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Anthrax

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Anthrax

Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis . Infection typically occurs by contact with the skin , inhalation, or intestinal absorption. Symptom onset occurs between one day and more than two months after the infection is contracted. The skin form presents with a small blister with surrounding swelling that often turns into a painless ulcer with a black center. The inhalation form presents with fever, chest pain and shortness of breath . The intestinal form presents with diarrhea (which may contain blood), abdominal pains, nausea and vomiting. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, the first clinical descriptions of cutaneous anthrax were given by Maret in 1752 and Fournier in 1769. Before that anthrax had been described only through historical accounts. The Prussian scientist Robert Koch (1843–1910) was the first to identify Bacillus anthracis as the bacterium that causes anthrax. Anthrax is spread by contact with the bacterium's spores , which often appear in infectious animal products. Contact is by breathing or eating or through an area of broken skin. It does not typically spread directly between people. Risk factors include people who work with animals or animal products, and military personnel. Diagnosis can be confirmed by finding antibodies or the toxin in the blood or by culture of a sample from the infected site. Anthrax vaccination is recommended for people at high risk of infection. Immunizing animals against anthrax is recommended in areas where previous infections have occurred. A two-month course of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin , levofloxacin and doxycycline after exposure can also prevent infection. If infection occurs, treatment is with antibiotics and possibly antitoxin . The type and number of antibiotics used depend on the type of infection. Antitoxin is recommended for those with widespread infection. A rare disease, human anthrax is most common in Africa and central and southern Asia. It also occurs more regularly in Southern Europe than elsewhere on the continent and is uncommon in Northern Europe and North America. Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year, with about two cases a year in the United States. Skin infections represent more than 95% of cases. Without treatment the risk of death from skin anthrax is 23.7%. For intestinal infection the risk of death is 25 to 75%, while respiratory anthrax has a mortality of 50 to 80%, even with treatment. Until the 20th century anthrax infections killed hundreds of thousands of people and animals each year. In herbivorous animals infection occurs when they eat or breathe in the spores while grazing. Animals may become infected by killing and/or eating infected animals. Anthrax has been developed as a weapon by a number of countries. Anthrax has been used in biowarfare and bioterrorism since 1914. However, in 1975 the Biological Weapons Convention prohibited the "development, production and stockpiling" of biological weapons. It has since been used in bioterrorism. Likely delivery methods of weaponized anthrax include aerial dispersal or dispersal through livestock; notable bioterrorism uses include the 2001 anthrax attacks and an incident in 1993 by the Aum Shinrikyo group in Japan.The English name comes from anthrax ( ἄνθραξ ), the Greek word for coal, possibly having Egyptian etymology, because of the characteristic black skin lesions developed by people with a cutaneous anthrax infection. The central black eschar surrounded by vivid red skin has long been recognised as typical of the disease. The first recorded use of the word "anthrax" in English is in a 1398 translation of Bartholomaeus Anglicus ' work De proprietatibus rerum ( On the Properties of Things , 1240). Anthrax was historically known by a wide variety of names indicating its symptoms, location and groups considered most vulnerable to infection. They included Siberian plague, Cumberland disease , charbon, splenic fever, malignant edema, woolsorter's disease and la maladie de Bradford . Cutaneous anthrax, also known as hide-porter's disease, is when anthrax occurs on the skin. It is the most common form (>90% of anthrax cases). It is the least dangerous form (low mortality with treatment, 23.7% mortality without). Cutaneous anthrax presents as a boil -like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center ( eschar ). The black eschar often shows up as a large, painless, necrotic ulcer (beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot, somewhat resembling bread mold) at the site of infection. In general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Unlike bruises or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain. Nearby lymph nodes may become infected, reddened, swollen, and painful. A scab forms over the lesion soon, and falls off in a few weeks. Complete recovery may take longer. Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when B. anthracis spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among injecting heroin users in the Glasgow and Stirling areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. This became the first documented non-occupational human anthrax outbreak in the UK since 1960. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with bone meal in Afghanistan. Injected anthrax may have symptoms similar to cutaneous anthrax, with the exception of black areas, and may also cause infection deep into the muscle and spread faster. This can cause it to be harder to recognise and treat. Inhalation anthrax usually develops within a week after exposure, but may take up to 2 months. During the first few days of illness, most people have fever, chills, and fatigue. These symptoms may be accompanied by cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, and nausea or vomiting, making inhalation anthrax difficult to distinguish from influenza and community-acquired pneumonia . This is often described as the prodromal period. Over the next day or so, shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain become more common, and complaints not involving the chest such as nausea, vomiting, altered mental status, sweats, and headache develop in one-third or more of people. Upper respiratory tract symptoms occur in only a quarter of people, and muscle pains are rare. Altered mental status or shortness of breath generally brings people to healthcare and marks the fulminant phase of illness. It infects the lymph nodes in the chest first, rather than the lungs themselves, a condition called hemorrhagic mediastinitis , causing bloody fluid to accumulate in the chest cavity, thereby causing shortness of breath. The second (pneumonia) stage occurs when the infection spreads from the lymph nodes to the lungs. Symptoms of the second stage develop suddenly within hours or days after the first stage. Symptoms include high fever, extreme shortness of breath, shock, and rapid death within 48 hours in fatal cases. Gastrointestinal (GI) infection is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by diarrhea, potentially with blood, abdominal pains, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. Occasional vomiting of blood can occur. Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the gastrointestinal system, it spreads to the bloodstream and throughout the body, while continuing to make toxins. Cutaneous anthrax, also known as hide-porter's disease, is when anthrax occurs on the skin. It is the most common form (>90% of anthrax cases). It is the least dangerous form (low mortality with treatment, 23.7% mortality without). Cutaneous anthrax presents as a boil -like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center ( eschar ). The black eschar often shows up as a large, painless, necrotic ulcer (beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot, somewhat resembling bread mold) at the site of infection. In general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Unlike bruises or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain. Nearby lymph nodes may become infected, reddened, swollen, and painful. A scab forms over the lesion soon, and falls off in a few weeks. Complete recovery may take longer. Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when B. anthracis spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among injecting heroin users in the Glasgow and Stirling areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. This became the first documented non-occupational human anthrax outbreak in the UK since 1960. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with bone meal in Afghanistan. Injected anthrax may have symptoms similar to cutaneous anthrax, with the exception of black areas, and may also cause infection deep into the muscle and spread faster. This can cause it to be harder to recognise and treat.Inhalation anthrax usually develops within a week after exposure, but may take up to 2 months. During the first few days of illness, most people have fever, chills, and fatigue. These symptoms may be accompanied by cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, and nausea or vomiting, making inhalation anthrax difficult to distinguish from influenza and community-acquired pneumonia . This is often described as the prodromal period. Over the next day or so, shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain become more common, and complaints not involving the chest such as nausea, vomiting, altered mental status, sweats, and headache develop in one-third or more of people. Upper respiratory tract symptoms occur in only a quarter of people, and muscle pains are rare. Altered mental status or shortness of breath generally brings people to healthcare and marks the fulminant phase of illness. It infects the lymph nodes in the chest first, rather than the lungs themselves, a condition called hemorrhagic mediastinitis , causing bloody fluid to accumulate in the chest cavity, thereby causing shortness of breath. The second (pneumonia) stage occurs when the infection spreads from the lymph nodes to the lungs. Symptoms of the second stage develop suddenly within hours or days after the first stage. Symptoms include high fever, extreme shortness of breath, shock, and rapid death within 48 hours in fatal cases. Gastrointestinal (GI) infection is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by diarrhea, potentially with blood, abdominal pains, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. Occasional vomiting of blood can occur. Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the gastrointestinal system, it spreads to the bloodstream and throughout the body, while continuing to make toxins. Bacillus anthracis is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive , facultative anaerobe bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size. It was shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow, isolated the bacteria, and put them into a mouse. The bacterium normally rests in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Herbivores are often infected while grazing, especially when eating rough, irritant, or spiky vegetation; the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract, permitting entry of the bacterial spores into the tissues. Once ingested or placed in an open wound, the bacteria begin multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kill the host within a few days or weeks. The spores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics, where the bacteria multiply. The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death. Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence, and by the dark, nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices. Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours post mortem . However, anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or through the opening of the carcass may form hardy spores. These vegetative bacteria are not contagious. One spore forms per one vegetative bacterium. The triggers for spore formation are not yet known, though oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles. Once formed, these spores are very hard to eradicate. [ citation needed ] The infection of herbivores (and occasionally humans) by the inhalational route normally begins with inhaled spores being transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells ( macrophages ) in the lungs and are transported through small vessels ( lymphatics ) to the lymph nodes in the central chest cavity ( mediastinum ). Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty breathing. Once in the lymph nodes, the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages, releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body. Once in the bloodstream, these bacilli release three proteins named lethal factor , edema factor, and protective antigen. The three are not toxic by themselves, but their combination is incredibly lethal to humans. Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin, respectively. These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction, bleeding, and death of the host. If antibiotics are administered too late, even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria, some hosts still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their systems at lethal dose levels. Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines (gastrointestinal), lungs (pulmonary), or skin (cutaneous) and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry. However, anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to an uninfected human. If the disease is fatal to the person's body, its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination. Pulmonary anthrax, if left untreated, is almost always fatal. Historically, pulmonary anthrax was called woolsorters' disease because it was an occupational hazard for people who sorted wool . Today, this form of infection is extremely rare in advanced nations. Cutaneous anthrax is the most common form of transmission but is also the least dangerous of the three transmissions. Gastrointestinal anthrax is likely fatal if left untreated, but very rare. The spores of anthrax are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. Such spores can be found on all continents, including Antarctica. Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have been known to cause infection after 70 years. In one such event, a young boy died from gastrointestinal anthrax due to the thawing of reindeer corpses from 75 years ago. Anthrax spores traveled though groundwater used for drinking and caused tens of people to be hospitalized, largely children. Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products (such as skin, wool, and meat) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans. Workers who are exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk, especially in countries where anthrax is more common. Anthrax in livestock grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the United States and elsewhere. Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores, but most exposure levels are not sufficient to develop anthrax infections. A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores, though this dose varies among host species. Bacillus anthracis is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive , facultative anaerobe bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size. It was shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow, isolated the bacteria, and put them into a mouse. The bacterium normally rests in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Herbivores are often infected while grazing, especially when eating rough, irritant, or spiky vegetation; the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract, permitting entry of the bacterial spores into the tissues. Once ingested or placed in an open wound, the bacteria begin multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kill the host within a few days or weeks. The spores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics, where the bacteria multiply. The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death. Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence, and by the dark, nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices. Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours post mortem . However, anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or through the opening of the carcass may form hardy spores. These vegetative bacteria are not contagious. One spore forms per one vegetative bacterium. The triggers for spore formation are not yet known, though oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles. Once formed, these spores are very hard to eradicate. [ citation needed ] The infection of herbivores (and occasionally humans) by the inhalational route normally begins with inhaled spores being transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells ( macrophages ) in the lungs and are transported through small vessels ( lymphatics ) to the lymph nodes in the central chest cavity ( mediastinum ). Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty breathing. Once in the lymph nodes, the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages, releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body. Once in the bloodstream, these bacilli release three proteins named lethal factor , edema factor, and protective antigen. The three are not toxic by themselves, but their combination is incredibly lethal to humans. Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin, respectively. These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction, bleeding, and death of the host. If antibiotics are administered too late, even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria, some hosts still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their systems at lethal dose levels. Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines (gastrointestinal), lungs (pulmonary), or skin (cutaneous) and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry. However, anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to an uninfected human. If the disease is fatal to the person's body, its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination. Pulmonary anthrax, if left untreated, is almost always fatal. Historically, pulmonary anthrax was called woolsorters' disease because it was an occupational hazard for people who sorted wool . Today, this form of infection is extremely rare in advanced nations. Cutaneous anthrax is the most common form of transmission but is also the least dangerous of the three transmissions. Gastrointestinal anthrax is likely fatal if left untreated, but very rare. The spores of anthrax are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. Such spores can be found on all continents, including Antarctica. Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have been known to cause infection after 70 years. In one such event, a young boy died from gastrointestinal anthrax due to the thawing of reindeer corpses from 75 years ago. Anthrax spores traveled though groundwater used for drinking and caused tens of people to be hospitalized, largely children. Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products (such as skin, wool, and meat) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans. Workers who are exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk, especially in countries where anthrax is more common. Anthrax in livestock grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the United States and elsewhere. Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores, but most exposure levels are not sufficient to develop anthrax infections. A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores, though this dose varies among host species. The lethality of the anthrax disease is due to the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: the poly-D-glutamic acid capsule , which protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by host neutrophils; and the tripartite protein toxin, called anthrax toxin , consisting of protective antigen (PA), edema factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF). PA plus LF produces lethal toxin, and PA plus EF produces edema toxin. These toxins cause death and tissue swelling ( edema ), respectively. To enter the cells, the edema and lethal factors use another protein produced by B. anthracis called protective antigen, which binds to two surface receptors on the host cell. A cell protease then cleaves PA into two fragments: PA 20 and PA 63 . PA 20 dissociates into the extracellular medium, playing no further role in the toxic cycle. PA 63 then oligomerizes with six other PA 63 fragments forming a heptameric ring-shaped structure named a prepore. Once in this shape, the complex can competitively bind up to three EFs or LFs, forming a resistant complex. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs next, providing the newly formed toxic complex access to the interior of the host cell. The acidified environment within the endosome triggers the heptamer to release the LF and/or EF into the cytosol. It is unknown how exactly the complex results in the death of the cell. Edema factor is a calmodulin -dependent adenylate cyclase . Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate . The complexation of adenylate cyclase with calmodulin removes calmodulin from stimulating calcium-triggered signaling, thus inhibiting the immune response. To be specific, LF inactivates neutrophils (a type of phagocytic cell) by the process just described so they cannot phagocytose bacteria. Throughout history, lethal factor was presumed to cause macrophages to make TNF-alpha and interleukin 1, beta (IL1B). TNF-alpha is a cytokine whose primary role is to regulate immune cells, as well as to induce inflammation and apoptosis or programmed cell death. Interleukin 1, beta is another cytokine that also regulates inflammation and apoptosis. The overproduction of TNF-alpha and IL1B ultimately leads to septic shock and death. However, recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells that line serous cavities such as the pericardial cavity , pleural cavity , and peritoneal cavity , lymph vessels, and blood vessels, causing vascular leakage of fluid and cells, and ultimately hypovolemic shock and septic shock. [ citation needed ]Various techniques may be used for the direct identification of B. anthracis in clinical material. Firstly, specimens may be Gram stained . Bacillus spp. are quite large in size (3 to 4 μm long), they may grow in long chains, and they stain Gram-positive. To confirm the organism is B. anthracis , rapid diagnostic techniques such as polymerase chain reaction -based assays and immunofluorescence microscopy may be used. All Bacillus species grow well on 5% sheep blood agar and other routine culture media. Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA-thallous acetate can be used to isolate B. anthracis from contaminated specimens, and bicarbonate agar is used as an identification method to induce capsule formation. Bacillus spp. usually grow within 24 hours of incubation at 35 °C, in ambient air (room temperature) or in 5% CO 2 . If bicarbonate agar is used for identification, then the medium must be incubated in 5% CO 2 . B. anthracis colonies are medium-large, gray, flat, and irregular with swirling projections, often referred to as having a " medusa head " appearance, and are not hemolytic on 5% sheep blood agar. The bacteria are not motile, susceptible to penicillin, and produce a wide zone of lecithinase on egg yolk agar. Confirmatory testing to identify B. anthracis includes gamma bacteriophage testing, indirect hemagglutination, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies. The best confirmatory precipitation test for anthrax is the Ascoli test.Precautions are taken to avoid contact with the skin and any fluids exuded through natural body openings of a deceased body that is suspected of harboring anthrax. The body should be put in strict quarantine. A blood sample is collected and sealed in a container and analyzed in an approved laboratory to ascertain if anthrax is the cause of death. The body should be sealed in an airtight body bag and incinerated to prevent the transmission of anthrax spores. Microscopic visualization of the encapsulated bacilli, usually in very large numbers, in a blood smear stained with polychrome methylene blue (McFadyean stain) is fully diagnostic, though the culture of the organism is still the gold standard for diagnosis. Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others. Protective, impermeable clothing and equipment such as rubber gloves , rubber apron, and rubber boots with no perforations are used when handling the body. No skin, especially if it has any wounds or scratches, should be exposed. Disposable personal protective equipment is preferable, but if not available, decontamination can be achieved by autoclaving. Used disposable equipment is burned and/or buried after use. All contaminated bedding or clothing is isolated in double plastic bags and treated as biohazard waste. Respiratory equipment capable of filtering small particles, such the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - and Mine Safety and Health Administration -approved high-efficiency respirator, is worn. By addressing Anthrax from a One Health perspective, we can reduce the risks of transmission and better protect both human and animal populations. The prevention of anthrax from the environmental sources like air, water, & soil is disinfection used by effective microorganisms thru spraying, and bokashi mudballs mixed with effective microorganisms for the contaminated waterways. Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine. The French scientist Louis Pasteur developed the first effective vaccine in 1881. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s. [ citation needed ] Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular subunit vaccine (United States) and live vaccine (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general reactogenicity ( erythema , induration , soreness , fever ) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. The American product, BioThrax, is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0, 2, 4 weeks and 6, 12, 18 months, with annual boosters to maintain immunity. In 2008, the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose, resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series. This five-dose series is available to military personnel, scientists who work with anthrax and members of the public who do jobs which cause them to be at-risk. New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant subunit vaccines . In the 20th century the use of a modern product ( BioThrax ) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in biological warfare was controversial. Preventive antibiotics are recommended in those who have been exposed. Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken. In response to the anthrax attacks of October 2001, the United States Postal Service (USPS) installed biodetection systems (BDSs) in their large-scale mail processing facilities. BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire, police, hospitals, and public health. Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax, response actions, and prophylactic medication. Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used, prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible. [ citation needed ]Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine. The French scientist Louis Pasteur developed the first effective vaccine in 1881. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s. [ citation needed ] Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular subunit vaccine (United States) and live vaccine (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general reactogenicity ( erythema , induration , soreness , fever ) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. The American product, BioThrax, is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0, 2, 4 weeks and 6, 12, 18 months, with annual boosters to maintain immunity. In 2008, the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose, resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series. This five-dose series is available to military personnel, scientists who work with anthrax and members of the public who do jobs which cause them to be at-risk. New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant subunit vaccines . In the 20th century the use of a modern product ( BioThrax ) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in biological warfare was controversial. Preventive antibiotics are recommended in those who have been exposed. Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken. In response to the anthrax attacks of October 2001, the United States Postal Service (USPS) installed biodetection systems (BDSs) in their large-scale mail processing facilities. BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire, police, hospitals, and public health. Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax, response actions, and prophylactic medication. Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used, prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible. [ citation needed ]Anthrax cannot be spread from person to person, except in the rare case of skin exudates from cutaneous anthrax. However, a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with antimicrobial soap and water. Wastewater is treated with bleach or another antimicrobial agent. Effective decontamination of articles can be accomplished by boiling them in water for 30 minutes or longer. Chlorine bleach is ineffective in destroying spores and vegetative cells on surfaces, though formaldehyde is effective. Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores. After decontamination, there is no need to immunize, treat, or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax unless they were also exposed to the same source of infection. [ citation needed ] Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential; delay significantly lessens chances for survival. Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones ( ciprofloxacin ), doxycycline , erythromycin , vancomycin , or penicillin . FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin. In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax, early antibiotic prophylaxis treatment is crucial to prevent possible death. Many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax, but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough. In May 2009, Human Genome Sciences submitted a biologic license application (BLA, permission to market) for its new drug, raxibacumab (brand name ABthrax) intended for emergency treatment of inhaled anthrax. On 14 December 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration approved raxibacumab injection to treat inhalational anthrax. Raxibacumab is a monoclonal antibody that neutralizes toxins produced by B. anthracis . In March 2016, FDA approved a second anthrax treatment using a monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the toxins produced by B. anthracis . Obiltoxaximab is approved to treat inhalational anthrax in conjunction with appropriate antibacterial drugs, and for prevention when alternative therapies are not available or appropriate. Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential; delay significantly lessens chances for survival. Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones ( ciprofloxacin ), doxycycline , erythromycin , vancomycin , or penicillin . FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin. In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax, early antibiotic prophylaxis treatment is crucial to prevent possible death. Many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax, but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough. In May 2009, Human Genome Sciences submitted a biologic license application (BLA, permission to market) for its new drug, raxibacumab (brand name ABthrax) intended for emergency treatment of inhaled anthrax. On 14 December 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration approved raxibacumab injection to treat inhalational anthrax. Raxibacumab is a monoclonal antibody that neutralizes toxins produced by B. anthracis . In March 2016, FDA approved a second anthrax treatment using a monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the toxins produced by B. anthracis . Obiltoxaximab is approved to treat inhalational anthrax in conjunction with appropriate antibacterial drugs, and for prevention when alternative therapies are not available or appropriate. Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated, because the infection area is limited to the skin, preventing the lethal factor , edema factor, and protective antigen from entering and destroying a vital organ . Without treatment, up to 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to toxemia and death. Before 2001, fatality rates for inhalation anthrax were 90%; since then, they have fallen to 45%. People that progress to the fulminant phase of inhalational anthrax nearly always die, with one case study showing a death rate of 97%. Anthrax meningoencephalitis is also nearly always fatal. Gastrointestinal anthrax infections can be treated, but usually result in fatality rates of 25% to 60%, depending upon how soon treatment commences. Injection anthrax is the rarest form of anthrax, and has only been seen to have occurred in a group of heroin injecting drug users. Anthrax, a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus anthracis , can have devastating effects on animals. It primarily affects herbivores such as cattle, sheep, and goats, but a wide range of mammals, birds, and even humans can also be susceptible. Infection typically occurs through the ingestion of spores in contaminated soil or plants. Once inside the host, the spores transform into active bacteria, producing lethal toxins that lead to severe symptoms. Infected animals often exhibit high fever, rapid breathing, and convulsions, and they may succumb to the disease within hours to days. The presence of anthrax can pose significant challenges to livestock management and wildlife conservation efforts, making it a critical concern for both animal health and public health, as it can occasionally be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or contaminated products. Infected animals may stagger, have difficulty breathing, tremble, and finally collapse and die within a few hours. Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year. The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in California in 1976, when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan. To minimize the chance of spreading the disease, the body was transported to UCLA in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy. Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States, with only two cases on record. The first case was reported in 1942, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. During December 2009, the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female. The CDC investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a drum circle . The woman apparently inhaled anthrax, in spore form, from the hide of the drum. She became critically ill, but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax, which made her unique in American medical history. The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered. The New Hampshire state epidemiologist, Jodie Dionne-Odom, stated "It is a mystery. We really don't know why it happened." In 2007 two cases of cutaneous anthrax were reported in Danbury, Connecticut . The case involved a maker of traditional African-style drums who was working with a goat hide purchased from a dealer in New York City which had been previously cleared by Customs. While the hide was being scraped, a spider bite led to the spores entering the bloodstream. His son also became infected. In July 2022, dozens of cattle in a nature park in Lonjsko Polje , a flood plain by the Sava river, died of anthrax and 6 people have been hospitalized with light, skin-related symptoms. In November 2008, a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among heroin addicts in the Glasgow and Stirling areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with bone meal in Afghanistan. The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in California in 1976, when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan. To minimize the chance of spreading the disease, the body was transported to UCLA in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy. Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States, with only two cases on record. The first case was reported in 1942, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. During December 2009, the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female. The CDC investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a drum circle . The woman apparently inhaled anthrax, in spore form, from the hide of the drum. She became critically ill, but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax, which made her unique in American medical history. The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered. The New Hampshire state epidemiologist, Jodie Dionne-Odom, stated "It is a mystery. We really don't know why it happened." In 2007 two cases of cutaneous anthrax were reported in Danbury, Connecticut . The case involved a maker of traditional African-style drums who was working with a goat hide purchased from a dealer in New York City which had been previously cleared by Customs. While the hide was being scraped, a spider bite led to the spores entering the bloodstream. His son also became infected. In July 2022, dozens of cattle in a nature park in Lonjsko Polje , a flood plain by the Sava river, died of anthrax and 6 people have been hospitalized with light, skin-related symptoms. In November 2008, a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among heroin addicts in the Glasgow and Stirling areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with bone meal in Afghanistan. Robert Koch , a German physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in Wollstein (now Wolsztyn - a town in Poland). His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that diseases could be caused by microbes . In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over spontaneous generation versus cell theory . Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis. Although Koch arguably made the greatest theoretical contribution to understanding anthrax, other researchers were more concerned with the practical questions of how to prevent the disease. In Britain, where anthrax affected workers in the wool, worsted , hides , and tanning industries, it was viewed with fear. John Henry Bell , a doctor born & based in Bradford , first made the link between the mysterious and deadly "woolsorter's disease" and anthrax, showing in 1878 that they were one and the same. In the early 20th century, Friederich Wilhelm Eurich , the German bacteriologist who settled in Bradford with his family as a child, carried out important research for the local Anthrax Investigation Board. Eurich also made valuable contributions to a Home Office Departmental Committee of Inquiry, established in 1913 to address the continuing problem of industrial anthrax. His work in this capacity, much of it collaboration with the factory inspector G. Elmhirst Duckering , led directly to the Anthrax Prevention Act (1919). Anthrax posed a major economic challenge in France and elsewhere during the 19th century. Horses, cattle, and sheep were particularly vulnerable, and national funds were set aside to investigate the production of a vaccine . French scientist Louis Pasteur was charged with the production of a vaccine, following his successful work in developing methods that helped to protect the important wine and silk industries. In May 1881, Pasteur – in collaboration with his assistants Jean-Joseph Henri Toussaint , Émile Roux and others – performed a public experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25 sheep , one goat , and several cattle . The animals of one group were twice injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur, at an interval of 15 days; the control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the unvaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived. After this apparent triumph, which was widely reported in the local, national, and international press, Pasteur made strenuous efforts to export the vaccine beyond France. He used his celebrity status to establish Pasteur Institutes across Europe and Asia, and his nephew, Adrien Loir , travelled to Australia in 1888 to try to introduce the vaccine to combat anthrax in New South Wales . Ultimately, the vaccine was unsuccessful in the challenging climate of rural Australia, and it was soon superseded by a more robust version developed by local researchers John Gunn and John McGarvie Smith . The human vaccine for anthrax became available in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes. An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970. Robert Koch , a German physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in Wollstein (now Wolsztyn - a town in Poland). His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that diseases could be caused by microbes . In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over spontaneous generation versus cell theory . Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis. Although Koch arguably made the greatest theoretical contribution to understanding anthrax, other researchers were more concerned with the practical questions of how to prevent the disease. In Britain, where anthrax affected workers in the wool, worsted , hides , and tanning industries, it was viewed with fear. John Henry Bell , a doctor born & based in Bradford , first made the link between the mysterious and deadly "woolsorter's disease" and anthrax, showing in 1878 that they were one and the same. In the early 20th century, Friederich Wilhelm Eurich , the German bacteriologist who settled in Bradford with his family as a child, carried out important research for the local Anthrax Investigation Board. Eurich also made valuable contributions to a Home Office Departmental Committee of Inquiry, established in 1913 to address the continuing problem of industrial anthrax. His work in this capacity, much of it collaboration with the factory inspector G. Elmhirst Duckering , led directly to the Anthrax Prevention Act (1919).Anthrax posed a major economic challenge in France and elsewhere during the 19th century. Horses, cattle, and sheep were particularly vulnerable, and national funds were set aside to investigate the production of a vaccine . French scientist Louis Pasteur was charged with the production of a vaccine, following his successful work in developing methods that helped to protect the important wine and silk industries. In May 1881, Pasteur – in collaboration with his assistants Jean-Joseph Henri Toussaint , Émile Roux and others – performed a public experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25 sheep , one goat , and several cattle . The animals of one group were twice injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur, at an interval of 15 days; the control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the unvaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived. After this apparent triumph, which was widely reported in the local, national, and international press, Pasteur made strenuous efforts to export the vaccine beyond France. He used his celebrity status to establish Pasteur Institutes across Europe and Asia, and his nephew, Adrien Loir , travelled to Australia in 1888 to try to introduce the vaccine to combat anthrax in New South Wales . Ultimately, the vaccine was unsuccessful in the challenging climate of rural Australia, and it was soon superseded by a more robust version developed by local researchers John Gunn and John McGarvie Smith . The human vaccine for anthrax became available in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes. An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970. Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Chemical methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites or materials may use oxidizing agents such as peroxides , ethylene oxide , Sandia Foam, chlorine dioxide (used in the Hart Senate Office Building ), peracetic acid, ozone gas, hypochlorous acid, sodium persulfate, and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. Nonoxidizing agents shown to be effective for anthrax decontamination include methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and metam sodium. These agents destroy bacterial spores. All of the aforementioned anthrax decontamination technologies have been demonstrated to be effective in laboratory tests conducted by the US EPA or others. Decontamination techniques for Bacillus anthracis spores are affected by the material with which the spores are associated, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, and microbiological factors such as the spore species, anthracis strain, and test methods used. A bleach solution for treating hard surfaces has been approved by the EPA. Chlorine dioxide has emerged as the preferred biocide against anthrax-contaminated sites, having been employed in the treatment of numerous government buildings over the past decade. Its chief drawback is the need for in situ processes to have the reactant on demand. To speed the process, trace amounts of a nontoxic catalyst composed of iron and tetroamido macrocyclic ligands are combined with sodium carbonate and bicarbonate and converted into a spray. The spray formula is applied to an infested area and is followed by another spray containing tert-butyl hydroperoxide . Using the catalyst method, complete destruction of all anthrax spores can be achieved in under 30 minutes. A standard catalyst-free spray destroys fewer than half the spores in the same amount of time. Cleanups at a Senate Office Building, several contaminated postal facilities, and other US government and private office buildings, a collaborative effort headed by the Environmental Protection Agency showed decontamination to be possible, but time-consuming and costly. Clearing the Senate Office Building of anthrax spores cost $27 million, according to the Government Accountability Office. Cleaning the Brentwood postal facility in Washington cost $130 million and took 26 months. Since then, newer and less costly methods have been developed. Cleanup of anthrax-contaminated areas on ranches and in the wild is much more problematic. Carcasses may be burned, though often 3 days are needed to burn a large carcass and this is not feasible in areas with little wood. Carcasses may also be buried, though the burying of large animals deeply enough to prevent resurfacing of spores requires much manpower and expensive tools. Carcasses have been soaked in formaldehyde to kill spores, though this has environmental contamination issues. Block burning of vegetation in large areas enclosing an anthrax outbreak has been tried; this, while environmentally destructive, causes healthy animals to move away from an area with carcasses in search of fresh grass. Some wildlife workers have experimented with covering fresh anthrax carcasses with shadecloth and heavy objects. This prevents some scavengers from opening the carcasses, thus allowing the putrefactive bacteria within the carcass to kill the vegetative B. anthracis cells and preventing sporulation. This method also has drawbacks, as scavengers such as hyenas are capable of infiltrating almost any exclosure. [ citation needed ] The experimental site at Gruinard Island is said to have been decontaminated with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater by the Ministry of Defence. It is not clear whether similar treatments had been applied to US test sites. Anthrax spores have been used as a biological warfare weapon. Its first modern incidence occurred when Nordic rebels, supplied by the German General Staff , used anthrax with unknown results against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland in 1916. Anthrax was first tested as a biological warfare agent by Unit 731 of the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria during the 1930s; some of this testing involved intentional infection of prisoners of war, thousands of whom died. Anthrax, designated at the time as Agent N, was also investigated by the Allies in the 1940s. In 1942, British scientists at Porton Down began research on Operation Vegetarian , an ultimately unused biowarfare military operation plan which called for animal feed pellets containing linseed infected with anthrax spores of the Vollum-14578 strain to be dropped by air over the countryside of Nazi Germany . The pellets would be eaten by cattle, which would in turn be eaten by the human population and as such severally disrupt the German war effort. In the same year, bioweapons tests were carried out on the uninhabited Gruinard Island in the Scottish Highlands , with Porton Down scientists studying the effect of anthrax on the island's population of sheep. Ultimately, five million pellets were created, though plans to drop them over Germany using Royal Air Force bombers in 1944 were scrapped after the success of Operation Overlord and the subsequent Allied liberation of France. All pellets were destroyed using incinerators in 1945. Weaponized anthrax was part of the US stockpile prior to 1972, when the United States signed the Biological Weapons Convention . President Nixon ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons. In 1978–79, the Rhodesian government used anthrax against cattle and humans during its campaign against rebels. The Soviet Union created and stored 100 to 200 tons of anthrax spores at Kantubek on Vozrozhdeniya Island ; they were abandoned in 1992 and destroyed in 2002. American military and British Army personnel are no longer routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat. Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called Ekaterinburg, Russia ), about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) east of Moscow, were exposed to an accidental release of anthrax from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the KGB continued from 1979 until Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted this anthrax accident in 1992. Jeanne Guillemin reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992. Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some NATO governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon. The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all stray dogs to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18 to 55. To support the cover-up story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused gastrointestinal anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by the KGB. In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility. In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program. In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate microbiological education. To make large amounts of an aerosol form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment. Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators: Tom Daschle of South Dakota and Patrick Leahy of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that Bruce Ivins , a senior biodefense researcher employed by the United States government, was responsible. These events also spawned many anthrax hoaxes . Due to these events, the US Postal Service installed biohazard detection systems at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail. As of 2020, no positive alerts by these systems have occurred. In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the United States Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma irradiation and treatment with a proprietary enzyme formula supplied by Sipco Industries. A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in the Journal of Medical Toxicology , suggested a domestic electric iron at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F (204 °C) ) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope. Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Chemical methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites or materials may use oxidizing agents such as peroxides , ethylene oxide , Sandia Foam, chlorine dioxide (used in the Hart Senate Office Building ), peracetic acid, ozone gas, hypochlorous acid, sodium persulfate, and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. Nonoxidizing agents shown to be effective for anthrax decontamination include methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and metam sodium. These agents destroy bacterial spores. All of the aforementioned anthrax decontamination technologies have been demonstrated to be effective in laboratory tests conducted by the US EPA or others. Decontamination techniques for Bacillus anthracis spores are affected by the material with which the spores are associated, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, and microbiological factors such as the spore species, anthracis strain, and test methods used. A bleach solution for treating hard surfaces has been approved by the EPA. Chlorine dioxide has emerged as the preferred biocide against anthrax-contaminated sites, having been employed in the treatment of numerous government buildings over the past decade. Its chief drawback is the need for in situ processes to have the reactant on demand. To speed the process, trace amounts of a nontoxic catalyst composed of iron and tetroamido macrocyclic ligands are combined with sodium carbonate and bicarbonate and converted into a spray. The spray formula is applied to an infested area and is followed by another spray containing tert-butyl hydroperoxide . Using the catalyst method, complete destruction of all anthrax spores can be achieved in under 30 minutes. A standard catalyst-free spray destroys fewer than half the spores in the same amount of time. Cleanups at a Senate Office Building, several contaminated postal facilities, and other US government and private office buildings, a collaborative effort headed by the Environmental Protection Agency showed decontamination to be possible, but time-consuming and costly. Clearing the Senate Office Building of anthrax spores cost $27 million, according to the Government Accountability Office. Cleaning the Brentwood postal facility in Washington cost $130 million and took 26 months. Since then, newer and less costly methods have been developed. Cleanup of anthrax-contaminated areas on ranches and in the wild is much more problematic. Carcasses may be burned, though often 3 days are needed to burn a large carcass and this is not feasible in areas with little wood. Carcasses may also be buried, though the burying of large animals deeply enough to prevent resurfacing of spores requires much manpower and expensive tools. Carcasses have been soaked in formaldehyde to kill spores, though this has environmental contamination issues. Block burning of vegetation in large areas enclosing an anthrax outbreak has been tried; this, while environmentally destructive, causes healthy animals to move away from an area with carcasses in search of fresh grass. Some wildlife workers have experimented with covering fresh anthrax carcasses with shadecloth and heavy objects. This prevents some scavengers from opening the carcasses, thus allowing the putrefactive bacteria within the carcass to kill the vegetative B. anthracis cells and preventing sporulation. This method also has drawbacks, as scavengers such as hyenas are capable of infiltrating almost any exclosure. [ citation needed ] The experimental site at Gruinard Island is said to have been decontaminated with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater by the Ministry of Defence. It is not clear whether similar treatments had been applied to US test sites.Anthrax spores have been used as a biological warfare weapon. Its first modern incidence occurred when Nordic rebels, supplied by the German General Staff , used anthrax with unknown results against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland in 1916. Anthrax was first tested as a biological warfare agent by Unit 731 of the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria during the 1930s; some of this testing involved intentional infection of prisoners of war, thousands of whom died. Anthrax, designated at the time as Agent N, was also investigated by the Allies in the 1940s. In 1942, British scientists at Porton Down began research on Operation Vegetarian , an ultimately unused biowarfare military operation plan which called for animal feed pellets containing linseed infected with anthrax spores of the Vollum-14578 strain to be dropped by air over the countryside of Nazi Germany . The pellets would be eaten by cattle, which would in turn be eaten by the human population and as such severally disrupt the German war effort. In the same year, bioweapons tests were carried out on the uninhabited Gruinard Island in the Scottish Highlands , with Porton Down scientists studying the effect of anthrax on the island's population of sheep. Ultimately, five million pellets were created, though plans to drop them over Germany using Royal Air Force bombers in 1944 were scrapped after the success of Operation Overlord and the subsequent Allied liberation of France. All pellets were destroyed using incinerators in 1945. Weaponized anthrax was part of the US stockpile prior to 1972, when the United States signed the Biological Weapons Convention . President Nixon ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons. In 1978–79, the Rhodesian government used anthrax against cattle and humans during its campaign against rebels. The Soviet Union created and stored 100 to 200 tons of anthrax spores at Kantubek on Vozrozhdeniya Island ; they were abandoned in 1992 and destroyed in 2002. American military and British Army personnel are no longer routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat. Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called Ekaterinburg, Russia ), about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) east of Moscow, were exposed to an accidental release of anthrax from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the KGB continued from 1979 until Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted this anthrax accident in 1992. Jeanne Guillemin reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992. Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some NATO governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon. The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all stray dogs to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18 to 55. To support the cover-up story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused gastrointestinal anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by the KGB. In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility. In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program. In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate microbiological education. To make large amounts of an aerosol form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment. Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators: Tom Daschle of South Dakota and Patrick Leahy of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that Bruce Ivins , a senior biodefense researcher employed by the United States government, was responsible. These events also spawned many anthrax hoaxes . Due to these events, the US Postal Service installed biohazard detection systems at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail. As of 2020, no positive alerts by these systems have occurred. In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the United States Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma irradiation and treatment with a proprietary enzyme formula supplied by Sipco Industries. A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in the Journal of Medical Toxicology , suggested a domestic electric iron at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F (204 °C) ) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope. Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called Ekaterinburg, Russia ), about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) east of Moscow, were exposed to an accidental release of anthrax from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the KGB continued from 1979 until Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted this anthrax accident in 1992. Jeanne Guillemin reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992. Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some NATO governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon. The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all stray dogs to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18 to 55. To support the cover-up story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused gastrointestinal anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by the KGB. In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility. In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program. In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate microbiological education. To make large amounts of an aerosol form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment. Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators: Tom Daschle of South Dakota and Patrick Leahy of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that Bruce Ivins , a senior biodefense researcher employed by the United States government, was responsible. These events also spawned many anthrax hoaxes . Due to these events, the US Postal Service installed biohazard detection systems at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail. As of 2020, no positive alerts by these systems have occurred. In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the United States Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma irradiation and treatment with a proprietary enzyme formula supplied by Sipco Industries. A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in the Journal of Medical Toxicology , suggested a domestic electric iron at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F (204 °C) ) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope. Anthrax is especially rare in dogs and cats, as is evidenced by a single reported case in the United States in 2001. Anthrax outbreaks occur in some wild animal populations with some regularity. Russian researchers estimate arctic permafrost contains around 1.5 million anthrax-infected reindeer carcasses, and the spores may survive in the permafrost for 105 years. A risk exists that global warming in the Arctic can thaw the permafrost, releasing anthrax spores in the carcasses. In 2016, an anthrax outbreak in reindeer was linked to a 75-year-old carcass that defrosted during a heat wave.

