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Behav Sci (Basel) . 2023 Oct 30;13(11):898. doi: 10.3390/bs13110898 When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life Lisa Karolin Coco Lisa Karolin Coco 1 Equine Hospital “Tierärztliches Kompetenzzentrum für Pferde Grosswallstadt”... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.63 | 0.846 | ["motivation", "education"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.159910 | [
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Find articles by Lisa Karolin Coco 1, 2 , Petra Heidler Petra Heidler 3 Institute International Trade and Sustainable Economy, IMC University of Applied Sciences, 3500 Krems, Austria 4 Department of Health Sciences, St. Pölten University of Applied Sciences, 3500 Krems, Austria Find articles by Petra Heidler 3, 4, * , ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.486 | 0.698 | ["economy", "education"] | 502 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.160315 | [
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stadt, Germany 2 Department of Public Health, St. Elizabeth University of Health and Social Work, 811 02 Bratislava, Slovakia Find articles by Holger Adam Fischer 1, 2 , Valeria Albanese Valeria Albanese 1 Equine Hospital “Tierärztliches Kompetenzzentrum für Pferde Grosswallstadt”, 63868 Grosswalstadt, Germany Find art... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.525 | 0.698 | ["education", "management"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.160554 | [
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40100, Malaysia 6 Global Public Health, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya 47500, Malaysia Find articles by Roy Rillera Marzo 5, 6 , Vlastimil Kozon Vlastimil Kozon 2 Department of Public Health, St. Elizabeth University of Health and Social Work, 811 02 Bratis... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.509 | 0.708 | ["education", "management"] | 511 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.160773 | [
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d articles by Vlastimil Kozon 2, 7, 8 Editors: Andrew Soundy , Marialaura Di Tella Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Equine Hospital “Tierärztliches Kompetenzzentrum für Pferde Grosswallstadt”, 63868 Grosswalstadt, Germany 2 Department of Public Health, St. Elizabeth University of Hea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.497 | 0.692 | ["economy", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.161028 | [
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3500 Krems, Austria 4 Department of Health Sciences, St. Pölten University of Applied Sciences, 3500 Krems, Austria 5 International Medical School, Management and Science University, Shah Alam 40100, Malaysia 6 Global Public Health, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Suban... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.495 | 0.838 | ["education", "management"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.161237 | [
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ria * Correspondence: petra.heidler@fh-krems.ac.at Roles Andrew Soundy : Academic Editor Marialaura Di Tella : Academic Editor Received 2023 Aug 1; Revised 2023 Oct 21; Accepted 2023 Oct 23; Collection date 2023 Nov. © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distri... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.498 | 0.674 | ["innovation"] | 438 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.161455 | [
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( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC10669707 PMID: 37998645 Abstract Being characterized by high numbers of physical and mental health issues, the veterinary sector faces some negative peculiarities compared to other professions. To evaluate and possibly improve employees’ w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.455 | 0.818 | ["motivation", "career", "management", "innovation", "war_conflict"] | 471 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.161657 | [
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al must understand every individual’s motivation. Defining the motivation of veterinary professionals in a multidisciplinary way can be the first step in increasing the well-being of employees. To assemble current theories of work motivation and adapt and extend them to serve the veterinary profession, basic knowledge ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.483 | 0.818 | ["motivation", "career", "education"] | 426 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.161842 | [
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ies and work motivational theories is inevitable. The authors aimed to illustrate the different motivational theories’ key aspects and historical evolution to provide veterinary personnel with broad knowledge. In addition, the availability of already existing literature should be evaluated. A scoping review was perform... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.429 | 0.682 | ["motivation", "education", "philosophy"] | 496 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.162033 | [
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motivational theories in veterinary health care. This reflects that there is a need for research in this field. Still, it is illustrated that the veterinarian profession would benefit from the implementation of general psychological as well as motivational work theories. Keywords: well-being, quality of live, veterinar... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.595 | 0.824 | ["motivation", "career", "war_conflict"] | 451 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.162209 | [
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n derives from the Latin term “movere” (to move). Motivation is one of the most important reasons for individuals to move forward to acquire a specific goal [ 1 ]. In classical literature, the individual’s concerns about motivation are strictly separated into aims one wants to achieve in the workplace and aims one want... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.614 | 0.874 | ["motivation", "philosophy", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.162417 | [
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performance of employees have long been seen and referred to as two independent topics. This view conflicts with the fact that work psychology is applied psychology [ 2 ]. In 2001, the journal “Academy of Management Review” called for articles on the future of work motivation. Researchers submitted fifty-six documents ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.455 | 0.862 | ["motivation", "management", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 511 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.162604 | [
