtohappen.Alittlelater,theofficerwhohadtakenourfosterfatherawaycamein…Hedraggedmeoffandheldmeclosetohim,tryingtotakemyclothesoffatthesametime.Istruggled,butintheendmyclotheswerealltornaway.Hetookmyvirginity.Duringthenightherapedmetwice”“Whenweheardwomen’svoicesoutside.TheywerespeakingKorean.Oneopenedthedoorandcamein.Sheaskedushowwehadgotthere.Myfriendtoldheraboutourjourney.Shesaid:‘Nowthatyouareherethereisn’tmuchyoucando.Thereisnowayyoucanrunaway.You’llhavetostayandacceptyourfate.’Latersoldiersbroughtwoodenbedsintoourcurtainedroom.Wewereallocatedoneportioneach,andourlivesascomfortwomenbegan”“Thesoldiersoftenwentoutonpunitiveexpeditions.Theywouldgooutatnight,stayawaythreeorfourdaysandreturnintheearlyhoursofthemorning…Whentheycameback,wehadtobeupearlytomeethim.Usuallytheywouldcometousintheafternoon,eachwouldstayabouthalfanhour.When,moreinfrequently,theyhappenedtocomeintheevening,theywereoftendrunkand…theywouldtreatmeevenmoreroughly”Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell, 1995) 34“Itseemedtousthatthesoldiersreceivedspecialpermissiontovisit.AtfirstIdidn’tknowwhethertheypaidusforourservicesornot,butlaterIheardfromSizuethattherankandfilepaid1.5yenavisitandtheofficerspay8yentostaythewholenight.Iaskedwhoreceivedthemoney.Allsherepliedwasthatweweretheoneswhoshouldbepaid.IneverreceivedanymoneyallthetimeIwasacomfortwoman.Idon’tknowwhatSizueknewtomakehersaysuchthings”“Whyhaven’tIbeenabletoleadanormallife,freefromshame,likeotherpeople?WhenIlookatoldwomen,Icomparemyselftothem,thinkingthatIcannotbelikethem.IfeelIcouldtearapart,limbbylimb,thosewhotookawaymyinnocenceandmademeasIam.YethowcanIappeasemybitterness?…OnceIamdeadandgone,IwonderwhethertheKoreanorChinesegovernmentswillpayanyattentiontothemiserablelifeofawomanlikeme”KimTokchin-“IHaveMuchtoSaytotheKoreanGovernment”KimTokchinwasbornin1921inSouthKyongsangprovince,whereherwholefamilylivedatanuncle’shouse,farmingthelandbutscarcelymakingaliving“ItwasthemiddleofJanuaryorperhapsalittlelater…Iwas17yearsold.IheardgirlswerebeingrecruitedwithpromisesofworkinJapan.ItwassaidthatafewhadbeenrecruitednotlongbeforefromP’yongch’onwherewehadlivedwithmyuncle…IsuddenlyheardaKoreanmanwasintheareaagainrecruitingmoregirlstoworkinJapanesefactories.IwenttoP’yongch’ontomeethimandpromisedhimIwouldgotoJapantowork.HegavemethetimeandplaceofmydepartureandIreturnedhometoreadymyselftoleave….IneverdreamedthatthiscouldinvolveWearrivedatKunbukstationandtransferredtoatrain.Itwasapublicslowtrain,andtravelledslowlydowntoPusan,whereweboardedaboat…AtNagasaki,avehicleresemblingabuscameandtookustoaguesthouse.Fromthatmomentonwewerewatchedbysoldiers.Iaskedoneofthem:‘Whyareyoukeepingushere?Whatkindofworkarewegoingtodo?’.Hesimplyrepliedthatheonlyfollowedorders.OnthefirstnightthereIwasdraggedbeforeahigh-rankingsolderandraped…HepattedmybackandsaidthatIwouldhavetogothroughthisexperiencewhetherIlikeditornot,butthatafterafewtimesIwouldnotfeelsomuchpain.…Everynightwewereraped.Onthefifthday,Iaskedoneofthesoldiers:‘Whyareyoutakingusfromroomtoroomtodifferentmen?Whatisourwork?Isitjustgoingtobedwithdifferentmen?’Hereplied:‘Youwillgowhereverorderstakeyou.Andyouwillknowwhatyourjobiswhenyougetthere.’”