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Anthrax

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2001 anthrax attacks

The 2001 anthrax attacks , also known as Amerithrax (a combination of " America " and " anthrax ", from its FBI case name), occurred in the United States over the course of several weeks beginning on September 18, 2001, one week after the September 11 terrorist attacks . Letters containing anthrax spores were mailed to several news media offices and to Senators Tom Daschle and Patrick Leahy , killing five people and infecting 17 others. Capitol Police Officers and staffers working for Senator Russ Feingold were exposed as well. According to the FBI , the ensuing investigation became "one of the largest and most complex in the history of law enforcement". A major focus in the early years of the investigation was bioweapons expert Steven Hatfill , who was eventually exonerated. Bruce Edwards Ivins , a scientist at the government's biodefense labs at Fort Detrick in Frederick, Maryland , became a focus around April 4, 2005. On April 11, 2007, Ivins was put under periodic surveillance and an FBI document stated that he was "an extremely sensitive suspect in the 2001 anthrax attacks". On July 29, 2008, Ivins committed suicide with an overdose of acetaminophen (Tylenol/Panadol). Federal prosecutors declared Ivins the sole perpetrator on August 6, 2008, based on DNA evidence leading to an anthrax vial in his lab. Two days later, Senator Chuck Grassley and Representative Rush D. Holt Jr. called for hearings into the Department of Justice and FBI's handling of the investigation. The FBI formally closed its investigation on February 19, 2010. In 2008, the FBI requested a review of the scientific methods used in their investigation from the National Academy of Sciences, which released their findings in the 2011 report Review of the Scientific Approaches Used During the FBI's Investigation of the 2001 Anthrax Letters . The report cast doubt on the government's conclusion that Ivins was the perpetrator, finding that the type of anthrax used in the letters was correctly identified as the Ames strain of the bacterium, but that there was insufficient scientific evidence for the FBI's assertion that it originated from Ivins' laboratory. The FBI responded by saying that the review panel asserted that it would not be possible to reach a definite conclusion based on science alone, and said that a combination of factors led the FBI to conclude that Ivins had been the perpetrator. Some information is still sealed concerning the case and Ivins' mental health. : 8 footnote The government settled lawsuits that were filed by the widow of the first anthrax victim Bob Stevens for $2.5 million with no admission of liability. The settlement was reached solely for the purpose of "avoiding the expenses and risks of further litigations", according to a statement in the agreement. The anthrax attacks began just a week after the September 11 attacks , which had caused the destruction of the original World Trade Center in New York City , damage to the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia , and the crash of an airliner in Shanksville, Pennsylvania . The attacks came in two waves. The first set of letters containing anthrax had a Trenton, New Jersey , postmark dated September 18, 2001. Five letters are believed to have been mailed at this time to ABC News , CBS News , NBC News and the New York Post , all located in New York City, and to the National Enquirer at American Media, Inc. , (AMI) in Boca Raton, Florida . The first known victim of the attacks, Robert Stevens , who worked at the Sun tabloid, also published by AMI, died on October 5, 2001, four days after entering a Florida hospital with an undiagnosed illness that caused him to vomit and be short of breath. The presumed letter containing the anthrax which killed Stevens was never found. Only the New York Post and NBC News letters were actually identified; the existence of the other three letters is inferred because individuals at ABC, CBS and AMI became infected with anthrax. Scientists examining the anthrax from the New York Post letter said it was a clumped coarse brown granular material which looked similar to dog food. Two more anthrax letters, bearing the same Trenton postmark, were dated October 9, three weeks after the first mailing. The letters were addressed to two U.S. Senators, Tom Daschle of South Dakota and Patrick Leahy of Vermont. At the time, Daschle was the Senate majority leader and Leahy was head of the Senate Judiciary Committee; both were members of the Democratic Party. The Daschle letter was opened by an aide, Grant Leslie, on October 15, after which the government mail service was immediately shut down. The unopened Leahy letter was discovered in an impounded mailbag on November 16. The Leahy letter had been misdirected to the State Department mail annex in Sterling, Virginia , because a ZIP code was misread; a postal worker there, David Hose, contracted inhalational anthrax. More potent than the first anthrax letters, the material in the Senate letters was a highly refined dry powder consisting of about one gram of nearly pure spores . A series of conflicting news reports appeared, some claiming the powders had been "weaponized" with silica . Bioweapons experts who later viewed images of the anthrax used in the attacks saw no indication of "weaponization". Tests at Sandia National Laboratories in early 2002 confirmed that the attack powders were not weaponized. At least 22 people developed anthrax infections, 11 of whom contracted the especially life-threatening inhalational variety. Five died of inhalational anthrax: Stevens; two employees of the Brentwood mail facility in Washington, D.C. (Thomas Morris Jr. and Joseph Curseen), and two whose source of exposure to the bacteria is still unknown: Kathy Nguyen, a Vietnamese immigrant resident of the New York City borough of the Bronx who worked in the city, and the last known victim, Ottilie Lundgren, a 94-year-old widow of a prominent judge from Oxford, Connecticut . Because it took so long to identify a culprit, the 2001 anthrax attacks have been compared to the Unabomber attacks which took place from 1978 to 1995. Authorities believe that the anthrax letters were mailed from Princeton, New Jersey . Investigators found anthrax spores in a city street mailbox located at 10 Nassau Street near the Princeton University campus. About 600 mailboxes were tested for anthrax which could have been used to mail the letters, and the Nassau Street box was the only one to test positive. The New York Post and NBC News letters contained the following note: 09-11-01 THIS IS NEXT TAKE PENACILIN [ sic ] NOW DEATH TO AMERICA DEATH TO ISRAEL ALLAH IS GREAT The second note was addressed to Senators Daschle and Leahy and read: 09-11-01 YOU CAN NOT STOP US. WE HAVE THIS ANTHRAX. YOU DIE NOW. ARE YOU AFRAID? DEATH TO AMERICA. DEATH TO ISRAEL. ALLAH IS GREAT. All of the letters were copies made by a copy machine, and the originals were never found. Each letter was trimmed to a slightly different size. The Senate letter uses punctuation, while the media letter does not. The handwriting on the media letter and envelopes is roughly twice the size of the handwriting on the Senate letter and envelopes. The envelopes addressed to Senators Daschle and Leahy had a fictitious return address: 4th Grade Greendale School Franklin Park NJ 08852 Franklin Park, New Jersey , exists, but the ZIP code 08852 is for nearby Monmouth Junction, New Jersey . There is no Greendale School in Franklin Park or Monmouth Junction, though there is a Greenbrook Elementary School in adjacent South Brunswick Township, New Jersey . The Amerithrax investigation involved many leads which took time to evaluate and resolve. Among them were numerous letters which initially appeared to be related to the anthrax attacks but were never directly linked. For example, before the New York letters were found, hoax letters mailed from St. Petersburg, Florida , were thought to be the anthrax letters or related to them. A letter received at the Microsoft offices in Reno, Nevada , after the discovery of the Daschle letters, gave a false positive in a test for anthrax. Later, because the letter had been sent from Malaysia, Marilyn W. Thompson of The Washington Post connected the letter to Steven Hatfill , whose girlfriend was from Malaysia. The letter merely contained a check and some pornography, and was neither a threat nor a hoax. A copycat hoax letter containing harmless white powder was opened by reporter Judith Miller in The New York Times newsroom. Also unconnected to the anthrax attacks was a large envelope received at American Media, Inc. , in Boca Raton, Florida (which was among the victims of the attacks), in September 2001. It was addressed "Please forward to Jennifer Lopez c/o The Sun", containing a metal cigar tube with a cheap cigar inside, an empty can of chewing tobacco, a small detergent carton, pink powder, a Star of David pendant, and "a handwritten letter to Jennifer Lopez. The writer said how much he loved her and asked her to marry him." Another letter, which mimicked the original anthrax letter to Senator Daschle, was mailed to Daschle from London in November 2001, at a time when Hatfill was in England, not far from London. Shortly before the discovery of the anthrax letters, someone sent a letter to authorities stating, " Dr. Assaad is a potential biological terrorist." No connection to the anthrax letters was ever found. During the first years of the FBI's investigation, Don Foster, a professor of English at Vassar College, attempted to connect the anthrax letters and various hoax letters from the same period to Steven Hatfill. Foster's beliefs were published in Vanity Fair and Reader's Digest . Hatfill sued and was later exonerated. The lawsuit was settled out of court. The Amerithrax investigation involved many leads which took time to evaluate and resolve. Among them were numerous letters which initially appeared to be related to the anthrax attacks but were never directly linked. For example, before the New York letters were found, hoax letters mailed from St. Petersburg, Florida , were thought to be the anthrax letters or related to them. A letter received at the Microsoft offices in Reno, Nevada , after the discovery of the Daschle letters, gave a false positive in a test for anthrax. Later, because the letter had been sent from Malaysia, Marilyn W. Thompson of The Washington Post connected the letter to Steven Hatfill , whose girlfriend was from Malaysia. The letter merely contained a check and some pornography, and was neither a threat nor a hoax. A copycat hoax letter containing harmless white powder was opened by reporter Judith Miller in The New York Times newsroom. Also unconnected to the anthrax attacks was a large envelope received at American Media, Inc. , in Boca Raton, Florida (which was among the victims of the attacks), in September 2001. It was addressed "Please forward to Jennifer Lopez c/o The Sun", containing a metal cigar tube with a cheap cigar inside, an empty can of chewing tobacco, a small detergent carton, pink powder, a Star of David pendant, and "a handwritten letter to Jennifer Lopez. The writer said how much he loved her and asked her to marry him." Another letter, which mimicked the original anthrax letter to Senator Daschle, was mailed to Daschle from London in November 2001, at a time when Hatfill was in England, not far from London. Shortly before the discovery of the anthrax letters, someone sent a letter to authorities stating, " Dr. Assaad is a potential biological terrorist." No connection to the anthrax letters was ever found. During the first years of the FBI's investigation, Don Foster, a professor of English at Vassar College, attempted to connect the anthrax letters and various hoax letters from the same period to Steven Hatfill. Foster's beliefs were published in Vanity Fair and Reader's Digest . Hatfill sued and was later exonerated. The lawsuit was settled out of court. The letters sent to the media contained a coarse brown material, while the letters sent to the two U.S. Senators contained a fine powder. The brown granular anthrax mostly caused cutaneous anthrax infections (9 out of 12 cases), although Kathy Nguyen's case of inhalational anthrax occurred at the same time and in the same general area as two cutaneous cases and several other exposures. The AMI letter which caused inhalation cases in Florida appears to have been mailed at the same time as the other media letters. The fine powder anthrax sent to Daschle and Leahy mostly caused the more dangerous form of infection known as inhalational anthrax (8 out of 10 cases). Postal worker Patrick O'Donnell and accountant Linda Burch contracted cutaneous anthrax from the Senate letters. All of the material was derived from the same bacterial strain known as the Ames strain . The Ames strain is a common strain isolated from a cow in Texas in 1981. The name "Ames" refers to the town of Ames, Iowa , but was mistakenly attached to this isolate in 1981 because of a mix-up about the mailing label on a package. First researched at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), at Fort Detrick, Maryland , the Ames strain was subsequently distributed to sixteen bio-research labs within the U.S., as well as three international locations (Canada, Sweden and the United Kingdom). DNA sequencing of the anthrax collected from Robert Stevens (the first victim) was conducted at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) beginning in December 2001. Sequencing was finished within a month and the analysis was published in the journal Science in early 2002. Radiocarbon dating conducted by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in June 2002 established that the anthrax was cultured no more than two years before the mailings. Early in 2002, it was noted that there were variants or mutations in the anthrax cultures grown from powder found in the letters. Scientists at TIGR sequenced the complete genomes from many of these isolates during the period from 2002 to 2004. This sequencing identified three relatively large changes in some of the isolates, each comprising a region of DNA that had been duplicated or triplicated. The size of these regions ranged from 823 to 2607 base pairs , and all occurred near the same genes. Details of these mutations were published in 2011 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . These changes became the basis of PCR assays used to test other samples to find any that contained the same mutations. The assays were validated over the many years of the investigation, and a repository of Ames samples was also built. From roughly 2003 to 2006 the repository and the screening of the 1,070 Ames samples in that repository were completed. On October 24, 2001, USAMRIID scientist Peter Jahrling was summoned to the White House after he reported signs that silicon had been added to the anthrax recovered from the letter addressed to Daschle. Silicon would make the anthrax more capable of penetrating the lungs. Seven years later, Jahrling told the Los Angeles Times on September 17, 2008, "I believe I made an honest mistake," adding that he had been "overly impressed" by what he thought he saw under the microscope. Richard Preston 's book The Demon in the Freezer provides details of conversations and events at USAMRIID during the period from October 16, 2001, to October 25, 2001. Key scientists described to Preston what they were thinking during that period. When the Daschle spores first arrived at USAMRIID, the key concern was that smallpox viruses might be mixed with the spores. "Jahrling met [John] Ezzell in a hallway and said, in a loud voice, 'Goddamn it, John, we need to know if the powder is laced with smallpox.'" Thus, the initial search was for signs of smallpox viruses. On October 16, USAMRIID scientists began by examining spores that had been "in a milky white liquid" from "a field test done by the FBI's Hazardous Materials Response Unit." Liquid chemicals were then used to deactivate the spores. When scientists turned up the power on the electron beam of the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), "The spores began to ooze." According to Preston, "Whoa," Jahrling muttered, hunched over the eyepieces. Something was boiling off the spores. "This is clearly bad stuff," he said. This was not your mother's anthrax. The spores had something in them, an additive, perhaps. Could this material have come from a national bioweapons program? From Iraq? Did al-Qaeda have anthrax capability that was this good? On October 25, 2001, the day after senior officials at the White House were informed that "additives" had been found in the anthrax, USAMRIID scientist Tom Geisbert took a different, irradiated sample of the Daschle anthrax to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) to "find out if the powder contained any metals or elements." AFIP's energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer reportedly indicated "that there were two extra elements in the spores: silicon and oxygen. Silicon dioxide is glass. The anthrax terrorist or terrorists had put powdered glass, or silica, into the anthrax. The silica was powdered so finely that under Geisbert's electron microscope it had looked like fried-egg gunk dripping off the spores." The "goop" Peter Jahrling had seen oozing from the spores was not seen when AFIP examined different spores killed with radiation. The controversy began the day after the White House meeting. The New York Times reported, "Contradicting Some U.S. Officials, 3 Scientists Call Anthrax Powder High-Grade – Two Experts say the anthrax was altered to produce a more deadly weapon," and The Washington Post reported, "Additive Made Spores Deadlier." Countless news stories discussed the "additives" for the next eight years, continuing into 2010. Later, the FBI claimed a "lone individual" could have created the anthrax spores for as little as $2,500, using readily available laboratory equipment. A number of press reports appeared suggesting the Senate anthrax had coatings and additives. Newsweek reported the anthrax sent to Senator Leahy had been coated with a chemical compound previously unknown to bioweapons experts. On October 28, 2002, The Washington Post reported "FBI's Theory on Anthrax is Doubted," suggesting that the senate spores were coated with fumed silica . Two bioweapons experts that were utilized as consultants by the FBI, Kenneth Alibek and Matthew Meselson , were shown electron micrographs of the anthrax from the Daschle letter. In a November 5, 2002 letter to the editors of The Washington Post , they stated that they saw no evidence the anthrax spores had been coated with fumed silica. In Science magazine, one group of scientists said that the material could have been made by someone knowledgeable with standard laboratory equipment. Another group said it "was a diabolical advance in biological weapons technology." The article describes "a technique used to anchor silica nanoparticles to the surface of spores" using "polymerized glass." An August 2006 article in Applied and Environmental Microbiology, written by Douglas Beecher of the FBI labs in Quantico, Virginia, states "Individuals familiar with the compositions of the powders in the letters have indicated that they were comprised simply of spores purified to different extents." The article also specifically criticizes "a widely circulated misconception" "that the spores were produced using additives and sophisticated engineering supposedly akin to military weapon production." The harm done by this misconception is described this way: "This idea is usually the basis for implying that the powders were inordinately dangerous compared to spores alone. The persistent credence given to this impression fosters erroneous preconceptions, which may misguide research and preparedness efforts and generally detract from the magnitude of hazards posed by simple spore preparations." Critics of the article complained that it did not provide supporting references. In late October 2001, ABC chief investigative correspondent Brian Ross linked the anthrax sample to Saddam Hussein because of its purportedly containing the unusual additive bentonite . On October 26, Ross said, "sources tell ABCNEWS the anthrax in the tainted letter sent to Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle was laced with bentonite. The potent additive is known to have been used by only one country in producing biochemical weapons—Iraq. ... [I]t is a trademark of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein's biological weapons program ... The discovery of bentonite came in an urgent series of tests conducted at Fort Detrick , Maryland, and elsewhere." On October 28, Ross said that "despite continued White House denials, four well-placed and separate sources have told ABC News that initial tests on the anthrax by the U.S. Army at Fort Detrick, Maryland, have detected trace amounts of the chemical additives bentonite and silica", a charge that was repeated several times on October 28 and 29. On October 29, 2001, White House spokesman Scott Stanzel "disputed reports that the anthrax sent to the Senate contained bentonite, an additive that ha[d] been used in Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's biological weapons program." Stanzel said, "Based on the test results we have, no bentonite has been found." The same day, Major General John Parker at a White House briefing stated, "We do know that we found silica in the samples. Now, we don't know what that motive would be, or why it would be there, or anything. But there is silica in the samples. And that led us to be absolutely sure that there was no aluminum in the sample, because the combination of a silicate, plus aluminum, is sort of the major ingredients of bentonite." Just over a week later, Homeland Security Advisor Tom Ridge in a White House press conference on November 7, 2001, stated, "The ingredient that we talked about before was silicon." Neither Ross at ABC nor anyone else publicly pursued any further claims about bentonite, despite Ross's original claim that "four well-placed and separate sources" had confirmed its detection. Some of the anthrax spores (65–75%) in the anthrax attack letters contained silicon inside their spore coats. Silicon was even reportedly found inside the natural spore coat of a spore that was still inside the "mother germ," which was asserted to confirm that the element was not added after the spores were formed and purified, i.e., the spores were not "weaponized." In 2010, a Japanese study reported, "silicon (Si) is considered to be a "quasiessential" element for most living organisms. However, silicate uptake in bacteria and its physiological functions have remained obscure." The study showed that spores from some species can contain as much as 6.3% dry weight of silicates. "For more than 20 years, significant levels of silicon had been reported in spores of at least some Bacillus species, including those of Bacillus cereus , a close relative of B. anthracis ." According to spore expert Peter Setlow, "Since silicate accumulation in other organisms can impart structural rigidity, perhaps silicate plays such a role for spores as well." The FBI lab concluded that 1.4% of the powder in the Leahy letter was silicon. Stuart Jacobson, a small-particle chemistry expert stated that: This is a shockingly high proportion [of silicon]. It is a number one would expect from the deliberate weaponization of anthrax, but not from any conceivable accidental contamination. Scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory conducted experiments in an attempt to determine if the amount of silicon in the growth medium was the controlling factor which caused silicon to accumulate inside a spore's natural coat. The Livermore scientists tried 56 different experiments, adding increasingly high amounts of silicon to the media. All of their results were far below the 1.4% level of the attack anthrax, some as low as .001%. The conclusion was that something other than the level of silicon controlled how much silicon was absorbed by the spores. Richard O. Spertzel , a microbiologist who led the United Nations' biological weapons inspections of Iraq, wrote that the anthrax used could not have come from the lab where Ivins worked. Spertzel said he remained skeptical of the Bureau's argument despite the new evidence presented on August 18, 2008, in an unusual FBI briefing for reporters. He questioned the FBI's claim that the powder was less than military grade, in part because of the presence of high levels of silica. The FBI had been unable to reproduce the attack spores with the high levels of silica. The FBI attributed the presence of high silica levels to "natural variability". This conclusion of the FBI contradicted its statements at an earlier point in the investigation, when the FBI had stated, based on the silicon content, that the anthrax was "weaponized", a step that made the powder more airy and required special scientific know-how. "If there is that much silicon, it had to have been added," stated Jeffrey Adamovicz, who supervised Ivins' work at Fort Detrick. Adamovicz explained that the silicon in the anthrax attack could have been added via a large fermentor, which Battelle and some other facilities use but "we did not use a fermentor to grow anthrax at USAMRIID ... [and] We did not have the capability to add silicon compounds to anthrax spores." Ivins had neither the skills nor the means to attach silicon to anthrax spores. Spertzel explained that the Fort Detrick facility did not handle anthrax in powdered form. "I don't think there's anyone there who would have the foggiest idea how to do it." Early in 2002, it was noted that there were variants or mutations in the anthrax cultures grown from powder found in the letters. Scientists at TIGR sequenced the complete genomes from many of these isolates during the period from 2002 to 2004. This sequencing identified three relatively large changes in some of the isolates, each comprising a region of DNA that had been duplicated or triplicated. The size of these regions ranged from 823 to 2607 base pairs , and all occurred near the same genes. Details of these mutations were published in 2011 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . These changes became the basis of PCR assays used to test other samples to find any that contained the same mutations. The assays were validated over the many years of the investigation, and a repository of Ames samples was also built. From roughly 2003 to 2006 the repository and the screening of the 1,070 Ames samples in that repository were completed. On October 24, 2001, USAMRIID scientist Peter Jahrling was summoned to the White House after he reported signs that silicon had been added to the anthrax recovered from the letter addressed to Daschle. Silicon would make the anthrax more capable of penetrating the lungs. Seven years later, Jahrling told the Los Angeles Times on September 17, 2008, "I believe I made an honest mistake," adding that he had been "overly impressed" by what he thought he saw under the microscope. Richard Preston 's book The Demon in the Freezer provides details of conversations and events at USAMRIID during the period from October 16, 2001, to October 25, 2001. Key scientists described to Preston what they were thinking during that period. When the Daschle spores first arrived at USAMRIID, the key concern was that smallpox viruses might be mixed with the spores. "Jahrling met [John] Ezzell in a hallway and said, in a loud voice, 'Goddamn it, John, we need to know if the powder is laced with smallpox.'" Thus, the initial search was for signs of smallpox viruses. On October 16, USAMRIID scientists began by examining spores that had been "in a milky white liquid" from "a field test done by the FBI's Hazardous Materials Response Unit." Liquid chemicals were then used to deactivate the spores. When scientists turned up the power on the electron beam of the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), "The spores began to ooze." According to Preston, "Whoa," Jahrling muttered, hunched over the eyepieces. Something was boiling off the spores. "This is clearly bad stuff," he said. This was not your mother's anthrax. The spores had something in them, an additive, perhaps. Could this material have come from a national bioweapons program? From Iraq? Did al-Qaeda have anthrax capability that was this good? On October 25, 2001, the day after senior officials at the White House were informed that "additives" had been found in the anthrax, USAMRIID scientist Tom Geisbert took a different, irradiated sample of the Daschle anthrax to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) to "find out if the powder contained any metals or elements." AFIP's energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer reportedly indicated "that there were two extra elements in the spores: silicon and oxygen. Silicon dioxide is glass. The anthrax terrorist or terrorists had put powdered glass, or silica, into the anthrax. The silica was powdered so finely that under Geisbert's electron microscope it had looked like fried-egg gunk dripping off the spores." The "goop" Peter Jahrling had seen oozing from the spores was not seen when AFIP examined different spores killed with radiation. The controversy began the day after the White House meeting. The New York Times reported, "Contradicting Some U.S. Officials, 3 Scientists Call Anthrax Powder High-Grade – Two Experts say the anthrax was altered to produce a more deadly weapon," and The Washington Post reported, "Additive Made Spores Deadlier." Countless news stories discussed the "additives" for the next eight years, continuing into 2010. Later, the FBI claimed a "lone individual" could have created the anthrax spores for as little as $2,500, using readily available laboratory equipment. A number of press reports appeared suggesting the Senate anthrax had coatings and additives. Newsweek reported the anthrax sent to Senator Leahy had been coated with a chemical compound previously unknown to bioweapons experts. On October 28, 2002, The Washington Post reported "FBI's Theory on Anthrax is Doubted," suggesting that the senate spores were coated with fumed silica . Two bioweapons experts that were utilized as consultants by the FBI, Kenneth Alibek and Matthew Meselson , were shown electron micrographs of the anthrax from the Daschle letter. In a November 5, 2002 letter to the editors of The Washington Post , they stated that they saw no evidence the anthrax spores had been coated with fumed silica. In Science magazine, one group of scientists said that the material could have been made by someone knowledgeable with standard laboratory equipment. Another group said it "was a diabolical advance in biological weapons technology." The article describes "a technique used to anchor silica nanoparticles to the surface of spores" using "polymerized glass." An August 2006 article in Applied and Environmental Microbiology, written by Douglas Beecher of the FBI labs in Quantico, Virginia, states "Individuals familiar with the compositions of the powders in the letters have indicated that they were comprised simply of spores purified to different extents." The article also specifically criticizes "a widely circulated misconception" "that the spores were produced using additives and sophisticated engineering supposedly akin to military weapon production." The harm done by this misconception is described this way: "This idea is usually the basis for implying that the powders were inordinately dangerous compared to spores alone. The persistent credence given to this impression fosters erroneous preconceptions, which may misguide research and preparedness efforts and generally detract from the magnitude of hazards posed by simple spore preparations." Critics of the article complained that it did not provide supporting references. In late October 2001, ABC chief investigative correspondent Brian Ross linked the anthrax sample to Saddam Hussein because of its purportedly containing the unusual additive bentonite . On October 26, Ross said, "sources tell ABCNEWS the anthrax in the tainted letter sent to Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle was laced with bentonite. The potent additive is known to have been used by only one country in producing biochemical weapons—Iraq. ... [I]t is a trademark of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein's biological weapons program ... The discovery of bentonite came in an urgent series of tests conducted at Fort Detrick , Maryland, and elsewhere." On October 28, Ross said that "despite continued White House denials, four well-placed and separate sources have told ABC News that initial tests on the anthrax by the U.S. Army at Fort Detrick, Maryland, have detected trace amounts of the chemical additives bentonite and silica", a charge that was repeated several times on October 28 and 29. On October 29, 2001, White House spokesman Scott Stanzel "disputed reports that the anthrax sent to the Senate contained bentonite, an additive that ha[d] been used in Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's biological weapons program." Stanzel said, "Based on the test results we have, no bentonite has been found." The same day, Major General John Parker at a White House briefing stated, "We do know that we found silica in the samples. Now, we don't know what that motive would be, or why it would be there, or anything. But there is silica in the samples. And that led us to be absolutely sure that there was no aluminum in the sample, because the combination of a silicate, plus aluminum, is sort of the major ingredients of bentonite." Just over a week later, Homeland Security Advisor Tom Ridge in a White House press conference on November 7, 2001, stated, "The ingredient that we talked about before was silicon." Neither Ross at ABC nor anyone else publicly pursued any further claims about bentonite, despite Ross's original claim that "four well-placed and separate sources" had confirmed its detection. Some of the anthrax spores (65–75%) in the anthrax attack letters contained silicon inside their spore coats. Silicon was even reportedly found inside the natural spore coat of a spore that was still inside the "mother germ," which was asserted to confirm that the element was not added after the spores were formed and purified, i.e., the spores were not "weaponized." In 2010, a Japanese study reported, "silicon (Si) is considered to be a "quasiessential" element for most living organisms. However, silicate uptake in bacteria and its physiological functions have remained obscure." The study showed that spores from some species can contain as much as 6.3% dry weight of silicates. "For more than 20 years, significant levels of silicon had been reported in spores of at least some Bacillus species, including those of Bacillus cereus , a close relative of B. anthracis ." According to spore expert Peter Setlow, "Since silicate accumulation in other organisms can impart structural rigidity, perhaps silicate plays such a role for spores as well." The FBI lab concluded that 1.4% of the powder in the Leahy letter was silicon. Stuart Jacobson, a small-particle chemistry expert stated that: This is a shockingly high proportion [of silicon]. It is a number one would expect from the deliberate weaponization of anthrax, but not from any conceivable accidental contamination. Scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory conducted experiments in an attempt to determine if the amount of silicon in the growth medium was the controlling factor which caused silicon to accumulate inside a spore's natural coat. The Livermore scientists tried 56 different experiments, adding increasingly high amounts of silicon to the media. All of their results were far below the 1.4% level of the attack anthrax, some as low as .001%. The conclusion was that something other than the level of silicon controlled how much silicon was absorbed by the spores. Richard O. Spertzel , a microbiologist who led the United Nations' biological weapons inspections of Iraq, wrote that the anthrax used could not have come from the lab where Ivins worked. Spertzel said he remained skeptical of the Bureau's argument despite the new evidence presented on August 18, 2008, in an unusual FBI briefing for reporters. He questioned the FBI's claim that the powder was less than military grade, in part because of the presence of high levels of silica. The FBI had been unable to reproduce the attack spores with the high levels of silica. The FBI attributed the presence of high silica levels to "natural variability". This conclusion of the FBI contradicted its statements at an earlier point in the investigation, when the FBI had stated, based on the silicon content, that the anthrax was "weaponized", a step that made the powder more airy and required special scientific know-how. "If there is that much silicon, it had to have been added," stated Jeffrey Adamovicz, who supervised Ivins' work at Fort Detrick. Adamovicz explained that the silicon in the anthrax attack could have been added via a large fermentor, which Battelle and some other facilities use but "we did not use a fermentor to grow anthrax at USAMRIID ... [and] We did not have the capability to add silicon compounds to anthrax spores." Ivins had neither the skills nor the means to attach silicon to anthrax spores. Spertzel explained that the Fort Detrick facility did not handle anthrax in powdered form. "I don't think there's anyone there who would have the foggiest idea how to do it." In late October 2001, ABC chief investigative correspondent Brian Ross linked the anthrax sample to Saddam Hussein because of its purportedly containing the unusual additive bentonite . On October 26, Ross said, "sources tell ABCNEWS the anthrax in the tainted letter sent to Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle was laced with bentonite. The potent additive is known to have been used by only one country in producing biochemical weapons—Iraq. ... [I]t is a trademark of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein's biological weapons program ... The discovery of bentonite came in an urgent series of tests conducted at Fort Detrick , Maryland, and elsewhere." On October 28, Ross said that "despite continued White House denials, four well-placed and separate sources have told ABC News that initial tests on the anthrax by the U.S. Army at Fort Detrick, Maryland, have detected trace amounts of the chemical additives bentonite and silica", a charge that was repeated several times on October 28 and 29. On October 29, 2001, White House spokesman Scott Stanzel "disputed reports that the anthrax sent to the Senate contained bentonite, an additive that ha[d] been used in Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's biological weapons program." Stanzel said, "Based on the test results we have, no bentonite has been found." The same day, Major General John Parker at a White House briefing stated, "We do know that we found silica in the samples. Now, we don't know what that motive would be, or why it would be there, or anything. But there is silica in the samples. And that led us to be absolutely sure that there was no aluminum in the sample, because the combination of a silicate, plus aluminum, is sort of the major ingredients of bentonite." Just over a week later, Homeland Security Advisor Tom Ridge in a White House press conference on November 7, 2001, stated, "The ingredient that we talked about before was silicon." Neither Ross at ABC nor anyone else publicly pursued any further claims about bentonite, despite Ross's original claim that "four well-placed and separate sources" had confirmed its detection.Some of the anthrax spores (65–75%) in the anthrax attack letters contained silicon inside their spore coats. Silicon was even reportedly found inside the natural spore coat of a spore that was still inside the "mother germ," which was asserted to confirm that the element was not added after the spores were formed and purified, i.e., the spores were not "weaponized." In 2010, a Japanese study reported, "silicon (Si) is considered to be a "quasiessential" element for most living organisms. However, silicate uptake in bacteria and its physiological functions have remained obscure." The study showed that spores from some species can contain as much as 6.3% dry weight of silicates. "For more than 20 years, significant levels of silicon had been reported in spores of at least some Bacillus species, including those of Bacillus cereus , a close relative of B. anthracis ." According to spore expert Peter Setlow, "Since silicate accumulation in other organisms can impart structural rigidity, perhaps silicate plays such a role for spores as well." The FBI lab concluded that 1.4% of the powder in the Leahy letter was silicon. Stuart Jacobson, a small-particle chemistry expert stated that: This is a shockingly high proportion [of silicon]. It is a number one would expect from the deliberate weaponization of anthrax, but not from any conceivable accidental contamination. Scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory conducted experiments in an attempt to determine if the amount of silicon in the growth medium was the controlling factor which caused silicon to accumulate inside a spore's natural coat. The Livermore scientists tried 56 different experiments, adding increasingly high amounts of silicon to the media. All of their results were far below the 1.4% level of the attack anthrax, some as low as .001%. The conclusion was that something other than the level of silicon controlled how much silicon was absorbed by the spores. Richard O. Spertzel , a microbiologist who led the United Nations' biological weapons inspections of Iraq, wrote that the anthrax used could not have come from the lab where Ivins worked. Spertzel said he remained skeptical of the Bureau's argument despite the new evidence presented on August 18, 2008, in an unusual FBI briefing for reporters. He questioned the FBI's claim that the powder was less than military grade, in part because of the presence of high levels of silica. The FBI had been unable to reproduce the attack spores with the high levels of silica. The FBI attributed the presence of high silica levels to "natural variability". This conclusion of the FBI contradicted its statements at an earlier point in the investigation, when the FBI had stated, based on the silicon content, that the anthrax was "weaponized", a step that made the powder more airy and required special scientific know-how. "If there is that much silicon, it had to have been added," stated Jeffrey Adamovicz, who supervised Ivins' work at Fort Detrick. Adamovicz explained that the silicon in the anthrax attack could have been added via a large fermentor, which Battelle and some other facilities use but "we did not use a fermentor to grow anthrax at USAMRIID ... [and] We did not have the capability to add silicon compounds to anthrax spores." Ivins had neither the skills nor the means to attach silicon to anthrax spores. Spertzel explained that the Fort Detrick facility did not handle anthrax in powdered form. "I don't think there's anyone there who would have the foggiest idea how to do it." Authorities traveled to six continents, interviewed over 9,000 people, conducted 67 searches and issued over 6,000 subpoenas. "Hundreds of FBI personnel worked the case at the outset, struggling to discern whether the Sept. 11 al-Qaeda attacks and the anthrax murders were connected before eventually concluding that they were not." In September 2006, there were still 17 FBI agents and 10 postal inspectors assigned to the case, including FBI Special Agent C. Frank Figliuzzi who was the on-scene commander of the evidence recovery efforts. [ citation needed ] The FBI and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) both gave permission for Iowa State University to destroy the Iowa anthrax archive and the archive was destroyed on October 10 and 11, 2001. The FBI and CDC investigation was hampered by the destruction of a large collection of anthrax spores collected over more than seven decades and kept in more than 100 vials at Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa. Many scientists claim that the quick destruction of the anthrax spores collection in Iowa eliminated crucial evidence useful for the investigation. A precise match between the strain of anthrax used in the attacks and a strain in the collection would have offered hints as to when bacteria had been isolated and, perhaps, as to how widely it had been distributed to researchers. Such genetic clues could have given investigators the evidence necessary to identify the perpetrators. Immediately after the anthrax attacks, White House officials pressured FBI Director Robert Mueller to publicly blame al-Qaeda following the September 11 attacks . During the president's morning intelligence briefings, Mueller was "beaten up" for not producing proof that the killer spores were the handiwork of Osama bin Laden , according to a former aide. "They really wanted to blame somebody in the Middle East," the retired senior FBI official stated. The FBI knew early on that the anthrax used was of a consistency requiring sophisticated equipment and was unlikely to have been produced in "some cave". At the same time, President Bush and Vice President Cheney in public statements speculated about the possibility of a link between the anthrax attacks and al-Qaeda. The Guardian reported in early October that American scientists had implicated Iraq as the source of the anthrax, and the next day The Wall Street Journal editorialized that al-Qaeda perpetrated the mailings, with Iraq the source of the anthrax. A few days later, John McCain suggested on the Late Show with David Letterman that the anthrax may have come from Iraq, and the next week ABC News did a series of reports stating that three or four (depending on the report) sources had identified bentonite as an ingredient in the anthrax preparations, implicating Iraq. Statements by the White House and public officials quickly stated that there was no bentonite in the attack anthrax. "No tests ever found or even suggested the presence of bentonite. The claim was just concocted from the start. It just never happened." Nonetheless, a few journalists repeated ABC's bentonite report for several years, even after the invasion of Iraq proved there was no involvement. In an interview with Hamid Mir , Osama bin Laden denied any knowledge of the Anthrax attacks. Barbara Hatch Rosenberg, a molecular biologist at the State University of New York at Purchase and chairwoman of a biological weapons panel at the Federation of American Scientists , and others began claiming that the attack might be the work of a "rogue CIA agent" in October 2001, as soon as it became known that the Ames strain of anthrax had been used in the attacks, and she told the FBI the name of the "most likely" person. On November 21, 2001, she made similar statements to the Biological and Toxic Weapons convention in Geneva. In December 2001, she published "A Compilation of Evidence and Comments on the Source of the Mailed Anthrax" via the web site of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) claiming that the attacks were "perpetrated with the unwitting assistance of a sophisticated government program". She discussed the case with reporters from The New York Times . On January 4, 2002, Nicholas Kristof of The New York Times published a column titled "Profile of a Killer" stating "I think I know who sent out the anthrax last fall." For months, Rosenberg gave speeches and stated her beliefs to many reporters from around the world. She posted "Analysis of the Anthrax Attacks" to the FAS web site on January 17, 2002. On February 5, 2002, she published "Is the FBI Dragging Its Feet?" In response, the FBI stated, "There is no prime suspect in this case at this time". The Washington Post reported, "FBI officials over the last week have flatly discounted Dr. Rosenberg's claims". On June 13, 2002, Rosenberg posted "The Anthrax Case: What the FBI Knows" to the FAS site. On June 18, 2002, she presented her theories to senate staffers working for Senators Daschle and Leahy. On June 25, the FBI publicly searched Steven Hatfill 's apartment, and he became a household name. "The FBI also pointed out that Hatfill had agreed to the search and is not considered a suspect." American Prospect and Salon.com reported, "Hatfill is not a suspect in the anthrax case, the FBI says." On August 3, 2002, Rosenberg told the media that the FBI asked her if "a team of government scientists could be trying to frame Steven J. Hatfill". In August 2002, Attorney General John Ashcroft labeled Hatfill a " person of interest " in a press conference, though no charges were brought against him. Hatfill is a virologist, and he vehemently denied that he had anything to do with the anthrax mailings and sued the FBI, the Justice Department, Ashcroft, Alberto Gonzales , and others for violating his constitutional rights and for violating the Privacy Act. On June 27, 2008, the Department of Justice announced that it would settle Hatfill's case for $5.8 million. Hatfill also sued The New York Times and its columnist Nicholas D. Kristof , as well as Donald Foster , Vanity Fair , Reader's Digest , and Vassar College for defamation. The case against The New York Times was initially dismissed, but it was reinstated on appeal. The dismissal was upheld by the appeals court on July 14, 2008, on the basis that Hatfill was a public figure and malice had not been proven. The Supreme Court rejected an appeal on December 15, 2008. Hatfill's lawsuits against Vanity Fair and Reader's Digest were settled out of court in February 2007, but no details were made public. The statement released by Hatfill's lawyers said, "Dr. Hatfill's lawsuit has now been resolved to the mutual satisfaction of all the parties". Bruce E. Ivins had worked for 18 years at the government's bio defense labs at Fort Detrick as a biodefense researcher. The Associated Press reported on August 1, 2008, that he had apparently committed suicide at the age of 62. It was widely reported that the FBI was about to press charges against him, but the evidence was largely circumstantial and the grand jury in Washington reported that it was not ready to issue an indictment. Rush D. Holt Jr. represented the district where the anthrax letters were mailed, and he said that circumstantial evidence was not enough and asked FBI director Robert S. Mueller to appear before Congress to provide an account of the investigation. Ivins' death left two unanswered questions. Scientists familiar with germ warfare said that there was no evidence that he had the skills to turn anthrax into an inhalable powder. Alan Zelicoff aided the FBI investigation, and he stated: "I don't think a vaccine specialist could do it…. This is aerosol physics, not biology". W. Russell Byrne worked in the bacteriology division of the Fort Detrick research facility. He said that Ivins was "hounded" by FBI agents who raided his home twice, and he was hospitalized for depression during that time. According to Byrne and local police, Ivins was removed from his workplace out of fears that he might harm himself or others. "I think he was just psychologically exhausted by the whole process," Byrne said. "There are people who you just know are ticking bombs. He was not one of them." On August 6, 2008, federal prosecutors declared Ivins the sole perpetrator of the crime when US Attorney Jeffrey A. Taylor laid out the case to the public. "The genetically unique parent material of the anthrax spores... was created and solely maintained by Dr. Ivins." But other experts disagreed, including biological warfare and anthrax expert Meryl Nass , who stated: "Let me reiterate: no matter how good the microbial forensics may be, they can only, at best, link the anthrax to a particular strain and lab. They cannot link it to any individual." At least 10 scientists had regular access to the laboratory and its anthrax stock, and possibly quite a few more, counting visitors from other institutions and workers at laboratories in Ohio and New Mexico that had received anthrax samples from the flask. The FBI later claimed to have identified 419 people at Fort Detrick and other locations who had access to the lab where flask RMR-1029 was stored, or who had received samples from flask RMR-1029. Ivins told a mental health counselor more than a year before the anthrax attacks that he was interested in a young woman who lived out of town and that he had "mixed poison" which he took with him when he went to watch her play in a soccer match. "If she lost, he was going to poison her," said the counselor, who treated Ivins at a Frederick clinic four or five times in mid-2000. She said that Ivins emphasized that he was a skillful scientist who "knew how to do things without people finding out". The counselor was so alarmed by his emotionless description of a specific, homicidal plan that she immediately alerted the head of her clinic and a psychiatrist who had treated Ivins, as well as the Frederick Police Department. She said that the police told her that nothing could be done because she did not have the woman's address or last name. In 2008, Ivins told a different therapist that he planned to kill his co-workers and "go out in a blaze of glory". That therapist stated in an application for a restraining order that Ivins had a "history dating to his graduate days of homicidal threats, actions, plans, threats and actions towards therapists". Dr. David Irwin, his psychiatrist, called him "homicidal, sociopathic with clear intentions." According to the report on the Amerithrax investigation published by the Department of Justice, Ivins engaged in actions and made statements that indicated a consciousness of guilt. He took environmental samples in his laboratory without authorization and decontaminated areas in which he had worked without reporting his activities. He also threw away a book about secret codes, which described methods similar to those used in the anthrax letters. Ivins threatened other scientists, made equivocal statements about his possible involvement in a conversation with an acquaintance, and put together outlandish theories in an effort to shift the blame for the anthrax mailings to people close to him. : 9 The FBI said that Ivins' justifications for his actions after the environmental sampling, as well as his explanations for a subsequent sampling, contradicted his explanation for the motives for the sampling. According to the Department of Justice, flask RMR-1029, which was created and controlled by Ivins, was used to create "the murder weapon". In 2002, researchers did not believe it was possible to distinguish between anthrax variants. In January 2002, Ivins suggested that DNA sequencing should show differences in the genetics of anthrax mutations which would allow the source to be identified. Despite researchers advising the FBI that this may not have been possible, Ivins tutored agents on how to recognize them. Considered cutting edge at the time, this technique is now commonplace. In February 2002, Ivins volunteered to provide samples from several variants of the Ames strain in order to compare their morphs. He submitted two test tube "slants" each from four samples of the Ames strain in his collection. Two of the slants were from flask RMR-1029. Although the slants from flask RMR-1029 were later reported to be a positive match, all eight slants were reportedly in the wrong type of test tube and would therefore not be usable as evidence in court. On March 29, 2002, Ivins' boss instructed Ivins and others in suites B3 and B4 on how to properly prepare slants for the FBI Repository. The subpoena also included instructions on the proper way to prepare slants. When Ivins was told that his February samples did not meet FBIR requirements, he prepared eight new slants. The two new slants prepared from flask RMR-1029 submitted in April by Ivins did not contain the mutations that were later determined to be in flask RMR-1029. It was reported that in April 2004, Henry Heine found a test tube in the lab containing anthrax and contacted Ivins. In an email sent in reply, Ivins reportedly told him it was probably RMR-1029 and for Heine to forward a sample to the FBI. Doubts regarding the reliability of the FBI tests were later raised when the FBI tested Heine's sample and a further one from Heine's test tube: one tested negative and one positive. A DOJ summary report of February 19, 2010, said that "the evidence suggested that Dr. Ivins obstructed the investigation either by providing a submission which was not in compliance with the subpoena, or worse, that he deliberately submitted a false sample." : 79 Records released under the Freedom of Information Act in 2011 show that Ivins provided four sets of samples from 2002 to 2004, twice the number the FBI reported. Three of the four sets tested positive for the morphs. The FBI said that "At a group therapy session on July 9, 2008, Dr. Ivins was particularly upset. He revealed to the counselor and psychologist leading the group, and other members of the group, that he was a suspect in the anthrax investigation and that he was angry at the investigators, the government, and the system in general. He said he was not going to face the death penalty, but instead had a plan to 'take out' co-workers and other individuals who had wronged him. He noted that it was possible, with a plan, to commit murder and not make a mess. He stated that he had a bullet-proof vest, and a list of co-workers who had wronged him, and said that he was going to obtain a Glock firearm from his son within the next day, because federal agents were watching him and he could not obtain a weapon on his own. He added that he was going to 'go out in a blaze of glory.'" : 50 While in a mental hospital, Ivins allegedly made menacing phone calls to his social worker Jean Duley on July 11 and 12. In the letters sent to the media, the characters 'A' and 'T' were sometimes emboldened or highlighted by tracing over, according to the FBI suggesting that the letters contained a hidden code. : 58 Some believe the letters to the New York Post and Tom Brokaw contained a "hidden message" in such highlighted characters. Below is the media text with the highlighted As and Ts: According to the FBI, Summary Report issued on February 19, 2010, following the search of Ivins' home, cars, and office on November 1, 2007, investigators began examining his trash. : 64 A week later, just after 1:00 a.m. on the morning of November 8, the FBI stated that Ivins was observed throwing away "a copy of a book entitled Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid , published by Douglas Hofstadter in 1979" and "a 1992 issue of American Scientist Journal which contained an article entitled 'The Linguistics of DNA,' and discussed, among other things, codons and hidden messages". : 61 The book Gödel, Escher, Bach contains a lengthy description of the encoding/decoding procedures, including an illustration of hiding a message within a message by emboldening certain characters. According to the FBI Summary Report, "[w]hen they lifted out just the bolded letters, investigators got TTT AAT TAT – an apparent hidden message". The 3-letter groups are codons, "meaning that each sequence of three nucleic acids will code for a specific amino acid". : 59 The FBI Summary Report proceeds to say: "From this analysis, two possible hidden meanings emerged: (1) 'FNY' – a verbal assault on New York, and (2) PAT – the nickname of [Dr. Ivins'] Former Colleague #2." Ivins was known to have a dislike for New York City, and four of the media letters had been sent to New York. : 60 The report states that it "was obviously impossible for the Task Force to determine with certainty that either of these two translations was correct", however, "the key point to the investigative analysis is that there is a hidden message, not so much what that message is". : 60 According to the FBI, Ivins showed a fascination with