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difying and extending them to reflect contemporary working conditions. An increasingly short-term orientation describes modern workplaces, where time is a critical performance variable and there is increasing interdependence between staff, evolving affective responses to the workplace experience, rising value and motiv... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.424 | 0.814 | ["philosophy", "career", "war_conflict"] | 414 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.162806 | [
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gnition of the transient nature of careers [ 3 ]. This steers us towards more multidisciplinary research, considering general psychology, work psychology, and various other factors to extract all possible dimensions of motivation [ 2 ]. This multidisciplinarity in evaluating one’s motivation is vital in every professio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.462 | 0.836 | ["career", "motivation", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 465 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.162987 | [
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eparation between private and professional lives. In particular, the veterinary sector is characterized by some peculiarities compared to other domains: career choices are mainly based on natural affection for the occupation and the love of animals [ 4 ]; veterinary professionals describe long working hours, an excessi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.379 | 0.854 | ["career", "decision_making"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.163190 | [
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perience a considerable number of physical (serious) harms during their career [ 6 ], could be a possible explanation for the high percentage (up to 15%) of burnout among professionals and a commensurate percentage of suicides around four times greater than that of the public [ 7 ]. Many nations, including the United K... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.456 | 0.71 | ["career", "management"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.163397 | [
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ervice, programs of mental health lectures in veterinary schools, and training modules on vital professional skills [ 8 ]. Although these interventions certainly have a positive influence, the primary goal should be to adapt the essential characteristics of the veterinary profession by identifying the most significant ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.382 | 0.828 | ["career", "communication", "crisis", "education"] | 446 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.163728 | [
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well-being at work in the veterinary profession. For evaluation and possible improvement of employees’ well-being, employees themselves as well as the managing staff must understand every individual´s motivation. Defining the motivation of veterinary professionals in a multidisciplinary way can be a first step in ident... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.838 | ["career", "management", "motivation"] | 510 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.163899 | [
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itable individualized prevention plans and can be the basis of implementing functional (individual) management systems addressing negative peculiarities, as well as increase well-being within individual workplaces and within the profession in general. This can be achieved by providing direction and guidance to not only... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.619 | 0.842 | ["motivation", "career", "communication", "management", "education"] | 511 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.164292 | [
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tional theories are required to build on existing theories of work motivation and adapt and extend them to fit into the veterinary profession. This article therefore first provides an overview of the theories before discussing the advantages and disadvantages of these as a driver for workplace health promotion, employe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.498 | 0.854 | ["motivation", "career"] | 511 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.164473 | [
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research done in this area to provide an overview of the theories, before discussing the advantages and disadvantages of these as a driver for workplace health promotion, employees’ well-being, and quality of life within the veterinary health care sector. 2. Material and Methods In conducting this scoping review, we fo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.425 | 0.832 | [] | 426 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.164594 | [
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and MetaAnalyses model according to PRISMA [ 9 ]. According to Trico et al., scoping reviews can study the scope and size, the range and variety, and the nature or characteristics of the evidence on a subject or question. It can sum up outcomes from a body of knowledge which is varied in methods or discipline or identi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.379 | 0.866 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 468 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.164728 | [
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bmed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The search strategies and terms were defined in a team discussion all authors attended: as search terms, “motivation” “motivational theories”, “workplace”, “employees”, “(veterinary) health care”, and their German equivalents were used. The scientific quality of the pub... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.605 | 0.842 | ["motivation", "management", "career", "salary"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.164862 | [
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motivational theories in the health care sector and veterinary health care sector was performed. The authors included review papers, methodological studies, and theoretical articles. Review papers were included if they were written in English or German and gave an overview about specific motivational theories or their ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.436 | 0.848 | ["motivation", "philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165024 | [
