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= Homarus gammarus =

Homarus gammarus , known as the European lobster or common lobster , is a species of <unk> lobster from the eastern Atlantic Ocean , Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea . It is closely related to the American lobster , H. americanus . It may grow to a length of 60 cm ( 24 in ) and a mass of 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) , and bears a conspicuous pair of claws . In life , the lobsters are blue , only becoming " lobster red " on cooking . Mating occurs in the summer , producing eggs which are carried by the females for up to a year before hatching into <unk> larvae . Homarus gammarus is a highly esteemed food , and is widely caught using lobster pots , mostly around the British Isles .

= = Description = =

Homarus gammarus is a large <unk> , with a body length up to 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) and weighing up to 5 – 6 kilograms ( 11 – 13 lb ) , although the lobsters caught in lobster pots are usually 23 – 38 cm ( 9 – 15 in ) long and weigh 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 9 lb ) . Like other crustaceans , lobsters have a hard <unk> which they must shed in order to grow , in a process called <unk> ( <unk> ) . This may occur several times a year for young lobsters , but decreases to once every 1 – 2 years for larger animals .

The first pair of <unk> is armed with a large , asymmetrical pair of claws . The larger one is the " <unk> " , and has rounded <unk> used for crushing prey ; the other is the " cutter " , which has sharp inner edges , and is used for holding or tearing the prey . Usually , the left claw is the <unk> , and the right is the cutter .

The <unk> is generally blue above , with spots that <unk> , and yellow below . The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking . This occurs because , in life , the red pigment <unk> is bound to a protein complex , but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking , releasing the red pigment .

The closest relative of H. gammarus is the American lobster , Homarus americanus . The two species are very similar , and can be crossed artificially , although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap . The two species can be distinguished by a number of characteristics :

The <unk> of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside , which are lacking in H. gammarus .

The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red @-@ tipped , while those of H. gammarus are white or white @-@ tipped .

The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red , while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red .

= = Life cycle = =

Female H. gammarus reach sexual maturity when they have grown to a carapace length of 80 – 85 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) , whereas males mature at a slightly smaller size . Mating typically occurs in summer between a recently <unk> female , whose shell is therefore soft , and a hard @-@ shelled male . The female carries the eggs for up to 12 months , depending on the temperature , attached to her <unk> . Females carrying eggs are said to be " <unk> " and can be found throughout the year .

The eggs hatch at night , and the larvae swim to the water surface where they drift with the ocean currents , preying on <unk> . This stage involves three <unk> and lasts for 15 – 35 days . After the third moult , the juvenile takes on a form closer to the adult , and adopts a <unk> lifestyle . The juveniles are rarely seen in the wild , and are poorly known , although they are known to be capable of digging extensive burrows . It is estimated that only 1 larva in every 20 @,@ 000 survives to the <unk> phase . When they reach a carapace length of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , the juveniles leave their burrows and start their adult lives .

= = Distribution = =

Homarus gammarus is found across the north @-@ eastern Atlantic Ocean from northern Norway to the Azores and Morocco , not including the Baltic Sea . It is also present in most of the Mediterranean Sea , only missing from the section east of Crete , and along only the north @-@ west coast of the Black Sea . The <unk> populations are found in the Norwegian <unk> <unk> and <unk> , inside the Arctic Circle .

The species can be divided into four genetically distinct populations , one widespread population , and three which have diverged due to small effective population sizes , possibly due to adaptation to the local environment . The first of these is the population of lobsters from northern Norway , which have been referred to as the " midnight @-@ sun lobster " . The populations in the Mediterranean Sea are distinct from those in the Atlantic Ocean . The last distinct population is found in the Netherlands : samples from the <unk> were distinct from those collected in the North Sea or English Channel .

Attempts have been made to introduce H. gammarus to New Zealand , alongside other European species such as the edible crab , Cancer <unk> . Between 1904 and 1914 , one million lobster larvae were released from <unk> in <unk> , but the species did not become established there .

= = Ecology = =

Adult H. gammarus live on the continental shelf at depths of 0 – 150 metres ( 0 – <unk> ft ) , although not normally deeper than 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They prefer hard substrates , such as rocks or hard mud , and live in holes or crevices , emerging at night to feed .