codes and also had an interest in secrets and hidden messages, : 60 ff and was familiar with biochemical codons. : 59 ff Experts have suggested that the anthrax mailings included a number of indications that the mailer was trying to avoid harming anyone with his warning letters. Examples: None of the intended recipients of the letters were infected. The seams on the backs of the envelopes were taped over as if to make certain the powders could not escape through open seams. The letters were folded with the "pharmaceutical fold", which was used for centuries to safely contain and transport doses of powdered medicines (and currently to safely hold trace evidence). [ citation needed ] The media letters provided "medical advice": "TAKE PENACILIN [ sic ] NOW." The Senate letters informed the recipient that the powder was anthrax: "WE HAVE THIS ANTHRAX." At the time of the mailings, it was generally believed that such powders could not escape from a sealed envelope except through the two open corners where a letter opener is inserted, which had been taped shut. In June 2008, Ivins was involuntarily committed to a psychiatric hospital. The FBI stated that during a June 5 group therapy session there, Ivins had a conversation with an unnamed witness, during which he made a series of statements about the anthrax mailings that the FBI said could best be characterized as " non-denial denials ". : 70–71 When asked about the anthrax attacks and whether he could have had anything to do with them, the FBI said that Ivins admitted he suffered from loss of memory, stating that he would wake up dressed and wonder if he had gone out during the night. Some of his responses allegedly included the following selected quotes: "I can tell you I don't have it in my heart to kill anybody." "I do not have any recollection of ever have doing anything like that. As a matter of fact, I don't have no clue how to, how to make a bio-weapon and I don't want to know." "I can tell you, I am not a killer at heart." "If I found out I was involved in some way, and, and ..." "I don't think of myself as a vicious, a, a nasty evil person." "I don't like to hurt people, accidentally, in, in any way. And [several scientists at USAMRIID] wouldn't do that. And I, in my right mind wouldn't do it [laughs] ... But it's still, but I still feel responsibility because [the RMR-1029 flask containing the anthrax spores] wasn't locked up at the time ..." In an interview with a confidential human resource (CHR) which took place on January 8, 2008, the FBI said that the CHR told FBI agents that since Ivins' last interview with the FBI (on November 1, 2007), Ivins had "on occasion spontaneously declared at work, 'I could never intentionally kill or hurt someone'". After the FBI announced that Ivins acted alone, many people with a broad range of political views, some of whom were colleagues of Ivins, expressed doubts. Reasons cited for these doubts include that Ivins was only one of 100 people who could have worked with the vial used in the attacks and that the FBI couldn't place him near the New Jersey mailbox from which the anthrax was mailed. The FBI's own genetic consultant, Claire Fraser-Ligget, stated that the failure to find any anthrax spores in Ivins' house, vehicle or on any of his belongings seriously undermined the case. Noting unanswered questions about the FBI's scientific tests and lack of peer review, Jeffrey Adamovicz, one of Ivins' supervisors in USAMRIID's bacteriology division, stated, "I'd say the vast majority of people [at Fort Detrick] think he had nothing to do with it." More than 200 colleagues attended his memorial service following his death. Alternative theories proposed include FBI incompetence, that Syria or Iraq directed the attacks, or that similar to some 9/11 conspiracy theories the US government knew in advance that the attacks would occur. Senator Patrick Leahy , who had received an anthrax-tainted letter, said the FBI had not produced convincing evidence in the case. [ citation needed ] The Washington Post called for an independent investigation in the case saying that reporters and scientists were poking holes in the case. On September 17, 2008, Senator Patrick Leahy told FBI Director Robert Mueller during testimony before the Judiciary Committee which Leahy chairs, that he did not believe Army scientist Bruce Ivins acted alone in the 2001 anthrax attacks, stating: I believe there are others involved, either as accessories before or accessories after the fact. I believe that there are others out there. I believe there are others who could be charged with murder. Tom Daschle , the other Democratic senator targeted, believes Ivins was the sole culprit. Although the FBI matched the genetic origin of the attack spores to the spores in Ivins' flask RMR-1029, the spores within that flask did not have the same silicon chemical "fingerprint" as the spores in the attack letters. The implication is that spores taken out of flask RMR-1029 had been used to grow new spores for the mailings. On April 22, 2010, the U.S. National Research Council , the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences, convened a review committee that heard testimony from Henry Heine, a microbiologist who was formerly employed at the Army's biodefense laboratory in Maryland where Ivins had worked. Heine told the panel that it was impossible that the deadly spores had been produced undetected in Ivins' laboratory, as maintained by the FBI. He testified that at least a year of intensive work would have been required using the equipment at the army lab to produce the quantity of spores contained in the letters and that such an intensive effort could not have escaped the attention of colleagues. Heine also told the panel that lab technicians who worked closely with Ivins have told him they saw no such work. He stated further that biological containment measures where Ivins worked were inadequate to prevent Anthrax spores from floating out of the laboratory into animal cages and offices. "You'd have had dead animals or dead people," Heine said. According to Science Magazine, "Heine caveated his remarks by saying that he himself had no experience making anthrax stocks." Science magazine provides additional comments by Adam Driks of Loyola who stated that the amount of anthrax in the letters could be made in "a number of days". Emails by Ivins state, "We can presently make 1 X 10^12 [one trillion] spores per week." And The New York Times reported on May 7, 2002, that the Leahy letter contained .871 grams of anthrax powder [equivalent to 871 billion spores] In a technical article to be published in the Journal of Bioterrorism & Biodefense in 2011, three scientists argued that the preparation of the spores did require a high level of sophistication, contrary to the position taken by federal authorities that the material would have been unsophisticated. The paper is largely based on the high level of tin detected in tests of the mailed anthrax, and the tin may have been used to encapsulate the spores, which required processing not possible in laboratories to which Ivins had access. According to the scientific article, this raises the possibility that Ivins was not the perpetrator or did not act alone. Earlier in the investigation, the FBI had named tin as a substance "of interest" but the final report makes no mention of it and fails to address the high tin content. The chairwoman of the National Academy of Sciences panel that reviewed the FBI's scientific work and the director of a separate review by the Government Accountability Office said that the issues raised by the paper should be addressed. Other scientists, such as Johnathan L. Kiel, a retired Air Force scientist who worked on anthrax for many years, did not agree with the authors' assessments — saying that the tin might be a random contaminant rather than a clue to complex processing. Kiel said that tin might simply be picked up by the spores as a result of the use of metal lab containers, although he had not tested that idea. In 2011, the chief of the Bacteriology Division at the Army laboratory, Patricia Worsham, said it lacked the facilities in 2001 to make the kind of spores in the letters. In 2011, the government conceded that the equipment required was not available in the lab, calling into question a key pillar of the FBI's case, that Ivins had produced the anthrax in his lab. According to Worsham, the lab's equipment for drying spores, a machine the size of a refrigerator, was not in containment so that it would be expected that non-immunized personnel in that area would have become ill. Colleagues of Ivins at the lab have asserted that he couldn't have grown the quantity of anthrax used in the letters without their noticing it. A spokesman for the Justice Department said that the investigators continue to believe that Ivins acted alone. Congressman Rush Holt, whose district in New Jersey includes a mailbox from which anthrax letters are believed to have been mailed, called for an investigation of the anthrax attacks by Congress or by an independent commission he proposed in a bill entitled the Anthrax Attacks Investigation Act (H.R. 1248). Other members of Congress have also called for an independent investigation. An official of the U.S. administration said in March 2010 that President Barack Obama probably would veto legislation authorizing the next budget for U.S. intelligence agencies if it called for a new investigation into the 2001 anthrax attacks, as such an investigation "would undermine public confidence" in an FBI probe. In a letter to congressional leaders, Peter Orszag , the director of the Office of Management and Budget at the time, wrote that an investigation would be "duplicative", and expressed concern about the appearance and precedent involved when Congress commissions an agency Inspector General to replicate a criminal investigation, but did not list the anthrax investigation as an issue that was serious enough to advise the President to veto the entire bill. In what appears to have been a response to lingering skepticism, on September 16, 2008, the FBI asked the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to conduct an independent review of the scientific evidence that led the agency to implicate U.S. Army researcher Bruce Ivins in the anthrax letter attacks of 2001. However, despite taking this action, Director Mueller said that the scientific methods applied in the investigation had already been vetted by the research community through the involvement of several dozen nonagency scientists. The NAS review officially got underway on April 24, 2009. While the scope of the project included the consideration of facts and data surrounding the investigation of the 2001 Bacillus anthracis mailings, as well as a review of the principles and methods used by the FBI, the NAS committee was not given the task to "undertake an assessment of the probative value of the scientific evidence in any specific component of the investigation, prosecution, or civil litigation", nor to offer any view on the guilt or innocence of any of the involved people. In mid-2009, the NAS committee held public sessions, in which presentations were made by scientists, including scientists from the FBI laboratories. In September 2009, scientists, including Paul Keim of Northern Arizona University, Joseph Michael of Sandia National Laboratory and Peter Weber of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, presented their findings. In one of the presentations, scientists reported that they did not find any silica particles on the outside of the spores (i.e., there was no "weaponization" [ citation needed ] ), and that only some of the spores in the anthrax letters contained silicon inside their spore coats. One of the spores was still inside the "mother germ", yet it already had silicon inside its spore coat. In October 2010, the FBI submitted materials to NAS that it had not previously provided. Included in the new materials were results of analyses performed on environmental samples collected from an overseas site. Those analyses yielded evidence of the Ames strain in some samples. NAS recommended a review of those investigations. The NAS committee released its report on February 15, 2011, concluding that it was "impossible to reach any definitive conclusion about the origins of the anthrax in the letters, based solely on the available scientific evidence". The report also challenged the FBI and U.S. Justice Department's conclusion that a single-spore batch of anthrax maintained by Ivins at his laboratory at Fort Detrick in Maryland was the parent material for the spores in the anthrax letters. The FBI and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) both gave permission for Iowa State University to destroy the Iowa anthrax archive and the archive was destroyed on October 10 and 11, 2001. The FBI and CDC investigation was hampered by the destruction of a large collection of anthrax spores collected over more than seven decades and kept in more than 100 vials at Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa. Many scientists claim that the quick destruction of the anthrax spores collection in Iowa eliminated crucial evidence useful for the investigation. A precise match between the strain of anthrax used in the attacks and a strain in the collection would have offered hints as to when bacteria had been isolated and, perhaps, as to how widely it had been distributed to researchers. Such genetic clues could have given investigators the evidence necessary to identify the perpetrators. Immediately after the anthrax attacks, White House officials pressured FBI Director Robert Mueller to publicly blame al-Qaeda following the September 11 attacks . During the president's morning intelligence briefings, Mueller was "beaten up" for not producing proof that the killer spores were the handiwork of Osama bin Laden , according to a former aide. "They really wanted to blame somebody in the Middle East," the retired senior FBI official stated. The FBI knew early on that the anthrax used was of a consistency requiring sophisticated equipment and was unlikely to have been produced in "some cave". At the same time, President Bush and Vice President Cheney in public statements speculated about the possibility of a link between the anthrax attacks and al-Qaeda. The Guardian reported in early October that American scientists had implicated Iraq as the source of the anthrax, and the next day The Wall Street Journal editorialized that al-Qaeda perpetrated the mailings, with Iraq the source of the anthrax. A few days later, John McCain suggested on the Late Show with David Letterman that the anthrax may have come from Iraq, and the next week ABC News did a series of reports stating that three or four (depending on the report) sources had identified bentonite as an ingredient in the anthrax preparations, implicating Iraq. Statements by the White House and public officials quickly stated that there was no bentonite in the attack anthrax. "No tests ever found or even suggested the presence of bentonite. The claim was just concocted from the start. It just never happened." Nonetheless, a few journalists repeated ABC's bentonite report for several years, even after the invasion of Iraq proved there was no involvement. In an interview with Hamid Mir , Osama bin Laden denied any knowledge of the Anthrax attacks. Barbara Hatch Rosenberg, a molecular biologist at the State University of New York at Purchase and chairwoman of a biological weapons panel at the Federation of American Scientists , and others began claiming that the attack might be the work of a "rogue CIA agent" in October 2001, as soon as it became known that the Ames strain of anthrax had been used in the attacks, and she told the FBI the name of the "most likely" person. On November 21, 2001, she made similar statements to the Biological and Toxic Weapons convention in Geneva. In December 2001, she published "A Compilation of Evidence and Comments on the Source of the Mailed Anthrax" via the web site of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) claiming that the attacks were "perpetrated with the unwitting assistance of a sophisticated government program". She discussed the case with reporters from The New York Times . On January 4, 2002, Nicholas Kristof of The New York Times published a column titled "Profile of a Killer" stating "I think I know who sent out the anthrax last fall." For months, Rosenberg gave speeches and stated her beliefs to many reporters from around the world. She posted "Analysis of the Anthrax Attacks" to the FAS web site on January 17, 2002. On February 5, 2002, she published "Is the FBI Dragging Its Feet?" In response, the FBI stated, "There is no prime suspect in this case at this time". The Washington Post reported, "FBI officials over the last week have flatly discounted Dr. Rosenberg's claims". On June 13, 2002, Rosenberg posted "The Anthrax Case: What the FBI Knows" to the FAS site. On June 18, 2002, she presented her theories to senate staffers working for Senators Daschle and Leahy. On June 25, the FBI publicly searched Steven Hatfill 's apartment, and he became a household name. "The FBI also pointed out that Hatfill had agreed to the search and is not considered a suspect." American Prospect and Salon.com reported, "Hatfill is not a suspect in the anthrax case, the FBI says." On August 3, 2002, Rosenberg told the media that the FBI asked her if "a team of government scientists could be trying to frame Steven J. Hatfill". In August 2002, Attorney General John Ashcroft labeled Hatfill a " person of interest " in a press conference, though no charges were brought against him. Hatfill is a virologist, and he vehemently denied that he had anything to do with the anthrax mailings and sued the FBI, the Justice Department, Ashcroft, Alberto Gonzales , and others for violating his constitutional rights and for violating the Privacy Act. On June 27, 2008, the Department of Justice announced that it would settle Hatfill's case for $5.8 million. Hatfill also sued The New York Times and its columnist Nicholas D. Kristof , as well as Donald Foster , Vanity Fair , Reader's Digest , and Vassar College for defamation. The case against The New York Times was initially dismissed, but it was reinstated on appeal. The dismissal was upheld by the appeals court on July 14, 2008, on the basis that Hatfill was a public figure and malice had not been proven. The Supreme Court rejected an appeal on December 15, 2008. Hatfill's lawsuits against Vanity Fair and Reader's Digest were settled out of court in February 2007, but no details were made public. The statement released by Hatfill's lawyers said, "Dr. Hatfill's lawsuit has now been resolved to the mutual satisfaction of all the parties".Bruce E. Ivins had worked for 18 years at the government's bio defense labs at Fort Detrick as a biodefense researcher. The Associated Press reported on August 1, 2008, that he had apparently committed suicide at the age of 62. It was widely reported that the FBI was about to press charges against him, but the evidence was largely circumstantial and the grand jury in Washington reported that it was not ready to issue an indictment. Rush D. Holt Jr. represented the district where the anthrax letters were mailed, and he said that circumstantial evidence was not enough and asked FBI director Robert S. Mueller to appear before Congress to provide an account of the investigation. Ivins' death left two unanswered questions. Scientists familiar with germ warfare said that there was no evidence that he had the skills to turn anthrax into an inhalable powder. Alan Zelicoff aided the FBI investigation, and he stated: "I don't think a vaccine specialist could do it…. This is aerosol physics, not biology". W. Russell Byrne worked in the bacteriology division of the Fort Detrick research facility. He said that Ivins was "hounded" by FBI agents who raided his home twice, and he was hospitalized for depression during that time. According to Byrne and local police, Ivins was removed from his workplace out of fears that he might harm himself or others. "I think he was just psychologically exhausted by the whole process," Byrne said. "There are people who you just know are ticking bombs. He was not one of them." On August 6, 2008, federal prosecutors declared Ivins the sole perpetrator of the crime when US Attorney Jeffrey A. Taylor laid out the case to the public. "The genetically unique parent material of the anthrax spores... was created and solely maintained by Dr. Ivins." But other experts disagreed, including biological warfare and anthrax expert Meryl Nass , who stated: "Let me reiterate: no matter how good the microbial forensics may be, they can only, at best, link the anthrax to a particular strain and lab. They cannot link it to any individual." At least 10 scientists had regular access to the laboratory and its anthrax stock, and possibly quite a few more, counting visitors from other institutions and workers at laboratories in Ohio and New Mexico that had received anthrax samples from the flask. The FBI later claimed to have identified 419 people at Fort Detrick and other locations who had access to the lab where flask RMR-1029 was stored, or who had received samples from flask RMR-1029. Ivins told a mental health counselor more than a year before the anthrax attacks that he was interested in a young woman who lived out of town and that he had "mixed poison" which he took with him when he went to watch her play in a soccer match. "If she lost, he was going to poison her," said the counselor, who treated Ivins at a Frederick clinic four or five times in mid-2000. She said that Ivins emphasized that he was a skillful scientist who "knew how to do things without people finding out". The counselor was so alarmed by his emotionless description of a specific, homicidal plan that she immediately alerted the head of her clinic and a psychiatrist who had treated Ivins, as well as the Frederick Police Department. She said that the police told her that nothing could be done because she did not have the woman's address or last name. In 2008, Ivins told a different therapist that he planned to kill his co-workers and "go out in a blaze of glory". That therapist stated in an application for a restraining order that Ivins had a "history dating to his graduate days of homicidal threats, actions, plans, threats and actions towards therapists". Dr. David Irwin, his psychiatrist, called him "homicidal, sociopathic with clear intentions." According to the report on the Amerithrax investigation published by the Department of Justice, Ivins engaged in actions and made statements that indicated a consciousness of guilt. He took environmental samples in his laboratory without authorization and decontaminated areas in which he had worked without reporting his activities. He also threw away a book about secret codes, which described methods similar to those used in the anthrax letters. Ivins threatened other scientists, made equivocal statements about his possible involvement in a conversation with an acquaintance, and put together outlandish theories in an effort to shift the blame for the anthrax mailings to people close to him. : 9 The FBI said that Ivins' justifications for his actions after the environmental sampling, as well as his explanations for a subsequent sampling, contradicted his explanation for the motives for the sampling. According to the Department of Justice, flask RMR-1029, which was created and controlled by Ivins, was used to create "the murder weapon". In 2002, researchers did not believe it was possible to distinguish between anthrax variants. In January 2002, Ivins suggested that DNA sequencing should show differences in the genetics of anthrax mutations which would allow the source to be identified. Despite researchers advising the FBI that this may not have been possible, Ivins tutored agents on how to recognize them. Considered cutting edge at the time, this technique is now commonplace. In February 2002, Ivins volunteered to provide samples from several variants of the Ames strain in order to compare their morphs. He submitted two test tube "slants" each from four samples of the Ames strain in his collection. Two of the slants were from flask RMR-1029. Although the slants from flask RMR-1029 were later reported to be a positive match, all eight slants were reportedly in the wrong type of test tube and would therefore not be usable as evidence in court. On March 29, 2002, Ivins' boss instructed Ivins and others in suites B3 and B4 on how to properly prepare slants for the FBI Repository. The subpoena also included instructions on the proper way to prepare slants. When Ivins was told that his February samples did not meet FBIR requirements, he prepared eight new slants. The two new slants prepared from flask RMR-1029 submitted in April by Ivins did not contain the mutations that were later determined to be in flask RMR-1029. It was reported that in April 2004, Henry Heine found a test tube in the lab containing anthrax and contacted Ivins. In an email sent in reply, Ivins reportedly told him it was probably RMR-1029 and for Heine to forward a sample to the FBI. Doubts regarding the reliability of the FBI tests were later raised when the FBI tested Heine's sample and a further one from Heine's test tube: one tested negative and one positive. A DOJ summary report of February 19, 2010, said that "the evidence suggested that Dr. Ivins obstructed the investigation either by providing a submission which was not in compliance with the subpoena, or worse, that he deliberately submitted a false sample." : 79 Records released under the Freedom of Information Act in 2011 show that Ivins provided four sets of samples from 2002 to 2004, twice the number the FBI reported. Three of the four sets tested positive for the morphs. The FBI said that "At a group therapy session on July 9, 2008, Dr. Ivins was particularly upset. He revealed to the counselor and psychologist leading the group, and other members of the group, that he was a suspect in the anthrax investigation and that he was angry at the investigators, the government, and the system in general. He said he was not going to face the death penalty, but instead had a plan to 'take out' co-workers and other individuals who had wronged him. He noted that it was possible, with a plan, to commit murder and not make a mess. He stated that he had a bullet-proof vest, and a list of co-workers who had wronged him, and said that he was going to obtain a Glock firearm from his son within the next day, because federal agents were watching him and he could not obtain a weapon on his own. He added that he was going to 'go out in a blaze of glory.'" : 50 While in a mental hospital, Ivins allegedly made menacing phone calls to his social worker Jean Duley on July 11 and 12.Ivins told a mental health counselor more than a year before the anthrax attacks that he was interested in a young woman who lived out of town and that he had "mixed poison" which he took with him when he went to watch her play in a soccer match. "If she lost, he was going to poison her," said the counselor, who treated Ivins at a Frederick clinic four or five times in mid-2000. She said that Ivins emphasized that he was a skillful scientist who "knew how to do things without people finding out". The counselor was so alarmed by his emotionless description of a specific, homicidal plan that she immediately alerted the head of her clinic and a psychiatrist who had treated Ivins, as well as the Frederick Police Department. She said that the police told her that nothing could be done because she did not have the woman's address or last name. In 2008, Ivins told a different therapist that he planned to kill his co-workers and "go out in a blaze of glory". That therapist stated in an application for a restraining order that Ivins had a "history dating to his graduate days of homicidal threats, actions, plans, threats and actions towards therapists". Dr. David Irwin, his psychiatrist, called him "homicidal, sociopathic with clear intentions." According to the report on the Amerithrax investigation published by the Department of Justice, Ivins engaged in actions and made statements that indicated a consciousness of guilt. He took environmental samples in his laboratory without authorization and decontaminated areas in which he had worked without reporting his activities. He also threw away a book about secret codes, which described methods similar to those used in the anthrax letters. Ivins threatened other scientists, made equivocal statements about his possible involvement in a conversation with an acquaintance, and put together outlandish theories in an effort to shift the blame for the anthrax mailings to people close to him. : 9 The FBI said that Ivins' justifications for his actions after the environmental sampling, as well as his explanations for a subsequent sampling, contradicted his explanation for the motives for the sampling. According to the Department of Justice, flask RMR-1029, which was created and controlled by Ivins, was used to create "the murder weapon". In 2002, researchers did not believe it was possible to distinguish between anthrax variants. In January 2002, Ivins suggested that DNA sequencing should show differences in the genetics of anthrax mutations which would allow the source to be identified. Despite researchers advising the FBI that this may not have been possible, Ivins tutored agents on how to recognize them. Considered cutting edge at the time, this technique is now commonplace. In February 2002, Ivins volunteered to provide samples from several variants of the Ames strain in order to compare their morphs. He submitted two test tube "slants" each from four samples of the Ames strain in his collection. Two of the slants were from flask RMR-1029. Although the slants from flask RMR-1029 were later reported to be a positive match, all eight slants were reportedly in the wrong type of test tube and would therefore not be usable as evidence in court. On March 29, 2002, Ivins' boss instructed Ivins and others in suites B3 and B4 on how to properly prepare slants for the FBI Repository. The subpoena also included instructions on the proper way to prepare slants. When Ivins was told that his February samples did not meet FBIR requirements, he prepared eight new slants. The two new slants prepared from flask RMR-1029 submitted in April by Ivins did not contain the mutations that were later determined to be in flask RMR-1029. It was reported that in April 2004, Henry Heine found a test tube in the lab containing anthrax and contacted Ivins. In an email sent in reply, Ivins reportedly told him it was probably RMR-1029 and for Heine to forward a sample to the FBI. Doubts regarding the reliability of the FBI tests were later raised when the FBI tested Heine's sample and a further one from Heine's test tube: one tested negative and one positive. A DOJ summary report of February 19, 2010, said that "the evidence suggested that Dr. Ivins obstructed the investigation either by providing a submission which was not in compliance with the subpoena, or worse, that he deliberately submitted a false sample." : 79 Records released under the Freedom of Information Act in 2011 show that Ivins provided four sets of samples from 2002 to 2004, twice the number the FBI reported. Three of the four sets tested positive for the morphs. The FBI said that "At a group therapy session on July 9, 2008, Dr. Ivins was particularly upset. He revealed to the counselor and psychologist leading the group, and other members of the group, that he was a suspect in the anthrax investigation and that he was angry at the investigators, the government, and the system in general. He said he was not going to face the death penalty, but instead had a plan to 'take out' co-workers and other individuals who had wronged him. He noted that it was possible, with a plan, to commit murder and not make a mess. He stated that he had a bullet-proof vest, and a list of co-workers who had wronged him, and said that he was going to obtain a Glock firearm from his son within the next day, because federal agents were watching him and he could not obtain a weapon on his own. He added that he was going to 'go out in a blaze of glory.'" : 50 While in a mental hospital, Ivins allegedly made menacing phone calls to his social worker Jean Duley on July 11 and 12.In the letters sent to the media, the characters 'A' and 'T' were sometimes emboldened or highlighted by tracing over, according to the FBI suggesting that the letters contained a hidden code. : 58 Some believe the letters to the New York Post and Tom Brokaw contained a "hidden message" in such highlighted characters. Below is the media text with the highlighted As and Ts: According to the FBI, Summary Report issued on February 19, 2010, following the search of Ivins' home, cars, and office on November 1, 2007, investigators began examining his trash. : 64 A week later, just after 1:00 a.m. on the morning of November 8, the FBI stated that Ivins was observed throwing away "a copy of a book entitled Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid , published by Douglas Hofstadter in 1979" and "a 1992 issue of American Scientist Journal which contained an article entitled 'The Linguistics of DNA,' and discussed, among other things, codons and hidden messages". : 61 The book Gödel, Escher, Bach contains a lengthy description of the encoding/decoding procedures, including an illustration of hiding a message within a message by emboldening certain characters. According to the FBI Summary Report, "[w]hen they lifted out just the bolded letters, investigators got TTT AAT TAT – an apparent hidden message". The 3-letter groups are codons, "meaning that each sequence of three nucleic acids will code for a specific amino acid". : 59 The FBI Summary Report proceeds to say: "From this analysis, two possible hidden meanings emerged: (1) 'FNY' – a verbal assault on New York, and (2) PAT – the nickname of [Dr. Ivins'] Former Colleague #2." Ivins was known to have a dislike for New York City, and four of the media letters had been sent to New York. : 60 The report states that it "was obviously impossible for the Task Force to determine with certainty that either of these two translations was correct", however, "the key point to the investigative analysis is that there is a hidden message, not so much what that message is". : 60 According to the FBI, Ivins showed a fascination with codes and also had an interest in secrets and hidden messages, : 60 ff and was familiar with biochemical codons. : 59 ff Experts have suggested that the anthrax mailings included a number of indications that the mailer was trying to avoid harming anyone with his warning letters. Examples: None of the intended recipients of the letters were infected. The seams on the backs of the envelopes were taped over as if to make certain the powders could not escape through open seams. The letters were folded with the "pharmaceutical fold", which was used for centuries to safely contain and transport doses of powdered medicines (and currently to safely hold trace evidence). [ citation needed ] The media letters provided "medical advice": "TAKE PENACILIN [ sic ] NOW." The Senate letters informed the recipient that the powder was anthrax: "WE HAVE THIS ANTHRAX." At the time of the mailings, it was generally believed that such powders could not escape from a sealed envelope except through the two open corners where a letter opener is inserted, which had been taped shut. In June 2008, Ivins was involuntarily committed to a psychiatric hospital. The FBI stated that during a June 5 group therapy session there, Ivins had a conversation with an unnamed witness, during which he made a series of statements about the anthrax mailings that the FBI said could best be characterized as " non-denial denials ". : 70–71 When asked about the anthrax attacks and whether he could have had anything to do with them, the FBI said that Ivins admitted he suffered from loss of memory, stating that he would wake up dressed and wonder if he had gone out during the night. Some of his responses allegedly included the following selected quotes: "I can tell you I don't have it in my heart to kill anybody." "I do not have any recollection of ever have doing anything like that. As a matter of fact, I don't have no clue how to, how to make a bio-weapon and I don't want to know." "I can tell you, I am not a killer at heart." "If I found out I was involved in some way, and, and ..." "I don't think of myself as a vicious, a, a nasty evil person." "I don't like to hurt people, accidentally, in, in any way. And [several scientists at USAMRIID] wouldn't do that. And I, in my right mind wouldn't do it [laughs] ... But it's still, but I still feel responsibility because [the RMR-1029 flask containing the anthrax spores] wasn't locked up at the time ..." In an interview with a confidential human resource (CHR) which took place on January 8, 2008, the FBI said that the CHR told FBI agents that since Ivins' last interview with the FBI (on November 1, 2007), Ivins had "on occasion spontaneously declared at work, 'I could never intentionally kill or hurt someone'". Experts have suggested that the anthrax mailings included a number of indications that the mailer was trying to avoid harming anyone with his warning letters. Examples: None of the intended recipients of the letters were infected. The seams on the backs of the envelopes were taped over as if to make certain the powders could not escape through open seams. The letters were folded with the "pharmaceutical fold", which was used for centuries to safely contain and transport doses of powdered medicines (and currently to safely hold trace evidence). [ citation needed ] The media letters provided "medical advice": "TAKE PENACILIN [ sic ] NOW." The Senate letters informed the recipient that the powder was anthrax: "WE HAVE THIS ANTHRAX." At the time of the mailings, it was generally believed that such powders could not escape from a sealed envelope except through the two open corners where a letter opener is inserted, which had been taped shut. In June 2008, Ivins was involuntarily committed to a psychiatric hospital. The FBI stated that during a June 5 group therapy session there, Ivins had a conversation with an unnamed witness, during which he made a series of statements about the anthrax mailings that the FBI said could best be characterized as " non-denial denials ". : 70–71 When asked about the anthrax attacks and whether he could have had anything to do with them, the FBI said that Ivins admitted he suffered from loss of memory, stating that he would wake up dressed and wonder if he had gone out during the night. Some of his responses allegedly included the following selected quotes: "I can tell you I don't have it in my heart to kill anybody." "I do not have any recollection of ever have doing anything like that. As a matter of fact, I don't have no clue how to, how to make a bio-weapon and I don't want to know." "I can tell you, I am not a killer at heart." "If I found out I was involved in some way, and, and ..." "I don't think of myself as a vicious, a, a nasty evil person." "I don't like to hurt people, accidentally, in, in any way. And [several scientists at USAMRIID] wouldn't do that. And I, in my right mind wouldn't do it [laughs] ... But it's still, but I still feel responsibility because [the RMR-1029 flask containing the anthrax spores] wasn't locked up at the time ..." In an interview with a confidential human resource (CHR) which took place on January 8, 2008, the FBI said that the CHR told FBI agents that since Ivins' last interview with the FBI (on November 1, 2007), Ivins had "on occasion spontaneously declared at work, 'I could never intentionally kill or hurt someone'". After the FBI announced that Ivins acted alone, many people with a broad range of political views, some of whom were colleagues of Ivins, expressed doubts. Reasons cited for these doubts include that Ivins was only one of 100 people who could have worked with the vial used in the attacks and that the FBI couldn't place him near the New Jersey mailbox from which the anthrax was mailed. The FBI's own genetic consultant, Claire Fraser-Ligget, stated that the failure to find any anthrax spores in Ivins' house, vehicle or on any of his belongings seriously undermined the case. Noting unanswered questions about the FBI's scientific tests and lack of peer review, Jeffrey Adamovicz, one of Ivins' supervisors in USAMRIID's bacteriology division, stated, "I'd say the vast majority of people [at Fort Detrick] think he had nothing to do with it." More than 200 colleagues attended his memorial service following his death. Alternative theories proposed include FBI incompetence, that Syria or Iraq directed the attacks, or that similar to some 9/11 conspiracy theories the US government knew in advance that the attacks would occur. Senator Patrick Leahy , who had received an anthrax-tainted letter, said the FBI had not produced convincing evidence in the case. [ citation needed ] The Washington Post called for an independent investigation in the case saying that reporters and scientists were poking holes in the case. On September 17, 2008, Senator Patrick Leahy told FBI Director Robert Mueller during testimony before the Judiciary Committee which Leahy chairs, that he did not believe Army scientist Bruce Ivins acted alone in the 2001 anthrax attacks, stating: I believe there are others involved, either as accessories before or accessories after the fact. I believe that there are others out there. I believe there are others who could be charged with murder. Tom Daschle , the other Democratic senator targeted, believes Ivins was the sole culprit. Although the FBI matched the genetic origin of the attack spores to the spores in Ivins' flask RMR-1029, the spores within that flask did not have the same silicon chemical "fingerprint" as the spores in the attack letters. The implication is that spores taken out of flask RMR-1029 had been used to grow new spores for the mailings. On April 22, 2010, the U.S. National Research Council , the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences, convened a review committee that heard testimony from Henry Heine, a microbiologist who was formerly employed at the Army's biodefense laboratory in Maryland where Ivins had worked. Heine told the panel that it was impossible that the deadly spores had been produced undetected in Ivins' laboratory, as maintained by the FBI. He testified that at least a year of intensive work would have been required using the equipment at the army lab to produce the quantity of spores contained in the letters and that such an intensive effort could not have escaped the attention of colleagues. Heine also told the panel that lab technicians who worked closely with Ivins have told him they saw no such work. He stated further that biological containment measures where Ivins worked were inadequate to prevent Anthrax spores from floating out of the laboratory into animal cages and offices. "You'd have had dead animals or dead people," Heine said. According to Science Magazine, "Heine caveated his remarks by saying that he himself had no experience making anthrax stocks." Science magazine provides additional comments by Adam Driks of Loyola who stated that the amount of anthrax in the letters could be made in "a number of days". Emails by Ivins state, "We can presently make 1 X 10^12 [one trillion] spores per week." And The New York Times reported on May 7, 2002, that the Leahy letter contained .871 grams of anthrax powder [equivalent to 871 billion spores] In a technical article to be published in the Journal of Bioterrorism & Biodefense in 2011, three scientists argued that the preparation of the spores did require a high level of sophistication, contrary to the position taken by federal authorities that the material would have been unsophisticated. The paper is largely based on the high level of tin detected in tests of the mailed anthrax, and the tin may have been used to encapsulate the spores, which required processing not possible in laboratories to which Ivins had access. According to the scientific article, this raises the possibility that Ivins was not the perpetrator or did not act alone. Earlier in the investigation, the FBI had named tin as a substance "of interest" but the final report makes no mention of it and fails to address the high tin content. The chairwoman of the National Academy of Sciences panel that reviewed the FBI's scientific work and the director of a separate review by the Government Accountability Office said that the issues raised by the paper should be addressed. Other scientists, such as Johnathan L. Kiel, a retired Air Force scientist who worked on anthrax for many years, did not agree with the authors' assessments — saying that the tin might be a random contaminant rather than a clue to complex processing. Kiel said that tin might simply be picked up by the spores as a result of the use of metal lab containers, although he had not tested that idea. In 2011, the chief of the Bacteriology Division at the Army laboratory, Patricia Worsham, said it lacked the facilities in 2001 to make the kind of spores in the letters. In 2011, the government conceded that the equipment required was not available in the lab, calling into question a key pillar of the FBI's case, that Ivins had produced the anthrax in his lab. According to Worsham, the lab's equipment for drying spores, a machine the size of a refrigerator, was not in containment so that it would be expected that non-immunized personnel in that area would have become ill. Colleagues of Ivins at the lab have asserted that he couldn't have grown the quantity of anthrax used in the letters without their noticing it. A spokesman for the Justice Department said that the investigators continue to believe that Ivins acted alone. Congressman Rush Holt, whose district in New Jersey includes a mailbox from which anthrax letters are believed to have been mailed, called for an investigation of the anthrax attacks by Congress or by an independent commission he proposed in a bill entitled the Anthrax Attacks Investigation Act (H.R. 1248). Other members of Congress have also called for an independent investigation. An official of the U.S. administration said in March 2010 that President Barack Obama probably would veto legislation authorizing the next budget for U.S. intelligence agencies if it called for a new investigation into the 2001 anthrax attacks, as such an investigation "would undermine public confidence" in an FBI probe. In a letter to congressional leaders, Peter Orszag , the director of the Office of Management and Budget at the time, wrote that an investigation would be "duplicative", and expressed concern about the appearance and precedent involved when Congress commissions an agency Inspector General to replicate a criminal investigation, but did not list the anthrax investigation as an issue that was serious enough to advise the President to veto the entire bill. In what appears to have been a response to lingering skepticism, on September 16, 2008, the FBI asked the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to conduct an independent review of the scientific evidence that led the agency to implicate U.S. Army researcher Bruce Ivins in the anthrax letter attacks of 2001. However, despite taking this action, Director Mueller said that the scientific methods applied in the investigation had already been vetted by the research community through the involvement of several dozen nonagency scientists. The NAS review officially got underway on April 24, 2009. While the scope of the project included the consideration of facts and data surrounding the investigation of the 2001 Bacillus anthracis mailings, as well as a review of the principles and methods used by the FBI, the NAS committee was not given the task to "undertake an assessment of the probative value of the scientific evidence in any specific component of the investigation, prosecution, or civil litigation", nor to offer any view on the guilt or innocence of any of the involved people. In mid-2009, the NAS committee held public sessions, in which presentations were made by scientists, including scientists from the FBI laboratories. In September 2009, scientists, including Paul Keim of Northern Arizona University, Joseph Michael of Sandia National Laboratory and Peter Weber of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, presented their findings. In one of the presentations, scientists reported that they did not find any silica particles on the outside of the spores (i.e., there was no "weaponization" [ citation needed ] ), and that only some of the spores in the anthrax letters contained silicon inside their spore coats. One of the spores was still inside the "mother germ", yet it already had silicon inside its spore coat. In October 2010, the FBI submitted materials to NAS that it had not previously provided. Included in the new materials were results of analyses performed on environmental samples collected from an overseas site. Those analyses yielded evidence of the Ames strain in some samples. NAS recommended a review of those investigations. The NAS committee released its report on February 15, 2011, concluding that it was "impossible to reach any definitive conclusion about the origins of the anthrax in the letters, based solely on the available scientific evidence". The report also challenged the FBI and U.S. Justice Department's conclusion that a single-spore batch of anthrax maintained by Ivins at his laboratory at Fort Detrick in Maryland was the parent material for the spores in the anthrax letters. Dozens of buildings were contaminated with anthrax as a result of the mailings. New York-based Bio Recovery Corporation and Ohio-based Bio-Recovery Services of America were placed in charge of the cleanup and decontamination of buildings in New York City, including ABC Headquarters and a midtown Manhattan building that was part of the Rockefeller Center and was home to the New York Post and Fox News. Bio Recovery provided the labor and equipment, such as HEPA filtered negative pressure air scrubbers, HEPA vacuums, respirators, cyclone foggers, and decontamination foam licensed by the Sandia National Laboratories. Ninety-three bags of anthrax-contaminated mail were removed from the New York Post alone. The decontamination of the Brentwood postal facility took 26 months and cost $130 million. The Hamilton, New Jersey , postal facility remained closed until March 2005; its cleanup cost $65 million. The United States Environmental Protection Agency led the collaborative effort to clean up the Hart Senate Office Building , where Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle's office was located, as well as the Ford Office Building and several other locations around the capitol. It used $27 million of its funds for its Superfund program on the Capitol Hill anthrax cleanup. One FBI document said the total damage exceeded $1 billion. The anthrax attacks, as well as the September 11, 2001 attacks, spurred significant increases in U.S. government funding for biological warfare research and preparedness. For example, biowarfare-related funding at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) increased by $1.5 billion in 2003. In 2004, Congress passed the Project Bioshield Act , which provides $5.6 billion over ten years for the purchase of new vaccines and drugs. These included the monoclonal antibody raxibacumab , which treats anthrax as well as an Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed , both of which are stockpiled by the US government. Immediately after 9/11, well before the mailing of any of the letters involved in the anthrax attacks, the White House prudently began distributing ciprofloxacin , the only drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of inhalational anthrax, to senior staffers. Ciprofloxacin manufacturer Bayer agreed to provide the United States with 100,000 doses for $.95 per dose, a cut in the price from $1.74. The Canadian government had previously overridden the Bayer patent, and the US was threatening the same measure if Bayer did not agree to negotiate the price. Shortly afterward, it was recommended that doxycycline was a more appropriate drug to treat anthrax exposure. A widened use of the broad-spectrum antibiotic ciprofloxacin had also raised serious concerns amongst scientists about the creation and increased spread of drug-resistant bacteria strains. Numerous corporations offered to supply drugs free of charge, contingent on the Food and Drug Administration approving their products for anthrax treatment. They included Bristol Myers Squibb ( gatifloxacin ), Johnson and Johnson ( levofloxacin ) and GlaxoSmithKline (two drugs). Eli Lilly and Pfizer also offered to provide drugs at cost. The attack led to the widespread confiscation and curtailment of US Mail, especially to US media companies: "checks, bills, letters, and packages simply stopped arriving. For many people and businesses that had resisted the cultural shift to e-mail, this was the moment that pushed them online." After the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent anthrax mailings, lawmakers were pressed for legislation to combat further terrorist acts. Under heavy pressure from then Attorney General John D. Ashcroft , a bipartisan compromise in the House Judiciary Committee allowed legislation for the Patriot Act to move forward for full consideration later that month. A theory that Iraq was behind the attacks, based upon purported evidence that the powder was weaponized and some reports of alleged meetings between 9/11 conspirators and Iraqi officials, may have contributed to the hysteria which ultimately enabled the 2003 Invasion of Iraq . Years after the attack, several anthrax victims reported lingering health problems including fatigue, shortness of breath and memory loss. A 2004 study proposed that the total number of people harmed by the anthrax attacks of 2001 should be raised to 68. A postal inspector , William Paliscak, became severely ill and disabled after removing an anthrax-contaminated air filter from the Brentwood mail facility on October 19, 2001. Although his doctors, Tyler Cymet and Gary Kerkvliet , believe that the illness was caused by anthrax exposure, blood tests did not find anthrax bacteria or antibodies , and therefore the CDC does not recognize it as a case of inhalational anthrax. Dozens of buildings were contaminated with anthrax as a result of the mailings. New York-based Bio Recovery Corporation and Ohio-based Bio-Recovery Services of America were placed in charge of the cleanup and decontamination of buildings in New York City, including ABC Headquarters and a midtown Manhattan building that was part of the Rockefeller Center and was home to the New York Post and Fox News. Bio Recovery provided the labor and equipment, such as HEPA filtered negative pressure air scrubbers, HEPA vacuums, respirators, cyclone foggers, and decontamination foam licensed by the Sandia National Laboratories. Ninety-three bags of anthrax-contaminated mail were removed from the New York Post alone. The decontamination of the Brentwood postal facility took 26 months and cost $130 million. The Hamilton, New Jersey , postal facility remained closed until March 2005; its cleanup cost $65 million. The United States Environmental Protection Agency led the collaborative effort to clean up the Hart Senate Office Building , where Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle's office was located, as well as the Ford Office Building and several other locations around the capitol. It used $27 million of its funds for its Superfund program on the Capitol Hill anthrax cleanup. One FBI document said the total damage exceeded $1 billion. The anthrax attacks, as well as the September 11, 2001 attacks, spurred significant increases in U.S. government funding for biological warfare research and preparedness. For example, biowarfare-related funding at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) increased by $1.5 billion in 2003. In 2004, Congress passed the Project Bioshield Act , which provides $5.6 billion over ten years for the purchase of new vaccines and drugs. These included the monoclonal antibody raxibacumab , which treats anthrax as well as an Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed , both of which are stockpiled by the US government. Immediately after 9/11, well before the mailing of any of the letters involved in the anthrax attacks, the White House prudently began distributing ciprofloxacin , the only drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of inhalational anthrax, to senior staffers. Ciprofloxacin manufacturer Bayer agreed to provide the United States with 100,000 doses for $.95 per dose, a cut in the price from $1.74. The Canadian government had previously overridden the Bayer patent, and the US was threatening the same measure if Bayer did not agree to negotiate the price. Shortly afterward, it was recommended that doxycycline was a more appropriate drug to treat anthrax exposure. A widened use of the broad-spectrum antibiotic ciprofloxacin had also raised serious concerns amongst scientists about the creation and increased spread of drug-resistant bacteria strains. Numerous corporations offered to supply drugs free of charge, contingent on the Food and Drug Administration approving their products for anthrax treatment. They included Bristol Myers Squibb ( gatifloxacin ), Johnson and Johnson ( levofloxacin ) and GlaxoSmithKline (two drugs). Eli Lilly and Pfizer also offered to provide drugs at cost. The attack led to the widespread confiscation and curtailment of US Mail, especially to US media companies: "checks, bills, letters, and packages simply stopped arriving. For many people and businesses that had resisted the cultural shift to e-mail, this was the moment that pushed them online." After the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent anthrax mailings, lawmakers were pressed for legislation to combat further terrorist acts. Under heavy pressure from then Attorney General John D. Ashcroft , a bipartisan compromise in the House Judiciary Committee allowed legislation for the Patriot Act to move forward for full consideration later that month. A theory that Iraq was behind the attacks, based upon purported evidence that the powder was weaponized and some reports of alleged meetings between 9/11 conspirators and Iraqi officials, may have contributed to the hysteria which ultimately enabled the 2003 Invasion of Iraq . Years after the attack, several anthrax victims reported lingering health problems including fatigue, shortness of breath and memory loss. A 2004 study proposed that the total number of people harmed by the anthrax attacks of 2001 should be raised to 68. A postal inspector , William Paliscak, became severely ill and disabled after removing an anthrax-contaminated air filter from the Brentwood mail facility on October 19, 2001. Although his doctors, Tyler Cymet and Gary Kerkvliet , believe that the illness was caused by anthrax exposure, blood tests did not find anthrax bacteria or antibodies , and therefore the CDC does not recognize it as a case of inhalational anthrax. The case was referenced on season 4, episode 24 of Criminal Minds , The second season of the National Geographic TV series The Hot Zone focused on the attack. Season 12, episode 13 of Unsolved Mysteries prominently featured the anthrax attacks in detail. Dan Krauss ' " The Anthrax Attacks: In the Shadow of 9/11 " from Netflix and the BBC takes a "quasi-documentary" approach to the investigation. First streamed on September 8, 2022. The case was referenced on season 4, episode 24 of Criminal Minds , The second season of the National Geographic TV series The Hot Zone focused on the attack. Season 12, episode 13 of Unsolved Mysteries prominently featured the anthrax attacks in detail. Dan Krauss ' " The Anthrax Attacks: In the Shadow of 9/11 " from Netflix and the BBC takes a "quasi-documentary" approach to the investigation. First streamed on September 8, 2022.