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pects of measuring motivation in (health care) employees. Theoretical papers written in English or German were included if they contributed to the understanding of the concept of motivation theory or its application in the professional (health care) world. Records were excluded if they did not meet the criteria or did ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.625 | 0.858 | ["motivation", "career", "resume", "education"] | 506 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165157 | [
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commentary, press releases, and grey literature. To secure consistency among the reviewers, all of them evaluated the 65 publications included. Evaluation was followed by discussion of the results. Disagreement on publication inclusion was solved by discussion within the reviewer team. A data table was developed by one... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.554 | 0.842 | ["management", "motivation", "negotiation"] | 483 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165290 | [
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ussed and adapted within the whole reviewer team. Within each motivational theory, the methodological studies were evaluated in terms of the population studied, the settings, and the study design. Systematic reviews were examined for the number of included studies that might have met our inclusion criteria to determine... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.564 | 0.852 | ["management", "motivation", "education"] | 487 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165429 | [
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exclusion criteria. Table 1. Inclusion criteria. Inclusion Criteria Types of studies English and German language only Worldwide studies Publication date 1930–2020 Observational studies, mixed studies, empirical studies, review articles, and theoretical articles Peer reviewed journal papers Chapters with an abstract Typ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.327 | 0.818 | [] | 460 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165557 | [
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ing students and junior trainees and specialists. Employees of other professions to compare the health care sector to other professions Open in a new tab Table 2. Exclusion criteria. Exclusion Criteria Types of studies Non-English/non-German language Proceedings Publication date before 1930 or after 2020 Duplicates Edi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.505 | 0.838 | ["career"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165686 | [
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practicing human and veterinary health care employees e.g., laboratory staff Open in a new tab 3. Results Initially, 141 articles were identified by title, of which 86 abstracts and 54 full-text articles could be evaluated regarding the aspects mentioned earlier. For the present review, 65 publications, 15 methodologic... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.523 | 0.852 | ["economy"] | 508 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165818 | [
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he number of papers during the inclusion process. Figure 1. Open in a new tab Identification of studies. The corresponding table with the overview of the reviewed articles can be found in the Supplementary Materials . The following sections will provide an overview of motivational theories in general and their use in t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.423 | 0.692 | ["motivation"] | 481 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.165952 | [
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ection, intensity, and persistence in psychology. Motivation is a temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused with personality or emotion [ 11 ]. Psychology has numerous approaches to explain motivation. 3.1.1. Hedonism Psychological hedonism dates back to Democritus and Epicurus (460 BC). The philosophers L... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.459 | 0.694 | ["motivation"] | 493 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166089 | [
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psychological hedonism is still an ongoing topic. “Hedonism” is derived from the ancient Greek term for pleasure. Psychological or motivational hedonism asserts that only pleasure and suffering motivate the individual. Pleasure is equated with all pleasant sensations, while pain includes all aversive feelings. All othe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.34 | 0.844 | ["motivation"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166223 | [
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ion, determining one’s behavior will sometimes fail due to factors outside one’s control or the “weakness of one’s will”. This reflects that psychological hedonism does not account for whether a person will succeed in achieving any goal in their behavior [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. More recent studies discuss the conceptual... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.393 | 0.87 | [] | 508 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166351 | [
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inted out in numerous publications [ 16 ]. 3.1.2. Instincts Behavioral scientists like James, Freud, and McDougall proposed more empirical-based problems to explain motivation. McDougall described “instinct” as “an inherited or innate psychological predisposition that determines its possessor to perceive, or pay attent... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.405 | 0.854 | ["motivation", "salary"] | 509 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166484 | [
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act in a specific way in relation to it.” [ 17 ]. The general idea is that similar motivations occur in humans because of the parallel biological programming humans share. Locomotion, curiosity, sociability, fear, jealousy, and sympathy were identified as such instincts [ 18 ]. Increasing limitations of the approach be... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.409 | 0.866 | ["motivation"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166620 | [
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source of our motivation is biologically or genetically programmed into our unchanging body [ 3 ]. This conflicts with, e.g., learned human behavior. Nowadays, psychologists are beginning to believe that while instincts can be programmed genetically, their manifestation is also influenced by individual experiences [ 18... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.39 | 0.69 | ["motivation", "war_conflict"] | 471 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166751 | [