The diet of H. gammarus mostly consists of other <unk> invertebrates . These include crabs , molluscs , sea <unk> , <unk> and polychaete worms .

The three <unk> lobster species Homarus gammarus , H. americanus and <unk> <unk> are hosts to the three known species of the animal <unk> <unk> ; the species on H. gammarus has not been described .

Homarus gammarus is susceptible to the disease <unk> , caused by the <unk> <unk> <unk> . Although it is frequently found in American lobsters , the disease has only been seen in captive H. gammarus , where prior occupation of the tanks by H. americanus could not be ruled out .

= = Human consumption = =

Homarus gammarus is traditionally " highly esteemed " as a <unk> and was mentioned in " The <unk> " a seventeenth century English folk song . It may fetch very high prices and may be sold fresh , frozen , canned or powdered . Both the claws and the abdomen of H. gammarus contain " excellent " white meat , and most of the contents of the cephalothorax are edible . The exceptions are the <unk> mill and the " sand vein " ( gut ) . The price of H. gammarus is up to three times higher than that of H. americanus , and the European species is considered to have a better flavour .

<unk> are mostly fished using lobster pots , although lines <unk> with <unk> or <unk> sometimes succeed in tempting them out , to allow them to be caught in a net or by hand . In 2008 , 4 @,@ 386 t of H. gammarus were caught across Europe and North Africa , of which 3 @,@ 462 t ( 79 % ) was caught in the British Isles ( including the Channel Islands ) . The minimum landing size for H. gammarus is a carapace length of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) .

<unk> systems for H. gammarus are under development , and production rates are still very low .

= = <unk> history = =

Homarus gammarus was first given a binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema <unk> , published in 1758 . That name was Cancer gammarus , since Linnaeus ' concept of the genus Cancer at that time included all large crustaceans .

H. gammarus is the type species of the genus Homarus Weber , 1795 , as determined by Direction 51 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature . Prior to that direction , confusion arose because the species had been referred to by several different names , including <unk> <unk> <unk> , 1775 and Homarus vulgaris H. Milne @-@ Edwards , 1837 , and also because Friedrich Weber 's description of the genus had been overlooked until rediscovered by Mary <unk> , rendering any prior assignments of type species ( for Homarus H. Milne @-@ Edwards , 1837 ) invalid for Homarus Weber , 1795 .

The type specimen of Homarus gammarus was a <unk> selected by <unk> <unk> in 1974 . It came from 57 ° 53 ′ N 11 ° 32 ′ E , near <unk> , Sweden ( 48 kilometres or 30 miles northwest of Gothenburg ) , but both it and the <unk> have since been lost .

The common name for H. gammarus preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is " European lobster " , but the species is also widely known as the " common lobster " .

= Frank <unk> =

Air Vice Marshal Frank <unk> , CB , CBE ( 15 July 1914 – 23 December 1976 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born and educated in Tasmania , he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934 . He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II . In April 1941 , he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron , which operated Lockheed <unk> . The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December , and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific . After returning to Australia in February 1942 , <unk> held staff appointments and training commands , finishing the war a group captain .

<unk> served as Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in 1946 , and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950 . In 1950 – 51 , during the Malayan Emergency , he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing and , later , RAF <unk> . He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel , in 1957 and 1959 – 60 , receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958 . Promoted air vice marshal , he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command in 1961 – 62 , AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia – Malaysia <unk> , Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 – 66 , and AOC Support Command in 1966 – 67 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965 . Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971 , he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later .

= = Early career = =

The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda <unk> , Frank <unk> was born on 15 July 1914 in <unk> , Tasmania . He was <unk> at <unk> College , Hobart , and <unk> in 1932 . Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934 . He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School ( <unk> ) at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935 .