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Anthrax

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Anthrax (American band)

Anthrax is an American thrash metal band from New York City , formed in 1981 by rhythm guitarist Scott Ian and bassist Dan Lilker . The group is considered one of the leaders of the thrash metal scene from the 1980s and is part of the "Big Four" of the genre, along with Metallica , Megadeth and Slayer . They were also one of the first thrash metal bands (along with Overkill and Nuclear Assault ) to emerge from the East Coast. The band's current lineup consists of Scott Ian, drummer Charlie Benante , bassist Frank Bello , vocalist Joey Belladonna and lead guitarist Jonathan Donais . Anthrax's lineup has changed numerous times over their career, leaving Ian as the only constant member of the band. Ian and Benante (who replaced one-time drummer Greg D'Angelo in 1983) are the only two members to appear on all of Anthrax's albums, while Bello has been a member of Anthrax since 1984, replacing Lilker. After cycling through a number of members, Anthrax released their debut album, Fistful of Metal (1984), with singer Neil Turbin . Turbin was replaced by Joey Belladonna later that year, stabilizing the band's lineup. Anthrax's third album Among the Living (1987), which brought the band mainstream success for the first time, is recognised as one of the greatest thrash metal albums. The band's next two outings, State of Euphoria (1988) and Persistence of Time (1990), further cemented their reputation as one of the most successful thrash metal bands, with the latter giving Anthrax their first Grammy Award nomination. In 1992, Anthrax signed to Elektra Records for $10 million and Belladonna was replaced by John Bush of Armoured Saint . Bush's first album with Anthrax, Sound of White Noise (1993), reached number seven on the Billboard 200 chart (their greatest chart success) and spawned the radio hit " Only ". Anthrax's subsequent albums with Bush would experience less critical and commercial success; the band would part ways with Elektra following the release of Stomp 442 (1995) due to a lack of promotional support, and Volume 8: The Threat is Real (1998) suffered from the bankruptcy of their record label. Bush left Anthrax in 2005, after which the band reunited with Belladonna and lead guitarist Dan Spitz . After Belladonna and Spitz's departure in 2007, Anthrax recruited singer Dan Nelson and commenced work on a new album, although Nelson would part ways with the band in 2009. Following a short-lived reunion with Bush, Belladonna rejoined the band for a third time in 2010. Anthrax's first album with Belladonna in 21 years, Worship Music (2011) was released to critical and commercial success, reaching number twelve on the Billboard 200. The band's most recent album to date, For All Kings , was released in 2016. Anthrax has released 11 studio albums, several other albums, and 26 singles, including collaborating on a single with American hip hop group Public Enemy . Four of the band's studio albums ( Among the Living , State of Euphoria , Persistence of Time and Sound of White Noise ) have also achieved gold certifications by the RIAA . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Anthrax sold 2.5 million records in the United States from 1991 to 2004, with worldwide sales of 10 million.Anthrax was formed in Queens , New York City, on July 18, 1981, by guitarists Scott Ian and Dan Lilker , with Ian's friend Dave Weiss on drums. The band was named after the disease of the same name which Ian saw in a biology textbook, chosen because it sounded "sufficiently evil". Lilker originally intended for Scott Setari to play bass in the band, during their early phases as a cover band. Anthrax's initial lineup was completed by singer John Connelly , and bassist Paul Kahn. Kahn was briefly replaced by bassist Kenny Kushner before Lilker took over on bass. Future Hittman singer Dirk Kennedy replaced Connelly for a few months and the band brought in lead guitarist Greg Walls. Weiss was then replaced early on by drummer Greg D'Angelo , who was recommended to the band by Walls. Ian's younger brother Jason Rosenfeld had been a temporary vocalist until Ian's former schoolmate Neil Turbin joined the band in late August 1982. Turbin joined the band partly because of guitarist Walls, who Turbin later said was "the best guitarist Anthrax ever had". The band recorded its first demo tape during this time. The band's first performance with Neil Turbin was at Great Gildersleeves, a New York club, in September 1982. This lineup played regularly in the New York–New Jersey area over the next several months. Anthrax was also on the same bill as the up-and-coming Metallica for several shows in the spring of 1983. Guitarist Walls left Anthrax that summer because of friction with Ian, and drummer D'Angelo left a month later. Turbin said he was seriously considering leaving because of the loss of Walls and D'Angelo, but he stuck it out for another year. Walls was replaced by Bob Berry, who was recommended to Turbin by Rhett Forrester of Riot . Berry was in turn soon replaced by Dan Spitz , who was previously a member of the New Jersey thrash band Overkill . Drummer Charlie Benante replaced D'Angelo in September 1983 after a several-month courtship by Ian. By this time, Ian and Lilker had befriended New Jersey record store owner Jon Zazula , to whom they had given their demo tapes to critique. Zazula's new record label Megaforce Records had recently released Metallica's debut album Kill 'Em All to great success. In late 1983, Zazula agreed to sign Anthrax and the band recorded the "Soldiers of Metal" single, which was produced by Ross the Boss of Manowar . The B-side was the song "Howling Furies" which was taken from a previous demo with Greg D'Angelo on drums (his only Anthrax recording). Anthrax released their debut album Fistful of Metal in January 1984. Former guitarist Walls said he was shocked that the album was released without giving credit to Walls as the primary songwriter on "Panic" and "Metal Thrashing Mad", as well as smaller songwriting contributions throughout the album. Tensions were building between Lilker and the rest of the band for various reasons, eventually leading to the band firing Lilker. He would soon form the band Nuclear Assault with former Anthrax roadie / vocalist John Connelly. Lilker was replaced by Benante's nephew and roadie Frank Bello . The band then went on a successful US tour opening for Raven and others to support Fistful of Metal . In August 1984, Turbin and Anthrax went their separate ways after long-standing personal issues. In his book Eddie Trunk's Essential Hard Rock and Heavy Metal , music journalist Eddie Trunk admits pressuring Jon Zazula , Scott Ian and Anthrax into firing Turbin because of his personal taste in vocals. Singer Matt Fallon was briefly hired in late 1984, but he and the band soon parted ways. The remaining members decided to play live shows as a four-piece billed as "The Diseased" with Scott Ian on vocals, performing hardcore punk covers until a permanent singer could be found. In 1984, Joey Belladonna was chosen as the new vocalist. The Armed and Dangerous EP marked Belladonna's recording debut with Anthrax. The 1992 reissue of the EP included the two songs from the "Soldiers of Metal" single that had Neil Turbin performing on them. Anthrax's second album Spreading the Disease was released in October 1985. It was well-received as both a technical leap forward from Fistful of Metal and as a more original effort, and remains one of the band's most highly regarded albums. With leftover studio time from these sessions, Ian, Benante and former bandmate Dan Lilker collaborated with vocalist Billy Milano to form the side project Stormtroopers of Death , and recorded the album Speak English or Die in three days. It was released in August 1985 and is now considered a pioneering crossover thrash release, featuring one of the earliest examples of a blast beat on record. Afterwards, the project was put on hold as Ian and Benante turned their focus back on Anthrax. The US tour to support Spreading the Disease opening for Black Sabbath was canceled after four dates due to Sabbath singer Glenn Hughes ' voice problems. In April 1986, Anthrax attempted its first tour of Europe beginning in Bochum, Germany, supported by Overkill and Agent Steel . The tour included a show near Chernobyl, Ukraine, immediately after the Chernobyl disaster . Later that year, Anthrax toured Europe with Metallica. The tour began on September 10 at St David's Hall and ended on September 26 in Solnahallen, Sweden. The Swedish show was Anthrax's last performance before the bus accident the following day, which killed Metallica bassist Cliff Burton . The band's third studio album Among the Living was released in March 1987, and is often considered by both the band and critics to be a major breakthrough for Anthrax. Produced by Eddie Kramer , it showcased the band's humorous, experimental side and began a lyrical trend focusing on movies, politics, comic books and Stephen King novels. The album was dedicated to Cliff Burton's memory. Propelled by the singles " Indians " and " I Am the Law ", the success of Among the Living not only turned Anthrax into a household name (along with the remaining "big four" of thrash metal–Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer ), but eventually earned them one of their first certified-gold records by the RIAA . "I Am the Law", which was released as the album's second single, was backed with a rap -metal hybrid " I'm the Man " as its B-side. Anthrax further indulged its appreciation for rap by appearing on the title track of U.T.F.O. 's album, Lethal , and their worship for the genre was also attributed to Ian wearing a t-shirt of Public Enemy both on stage and for publicity photo shoots; in response, Public Enemy name-checked Anthrax in the lyrics to their 1988 single " Bring the Noise ". Anthrax toured for over a year to promote Among the Living , touring Europe again with Metallica, the United States with Metal Church , Testament , D.R.I. , Exodus and Celtic Frost , and supporting Kiss on their Crazy Nights tour. Anthrax released their fourth album State of Euphoria in September 1988, and it was produced by Mark Dodson , who had previously worked with Judas Priest , U.D.O. and Metal Church . While the album was not quite as well-received as Among the Living , owing to its "rushed" finish, State of Euphoria was certified gold about five months after its release, and one of the singles " Antisocial ", originally by French heavy metal band Trust , became an MTV staple as part of the rotation on Headbangers Ball . By 1989, Anthrax was starting to play at arenas as a headlining or opening act, first supporting Ozzy Osbourne on his No Rest for the Wicked tour in North America, and then headlining European tours with Living Colour , Suicidal Tendencies and King's X , and the U.S. Headbangers Ball Tour with Exodus and Helloween . Also in 1989, MTV sponsored a contest in which the winner had her home trashed by the band. This would later inspire Anthrax's 1992 appearance on the television series Married... with Children , in which the Bundys win a similar TV contest. Anthrax returned to the studio at the end of 1989 to work on their fifth album, again with Dodson as the producer. Released in August 1990, Persistence of Time was written and recorded during a period of turmoil for Anthrax, as Ian had recently been divorced from his first wife, and the middle of the recording session was interrupted by a fire that caused the band to lose more than $100,000 worth of gear and their rehearsal studio. The band members also claimed it was during this period that there were talks of potentially working with a different singer, a situation that Belladonna was unaware of at the time. Considered by fans to be their serious effort, Persistence of Time was darker, more technical and more progressive than the band's previous work, striking a chord with metal fans wary of Anthrax's "silly" side. The most successful single from the album was a cover of Joe Jackson 's "Got the Time", which Jackson said he enjoyed. Persistence of Time was certified gold by the RIAA in early 1991, and the band toured for nearly two years to promote the album, opening for Iron Maiden on their No Prayer for the Dying tour in Europe and North America, and appearing on the Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth , Slayer and opening act Alice in Chains . In 1991, Anthrax collaborated with Public Enemy on a version of " Bring the Noise ". This was a hit, and a successful tour with Public Enemy followed. "Bring the Noise" has been a live staple for Anthrax since they first played it in concert in 1989. The compilation Attack of the Killer B's was released in 1991, and featured three tracks from their 1989 EP Penikufesin , a new version of "I'm the Man" and a cover of "Bring the Noise" on which Ian did some vocals. In early 1992, shortly after signing a $10 million record deal with Elektra Records and following their appearance in Married... with Children , Belladonna was fired from Anthrax over creative and stylistic differences. After firing Belladonna, the remaining members of Anthrax auditioned several vocalists including Mark Osegueda of Death Angel and Spike Xavier of Mind Over Four . However, Armored Saint vocalist John Bush was the standout favorite and had in fact been floated as a potential replacement for Belladonna a few years earlier, due to questions about his reliability stemming from drug and alcohol abuse. The band's first album with Bush and for Elektra, Sound of White Noise , was released in 1993. Produced by Dave Jerden (then-known for his work with Jane's Addiction and Alice in Chains ), the album marked a change from Anthrax's earlier work, with a dark sound influenced by alternative rock , and it received mostly positive reviews. Critic Dave Connolley of AllMusic wrote that Bush "has a lower-register voice than Belladonna, and the result is menacing, premeditated, and sinister." The song " Only " was released as the album's first single. In the liner notes for Return of the Killer A's , Ian said that James Hetfield told him it was a "perfect song". In keeping with the band's eye for unlikely collaborations, classical composer Angelo Badalamenti provided music for "Black Lodge" (a nod to Twin Peaks ). This album demonstrated that Anthrax had fully shed its cartoonish persona in favor of mature, thoughtful songwriting, which began with Persistence of Time . The success of Sound of White Noise dissolved any fan worries that the band would not recover from their split with Belladonna; it was certified gold by the RIAA nearly two months after its release, and gave Anthrax their highest chart position to date at number seven on the Billboard 200 . The album also saw Anthrax continuing to headline arenas and theaters or amphitheaters, taking several bands such as Suicidal Tendencies , White Zombie , Quicksand , Fight and Clawfinger out as supporting acts. After Sound of White Noise longtime guitarist Dan Spitz left the band to become a watchmaker, leaving Anthrax a quartet temporarily. In 1995, Anthrax released their seventh studio album Stomp 442 , on which Charlie Benante played most of the lead-guitar parts. Benante was assisted by Paul Crook , who later became the band's touring lead guitarist for several years, and Dimebag Darrell of Pantera . The album's release followed a shake-up at Elektra the year before, which saw the firing of the label's president, Bob Krasnow , who was replaced by Sylvia Rhone . During a meeting with the band, Rhone told Anthrax that she wouldn't have signed their record deal. Elektra did not promote Stomp 442 , and it was less commercially successful than its predecessor. Frustrated by this, Anthrax severed its ties with the label. In late 1997, Anthrax signed with Ignition Records, an independent label distributed by Tommy Boy Records . The label released Volume 8: The Threat Is Real in July 1998. As on Stomp 442 , Benante performed lead guitar parts along with Crook and Darrell. The album also features Pantera vocalist Phil Anselmo making a guest vocal appearance. Towards the end of 1998, Tommy Boy ended its distribution deal with Ignition, after which the label went bankrupt, disrupting its distribution. Anthrax then signed with Beyond Records , who released the greatest-hits album Return of the Killer A's (1999), after which Beyond went out of business as well. During this period a two-vocalist tour with Belladonna and Bush was planned, but Belladonna decided not to participate at the last minute; however, on the mentioned Return of the Killer A's compilation, a cover of The Temptations song " Ball of Confusion " was recorded with the then-current lineup of the band (Ian/Benante/Bello/Bush/Crook), in addition to former vocalist Belladonna and former bassist Lilker. This is the only song to feature both Belladonna and Bush on co-vocals. Despite hardships and legal entanglements over album rights, Anthrax continued. In 2001, Rob Caggiano joined the band on lead guitar. During the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States the band changed its website, providing information about the disease after people began searching "anthrax.com" on internet search engines. Amid a potential PR nightmare, Anthrax issued a press release on October 10, 2001, joking that the band's name would be changed to "something more friendly, like 'Basket Full of Puppies'." Anthrax dispelled any name-change rumors derived from the press release at the November 2001 New York Steel 9/11 benefit concert , when they took the stage in boiler suits with a different word on each one which ultimately read "We're not changing our name". Bello has stated they did so after receiving support from members of the NYPD and FDNY, who believed that changing the name of the band would send the wrong message. A picture of the band in the suits is on the inner tray card of We've Come for You All . In 2003, the band signed to Sanctuary Records and released their ninth studio album We've Come for You All , praised by metal journalists as a return to form. The band then spent the summer of 2003 on tour with Motörhead . In early 2004, Anthrax released The Greater of Two Evils , a "live in the studio" re-recording of the earlier work with the band's then-current lineup. Bassist Frank Bello announced shortly afterwards that he was leaving the band to join Helmet , and was replaced by Fates Warning and Armored Saint member Joey Vera . In April 2005, Anthrax announced that the "classic" lineup of Scott Ian, Charlie Benante, Dan Spitz, Joey Belladonna and Frank Bello would reform. At some shows on the following tour, they played Among the Living in its entirety. Although the lineup was expected to record a new album after the tour, in January 2007 Ian said that Belladonna had not agreed to a reunion. John Bush also said he wasn't ready to re-commit to Anthrax and said he had been asked to return but had declined. Asked if he wanted to rejoin the band when Belladonna left, Bush said that he "just didn't feel right to do that." In December 2007, it was announced that the band's new vocalist would be Dan Nelson , formerly of Devilsize, and Rob Caggiano would return as lead guitarist. In May 2008, Anthrax played its first show in 19 months at Double Door in Chicago. In his monthly Food Coma column posted in December 2008, Scott Ian wrote that he had "been in the studio working on the new Anthrax album", promising to be "giving birth to a really pissed off, loud, fast and heavy child." He later wrote that the album was being mixed by Dave Fortman , who had worked with Evanescence and Slipknot . In early 2009, Anthrax began a brief tour opening for Iron Maiden in South America. In July, band manager Izvor Zivkovic confirmed the departure of Dan Nelson due to illness. Nelson denied this, saying that he was fired. All subsequent performances were canceled except the August UK Sonisphere Festival, which featured John Bush on vocals. Fan response after his performance led to a "Bring Back Bush" campaign, which was endorsed by Ian. Soon afterwards, Benante said that Bush had rejoined the band. In February 2010, Anthrax performed five shows as part of Soundwave in Australia. After the Australian shows, Bush said the band intended to re-record the vocals of several tracks from the upcoming album. In late 2009, Anthrax confirmed their participation in several "Big Four" concerts with Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer as part of the 2010 Sonisphere Festival dates in Europe. John Bush decided that he did not want to commit to the band full-time, and left Anthrax for the second time. Joey Belladonna returned to the band in early 2010 for the Sonisphere dates as well as committing to record a new studio album with the band. In June 2010 Anthrax, Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer performed on the same bill for the first time ever at seven Sonisphere shows. The Sofia , Bulgaria show was broadcast in cinemas and later released on DVD and Blu-ray . The bands would also play a few shows in the U.S. the following year, including a concert at Yankee Stadium in September 2011. In April 2011, Anthrax headlined in the Philippines for the first time at the annual Pulp Summer Slam with Death Angel and Hellyeah. The band also headlined the Jägermeister side stage at the Mayhem Festival of 2012, co-headlined by Slayer and Slipknot , and toured with Testament and Death Angel . In June Anthrax released the single " Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't " from the then-upcoming new album on their website as a free download to thank fans for their patience in waiting several years for new material. Worship Music was released on September 12, 2011, and debuted at #12 on the Billboard Top 200 album charts, their highest chart position since Sound of White Noise in 1993. In January 2013, Anthrax announced that lead guitarist Rob Caggiano had left the band to join Volbeat . It was announced shortly afterwards that Jonathan Donais of Shadows Fall had been hired as the band's touring lead guitarist. Donais was confirmed as an official member in August of that year. In March, Anthrax released the Anthems EP featuring cover versions of 1970s rock songs as well as two new versions of the song "Crawl" from Worship Music . According to Ian, the band began working on its next studio album in late 2013. They released a live DVD, Chile on Hell in 2014 which featured the band's 2013 performance at the Teatro Caupolican in Santiago, Chile. In early 2015, the band confirmed that they had recorded new material and embarked on a tour with Volbeat. Since Belladonna's return to Anthrax the band has been nominated for three Grammys, in 2012, 2013, and 2014. The band began 2016 with a short US tour with Lamb of God and released their eleventh studio album For All Kings on February 26, 2016. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 charts at number 9, surpassing the number 12 debut of Worship Music . In March, they opened for Iron Maiden on the Latin American leg of their The Book of Souls World Tour . Anthrax spent the summer playing festivals in Europe before embarking on a fall US and Canadian tour with Slayer and Death Angel . The band continued to tour within the next two years, embarking on The Killthrax Tour with Killswitch Engage twice (in 2017 and 2018), and along with Lamb of God , Behemoth , Testament , Napalm Death and Obituary , they supported Slayer on their final world tour from May to December 2018. On February 1, 2017, the band embarked on the 70,000 Tons of Metal cruise. They played two sets and became the first of the "Big Four" to attend the open seas festival. During the theater set, they played a cover of Stormtroopers of Death 's "March of the S.O.D." and debuted the song "Blood Eagle Wings". Anthrax released the live album and DVD Kings Among Scotland in 2018 which was recorded during their Glasgow, Scotland show on the For All Kings tour. In a March 2017 interview, drummer Charlie Benante hinted that Anthrax would begin working on their twelfth studio album that summer. He also revealed that there are a few unreleased tracks from the For All Kings sessions that could serve as a genesis for the follow-up album, stating, "I think there are two or three that we could dust off and use as a starting point." When asked in May 2018 if they were working on the album, guitarist Scott Ian stated, "Very, very, very preliminary stages. There's a couple of really great riffs. Charlie's sent around some really great ideas. But we haven't actually started working on anything. We've just been too busy touring." A month later, bassist Frank Bello claimed that Anthrax had intended to be back in the studio by mid-2018, but because they agreed to open for Slayer on their farewell tour , they were not expected to start writing their new album until at 2019 at the earliest. In a November 2020 interview with Full Metal Jackie , Ian stated that Anthrax would "certainly be ready to make a record next year", but added that its release date could be pushed back to 2022: "In my brain, I don't wanna put a record out until I can play shows." He later stated that "at some point there should be a [new Anthrax] record" in 2023. In April 2023, Benante said the band would begin recording the new album in two weeks for a 2024 release. Frontman Joey Belladonna began recording his vocals on November 5, 2023. The band's recording of " Antisocial " was prominently featured in the 2017 movie It but was not included on its official soundtrack release. Anthrax – alongside Testament , Corrosion of Conformity , Armored Saint , DevilDriver , John 5 , Doro and Metal Church – participated in Megadeth 's first-ever cruise called "Megacruise", which took place in October 2019. They resumed live activity during the summer and fall of 2021, with a livestream performance that saw the band celebrate its 40th anniversary, as well as appearances at U.S. festivals such as Aftershock and Welcome to Rockville . Although 2021 marked the band's 40th anniversary, the planned global anniversary tour was delayed due to travel complications arising from the COVID-19 pandemic ; instead, the band performed a livestream concert on July 16 of that year. The tour was delayed to 2022, with a North American leg beginning on July 16 with Black Label Society and Hatebreed as support, followed by a European tour to begin on September 27 with Municipal Waste , and then they toured North America again in January and February 2023 with Black Label Society and Exodus . The band also released the full livestream setlist as a live album under the title XL on July 15, 2022. On March 28, 2024, it was announced that original Anthrax bassist Dan Lilker will be performing with the band for the first time in 40 years on their spring 2024 tour dates by filling in for Bello, who is unable to perform due to "personal reasons". In support of their upcoming twelfth studio album, Anthrax will co-headline a European tour with Kreator in November and December 2024, with Testament as the opening act. Anthrax was formed in Queens , New York City, on July 18, 1981, by guitarists Scott Ian and Dan Lilker , with Ian's friend Dave Weiss on drums. The band was named after the disease of the same name which Ian saw in a biology textbook, chosen because it sounded "sufficiently evil". Lilker originally intended for Scott Setari to play bass in the band, during their early phases as a cover band. Anthrax's initial lineup was completed by singer John Connelly , and bassist Paul Kahn. Kahn was briefly replaced by bassist Kenny Kushner before Lilker took over on bass. Future Hittman singer Dirk Kennedy replaced Connelly for a few months and the band brought in lead guitarist Greg Walls. Weiss was then replaced early on by drummer Greg D'Angelo , who was recommended to the band by Walls. Ian's younger brother Jason Rosenfeld had been a temporary vocalist until Ian's former schoolmate Neil Turbin joined the band in late August 1982. Turbin joined the band partly because of guitarist Walls, who Turbin later said was "the best guitarist Anthrax ever had". The band recorded its first demo tape during this time.The band's first performance with Neil Turbin was at Great Gildersleeves, a New York club, in September 1982. This lineup played regularly in the New York–New Jersey area over the next several months. Anthrax was also on the same bill as the up-and-coming Metallica for several shows in the spring of 1983. Guitarist Walls left Anthrax that summer because of friction with Ian, and drummer D'Angelo left a month later. Turbin said he was seriously considering leaving because of the loss of Walls and D'Angelo, but he stuck it out for another year. Walls was replaced by Bob Berry, who was recommended to Turbin by Rhett Forrester of Riot . Berry was in turn soon replaced by Dan Spitz , who was previously a member of the New Jersey thrash band Overkill . Drummer Charlie Benante replaced D'Angelo in September 1983 after a several-month courtship by Ian. By this time, Ian and Lilker had befriended New Jersey record store owner Jon Zazula , to whom they had given their demo tapes to critique. Zazula's new record label Megaforce Records had recently released Metallica's debut album Kill 'Em All to great success. In late 1983, Zazula agreed to sign Anthrax and the band recorded the "Soldiers of Metal" single, which was produced by Ross the Boss of Manowar . The B-side was the song "Howling Furies" which was taken from a previous demo with Greg D'Angelo on drums (his only Anthrax recording). Anthrax released their debut album Fistful of Metal in January 1984. Former guitarist Walls said he was shocked that the album was released without giving credit to Walls as the primary songwriter on "Panic" and "Metal Thrashing Mad", as well as smaller songwriting contributions throughout the album. Tensions were building between Lilker and the rest of the band for various reasons, eventually leading to the band firing Lilker. He would soon form the band Nuclear Assault with former Anthrax roadie / vocalist John Connelly. Lilker was replaced by Benante's nephew and roadie Frank Bello . The band then went on a successful US tour opening for Raven and others to support Fistful of Metal . In August 1984, Turbin and Anthrax went their separate ways after long-standing personal issues. In his book Eddie Trunk's Essential Hard Rock and Heavy Metal , music journalist Eddie Trunk admits pressuring Jon Zazula , Scott Ian and Anthrax into firing Turbin because of his personal taste in vocals. Singer Matt Fallon was briefly hired in late 1984, but he and the band soon parted ways. The remaining members decided to play live shows as a four-piece billed as "The Diseased" with Scott Ian on vocals, performing hardcore punk covers until a permanent singer could be found.In 1984, Joey Belladonna was chosen as the new vocalist. The Armed and Dangerous EP marked Belladonna's recording debut with Anthrax. The 1992 reissue of the EP included the two songs from the "Soldiers of Metal" single that had Neil Turbin performing on them. Anthrax's second album Spreading the Disease was released in October 1985. It was well-received as both a technical leap forward from Fistful of Metal and as a more original effort, and remains one of the band's most highly regarded albums. With leftover studio time from these sessions, Ian, Benante and former bandmate Dan Lilker collaborated with vocalist Billy Milano to form the side project Stormtroopers of Death , and recorded the album Speak English or Die in three days. It was released in August 1985 and is now considered a pioneering crossover thrash release, featuring one of the earliest examples of a blast beat on record. Afterwards, the project was put on hold as Ian and Benante turned their focus back on Anthrax. The US tour to support Spreading the Disease opening for Black Sabbath was canceled after four dates due to Sabbath singer Glenn Hughes ' voice problems. In April 1986, Anthrax attempted its first tour of Europe beginning in Bochum, Germany, supported by Overkill and Agent Steel . The tour included a show near Chernobyl, Ukraine, immediately after the Chernobyl disaster . Later that year, Anthrax toured Europe with Metallica. The tour began on September 10 at St David's Hall and ended on September 26 in Solnahallen, Sweden. The Swedish show was Anthrax's last performance before the bus accident the following day, which killed Metallica bassist Cliff Burton . The band's third studio album Among the Living was released in March 1987, and is often considered by both the band and critics to be a major breakthrough for Anthrax. Produced by Eddie Kramer , it showcased the band's humorous, experimental side and began a lyrical trend focusing on movies, politics, comic books and Stephen King novels. The album was dedicated to Cliff Burton's memory. Propelled by the singles " Indians " and " I Am the Law ", the success of Among the Living not only turned Anthrax into a household name (along with the remaining "big four" of thrash metal–Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer ), but eventually earned them one of their first certified-gold records by the RIAA . "I Am the Law", which was released as the album's second single, was backed with a rap -metal hybrid " I'm the Man " as its B-side. Anthrax further indulged its appreciation for rap by appearing on the title track of U.T.F.O. 's album, Lethal , and their worship for the genre was also attributed to Ian wearing a t-shirt of Public Enemy both on stage and for publicity photo shoots; in response, Public Enemy name-checked Anthrax in the lyrics to their 1988 single " Bring the Noise ". Anthrax toured for over a year to promote Among the Living , touring Europe again with Metallica, the United States with Metal Church , Testament , D.R.I. , Exodus and Celtic Frost , and supporting Kiss on their Crazy Nights tour. Anthrax released their fourth album State of Euphoria in September 1988, and it was produced by Mark Dodson , who had previously worked with Judas Priest , U.D.O. and Metal Church . While the album was not quite as well-received as Among the Living , owing to its "rushed" finish, State of Euphoria was certified gold about five months after its release, and one of the singles " Antisocial ", originally by French heavy metal band Trust , became an MTV staple as part of the rotation on Headbangers Ball . By 1989, Anthrax was starting to play at arenas as a headlining or opening act, first supporting Ozzy Osbourne on his No Rest for the Wicked tour in North America, and then headlining European tours with Living Colour , Suicidal Tendencies and King's X , and the U.S. Headbangers Ball Tour with Exodus and Helloween . Also in 1989, MTV sponsored a contest in which the winner had her home trashed by the band. This would later inspire Anthrax's 1992 appearance on the television series Married... with Children , in which the Bundys win a similar TV contest. Anthrax returned to the studio at the end of 1989 to work on their fifth album, again with Dodson as the producer. Released in August 1990, Persistence of Time was written and recorded during a period of turmoil for Anthrax, as Ian had recently been divorced from his first wife, and the middle of the recording session was interrupted by a fire that caused the band to lose more than $100,000 worth of gear and their rehearsal studio. The band members also claimed it was during this period that there were talks of potentially working with a different singer, a situation that Belladonna was unaware of at the time. Considered by fans to be their serious effort, Persistence of Time was darker, more technical and more progressive than the band's previous work, striking a chord with metal fans wary of Anthrax's "silly" side. The most successful single from the album was a cover of Joe Jackson 's "Got the Time", which Jackson said he enjoyed. Persistence of Time was certified gold by the RIAA in early 1991, and the band toured for nearly two years to promote the album, opening for Iron Maiden on their No Prayer for the Dying tour in Europe and North America, and appearing on the Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth , Slayer and opening act Alice in Chains . In 1991, Anthrax collaborated with Public Enemy on a version of " Bring the Noise ". This was a hit, and a successful tour with Public Enemy followed. "Bring the Noise" has been a live staple for Anthrax since they first played it in concert in 1989. The compilation Attack of the Killer B's was released in 1991, and featured three tracks from their 1989 EP Penikufesin , a new version of "I'm the Man" and a cover of "Bring the Noise" on which Ian did some vocals.In early 1992, shortly after signing a $10 million record deal with Elektra Records and following their appearance in Married... with Children , Belladonna was fired from Anthrax over creative and stylistic differences. After firing Belladonna, the remaining members of Anthrax auditioned several vocalists including Mark Osegueda of Death Angel and Spike Xavier of Mind Over Four . However, Armored Saint vocalist John Bush was the standout favorite and had in fact been floated as a potential replacement for Belladonna a few years earlier, due to questions about his reliability stemming from drug and alcohol abuse. The band's first album with Bush and for Elektra, Sound of White Noise , was released in 1993. Produced by Dave Jerden (then-known for his work with Jane's Addiction and Alice in Chains ), the album marked a change from Anthrax's earlier work, with a dark sound influenced by alternative rock , and it received mostly positive reviews. Critic Dave Connolley of AllMusic wrote that Bush "has a lower-register voice than Belladonna, and the result is menacing, premeditated, and sinister." The song " Only " was released as the album's first single. In the liner notes for Return of the Killer A's , Ian said that James Hetfield told him it was a "perfect song". In keeping with the band's eye for unlikely collaborations, classical composer Angelo Badalamenti provided music for "Black Lodge" (a nod to Twin Peaks ). This album demonstrated that Anthrax had fully shed its cartoonish persona in favor of mature, thoughtful songwriting, which began with Persistence of Time . The success of Sound of White Noise dissolved any fan worries that the band would not recover from their split with Belladonna; it was certified gold by the RIAA nearly two months after its release, and gave Anthrax their highest chart position to date at number seven on the Billboard 200 . The album also saw Anthrax continuing to headline arenas and theaters or amphitheaters, taking several bands such as Suicidal Tendencies , White Zombie , Quicksand , Fight and Clawfinger out as supporting acts. After Sound of White Noise longtime guitarist Dan Spitz left the band to become a watchmaker, leaving Anthrax a quartet temporarily. In 1995, Anthrax released their seventh studio album Stomp 442 , on which Charlie Benante played most of the lead-guitar parts. Benante was assisted by Paul Crook , who later became the band's touring lead guitarist for several years, and Dimebag Darrell of Pantera . The album's release followed a shake-up at Elektra the year before, which saw the firing of the label's president, Bob Krasnow , who was replaced by Sylvia Rhone . During a meeting with the band, Rhone told Anthrax that she wouldn't have signed their record deal. Elektra did not promote Stomp 442 , and it was less commercially successful than its predecessor. Frustrated by this, Anthrax severed its ties with the label. In late 1997, Anthrax signed with Ignition Records, an independent label distributed by Tommy Boy Records . The label released Volume 8: The Threat Is Real in July 1998. As on Stomp 442 , Benante performed lead guitar parts along with Crook and Darrell. The album also features Pantera vocalist Phil Anselmo making a guest vocal appearance. Towards the end of 1998, Tommy Boy ended its distribution deal with Ignition, after which the label went bankrupt, disrupting its distribution. Anthrax then signed with Beyond Records , who released the greatest-hits album Return of the Killer A's (1999), after which Beyond went out of business as well. During this period a two-vocalist tour with Belladonna and Bush was planned, but Belladonna decided not to participate at the last minute; however, on the mentioned Return of the Killer A's compilation, a cover of The Temptations song " Ball of Confusion " was recorded with the then-current lineup of the band (Ian/Benante/Bello/Bush/Crook), in addition to former vocalist Belladonna and former bassist Lilker. This is the only song to feature both Belladonna and Bush on co-vocals. Despite hardships and legal entanglements over album rights, Anthrax continued. In 2001, Rob Caggiano joined the band on lead guitar. During the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States the band changed its website, providing information about the disease after people began searching "anthrax.com" on internet search engines. Amid a potential PR nightmare, Anthrax issued a press release on October 10, 2001, joking that the band's name would be changed to "something more friendly, like 'Basket Full of Puppies'." Anthrax dispelled any name-change rumors derived from the press release at the November 2001 New York Steel 9/11 benefit concert , when they took the stage in boiler suits with a different word on each one which ultimately read "We're not changing our name". Bello has stated they did so after receiving support from members of the NYPD and FDNY, who believed that changing the name of the band would send the wrong message. A picture of the band in the suits is on the inner tray card of We've Come for You All . In 2003, the band signed to Sanctuary Records and released their ninth studio album We've Come for You All , praised by metal journalists as a return to form. The band then spent the summer of 2003 on tour with Motörhead . In early 2004, Anthrax released The Greater of Two Evils , a "live in the studio" re-recording of the earlier work with the band's then-current lineup. Bassist Frank Bello announced shortly afterwards that he was leaving the band to join Helmet , and was replaced by Fates Warning and Armored Saint member Joey Vera .In April 2005, Anthrax announced that the "classic" lineup of Scott Ian, Charlie Benante, Dan Spitz, Joey Belladonna and Frank Bello would reform. At some shows on the following tour, they played Among the Living in its entirety. Although the lineup was expected to record a new album after the tour, in January 2007 Ian said that Belladonna had not agreed to a reunion. John Bush also said he wasn't ready to re-commit to Anthrax and said he had been asked to return but had declined. Asked if he wanted to rejoin the band when Belladonna left, Bush said that he "just didn't feel right to do that." In December 2007, it was announced that the band's new vocalist would be Dan Nelson , formerly of Devilsize, and Rob Caggiano would return as lead guitarist. In May 2008, Anthrax played its first show in 19 months at Double Door in Chicago. In his monthly Food Coma column posted in December 2008, Scott Ian wrote that he had "been in the studio working on the new Anthrax album", promising to be "giving birth to a really pissed off, loud, fast and heavy child." He later wrote that the album was being mixed by Dave Fortman , who had worked with Evanescence and Slipknot . In early 2009, Anthrax began a brief tour opening for Iron Maiden in South America. In July, band manager Izvor Zivkovic confirmed the departure of Dan Nelson due to illness. Nelson denied this, saying that he was fired. All subsequent performances were canceled except the August UK Sonisphere Festival, which featured John Bush on vocals. Fan response after his performance led to a "Bring Back Bush" campaign, which was endorsed by Ian. Soon afterwards, Benante said that Bush had rejoined the band. In February 2010, Anthrax performed five shows as part of Soundwave in Australia. After the Australian shows, Bush said the band intended to re-record the vocals of several tracks from the upcoming album. In late 2009, Anthrax confirmed their participation in several "Big Four" concerts with Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer as part of the 2010 Sonisphere Festival dates in Europe. John Bush decided that he did not want to commit to the band full-time, and left Anthrax for the second time. Joey Belladonna returned to the band in early 2010 for the Sonisphere dates as well as committing to record a new studio album with the band. In June 2010 Anthrax, Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer performed on the same bill for the first time ever at seven Sonisphere shows. The Sofia , Bulgaria show was broadcast in cinemas and later released on DVD and Blu-ray . The bands would also play a few shows in the U.S. the following year, including a concert at Yankee Stadium in September 2011. In April 2011, Anthrax headlined in the Philippines for the first time at the annual Pulp Summer Slam with Death Angel and Hellyeah. The band also headlined the Jägermeister side stage at the Mayhem Festival of 2012, co-headlined by Slayer and Slipknot , and toured with Testament and Death Angel . In June Anthrax released the single " Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't " from the then-upcoming new album on their website as a free download to thank fans for their patience in waiting several years for new material. Worship Music was released on September 12, 2011, and debuted at #12 on the Billboard Top 200 album charts, their highest chart position since Sound of White Noise in 1993. In January 2013, Anthrax announced that lead guitarist Rob Caggiano had left the band to join Volbeat . It was announced shortly afterwards that Jonathan Donais of Shadows Fall had been hired as the band's touring lead guitarist. Donais was confirmed as an official member in August of that year. In March, Anthrax released the Anthems EP featuring cover versions of 1970s rock songs as well as two new versions of the song "Crawl" from Worship Music . According to Ian, the band began working on its next studio album in late 2013. They released a live DVD, Chile on Hell in 2014 which featured the band's 2013 performance at the Teatro Caupolican in Santiago, Chile. In early 2015, the band confirmed that they had recorded new material and embarked on a tour with Volbeat. Since Belladonna's return to Anthrax the band has been nominated for three Grammys, in 2012, 2013, and 2014. The band began 2016 with a short US tour with Lamb of God and released their eleventh studio album For All Kings on February 26, 2016. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 charts at number 9, surpassing the number 12 debut of Worship Music . In March, they opened for Iron Maiden on the Latin American leg of their The Book of Souls World Tour . Anthrax spent the summer playing festivals in Europe before embarking on a fall US and Canadian tour with Slayer and Death Angel . The band continued to tour within the next two years, embarking on The Killthrax Tour with Killswitch Engage twice (in 2017 and 2018), and along with Lamb of God , Behemoth , Testament , Napalm Death and Obituary , they supported Slayer on their final world tour from May to December 2018. On February 1, 2017, the band embarked on the 70,000 Tons of Metal cruise. They played two sets and became the first of the "Big Four" to attend the open seas festival. During the theater set, they played a cover of Stormtroopers of Death 's "March of the S.O.D." and debuted the song "Blood Eagle Wings". Anthrax released the live album and DVD Kings Among Scotland in 2018 which was recorded during their Glasgow, Scotland show on the For All Kings tour. In a March 2017 interview, drummer Charlie Benante hinted that Anthrax would begin working on their twelfth studio album that summer. He also revealed that there are a few unreleased tracks from the For All Kings sessions that could serve as a genesis for the follow-up album, stating, "I think there are two or three that we could dust off and use as a starting point." When asked in May 2018 if they were working on the album, guitarist Scott Ian stated, "Very, very, very preliminary stages. There's a couple of really great riffs. Charlie's sent around some really great ideas. But we haven't actually started working on anything. We've just been too busy touring." A month later, bassist Frank Bello claimed that Anthrax had intended to be back in the studio by mid-2018, but because they agreed to open for Slayer on their farewell tour , they were not expected to start writing their new album until at 2019 at the earliest. In a November 2020 interview with Full Metal Jackie , Ian stated that Anthrax would "certainly be ready to make a record next year", but added that its release date could be pushed back to 2022: "In my brain, I don't wanna put a record out until I can play shows." He later stated that "at some point there should be a [new Anthrax] record" in 2023. In April 2023, Benante said the band would begin recording the new album in two weeks for a 2024 release. Frontman Joey Belladonna began recording his vocals on November 5, 2023. The band's recording of " Antisocial " was prominently featured in the 2017 movie It but was not included on its official soundtrack release. Anthrax – alongside Testament , Corrosion of Conformity , Armored Saint , DevilDriver , John 5 , Doro and Metal Church – participated in Megadeth 's first-ever cruise called "Megacruise", which took place in October 2019. They resumed live activity during the summer and fall of 2021, with a livestream performance that saw the band celebrate its 40th anniversary, as well as appearances at U.S. festivals such as Aftershock and Welcome to Rockville . Although 2021 marked the band's 40th anniversary, the planned global anniversary tour was delayed due to travel complications arising from the COVID-19 pandemic ; instead, the band performed a livestream concert on July 16 of that year. The tour was delayed to 2022, with a North American leg beginning on July 16 with Black Label Society and Hatebreed as support, followed by a European tour to begin on September 27 with Municipal Waste , and then they toured North America again in January and February 2023 with Black Label Society and Exodus . The band also released the full livestream setlist as a live album under the title XL on July 15, 2022. On March 28, 2024, it was announced that original Anthrax bassist Dan Lilker will be performing with the band for the first time in 40 years on their spring 2024 tour dates by filling in for Bello, who is unable to perform due to "personal reasons". In support of their upcoming twelfth studio album, Anthrax will co-headline a European tour with Kreator in November and December 2024, with Testament as the opening act. In 2012, Anthrax and former vocalist Dan Nelson reached an undisclosed settlement after the vocalist was fired during a 2009 tour. In October 2014, ex-vocalist Neil Turbin accused guitarist Scott Ian of "fabricating lies" about his split with the band in 1984 to "draw attention" to Ian's autobiography. In October 2015, former guitarist Dan Spitz took issue with a 2004 Guitar.com article (since offline) which suggested that the band's drummer, Charlie Benante, was responsible for laying down lead guitar on many of the group's classic songs. In a 2016 interview with Metal Voice, and again in a video that he uploaded to YouTube in December 2020, former guitarist Greg Walls claimed that he had contributed to the writing of the songs on the band's first album, Fistful of Metal , specifically claiming to have written all the music to "Metal Thrashing Mad" and the majority of "Panic" but the band copyrighted the songs without his credit. In the same videos, Walls also claimed that he told Scott to drop the name "Rosenfeld" and simply go by "Scott Ian". Anthrax is one of the bands responsible for the emergence of speed metal and thrash metal . It exhibited a typical thrash metal sound on its early albums and was known for humor and comic book references in the lyrics, distinguishing the band from its contemporaries. According to Rolling Stone , Anthrax was one of the few heavy metal bands to receive critical praise and redefine the genre during the 1980s. Original guitarists Scott Ian and Dan Spitz' styles were described as "aggressive and head pounding", with power chords and "chugging" pedal points providing the sonic drive. Author Thomas Harrison wrote that Anthrax played metal at a faster tempo because of its punk influences. It is said that many pioneering thrash musicians, such as Anthrax, were influenced equally by heavy metal and punk rock. In 1989, Brad Tolinski of Guitar World magazine noted that, "If Exodus is a speed metal equivalent of the Rolling Stones , then New York-based Anthrax must surely be the genre's Beatles ." The band's sixth album, 1993's Sound of White Noise (its first with singer John Bush), incorporated grunge and alternative metal influences in a darker vein. Critics consider the band's studio releases from the Bush era as having a more alternative metal, grunge and groove metal sound. The album Worship Music marked a return to thrash metal and the return of singer Joey Belladonna. Although the songs are credited to the whole band, since Spreading the Disease the music has been written almost entirely by Charlie Benante and the lyrics by Scott Ian , although John Bush made some lyrical contributions during his tenure in the band. Anthrax has been influenced by a variety of music, including classic rock and hard rock acts as Rush , Cheap Trick , AC/DC , Kiss , Queen , Thin Lizzy , Boston and Journey , all of whom the band had covered on its EP Anthems . Their other influences include heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath , Iron Maiden , Judas Priest , Accept , Motörhead , Exodus , UFO , Saxon , and Raven , as well as hardcore punk bands such as Bad Brains , D.R.I. , Suicidal Tendencies , and GBH . Anthrax is a member of the "big four" of thrash metal with Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer, and often credited as one of the first bands of the genre to emerge from the East Coast, along with Overkill and Nuclear Assault . The band has been credited for laying the groundwork for rap metal and nu metal . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Anthrax sold 2.5 million records in the United States from 1991 to 2004, and 10 million worldwide. Anthrax has influenced multiple bands such as Pantera , Sepultura , Cannibal Corpse , Testament , Death Angel , Korn , Limp Bizkit , 311 , Papa Roach , Killswitch Engage , Sevendust , Terror and Insane Clown Posse . Anthrax has been known to reference or draw influences from numerous sources in popular culture. " I Am the Law " is about the comic book character Judge Dredd . The title track to the album Among the Living is based on the Stephen King novel The Stand , in particular the character of villain Randall Flagg , while "A Skeleton in the Closet" is based on King's novella Apt Pupil and "Efilnikufesin (N.F.L.)" pays tribute to actor and original Saturday Night Live cast member John Belushi . The song "The Constant" is based on an episode of Lost . The band, for a period of time, used a caricature of a bald man's face as a mascot; he was colloquially christened the "Not Man". The face itself comes from a rubber kids toy called "Magic Monster". Studio albumsCalifornia Music Awards Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards Grammy Awards Kerrang! Awards Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Metal Storm Awards Revolver Music Awards (formerly known as Revolver Golden Gods Awards)

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Anthrax

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Anthrax anthrax

Anthrax anthrax is a species of fly in the family Bombyliidae . Unlike, for example, Bombylius major , this species does not mimic a bee. The eggs are flicked by the adult female toward the entrance of the nests of mason bees. After hatching, the larvae find their way into the nests to feed on the bee larva. A. can be found in May to August throughout mainland Europe . In the Netherlands A. anthrax is a common visitor of insect hotels . It was first recorded as breeding in Britain in 2019. A. anthrax is a fairly large fly, the body length is 10 mm. The body is black with four white markings at tergum 2 and 3 and two white markings at the end of the abdomen. Tergum 1 is black with tufts of white hairs at the side. These tufts are visible in this picture of a hovering fly. The wings are mostly black, only the top is transparent. The veins are dark brown. The following picture was overexposed. Due to the brightly lit background the veins are visible. The newly emerged Anthrax anthrax may be found sitting on a bee hotel . Their body is dull black with more transparent wings.The females may be found hovering before an insect hotel shooting eggs into the nest entrances of mason bees. Occasionally females rub their abdomen with dust or sand. Dust or sand is necessary to make the eggs less tacky. To this end the females have a 'sand chamber'. A. anthrax is sometimes seen hovering above a flower.Afghanistan , Albania , Algeria , Armenia , Austria , Azerbaijan , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canary Islands , China , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Georgia , Hungary , Iran , Italy , Serbia .

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Anthrax

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Anthrax (disambiguation)

Anthrax is an acute disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis . Anthrax may also refer to:

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Anthrax

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Anthrax discography

American thrash metal band Anthrax has released eleven studio albums , seven live albums , seven compilation albums , ten video albums , six extended plays , twenty-six singles and twenty-six music videos . Anthrax was formed in 1981 by guitarist Scott Ian and bassist Danny Lilker , who picked the band's name from a biology textbook. After releasing its debut Fistful of Metal (1984) on the independent label Megaforce Records , Anthrax signed to major label Island Records . Singer Joey Belladonna and bassist Frank Bello joined the lineup and the band released Spreading the Disease the following year. The band's third studio album Among the Living (1987) was its commercial breakthrough, peaking at number 62 on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Its fourth album State of Euphoria (1988) peaked at 31 on the Billboard 200 and received gold certification in the US. Persistence of Time (1990), noted for its darker lyrical content than previous albums, peaked at number 24 on the Billboard 200. The band's sixth studio album Sound of White Noise (1993), its first with singer John Bush , was its highest-charting album in the US, peaking at number seven and received gold certification. Longtime guitarist Dan Spitz left the band shortly after, and drummer Charlie Benante played most of the lead guitar parts on Stomp 442 (1995) until Paul Crook was hired as a touring guitarist. Volume 8: The Threat Is Real (1998) was released by the independent label Ignition Records, whose imminent bankruptcy hurt album sales. Ninth studio album We've Come for You All (2003), first with guitarist Rob Caggiano , entered the Billboard 200 at number 122 but failed to chart on most international markets. Belladonna returned for Worship Music (2011) and For All Kings (2016); which both received favorable reviews.Released: January 28, 1984 Label: Megaforce Released: October 30, 1985 Label: Megaforce/ Island Released: March 22, 1987 Label: Megaforce/Island Released: September 18, 1988 Label: Megaforce/Island Released: August 21, 1990 Label: Megaforce/Island Released: May 25, 1993 Label: Elektra Released: October 24, 1995 Label: Elektra Released: July 21, 1998 Label: Ignition Released: May 6, 2003 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 13, 2011 Label: Megaforce Released: February 26, 2016 Label: Megaforce Released: April 5, 1994 Label: Island Released: April 20, 2004 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Sanctuary Released: January 22, 2007 Label: Universal Released: October 29, 2010 Label: Warner Bros. Released: September 16, 2014 Label: Nuclear Blast Released: April 27, 2018 Label: Nuclear Blast Released: July 22, 2022 Label: Nuclear Blast Released: June 25, 1991 Label: Island Released: November 23, 1999 Label: Beyond Released: June 26, 2001 Label: Island Released: November 23, 2004 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Island Released: November 23, 1999 Label: Beyond Released: April 20, 2004 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Island Def Jam Released: October 29, 2010 Label: Universal Music Released: September 16, 2014 Label: Megaforce Released: April 27, 2018 Label: Nuclear BlastReleased: January 28, 1984 Label: Megaforce Released: October 30, 1985 Label: Megaforce/ Island Released: March 22, 1987 Label: Megaforce/Island Released: September 18, 1988 Label: Megaforce/Island Released: August 21, 1990 Label: Megaforce/Island Released: May 25, 1993 Label: Elektra Released: October 24, 1995 Label: Elektra Released: July 21, 1998 Label: Ignition Released: May 6, 2003 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 13, 2011 Label: Megaforce Released: February 26, 2016 Label: MegaforceReleased: April 5, 1994 Label: Island Released: April 20, 2004 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Sanctuary Released: January 22, 2007 Label: Universal Released: October 29, 2010 Label: Warner Bros. Released: September 16, 2014 Label: Nuclear Blast Released: April 27, 2018 Label: Nuclear Blast Released: July 22, 2022 Label: Nuclear BlastReleased: June 25, 1991 Label: Island Released: November 23, 1999 Label: Beyond Released: June 26, 2001 Label: Island Released: November 23, 2004 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: IslandReleased: November 23, 1999 Label: Beyond Released: April 20, 2004 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Sanctuary Released: September 20, 2005 Label: Island Def Jam Released: October 29, 2010 Label: Universal Music Released: September 16, 2014 Label: Megaforce Released: April 27, 2018 Label: Nuclear BlastReleased: February 1985 Label: Megaforce Released: 1987 Label: Island Released: August 1989 Label: Island Released: March 19, 2013 Label: Megaforce

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Anthrax vaccine

Anthrax vaccines are vaccines to prevent the livestock and human disease anthrax , caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis . They have had a prominent place in the history of medicine, from Pasteur's pioneering 19th-century work with cattle (the first effective bacterial vaccine and the second effective vaccine ever) to the controversial late 20th century use of a modern product to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in biological warfare . Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current vaccine approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was formulated in the 1960s. Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular (USA, UK) and live spore (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general reactogenicity ( erythema , induration , soreness , fever ) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. New third-generation vaccines being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant sub-unit vaccines.In the 1870s, the French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) applied his previous method of immunising chickens against chicken cholera to anthrax , which affected cattle , and thereby aroused widespread interest in combating other diseases with the same approach. In May 1881, Pasteur performed a famous public experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25 sheep, one goat and several cows. The animals of one group were twice injected, with an interval of 15 days, with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur; a control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the non-vaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived. The public reception was sensational. Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacilli to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint (1847–1890), a Toulouse veterinary surgeon , to create the anthrax vaccine. This method used the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate . Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a patent on the production of an anthrax vaccine. The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox . Inoculation with smallpox ( variolation ) was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. The English physician Edward Jenner (1749–1823) had also discovered (1796) the process of vaccination by using cowpox to give cross-immunity to smallpox and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been "generated artificially", so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name " vaccines ", in honor of Jenner's groundbreaking discovery. In 1885, Pasteur produced his celebrated first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue. In 1995, the centennial of Pasteur's death, The New York Times ran an article titled "Pasteur's Deception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes, the science historian Gerald L. Geison declared Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort. The same year, Max Perutz published a vigorous defense of Pasteur in The New York Review of Books . The Austrian-South African immunologist Max Sterne (1905–1997) developed an attenuated live animal vaccine in 1935 that is still employed and derivatives of his strain account for almost all veterinary anthrax vaccines used in the world today. Beginning in 1934 at the Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Institute, north of Pretoria , he prepared an attenuated anthrax vaccine, using the method developed by Pasteur. A persistent problem with Pasteur's vaccine was achieving the correct balance between virulence and immunogenicity during preparation. This notoriously difficult procedure regularly produced casualties among vaccinated animals. With little help from colleagues, Sterne performed small-scale experiments which isolated the "Sterne strain" (34F2) of anthrax which became, and remains today, the basis of most of the improved livestock anthrax vaccines throughout the world. As Sterne's vaccine is a live vaccine, vaccination during use of antibiotics produces much reduced results and should be avoided. There is a withholding period after vaccination when animals cannot be slaughtered. No such period is defined for milk and there are no reports of humans being infected by products from vaccinated animals. There have been a few cases when humans accidentally self-inject the vaccine when trying to administer to a struggling animal. One case developed fever and meningitis, but it is unclear whether the illness was caused by the vaccine. Livestock anthrax vaccines are made in many countries around the world, most of which use 34F2 with saponin adjuvant. Anthrax vaccines were developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and available for use in humans by 1940. A live attenuated, unencapsulated spore vaccine became widely used for humans. It was given either by scarification or subcutaneous injection (only in emergency) and its developers claimed that it was reasonably well tolerated and showed some degree of protective efficacy against cutaneous anthrax in clinical field trials. The efficacy of the live Russian vaccine was reported to have been greater than that of either of the killed British or US anthrax vaccines (AVP and AVA, respectively) during the 1970s and '80s. The STI-1 vaccine, consisting only of freeze-dried spores, is given in a two-dose schedule, but serious side-effects restricted its use to healthy adults. It was reportedly manufactured at the George Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology and Virology in Tbilisi, Georgia , until 1991. As of 2008, the STI-1 vaccine remains available, and is the only human anthrax vaccine "nominally available outside national borders". China uses a different live attenuated strain for their human vaccines, designated "A16R". The A16R vaccine is given as a suspention in 50% glycerol and distilled water. A single dose is given by scarification, followed by a booster in 6 or 12 months, then annual boosters. British biochemist Harry Smith (1921–2011), working for the UK bio-weapons program at Porton Down , discovered the three anthrax toxins in 1948. This discovery was the basis of the next generation of antigenic anthrax vaccines and for modern antitoxins to anthrax. The widely used British anthrax vaccine—sometimes called Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated (AVP) to distinguish it from the similar AVA (see below)—became available for human use in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine in distinction to the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine previously used for veterinary purposes. It is now manufactured by Porton Biopharma Ltd, a Company owned by the UK Department of Health. AVP is administered at primovaccination in three doses with a booster dose after six months. The active ingredient is a sterile filtrate of an alum -precipitated anthrax antigen from the Sterne strain in a solution for injection. The other ingredients are aluminium potassium sulphate , sodium chloride and purified water. The preservative is thiomersal (0.005%). The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection and the primary course of four single injections (3 injections 3 weeks apart, followed by a 6-month dose) is followed by a single booster dose given once a year. During the Gulf War (1990–1991), UK military personnel were given AVP concomitantly with the pertussis vaccine as an adjuvant to improve overall immune response and efficacy.The United States undertook basic research directed at producing a new anthrax vaccine during the 1950s and '60s. The product known as Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA)—trade name BioThrax —was licensed in 1970 by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) and in 1972 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took over responsibility for vaccine licensure and oversight. AVA is produced from culture filtrates of an avirulent, nonencapsulated mutant of the B. anthracis Vollum strain known as V770-NP1-R. No living organisms are present in the vaccine which results in protective immunity after 3 to 6 doses. AVA remains the only FDA-licensed human anthrax vaccine in the United States and is produced by Emergent BioSolutions , formerly known as BioPort Corporation in Lansing , Michigan. The principal purchasers of the vaccine in the United States are the Department of Defense and Department of Health and Human Services . Ten million doses of AVA have been purchased for the U.S. Strategic National Stockpile for use in the event of a mass bioterrorist anthrax attack. In 1997, the Clinton administration initiated the Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP), under which active U.S. service personnel were to be immunized with the vaccine. Controversy ensued since vaccination was mandatory and GAO published reports that questioned the safety and efficacy of AVA, causing sometimes serious side effects. A Congressional report also questioned the safety and efficacy of the vaccine and challenged the legality of mandatory inoculations. Mandatory vaccinations were halted in 2004 by a formal legal injunction which made numerous substantive challenges regarding the vaccine and its safety. After reviewing extensive scientific evidence, the FDA determined in 2005 that AVA is safe and effective as licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. In 2006, the Defense Department announced the reinstatement of mandatory anthrax vaccinations for more than 200,000 troops and defense contractors. The vaccinations are required for most U.S. military units and civilian contractors assigned to homeland bioterrorism defense or deployed in Iraq , Afghanistan or South Korea . A number of experimental anthrax vaccines are undergoing pre-clinical testing, notably the Bacillus anthracis protective antigen—known as PA (see Anthrax toxin —combined with various adjuvants such as aluminum hydroxide (Alhydrogel), saponin QS-21 , and monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) in squalene / lecithin / Tween 80 emulsion (SLT). One dose of each formulation has provided significant protection (> 90%) against inhalational anthrax in rhesus macaques .