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to explain motivation during the 1940s and 1950s. The theory was first created by the behaviorist Clark Hull. In accordance with the theory, the primary force behind motivation is the reduction in drives. Hull’s theory is based on the concept of homeostasis, which states that the body actively works to maintain a speci... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.567 | 0.848 | ["motivation", "family"] | 449 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.166880 | [
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the ways that an organism maintains this balance. Drives like thirst, hunger, and the need for warmth, also called primary drives or reinforcers, create an unpleasant state and tension that needs to be reduced. Hull proposed that humans and animals mimic any behavior that decreases these drives. Reduced drive acts as a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.429 | 0.86 | ["war_conflict"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167022 | [
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money, intimacy, or social approval, are socially specific or learned [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Hull’s drive reduction theory lacks generalizability, so it was criticized soon after publishing. Yet, most motivational theories that arose in the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull’s original idea or focused on offering alt... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.39 | 0.862 | ["management", "motivation"] | 510 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167159 | [
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Hull’s approach and is still utilized by managers in many businesses [ 22 ]. A fundamental criticism of the drive reduction theory is that it fails to account for how secondary drives or reinforcers lower an individual’s drives. In contrast to primary drives, secondary reinforcers have no direct effect on physiological... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.354 | 0.854 | ["management", "economy"] | 488 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167295 | [
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nforcers but has little effect on reducing urges. Nevertheless, it serves as a potent source of reinforcement. Another significant criticism of drive reduction is that it does not explain why people engage in actions that do not diminish their drives or why specific drives cannot be met yet appear to increase tension, ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.431 | 0.862 | [] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167410 | [
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which in psychology represents mental alertness, as potential motivators. People have varying levels of optimal arousal and are motivated to take actions that will help them achieve their optimal level. Assume an individual’s arousal level falls below the optimal threshold, resulting in demotivation until the arousal l... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.583 | 0.842 | ["motivation"] | 492 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167542 | [
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their arousal level returns to the desired level. However, studies show that moderate arousal levels result in the most motivation [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Within the arousal theory, the Yerkes–Dodson Law exists. According to this hypothesis, a state of optimal arousal results in optimal performance. Too little arousal d... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.866 | ["motivation", "philosophy", "governance"] | 508 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167705 | [
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on, decreasing performance and motivation [ 27 ]. 3.1.5. Cognitive Approaches The cognitive approach revolutionized psychology in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Interest in mental processes has been slowly rejuvenated via the engagement of Piaget and Tolman [ 28 , 29 ]. Cognitive psychology is the science of how we th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.58 | 0.706 | ["motivation", "decision_making", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.167834 | [
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ards a decision about a specific activity by drawing a line between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and examining the effect of these on the individual [ 2 ]. Intrinsic motivation encompasses all the variables that motivate an individual based on internal rewards, such as self-improvement or assisting a friend in ne... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.475 | 0.85 | ["motivation", "decision_making", "war_conflict", "education"] | 473 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168031 | [
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d refer to a positive intrinsic motivation drive. If an employee wants to learn new things because he or she is dissatisfied, negative intrinsic motivation is the driving force. The actions still have a positive outcome, but the motivation used is aimed at preventing a negative outcome rather than creating a positive o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.538 | 0.858 | ["motivation"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168127 | [
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n positive or altruistic things that one can debate [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, typically focuses on things that are given to you by someone else and thus are not directly within your control to achieve [ 31 ]. Extrinsic motivation refers to all the factors that motivate a person bas... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.602 | 0.874 | ["motivation", "war_conflict"] | 488 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168214 | [
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, all of which are dependent on external factors. These types of motivators are more common than intrinsic rewards. Because of the anticipated raise, an employee may wish to be promoted. Extrinsic motivation, like intrinsic motivation, can be negative; for example, if an employee is motivated to perform better because ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.535 | 0.858 | ["motivation", "career", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168314 | [
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evels of satisfaction and psychological well-being as intrinsic motivation. The dispute is ongoing, but data indicate that intrinsic motivation supports psychological well-being more than extrinsic motivation [ 35 ]. Following this, intrinsic motivation factors have also been identified to be of importance within the v... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.426 | 0.844 | ["motivation", "career"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168400 | [