After completing a conversion course , <unk> was assigned to the <unk> Squadron at Point Cook . No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre @-@ war RAAF , <unk> Squadron was part of No. 1 <unk> and operated <unk> Southampton flying boats and de Havilland <unk> Moth <unk> , among other types . During this posting <unk> was promoted to flying officer , on 1 July 1935 , and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with " strong air forces , naval forces ( including submarines ) , and fixed defences , Australia may be made practically <unk> " . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , this paper " in effect , defined the ' anti @-@ <unk> ' concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking " .

<unk> completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 <unk> . He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937 . <unk> in July 1938 , he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF 's first Long <unk> Navigation Course , run by Flight <unk> Bill <unk> and <unk> Murdoch at Point Cook . The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention , including a twelve @-@ day , 10 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 700 mi ) round @-@ Australia trip by three Avro Ansons , one of which was <unk> by <unk> , in November . The following month , <unk> led the three Ansons on a six @-@ day journey back and forth over Central Australia . He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction . On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , as a flight commander . He served initially with No. 2 Squadron , before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August . Both units operated Ansons .

= = World War II = =

Following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south @-@ eastern Australia . <unk> continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940 , when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer . On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940 . Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul 's Anglican Church in <unk> ; the couple would have a son and a daughter .

<unk> was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941 , and raised to wing commander on 1 July . <unk> with Lockheed <unk> , the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December , when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin , Northern Territory , in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific . On 7 December , this detachment established itself at <unk> , near <unk> in Dutch Timor , while No. 2 Squadron 's eight remaining <unk> were stationed at Darwin on standby . The following day , aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific , one of the <unk> @-@ based <unk> attacked the Japanese <unk> <unk> <unk> , which was suspected of being a radio ship , and forced it aground . By 12 December , <unk> had transferred to <unk> as commanding officer of the base , as well as No. 2 Squadron .

During January 1942 , No. 2 Squadron 's aircraft were dispersed at <unk> , <unk> Island , and Darwin . The <unk> detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of <unk> . Two <unk> shot down or damaged three Japanese <unk> that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January ; the next day both <unk> were themselves shot down by <unk> <unk> . <unk> was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942 , and attacked regularly thereafter , damaging some aircraft . The intact <unk> were withdrawn to Darwin but <unk> and his staff remained at <unk> to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia . On 18 February , <unk> was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to <unk> the airfield with assistance from <unk> Force . He returned to Darwin the following day , just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese . Four of No. 2 Squadron 's <unk> were destroyed in the attack ; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters , where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor .

<unk> remained in Darwin as <unk> of Operations at Headquarters North @-@ Western Area Command until 12 May 1942 , when he was posted to <unk> , Victoria , as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School , operating Ansons . No. 97 ( Reserve ) Squadron was formed from the school 's personnel in June . On 20 July 1943 , <unk> took command of No. 2 Air Observer School ( <unk> ) , also operating Ansons , at Mount Gambier , South Australia . He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943 , and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 <unk> , operating Ansons and <unk> Battles out of Port <unk> , on 9 December . After handing over command of No. 3 <unk> , he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha , Victoria , on 2 October 1944 . He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North @-@ Western Area Command on 12 January 1945 .

= = Post @-@ war career = =

<unk> became Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in January 1946 . <unk> to Britain at the end of the year , he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College , <unk> , and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London . On his return to Australia , in November 1947 , he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters . In November 1950 , <unk> was appointed to take over command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing from Group Captain Paddy <unk> . Headquartered at RAF <unk> , Singapore , No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency : No. 1 ( <unk> ) Squadron , flying Avro <unk> , and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The <unk> conducted area bombing missions over communist @-@ held territory , as well as strikes against <unk> targets . The Dakotas were tasked with <unk> flights , <unk> transport and medical <unk> across South East Asia , and in Malaya with <unk> troops and cargo , dropping supplies to friendly forces and <unk> propaganda leaflets . <unk> was slightly injured on 20 December , when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co @-@ <unk> on a supply drop crash @-@ landed at Kampong <unk> in <unk> , following engine failure . In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF <unk> , Singapore , in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing . <unk> handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951 .