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The Anthrax

The Anthrax was a highly regarded all-ages music venue that hosted punk and hardcore shows in Connecticut. To the many touring acts that played there, The Anthrax was as essential a stop as punk rock landmarks like New York City 's CBGB or 924 Gilman Street in Berkeley, California . Founded in 1982 by brothers Brian and Shaun Sheridan, the actual club was located in the basement of a makeshift art gallery on the then dilapidated west side of Stamford, Connecticut , at 70 Main Street. The space was small and the stage was barely 5 inches off the ground. Many bands played the small Stamford location including 7 Seconds , Corrosion of Conformity , Youth of Today , RKL and Circle Jerks . By the summer of 1986, the reputation of The Anthrax grew and attendance at shows had outgrown the physical space. The Stamford location closed its doors and within 3 months the Anthrax reopened at a much larger location at 25 Perry Avenue in nearby Norwalk, Connecticut . At the Norwalk location, the club's reputation continued to grow and Brian and Shaun Sheridan continued to book shows until November 1990 when a neighboring apartment complex won a decision against the club in a zoning dispute. Among the many influential bands that performed the Norwalk location were Reagan Youth , The Exploited , 7 Seconds , MDC , Descendents , Government Issue , NOFX , Die Kreuzen , Fugazi , Sick of It All , Dag Nasty and many more. The Anthrax is often mentioned in books about hardcore history. The book Everybody's Scene by Chris Daily is solely about The Anthrax and contains many photographs.

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Persistence of Time

Persistence of Time is the fifth studio album by the American thrash metal band Anthrax . It was released on August 21, 1990, through Megaforce Worldwide / Island Records and was nominated in 1991 for a Grammy Award in the Best Metal Performance category. The album included the singles, " Got the Time " (a Joe Jackson cover) and "In My World" (which was performed by the band on the Married... with Children episode, " My Dinner with Anthrax "). Persistence of Time was the last full Anthrax album to feature vocalist Joey Belladonna until 2011's Worship Music .Anthrax returned to the studio in the fall of 1989 with Mark Dodson (who produced the previous album, State of Euphoria ) to start work on their fifth album. Recording of the album was difficult, with a large structure fire causing the band to lose more than $100,000 worth of gear and their rehearsal studio on January 24, 1990. [ citation needed ] Following this disaster, the band moved to a different studio in late February of that year to finish work on the album. The album's tone is decidedly more contemplative and mature than the bulk of Anthrax's previous work. Abandoning the humor and comic book references which were common on their previous albums, the lyrical focus of Persistence of Time is the need for tolerance and peace. Reaction to Persistence of Time was mixed, with critics and fans alternately panning and praising this darker sound. The band also introduced a progressive side of the music which had not been present in their earlier work, while also placing a reduced emphasis on typical thrash metal elements such as fast tempo and aggression. This is the last full studio album to feature Joey Belladonna on vocals before John Bush took over vocal duties. Belladonna appeared on several songs on the 1991 EP Attack of the Killer B's before splitting acrimoniously from the band in 1992. He returned to the band in June 2010 to record the album Worship Music , which was released in 2011. The introduction to the instrumental song "Intro to Reality" featured dialogue from an episode of The Twilight Zone called " Deaths-Head Revisited ". "Keep It in the Family", "In My World", and "Belly of the Beast" were later re-recorded with the John Bush/ Rob Caggiano line-up for the album The Greater of Two Evils .Persistence of Time's highest position on the Billboard 200 chart was No. 24. It was certified gold by the RIAA on January 17, 1991. Steve Huey of AllMusic gave the album a favorable review, saying that it "rivals Among the Living as Anthrax's best album". "The more cartoonish side of the band" is substituted by a "dark, uncompromising examination of society's dirty underbelly", which makes Persistence of Time "their most lyrically consistent album". Kim Neely of the American magazine Rolling Stone underlines the social tone of the lyrics and describes Persistence of Time as "a foray into the dreary, gray bowels of urban hell", praising singer Joey Belladonna for "railing against every societal ill known to city-bred man". He concludes saying that the album "ain't the most uplifting thing to listen to, but it's real." A similar concept was explained by a review by The New York Times of November 18, 1990, which said that "the music carries the exhilaration of a desperate struggle." Canadian journalist Martin Popoff praised the "admirable Prong/Pantera/Metallica '90s minimalism at work here", but found "the overall effect just so dense and relentless that it just wears you out by hangover's end." Loudwire ranked the album #25 on their list "Top 90 Hard Rock + Metal Albums of the 90's". All tracks are written by Anthrax except "Got the Time" by Joe JacksonRick Downey – lighting, management George Geranios – sound Paul Crook – lead guitar tech Bill Pulaski – band Mike Tempesta – rhythm guitar tech Troy Boyer – bass tech Walter Gemenhardt – drum tech Art Ring, Maria Ferrero – managementposition position^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

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Anthrax weaponization

Anthrax weaponization is the development and deployment of the bacterium Bacillus anthracis or, more commonly, its spore (referred to as anthrax ), as a biological weapon . As a biological weapon, anthrax has been used in biowarfare and bioterrorism since 1914. However, in 1975 the Biological Weapons Convention prohibited the "development, production and stockpiling" of biological weapons. It has since been used in bioterrorism. Anthrax spores can cause infection from inhalation, skin contact, ingestion or injection and when untreated can lead to death. Likely delivery methods of weaponized anthrax include aerial dispersal or dispersal through livestock, notable bioterrorism uses include the 2001 anthrax attacks and an incident in 1993 by the Aum Shinrikyo group in Japan. Concentrated anthrax spores, and not necessarily the bacterium Bacillus anthracis , pose the biggest risk as a biological weapons to humans. When airborne, anthrax spores are not easily detectable, and are several microns in diameter. They are able to reach deep into the lungs when inhaled. Once the spores are in the lungs they are then able to replicate in blood, travel to the lymph nodes , and produce toxins which lead to death. Post exposure symptoms resemble flu-like illness followed by a fulminant phase of severe acute respiratory distress, shock and, ultimately death. Anthrax spores are able to be dispersed via multiple methods and infect humans with ease. The symptoms present as a common cold or flu , and may take weeks before appearing. The destructive effects of an anthrax attack on a large city may have the destructive capacity of a nuclear weapon . A mathematical model of a simulated large-scale airborne anthrax attack in a large city (1 kg anthrax spores in a city of 10 million people) was created, which takes into account the dispersion of spores, the age-dependent dose-response, the dynamics of disease progression and the timing and organization of medical intervention. The results of this model with the most efficient medical response resulted in more than 100 000 deaths, which increases by a factor of 7 with slower antibiotic distribution. Outside of the initial threat to individuals there are the costs of economic disruption, decontamination and treatment from such an event. The economic costs of the 2001 anthrax attacks resulted in over 100 million dollars being spent to decontaminate postal plants. The contamination is thought to have been less than 1 gram of anthrax spores in the facilities. The cost to decontaminate the Hart Senate Office Building after the 2001 anthrax attacks cost approximately 23 million dollars, with approximately 2 grams of anthrax spores present. A mathematical model of a simulated large-scale airborne anthrax attack in a large city (1 kg anthrax spores in a city of 10 million people) was created, which takes into account the dispersion of spores, the age-dependent dose-response, the dynamics of disease progression and the timing and organization of medical intervention. The results of this model with the most efficient medical response resulted in more than 100 000 deaths, which increases by a factor of 7 with slower antibiotic distribution. Outside of the initial threat to individuals there are the costs of economic disruption, decontamination and treatment from such an event. The economic costs of the 2001 anthrax attacks resulted in over 100 million dollars being spent to decontaminate postal plants. The contamination is thought to have been less than 1 gram of anthrax spores in the facilities. The cost to decontaminate the Hart Senate Office Building after the 2001 anthrax attacks cost approximately 23 million dollars, with approximately 2 grams of anthrax spores present. Detection of airborne anthrax requires 24–48 hours. Rapid detection in the atmosphere is not yet technologically effective. The system put in place on 22 January 2003 to assist in detecting an airborne anthrax attack by the United States is the U.S. Bio-watch Surveillance Network , which is able to detect airborne anthrax within 24–48 hours, however with some false positives and false negatives , leading to severe lag in detection and critical time lost for prevention and treatment. Vaccination to anthrax is available, requiring 6 shots over an 18-month period and annual booster shots for full immunity. Vaccination of military personnel and first responders is vital to sustain a post attack response. The complete vaccination of an entire population can be achieved over a period of years, resulting in the reduction of risk from anthrax comparable to the reduction of risk of nuclear weapons by anti-ballistic missile systems. Once exposure occurs and before the fulminant stage, antibiotic treatment of ciprofloxacin 400 mg or doxycycline 100 mg intravenously twice daily as well as two other antibiotics ( clindamycin , vancomycin , imipenem , meropenem , chloramphenicol , penicillin , rifampicin , clarithromycin ) and close clinical observation for a 60-100 day period is recommended. The passive dispersal of anthrax spores aerially has occurred from rooftops ( Aum Shinrikyo ), from aircraft ( Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night ) or potentially, as suggested in 2002, by United States' President George W. Bush , "a small container and one terrorist" An intercontinental ballistic missile warhead containing anthrax may be able to effectively disperse anthrax spores. North Korea is believed to be conducting tests on anthrax filled warheads which may be deployed on Hwasong-15 missiles, which could be used to contaminate areas, such as military bases, in a time of war for periods of months. The concerns of reentry temperatures and pressure of the anthrax filled warhead are able to be overcome by thermal insulation of the payload. Similar to a warhead, an anthrax filled bomb, such as the E61 Anthrax Bomblet or other N-bomb cluster munition filled with anthrax spores could allow an area to be contaminated for months, or decades. In the case of Gruinard Island testing N-bomb cluster munition containing anthrax spores contaminated the island from 1942 until a decontamination effort in 1986. Anthrax spores are not only able to be used as a weapon to directly infect humans. They are also able to target livestock , which may lead to transmission of anthrax between both animals and humans. This method may use another mechanism to infect livestock, where inevitably the livestock become a mechanism to disperse anthrax themselves and also result in the loss of the livestock. However, it can also be achieved with direct feeding, such as the "cattle cakes" containing anthrax spores, which were kept on hand by the Royal Air Force for aerial dispersal during the second World War . This was to be used in retaliation to any biological warfare by Nazi Germany . The largest anthrax epidemic in the last 200 years occurred in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe ) in the 1980s, where there may be evidence of deliberate anthrax releases by Rhodesian and South African forces , and is the progenitor of South Africa's biological weapons program ( Project Coast ). This epidemic is responsible for 10 738 cattle and 200 human fatalities. The passive dispersal of anthrax spores aerially has occurred from rooftops ( Aum Shinrikyo ), from aircraft ( Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night ) or potentially, as suggested in 2002, by United States' President George W. Bush , "a small container and one terrorist" An intercontinental ballistic missile warhead containing anthrax may be able to effectively disperse anthrax spores. North Korea is believed to be conducting tests on anthrax filled warheads which may be deployed on Hwasong-15 missiles, which could be used to contaminate areas, such as military bases, in a time of war for periods of months. The concerns of reentry temperatures and pressure of the anthrax filled warhead are able to be overcome by thermal insulation of the payload. Similar to a warhead, an anthrax filled bomb, such as the E61 Anthrax Bomblet or other N-bomb cluster munition filled with anthrax spores could allow an area to be contaminated for months, or decades. In the case of Gruinard Island testing N-bomb cluster munition containing anthrax spores contaminated the island from 1942 until a decontamination effort in 1986. Anthrax spores are not only able to be used as a weapon to directly infect humans. They are also able to target livestock , which may lead to transmission of anthrax between both animals and humans. This method may use another mechanism to infect livestock, where inevitably the livestock become a mechanism to disperse anthrax themselves and also result in the loss of the livestock. However, it can also be achieved with direct feeding, such as the "cattle cakes" containing anthrax spores, which were kept on hand by the Royal Air Force for aerial dispersal during the second World War . This was to be used in retaliation to any biological warfare by Nazi Germany . The largest anthrax epidemic in the last 200 years occurred in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe ) in the 1980s, where there may be evidence of deliberate anthrax releases by Rhodesian and South African forces , and is the progenitor of South Africa's biological weapons program ( Project Coast ). This epidemic is responsible for 10 738 cattle and 200 human fatalities. The largest anthrax epidemic in the last 200 years occurred in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe ) in the 1980s, where there may be evidence of deliberate anthrax releases by Rhodesian and South African forces , and is the progenitor of South Africa's biological weapons program ( Project Coast ). This epidemic is responsible for 10 738 cattle and 200 human fatalities. As a response to the biological and chemical atrocities of the First World War , the Geneva Protocol was created. This prevented "Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or other Gasses or Bacteriological Methods of Warfare" being used. However this treaty did not prohibit the production or the research of biological agents - amendments were made to allow the use of biological weapons in retaliation. An executive order by United States president Richard Nixon in 1969 terminated the United States' biological weapons program . This led to the destruction of the biological weapons arsenal and the termination of research and production of biological weapons. This change lead to increased resources for the research and creation of methods such as "vaccines, treatments and diagnostic tests", to defend against biological weapons. The Biological Weapons Convention is a treaty that prohibits the "Development, Production and Stockpiling of Biological and Toxin Weapons" and the destruction of those which were already in existence, including anthrax. This treaty was created based on proposals by Great Britain and the Warsaw Pact nations, where it was ratified in April 1972 and went into force in 1975. Over 100 nations signed the treaty, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Brazil and Iraq. As a response to the biological and chemical atrocities of the First World War , the Geneva Protocol was created. This prevented "Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or other Gasses or Bacteriological Methods of Warfare" being used. However this treaty did not prohibit the production or the research of biological agents - amendments were made to allow the use of biological weapons in retaliation. An executive order by United States president Richard Nixon in 1969 terminated the United States' biological weapons program . This led to the destruction of the biological weapons arsenal and the termination of research and production of biological weapons. This change lead to increased resources for the research and creation of methods such as "vaccines, treatments and diagnostic tests", to defend against biological weapons. The Biological Weapons Convention is a treaty that prohibits the "Development, Production and Stockpiling of Biological and Toxin Weapons" and the destruction of those which were already in existence, including anthrax. This treaty was created based on proposals by Great Britain and the Warsaw Pact nations, where it was ratified in April 1972 and went into force in 1975. Over 100 nations signed the treaty, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Brazil and Iraq. During the first World War , evidence suggests that the German army used anthrax to infect the livestock of Allied Nations , resulting in the death of many livestock intended for trade between allied forces. In 1932 Japan tested anthrax as a weapon by infecting prisoners held in Manchuria as a part of Japan's biological weapons program " Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night ". During this program the Japanese used aircraft to attack at least 11 Chinese cities by spraying homes directly with anthrax. As a response to possible attacks from Germany, the United States, Great Britain and Canada started biological weapons programs. Experimentation of these bombs occurred in Mississippi, Utah and Gruinard Island in Scotland. In 1942 and 1943 n-bomb cluster munition, containing anthrax spores were detonated over Gruinard Island , as a joint research program between the United States, Canada and Great Britain. 80 sheep were placed on the island prior to the dispersal of aerosol anthrax; all of them died. More interest in Gruinard Island came in the early 1980s when a survey discovered that there was still anthrax contamination in the environment, showing the long term effects of anthrax use as a biological weapons. In 1986 Great Britain decontaminated the island with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater, and was passed as safe by a group of scientists led by the secretary of the Agricultural and Food Research Council in 1988 after 40 sheep were raised on the island for several months without symptoms of anthrax infection. Programs were expanded during the Korean War in order to protect US troops against biological agents, where a program was added for the development of vaccines and other treatments . In April and May 1979 in the city of Sverdlovsk (population of 1.2 million ), an anthrax outbreak was reported. 96 cases of anthrax infection were reported where 79 were gastrointestinal anthrax and 17 were cutaneous, of these cases 64 out of the 96 infected people died in a period of weeks. Soviet reports in 1979 denied the manufacture of biological weapons and reported that the anthrax outbreak originated from livestock, but in 1992 it was confirmed by the president of Russia, Boris Yeltsin , that the outbreak originated from a Soviet military microbiological facility within 4 kilometers of the city, and occurred from improper installation of air filters at the facility. 1993 the Aum Shinrikyo cult released anthrax spores from the roof of an eight-story building in downtown Tokyo. Upon investigation, the spores used were from the 'Sterne strain' of anthrax, which is an attenuated bacterium that is used to vaccinate animals. In 1995 UNSCOM inspectors discovered that Iraq had a biological warfare program , despite an agreement ending the Gulf War in 1991, that all programs involving weapons of mass destruction are accounted for and ended. In July 1995 documents were confirmed by defectors who ran Iraq's biological warfare program; that the biological weapons program produced a large variety of biological weapons, including anthrax, which was able to be delivered by missiles, bombs and aerosols. It was also discovered that there was an arsenal of these weapons in 1991. After the attacks of September 11 on the United States, letters were delivered to two U.S. Senators' offices and several media agencies containing a powdered form of anthrax. The process of delivering these letters led to the postal facilities and buildings that they passed through being contaminated. The powdered anthrax was able to disperse into the air without being detected and eventually inhaled. 43 people tested positive to anthrax exposure and 22 cases of anthrax illness were diagnosed, where 11 were inhalation anthrax and 11 were cutaneous anthrax. Five people from this group died. During the first World War , evidence suggests that the German army used anthrax to infect the livestock of Allied Nations , resulting in the death of many livestock intended for trade between allied forces. In 1932 Japan tested anthrax as a weapon by infecting prisoners held in Manchuria as a part of Japan's biological weapons program " Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night ". During this program the Japanese used aircraft to attack at least 11 Chinese cities by spraying homes directly with anthrax. As a response to possible attacks from Germany, the United States, Great Britain and Canada started biological weapons programs. Experimentation of these bombs occurred in Mississippi, Utah and Gruinard Island in Scotland. In 1942 and 1943 n-bomb cluster munition, containing anthrax spores were detonated over Gruinard Island , as a joint research program between the United States, Canada and Great Britain. 80 sheep were placed on the island prior to the dispersal of aerosol anthrax; all of them died. More interest in Gruinard Island came in the early 1980s when a survey discovered that there was still anthrax contamination in the environment, showing the long term effects of anthrax use as a biological weapons. In 1986 Great Britain decontaminated the island with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater, and was passed as safe by a group of scientists led by the secretary of the Agricultural and Food Research Council in 1988 after 40 sheep were raised on the island for several months without symptoms of anthrax infection. In 1942 and 1943 n-bomb cluster munition, containing anthrax spores were detonated over Gruinard Island , as a joint research program between the United States, Canada and Great Britain. 80 sheep were placed on the island prior to the dispersal of aerosol anthrax; all of them died. More interest in Gruinard Island came in the early 1980s when a survey discovered that there was still anthrax contamination in the environment, showing the long term effects of anthrax use as a biological weapons. In 1986 Great Britain decontaminated the island with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater, and was passed as safe by a group of scientists led by the secretary of the Agricultural and Food Research Council in 1988 after 40 sheep were raised on the island for several months without symptoms of anthrax infection. Programs were expanded during the Korean War in order to protect US troops against biological agents, where a program was added for the development of vaccines and other treatments . In April and May 1979 in the city of Sverdlovsk (population of 1.2 million ), an anthrax outbreak was reported. 96 cases of anthrax infection were reported where 79 were gastrointestinal anthrax and 17 were cutaneous, of these cases 64 out of the 96 infected people died in a period of weeks. Soviet reports in 1979 denied the manufacture of biological weapons and reported that the anthrax outbreak originated from livestock, but in 1992 it was confirmed by the president of Russia, Boris Yeltsin , that the outbreak originated from a Soviet military microbiological facility within 4 kilometers of the city, and occurred from improper installation of air filters at the facility. 1993 the Aum Shinrikyo cult released anthrax spores from the roof of an eight-story building in downtown Tokyo. Upon investigation, the spores used were from the 'Sterne strain' of anthrax, which is an attenuated bacterium that is used to vaccinate animals. In 1995 UNSCOM inspectors discovered that Iraq had a biological warfare program , despite an agreement ending the Gulf War in 1991, that all programs involving weapons of mass destruction are accounted for and ended. In July 1995 documents were confirmed by defectors who ran Iraq's biological warfare program; that the biological weapons program produced a large variety of biological weapons, including anthrax, which was able to be delivered by missiles, bombs and aerosols. It was also discovered that there was an arsenal of these weapons in 1991. After the attacks of September 11 on the United States, letters were delivered to two U.S. Senators' offices and several media agencies containing a powdered form of anthrax. The process of delivering these letters led to the postal facilities and buildings that they passed through being contaminated. The powdered anthrax was able to disperse into the air without being detected and eventually inhaled. 43 people tested positive to anthrax exposure and 22 cases of anthrax illness were diagnosed, where 11 were inhalation anthrax and 11 were cutaneous anthrax. Five people from this group died.

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Anthrax

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Fistful of Metal

"Soldiers of Metal" Released: November 1983 Fistful of Metal is the debut studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax , released in January 1984 by Megaforce Records (US only) and Music for Nations internationally. The album includes a cover of Alice Cooper 's " I'm Eighteen ". This is the band's only album to feature original frontman Neil Turbin and original bassist Dan Lilker , who were replaced by Matt Fallon (and eventually by third vocalist Joey Belladonna ) and Frank Bello , respectively. Former original guitarist Greg Walls claims that Anthrax "ripped him off" as he claims he wrote the material on the album. Schoolmates Danny Lilker and Scott Ian formed Anthrax in 1981 in New York City. They both played guitar, but Lilker switched to bass when they could not find a suitable bassist. In 1982, after some lineup rotations, Anthrax added vocalist and fellow schoolmate Neil Turbin . Drummer Charlie Benante and lead guitarist Dan Spitz were added in 1983. Anthrax recorded a five-track demo in early 1983, which led to the band signing with Jon Zazula 's Megaforce Records . The label issued a seven-inch single of "Soldiers of Metal / Howling Furies", which sold 3,000 copies in two weeks. Fistful of Metal was recorded in Pyramid Sound Studios in Ithaca, New York and produced by Carl Canedy, drummer in The Rods. The album was released in January 1984 by Megaforce in the US, Music for Nations in the UK, and Roadrunner in Europe. Shortly after the release of Fistful of Metal , Lilker was fired by Anthrax. In Lilker's own words "After I was thrown out, the guys unfairly said, "Well, it took him 30 times to record the bass track for 'I'm Eighteen,'" and if you listen to the bass track, if you didn't know the whole story, you would say, "Well, that's weird, isn't it?" It's only, like, five notes." The band, at Ian and Benante's insistence, hired Charlie's nephew, Frank Bello , as Lilker's replacement. Turbin had contributed song ideas, lyrics, titles and arrangements to most songs on the album, as well as three songs from the second album Spreading the Disease , but Ian and Benante, who played guitar in addition to drums, felt they needed tighter control on the songwriting. Due to a songwriting partnership between Ian and Benante, with Ian wanting to be more of a central focal point he began writing the lyrics and Benante the music, Turbin was forced out of the band a few weeks after the Roseland Ballroom show with Metallica . Music journalist Eddie Trunk stated: "Early on, I told Jon Zazula that what I didn't like about Anthrax was singer Neil Turbin's vocals." He admits in his writing to pressuring Zazula and Anthrax into firing Turbin from the band. The band did not rehire Lilker when given the opportunity and instead opted for then Anthrax roadie Frank Bello . Former guitarist Greg Walls said he was shocked that the album was released without giving credit to Walls as the primary songwriter on "Panic" and "Metal Thrashing Mad", as well as smaller songwriting contributions throughout the album. Fistful of Metal was released in January 1984. It was released as a double album by Music for Nations in the UK, featuring extra mixes of "Soldiers of Metal" and "Howling Furies", which were not included on the US edition. Megaforce repackaged a compilation of Fistful of Metal and the 1985 extended play Armed and Dangerous in 2005, which featured a different artwork and some liner notes, but excluded any new mixes and bonus tracks. Commemorating its 25th anniversary, Megaforce reissued the album on three colored 10-inch LPs, also including Armed and Dangerous . Critical reception to Fistful of Metal was mixed. Xavier Russel of Kerrang! called it a great debut album, with songs played "at a hundred miles an hour" which could just have been "slightly more original." Writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music , Colin Larkin called the cover art "tasteless", but commended the album's small, but steady commercial performance. AllMusic 's Steve Huey said Anthrax had not found its distinctive style yet, sounding more like a Judas Priest cover band. Huey found the lyrics utilizing heavy metal stereotypes and opined fans would find the record "off-putting". Canadian journalist Martin Popoff praised the well-produced sound and the "almost operatic anti-thrash vocals" from Turbin, considering the album responsible for "putting New York back on the US metal map, and quality back in the books of bruising and uncompromising underground metal." The term thrash metal was used for the first time in the music press by Kerrang! journalist Malcolm Dome , referring to the song "Metal Thrashing Mad". Guitar World magazine placed the album on their list of "New Sensations: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1984". In June 2019, Decibel inducted Fistful of Metal in their Hall of Fame, due to its reputation as one of the best early examples of thrash metal. Despite its acclaim, Fistful of Metal is considered to be one of the least represented studio albums of Anthrax's career. Most of the songs from the album have rarely been played live since the band rose to popularity with their next two albums, Spreading the Disease and Among the Living , although "Deathrider", "Metal Thrashing Mad", "Panic", "Soldiers of Metal", "Anthrax" and "Across the River" have seen periodic revivals in later years. No songs from this album have ever appeared on any of the band's compilation albums, including Return of the Killer A's , Madhouse: The Very Best of Anthrax and Anthrology: No Hit Wonders (1985–1991) , though they did re-record the heavily requested "Deathrider", "Metal Thrashing Mad", "Panic", and "Anthrax" for their 2004 album The Greater of Two Evils (the latter appearing on the 2-disc Japanese version as a bonus track). In 1986, the album was banned in Germany by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons for its violent cover artwork. The ban has since expired.Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. Jon Zazula – executive producer Carl Canedy – producer Chris Bubacz – engineer Alex Perialas – assistant engineer Jack Skinner – mastering Crazed Management – management Kent Joshpe – illustration Sharold Studios - artworkJon Zazula – executive producer Carl Canedy – producer Chris Bubacz – engineer Alex Perialas – assistant engineer Jack Skinner – mastering Crazed Management – management Kent Joshpe – illustration Sharold Studios - artwork

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Anthrax

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Worship Music (album)

"Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't" Released: June 24, 2011 "The Devil You Know" Released: August 9, 2011 "In the End" Released: November 17, 2011 "I'm Alive" Released: January 4, 2012 Worship Music is the tenth studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax . The album was released on September 12, 2011 internationally, and on September 13 in the United States. It was the band's first album of original material since 2003's We've Come for You All , the first full-length Anthrax album since the return of longtime vocalist Joey Belladonna , and the final album with guitarist Rob Caggiano prior to his departure in January 2013. The album's creation was a lengthy process, with work beginning as early as November 2008. The album was delayed due to issues with the departure of vocalist Dan Nelson , and for a short period of time the re-joining of John Bush who ultimately decided not to commit to the album. The band eventually reunited with Belladonna, and finished recording in April 2011. Worship Music was positively received upon release, with critics describing it as "fresh and eruptive as ever" and qualified it as a return to form for the band. The record debuted at number 12 in the United States, their highest chart position since 1993's Sound of White Noise .In the December 2008 edition of his monthly SuicideGirls column, Food Coma , guitarist Scott Ian revealed that he had been in the studio working on the new Anthrax album since November 4. Ian went on to say that drums, bass, and rhythm guitar had been arranged for 19 tracks, and that the process of recording the vocals had begun. "We should be mixing at the end of January and soon after that giving birth to a really pissed off, loud, fast and heavy child." In a subsequent May 2009 Food Coma column, Ian announced that the album was being mixed by Dave Fortman , whose previous credits include albums by Evanescence and Slipknot . The album was initially scheduled to feature Dan Nelson on vocals. However, following the events later that year, he was no longer a member of the band. When asked what would happen to the completed studio album featuring Nelson's vocals, Ian said: "Until we have a new singer, I can't tell you what will happen to the record. We'll probably change a few things on it, including the vocals." Ian also indicated that the album's release could be delayed until 2010. It was assumed that John Bush was going to record new vocals for the album after his reunion with the band. However, this did not happen. In an interview at the time, Bush said he was trying to re-record vocals for some of the songs that had already been recorded. Bush eventually decided that he did not want to recommit to Anthrax full-time and left the group. As a result, the band reunited with Joey Belladonna . Following shows during the summer and fall of 2010, the band returned to the studio. Some of the completed songs were left as is, adding Belladonna's vocals, others were re–written, and some entirely new songs were composed with Belladonna. Drummer Charlie Benante suggested the album's title after the eponymous TV show. Although Ian stated that the album name could be changed, this turned out not to be the case. In October 2010 at Nassau Coliseum , Anthrax performed the song "Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't" for the first time with Belladonna. It was at this point that Ian said fans should expect the new record in late 2011. In December, Ian stated that the band had almost completed the new album and only had to re-record two or three tracks. Ian further confirmed that all the material would feature vocals by Belladonna. Noisecreep reported that Worship Music had been shelved until Belladonna completed new vocal tracks. The band finished recording Worship Music in April 2011, and called it their "most emotional album". "Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't" was released as the lead single on June 24, 2011. It was released for free download as a way of saying "thank you" to fans' loyalty in waiting in anticipation for the album. Three days later, Ian announced that the band had started the mastering process for the upcoming album. The cover art was revealed the following month. The songs "Earth on Hell" and "Revolution Screams" refer to democracy in the United States and around the world. According to Ian, at the time of the album's release, these songs were "very much about people taking the power back". Although the songs were written long before, he cited the 2011 Egyptian revolution and Occupy Wall Street demonstrations as examples of this phenomenon coming to pass. "The Devil You Know", despite the line "Let the right one in" and the band's history of using horror stories as subject matter, was not a reference to the 2004 Swedish vampire novel Let the Right One In ; it was about World War II veterans. "Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't" is about a zombie apocalypse , and "In the End" was written as a tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio , an inspiration for the band, and Dimebag Darrell , a friend and collaborator on three Anthrax albums. "Judas Priest" was named as a tribute to the heavy metal band Judas Priest , and contains a bridge that references several well-known Priest songs. "The Constant" is about the episode of the 2004 television series Lost of the same name , where a character travels through time until he finds his "constant". "I'm Alive" was written when Dan Nelson was member of the band. Anthrax premiered the song live in 2008, though it was titled "Vampires" at that time. It is notable for its tribal-sounding introduction with clean guitars backed up by a marching drum beat, before taking off into a heavy riff and gradually breaking into a melodic chorus. In an album preview by Blabbermouth.net , "I'm Alive" was described as "beautiful and grand with a build that demands audience participation". The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance , the band's fourth Grammy nomination. Worship Music was internationally released on September 12, 2011, and on September 13 in the United States. It sold 28,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release and debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 , the third highest position of their career (the second being its successor, For All Kings , which charted at number 9) and the highest since Sound of White Noise (1993), which peaked at number 7. The band's previous studio album, We've Come for You All (2003), opened with just under 10,000 units to debut at number 122. The album charted at number 13 in Germany and managed to break into the top 10 in Finland, reaching number 6. By September 2012, Worship Music sold about 100,000 copies in the United States. When asked about a possible follow-up to Worship Music , bassist Frank Bello said that the band intended to re-release Worship Music with several bonus tracks. The bonus tracks were set to include covers of Rush and Boston songs. Bello stated that the plan was to release the reissue in the fall of 2012. A few days later, band members announced that five covers were included: "Anthem" by Rush, " Smokin' " by Boston, "Neon Knights" by Black Sabbath , " T.N.T. " by AC/DC , and "Keep on Runnin'" by Journey . Although Scott Ian expected the reissue to be released by the end of the year, it was eventually postponed for 2013. The special edition of Worship Music was released on March 22, 2013 by Nuclear Blast . It consists of the original album and a bonus EP of cover songs, Anthems , which was also released separately on the same day in Europe, and three days earlier in North America. Critical reception of the album was generally positive. AllMusic 's Greg Prato noted that in spite of the issues surrounding the departure of Dan Nelson, the album fits together "seamlessly" and called it the group's finest studio recording since Persistence of Time (1990). Jason Heller of The A.V. Club praised the album for being rid of the " nü-metal stench" of the previous record and the "all-around patchiness" from the other John Bush-era albums. Heller noted that it brought the band back into the "youthful dynamic". Classic Rock journalist Malcolm Dome observed that musically, Worship Music is a mixture of "the grinding power" of We've Come for You All and the more "clear-cut melodic approach" of Among the Living (1987), resulting in an album that is "violently metallic yet sophisticated". Michael Christopher of The Boston Phoenix commented that Anthrax has learned from its past mistakes in making the album. He observed that the humor that characterized the previous albums was still present, and called this album a "fresh fistful of metal". Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times compared Worship Music to Metallica's Lulu , saying that Anthrax, unlike Metallica, opted to "reclaim ground" dominated by younger bands. Mark Fisher, writing in Metal Forces , highlighted the guitar performance, saying it reminded him of the sound Anthrax is mostly associated with. Although Fisher preferred the albums with John Bush on vocals, he remarked that Worship Music is a fine recording with a career-defining performance by Joey Belladonna. Chad Bowar from About.com also praised Belladonna's performance, noting that the vocal delivery was filled with angst and emotion. He opined that Anthrax sounded rejuvenated and qualified the album as a return to form. Chad Grischow of IGN commented that the album sounded "as fresh and eruptive as ever" with the exception of "Crawl", the "rare misstep on the otherwise fantastic album". Loudwire 's Matthew Wilkening said that Belladonna's 20-year absence from the band hasn't affected the band's chemistry at all. According to him, the album represented the maturity and musical growth of the band. PopMatters 's Chris Colgan described the music as a combination of the "later material with shades of their thrash beginnings". He believes this wasn't "the glorious comeback" for Anthrax, but called it a solid album with signs of progress for the group. Anthrax spent the following two years touring in support of Worship Music . The band started the tour with the "big four" shows alongside Metallica , Slayer , and Megadeth , which took place in the summer of 2011. Due to the birth of his child, Ian missed the European leg of the tour; Sepultura guitarist Andreas Kisser acted as a fill-in. Ian was able to make an appearance in Milan , Italy, joining the band and Kisser for half of the setlist. Anthrax continued touring in late 2011. In October and November, Anthrax embarked on a 23 date US tour co-headlining with Testament and openers Death Angel . These three bands resumed performing together in early 2012. The trio announced further dates in the US and Canada in the fall of 2012, with Testament promoting their then-new album, Dark Roots of Earth . Anthrax teamed up with Motörhead for a ten show UK tour in November. In January 2013, it was announced that Caggiano had left the band. He was replaced by Shadows Fall guitarist Jonathan Donais. Anthrax was announced as the headliner for the third annual Metal Alliance US tour, which endured through March and April 2013. Supporting acts included Exodus , Municipal Waste , and Holy Grail , with the headliner Anthrax performing Among the Living in its entirety. Charlie Benante has been taking time off from gigs outside the US because of personal reasons. His place was filled in by drummer Jon Dette during these shows. The group filmed their performance at Santiago, Chile, with Benante on drums, for the DVD album Chile On Hell . The tour ended with a show at San Bernardino, California, at the two-year anniversary of the album's release. After finishing the tour, the band took a short break before reconvening to start work on a new album. All songs written by Belladonna, Bello, Benante and Ian (except "New Noise", written and originally performed by Refused ). Tracks 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12 and 13 co-written by Dan Nelson . Credits are adapted from AllMusic . Rob Caggiano – producer Jay Ruston – mixing and additional production Asim Ali – engineer Andy Lagis – assistant engineer Alex Ross – artwork Charlie Benante – cover concept Douglas Heusser – artwork, design Ross Halfin – photographyRob Caggiano – producer Jay Ruston – mixing and additional production Asim Ali – engineer Andy Lagis – assistant engineer Alex Ross – artwork Charlie Benante – cover concept Douglas Heusser – artwork, design Ross Halfin – photographyposition

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Anthrax

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List of Anthrax members

Anthrax is an American thrash metal band from New York City. Formed in 1981, the group was originally a foursome consisting of guitarist Scott Ian , bassist Dan Lilker and drummer Dave Weiss. The band has been through many personnel changes, and currently includes rhythm guitarist Scott Ian , drummer Charlie Benante (since 1983), bassist Frank Bello (since 1984), vocalist Joey Belladonna (who first joined in 1984) and lead guitarist Jonathan Donais (since 2013).Anthrax was originally formed in 1981 by Scott Ian , Dan Lilker and Dave Weiss. A few months later, John Connelly and Paul Kahn took over on vocals and bass, respectively, and Lilker switched to rhythm guitar. The band went through many lineup changes in its early stages – Connelly was replaced by Dirk Kennedy , followed by Ian's brother Jason Rosenfeld, then Tommy Wise; Greg Walls spent two years with the group on lead guitar (Ian switched to rhythm guitar), followed briefly by Bob Berry; Kahn was replaced by Kenny Kushner, before Lilker took over on bass when Walls joined; and Weiss was replaced by Greg D'Angelo . The band eventually settled in 1983 with a lineup including Ian and Lilker, lead vocalist Neil Turbin (who joined in August 1982), Dan Spitz (lead guitar, backing vocals) and Charlie Benante (drums). After signing with Jon Zazula 's new thrash metal label Megaforce Records later in the year, Anthrax recorded its debut album Fistful of Metal . Shortly after its January 1984 release, Turbin fired Lilker without consulting with the other members of the band, although Ian has since admitted that "there were issues" with the bassist. He was replaced by Frank Bello . Tensions continued to grow between Turbin and the rest of the group as they toured throughout 1984, leading to his eventual departure in August. The vocalist was briefly replaced by Matt Fallon , before Joey Belladonna joined later in the year. After recording four studio albums with the band, Belladonna was fired from Anthrax in 1992 due to stylistic changes the group intended to take, with John Bush taking his place. Dan Spitz left Anthrax in 1995 to become a professional watchmaker . Guitars on Stomp 442 were recorded by Ian, Benante, Paul Crook and Pantera 's Dimebag Darrell . Crook remained with Anthrax for touring and recording after the release of Stomp 442 , although never became an official member. He was replaced in August 2001 by former Boiler Room guitarist Rob Caggiano . Bello briefly left in March 2004, with Joey Vera temporarily taking his place. It was announced in September 2005 that Belladonna, Spitz and Bello would return to Anthrax for a reunion tour and potentially new recordings. Alive 2 was recorded on the tour, but by January 2007 the reunion had fallen through as Belladonna had reportedly chosen not to continue working with the other members. By the end of 2007, the group had enlisted Dan Nelson as its new lead vocalist and brought back Caggiano. However, after recording a new album with the band, Nelson left in July 2009 and was replaced for future tour dates by Bush. Belladonna returned to Anthrax the following year, making his first appearance at June's " big four " show and re-recording vocals on the album Worship Music . Caggiano left the band in January 2013, with Shadows Fall guitarist Jon Donais taking his place a week later. Anthrax was originally formed in 1981 by Scott Ian , Dan Lilker and Dave Weiss. A few months later, John Connelly and Paul Kahn took over on vocals and bass, respectively, and Lilker switched to rhythm guitar. The band went through many lineup changes in its early stages – Connelly was replaced by Dirk Kennedy , followed by Ian's brother Jason Rosenfeld, then Tommy Wise; Greg Walls spent two years with the group on lead guitar (Ian switched to rhythm guitar), followed briefly by Bob Berry; Kahn was replaced by Kenny Kushner, before Lilker took over on bass when Walls joined; and Weiss was replaced by Greg D'Angelo . The band eventually settled in 1983 with a lineup including Ian and Lilker, lead vocalist Neil Turbin (who joined in August 1982), Dan Spitz (lead guitar, backing vocals) and Charlie Benante (drums). After signing with Jon Zazula 's new thrash metal label Megaforce Records later in the year, Anthrax recorded its debut album Fistful of Metal . Shortly after its January 1984 release, Turbin fired Lilker without consulting with the other members of the band, although Ian has since admitted that "there were issues" with the bassist. He was replaced by Frank Bello . Tensions continued to grow between Turbin and the rest of the group as they toured throughout 1984, leading to his eventual departure in August. The vocalist was briefly replaced by Matt Fallon , before Joey Belladonna joined later in the year. After recording four studio albums with the band, Belladonna was fired from Anthrax in 1992 due to stylistic changes the group intended to take, with John Bush taking his place. Dan Spitz left Anthrax in 1995 to become a professional watchmaker . Guitars on Stomp 442 were recorded by Ian, Benante, Paul Crook and Pantera 's Dimebag Darrell . Crook remained with Anthrax for touring and recording after the release of Stomp 442 , although never became an official member. He was replaced in August 2001 by former Boiler Room guitarist Rob Caggiano . Bello briefly left in March 2004, with Joey Vera temporarily taking his place. It was announced in September 2005 that Belladonna, Spitz and Bello would return to Anthrax for a reunion tour and potentially new recordings. Alive 2 was recorded on the tour, but by January 2007 the reunion had fallen through as Belladonna had reportedly chosen not to continue working with the other members. By the end of 2007, the group had enlisted Dan Nelson as its new lead vocalist and brought back Caggiano. However, after recording a new album with the band, Nelson left in July 2009 and was replaced for future tour dates by Bush. Belladonna returned to Anthrax the following year, making his first appearance at June's " big four " show and re-recording vocals on the album Worship Music . Caggiano left the band in January 2013, with Shadows Fall guitarist Jon Donais taking his place a week later. rhythm guitar backing vocals bass (studio only) lead guitar (1981, occasionally afterwards) drums percussion additional lead guitar (studio only) 1984–2004 2005–present bass backing vocals 1984–1992 2005–2007 2010–present lead guitar backing vocals Chile on Hell (2014) For All Kings (2016) Kings Among Scotland (2018) XL (2022) bass rhythm guitar (1981) 1983–1995 2005–2007 lead guitar backing vocals all Anthrax releases from Fistful of Metal (1984) to Sound of White Noise (1993) Alive 2 (2005) 1992–2005 2009–2010 2001–2005 2007–2013 lead guitar backing vocals lead guitar backing vocals 2004–2005 2008 2012 2006 2012 rhythm guitar backing vocals 2012 2018 2012 2013 2015 2017 2018 2023rhythm guitar backing vocals bass (studio only) lead guitar (1981, occasionally afterwards) drums percussion additional lead guitar (studio only) 1984–2004 2005–present bass backing vocals 1984–1992 2005–2007 2010–present lead guitar backing vocals Chile on Hell (2014) For All Kings (2016) Kings Among Scotland (2018) XL (2022)bass rhythm guitar (1981) 1983–1995 2005–2007 lead guitar backing vocals all Anthrax releases from Fistful of Metal (1984) to Sound of White Noise (1993) Alive 2 (2005) 1992–2005 2009–2010 2001–2005 2007–2013 lead guitar backing vocalslead guitar backing vocals 2004–2005 2008 2012 2006 2012 rhythm guitar backing vocals 2012 2018 2012 2013 2015 2017 2018 2023Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Neil Turbin – lead vocals Dan Spitz – lead guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Dan Spitz – lead guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Matt Fallon – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Dan Spitz – lead guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Joey Belladonna – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Dan Spitz – lead guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals John Bush – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums, lead guitar Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals John Bush – lead vocals Paul Crook - lead guitar, backing vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals John Bush – lead vocals Rob Caggiano – lead guitar, backing vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, bass, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums John Bush – lead vocals Rob Caggiano – lead guitar, backing vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Dan Spitz – lead guitar, backing vocals Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Joey Belladonna – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Rob Caggiano – lead guitar, backing vocals Dan Nelson – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Rob Caggiano – lead guitar, backing vocals John Bush – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Rob Caggiano – lead guitar, backing vocals Joey Belladonna – lead vocals Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Charlie Benante – drums Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals Joey Belladonna – lead vocals Jonathan Donais – lead guitar, backing vocals Chile on Hell (2014) For All Kings (2016) Kings Among Scotland (2018) XL (2022)