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that having high control [ 36 ], high satisfaction [ 37 ], and high work commitment [ 38 ] mitigate the effects of stress using a survey among veterinarians [ 39 ]. In 2008 it was again indirectly proved that cognitive motivational approaches have their place in the veterinary profession. A Belgian study on stress, wor... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.58 | 0.866 | ["motivation", "networking", "career", "family", "education"] | 511 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168499 | [
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ping strategies, emphasizing the relationship between environmental demands and human reactions [ 5 , 42 ]. While publications regarding rewards within the veterinary profession are few and far between [ 43 ], intrinsic and extrinsic motivators are the subject of some publications within the human healthcare sector [ 4... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.414 | 0.862 | ["war_conflict", "networking", "career"] | 491 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168594 | [
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s rewards as being either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards stem from rewards that are inherent in the job itself. The employee enjoys them due to successfully completing the task or attaining goals. Extrinsic rewards are those that are external to the task of the job, e.g., salary, work conditions, fringe bene... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.386 | 0.858 | ["war_conflict", "career", "salary"] | 497 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168705 | [
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ector with its special peculiarities (see later). Only one single publication dealing directly with cognitive motivation theory within the veterinary profession could be found: Driscoll (2022) indicated in his literature review that veterinary technicians’ intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are complex [ 43 ]. 3.2. Motiva... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.61 | 0.848 | ["motivation", "career", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168808 | [
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te work-related behavior and define its form, direction, vigor, and duration [ 31 ]. Various views furnish a framework of how best to motivate employees to work willingly and effectively and deliver a foundation for reanalyzing the most influential motivational style [ 50 ]. Motivational theories in work psychology are... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.639 | 0.844 | ["motivation", "philosophy"] | 455 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168904 | [
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k motivation, and process theories [ 51 ]. 3.2.1. Content Theories Content theories emerged during the 1950s. Since those theories attempt to explain the specific things which motivate the individual at work, they are collectively referred to as content theories. Major content theories of work motivation include: Maslo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.451 | 0.678 | ["motivation"] | 466 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.168994 | [
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eory; McClelland’s achievement motivation theory. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Maslow’s (1954) needs hierarchy system is a widely used scheme for categorizing human motives [ 52 ]. Maslow’s basic proposition is that people are wanting beings who, as they grow, work their way up a hierarchy based on meeting a set ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.844 | ["motivation"] | 450 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169086 | [
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hey want is determined by what they already have. In most cases, the hierarchy is depicted as a pyramid with five main levels. The lowest level includes physiological requirements. The necessity for self-actualization constitutes the highest level [ 50 ]. Individuals move up the hierarchy as each lower-level need is me... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.363 | 0.844 | [] | 457 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169163 | [
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re individuals can develop a healthy personality. The final two needs are related to individual achievement and the development of human potential. Maslow states that unsatisfied needs motivate people, so once a lower need is met, it no longer acts as a strong motivator [ 52 ]. The need hierarchy model is still applied... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.432 | 0.872 | ["motivation", "management"] | 495 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169266 | [
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ecute, others are complex and pricey [ 53 , 54 ]. Alderfer’s Modified Need Hierarchy Model Alderfer modified Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model in 1972 to include only three needs: existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG theory). Existence must meet material nature’s physiological and safety needs. Love or belonging, af... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.396 | 0.828 | ["philosophy", "networking"] | 435 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169356 | [
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esteemed nature are all examples of relatedness. Self-esteem and self-actualization must be addressed as part of the growth process [ 55 ]. According to Maslow, individuals evolve through the hierarchy from existence needs to relatedness needs to growth needs as lower-level needs are met. In contrast to his predecessor... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.403 | 0.848 | ["communication", "philosophy"] | 475 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169456 | [
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multiple needs can be activated at the same time. This implies that if one’s needs are blocked at a particular level, then attention should be focused on satisfying needs at the other levels. Moreover, people may also progress down the hierarchy [ 55 ]. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg expanded on Maslow and Alder... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.45 | 0.842 | ["philosophy", "motivation", "career"] | 444 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169552 | [