On 19 February 1952 , <unk> became senior air staff officer ( <unk> ) at Eastern Area Command in <unk> , New South Wales . During his term as <unk> , the RAAF began re @-@ <unk> with English Electric Canberra jet bombers and CAC Sabre jet fighters . The Air Force also underwent a major <unk> change , as it transitioned from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system to one based on function , resulting in the establishment of Home ( operational ) , Training , and Maintenance <unk> . Eastern Area Command , considered a de facto operational headquarters owing to the <unk> of combat units under its control , was reorganised as Home Command in October 1953 . <unk> was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1954 New Year Honours for his " exceptional ability and devotion to duty " . He was promoted to acting air <unk> in May . His appointment as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II was announced on 7 October 1954 .

<unk> was promoted to substantive air <unk> on 1 January 1955 . In November he was posted to RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , and the following year undertook studies at the Imperial Defence College . Returning to Australia , he served as acting Air Member for Personnel at the Department of Air , Canberra , from 19 March to 21 October 1957 , between the terms of Air Vice <unk> Fred <unk> and Allan Walters , and again from 24 August 1959 to 28 March 1960 , between the terms of Walters and Air Vice Marshal Bill <unk> . In this role <unk> occupied a seat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that comprised its senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . He was also one of two RAAF representatives to serve on a committee , chaired by businessman William John Allison , examining conditions of defence service ; the committee 's recommendations led to a doubling of flight pay , among other improvements . <unk> 's other positions at the Department of Air included Air Commodore Plans from October 1957 to January 1959 , and Director General Plans and Policy from January to August 1959 . The latter assignment put him in charge of the RAAF 's Directorate of Intelligence . <unk> was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1958 Queen 's <unk> Honours , <unk> on 3 June . In May 1960 he became acting Deputy Chief of the Air Staff .

On 30 January 1961 , <unk> joined the staff of Operational Command ( <unk> ) , the successor organisation to Home Command , responsible for the direction of RAAF operational units . He took over as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) <unk> from Air Vice Marshal <unk> Hancock in April . <unk> was promoted to air vice marshal on 29 May . On 17 July 1962 , he was posted to RAAF Base <unk> , Malaya , and took up the appointment of AOC No. 224 Group RAF in Singapore one week later . He was succeeded as AOC <unk> by Air Vice Marshal <unk> Murdoch . As AOC No. 224 Group , <unk> had overall responsibility for regional air defence and offensive air operations during the <unk> Rebellion in December 1962 , and the subsequent <unk> between Indonesia and Malaysia that officially began the following month . <unk> from his first wife in 1956 , he married widowed social worker Vernon Spence at the Sydney registry office on 20 January 1964 . He handed over No. 224 Group to Air Vice Marshal Christopher <unk> @-@ Norris on 30 November .

Returning to Australia , <unk> became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( <unk> ) on 26 January 1965 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) " in recognition of distinguished service in the Borneo Territories " on 22 June . His tenure as <unk> coincided with the most significant <unk> program the Air Force had undertaken since World War II , and with manpower shortages stemming from this expansion and from Australia 's increasing involvement in the security of South East Asia . The first RAAF helicopters were committed to the Vietnam War towards the end of his term , and he travelled to Saigon with the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Sir John <unk> , in March 1966 to plan the deployment . The year before , <unk> had recommended to Air Marshal Murdoch , the Chief of the Air Staff , that two Iroquois be sent to Vietnam for <unk> purposes ; Murdoch had rebuffed <unk> , and the RAAF helicopter squadron was considered <unk> for its army co @-@ operation role when it finally did deploy . <unk> succeeded Air Vice Marshal Douglas Candy as AOC Support Command , Melbourne , on 8 August 1966 . Support Command had been formed in 1959 , by merging the RAAF 's former Training and Maintenance <unk> . On 1 January 1968 , <unk> was posted to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff . He served as an Extra Gentleman Usher to the Queen from 17 November 1970 to 5 June 1971 .

= = <unk> = =

Returning to Australia in June 1971 , <unk> took <unk> leave before retiring from the Air Force on 3 August . He made his home in Melbourne , where he died aged 62 on 23 December 1976 , after a lengthy battle with cancer . <unk> by his children and his second wife , he was given a private funeral and <unk> at <unk> <unk> .