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Anthrax

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Anthrax toxin

Anthrax toxin is a three- protein exotoxin secreted by virulent strains of the bacterium , Bacillus anthracis —the causative agent of anthrax . The toxin was first discovered by Harry Smith in 1954. Anthrax toxin is composed of a cell-binding protein, known as protective antigen (PA), and two enzyme components, called edema factor (EF) and lethal factor (LF). These three protein components act together to impart their physiological effects. Assembled complexes containing the toxin components are endocytosed . In the endosome , the enzymatic components of the toxin translocate into the cytoplasm of a target cell. Once in the cytosol, the enzymatic components of the toxin disrupts various immune cell functions, namely cellular signaling and cell migration. The toxin may even induce cell lysis, as is observed for macrophage cells. Anthrax toxin allows the bacteria to evade the immune system , proliferate, and ultimately kill the host animal. Research on anthrax toxin also provides insight into the generation of macromolecular assemblies , and on protein translocation , pore formation, endocytosis , and other biochemical processes.Anthrax is a disease caused by Bacillus anthracis , a spore-forming, Gram positive , rod-shaped bacterium (Fig. 1). The lethality of the disease is caused by the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: (i) the polyglutamic acid capsule, which is anti- phagocytic , and (ii) the tripartite protein toxin, called anthrax toxin. Anthrax toxin is a mixture of three protein components: (i) protective antigen (PA), (ii) edema factor (EF), and (iii) lethal factor (LF).Anthrax toxin is an A-B toxin . Each individual anthrax toxin protein is nontoxic. Toxic symptoms are not observed when these proteins are injected individually into laboratory animals. The co-injection of PA and EF causes edema , and the co-injection of PA and LF is lethal. The former combination is called edema toxin, and the latter combination is called lethal toxin. Thus the manifestation of physiological symptoms requires PA, in either case. The PA requirement observed in animal-model experiments demonstrates a common paradigm for bacterial toxins, called the A / B paradigm. The A component is enzymatically active, and the B component is the cell binding component. Anthrax toxin is of the form A 2 B , where the two enzymes , EF and LF, are the A components and PA is the B component. PA is necessary for the enzymatic components to enter the cell. It does this by the formation of pores that span the cell membrane, allowing the entry of the toxin, though the mechanism is not fully understood. Once in the cytosol, they may then catalyze reactions that disrupt normal cellular physiology. Anthrax toxin protein components must assemble into holotoxin complexes to function. In order for LF and EF to function inside a target cell, they must localize to the cell and enter its cytoplasm. Through a series of steps, PA can translocate EF and LF into the cell (Fig. 2). This process starts when the 83-kDa form of PA, called PA83, binds to an anthrax toxin receptor . There are two known homologous receptors, which bind to PA83, called tumor endothelium marker-8 ( TEM8 ) and capillary morphogenesis protein 2 ( CMG2 ) . Then a 20 kDa fragment (PA20) is cleaved off PA83's amino terminus by membrane endoproteases from the furin family. When PA20 dissociates, the remaining receptor-bound portion of PA, called PA63, may assemble into either a heptameric or octameric ring-shaped oligomer . This ring-shaped oligomer is often referred to as the pre-pore (or pre-channel) form of PA, since later in the pathway it will become a translocase pore (or channel). The surface of the pre-pore oligomer, which was exposed upon release of the PA20 moiety, can then bind to LF and EF. The heptameric and octameric forms of the PA oligomer may then bind with up to three or four molecules of EF and/or LF, respectively. The cell then endocytoses these assembled complexes and carries them to an acidic compartment in the cell. The low pH encountered in the endosome causes the PA63 pre-channel to convert into a cation-selective channel. EF and LF are driven through the channel by a pH gradient, allowing the enzyme factors to enter the cytosol . Once in the cytosol, the EF and LF then carry out their respective damage-inducing processes. Thus, the synergistic effect of these three proteins leads to cellular death through a cascade of events that allow the proteins to enter the cell and disrupt cellular function.Anthrax toxin protein components must assemble into holotoxin complexes to function. In order for LF and EF to function inside a target cell, they must localize to the cell and enter its cytoplasm. Through a series of steps, PA can translocate EF and LF into the cell (Fig. 2). This process starts when the 83-kDa form of PA, called PA83, binds to an anthrax toxin receptor . There are two known homologous receptors, which bind to PA83, called tumor endothelium marker-8 ( TEM8 ) and capillary morphogenesis protein 2 ( CMG2 ) . Then a 20 kDa fragment (PA20) is cleaved off PA83's amino terminus by membrane endoproteases from the furin family. When PA20 dissociates, the remaining receptor-bound portion of PA, called PA63, may assemble into either a heptameric or octameric ring-shaped oligomer . This ring-shaped oligomer is often referred to as the pre-pore (or pre-channel) form of PA, since later in the pathway it will become a translocase pore (or channel). The surface of the pre-pore oligomer, which was exposed upon release of the PA20 moiety, can then bind to LF and EF. The heptameric and octameric forms of the PA oligomer may then bind with up to three or four molecules of EF and/or LF, respectively. The cell then endocytoses these assembled complexes and carries them to an acidic compartment in the cell. The low pH encountered in the endosome causes the PA63 pre-channel to convert into a cation-selective channel. EF and LF are driven through the channel by a pH gradient, allowing the enzyme factors to enter the cytosol . Once in the cytosol, the EF and LF then carry out their respective damage-inducing processes. Thus, the synergistic effect of these three proteins leads to cellular death through a cascade of events that allow the proteins to enter the cell and disrupt cellular function.The mechanism of anthrax toxin action is the result of the molecular structures of the three toxin proteins in combination with biomolecules of the host cell. The molecular interactions are apparent upon performing a detailed analysis of the structures of PA, EF, LF, and the cellular receptors ( ANTXR1 and ANTXR2 ). Structures for the toxin molecules (Figs. 3–5), the receptor, and the complexes of the molecules all provided insight into the synergistic actions of these proteins. Analyses on binding sites and conformational changes augmented the structural studies, elucidating the functions of each domain of PA, LF, and EF, as briefly outlined in Table 1. The structure of PA was the first to be determined (Fig. 3). This structure and that of its cellular receptor shed much light on the specificity of recognition and binding. This specificity of PA and the receptor CMG2 (similar to type I integrins) is due to interactions through a metal ion dependent adhesion site (MIDAS), a hydrophobic groove, and a β-hairpin projection. These all contribute to a tight interaction in which much protein surface area on CMG2 (and TEM8) is buried. Petosa et al. solved the structure of a PA63 heptamer at 4.5 à (0.45 nm). The structure they solved was of a non-membrane bound pre-pore, the conformation of the heptamer before the complex extends a β-barrel through the plasma membrane to shuttle the LF and EF into the cytosol. Heptamerization and pore formation is sterically hindered by the PA20 fragment, but when it is removed from the top of the monomer, the pre-pore is quickly formed. The heptamer formation causes no major changes in the conformation of each individual monomer, but by coming together, more than 15400 à ² (154 nm 2 ) of protein surface is buried. This buried surface consists mostly of polar or charged side groups from domains 1 and 2. PA also forms an octameric pre-channel structure. The octameric form was shown to be more thermostable than the heptameric form, and hence the octameric oligomer can persist in the plasma of the host during an anthrax infection. During the oligomerization of PA63, molecules of EF and/or LF rapidly and simultaneously bind to the PA prechannel. This binding occurs because after removing the PA20 domain, a large hydrophobic surface is uncovered on domain 1 of PA63. Domain 1 provides a large surface that interacts with the N-terminus of EF and LF, which is almost completely homologous for the first ~36 residues and similar in tertiary structure for the first ~250 residues. Studies on the binding region of LF and EF demonstrated that a large surface area contacts with domain 1 of two adjacent PA63 molecules when in the heptamer conformation. This large binding area explains why previous studies could only bind up to three molecules on a PA63 heptamer. The co-crystal structure of the PA octamer in complex with N-terminal LF revealed that the binding interaction is, in fact, two discontinuous sites. One site, termed the C-terminal subsite, resembles a classic "hot-spot" with predicted salt bridges and electrostatic interactions. The other site, termed the alpha-clamp subsite, is a deep cleft that nonspecifically binds the N-terminal alpha helix and short beta-strand of LF, guiding the N-terminus of the substrate towards the PA prechannel lumen. In this manner, the alpha clamp aids in protein translocation, nonspecifically binding and subsequently unfolding secondary structure as it unfurls from the substrate. The LF/EF binding site is now being utilized for delivery of therapeutics via fusion proteins. Upon formation of the prepore and attachment of LF and/or EF, the heptamer migrates to a lipid raft where it is rapidly endocytosed. Endocytosis occurs as a result of a series of events. This begins when CMG2 or TEM8 is palmitoylated, which inhibits the association of the receptor with lipid rafts. This inhibits the receptor from being endocytosed before PA83 is cleaved and before LF or EF can associate with the heptamer. Reassociation of the receptor with the cholesterol and glycosphigolipid-rich microdomains ( lipid rafts ) occurs when PA63 binds to the receptor and heptamerizes. Once the receptor and PA returns to the lipid raft, E3 ubiquitin ligase Cb1 ubiquitinates the cytoplasmic tail of the receptor, signaling the receptor and associated toxin proteins for endocytosis. Dynamin and Eps15 are required for this endocytosis to occur, indicating that anthrax toxin enters the cell via the clathrin -dependent pathway. As discussed, each molecule interacts with several others in order to induce the endocytosis of the anthrax toxin. Once inside, the complex is transferred to an acidic compartment, where the heptamer, still in the non-membrane-spanning pre-pore conformation, is prepared for translocation of EF and LF into the cytosol. At first glance, the primary sequence of PA does not look like that of a membrane-spanning protein. A hydrophobicity plot lacks any patterns which are common to possible membrane-spanning domains. The structures of other multimeric membrane proteins (such as diphtheria toxin ) provide the answer to how PA manages to span the membrane. It is thought that PA acts like these multimeric membrane proteins that form β-barrels made from stretches of both polar and non-polar amino acids from each monomer. The formation of the β-barrel pore is facilitated with a drop in pH. To form the barrel when the pH drops, PA63 domain 2 must undergo the greatest conformation change. Upon examination of the structure of domain 2 (Fig. 7), one can see that this domain contains a Greek-key motif (the gold portion in Fig. 7). A general schematic of a Greek-key motif is shown in Fig. 8. Attached to the Greek-key in domain 2 is a large disordered loop. The necessity of this loop in pore formation is shown through using mutagenesis and proteolysis of the loop with chymotrypsin. Additional electrophysiological measurements of cysteine substitutions place the amino acids of this loop inside the lumen of the membrane inserted pore. The disordered loop in domain 2 also has a pattern of alternating hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids, which is a pattern conserved in the membrane-spanning portions of porins. The only problem is that the loop is not large enough to span a membrane in a β-barrel. This membrane insertion could only occur with additional conformational changes. A large conformational change takes place where the Greek-key motif unfolds, forming a β-hairpin that projects downward into the membrane and forms a β-barrel with the other 6 monomers of the complex (figures 9a and 9b). The final pore has a diameter of 12 à (1.2 nm), which fits the theoretical value of this model. This model would require large conformational changes in domain 2 along with the breaking of many hydrogen bonds as the Greek-key motif peels away from the center of the domain. Petosa et al. proposed a model of how this occurs. Insertion of the PA Greek key motifs into the membrane occurs when the heptamer is acidified. On artificial bilayers, this occurs when the pH is dropped from 7.4 to 6.5, suggesting that the trigger for insertion involves a titration of histidines. This indeed fits the sequence of PA since domain 2 contains a number of histidines (shown as asterisks in figure 9a). Three histidine residues are found in the disordered loop, one of which lies with a Greek-key histidine within a cluster of polar amino acids. This cluster (including the two histidines, three arginines and one glutamate) is embedded at the top of the Greek-key motif, so it is easy to see that the protonation of these histidines would disrupt the cluster. Furthermore, another histidine is located at the base of the Greek-key motif along with a number of hydrophobic residues (on the green segment in figures 7 and 9a). At pH 7.4 this segment is ordered, but when the crystals are grown at pH 6.0, it becomes disordered. This order to disorder transition is the initial step of PA membrane insertion. PA is endocytosed as a soluble heptamer attached to its receptors, with LF or EF attached to the heptamer as cargo. The first step after endocytosis is the acidification of the endocytotic vesicle. The acidification plays two roles in the lifespan of the toxin. First, it helps to relax the tight grip of the CMG2 or TEM8 receptor on PA, facilitating the pore formation (the different receptors allow for insertion at a slightly different pH). Second, the drop in pH causes a disordered loop and a Greek-key motif in the PA domain 2 to fold out of the heptamer pre-pore and insert through the wall of the acidic vesicle, leading to pore formation (Figures 7–9). Santelli et al. explained more about the process after they determined the crystal structure of the PA/CMG2 complex. The structure of this complex shows the binding of CMG2 by both domain 2 and 4 of PA. This interaction demonstrates less freedom to unfold the Greek key. Further analysis shows that seven of the nine histidines in PA are on the domain 2/domain 4 interface. Protonation of these histidines causes the domains to separate enough to allow the Greek-key to flop out and help form the β-hairpin involved in insertion. In addition, when PA binds to CMG2, insertion no longer occurs at a pH of 6.5, as it does when inserted into an artificial membrane. Instead it requires a pH of 5.0 for insertion in natural cells. This difference was explained to be the result of the pocket next to the MIDAS motif in CMG2. This pocket contains a histidine buried at the bottom where domain 2 attaches. This histidine is protonated at a lower pH and adds greater stability to PA. This added stability keeps the Greek-key from being able to move until more acidic conditions are met. These histidines all work in conjunction to keep the heptamer from inserting prematurely before endocytosis occurs. Santelli and colleagues (Fig. 10) also built a hypothetical structure of the membrane-inserted PA/CMG2 structure. This model shows that the β-barrel is about 70 à (7 nm) long, 30 à (3 nm) of which span the membrane and the 40 à (4 nm) gap is actually filled in with the rest of the extracellular portion of the CMG2 receptor (~100 residues). CMG2 provides additional support to the pore. Several recent studies demonstrate how the PA63 pore allows the EF and LF into the cytoplasm when its lumen is so small. The lumen on the PA63 pore is only 15 à (1.5 nm) across, which is much smaller than the diameter of LF or EF. Translocation occurs through a series of events which begin in the endosome as it acidifies. LF and EF are pH sensitive, and as the pH drops, their structures lose stability. Below a pH of 6.0 (the pH in an endosome), both LF and EF become disordered molten globules . When a molecule is in this conformation, the N-terminus is freed and drawn into the pore by the proton gradient and positive transmembrane potential. A ring of seven phenylalanines at the mouth endosome side of the pore (phenylalanine clamp) assists in the unfolding of LF or EF by interacting with the hydrophobic residues found in LF or EF. The proton gradient then begins to lace the protein though the pore. The lacing mechanism is driven by the gradient, but requires the phenylalanine clamp for a ratcheting motion. The first 250 residues of EF and LF have an irregular alternating sequence of basic, acidic, and hydrophobic residues. The interplay between the phenylalanine clamp and the protonation state cause a ratcheting effect that drives the protein though until enough has crossed into the cytoplasm to drag the rest through the pore as the N-terminus refolds. At first glance, the primary sequence of PA does not look like that of a membrane-spanning protein. A hydrophobicity plot lacks any patterns which are common to possible membrane-spanning domains. The structures of other multimeric membrane proteins (such as diphtheria toxin ) provide the answer to how PA manages to span the membrane. It is thought that PA acts like these multimeric membrane proteins that form β-barrels made from stretches of both polar and non-polar amino acids from each monomer. The formation of the β-barrel pore is facilitated with a drop in pH. To form the barrel when the pH drops, PA63 domain 2 must undergo the greatest conformation change. Upon examination of the structure of domain 2 (Fig. 7), one can see that this domain contains a Greek-key motif (the gold portion in Fig. 7). A general schematic of a Greek-key motif is shown in Fig. 8. Attached to the Greek-key in domain 2 is a large disordered loop. The necessity of this loop in pore formation is shown through using mutagenesis and proteolysis of the loop with chymotrypsin. Additional electrophysiological measurements of cysteine substitutions place the amino acids of this loop inside the lumen of the membrane inserted pore. The disordered loop in domain 2 also has a pattern of alternating hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids, which is a pattern conserved in the membrane-spanning portions of porins. The only problem is that the loop is not large enough to span a membrane in a β-barrel. This membrane insertion could only occur with additional conformational changes. A large conformational change takes place where the Greek-key motif unfolds, forming a β-hairpin that projects downward into the membrane and forms a β-barrel with the other 6 monomers of the complex (figures 9a and 9b). The final pore has a diameter of 12 à (1.2 nm), which fits the theoretical value of this model. This model would require large conformational changes in domain 2 along with the breaking of many hydrogen bonds as the Greek-key motif peels away from the center of the domain. Petosa et al. proposed a model of how this occurs. Insertion of the PA Greek key motifs into the membrane occurs when the heptamer is acidified. On artificial bilayers, this occurs when the pH is dropped from 7.4 to 6.5, suggesting that the trigger for insertion involves a titration of histidines. This indeed fits the sequence of PA since domain 2 contains a number of histidines (shown as asterisks in figure 9a). Three histidine residues are found in the disordered loop, one of which lies with a Greek-key histidine within a cluster of polar amino acids. This cluster (including the two histidines, three arginines and one glutamate) is embedded at the top of the Greek-key motif, so it is easy to see that the protonation of these histidines would disrupt the cluster. Furthermore, another histidine is located at the base of the Greek-key motif along with a number of hydrophobic residues (on the green segment in figures 7 and 9a). At pH 7.4 this segment is ordered, but when the crystals are grown at pH 6.0, it becomes disordered. This order to disorder transition is the initial step of PA membrane insertion. PA is endocytosed as a soluble heptamer attached to its receptors, with LF or EF attached to the heptamer as cargo. The first step after endocytosis is the acidification of the endocytotic vesicle. The acidification plays two roles in the lifespan of the toxin. First, it helps to relax the tight grip of the CMG2 or TEM8 receptor on PA, facilitating the pore formation (the different receptors allow for insertion at a slightly different pH). Second, the drop in pH causes a disordered loop and a Greek-key motif in the PA domain 2 to fold out of the heptamer pre-pore and insert through the wall of the acidic vesicle, leading to pore formation (Figures 7–9). Santelli et al. explained more about the process after they determined the crystal structure of the PA/CMG2 complex. The structure of this complex shows the binding of CMG2 by both domain 2 and 4 of PA. This interaction demonstrates less freedom to unfold the Greek key. Further analysis shows that seven of the nine histidines in PA are on the domain 2/domain 4 interface. Protonation of these histidines causes the domains to separate enough to allow the Greek-key to flop out and help form the β-hairpin involved in insertion. In addition, when PA binds to CMG2, insertion no longer occurs at a pH of 6.5, as it does when inserted into an artificial membrane. Instead it requires a pH of 5.0 for insertion in natural cells. This difference was explained to be the result of the pocket next to the MIDAS motif in CMG2. This pocket contains a histidine buried at the bottom where domain 2 attaches. This histidine is protonated at a lower pH and adds greater stability to PA. This added stability keeps the Greek-key from being able to move until more acidic conditions are met. These histidines all work in conjunction to keep the heptamer from inserting prematurely before endocytosis occurs. Santelli and colleagues (Fig. 10) also built a hypothetical structure of the membrane-inserted PA/CMG2 structure. This model shows that the β-barrel is about 70 à (7 nm) long, 30 à (3 nm) of which span the membrane and the 40 à (4 nm) gap is actually filled in with the rest of the extracellular portion of the CMG2 receptor (~100 residues). CMG2 provides additional support to the pore.Several recent studies demonstrate how the PA63 pore allows the EF and LF into the cytoplasm when its lumen is so small. The lumen on the PA63 pore is only 15 à (1.5 nm) across, which is much smaller than the diameter of LF or EF. Translocation occurs through a series of events which begin in the endosome as it acidifies. LF and EF are pH sensitive, and as the pH drops, their structures lose stability. Below a pH of 6.0 (the pH in an endosome), both LF and EF become disordered molten globules . When a molecule is in this conformation, the N-terminus is freed and drawn into the pore by the proton gradient and positive transmembrane potential. A ring of seven phenylalanines at the mouth endosome side of the pore (phenylalanine clamp) assists in the unfolding of LF or EF by interacting with the hydrophobic residues found in LF or EF. The proton gradient then begins to lace the protein though the pore. The lacing mechanism is driven by the gradient, but requires the phenylalanine clamp for a ratcheting motion. The first 250 residues of EF and LF have an irregular alternating sequence of basic, acidic, and hydrophobic residues. The interplay between the phenylalanine clamp and the protonation state cause a ratcheting effect that drives the protein though until enough has crossed into the cytoplasm to drag the rest through the pore as the N-terminus refolds.

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Anthrax

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Anthrax (fly)

Anthrax is a genus of bombyliid flies , commonly known as "bee-flies" due to their resemblance to bees . Most are dull black flies, and are usually small to medium in size, 4–20 millimetres (0.2–0.8 in) , and many species have striking wing patterns. Anthrax is a very large genus. While worldwide in distribution, most species are from the Palaearctic and Afrotropic regions. The genus includes species parasitic on tiger beetles – an unusual trait among the bee-flies. A. anthrax larvae parasitize bees. Many North American species parasitize solitary wasps . The type species is Musca morio Linnaeus , 1758 , later found to be a misidentification of Musca anthrax Schrank , 1781.

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Anthrax

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Scott Ian

Scott Ian (born Scott Ian Rosenfeld , December 31, 1963) is an American musician, best known as the rhythm guitarist, lyricist and co-founder of the thrash metal band Anthrax , of which he is the sole continuous member. Ian is also the guitarist, lyricist, and a founding member of the crossover thrash band Stormtroopers of Death , and is the rhythm guitarist for the metal bands the Damned Things and Mr. Bungle . He has hosted The Rock Show on VH1 and has appeared on VH1's I Love the... series, Heavy: The Story of Metal , and SuperGroup .Scott Ian Rosenfeld (his name has since been legally changed to drop his birth surname) was born to a Jewish family in the Bayside section of the New York City borough of Queens ; he has a younger brother named Jason (who was the lead vocalist of Anthrax for a brief period in the early 1980s) and a half-brother named Sean. Ian attended Bayside High School , with classmates (and future Anthrax bandmates) Dan Lilker and Neil Turbin . Witnessing KISS live at Madison Square Garden in 1977 made a huge impact on Ian, who has been vocal about his love for the band (Ian appeared on an episode of Gene Simmons Family Jewels , in which he visited Simmons' home and spoke about the impact KISS has had on his life). Ian went on to be influenced by British heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath , Iron Maiden , Motörhead and Judas Priest , as well as the punk rock band Ramones . The musical style of his playing and songwriting including fast alternate picking was also largely influenced by the German metal band Accept . Ian states that Malcolm Young , Rudolf Schenker , and Johnny Ramone were his biggest influences to pursue rhythm guitar. As a founding member of Anthrax , Ian helped to create thrash metal in the mid-1980s alongside Megadeth , Slayer , and Metallica . He came up with the idea to collaborate with the rap group Public Enemy , covering their song " Bring the Noise " in 1991. This has been considered a foundational recording of the rap/rock genre. In 2005, Ian was invited by Chuck D of Public Enemy to perform "Bring the Noise" with them as part of their induction into VH1 's Hip Hop Honors Hall of Fame. He also joined Public Enemy on the Rock the Bells tour in 2007. Ian began working with music television channel VH1 in 2001, when he was asked to host the program Rock Show . During his 48 episodes as host, he interviewed guests including Ozzy Osbourne , Rob Halford , Ted Nugent , Stone Temple Pilots , Megadeth , 3 Doors Down , Sevendust , Tenacious D , and the Cult . Ian was a regular commentator on various VH1 shows including the I Love the... series, 100 Most Metal Moments , Awesomely Bad Number One Songs , When Metallica Ruled the World , and episodes of VH1 's Behind the Music featuring Metallica, Pantera and Anthrax. Ian was prominently featured in VH1's History of Heavy Metal . In June 2006, he starred in the VH1 reality series SuperGroup with Ted Nugent, Sebastian Bach , Jason Bonham and Evan Seinfeld . Ian plays guitar in the group Pearl (with his wife, Pearl Aday ), who toured with Velvet Revolver and Meat Loaf . Pearl's debut album was released on January 19, 2010, through Megaforce Records . Ian performed with Pearl on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on January 20, 2010. In 2008, DC Comics asked Ian to write a two-issue prestige-format comics series for the character Lobo . Books one and two of Lobo: Highway to Hell were released in November and December 2009. In 2008, Ian signed with UltimateBet , the third largest internet gaming site in the world, as one of their online professional players. He joined professional poker players Phil Hellmuth and Annie Duke as one of Ultimate Bet's star pros. He won Ultimate Bet's premier Sunday 200K tournament and cashed in in 2010's WSOP main event by finishing 634th out of 6494 players. [ citation needed ] In 2010, Ian joined the metal supergroup the Damned Things , which released their first album on December 14, 2010. On June 21, 2011, his wife gave birth to the couple's first child, thus forcing Ian to briefly depart from Anthrax's tour. Andreas Kisser of Sepultura filled in for Scott on guitar during Scott's absence. Ian provided voice work for the Adult Swim show Metalocalypse , as the character "Some Guy Who Snuck Into Dethklok 's Trunk Last Night When They Were Pretty Hammered" in the " Season III: The Dead Man " opening episode "Renovationklok", as well as providing guest voices in the episode "Tributeklok". Ian did a spoken word tour entitled Speaking Words , starting in May 2013, in the UK. In 2014, he and his wife joined former members of Mother Superior to form Motor Sister . They released their debut album, Ride , on March 9, 2015. He also toured Europe and North American with a solo spoken word storytelling act called "Speaking Words" that year. In 2015, Da Capo Press published Ian's memoir titled I'm the Man: The Story of That Guy from Anthrax . On December 12, 2017, Ian released his book Access All Areas: Stories from a Hard Rock Life , which is a follow-up to his first autobiographical book I'm the Man , published November 24, 2015. The book features stories about his life including not only his adventures with Anthrax, but also with other musical celebrities such as Madonna and David Lee Roth . In 2018, he toured Australia on another spoken word act called "'Spoken Word Stories by Scottie'" also known as "One Man Riot". In 2019, he contributed the foreword to the book King's X : The Oral History by Greg Prato, published by Jawbone Press. As a founding member of Anthrax , Ian helped to create thrash metal in the mid-1980s alongside Megadeth , Slayer , and Metallica . He came up with the idea to collaborate with the rap group Public Enemy , covering their song " Bring the Noise " in 1991. This has been considered a foundational recording of the rap/rock genre. In 2005, Ian was invited by Chuck D of Public Enemy to perform "Bring the Noise" with them as part of their induction into VH1 's Hip Hop Honors Hall of Fame. He also joined Public Enemy on the Rock the Bells tour in 2007. Ian began working with music television channel VH1 in 2001, when he was asked to host the program Rock Show . During his 48 episodes as host, he interviewed guests including Ozzy Osbourne , Rob Halford , Ted Nugent , Stone Temple Pilots , Megadeth , 3 Doors Down , Sevendust , Tenacious D , and the Cult . Ian was a regular commentator on various VH1 shows including the I Love the... series, 100 Most Metal Moments , Awesomely Bad Number One Songs , When Metallica Ruled the World , and episodes of VH1 's Behind the Music featuring Metallica, Pantera and Anthrax. Ian was prominently featured in VH1's History of Heavy Metal . In June 2006, he starred in the VH1 reality series SuperGroup with Ted Nugent, Sebastian Bach , Jason Bonham and Evan Seinfeld . Ian plays guitar in the group Pearl (with his wife, Pearl Aday ), who toured with Velvet Revolver and Meat Loaf . Pearl's debut album was released on January 19, 2010, through Megaforce Records . Ian performed with Pearl on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on January 20, 2010. In 2008, DC Comics asked Ian to write a two-issue prestige-format comics series for the character Lobo . Books one and two of Lobo: Highway to Hell were released in November and December 2009. In 2008, Ian signed with UltimateBet , the third largest internet gaming site in the world, as one of their online professional players. He joined professional poker players Phil Hellmuth and Annie Duke as one of Ultimate Bet's star pros. He won Ultimate Bet's premier Sunday 200K tournament and cashed in in 2010's WSOP main event by finishing 634th out of 6494 players. [ citation needed ] In 2010, Ian joined the metal supergroup the Damned Things , which released their first album on December 14, 2010. On June 21, 2011, his wife gave birth to the couple's first child, thus forcing Ian to briefly depart from Anthrax's tour. Andreas Kisser of Sepultura filled in for Scott on guitar during Scott's absence. Ian provided voice work for the Adult Swim show Metalocalypse , as the character "Some Guy Who Snuck Into Dethklok 's Trunk Last Night When They Were Pretty Hammered" in the " Season III: The Dead Man " opening episode "Renovationklok", as well as providing guest voices in the episode "Tributeklok". Ian did a spoken word tour entitled Speaking Words , starting in May 2013, in the UK. In 2014, he and his wife joined former members of Mother Superior to form Motor Sister . They released their debut album, Ride , on March 9, 2015. He also toured Europe and North American with a solo spoken word storytelling act called "Speaking Words" that year. In 2015, Da Capo Press published Ian's memoir titled I'm the Man: The Story of That Guy from Anthrax . On December 12, 2017, Ian released his book Access All Areas: Stories from a Hard Rock Life , which is a follow-up to his first autobiographical book I'm the Man , published November 24, 2015. The book features stories about his life including not only his adventures with Anthrax, but also with other musical celebrities such as Madonna and David Lee Roth . In 2018, he toured Australia on another spoken word act called "'Spoken Word Stories by Scottie'" also known as "One Man Riot". In 2019, he contributed the foreword to the book King's X : The Oral History by Greg Prato, published by Jawbone Press. Ian has appeared as himself, representing the character Kevin's conscience, in the 2022 American teen comedy-drama Metal Lords . Ian was formerly married to his high school girlfriend, Marge Ginsburg, in the 1980s; the marriage ended in divorce. [ citation needed ] In 2011, he married singer Pearl Aday , adopted daughter of singer Meat Loaf . They have one child. Ian is a New York Yankees fan and enjoys snowboarding. [ citation needed ] He plays poker and is an online pro at UltimateBet; he finished 637th in the 2009 World Series of Poker Main Event, taking home $21,365. He is also a Battlestar Galactica fan and has posted numerous blogs about the show, even making an appearance for the red carpet series finale; he also played guitar on the soundtrack of The Plan , a made-for-DVD Battlestar Galactica film. He is a fan of the television series Doctor Who , as seen in "The Best of the Doctor", which aired August 13, 2011 on BBC America (numbered episode 166). Ian is a fan of hip hop and rap music, particularly Public Enemy and Run-DMC . He was known to wear Public Enemy shirts while performing gigs in the late 1980s. He has also said Run-DMC came out with the same aggression that metal bands played with (that he was listening to at the time), and that Run-DMC was the group that put rap on the map. He co-owned a hard rock bar called Dead Man's Hand in Las Vegas with Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains . Ian is an avid fan of Stephen King and has collected first and limited editions of his books. A number of Anthrax's songs were inspired by King's stories such as " Among the Living " (based on The Stand ), "A Skeleton In The Closet" ( Apt Pupil ), "Lone Justice" and "Breathing Lightning" ( the Dark Tower series). Scott Ian uses his signature Jackson guitars and signature Randall MTS Series heads and cabinets. He is known to use Dimebag Darrell tribute Deans and previously endorsed Washburn . During the mid 1980s, he used ESP guitars for a while, also getting Kirk Hammett his ESP endorsement. Scott uses a DigiTech signature Black 13 distortion pedal, and a DigiTech chorus pedal for his clean sounds. Many of his guitars have been equipped with custom made Seymour Duncan "El Diablo" pickups, but can also be seen using standard Seymour Duncan SH-4's and '59 pickups on several guitars, including his newest signature Jackson. He also recently began endorsing Evertune bridges. In late 2009, Ian ended his endorsement with Washburn and went back to Jackson guitars. He was seen using custom made Soloist and Randy Rhoads guitars during the 2009 Sonisphere Festival . On March 27, 2010, Ian announced the production of a new signature guitar by Jackson via Twitter and YouTube. He said it would be based on his Soloist from 1987. It has a silverburst finish, a single Seymour Duncan J.B. humbucker, lightning bolt inlays, and a string-thru/tune-o-matic bridge. A dual-humbucker version with a Floyd Rose tremolo will also be released. He stated, "I am so stoked to be back with Jackson." He was seen using this guitar while playing with Brian Posehn at the Revolver Golden Gods Awards and with the Damned Things at the 2011 Download Festival . Jackson Scott Ian Signature T-1000 Soloist Jackson custom T-1000 Randy Rhoads Jackson custom "NOT" Soloist Jackson Adrian Smith San Dimas Dinky Gibson Flying V (1982, Used in the studio) Gibson "Thunderhorse" Explorer (Used at Download Festival 2011 with the Damned Things) Jackson JJ1 (USA-made, Seymour Duncan JB And Jazz pickups, Alder or Korina body with maple neck) Jackson JJ2 (USA-Made, Seymour Duncan El-Diablo pickups and a killswitch, alder body with maple neck or mahogany body with mahogany neck) Jackson JJ4 (Lower-end model, Asian-Made, with Duncan Designed pickups and a killswitch) Jackson JJ5 (5-string Baritone) Jackson Custom "NOT" Telecaster Charvel Surfcaster (with Seymour Duncan Humbucker in the Bridge Position and the stock Chandler Lipstick pickup in the angled Neck position: Main guitar for the Sound of White Noise era) Jackson Randy Rhoads (1982) Washburn SI75TI (Used Washburn from 2004 to 2009) Washburn WV540VASI Washburn WV40VASI Washburn SI60MW Washburn SI61G ESP M-100FM ESP Custom M-II and Telecasters (1985–1989) ESP TE-230SI (Signature model based on Scott Ian's red ESP Telecaster in the mid-to-late 1980s. Japan only) Seymour Duncan J.B. pickups Seymour Duncan El Diablo (Scott Ian custom shop pickups) D'Addario .9-.42 D'Addario & DR Strings .10-.52 DR Strings .18-.56 (for JJ-5) Dunlop Tortex .88mm Picks In Rack Case: On Floor: Other: BBE 462 Sonic Maximizer DigiTech Black 13 distortion pedal DigiTech XMC chorus pedal TC Electronic Booster+ Line Driver & Distortion Korg DTR-1 Tuner Rocktron HUSH IIC Samson UHF Synth 6 Wireless EVH 5150 IIIS EL34 heads (Current main amps) Fender/EVH 5150III Heads (used for recording Worship Music and For All Kings , also used live occasionally) Randall Ultimate Nullifier UN120 (second Randall signature amp, designed by Mike Fortin) Randall MTS Series RM100SI signature head with signature modules (first Randall signature amp) Randall MTS series RM100 and RM100LB heads (With Ultra modules) Randall V2 400 Watt Heads (Can be seen in advertisements) Randall V-Max Heads (Used in 2003 before the V2 and MTS heads) Randall Cyclone Heads (Used from 2001 to 2003) Randall Warhead Heads (First amp used when Ian transitioned from Marshall to Randall) Randall SI412 signature speaker Cabs Randall NB412 Nuno Bettencourt Signature 4×12 Cabs Randall XL 4×12 Cabs Randall XL 2×12 and 1×15 Cabs Marshall JCM 800 2203 (Early years of Anthrax, and used for leads on "We've Come For You All". Used by both Scott and Rob Caggiano for recording Worship Music , and by Scott for For All Kings ) Peavey 6505+ 120 Watt head Randall RT100 heads (Only used at the 2010 Revolver Golden Gods Awards while performing in Brian Posehn 's backing band) Randall RT-412RC Cabs (See above)Jackson Scott Ian Signature T-1000 Soloist Jackson custom T-1000 Randy Rhoads Jackson custom "NOT" Soloist Jackson Adrian Smith San Dimas Dinky Gibson Flying V (1982, Used in the studio) Gibson "Thunderhorse" Explorer (Used at Download Festival 2011 with the Damned Things) Jackson JJ1 (USA-made, Seymour Duncan JB And Jazz pickups, Alder or Korina body with maple neck) Jackson JJ2 (USA-Made, Seymour Duncan El-Diablo pickups and a killswitch, alder body with maple neck or mahogany body with mahogany neck) Jackson JJ4 (Lower-end model, Asian-Made, with Duncan Designed pickups and a killswitch) Jackson JJ5 (5-string Baritone) Jackson Custom "NOT" Telecaster Charvel Surfcaster (with Seymour Duncan Humbucker in the Bridge Position and the stock Chandler Lipstick pickup in the angled Neck position: Main guitar for the Sound of White Noise era) Jackson Randy Rhoads (1982) Washburn SI75TI (Used Washburn from 2004 to 2009) Washburn WV540VASI Washburn WV40VASI Washburn SI60MW Washburn SI61G ESP M-100FM ESP Custom M-II and Telecasters (1985–1989) ESP TE-230SI (Signature model based on Scott Ian's red ESP Telecaster in the mid-to-late 1980s. Japan only) Seymour Duncan J.B. pickups Seymour Duncan El Diablo (Scott Ian custom shop pickups) D'Addario .9-.42 D'Addario & DR Strings .10-.52 DR Strings .18-.56 (for JJ-5) Dunlop Tortex .88mm PicksIn Rack Case: On Floor: Other: BBE 462 Sonic Maximizer DigiTech Black 13 distortion pedal DigiTech XMC chorus pedal TC Electronic Booster+ Line Driver & Distortion Korg DTR-1 Tuner Rocktron HUSH IIC Samson UHF Synth 6 WirelessEVH 5150 IIIS EL34 heads (Current main amps) Fender/EVH 5150III Heads (used for recording Worship Music and For All Kings , also used live occasionally) Randall Ultimate Nullifier UN120 (second Randall signature amp, designed by Mike Fortin) Randall MTS Series RM100SI signature head with signature modules (first Randall signature amp) Randall MTS series RM100 and RM100LB heads (With Ultra modules) Randall V2 400 Watt Heads (Can be seen in advertisements) Randall V-Max Heads (Used in 2003 before the V2 and MTS heads) Randall Cyclone Heads (Used from 2001 to 2003) Randall Warhead Heads (First amp used when Ian transitioned from Marshall to Randall) Randall SI412 signature speaker Cabs Randall NB412 Nuno Bettencourt Signature 4×12 Cabs Randall XL 4×12 Cabs Randall XL 2×12 and 1×15 Cabs Marshall JCM 800 2203 (Early years of Anthrax, and used for leads on "We've Come For You All". Used by both Scott and Rob Caggiano for recording Worship Music , and by Scott for For All Kings ) Peavey 6505+ 120 Watt head Randall RT100 heads (Only used at the 2010 Revolver Golden Gods Awards while performing in Brian Posehn 's backing band) Randall RT-412RC Cabs (See above)