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f one’s job influence motivation and performance. He established the motivation-hygiene theory, also recognized as the two-factor theory of motivation. Herzberg performed a widely publicized motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers working for companies in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Employees were ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.605 | 0.818 | ["motivation", "career", "philosophy", "education"] | 423 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169651 | [
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good or bad about their current or previous jobs. Herzberg asked the participants to provide reasons for their feelings and explain the sequence of events that led to them. According to Herzberg, reported good feelings were generally associated with job experiences and job content, whereas reported bad feelings were ty... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.442 | 0.862 | ["career", "philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.169758 | [
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e connected to job scope and that job dis-satisfiers, referred to as hygiene factors, are related to the context of the position. The term hygiene refers to factors that are preventive, as they are those factors that prevent dissatisfaction. Herzberg saw these hygiene factors as being far more secular, directing to sat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.398 | 0.85 | ["motivation", "career"] | 469 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170177 | [
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ally sound and compelling theories of motivation. It is the only theory distinguishing between motivating and demotivating factors [ 52 ]. Herzberg is credited with being the first to introduce the field to the role of job design, specifically job enrichment, as a critical factor in job motivation [ 3 ]. Several studie... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.436 | 0.858 | ["career", "motivation"] | 498 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170286 | [
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ve also used it as a conceptual framework [ 56 ]. In their study of job satisfaction among 147 nurse practitioners in the United States, Cancel and colleagues (2005) utilized Herzberg’s theory as a framework. This quantitative descriptive study discovered that motivation and hygiene contributed to job satisfaction. In ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.572 | 0.834 | ["career", "salary", "education", "motivation"] | 446 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170393 | [
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and benefits, increased job satisfaction [ 59 ]. Lephalala (2006) utilized Herzberg’s theory to investigate the factors influencing the turnover of 136 nurses in private hospitals in England. Motivational factors were identified as impacting nursing turnover and unhappiness. In addition, hygiene problems contributed to... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.578 | 0.838 | ["career", "salary", "management", "motivation"] | 507 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170488 | [
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Saudi Arabian nurses with international training. The foundation of the research was Herzberg’s hypothesis, which revealed that motivation and hygienic aspects influenced job satisfaction. These elements were work recognition, salary, working conditions, accomplishment, corporate policy and administration, and connecti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.43 | 0.824 | ["career", "management", "motivation", "networking", "salary"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170597 | [
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working circumstances, status, supervisor relationships, security, and personal life [ 61 ]. McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory In 1961 McClelland introduced his developed needs theory in the book ‘The Achieving Society [ 62 ]. Individuals’ specific needs, according to this theory, develop over time and are sha... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.462 | 0.844 | ["motivation", "networking", "career"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170686 | [
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job functions: Achievement motive (n-ach) The n-ach person is high in the need to achieve and is predisposed to striving for success. This person is highly motivated by attaining realistic but challenging goals and advancement in the job. There is a strong need for timely criticism and feedback about achievement and pr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.477 | 0.85 | ["career", "motivation"] | 461 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170777 | [
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ate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers. Authority/power motive (n-pow) N-pow individuals are “authority motivated”. They must influence others directly by making suggestions and giving their opinions and evaluations. A solid need to lead and to pr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.451 | 0.832 | ["motivation"] | 423 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170865 | [
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he need to increase personal status and prestige. An N-pow individual with a high need for power but a low need for warm, supportive relationships might become dictatorial. In contrast, one with an increased need for friendship might become a social worker. Affiliation motive (n-affil) The n-affil individual requires p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.385 | 0.858 | ["networking", "war_conflict", "motivation"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.170953 | [
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nships with others and to feel accepted by others. These individuals are team players who are frequently agreeable and provide emotional support to others. The n-affil employee excels at customer service and client interaction. McClelland remarked that individuals maintain and show a mix of these characteristics. At wo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.414 | 0.83 | ["management", "motivation"] | 448 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171058 | [
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their behavior and working and managerial style. This implies that people with different needs are motivated differently [ 53 , 62 , 63 ]. McClelland’s concept is an appropriate source of motivation for the modern world since it accounts for variables such as cultural issues outside the business, which can influence in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.85 | ["motivation", "management"] | 491 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171156 | [