= M @-@ 82 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 82 is a state trunkline in the Lower Peninsula in the US state of Michigan that travels between <unk> and Howard City . The section between <unk> and Howard City travels through <unk> and along the southern edge of <unk> National Forest . The current version of M @-@ 82 is actually the second in the state ; the first usage appeared in the Upper Peninsula by 1919 . The Lower Peninsula routing has been in use since the 1920s . Various extensions and <unk> have shifted the terminus as far west as New Era or <unk> in the past . The current route was finalized in the late 1970s

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 82 begins at a junction with M @-@ 120 and B @-@ 96 west of <unk> . This junction is at a <unk> of county lines . M @-@ 120 forms the north – south <unk> – <unk> and <unk> – <unk> county lines . B @-@ 96 , which forms the east – west <unk> – <unk> county line runs due west of the intersection . M @-@ 82 exits the intersection to the east . The highway runs along 48th Street through rural farms into the community of <unk> . The road , now called Main Street , passes through the downtown area and M @-@ 82 turns south along Stewart Avenue out of town . The highway rounds a curve and transitions to 72nd Street running eastward through more farm land . As the trunkline approaches <unk> , the terrain becomes more wooded near the <unk> River . M @-@ 82 follows <unk> Street east to a junction with M @-@ 37 . The two highways merge and run concurrently over the river and into downtown on State Street . South of downtown , M @-@ 82 turns east again , independent of M @-@ 37 , and runs along 82nd Street on the southern edge of the <unk> National Forest . The east end of M @-@ 82 is at exit 118 on US 131 / M @-@ 46 west of Howard City .

The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , as a part of its maintenance responsibilities , tracks the volume of traffic using its roadways . These levels are expressed in terms of a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a calculation of the traffic along a segment of road for any average day of the year . In 2009 , the department 's measurements indicated that a segment of M @-@ 82 west of <unk> had the peak volume for the highway at 16 @,@ <unk> vehicles daily . The traffic nadir was 4 @,@ <unk> vehicles east of <unk> . In addition , MDOT has not had any section of the highway listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

= = = Previous designation = = =

The first usage of M @-@ 82 was in the Upper Peninsula by July 1 , 1919 . The trunkline started at M @-@ 25 and ran north of <unk> to the vicinity of Eight Mile Corner . It was later replaced by M @-@ 48 in 1926 .

= = = Current designation = = =

The current M @-@ 82 dates back to 1926 . It ran from US 31 in Hart to the northern junction of US 131 and M @-@ 46 in Howard City . The highway was routed through Ferry , <unk> and <unk> , replacing M @-@ 41 . In late 1936 , M @-@ 46 was extended along the section between <unk> and Howard City , forming a M @-@ 46 / M @-@ 82 concurrency to fill a gap in the M @-@ 46 routing . This concurrent section became just M @-@ 46 in 1938 , <unk> M @-@ 82 back to the northern M @-@ 37 junction in <unk> . The highway was moved to a new alignment west of Ferry in late 1947 or early 1948 . Instead of heading northwesterly to Hart , it was continued west to end in Shelby .

Two <unk> in 1963 and 1964 rerouted the western end of the highway again . This time it was realigned to run from <unk> to New Era , bypassing Ferry . A larger change around 1969 <unk> the highway designations in <unk> County . M @-@ 20 replaced M @-@ 82 west of <unk> , to end at New Era instead of <unk> . The new M @-@ 120 designation replaced M @-@ 20 south of <unk> . M @-@ 82 now ran from <unk> to <unk> only . The length of the highway was increased in 1973 when the eastern end was moved back to Howard City . M @-@ 46 was rerouted to follow the US 131 freeway south of Howard City to Cedar Springs , and replaced M @-@ 57 between Cedar Springs and <unk> . This freed up the <unk> to Howard City highway for a return to the M @-@ 82 designation . The last change came in 1978 when the concurrency with M @-@ 120 was eliminated in favor of M @-@ 120 . The M @-@ 82 designation was truncated at this time to the junction west of <unk> , resulting in the current highway routing .

= = Major intersections = =