“Therewasatruckwaitingforusatthepier,whichwhiskedusaway…Therewasalargehouserightbesideanarmyunit,andweweretobeaccommodatedthere.Thehousewasprettymuchderelictandinsideandwasdividedintomanysmallrooms.ThereweretwoJapanesewomenandabout20Koreansthere,sowiththe30ofus…therewereabout50womenintotal.ThetwoJapanesewomenweresaidtohavecomefrombrothels.Theywere27or28,abouttenyearsolderthanalltheKoreans.ThesoldierspreferredusKoreangirls,sayingwewerecleaner.”“Weroseatseveninthemorning,washedandtookbreakfastinturns.Thenfromabout9o’clockthesoldiersbegantoarriveandformorderlylines…Eachofushadtoserveanaverageof30to40meneachday,andweoftenhadnotimetosleep.”“Howcouldoneexpectotherwisewhenaninnocentgirlwassubjectedtosuchtorturedayandnight?Noneofushadchildren,butIheardthatsomebecamepregnantandwereforcedtoabortwithaninjectionordrugs.EventhoughIhadnodisease,Iwastoldatarecentcheck-upthatmywombismalformedfromtheabuseitreceivedinmyyouth.”“Amongus,thereweresomewhofoughtagainstthemen.Somewereaccusedofstealing,sometriedtoescapeonlytobedraggedback.Somewerebeatenandkickedbysoldiers…Soldierswhoreturnedfromthebattlefieldwerewild.Theywouldtrynottousecondoms…Thesoldierswhowereabouttoleaveforcombatweresomewhatmoregentle…therewereevensomewhowept,theyweresoscaredtogofight.Iwouldcomfortthemandtellthemtocomebacksafelyfrombattle.Whenanyreturnedalive,Iwouldbegenuinelygladtoseethemagain.”YiYongsuk-“IWillNoLongerHarbourResentment”BorntoKoreanparents,YiYongsukwasorphanedatayoungageandlivedwithafamilyinOsakabutreturnedtohercountryoforigin,Korea,in1937attheage15“WhileworkinginYangsan,Imadefriendswithagirltwoyearsolderwholivedalonewithherfather.ItwasDecember1939,andIwas17.MynewfriendtoldmethattherewassomeonelocallypromisingworkinJapan;shesaidshewasgoingtogoandaskedifIwantedtogoalongwithher.WhetherIlivedinKoreaorinJapanmadenodifference,sobelievingthatlifeinJapanwouldbeeasierthaninKorea,IleftthefamilyIwasworkingfor.WemetacouplewhoweresaidtohavecomefromSinuiju,andwhohadrecruitedforgirlinadditiontous.Theyprovideduswithroomandboardandbroughtussomesimpleclothes.Theygotusalltohaveourhairbobbedandencouragedustoputmake-upon”“Westayedintheportovernight,andthefollowingmorningsailedonGuangdong.Whenwearrivedthereweremanysoldierswalkingaboutthedockside…Weweretakenbytrucktoathree-storyredbrickhouse.Assoonaswegotoff,wewereledintoalargeroomonthegroundfloor.Theroomhadadoublesteeldoor,andeachwindowwasbarredwithironrods…Wesoondiscoveredthatthereweremanyothercomfortstationsnearthisone,andthenumberofKoreancomfortwomenappearedtobeseveralhundred.”“ThewomeninthenewstationwereallJapanese.IwastheonlyKorean.Itwasmorespacious,sinceeachwomanhadaroomtoherself…Itwasmuchmorecomfortable.Mostofthesoldierswhocamewereofficers,althoughafewNCOsvisitedaswell.IwasabletoservethemwhenIwantedto.Mefeewasdividedwiththeproprietoronanequalbasis.IfIearnedenoughmoney,IknewIwouldsoonbeabletoreturntoKorea.”“LetmefinallysaysomethingIconsidertobeimportant.TheJapanesewerebad.ButtheKoreanswerejustasbadbecausetheyputtheirownwomenthroughsuchterribleordealsforpersonalprofit.ItwasbadenoughthatIhadtosufferwhatIdid.ButitisworsethatIwasmadebarrenbecauseofthisordeal…Wearefinished,andourbodiesareuselessaftersomuchabuse.Itdoesn’tmatterwhetherwereceivecompensationornot.Afterall,whatcouldwedowithmoney,withsofewyearsleftbeforewedie?AllIcanwishforisthatmycountryandmypeoplewillprospersothathistorycanneverberepeated.”The 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