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ly from the other content theories [ 64 ]. 3.2.2. Process Theories In contrast to prior content theories, process theories aim to establish the links between the dynamic factors that comprise motivation and the actions necessary to impact behavior. These ideas focus on how behavior is begun, guided, and maintained over... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.419 | 0.856 | ["motivation", "governance"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171252 | [
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: Adams; Goal theory: Locke; Attribution theory: Heider and Kelley. Expectancy-Based Models: Vroom and Porter and Lawler The expectancy theory-based models are generic theories of motivation and are not developed by a sole author. Vroom (1964) and Porter and Lawler (1968) worked on more recent approaches to the expecta... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.601 | 0.834 | ["governance", "motivation"] | 443 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171359 | [
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pected results of their actions influence people. Motivation is determined by the relationship between effort exerted and perceived level of performance, the anticipation that rewards will be related to performance, and the assumption that rewards will be available [ 51 ]. The goal of Victor Vroom’s expectation theory ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.602 | 0.86 | ["philosophy", "motivation", "war_conflict", "networking"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171468 | [
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hat contribute to the performance of the work unit and the organization. He argued that individual qualities such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience, and abilities determine an employee’s performance. According to him, effort, performance, and motivation are all tied to an individual’s motivation. The variab... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.48 | 0.852 | ["motivation", "philosophy", "education"] | 500 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171577 | [
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iables and motivation, (M): M = E × I × V [ 15 ]. This equation shows that motivation is sharply reduced whenever one or more factors approach zero value [ 51 ]. Porter and Lawler expanded upon Vroom’s idea of expectation. They recognized, unlike Vroom, that exertion does not immediately correlate with performance. Act... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.589 | 0.86 | ["motivation", "philosophy", "governance", "war_conflict"] | 497 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171677 | [
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rewards are inserted as an intervening variable. They view motivation, satisfaction, and performance as distinct variables and strive to explain their intricate interrelationships. They concluded that job satisfaction depends on performance more than performance depends on job contentment [ 65 ]. Even if the theories a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.606 | 0.836 | ["philosophy", "career", "motivation", "networking", "war_conflict"] | 464 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171774 | [
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ee of rational recognition of individuals [ 66 ]. Equity Theory: Adams In 1963, Stacy Adams introduced the equity theory to explain how employees respond to perceived unfairness in the workplace. His work concentrates on people’s perceptions of how fairly they have been treated compared to colleagues. An individual per... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.557 | 0.856 | ["motivation"] | 503 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171868 | [
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and outcomes are determined by their perceptions. Age, sex, education, social standing, organizational position, credentials, and effort affect input variables. Output variables include compensation, status, promotion, and intrinsic interest in the job [ 67 ]. Recent publications address the equity theory in human heal... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.575 | 0.836 | ["education", "communication", "networking", "career", "salary"] | 490 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.171975 | [
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ions of inequity, and social support for burnout. They stated that burnout consists of two dimensions: emotional exhaustion and negative attitudes towards one’s patients and towards oneself, e.g., depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment; that feelings of inequity and social support play an intervening rol... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.543 | 0.842 | ["war_conflict", "networking"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172077 | [
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ates the doctor’s poor relationships with their patients. The Dutch authors concluded that equity theory enhances understanding of the relationship between practitioner and patient as a determinant of burnout [ 67 ]. No veterinary publications could be found. Goal Theory: Locke In the late 1960s, goal-setting theories ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.591 | 0.85 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 473 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172171 | [
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the first theories was published by Locke [ 68 ]. Locke presumed that once an individual opts to pursue a goal, they will regulate their behavior to achieve it. The interaction of goal specificity, goal difficulty, and the extent of a person’s goal commitment governs the effort expended and improves task performance [ ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.621 | 0.868 | ["crisis", "management", "resume", "philosophy"] | 497 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172280 | [
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of the person’s commitment to achieving the goal. Individuals with specific quantitative goals, such as a fixed timeframe for finishing an assignment, outperform those with no set goal or only an unclear goal. Furthermore, it is believed that people who set challenging goals outperform those who set more manageable goa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.442 | 0.864 | ["philosophy", "management", "motivation", "career"] | 491 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172380 | [
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ad a clearly defined objective for nurses [ 70 ]. Attribution Theory: Heider and Kelley In contrast to alternative theories, the attribution theory focuses more on the relationship between personal perception and interpersonal action than on individual motivation. Fritz Heider believed in 1958 that internal and exterio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.46 | 0.838 | ["motivation", "networking"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172476 | [
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xhaustion, whereas external forces include environmental characteristics such as rules and the weather. Heider emphasized that perceived, not actual, factors are crucial to behavior and that people would respond differently depending on whether they perceive internal or external characteristics [ 71 ]. Harold Kelley, a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.422 | 0.848 | [] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172567 | [
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ceives his or her conduct as being produced by certain aspects of the relevant environment. Though most factors are not clearly observable, the theory emphasizes that humans must rely on cognition. Individuals are supposed to be rational and motivated to recognize and comprehend the causal structure of their relevant e... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.398 | 0.856 | ["motivation"] | 503 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172662 | [
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o be controlled by themselves or external causes. According to Kelley, three crucial factors interact to determine whether an internal or external attribution is selected: uniqueness, agreement, and consistency. When they see low distinctiveness, low unanimity, and high consistency, individuals link behavior to interna... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.369 | 0.844 | ["negotiation"] | 508 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172760 | [
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s or environmental causes will occur [ 50 , 71 ]. The fact that there is an increasing variety of attribution theories reflects the importance of this theory in modern work structures [ 73 ]: more recent studies considering the attribution concept view individuals as active interpreters of their life events. In their i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.535 | 0.86 | [] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172845 | [
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kelihood that individuals will seek an explanation to make sense of it, typically by identifying its source. Every statement an individual makes and every action an individual performs can be subject to attributional analysis, not only by the person but also by others. The outcome of this analysis has significant impli... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.547 | 0.864 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.172947 | [
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ng condition, a need for help, or an aggressive act, if these are attributed to controllable and intended causes, for instance, responses of anger and reprimand or neglect are more likely [ 74 ]. In contrast, uncontrollable and unintentional attributions are more likely to lead to compassion and an offer of support. 4.... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.427 | 0.846 | ["motivation"] | 469 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.173051 | [
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tical and less applicable aspects of each theory. Evaluating them from a critical point of view will be helpful to eventually implicate them into the functional framework of the veterinary profession. The concept of psychological hedonism is intuitively appealing and can explain some behavior patterns. Regarding the ve... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.525 | 0.85 | ["career", "decision_making"] | 512 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.173144 | [
0.05019769445061684,
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n affection, long working hours, high workload, physical hazards) of the profession to a certain point. Nevertheless, one should respect this theory since advances in affective neuroscience and psychology provide the foundation to reformulate the theory to overcome these problems. Further research is ongoing and will e... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.47 | 0.84 | ["motivation", "innovation", "career", "social_justice", "philosophy"] | 479 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.173250 | [
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s cannot clarify all aspects of human motivation. Considering veterinary health care, it is doubtful that instincts are responsible for resuming work after, e.g., physical trauma. It would be more likely that people would stay away from dangerous work from the outset. But, as research regarding the influence of experie... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.436 | 0.836 | ["motivation", "career", "education"] | 435 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.173341 | [
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from negotiating knowledge of this theory [ 18 ]. At first glance, Hull’s drive reduction theory seems to be worthless for veterinary medicine. Or how should one, based on this theory, explain why individuals seek a profession like veterinary medicine that often interferes with fulfilling biological needs, e.g., lack o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.317 | 0.844 | ["career", "education"] | 470 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.173433 | [
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duction theory cannot account for such behaviors. But, in this context, another question arises: is one aware of the specific characteristics of the profession when taking the first steps into a veterinary career, and is one faced with hazards that have never been considered before when entering the profession? Or, is ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10669707/ | When the Going Gets Challenging—Motivational Theories as a Driver for Workplace Health Promotion, Employees Well-Being and Quality of Life - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.55 | 0.834 | ["career", "war_conflict"] | 431 | Motivation Employee Engagement Leadership | topic | 2026-04-09T01:45:31.173537 | [
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