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Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur ForMemRS ( / ˈ l uː i p æ ˈ s t ɜːr / , French: [ lwi pastœʁ ] ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist , pharmacist , and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination , microbial fermentation , and pasteurization , the last of which was named after him. His research in chemistry led to remarkable breakthroughs in the understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases , which laid down the foundations of hygiene, public health and much of modern medicine. Pasteur's works are credited with saving millions of lives through the developments of vaccines for rabies and anthrax . He is regarded as one of the founders of modern bacteriology and has been honored as the "father of bacteriology" and the "father of microbiology " (together with Robert Koch ; the latter epithet also attributed to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ). Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation . Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences , his experiment demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks, nothing ever developed; conversely, in sterilized but open flasks, microorganisms could grow. For this experiment, the academy awarded him the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs in 1862. Pasteur is also regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory of diseases , which was a minor medical concept at the time. His many experiments showed that diseases could be prevented by killing or stopping germs, thereby directly supporting the germ theory and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals and racemization . Early in his career, his investigation of sodium ammonium tartrate initiated the field of optical isomerism . This work had a profound effect on structural chemistry, with eventual implications for many areas including medicinal chemistry . He was the director of the Pasteur Institute , established in 1887, until his death, and his body was interred in a vault beneath the institute. Although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals. Louis Pasteur was born on 27 December 1822, in Dole, Jura , France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner . He was the third child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827. Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was dyslexic and dysgraphic . He was an average student in his early years, and not particularly academic, as his interests were fishing and sketching . He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends and neighbors. Pasteur attended secondary school at the Collège d'Arbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to enroll in a boarding school , but became homesick and returned in November. In 1839, he entered the Collège Royal at Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree science course with special mathematics. He failed his first examination in 1841. He managed to pass the baccalauréat scientifique (general science) degree from Dijon , where he earned his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics degree (Bachelier ès Sciences Mathématiques) in 1842, but with a mediocre grade in chemistry. Later in 1842, Pasteur took the entrance test for the École Normale Supérieure . During the test, he had to fight fatigue and only felt comfortable with physics and mathematics. He passed the first set of tests, but because his ranking was low, Pasteur decided not to continue and try again next year. He went back to the Parisian boarding school to prepare for the test. He also attended classes at the Lycée Saint-Louis and lectures of Jean-Baptiste Dumas at the Sorbonne . In 1843, he passed the test with a high ranking and entered the École Normale Supérieure . In 1845 he received the licencié ès sciences degree. In 1846, he was appointed professor of physics at the Collège de Tournon (now called Lycée Gabriel-Faure ) in Ardèche . But the chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard wanted him back at the École Normale Supérieure as a graduate laboratory assistant ( agrégé préparateur ). He joined Balard and simultaneously started his research in crystallography and in 1847, he submitted his two theses, one in chemistry and the other in physics: (a) Chemistry Thesis: "Recherches sur la capacité de saturation de l'acide arsénieux. Etudes des arsénites de potasse, de soude et d'ammoniaque."; (b) Physics Thesis: "1. Études des phénomènes relatifs à la polarisation rotatoire des liquides. 2. Application de la polarisation rotatoire des liquides à la solution de diverses questions de chimie." After serving briefly as professor of physics at the Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg , where he met and courted Marie Laurent , daughter of the university's rector in 1849. They were married on 29 May 1849, and together had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood; the other three died of typhoid .Pasteur was appointed professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg in 1848, and became the chair of chemistry in 1852. In February 1854, so that he would have time to carry out work that could earn him the title of correspondent of the Institute, he got three months' paid leave with the help of a medical certificate of convenience. He extended the leave until 1 August, the date of the start of the exams. "I tell the Minister that I will go and do the examinations so as not to increase the embarrassment of the service. It is also so as not to leave to another a sum of 6 or 700 francs". In this same year 1854, he was named dean of the new faculty of sciences at University of Lille , where he began his studies on fermentation. It was on this occasion that Pasteur uttered his oft-quoted remark: " dans les champs de l'observation, le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés " ("In the field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind"). In 1857, he moved to Paris as the director of scientific studies at the École Normale Supérieure where he took control from 1858 to 1867 and introduced a series of reforms to improve the standard of scientific work. The examinations became more rigid, which led to better results, greater competition, and increased prestige. Many of his decrees, however, were rigid and authoritarian, leading to two serious student revolts. During "the bean revolt" he decreed that a mutton stew, which students had refused to eat, would be served and eaten every Monday. On another occasion he threatened to expel any student caught smoking, and 73 of the 80 students in the school resigned. In 1863, he was appointed professor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts , a position he held until his resignation in 1867. In 1867, he became the chair of organic chemistry at the Sorbonne, but he later gave up the position because of poor health. In 1867, the École Normale's laboratory of physiological chemistry was created at Pasteur's request, and he was the laboratory's director from 1867 to 1888. In Paris, he established the Pasteur Institute in 1887, in which he was its director for the rest of his life. In Pasteur's early work as a chemist , beginning at the École Normale Supérieure , and continuing at Strasbourg and Lille, he examined the chemical, optical and crystallographic properties of a group of compounds known as tartrates . He resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid in 1848. A solution of this compound derived from living things rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The problem was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same. Pasteur noticed that crystals of tartrates had small faces. Then he observed that, in racemic mixtures of tartrates, half of the crystals were right-handed and half were left-handed. In solution, the right-handed compound was dextrorotatory , and the left-handed one was levorotatory. Pasteur determined that optical activity related to the shape of the crystals, and that an asymmetric internal arrangement of the molecules of the compound was responsible for twisting the light. The (2 R ,3 R )- and (2 S ,3 S )- tartrates were isometric, non-superposable mirror images of each other. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated molecular chirality , and also the first explanation of isomerism . Some historians consider Pasteur's work in this area to be his "most profound and most original contributions to science", and his "greatest scientific discovery." Pasteur was motivated to investigate fermentation while working at Lille. In 1856 a local wine manufacturer, M. Bigot, whose son was one of Pasteur's students, sought for his advice on the problems of making beetroot alcohol and souring. Pasteur began his research in the topic by repeating and confirming works of Theodor Schwann , who demonstrated a decade earlier that yeast were alive. According to his son-in-law, René Vallery-Radot, in August 1857 Pasteur sent a paper about lactic acid fermentation to the Société des Sciences de Lille, but the paper was read three months later. A memoire was subsequently published on 30 November 1857. In the memoir, he developed his ideas stating that: "I intend to establish that, just as there is an alcoholic ferment, the yeast of beer, which is found everywhere that sugar is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid, so also there is a particular ferment, a lactic yeast , always present when sugar becomes lactic acid ." Pasteur also wrote about alcoholic fermentation. It was published in full form in 1858. Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Justus von Liebig had proposed the theory that fermentation was caused by decomposition. Pasteur demonstrated that this theory was incorrect, and that yeast was responsible for fermentation to produce alcohol from sugar. He also demonstrated that, when a different microorganism contaminated the wine, lactic acid was produced, making the wine sour. In 1861, Pasteur observed that less sugar fermented per part of yeast when the yeast was exposed to air. The lower rate of fermentation aerobically became known as the Pasteur effect . Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C. This killed most bacteria and moulds already present within them. Pasteur and Claude Bernard completed tests on blood and urine on 20 April 1862. Pasteur patented the process, to fight the "diseases" of wine, in 1865. The method became known as pasteurization , and was soon applied to beer and milk. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery. In 1866, Pasteur published Etudes sur le Vin , about the diseases of wine, and he published Etudes sur la Bière in 1876, concerning the diseases of beer. In the early 19th century, Agostino Bassi had shown that muscardine was caused by a fungus that infected silkworms. Since 1853, two diseases called pébrine and flacherie had been infecting great numbers of silkworms in southern France, and by 1865 they were causing huge losses to farmers. In 1865, Pasteur went to Alès and worked for five years until 1870. Silkworms with pébrine were covered in corpuscles. In the first three years, Pasteur thought that the corpuscles were a symptom of the disease. In 1870, he concluded that the corpuscles were the cause of pébrine (it is now known that the cause is a microsporidian ). Pasteur also showed that the disease was hereditary. Pasteur developed a system to prevent pébrine: after the female moths laid their eggs, the moths were turned into a pulp. The pulp was examined with a microscope, and if corpuscles were observed, the eggs were destroyed. Pasteur concluded that bacteria caused flacherie. The primary cause is currently thought to be viruses. The spread of flacherie could be accidental or hereditary. Hygiene could be used to prevent accidental flacherie. Moths whose digestive cavities did not contain the microorganisms causing flacherie were used to lay eggs, preventing hereditary flacherie. Following his fermentation experiments, Pasteur demonstrated that the skin of grapes was the natural source of yeasts, and that sterilized grapes and grape juice never fermented. He drew grape juice from under the skin with sterilized needles, and also covered grapes with sterilized cloth. Both experiments could not produce wine in sterilized containers. His findings and ideas were against the prevailing notion of spontaneous generation . He received a particularly stern criticism from Félix Archimède Pouchet , who was director of the Rouen Museum of Natural History . To settle the debate between the eminent scientists, the French Academy of Sciences offered the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs to whoever could experimentally demonstrate for or against the doctrine. Pouchet stated that air everywhere could cause spontaneous generation of living organisms in liquids. In the late 1850s, he performed experiments and claimed that they were evidence of spontaneous generation. Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani had provided some evidence against spontaneous generation in the 17th and 18th centuries, respectively. Spallanzani's experiments in 1765 suggested that air contaminated broths with bacteria. In the 1860s, Pasteur repeated Spallanzani's experiments, but Pouchet reported a different result using a different broth. Pasteur performed several experiments to disprove spontaneous generation. He placed boiled liquid in a flask and let hot air enter the flask. Then he closed the flask, and no organisms grew in it. In another experiment, when he opened flasks containing boiled liquid, dust entered the flasks, causing organisms to grow in some of them. The number of flasks in which organisms grew was lower at higher altitudes, showing that air at high altitudes contained less dust and fewer organisms. Pasteur also used swan neck flasks containing a fermentable liquid. Air was allowed to enter the flask via a long curving tube that made dust particles stick to it. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were tilted, making the liquid touch the contaminated walls of the neck. This showed that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, on dust, rather than spontaneously generating within the liquid or from the action of pure air. These were some of the most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. Pasteur gave a series of five presentations of his findings before the French Academy of Sciences in 1881, which were published in 1882 as Mémoire Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère: Examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées ( Account of Organized Corpuscles Existing in the Atmosphere: Examining the Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation ). Pasteur won the Alhumbert Prize in 1862. He concluded that: Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment. There is no known circumstance in which it can be confirmed that microscopic beings came into the world without germs, without parents similar to themselves. In 1865, Jean-Baptiste Dumas , chemist, senator and former Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, asked Pasteur to study a new disease that was decimating silkworm farms from the south of France and Europe, the pébrine , characterized on a macroscopic scale by black spots and on a microscopic scale by the " Cornalia corpuscles". Pasteur accepted and made five long stays in Alès , between 7 June 1865 and 1869. Arriving in Alès, Pasteur familiarized himself with pébrine and also with another disease of the silkworm, known earlier than pebrine: flacherie or dead-flat disease. Contrary, for example, to Quatrefages , who coined the new word pébrine , Pasteur made the mistake of believing that the two diseases were the same and even that most of the diseases of silkworms known up to that time were identical with each other and with pébrine. It was in letters of 30 April and 21 May 1867 to Dumas that he first made the distinction between pébrine and flacherie. He made another mistake: he began by denying the "parasitic" (microbial) nature of pébrine, which several scholars (notably Antoine Béchamp ) considered well established. Even a note published on 27 August 1866 by Balbiani , which Pasteur at first seemed to welcome favourably had no effect, at least immediately. "Pasteur is mistaken. He would only change his mind in the course of 1867". At a time where Pasteur had not yet understood the cause of the pébrine, he propagated an effective process to stop infections: a sample of chrysalises was chosen, they were crushed and the corpuscles were searched for in the crushed material; if the proportion of corpuscular pupae in the sample was very low, the chamber was considered good for reproduction. This method of sorting "seeds" (eggs) is close to a method that Osimo had proposed a few years earlier, but whose trials had not been conclusive. By this process, Pasteur curbs pébrine and saves many of the silk industry in the Cévennes. In 1878, at the Congrès international séricicole , Pasteur admitted that "if pébrine is overcome, flacherie still exerts its ravages". He attributed the persistence of flacherie to the fact that the farmers had not followed his advice. In 1884, Balbiani , who disregarded the theoretical value of Pasteur's work on silkworm diseases, acknowledged that his practical process had remedied the ravages of pébrine, but added that this result tended to be counterbalanced by the development of flacherie, which was less well known and more difficult to prevent. Despite Pasteur's success against pébrine, French sericulture had not been saved from damage. (See fr:Sériciculture in the French Wikipedia.) Pasteur's first work on vaccine development was on chicken cholera . He received the bacteria samples (later called Pasteurella multocida after him) from Henry Toussaint . He started the study in 1877, and by the next year, was able to maintain a stable culture using broths. After another year of continuous culturing, he found that the bacteria were less pathogenic. Some of his culture samples could no longer induce the disease in healthy chickens . In 1879, Pasteur, planning for holiday, instructed his assistant, Charles Chamberland to inoculate the chickens with fresh bacteria culture. Chamberland forgot and went on holiday himself. On his return, he injected the month-old cultures to healthy chickens. The chickens showed some symptoms of infection, but instead of the infections being fatal, as they usually were, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture, but Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur injected the freshly recovered chickens with fresh bacteria that normally would kill other chickens; the chickens no longer showed any sign of infection. It was clear to him that the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease. In December 1880, Pasteur presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences as " Sur les maladies virulentes et en particulier sur la maladie appelée vulgairement choléra des poules (On virulent diseases, and in particular on the disease commonly called chicken cholera)" and published it in the academy's journal ( Comptes-Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences ). He attributed that the bacteria were weakened by contact with oxygen. He explained that bacteria kept in sealed containers never lost their virulence, and only those exposed to air in culture media could be used as vaccine. Pasteur introduced the term "attenuation" for this weakening of virulence as he presented before the academy, saying: We can diminish the microbe's virulence by changing the mode of culturing. This is the crucial point of my subject. I ask the Academy not to criticize, for the time being, the confidence of my proceedings that permit me to determine the microbe's attenuation, in order to save the independence of my studies and to better assure their progress... [In conclusion] I would like to point out to the Academy two main consequences to the facts presented: the hope to culture all microbes and to find a vaccine for all infectious diseases that have repeatedly afflicted humanity, and are a major burden on agriculture and breeding of domestic animals. In fact, Pasteur's vaccine against chicken cholera was not regular in its effects and was a failure. In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax , which affected cattle , and aroused interest in combating other diseases. Pasteur cultivated bacteria from the blood of animals infected with anthrax. When he inoculated animals with the bacteria, anthrax occurred, proving that the bacteria was the cause of the disease. Many cattle were dying of anthrax in "cursed fields". Pasteur was told that sheep that died from anthrax were buried in the field. Pasteur thought that earthworms might have brought the bacteria to the surface. He found anthrax bacteria in earthworms' excrement, showing that he was correct. He told the farmers not to bury dead animals in the fields. Pasteur had been trying to develop the anthrax vaccine since 1877, soon after Robert Koch's discovery of the bacterium. On 12 July 1880, Henri Bouley read before the French Academy of Sciences a report from Henry Toussaint , a veterinary surgeon , who was not member of the academy. Toussaint had developed anthrax vaccine by killing the bacilli by heating at 55 °C for 10  minutes. He tested on eight dogs and 11 sheep, half of which died after inoculation. It was not a great success. Upon hearing the news, Pasteur immediately wrote to the academy that he could not believe that dead vaccine would work and that Toussaint's claim "overturns all the ideas I had on viruses, vaccines, etc." Following Pasteur's criticism, Toussaint switched to carbolic acid to kill anthrax bacilli and tested the vaccine on sheep in August 1880. Pasteur thought that this type of killed vaccine should not work because he believed that attenuated bacteria used up nutrients that the bacteria needed to grow. He thought oxidizing bacteria made them less virulent. But Pasteur found that anthrax bacillus was not easily weakened by culturing in air as it formed spores – unlike chicken cholera bacillus. In early 1881, he discovered that growing anthrax bacilli at about 42 °C made them unable to produce spores, and he described this method in a speech to the French Academy of Sciences on 28 February. On 21 March, he announced successful vaccination of sheep. To this news, veterinarian Hippolyte Rossignol proposed that the Société d'agriculture de Melun organize an experiment to test Pasteur's vaccine. Pasteur signed agreement of the challenge on 28 April. A public experiment was conducted in May at Pouilly-le-Fort. 58 sheep, 2 goats and 10 cattle were used, half of which were given the vaccine on 5 and 17 May; while the other half was untreated. All the animals were injected with the fresh virulent culture of anthrax bacillus on 31 May. The official result was observed and analysed on 2 June in the presence of over 200 spectators. All cattle survived, vaccinated or not. Pasteur had bravely predicted: "I hypothesized that the six vaccinated cows would not become very ill, while the four unvaccinated cows would perish or at least become very ill." However, all vaccinated sheep and goats survived, while unvaccinated ones had died or were dying before the viewers. His report to the French Academy of Sciences on 13 June concludes: [By] looking at everything from the scientific point of view, the development of a vaccination against anthrax constitutes significant progress beyond the first vaccine developed by Jenner, since the latter had never been obtained experimentally. Pasteur did not directly disclose how he prepared the vaccines used at Pouilly-le-Fort. Although his report indicated it as a "live vaccine", his laboratory notebooks show that he actually used potassium dichromate -killed vaccine, as developed by Chamberland, quite similar to Toussaint's method. The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox . Inoculation with smallpox ( variolation ) was known to result in a much less severe disease, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also studied vaccination using cowpox ( vaccinia ) to give cross-immunity to smallpox in the late 1790s, and by the early 1800s vaccination had spread to most of Europe. The difference between smallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was that the latter two disease organisms had been artificially weakened, so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of " vaccines ", in honour of Jenner's discovery. In 1876, Robert Koch had shown that Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax. In his papers published between 1878 and 1880, Pasteur only mentioned Koch's work in a footnote. Koch met Pasteur at the Seventh International Medical Congress in 1881. A few months later, Koch wrote that Pasteur had used impure cultures and made errors. In 1882, Pasteur replied to Koch in a speech, to which Koch responded aggressively. Koch stated that Pasteur tested his vaccine on unsuitable animals and that Pasteur's research was not properly scientific. In 1882, Koch wrote "On the Anthrax Inoculation", in which he refuted several of Pasteur's conclusions about anthrax and criticized Pasteur for keeping his methods secret, jumping to conclusions, and being imprecise. In 1883, Pasteur wrote that he used cultures prepared in a similar way to his successful fermentation experiments and that Koch misinterpreted statistics and ignored Pasteur's work on silkworms. In 1882, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to southern France because of an epizootic of swine erysipelas . Thuillier identified the bacillus that caused the disease in March 1883. Pasteur and Thuillier increased the bacillus's virulence after passing it through pigeons. Then they passed the bacillus through rabbits, weakening it and obtaining a vaccine. Pasteur and Thuillier incorrectly described the bacterium as a figure-eight shape. Roux described the bacterium as stick-shaped in 1884. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue. The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux , a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur, who had produced a killed vaccine using this method. The vaccine had been tested in 50 dogs before its first human trial. This vaccine was used on 9-year-old Joseph Meister , on 6 July 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. After consulting with physicians, he decided to go ahead with the treatment. Over 11 days, Meister received 13 inoculations, each inoculation using viruses that had been weakened for a shorter period of time. Three months later he examined Meister and found that he was in good health. Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. Analysis of his laboratory notebooks shows that Pasteur had treated two people before his vaccination of Meister. One survived but may not actually have had rabies, and the other died of rabies. Pasteur began treatment of Jean-Baptiste Jupille on 20 October 1885, and the treatment was successful. Later in 1885, people, including four children from the United States, went to Pasteur's laboratory to be inoculated. In 1886, he treated 350 people, of which only one developed rabies. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement. In The Story of San Michele , Axel Munthe writes of some risks Pasteur undertook in the rabies vaccine research: Pasteur himself was absolutely fearless. Anxious to secure a sample of saliva straight from the jaws of a rabid dog, I once saw him with the glass tube held between his lips draw a few drops of the deadly saliva from the mouth of a rabid bull-dog, held on the table by two assistants, their hands protected by leather gloves. Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment before surgery. Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced these procedures. Ignaz Semmelweis and Joseph Lister had earlier practiced hand sanitizing in medical contexts in the 1860s. In Pasteur's early work as a chemist , beginning at the École Normale Supérieure , and continuing at Strasbourg and Lille, he examined the chemical, optical and crystallographic properties of a group of compounds known as tartrates . He resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid in 1848. A solution of this compound derived from living things rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The problem was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same. Pasteur noticed that crystals of tartrates had small faces. Then he observed that, in racemic mixtures of tartrates, half of the crystals were right-handed and half were left-handed. In solution, the right-handed compound was dextrorotatory , and the left-handed one was levorotatory. Pasteur determined that optical activity related to the shape of the crystals, and that an asymmetric internal arrangement of the molecules of the compound was responsible for twisting the light. The (2 R ,3 R )- and (2 S ,3 S )- tartrates were isometric, non-superposable mirror images of each other. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated molecular chirality , and also the first explanation of isomerism . Some historians consider Pasteur's work in this area to be his "most profound and most original contributions to science", and his "greatest scientific discovery." Pasteur was motivated to investigate fermentation while working at Lille. In 1856 a local wine manufacturer, M. Bigot, whose son was one of Pasteur's students, sought for his advice on the problems of making beetroot alcohol and souring. Pasteur began his research in the topic by repeating and confirming works of Theodor Schwann , who demonstrated a decade earlier that yeast were alive. According to his son-in-law, René Vallery-Radot, in August 1857 Pasteur sent a paper about lactic acid fermentation to the Société des Sciences de Lille, but the paper was read three months later. A memoire was subsequently published on 30 November 1857. In the memoir, he developed his ideas stating that: "I intend to establish that, just as there is an alcoholic ferment, the yeast of beer, which is found everywhere that sugar is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid, so also there is a particular ferment, a lactic yeast , always present when sugar becomes lactic acid ." Pasteur also wrote about alcoholic fermentation. It was published in full form in 1858. Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Justus von Liebig had proposed the theory that fermentation was caused by decomposition. Pasteur demonstrated that this theory was incorrect, and that yeast was responsible for fermentation to produce alcohol from sugar. He also demonstrated that, when a different microorganism contaminated the wine, lactic acid was produced, making the wine sour. In 1861, Pasteur observed that less sugar fermented per part of yeast when the yeast was exposed to air. The lower rate of fermentation aerobically became known as the Pasteur effect . Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C. This killed most bacteria and moulds already present within them. Pasteur and Claude Bernard completed tests on blood and urine on 20 April 1862. Pasteur patented the process, to fight the "diseases" of wine, in 1865. The method became known as pasteurization , and was soon applied to beer and milk. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery. In 1866, Pasteur published Etudes sur le Vin , about the diseases of wine, and he published Etudes sur la Bière in 1876, concerning the diseases of beer. In the early 19th century, Agostino Bassi had shown that muscardine was caused by a fungus that infected silkworms. Since 1853, two diseases called pébrine and flacherie had been infecting great numbers of silkworms in southern France, and by 1865 they were causing huge losses to farmers. In 1865, Pasteur went to Alès and worked for five years until 1870. Silkworms with pébrine were covered in corpuscles. In the first three years, Pasteur thought that the corpuscles were a symptom of the disease. In 1870, he concluded that the corpuscles were the cause of pébrine (it is now known that the cause is a microsporidian ). Pasteur also showed that the disease was hereditary. Pasteur developed a system to prevent pébrine: after the female moths laid their eggs, the moths were turned into a pulp. The pulp was examined with a microscope, and if corpuscles were observed, the eggs were destroyed. Pasteur concluded that bacteria caused flacherie. The primary cause is currently thought to be viruses. The spread of flacherie could be accidental or hereditary. Hygiene could be used to prevent accidental flacherie. Moths whose digestive cavities did not contain the microorganisms causing flacherie were used to lay eggs, preventing hereditary flacherie. Following his fermentation experiments, Pasteur demonstrated that the skin of grapes was the natural source of yeasts, and that sterilized grapes and grape juice never fermented. He drew grape juice from under the skin with sterilized needles, and also covered grapes with sterilized cloth. Both experiments could not produce wine in sterilized containers. His findings and ideas were against the prevailing notion of spontaneous generation . He received a particularly stern criticism from Félix Archimède Pouchet , who was director of the Rouen Museum of Natural History . To settle the debate between the eminent scientists, the French Academy of Sciences offered the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs to whoever could experimentally demonstrate for or against the doctrine. Pouchet stated that air everywhere could cause spontaneous generation of living organisms in liquids. In the late 1850s, he performed experiments and claimed that they were evidence of spontaneous generation. Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani had provided some evidence against spontaneous generation in the 17th and 18th centuries, respectively. Spallanzani's experiments in 1765 suggested that air contaminated broths with bacteria. In the 1860s, Pasteur repeated Spallanzani's experiments, but Pouchet reported a different result using a different broth. Pasteur performed several experiments to disprove spontaneous generation. He placed boiled liquid in a flask and let hot air enter the flask. Then he closed the flask, and no organisms grew in it. In another experiment, when he opened flasks containing boiled liquid, dust entered the flasks, causing organisms to grow in some of them. The number of flasks in which organisms grew was lower at higher altitudes, showing that air at high altitudes contained less dust and fewer organisms. Pasteur also used swan neck flasks containing a fermentable liquid. Air was allowed to enter the flask via a long curving tube that made dust particles stick to it. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were tilted, making the liquid touch the contaminated walls of the neck. This showed that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, on dust, rather than spontaneously generating within the liquid or from the action of pure air. These were some of the most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. Pasteur gave a series of five presentations of his findings before the French Academy of Sciences in 1881, which were published in 1882 as Mémoire Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère: Examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées ( Account of Organized Corpuscles Existing in the Atmosphere: Examining the Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation ). Pasteur won the Alhumbert Prize in 1862. He concluded that: Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment. There is no known circumstance in which it can be confirmed that microscopic beings came into the world without germs, without parents similar to themselves. In 1865, Jean-Baptiste Dumas , chemist, senator and former Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, asked Pasteur to study a new disease that was decimating silkworm farms from the south of France and Europe, the pébrine , characterized on a macroscopic scale by black spots and on a microscopic scale by the " Cornalia corpuscles". Pasteur accepted and made five long stays in Alès , between 7 June 1865 and 1869. Arriving in Alès, Pasteur familiarized himself with pébrine and also with another disease of the silkworm, known earlier than pebrine: flacherie or dead-flat disease. Contrary, for example, to Quatrefages , who coined the new word pébrine , Pasteur made the mistake of believing that the two diseases were the same and even that most of the diseases of silkworms known up to that time were identical with each other and with pébrine. It was in letters of 30 April and 21 May 1867 to Dumas that he first made the distinction between pébrine and flacherie. He made another mistake: he began by denying the "parasitic" (microbial) nature of pébrine, which several scholars (notably Antoine Béchamp ) considered well established. Even a note published on 27 August 1866 by Balbiani , which Pasteur at first seemed to welcome favourably had no effect, at least immediately. "Pasteur is mistaken. He would only change his mind in the course of 1867". At a time where Pasteur had not yet understood the cause of the pébrine, he propagated an effective process to stop infections: a sample of chrysalises was chosen, they were crushed and the corpuscles were searched for in the crushed material; if the proportion of corpuscular pupae in the sample was very low, the chamber was considered good for reproduction. This method of sorting "seeds" (eggs) is close to a method that Osimo had proposed a few years earlier, but whose trials had not been conclusive. By this process, Pasteur curbs pébrine and saves many of the silk industry in the Cévennes. In 1878, at the Congrès international séricicole , Pasteur admitted that "if pébrine is overcome, flacherie still exerts its ravages". He attributed the persistence of flacherie to the fact that the farmers had not followed his advice. In 1884, Balbiani , who disregarded the theoretical value of Pasteur's work on silkworm diseases, acknowledged that his practical process had remedied the ravages of pébrine, but added that this result tended to be counterbalanced by the development of flacherie, which was less well known and more difficult to prevent. Despite Pasteur's success against pébrine, French sericulture had not been saved from damage. (See fr:Sériciculture in the French Wikipedia.)Arriving in Alès, Pasteur familiarized himself with pébrine and also with another disease of the silkworm, known earlier than pebrine: flacherie or dead-flat disease. Contrary, for example, to Quatrefages , who coined the new word pébrine , Pasteur made the mistake of believing that the two diseases were the same and even that most of the diseases of silkworms known up to that time were identical with each other and with pébrine. It was in letters of 30 April and 21 May 1867 to Dumas that he first made the distinction between pébrine and flacherie. He made another mistake: he began by denying the "parasitic" (microbial) nature of pébrine, which several scholars (notably Antoine Béchamp ) considered well established. Even a note published on 27 August 1866 by Balbiani , which Pasteur at first seemed to welcome favourably had no effect, at least immediately. "Pasteur is mistaken. He would only change his mind in the course of 1867". At a time where Pasteur had not yet understood the cause of the pébrine, he propagated an effective process to stop infections: a sample of chrysalises was chosen, they were crushed and the corpuscles were searched for in the crushed material; if the proportion of corpuscular pupae in the sample was very low, the chamber was considered good for reproduction. This method of sorting "seeds" (eggs) is close to a method that Osimo had proposed a few years earlier, but whose trials had not been conclusive. By this process, Pasteur curbs pébrine and saves many of the silk industry in the Cévennes. In 1878, at the Congrès international séricicole , Pasteur admitted that "if pébrine is overcome, flacherie still exerts its ravages". He attributed the persistence of flacherie to the fact that the farmers had not followed his advice. In 1884, Balbiani , who disregarded the theoretical value of Pasteur's work on silkworm diseases, acknowledged that his practical process had remedied the ravages of pébrine, but added that this result tended to be counterbalanced by the development of flacherie, which was less well known and more difficult to prevent. Despite Pasteur's success against pébrine, French sericulture had not been saved from damage. (See fr:Sériciculture in the French Wikipedia.)Pasteur's first work on vaccine development was on chicken cholera . He received the bacteria samples (later called Pasteurella multocida after him) from Henry Toussaint . He started the study in 1877, and by the next year, was able to maintain a stable culture using broths. After another year of continuous culturing, he found that the bacteria were less pathogenic. Some of his culture samples could no longer induce the disease in healthy chickens . In 1879, Pasteur, planning for holiday, instructed his assistant, Charles Chamberland to inoculate the chickens with fresh bacteria culture. Chamberland forgot and went on holiday himself. On his return, he injected the month-old cultures to healthy chickens. The chickens showed some symptoms of infection, but instead of the infections being fatal, as they usually were, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture, but Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur injected the freshly recovered chickens with fresh bacteria that normally would kill other chickens; the chickens no longer showed any sign of infection. It was clear to him that the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease. In December 1880, Pasteur presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences as " Sur les maladies virulentes et en particulier sur la maladie appelée vulgairement choléra des poules (On virulent diseases, and in particular on the disease commonly called chicken cholera)" and published it in the academy's journal ( Comptes-Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences ). He attributed that the bacteria were weakened by contact with oxygen. He explained that bacteria kept in sealed containers never lost their virulence, and only those exposed to air in culture media could be used as vaccine. Pasteur introduced the term "attenuation" for this weakening of virulence as he presented before the academy, saying: We can diminish the microbe's virulence by changing the mode of culturing. This is the crucial point of my subject. I ask the Academy not to criticize, for the time being, the confidence of my proceedings that permit me to determine the microbe's attenuation, in order to save the independence of my studies and to better assure their progress... [In conclusion] I would like to point out to the Academy two main consequences to the facts presented: the hope to culture all microbes and to find a vaccine for all infectious diseases that have repeatedly afflicted humanity, and are a major burden on agriculture and breeding of domestic animals. In fact, Pasteur's vaccine against chicken cholera was not regular in its effects and was a failure. In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax , which affected cattle , and aroused interest in combating other diseases. Pasteur cultivated bacteria from the blood of animals infected with anthrax. When he inoculated animals with the bacteria, anthrax occurred, proving that the bacteria was the cause of the disease. Many cattle were dying of anthrax in "cursed fields". Pasteur was told that sheep that died from anthrax were buried in the field. Pasteur thought that earthworms might have brought the bacteria to the surface. He found anthrax bacteria in earthworms' excrement, showing that he was correct. He told the farmers not to bury dead animals in the fields. Pasteur had been trying to develop the anthrax vaccine since 1877, soon after Robert Koch's discovery of the bacterium. On 12 July 1880, Henri Bouley read before the French Academy of Sciences a report from Henry Toussaint , a veterinary surgeon , who was not member of the academy. Toussaint had developed anthrax vaccine by killing the bacilli by heating at 55 °C for 10  minutes. He tested on eight dogs and 11 sheep, half of which died after inoculation. It was not a great success. Upon hearing the news, Pasteur immediately wrote to the academy that he could not believe that dead vaccine would work and that Toussaint's claim "overturns all the ideas I had on viruses, vaccines, etc." Following Pasteur's criticism, Toussaint switched to carbolic acid to kill anthrax bacilli and tested the vaccine on sheep in August 1880. Pasteur thought that this type of killed vaccine should not work because he believed that attenuated bacteria used up nutrients that the bacteria needed to grow. He thought oxidizing bacteria made them less virulent. But Pasteur found that anthrax bacillus was not easily weakened by culturing in air as it formed spores – unlike chicken cholera bacillus. In early 1881, he discovered that growing anthrax bacilli at about 42 °C made them unable to produce spores, and he described this method in a speech to the French Academy of Sciences on 28 February. On 21 March, he announced successful vaccination of sheep. To this news, veterinarian Hippolyte Rossignol proposed that the Société d'agriculture de Melun organize an experiment to test Pasteur's vaccine. Pasteur signed agreement of the challenge on 28 April. A public experiment was conducted in May at Pouilly-le-Fort. 58 sheep, 2 goats and 10 cattle were used, half of which were given the vaccine on 5 and 17 May; while the other half was untreated. All the animals were injected with the fresh virulent culture of anthrax bacillus on 31 May. The official result was observed and analysed on 2 June in the presence of over 200 spectators. All cattle survived, vaccinated or not. Pasteur had bravely predicted: "I hypothesized that the six vaccinated cows would not become very ill, while the four unvaccinated cows would perish or at least become very ill." However, all vaccinated sheep and goats survived, while unvaccinated ones had died or were dying before the viewers. His report to the French Academy of Sciences on 13 June concludes: [By] looking at everything from the scientific point of view, the development of a vaccination against anthrax constitutes significant progress beyond the first vaccine developed by Jenner, since the latter had never been obtained experimentally. Pasteur did not directly disclose how he prepared the vaccines used at Pouilly-le-Fort. Although his report indicated it as a "live vaccine", his laboratory notebooks show that he actually used potassium dichromate -killed vaccine, as developed by Chamberland, quite similar to Toussaint's method. The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox . Inoculation with smallpox ( variolation ) was known to result in a much less severe disease, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also studied vaccination using cowpox ( vaccinia ) to give cross-immunity to smallpox in the late 1790s, and by the early 1800s vaccination had spread to most of Europe. The difference between smallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was that the latter two disease organisms had been artificially weakened, so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of " vaccines ", in honour of Jenner's discovery. In 1876, Robert Koch had shown that Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax. In his papers published between 1878 and 1880, Pasteur only mentioned Koch's work in a footnote. Koch met Pasteur at the Seventh International Medical Congress in 1881. A few months later, Koch wrote that Pasteur had used impure cultures and made errors. In 1882, Pasteur replied to Koch in a speech, to which Koch responded aggressively. Koch stated that Pasteur tested his vaccine on unsuitable animals and that Pasteur's research was not properly scientific. In 1882, Koch wrote "On the Anthrax Inoculation", in which he refuted several of Pasteur's conclusions about anthrax and criticized Pasteur for keeping his methods secret, jumping to conclusions, and being imprecise. In 1883, Pasteur wrote that he used cultures prepared in a similar way to his successful fermentation experiments and that Koch misinterpreted statistics and ignored Pasteur's work on silkworms. In 1882, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to southern France because of an epizootic of swine erysipelas . Thuillier identified the bacillus that caused the disease in March 1883. Pasteur and Thuillier increased the bacillus's virulence after passing it through pigeons. Then they passed the bacillus through rabbits, weakening it and obtaining a vaccine. Pasteur and Thuillier incorrectly described the bacterium as a figure-eight shape. Roux described the bacterium as stick-shaped in 1884. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue. The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux , a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur, who had produced a killed vaccine using this method. The vaccine had been tested in 50 dogs before its first human trial. This vaccine was used on 9-year-old Joseph Meister , on 6 July 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. After consulting with physicians, he decided to go ahead with the treatment. Over 11 days, Meister received 13 inoculations, each inoculation using viruses that had been weakened for a shorter period of time. Three months later he examined Meister and found that he was in good health. Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. Analysis of his laboratory notebooks shows that Pasteur had treated two people before his vaccination of Meister. One survived but may not actually have had rabies, and the other died of rabies. Pasteur began treatment of Jean-Baptiste Jupille on 20 October 1885, and the treatment was successful. Later in 1885, people, including four children from the United States, went to Pasteur's laboratory to be inoculated. In 1886, he treated 350 people, of which only one developed rabies. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement. In The Story of San Michele , Axel Munthe writes of some risks Pasteur undertook in the rabies vaccine research: Pasteur himself was absolutely fearless. Anxious to secure a sample of saliva straight from the jaws of a rabid dog, I once saw him with the glass tube held between his lips draw a few drops of the deadly saliva from the mouth of a rabid bull-dog, held on the table by two assistants, their hands protected by leather gloves. Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment before surgery. Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced these procedures. Ignaz Semmelweis and Joseph Lister had earlier practiced hand sanitizing in medical contexts in the 1860s. Pasteur's first work on vaccine development was on chicken cholera . He received the bacteria samples (later called Pasteurella multocida after him) from Henry Toussaint . He started the study in 1877, and by the next year, was able to maintain a stable culture using broths. After another year of continuous culturing, he found that the bacteria were less pathogenic. Some of his culture samples could no longer induce the disease in healthy chickens . In 1879, Pasteur, planning for holiday, instructed his assistant, Charles Chamberland to inoculate the chickens with fresh bacteria culture. Chamberland forgot and went on holiday himself. On his return, he injected the month-old cultures to healthy chickens. The chickens showed some symptoms of infection, but instead of the infections being fatal, as they usually were, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture, but Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur injected the freshly recovered chickens with fresh bacteria that normally would kill other chickens; the chickens no longer showed any sign of infection. It was clear to him that the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease. In December 1880, Pasteur presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences as " Sur les maladies virulentes et en particulier sur la maladie appelée vulgairement choléra des poules (On virulent diseases, and in particular on the disease commonly called chicken cholera)" and published it in the academy's journal ( Comptes-Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences ). He attributed that the bacteria were weakened by contact with oxygen. He explained that bacteria kept in sealed containers never lost their virulence, and only those exposed to air in culture media could be used as vaccine. Pasteur introduced the term "attenuation" for this weakening of virulence as he presented before the academy, saying: We can diminish the microbe's virulence by changing the mode of culturing. This is the crucial point of my subject. I ask the Academy not to criticize, for the time being, the confidence of my proceedings that permit me to determine the microbe's attenuation, in order to save the independence of my studies and to better assure their progress... [In conclusion] I would like to point out to the Academy two main consequences to the facts presented: the hope to culture all microbes and to find a vaccine for all infectious diseases that have repeatedly afflicted humanity, and are a major burden on agriculture and breeding of domestic animals. In fact, Pasteur's vaccine against chicken cholera was not regular in its effects and was a failure. In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax , which affected cattle , and aroused interest in combating other diseases. Pasteur cultivated bacteria from the blood of animals infected with anthrax. When he inoculated animals with the bacteria, anthrax occurred, proving that the bacteria was the cause of the disease. Many cattle were dying of anthrax in "cursed fields". Pasteur was told that sheep that died from anthrax were buried in the field. Pasteur thought that earthworms might have brought the bacteria to the surface. He found anthrax bacteria in earthworms' excrement, showing that he was correct. He told the farmers not to bury dead animals in the fields. Pasteur had been trying to develop the anthrax vaccine since 1877, soon after Robert Koch's discovery of the bacterium. On 12 July 1880, Henri Bouley read before the French Academy of Sciences a report from Henry Toussaint , a veterinary surgeon , who was not member of the academy. Toussaint had developed anthrax vaccine by killing the bacilli by heating at 55 °C for 10  minutes. He tested on eight dogs and 11 sheep, half of which died after inoculation. It was not a great success. Upon hearing the news, Pasteur immediately wrote to the academy that he could not believe that dead vaccine would work and that Toussaint's claim "overturns all the ideas I had on viruses, vaccines, etc." Following Pasteur's criticism, Toussaint switched to carbolic acid to kill anthrax bacilli and tested the vaccine on sheep in August 1880. Pasteur thought that this type of killed vaccine should not work because he believed that attenuated bacteria used up nutrients that the bacteria needed to grow. He thought oxidizing bacteria made them less virulent. But Pasteur found that anthrax bacillus was not easily weakened by culturing in air as it formed spores – unlike chicken cholera bacillus. In early 1881, he discovered that growing anthrax bacilli at about 42 °C made them unable to produce spores, and he described this method in a speech to the French Academy of Sciences on 28 February. On 21 March, he announced successful vaccination of sheep. To this news, veterinarian Hippolyte Rossignol proposed that the Société d'agriculture de Melun organize an experiment to test Pasteur's vaccine. Pasteur signed agreement of the challenge on 28 April. A public experiment was conducted in May at Pouilly-le-Fort. 58 sheep, 2 goats and 10 cattle were used, half of which were given the vaccine on 5 and 17 May; while the other half was untreated. All the animals were injected with the fresh virulent culture of anthrax bacillus on 31 May. The official result was observed and analysed on 2 June in the presence of over 200 spectators. All cattle survived, vaccinated or not. Pasteur had bravely predicted: "I hypothesized that the six vaccinated cows would not become very ill, while the four unvaccinated cows would perish or at least become very ill." However, all vaccinated sheep and goats survived, while unvaccinated ones had died or were dying before the viewers. His report to the French Academy of Sciences on 13 June concludes: [By] looking at everything from the scientific point of view, the development of a vaccination against anthrax constitutes significant progress beyond the first vaccine developed by Jenner, since the latter had never been obtained experimentally. Pasteur did not directly disclose how he prepared the vaccines used at Pouilly-le-Fort. Although his report indicated it as a "live vaccine", his laboratory notebooks show that he actually used potassium dichromate -killed vaccine, as developed by Chamberland, quite similar to Toussaint's method. The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox . Inoculation with smallpox ( variolation ) was known to result in a much less severe disease, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also studied vaccination using cowpox ( vaccinia ) to give cross-immunity to smallpox in the late 1790s, and by the early 1800s vaccination had spread to most of Europe. The difference between smallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was that the latter two disease organisms had been artificially weakened, so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of " vaccines ", in honour of Jenner's discovery. In 1876, Robert Koch had shown that Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax. In his papers published between 1878 and 1880, Pasteur only mentioned Koch's work in a footnote. Koch met Pasteur at the Seventh International Medical Congress in 1881. A few months later, Koch wrote that Pasteur had used impure cultures and made errors. In 1882, Pasteur replied to Koch in a speech, to which Koch responded aggressively. Koch stated that Pasteur tested his vaccine on unsuitable animals and that Pasteur's research was not properly scientific. In 1882, Koch wrote "On the Anthrax Inoculation", in which he refuted several of Pasteur's conclusions about anthrax and criticized Pasteur for keeping his methods secret, jumping to conclusions, and being imprecise. In 1883, Pasteur wrote that he used cultures prepared in a similar way to his successful fermentation experiments and that Koch misinterpreted statistics and ignored Pasteur's work on silkworms. In 1882, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to southern France because of an epizootic of swine erysipelas . Thuillier identified the bacillus that caused the disease in March 1883. Pasteur and Thuillier increased the bacillus's virulence after passing it through pigeons. Then they passed the bacillus through rabbits, weakening it and obtaining a vaccine. Pasteur and Thuillier incorrectly described the bacterium as a figure-eight shape. Roux described the bacterium as stick-shaped in 1884. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue. The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux , a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur, who had produced a killed vaccine using this method. The vaccine had been tested in 50 dogs before its first human trial. This vaccine was used on 9-year-old Joseph Meister , on 6 July 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. After consulting with physicians, he decided to go ahead with the treatment. Over 11 days, Meister received 13 inoculations, each inoculation using viruses that had been weakened for a shorter period of time. Three months later he examined Meister and found that he was in good health. Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. Analysis of his laboratory notebooks shows that Pasteur had treated two people before his vaccination of Meister. One survived but may not actually have had rabies, and the other died of rabies. Pasteur began treatment of Jean-Baptiste Jupille on 20 October 1885, and the treatment was successful. Later in 1885, people, including four children from the United States, went to Pasteur's laboratory to be inoculated. In 1886, he treated 350 people, of which only one developed rabies. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement. In The Story of San Michele , Axel Munthe writes of some risks Pasteur undertook in the rabies vaccine research: Pasteur himself was absolutely fearless. Anxious to secure a sample of saliva straight from the jaws of a rabid dog, I once saw him with the glass tube held between his lips draw a few drops of the deadly saliva from the mouth of a rabid bull-dog, held on the table by two assistants, their hands protected by leather gloves. Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment before surgery. Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced these procedures. Ignaz Semmelweis and Joseph Lister had earlier practiced hand sanitizing in medical contexts in the 1860s. A French national hero at age 55, in 1878 Pasteur discreetly told his family to never reveal his laboratory notebooks to anyone. His family obeyed, and all his documents were held and inherited in secrecy. Finally, in 1964 Pasteur's grandson and last surviving male descendant, Pasteur Vallery-Radot, donated the papers to the French national library . Yet the papers were restricted for historical studies until the death of Vallery-Radot in 1971. The documents were given a catalogue number only in 1985. In 1995, the centennial of the death of Louis Pasteur, a historian of science Gerald L. Geison published an analysis of Pasteur's private notebooks in his The Private Science of Louis Pasteur , and declared that Pasteur had given several misleading accounts and played deceptions in his most important discoveries. Max Perutz published a defense of Pasteur in The New York Review of Books . Based on further examinations of Pasteur's documents, French immunologist Patrice Debré concluded in his book Louis Pasteur (1998) that, in spite of his genius, Pasteur had some faults. A book review states that Debré "sometimes finds him unfair, combative, arrogant, unattractive in attitude, inflexible and even dogmatic". Scientists before Pasteur had studied fermentation. In the 1830s, Charles Cagniard-Latour , Friedrich Traugott Kützing and Theodor Schwann used microscopes to study yeasts and concluded that yeasts were living organisms. In 1839, Justus von Liebig , Friedrich Wöhler and Jöns Jacob Berzelius stated that yeast was not an organism and was produced when air acted on plant juice. In 1855, Antoine Béchamp , Professor of Chemistry at the University of Montpellier , conducted experiments with sucrose solutions and concluded that water was the factor for fermentation. He changed his conclusion in 1858, stating that fermentation was directly related to the growth of moulds, which required air for growth. He regarded himself as the first to show the role of microorganisms in fermentation. Pasteur started his experiments in 1857 and published his findings in 1858 (April issue of Comptes Rendus Chimie , Béchamp's paper appeared in January issue). Béchamp noted that Pasteur did not bring any novel idea or experiments. On the other hand, Béchamp was probably aware of Pasteur's 1857 preliminary works. With both scientists claiming priority on the discovery, a dispute, extending to several areas, lasted throughout their lives. However, Béchamp was on the losing side, as the BMJ obituary remarked: His name was "associated with bygone controversies as to priority which it would be unprofitable to recall". Béchamp proposed the incorrect theory of microzymes . According to K. L. Manchester, anti-vivisectionists and proponents of alternative medicine promoted Béchamp and microzymes, unjustifiably claiming that Pasteur plagiarized Béchamp. Pasteur thought that succinic acid inverted sucrose. In 1860, Marcellin Berthelot isolated invertase and showed that succinic acid did not invert sucrose. Pasteur believed that fermentation was only due to living cells. He and Berthelot engaged in a long argument subject of vitalism, in which Berthelot was vehemently opposed to any idea of vitalism. Hans Buchner discovered that zymase (not an enzyme, but a mixture of enzymes) catalyzed fermentation, showing that fermentation was catalyzed by enzymes within cells. Eduard Buchner also discovered that fermentation could take place outside living cells. Pasteur publicly claimed his success in developing the anthrax vaccine in 1881. However, his admirer-turned-rival Henry Toussaint was the one who developed the first vaccine. Toussaint isolated the bacteria that caused chicken cholera (later named Pasteurella in honour of Pasteur) in 1879 and gave samples to Pasteur who used them for his own works. On 12 July 1880, Toussaint presented his successful result to the French Academy of Sciences, using an attenuated vaccine against anthrax in dogs and sheep. Pasteur on grounds of jealousy contested the discovery by publicly displaying his vaccination method at Pouilly-le-Fort on 5 May 1881. Pasteur then gave a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment. He claimed that he made a "live vaccine", but used potassium dichromate to inactivate anthrax spores, a method similar to Toussaint's. The promotional experiment was a success and helped Pasteur sell his products, getting the benefits and glory. Pasteur's experiments are often cited as against medical ethics , especially on his vaccination of Meister. He did not have any experience in medical practice, and more importantly, lacked a medical license . This is often cited as a serious threat to his professional and personal reputation. His closest partner Émile Roux , who had medical qualifications, refused to participate in the clinical trial , likely because he considered it unjust. However, Pasteur executed vaccination of the boy under the close watch of practising physicians Jacques-Joseph Grancher , head of the Paris Children's Hospital's paediatric clinic, and Alfred Vulpian , a member of the Commission on Rabies. He was not allowed to hold the syringe, although the inoculations were entirely under his supervision. It was Grancher who was responsible for the injections, and he defended Pasteur before the French National Academy of Medicine in the issue. Pasteur has also been criticized for keeping secrecy of his procedure and not giving proper pre-clinical trials on animals. Pasteur stated that he kept his procedure secret in order to control its quality. He later disclosed his procedures to a small group of scientists. Pasteur wrote that he had successfully vaccinated 50 rabid dogs before using it on Meister. According to Geison, Pasteur's laboratory notebooks show that he had vaccinated only 11 dogs. Meister never showed any symptoms of rabies, but the vaccination has not been proved to be the reason. One source estimates the probability of Meister contracting rabies at 10%. Scientists before Pasteur had studied fermentation. In the 1830s, Charles Cagniard-Latour , Friedrich Traugott Kützing and Theodor Schwann used microscopes to study yeasts and concluded that yeasts were living organisms. In 1839, Justus von Liebig , Friedrich Wöhler and Jöns Jacob Berzelius stated that yeast was not an organism and was produced when air acted on plant juice. In 1855, Antoine Béchamp , Professor of Chemistry at the University of Montpellier , conducted experiments with sucrose solutions and concluded that water was the factor for fermentation. He changed his conclusion in 1858, stating that fermentation was directly related to the growth of moulds, which required air for growth. He regarded himself as the first to show the role of microorganisms in fermentation. Pasteur started his experiments in 1857 and published his findings in 1858 (April issue of Comptes Rendus Chimie , Béchamp's paper appeared in January issue). Béchamp noted that Pasteur did not bring any novel idea or experiments. On the other hand, Béchamp was probably aware of Pasteur's 1857 preliminary works. With both scientists claiming priority on the discovery, a dispute, extending to several areas, lasted throughout their lives. However, Béchamp was on the losing side, as the BMJ obituary remarked: His name was "associated with bygone controversies as to priority which it would be unprofitable to recall". Béchamp proposed the incorrect theory of microzymes . According to K. L. Manchester, anti-vivisectionists and proponents of alternative medicine promoted Béchamp and microzymes, unjustifiably claiming that Pasteur plagiarized Béchamp. Pasteur thought that succinic acid inverted sucrose. In 1860, Marcellin Berthelot isolated invertase and showed that succinic acid did not invert sucrose. Pasteur believed that fermentation was only due to living cells. He and Berthelot engaged in a long argument subject of vitalism, in which Berthelot was vehemently opposed to any idea of vitalism. Hans Buchner discovered that zymase (not an enzyme, but a mixture of enzymes) catalyzed fermentation, showing that fermentation was catalyzed by enzymes within cells. Eduard Buchner also discovered that fermentation could take place outside living cells. Pasteur publicly claimed his success in developing the anthrax vaccine in 1881. However, his admirer-turned-rival Henry Toussaint was the one who developed the first vaccine. Toussaint isolated the bacteria that caused chicken cholera (later named Pasteurella in honour of Pasteur) in 1879 and gave samples to Pasteur who used them for his own works. On 12 July 1880, Toussaint presented his successful result to the French Academy of Sciences, using an attenuated vaccine against anthrax in dogs and sheep. Pasteur on grounds of jealousy contested the discovery by publicly displaying his vaccination method at Pouilly-le-Fort on 5 May 1881. Pasteur then gave a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment. He claimed that he made a "live vaccine", but used potassium dichromate to inactivate anthrax spores, a method similar to Toussaint's. The promotional experiment was a success and helped Pasteur sell his products, getting the benefits and glory. Pasteur's experiments are often cited as against medical ethics , especially on his vaccination of Meister. He did not have any experience in medical practice, and more importantly, lacked a medical license . This is often cited as a serious threat to his professional and personal reputation. His closest partner Émile Roux , who had medical qualifications, refused to participate in the clinical trial , likely because he considered it unjust. However, Pasteur executed vaccination of the boy under the close watch of practising physicians Jacques-Joseph Grancher , head of the Paris Children's Hospital's paediatric clinic, and Alfred Vulpian , a member of the Commission on Rabies. He was not allowed to hold the syringe, although the inoculations were entirely under his supervision. It was Grancher who was responsible for the injections, and he defended Pasteur before the French National Academy of Medicine in the issue. Pasteur has also been criticized for keeping secrecy of his procedure and not giving proper pre-clinical trials on animals. Pasteur stated that he kept his procedure secret in order to control its quality. He later disclosed his procedures to a small group of scientists. Pasteur wrote that he had successfully vaccinated 50 rabid dogs before using it on Meister. According to Geison, Pasteur's laboratory notebooks show that he had vaccinated only 11 dogs. Meister never showed any symptoms of rabies, but the vaccination has not been proved to be the reason. One source estimates the probability of Meister contracting rabies at 10%. Pasteur was awarded 1,500 francs in 1853 by the Pharmaceutical Society for the synthesis of racemic acid . In 1856 the Royal Society of London presented him the Rumford Medal for his discovery of the nature of racemic acid and its relations to polarized light, and the Copley Medal in 1874 for his work on fermentation. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1869 . The French Academy of Sciences awarded Pasteur the 1859 Montyon Prize for experimental physiology in 1860, and the Jecker Prize in 1861 and the Alhumbert Prize in 1862 for his experimental refutation of spontaneous generation. Though he lost elections in 1857 and 1861 for membership to the French Academy of Sciences, he won the 1862 election for membership to the mineralogy section. He was elected to permanent secretary of the physical science section of the academy in 1887 and held the position until 1889. In 1873, Pasteur was elected to the Académie Nationale de Médecine and was made the commander in the Brazilian Order of the Rose . In 1881 he was elected to a seat at the Académie française left vacant by Émile Littré . Pasteur received the Albert Medal from the Royal Society of Arts in 1882. In 1883 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1885, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society . On 8 June 1886, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II awarded Pasteur with the Order of the Medjidie (I Class) and 10000 Ottoman liras. He was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh in 1889. Pasteur won the Leeuwenhoek Medal from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences for his contributions to microbiology in 1895. Pasteur was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1853, promoted to Officer in 1863, to Commander in 1868, to Grand Officer in 1878 and made a Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor in 1881. In many localities worldwide, streets are named in his honor. For example, in the US: Palo Alto and Irvine, California , Boston and Polk, Florida, adjacent to the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio ; Jonquière, Québec; San Salvador de Jujuy and Buenos Aires ( Argentina ), Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, in the United Kingdom, Jericho and Wulguru in Queensland, Australia; Phnom Penh in Cambodia; Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang , Vietnam; Batna in Algeria ; Bandung in Indonesia, Tehran in Iran, near the central campus of the Warsaw University in Warsaw , Poland; adjacent to the Odesa State Medical University in Odesa , Ukraine; Milan in Italy and Bucharest , Cluj-Napoca and Timișoara in Romania. The Avenue Pasteur in Saigon, Vietnam, is one of the few streets in that city to retain its French name. Avenue Louis Pasteur in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston was named in his honor in the French manner with "Avenue" preceding the name of the dedicatee. Both the Institut Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after Pasteur. The schools Lycée Pasteur in Neuilly-sur-Seine , France, and Lycée Louis Pasteur in Calgary, Alberta , Canada, are named after him. In South Africa, the Louis Pasteur Private Hospital in Pretoria , and Life Louis Pasteur Private Hospital, Bloemfontein , are named after him. Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice , Slovakia is also named after Pasteur. A statue of Pasteur is erected at San Rafael High School in San Rafael, California . A bronze bust of him resides on the French Campus of Kaiser Permanente 's San Francisco Medical Center in San Francisco . The sculpture was designed by Harriet G. Moore and cast in 1984 by Artworks Foundry. The UNESCO/Institut Pasteur Medal was created on the centenary of Pasteur's death, and is given every two years in his name, "in recognition of outstanding research contributing to a beneficial impact on human health". The French Academician Henri Mondor stated: " Louis Pasteur was neither a physician nor a surgeon, but no one has done as much for medicine and surgery as he has ." After developing the rabies vaccine, Pasteur proposed an institute for the vaccine. In 1887, fundraising for the Pasteur Institute began, with donations from many countries. The official statute was registered in 1887, stating that the institute's purposes were "the treatment of rabies according to the method developed by M. Pasteur" and "the study of virulent and contagious diseases". The institute was inaugurated on 14 November 1888. He brought together scientists with various specialties. The first five departments were directed by two graduates of the École Normale Supérieure : Émile Duclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland (microbe research applied to hygiene ), as well as a biologist, Élie Metchnikoff (morphological microbe research) and two physicians , Jacques-Joseph Grancher ( rabies ) and Émile Roux (technical microbe research). One year after the inauguration of the institute, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled Cours de Microbie Technique (Course of microbe research techniques). Since 1891 the Pasteur Institute had been extended to different countries, and currently there are 32 institutes in 29 countries in various parts of the world. In many localities worldwide, streets are named in his honor. For example, in the US: Palo Alto and Irvine, California , Boston and Polk, Florida, adjacent to the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio ; Jonquière, Québec; San Salvador de Jujuy and Buenos Aires ( Argentina ), Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, in the United Kingdom, Jericho and Wulguru in Queensland, Australia; Phnom Penh in Cambodia; Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang , Vietnam; Batna in Algeria ; Bandung in Indonesia, Tehran in Iran, near the central campus of the Warsaw University in Warsaw , Poland; adjacent to the Odesa State Medical University in Odesa , Ukraine; Milan in Italy and Bucharest , Cluj-Napoca and Timișoara in Romania. The Avenue Pasteur in Saigon, Vietnam, is one of the few streets in that city to retain its French name. Avenue Louis Pasteur in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston was named in his honor in the French manner with "Avenue" preceding the name of the dedicatee. Both the Institut Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after Pasteur. The schools Lycée Pasteur in Neuilly-sur-Seine , France, and Lycée Louis Pasteur in Calgary, Alberta , Canada, are named after him. In South Africa, the Louis Pasteur Private Hospital in Pretoria , and Life Louis Pasteur Private Hospital, Bloemfontein , are named after him. Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice , Slovakia is also named after Pasteur. A statue of Pasteur is erected at San Rafael High School in San Rafael, California . A bronze bust of him resides on the French Campus of Kaiser Permanente 's San Francisco Medical Center in San Francisco . The sculpture was designed by Harriet G. Moore and cast in 1984 by Artworks Foundry. The UNESCO/Institut Pasteur Medal was created on the centenary of Pasteur's death, and is given every two years in his name, "in recognition of outstanding research contributing to a beneficial impact on human health". The French Academician Henri Mondor stated: " Louis Pasteur was neither a physician nor a surgeon, but no one has done as much for medicine and surgery as he has ." After developing the rabies vaccine, Pasteur proposed an institute for the vaccine. In 1887, fundraising for the Pasteur Institute began, with donations from many countries. The official statute was registered in 1887, stating that the institute's purposes were "the treatment of rabies according to the method developed by M. Pasteur" and "the study of virulent and contagious diseases". The institute was inaugurated on 14 November 1888. He brought together scientists with various specialties. The first five departments were directed by two graduates of the École Normale Supérieure : Émile Duclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland (microbe research applied to hygiene ), as well as a biologist, Élie Metchnikoff (morphological microbe research) and two physicians , Jacques-Joseph Grancher ( rabies ) and Émile Roux (technical microbe research). One year after the inauguration of the institute, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled Cours de Microbie Technique (Course of microbe research techniques). Since 1891 the Pasteur Institute had been extended to different countries, and currently there are 32 institutes in 29 countries in various parts of the world. Pasteur married Marie Pasteur (née Laurent) in 1849. She was the daughter of the rector of the University of Strasbourg, and was Pasteur's scientific assistant. They had five children together, three of whom died as children. Their eldest daughter, Jeanne, was born in 1850. She died from typhoid fever , aged 9, whilst at the boarding school Arbois in 1859. In 1865, 2-year-old Camille died of a liver tumour. Shortly after they decided to bring Cécile home from boarding school, but she too died of typhoid fever on 23 May 1866 at the age of 12. Only Jean Baptiste (b. 1851) and Marie Louise (b. 1858) survived to adulthood. Jean Baptiste would be a soldier in the Franco-Prussian War between France and Prussia . His grandson, Louis Pasteur Vallery-Radot , wrote that Pasteur had kept from his Catholic background only a spiritualism without religious practice. However, Catholic observers often said that Pasteur remained an ardent Christian throughout his whole life, and his son-in-law wrote, in a biography of him: Absolute faith in God and in Eternity, and a conviction that the power for good given to us in this world will be continued beyond it, were feelings which pervaded his whole life; the virtues of the gospel had ever been present to him. Full of respect for the form of religion which had been that of his forefathers, he came simply to it and naturally for spiritual help in these last weeks of his life. The Literary Digest of 18 October 1902 gives this statement from Pasteur that he prayed while he worked: Posterity will one day laugh at the foolishness of modern materialistic philosophers. The more I study nature, the more I stand amazed at the work of the Creator. I pray while I am engaged at my work in the laboratory. Maurice Vallery-Radot, grandson of the brother of the son-in-law of Pasteur and outspoken Catholic, also holds that Pasteur fundamentally remained Catholic. According to both Pasteur Vallery-Radot and Maurice Vallery-Radot, the following well-known quotation attributed to Pasteur is apocryphal: "The more I know, the more nearly is my faith that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant's wife". According to Maurice Vallery-Radot, the false quotation appeared for the first time shortly after the death of Pasteur. However, despite his belief in God, it has been said that his views were that of a freethinker rather than a Catholic, a spiritual more than a religious man. He was also against mixing science with religion. In 1868, Pasteur suffered a severe brain stroke that paralysed the left side of his body, but he recovered. A stroke or uremia in 1894 severely impaired his health. Failing to fully recover, he died on 28 September 1895, near Paris. He was given a state funeral and was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame , but his remains were reinterred in the Pasteur Institute in Paris, in a vault covered in depictions of his accomplishments in Byzantine mosaics . His grandson, Louis Pasteur Vallery-Radot , wrote that Pasteur had kept from his Catholic background only a spiritualism without religious practice. However, Catholic observers often said that Pasteur remained an ardent Christian throughout his whole life, and his son-in-law wrote, in a biography of him: Absolute faith in God and in Eternity, and a conviction that the power for good given to us in this world will be continued beyond it, were feelings which pervaded his whole life; the virtues of the gospel had ever been present to him. Full of respect for the form of religion which had been that of his forefathers, he came simply to it and naturally for spiritual help in these last weeks of his life. The Literary Digest of 18 October 1902 gives this statement from Pasteur that he prayed while he worked: Posterity will one day laugh at the foolishness of modern materialistic philosophers. The more I study nature, the more I stand amazed at the work of the Creator. I pray while I am engaged at my work in the laboratory. Maurice Vallery-Radot, grandson of the brother of the son-in-law of Pasteur and outspoken Catholic, also holds that Pasteur fundamentally remained Catholic. According to both Pasteur Vallery-Radot and Maurice Vallery-Radot, the following well-known quotation attributed to Pasteur is apocryphal: "The more I know, the more nearly is my faith that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant's wife". According to Maurice Vallery-Radot, the false quotation appeared for the first time shortly after the death of Pasteur. However, despite his belief in God, it has been said that his views were that of a freethinker rather than a Catholic, a spiritual more than a religious man. He was also against mixing science with religion. In 1868, Pasteur suffered a severe brain stroke that paralysed the left side of his body, but he recovered. A stroke or uremia in 1894 severely impaired his health. Failing to fully recover, he died on 28 September 1895, near Paris. He was given a state funeral and was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame , but his remains were reinterred in the Pasteur Institute in Paris, in a vault covered in depictions of his accomplishments in Byzantine mosaics . Pasteur's principal published works are:

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Anthrax

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Anthrax (British band)

Anthrax are an English anarcho-punk band formed in Gravesend , Kent , England, in 1980. They recorded their first demo in 1981 and went on to release two 7" EPs on Crass Records and Small Wonder Records . They appeared on compilations released by Crass Records , Mortarhate Records and Fightback Records. They toured outside the UK twice in the Netherlands with Dutch band The Ex . In 2007, the band issued a compilation album , One Last Drop , which included demos , both EPs, the Mortarhate compilation track and two live tracks. The band reformed in 2010, releasing new (and debut) album All for the Cause in 2012. Two split singles followed in 2015. Oskar – vocals Gareth – bass Pete – drums Dee – guitar Laurence Windle – bass Shaun – rhythm guitar 81 Demo (Tape 1981) Capitalism Gives Opportunities in Life, Anarchy Gives Life (Tape 1982) Capitalism is Cannibalism (EP, Crass Records, 1982) They've Got It All Wrong (EP, Small Wonder Records, 1983) One Last Drop / Welcome (CD single, Happy Release 2, 2009) Split EP (DL, 2015) [w/PedAgree Skum, Dog Shite, SLUG] Split EP (7"/DL, 2015) [w/ Hagar the Womb ] All for the Cause (LP/CD/DL, 2012) "All the Wars" on Bullshit Detector Volume 2 (LP Compilation, Crass Records, 1982) "It'll Be Alright on the Night" on Who? What? Why? Where? When? (LP Compilation, Mortarhate Records, 1983) "Violence Is Violence 82" on We Don't Want Your Fucking War! (LP Compilation, Fightback Records, 1984) "Capitalism is Cannibalism" EP, on A Sides. Part Two. 1982-1985 (LP Compilation, Crass Records 1985) "It'll Be Alright on the Night", on We Won't Take No More (CD Compilation, Go Kart Records , 2001) "It'll Be Alright on the Night", on Who? What? Why? Where? When? (CD Compilation,Mortarhate Records, 2003) "Violence Is Violence 82", on We Don't Want Your Fucking War! (CD Compilation, Mortarhate Records, 2006) One Last Drop (Compilation CD, Happy Release Records, 2007)81 Demo (Tape 1981) Capitalism Gives Opportunities in Life, Anarchy Gives Life (Tape 1982)Capitalism is Cannibalism (EP, Crass Records, 1982) They've Got It All Wrong (EP, Small Wonder Records, 1983) One Last Drop / Welcome (CD single, Happy Release 2, 2009) Split EP (DL, 2015) [w/PedAgree Skum, Dog Shite, SLUG] Split EP (7"/DL, 2015) [w/ Hagar the Womb ]All for the Cause (LP/CD/DL, 2012)"All the Wars" on Bullshit Detector Volume 2 (LP Compilation, Crass Records, 1982) "It'll Be Alright on the Night" on Who? What? Why? Where? When? (LP Compilation, Mortarhate Records, 1983) "Violence Is Violence 82" on We Don't Want Your Fucking War! (LP Compilation, Fightback Records, 1984)"Capitalism is Cannibalism" EP, on A Sides. Part Two. 1982-1985 (LP Compilation, Crass Records 1985) "It'll Be Alright on the Night", on We Won't Take No More (CD Compilation, Go Kart Records , 2001) "It'll Be Alright on the Night", on Who? What? Why? Where? When? (CD Compilation,Mortarhate Records, 2003) "Violence Is Violence 82", on We Don't Want Your Fucking War! (CD Compilation, Mortarhate Records, 2006) One Last Drop (Compilation CD, Happy Release Records, 2007)

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Anthrax

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Church of Anthrax

John Cale John McClure Church of Anthrax is a collaborative studio album by musicians John Cale and Terry Riley . It was released in February 1971 by record label CBS , nearly a year after the material was recorded. It followed Riley's success with 1969's A Rainbow in Curved Air and Cale's influential work with the Velvet Underground . The album was reissued and remastered in 2014.The album blends " Riley 's drones and patterns with a more muscular and melodic bent versed in both free jazz and experimental rock ." Rolling Stone labeled it "largely stretched-out organ -heavy improvisations, a freak-out in slow motion." The album was mostly improvised on the spot, using two drummers, Bobby Gregg and Bobby Colomby . "The Soul of Patrick Lee" is the only vocal track on the album; all others are instrumentals. No singles were taken from the album. Terry Riley noted that " John Cale and I had a lot of disagreements about the album, including the way it should sound and the way the material should go. During the last mixing session, John started feeding in a lot of extra guitar tracks over what we had done. That started to obscure some of my keyboard work that I thought should be heard. We had a disagreement about that, so I stopped going to the mixing sessions and they mixed it without me." However, in retrospect he stated that "over time, I've grown to like what they did." In the early 1990s, the duo reunited in New York to record a Church of Anthrax II , but nothing materialized after it became clear that Cale only wanted to produce rather than perform on the album. Upon release, the album received mixed reception. Rolling Stone called it "one of the finest records to be released this year" but noted that it was largely ignored. Melody Maker described the album as "an uneven record, remarkable for one excellent Cale song ("The Soul of Patrick Lee") and the title track, a brilliantly dense piece of production. Cale's viola and bass and Riley's organ and saxophone create an impenetrable, organic vortex of sound. One of the all-time great headphones tracks, featuring the avant-garde at its funkiest." Robert Christgau of The Village Voice described it as "an album of keyboard doodles posing as improvisations." Following its reissue in 2014, the Irish Times noted that the album was initially regarded as an "unsatisfying concoction between two motivating forces in the avant-garde," but suggested that "for those who like their minimalism spiked with broken glass (notably "Ides of March"), perhaps it's time to open the door and walk down the aisle." Record Collector stated that the album "walked the thin line between boundary-pushing experimentation and indulgent jamming, only reaching a cathartic breakthrough on "The Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles"' shimmering collision between Cale's piano and Riley's tape-delayed soprano sax." The New York Times called it "an art-rock touchstone." All tracks are written by John Cale and Terry Riley, except "The Soul of Patrick Lee" by John CaleDon Meehan – engineering John Berg, Richard Mantel – cover design Kim Whitesides – cover art Don Huntstein – cover photography

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Anthrax

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Anthrax hoaxes

Anthrax hoaxes involving the use of white powder or labels to falsely suggest the use of anthrax are frequently reported in the United States and globally. Hoaxes have increased following the 2001 anthrax attacks , after which no genuine anthrax attacks have occurred. The FBI and U.S. postal inspectors have responded to thousands of "white powder events" and targets have included government offices, US embassies, banks and news organizations. Anthrax hoaxes were sporadically reported in the 1990s, including a petri dish in an envelope labeled "anthrachs"[sic] sent to B'nai B'rith in Washington in 1997 that contained harmless Bacillus cereus , but a spate of anthrax threats followed the 1998 arrest of Larry Wayne Harris, a microbiologist and white supremacist . Harris released what he said was military-grade anthrax but was actually a harmless vaccine strain, but news coverage popularized the idea of anthrax among hoaxers. In response to these hoaxes, the CDC released guidance for public health authorities for handling bioterrorism threats. In the month following the 2001 anthrax attacks, hundreds of hoaxes were reported worldwide. Legislation was enacted in the UK in October 2001 so that anyone convicted of a hoax involving threats of biological, chemical, nuclear or radioactive contamination would face a seven-year prison sentence. The Anti-Hoax Terrorism Act 2001 was passed by the US House of Representatives but never enacted, and legislation making terrorism hoaxes a federal offence was finally passed as part of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. In the month following the 2001 anthrax attacks, hundreds of hoaxes were reported worldwide. Legislation was enacted in the UK in October 2001 so that anyone convicted of a hoax involving threats of biological, chemical, nuclear or radioactive contamination would face a seven-year prison sentence. The Anti-Hoax Terrorism Act 2001 was passed by the US House of Representatives but never enacted, and legislation making terrorism hoaxes a federal offence was finally passed as part of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. One of the most prolific hoaxers was Clayton Waagner , an anti-abortion activist who mailed hundreds of anthrax hoax letters to abortion clinics in late 2001 and who was convicted in December 2003. A Sacramento man, Marc M. Keyser, admitted to sending around 120 packages marked as containing anthrax in October 2008, which he says was to highlight the lack of preparedness of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and public for an anthrax attack. He was convicted in September 2009 of five counts of hoaxes and making threats and sentenced to four years in prison in late April 2010. In November 2008, white powder was mailed to temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Los Angeles and Salt Lake City , causing both to be closed temporarily while the mailings were investigated. There was speculation the mailings were in protest of the church's support for Proposition 8 . Notable recipients of anthrax hoax letters include journalist Judith Miller , author of Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War , who received one at the New York Times offices in October 2001.

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Anthrax

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Sound of White Noise

Dave Jerden Anthrax Sound of White Noise is the sixth studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax , released in May 1993 by Elektra Records . It is the band's first album to feature vocalist John Bush , who replaced longtime frontman Joey Belladonna in 1992, and the last studio album with longtime lead guitarist Dan Spitz . It was also the second album Bush worked on with producer Dave Jerden .The album, produced by the band and Dave Jerden, includes the singles " Only ", "Room for One More", " Black Lodge " and "Hy Pro Glo". This album marked a significant revision in the band's sound, with the departure of lead vocalist Joey Belladonna and the introduction of grunge influences. Jerden was known for producing the likes of Alice in Chains and Jane's Addiction . With Sound of White Noise , Anthrax moved away from the rapid-fire thrash metal that had defined their earlier output. Their new sound drew on the more straightforward style of Armored Saint (Bush co-wrote all the songs) and often emphasized more melodic songwriting. White Noise continued the trend started on 1990's Persistence of Time of abandoning the humor of Anthrax's 1980s albums in favor of a more serious or earnest tone. Songs like the walloping "Only" and stuttering, stop-start dynamics of "Hy Pro Glo" maintained a level of aggression on par with anything else the band recorded, but in a different alternative metal style. Other songs found Anthrax exploring new territory, like the mid-tempo "Room for One More", and the atmospheric "Black Lodge" (inspired by the Twin Peaks TV series and featuring keyboardist Angelo Badalamenti ). Bush's lower-pitched, darker vocal style also was a drastic change from Belladona's. During the recording of the album, the band also produced the songs "Poison My Eyes" and a cover of the Smiths song "London" (both would be featured on the soundtracks to the movies Last Action Hero and Airheads , respectively).Dave Connolly reviewed the album on behalf of AllMusic and called it "surprisingly melodic" but "predictably pummeling" and the music "relentless". He commends the overall quality of the songs on the album before settling on "Only" as the best overall, but calls out several other tracks for praise as well. Rock journalist Martin Popoff praised the performance of new singer John Bush and the production by Dave Jerden and defined the album's music "top-flight, state-of-the-art metal, fortified by the band's usual societal concerns, here elevated to eloquent outrage at man's crumbling morality." Spin critic John Wiederhorn described the album as "a good typical heavy-metal record." Nevertheless, he also noted that the album "doesn't wander beyond the sound of its dark, moody intros and tuneful, galloping rhythms." Tom Sinclair of Rolling Stone described the album as "a powerful comeback from a group that never went away." Among the album's songs, "Only" has received particular attention; Metallica frontman James Hetfield is said to have referred to "Only" as a "perfect song". The album debuted at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 charts, selling 62,000 copies in its first week. It is Anthrax's highest ever chart position. It sold 40,000 more copies in its second week. Sound of White Noise was certified gold by the RIAA on July 13, 1993. As of 2002, the album had sold 511,284 copies in the US. The singles "Only" and "Black Lodge" charted at No. 26 and No. 38 respectively on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. In the UK, "Only" and "Black Lodge" charted at No. 36 and No. 53 respectively. All tracks are written by John Bush , Scott Ian , Frank Bello and Charlie Benante , except "Black Lodge" by Bush, Ian, Bello, Benante and Angelo BadalamentiAlbum personnel adapted from album credits. Vincent Bell – tremolo guitar parts on "Black Lodge" Angelo Badalamenti – synthesizers, orchestration and arrangement of synthesizers and additional guitars on "Black Lodge" Kenny Landrum – synthesizers Terminator X – scratching on "1000 Points of Hate" Produced by Anthrax & Dave Jerden Mixed by Dave Jerden Mastered by Eddy Schreyer Engineered by Bryan Carlstrom Assistant engineers: Mike Baumgartner, Annette Cisneros, Ed Korengo, Jennifer Monnar & Scott Ralston [ citation needed ]position^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

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Anthrax

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Anthrax vaccine adsorbed

none Anthrax vaccine adsorbed , sold under the brand name Biothrax among others, is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against Bacillus anthracis . Anthrax vaccine adsorbed originated in studies done in the 1950s and was first licensed for use in humans in 1970. In the US, the principal purchasers of the vaccine are the Department of Defense and Department of Health and Human Services . Ten million courses (60 million doses) of the vaccine have been purchased for the US Strategic National Stockpile in anticipation of the need for mass vaccinations owing to a future bio-terrorist anthrax attack. The product has attracted some controversy owing to alleged adverse events and questions as to whether it is effective against the inhalational form of anthrax.Anthrax vaccine adsorbed (Biothrax) is indicated for the active immunization for the prevention of disease caused by Bacillus anthracis in people aged 18 through 65 years of age. It is approved for both pre-exposure prophylaxis of disease in persons at high risk of exposure and post-exposure prophylaxis of disease following suspected or confirmed Bacillus anthracis exposure, when administered in conjunction with recommended antibacterial drugs. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed, adjuvanted (Cyfendus) is indicated for post-exposure prophylaxis of disease following suspected or confirmed exposure to Bacillus anthracis in people aged 18 through 65 years of age when administered in conjunction with recommended antibacterial drugs. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed was developed by Emergent Biodefense Operations. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed is classified as a subunit vaccine that is cell-free and containing no whole or live anthrax bacteria. The antigen (immunologically active) portions are produced from culture filtrates of a toxigenic, but avirulent, nonencapsulated mutant — known as V770-NP1-R — of the B. anthracis Vollum strain. (The Vollum strain was the same one weaponized by the old U.S. biological warfare program .) As with the Sterne (veterinary) anthrax vaccine strain and the similar British anthrax vaccine (known as AVP ), anthrax vaccine adsorbed lacks the capsule plasmid pXO2 (required for full virulence) and is composed chiefly of the anthrax protective antigen (PA) with small amounts of edema factor (EF) and lethal factor (LF) that may vary from lot to lot. Other uncharacterized bacterial byproducts are also present. Whether or not the EF and LF contribute to the vaccine's efficacy is not known. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed has smaller amounts of EF and LF than AVP. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed contains aluminium hydroxide (alhydrogel) to adsorb PA as well as to serve as an adjuvant (immune enhancer). As such it is believed to stimulate humoral , but not cell-mediated , immunity. Each dose of the vaccine contains no more than 0.83 mg aluminum per 0.5 mL dose. (This is near the allowed upper limit of 0.85 mg/dose. ) It also contains 0.0025% benzethonium chloride as a preservative and 0.0037% formaldehyde as a stabilizer. The mechanism of action of the adjuvant is not entirely understood. Vaccination of humans with anthrax vaccine adsorbed induces an immune response to PA. More than 1/3 of subjects develop detectable anti-PA IgG after a single inoculation; 95% do so after a 2nd injection; and 100% after 3 doses. The peak IgG response occurs after the 4th (6 month) dose. The potency of anthrax vaccine adsorbed vaccine lots is routinely determined both by the survival rates of parenterally challenged guinea pigs and their anti-PA antibody titres as measured by an enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA). The shelf-life of anthrax vaccine adsorbed is reported to be three years when stored between 2 °C and 8 °C (36 °F and 46 °F) and never frozen.Anthrax vaccine adsorbed is classified as a subunit vaccine that is cell-free and containing no whole or live anthrax bacteria. The antigen (immunologically active) portions are produced from culture filtrates of a toxigenic, but avirulent, nonencapsulated mutant — known as V770-NP1-R — of the B. anthracis Vollum strain. (The Vollum strain was the same one weaponized by the old U.S. biological warfare program .) As with the Sterne (veterinary) anthrax vaccine strain and the similar British anthrax vaccine (known as AVP ), anthrax vaccine adsorbed lacks the capsule plasmid pXO2 (required for full virulence) and is composed chiefly of the anthrax protective antigen (PA) with small amounts of edema factor (EF) and lethal factor (LF) that may vary from lot to lot. Other uncharacterized bacterial byproducts are also present. Whether or not the EF and LF contribute to the vaccine's efficacy is not known. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed has smaller amounts of EF and LF than AVP. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed contains aluminium hydroxide (alhydrogel) to adsorb PA as well as to serve as an adjuvant (immune enhancer). As such it is believed to stimulate humoral , but not cell-mediated , immunity. Each dose of the vaccine contains no more than 0.83 mg aluminum per 0.5 mL dose. (This is near the allowed upper limit of 0.85 mg/dose. ) It also contains 0.0025% benzethonium chloride as a preservative and 0.0037% formaldehyde as a stabilizer. The mechanism of action of the adjuvant is not entirely understood.Vaccination of humans with anthrax vaccine adsorbed induces an immune response to PA. More than 1/3 of subjects develop detectable anti-PA IgG after a single inoculation; 95% do so after a 2nd injection; and 100% after 3 doses. The peak IgG response occurs after the 4th (6 month) dose. The potency of anthrax vaccine adsorbed vaccine lots is routinely determined both by the survival rates of parenterally challenged guinea pigs and their anti-PA antibody titres as measured by an enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA). The shelf-life of anthrax vaccine adsorbed is reported to be three years when stored between 2 °C and 8 °C (36 °F and 46 °F) and never frozen.The vaccine efficacy of anthrax vaccine adsorbed in humans was initially established by Philip S. Brachman of the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) in a controlled study undertaken between 1954 and 1959. The study field sites were four wool-sorting mills in the northeastern United States where employees were sometimes exposed to anthrax spores in the course of their work. Over the five years, 379 vaccinees were compared against 414 unvaccinated control subjects. There were 23 cases among controls (5 of them inhalation anthrax) compared with 3 cases among vaccinated (0 inhalation cases). The vaccine was judged to have a 92.5% vaccine efficacy against all types of anthrax experienced. Subsequently, there were no controlled clinical trials in humans of the efficacy of anthrax vaccine adsorbed due to the rarity of the condition (especially in the inhalational form) in humans and the ethical inadmissibility of conducting dangerous challenge studies in human subjects. Supportive animal challenge studies were done, however, showing that unvaccinated animals uniformly die whereas vaccinated animals are protected. About 95% of rhesus monkeys (62 of 65) survived challenge, as did 97% of rabbits (114 of 117). Guinea pigs (which are a poorer model for human anthrax than are monkeys or rabbits) showed a 22% protection (19 of 88). In 1970, anthrax vaccine adsorbed was first licensed by the USPHS for protection against cutaneous anthrax to a state-owned facility operated by the Michigan Department of Public Health. In 1973, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) first published standards for making, using and storing anthrax vaccine adsorbed. In the mid-1980s, the FDA approved it specifically for two limited preventive indications: 1) individuals who may come in contact with animal products or high-risk persons such as veterinarians and others handling potentially infected animals; and 2) individuals engaged in diagnostic or investigational activities involving anthrax spores. In 1985, the FDA published a Proposed Rule for a specific product review of the anthrax vaccine adsorbed, stating that the vaccine's "efficacy against inhalation anthrax is not well documented" (a statement quoted controversially many years later). For many years, anthrax vaccine adsorbed was a little known product considered to be safe for pre-exposure use in the US in at-risk veterinarians, laboratory workers, livestock handlers, and textile plant workers who process animal hair. In 1990, the State of Michigan changed the name of its original production plant facility to the Michigan Biologic Products Institute (MBPI) as it gave up state ownership and converted it to a private entity. The same year (as later revealed) MBPI changed both the fermenters and the filters used in manufacturing anthrax vaccine adsorbed without notifying the FDA, thus reportedly causing a 100 fold increase in the PA levels present in vaccine lots. [ citation needed ] Only several thousand people had ever received the vaccine up to 1991 when — coincident with Saddam Hussein 's invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent Gulf War — MBPI and the U.S. Army entered into an agreement for the manufacture of the vaccine. Later that year, the Army awarded MBPI the Commander's Award for Public Service for their efforts in supplying the US military with increased amounts of anthrax vaccine adsorbed for use during the conflict in which the use of anthrax bio-weapons by Iraq had been anticipated. Use of anthrax vaccine adsorbed expanded dramatically in 1991, when the US military, concerned that Iraq possessed anthrax bioweapons, administered it to some 150,000 service members deployed for the Gulf War. Hussein never deployed his bio-weapons, but subsequent confirmation of an Iraqi bioweapons program — including 8,500 liters of concentrated anthrax spores (6,500 liters of it filled into munitions) — came in 1995 and later when the Iraqi government began to fully disclose the scope and scale of the effort, which it had pursued since the 1980s. Meanwhile, MBPI fell afoul of FDA inspectors and reviewers when it failed inspections (1993, 1997) and received warning letters (1995) and Notices of Intention to Revoke (1997) from the agency. At issue were a failure to validate the anthrax vaccine adsorbed manufacturing process to the FDA's satisfaction and various quality control failures, including reuse of expired vaccine, inadequate testing procedures, and use of lots that had failed testing. All of these developments vexed the Army, not only in its efforts to obtain sufficient vaccine for the troops, but in its desire to have anthrax vaccine adsorbed validated and fully licensed for prevention of inhalational anthrax, which is the expected weaponized form of the disease (as opposed to the cutaneous form for which the vaccine had been licensed in 1970). In 1995, the Army contracted with the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) to develop a plan to obtain FDA approval for a license amendment for anthrax vaccine adsorbed in order to add inhalational anthrax exposure to the product license thus enabling the manufacturer to list on the product license that the vaccine was effective against that form of the disease. The following year, MBPI submitted an " IND application " to modify the product's license to add an indication for inhalation anthrax, thus formally establishing anthrax vaccine adsorbed as an "experimental" vaccine when used to prevent anthrax in the inhalational form. In 1996, the US Department of Defense (DoD) sought and received permission from the FDA to begin vaccinations of all military personnel without obtaining a new licensed indication for anthrax vaccine adsorbed. It announced a plan the following year for the mandatory vaccination of all US service members. Under the plan all military personnel, including new recruits, would begin receiving what was then a six-shot series of inoculations in the following fashion: Phase 1 : Forces assigned now, or soon rotating, to high threat areas in Southwest Asia and Korea; Phase 2 : Early deploying forces into high threat areas; Phase 3 : Remainder of the force and new recruits; and Phase 4 : Continuation of the program with annual booster shots. There were no published studies of anthrax vaccine adsorbed's safety in humans until the advent of the Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP). This program, initiated by the Clinton administration and announced by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 1997, made the vaccine mandatory for active duty US service personnel. Vaccinations began in March 1998 with personnel sent to high-risk areas, such as South Korea and Southwest Asia . Also in 1998, MBPI was purchased by BioPort Corporation of Lansing, Michigan (jointly with former MBPI laboratory directors) for approximately $24 million. The same year, a particularly damning FDA report was issued resulting in the temporary suspension of anthrax vaccine adsorbed shipments from the production plant. Much controversy ensued due to the FDA infractions, the mandatory nature of the program, and to a public perception that anthrax vaccine adsorbed was unsafe — possibly causing sometimes serious side effects — and might be contributing to the highly politically charged malady known as " Gulf War syndrome ". Hundreds of service members were compelled to leave the military (some of them court-martialed ) for resisting the inoculations during the first six years of the program. Adverse events following anthrax vaccine adsorbed administration were assessed in several studies conducted by the DoD in the context of the routine anthrax vaccination program. Between 1998 and 2000, at U.S. Forces, Korea , data were collected at the time of anthrax vaccination from 4,348 service personnel regarding adverse events experienced from a previous dose of anthrax vaccine. Most reported events were localized, minor, and self-limited. After the first or second dose, 1.9% reported limitations in work performance or had been placed on limited duty. Only 0.3% reported >1 day lost from work; 0.5% consulted a clinic for evaluation; and one person (0.02%) required hospitalization for an injection site reaction . Adverse events were reported more commonly among women than among men. A second study, also between 1998 and 2000, at Tripler Army Medical Center , Hawaii , assessed adverse events among 603 military health-care workers. Rates of events that resulted in seeking medical advice or taking time off work were 7.9% after the first dose; 5.1% after the second dose; 3.0% after the third dose; and 3.1% after the fourth dose. Events most commonly reported included muscle or joint aches, headache, and fatigue. However, these studies are subject to several methodological limitations, including sample size, the limited ability to detect adverse events, loss to follow-up, exemption of vaccine recipients with previous adverse events, observational bias, and the absence of unvaccinated control groups. By 2000, some 425,976 US service members had received 1,620,793 doses of anthrax vaccine adsorbed. In October 2000, a committee of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the US Congress to review anthrax vaccine adsorbed according to the best available evidence. It issued its study in March 2002. The IOM panel noted that human data on inhalational anthrax prevention is limited due to the natural low incidence of disease and that therefore animal model data are the best we are ever likely to have. Primates and rabbits were considered the best models for human disease. As regards vaccine effectiveness, "The committee finds that the available evidence from studies with humans and animals, coupled with reasonable assumptions of analogy, show that anthrax vaccine adsorbed as licensed is an effective vaccine for the protection of humans against anthrax, including inhalational anthrax, caused by all known or plausible engineered strains of B. anthracis ." With regard to safety, "The committee found no evidence that people face an increased risk of experiencing life-threatening or permanently disabling adverse events immediately after receiving anthrax vaccine adsorbed, when compared with the general population. Nor did it find any convincing evidence that people face elevated risk of developing adverse health effects over the longer term, although data are limited in this regard (as they are for all vaccines)." Side effects of anthrax vaccine adsorbed were found to be "comparable to those observed with other vaccines regularly administered to adults". The committee concluded that anthrax vaccine adsorbed is "safe and efficacious" for pre-exposure prevention of inhalational anthrax. It also asserted that a new and improved anthrax vaccine might have greater assurance of consistency than anthrax vaccine adsorbed and recommended licensure of a new vaccine requiring fewer doses and producing fewer local reactions. In the months after the October 2001 anthrax letters attacks , Washington and New York area mail sorters were advised to receive prophylactic vaccination with anthrax vaccine adsorbed. Owing to the controversy surrounding the administration of the vaccine to military personnel, however, some 6,000 US Postal Service employees balked at this, preferring to take their chances with the risks of residual anthrax spores in the workplace. BioPort changed its name to Emergent BioSolutions in 2004. Despite the positive IOM assessment, mandatory vaccinations of military personnel were halted due to an injunction which was put into place on 27 October 2004. The injunction cast questions about numerous substantive challenges regarding the anthrax vaccine in footnote #10, yet the procedural findings centered on FDA procedural issues, stating that additional public comment should have been sought before the FDA issued its Final Rule declaring the vaccine safe and effective on 30 December 2003. The FDA's incomplete rulemaking from 1985 effectively rendered the anthrax vaccine program illegal. The basis was the never finalized FDA Proposed Rule. In that rulemaking the FDA published, but never finalized, a licensing rule for the anthrax vaccine in the Federal Register, which included an expert review panel's findings. Those findings included the fact that the "Anthrax vaccine efficacy against inhalation anthrax is not well documented," and that "No meaningful assessment of its value against inhalation anthrax is possible due to its low incidence," and that "The vaccine manufactured by the Michigan Department of Public Health has not been employed in a controlled field trial." On 15 December 2005, the FDA re-issued a Final Rule & Order on the license status of the anthrax vaccine. After reviewing the extensive scientific evidence and carefully considering comments from the public, the FDA again determined that the vaccine is appropriately licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. Also in 2005, the George W. Bush administration established a policy to ensure that the Strategic National Stockpile retains a current unexpired inventory of 60 million doses of anthrax vaccine adsorbed. (The US GAO reports that 4 million doses of the inventory will expire every year, requiring vaccine destruction services.) These would be used for pre- or post-exposure vaccination — of emergency first responders (police, firefighters), federal responders, medical practitioners, and private citizens — in the event of a bioterrorist anthrax attack. On 16 October 2006, the DoD announced the reinstatement of mandatory anthrax vaccinations for more than 200,000 troops and defense contractors. (Another lawsuit was filed by the same attorneys as before, challenging the basis of the vaccine's license on scientific grounds.) The reinstated policy required vaccinations for most military units and civilian contractors assigned to homeland bioterrorism defense or deployed in Iraq , Afghanistan or South Korea . A modification of previous policy allowed military personnel no longer deployed to higher threat areas to receive follow up doses and booster shots on a voluntary basis. As of June 2008, over 8 million doses of anthrax vaccine adsorbed had been administered to over 2 million US military personnel as part of the AVIP. In December 2008, the FDA approved Biothrax for intramuscular injections thus reducing the immunization schedule from a total of 6 shots to 5 shots (see below). In February 2009, Emergent BioSolutions announced that the Drugs Controller General of India (DGCI) had approved licensing of Biothrax for distribution by Biological E. of Hyderabad . In 2011, Biothrax was approved for sale in Singapore by the Singapore Health Sciences Authority. The FDA approved the company's license (officially called a supplemental Biologics License Application , or sBLA) to manufacture Biothrax in a large building in Lansing, Michigan known as "Building 55." According to Homeland Preparedness News , "The use of Building 55 to manufacture Biothrax could expand manufacturing capacity to an estimated 20 to 25 million doses annually." The US federal government has a goal to stockpile 75 million doses of anthrax vaccines. The new facility and its capacity will help Emergent meet the government's security needs. Emergent worked with the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) within the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response in the United States Department of Health and Human Services on the project. The facility's value is estimated at $104 million, according to Yahoo Finance. The vaccine efficacy of anthrax vaccine adsorbed in humans was initially established by Philip S. Brachman of the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) in a controlled study undertaken between 1954 and 1959. The study field sites were four wool-sorting mills in the northeastern United States where employees were sometimes exposed to anthrax spores in the course of their work. Over the five years, 379 vaccinees were compared against 414 unvaccinated control subjects. There were 23 cases among controls (5 of them inhalation anthrax) compared with 3 cases among vaccinated (0 inhalation cases). The vaccine was judged to have a 92.5% vaccine efficacy against all types of anthrax experienced. Subsequently, there were no controlled clinical trials in humans of the efficacy of anthrax vaccine adsorbed due to the rarity of the condition (especially in the inhalational form) in humans and the ethical inadmissibility of conducting dangerous challenge studies in human subjects. Supportive animal challenge studies were done, however, showing that unvaccinated animals uniformly die whereas vaccinated animals are protected. About 95% of rhesus monkeys (62 of 65) survived challenge, as did 97% of rabbits (114 of 117). Guinea pigs (which are a poorer model for human anthrax than are monkeys or rabbits) showed a 22% protection (19 of 88).In 1970, anthrax vaccine adsorbed was first licensed by the USPHS for protection against cutaneous anthrax to a state-owned facility operated by the Michigan Department of Public Health. In 1973, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) first published standards for making, using and storing anthrax vaccine adsorbed. In the mid-1980s, the FDA approved it specifically for two limited preventive indications: 1) individuals who may come in contact with animal products or high-risk persons such as veterinarians and others handling potentially infected animals; and 2) individuals engaged in diagnostic or investigational activities involving anthrax spores. In 1985, the FDA published a Proposed Rule for a specific product review of the anthrax vaccine adsorbed, stating that the vaccine's "efficacy against inhalation anthrax is not well documented" (a statement quoted controversially many years later). For many years, anthrax vaccine adsorbed was a little known product considered to be safe for pre-exposure use in the US in at-risk veterinarians, laboratory workers, livestock handlers, and textile plant workers who process animal hair. In 1990, the State of Michigan changed the name of its original production plant facility to the Michigan Biologic Products Institute (MBPI) as it gave up state ownership and converted it to a private entity. The same year (as later revealed) MBPI changed both the fermenters and the filters used in manufacturing anthrax vaccine adsorbed without notifying the FDA, thus reportedly causing a 100 fold increase in the PA levels present in vaccine lots. [ citation needed ] Only several thousand people had ever received the vaccine up to 1991 when — coincident with Saddam Hussein 's invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent Gulf War — MBPI and the U.S. Army entered into an agreement for the manufacture of the vaccine. Later that year, the Army awarded MBPI the Commander's Award for Public Service for their efforts in supplying the US military with increased amounts of anthrax vaccine adsorbed for use during the conflict in which the use of anthrax bio-weapons by Iraq had been anticipated.Use of anthrax vaccine adsorbed expanded dramatically in 1991, when the US military, concerned that Iraq possessed anthrax bioweapons, administered it to some 150,000 service members deployed for the Gulf War. Hussein never deployed his bio-weapons, but subsequent confirmation of an Iraqi bioweapons program — including 8,500 liters of concentrated anthrax spores (6,500 liters of it filled into munitions) — came in 1995 and later when the Iraqi government began to fully disclose the scope and scale of the effort, which it had pursued since the 1980s. Meanwhile, MBPI fell afoul of FDA inspectors and reviewers when it failed inspections (1993, 1997) and received warning letters (1995) and Notices of Intention to Revoke (1997) from the agency. At issue were a failure to validate the anthrax vaccine adsorbed manufacturing process to the FDA's satisfaction and various quality control failures, including reuse of expired vaccine, inadequate testing procedures, and use of lots that had failed testing. All of these developments vexed the Army, not only in its efforts to obtain sufficient vaccine for the troops, but in its desire to have anthrax vaccine adsorbed validated and fully licensed for prevention of inhalational anthrax, which is the expected weaponized form of the disease (as opposed to the cutaneous form for which the vaccine had been licensed in 1970). In 1995, the Army contracted with the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) to develop a plan to obtain FDA approval for a license amendment for anthrax vaccine adsorbed in order to add inhalational anthrax exposure to the product license thus enabling the manufacturer to list on the product license that the vaccine was effective against that form of the disease. The following year, MBPI submitted an " IND application " to modify the product's license to add an indication for inhalation anthrax, thus formally establishing anthrax vaccine adsorbed as an "experimental" vaccine when used to prevent anthrax in the inhalational form. In 1996, the US Department of Defense (DoD) sought and received permission from the FDA to begin vaccinations of all military personnel without obtaining a new licensed indication for anthrax vaccine adsorbed. It announced a plan the following year for the mandatory vaccination of all US service members. Under the plan all military personnel, including new recruits, would begin receiving what was then a six-shot series of inoculations in the following fashion: Phase 1 : Forces assigned now, or soon rotating, to high threat areas in Southwest Asia and Korea; Phase 2 : Early deploying forces into high threat areas; Phase 3 : Remainder of the force and new recruits; and Phase 4 : Continuation of the program with annual booster shots.There were no published studies of anthrax vaccine adsorbed's safety in humans until the advent of the Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP). This program, initiated by the Clinton administration and announced by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 1997, made the vaccine mandatory for active duty US service personnel. Vaccinations began in March 1998 with personnel sent to high-risk areas, such as South Korea and Southwest Asia . Also in 1998, MBPI was purchased by BioPort Corporation of Lansing, Michigan (jointly with former MBPI laboratory directors) for approximately $24 million. The same year, a particularly damning FDA report was issued resulting in the temporary suspension of anthrax vaccine adsorbed shipments from the production plant. Much controversy ensued due to the FDA infractions, the mandatory nature of the program, and to a public perception that anthrax vaccine adsorbed was unsafe — possibly causing sometimes serious side effects — and might be contributing to the highly politically charged malady known as " Gulf War syndrome ". Hundreds of service members were compelled to leave the military (some of them court-martialed ) for resisting the inoculations during the first six years of the program. Adverse events following anthrax vaccine adsorbed administration were assessed in several studies conducted by the DoD in the context of the routine anthrax vaccination program. Between 1998 and 2000, at U.S. Forces, Korea , data were collected at the time of anthrax vaccination from 4,348 service personnel regarding adverse events experienced from a previous dose of anthrax vaccine. Most reported events were localized, minor, and self-limited. After the first or second dose, 1.9% reported limitations in work performance or had been placed on limited duty. Only 0.3% reported >1 day lost from work; 0.5% consulted a clinic for evaluation; and one person (0.02%) required hospitalization for an injection site reaction . Adverse events were reported more commonly among women than among men. A second study, also between 1998 and 2000, at Tripler Army Medical Center , Hawaii , assessed adverse events among 603 military health-care workers. Rates of events that resulted in seeking medical advice or taking time off work were 7.9% after the first dose; 5.1% after the second dose; 3.0% after the third dose; and 3.1% after the fourth dose. Events most commonly reported included muscle or joint aches, headache, and fatigue. However, these studies are subject to several methodological limitations, including sample size, the limited ability to detect adverse events, loss to follow-up, exemption of vaccine recipients with previous adverse events, observational bias, and the absence of unvaccinated control groups. By 2000, some 425,976 US service members had received 1,620,793 doses of anthrax vaccine adsorbed.In October 2000, a committee of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the US Congress to review anthrax vaccine adsorbed according to the best available evidence. It issued its study in March 2002. The IOM panel noted that human data on inhalational anthrax prevention is limited due to the natural low incidence of disease and that therefore animal model data are the best we are ever likely to have. Primates and rabbits were considered the best models for human disease. As regards vaccine effectiveness, "The committee finds that the available evidence from studies with humans and animals, coupled with reasonable assumptions of analogy, show that anthrax vaccine adsorbed as licensed is an effective vaccine for the protection of humans against anthrax, including inhalational anthrax, caused by all known or plausible engineered strains of B. anthracis ." With regard to safety, "The committee found no evidence that people face an increased risk of experiencing life-threatening or permanently disabling adverse events immediately after receiving anthrax vaccine adsorbed, when compared with the general population. Nor did it find any convincing evidence that people face elevated risk of developing adverse health effects over the longer term, although data are limited in this regard (as they are for all vaccines)." Side effects of anthrax vaccine adsorbed were found to be "comparable to those observed with other vaccines regularly administered to adults". The committee concluded that anthrax vaccine adsorbed is "safe and efficacious" for pre-exposure prevention of inhalational anthrax. It also asserted that a new and improved anthrax vaccine might have greater assurance of consistency than anthrax vaccine adsorbed and recommended licensure of a new vaccine requiring fewer doses and producing fewer local reactions. In the months after the October 2001 anthrax letters attacks , Washington and New York area mail sorters were advised to receive prophylactic vaccination with anthrax vaccine adsorbed. Owing to the controversy surrounding the administration of the vaccine to military personnel, however, some 6,000 US Postal Service employees balked at this, preferring to take their chances with the risks of residual anthrax spores in the workplace. BioPort changed its name to Emergent BioSolutions in 2004.Despite the positive IOM assessment, mandatory vaccinations of military personnel were halted due to an injunction which was put into place on 27 October 2004. The injunction cast questions about numerous substantive challenges regarding the anthrax vaccine in footnote #10, yet the procedural findings centered on FDA procedural issues, stating that additional public comment should have been sought before the FDA issued its Final Rule declaring the vaccine safe and effective on 30 December 2003. The FDA's incomplete rulemaking from 1985 effectively rendered the anthrax vaccine program illegal. The basis was the never finalized FDA Proposed Rule. In that rulemaking the FDA published, but never finalized, a licensing rule for the anthrax vaccine in the Federal Register, which included an expert review panel's findings. Those findings included the fact that the "Anthrax vaccine efficacy against inhalation anthrax is not well documented," and that "No meaningful assessment of its value against inhalation anthrax is possible due to its low incidence," and that "The vaccine manufactured by the Michigan Department of Public Health has not been employed in a controlled field trial." On 15 December 2005, the FDA re-issued a Final Rule & Order on the license status of the anthrax vaccine. After reviewing the extensive scientific evidence and carefully considering comments from the public, the FDA again determined that the vaccine is appropriately licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. Also in 2005, the George W. Bush administration established a policy to ensure that the Strategic National Stockpile retains a current unexpired inventory of 60 million doses of anthrax vaccine adsorbed. (The US GAO reports that 4 million doses of the inventory will expire every year, requiring vaccine destruction services.) These would be used for pre- or post-exposure vaccination — of emergency first responders (police, firefighters), federal responders, medical practitioners, and private citizens — in the event of a bioterrorist anthrax attack.On 16 October 2006, the DoD announced the reinstatement of mandatory anthrax vaccinations for more than 200,000 troops and defense contractors. (Another lawsuit was filed by the same attorneys as before, challenging the basis of the vaccine's license on scientific grounds.) The reinstated policy required vaccinations for most military units and civilian contractors assigned to homeland bioterrorism defense or deployed in Iraq , Afghanistan or South Korea . A modification of previous policy allowed military personnel no longer deployed to higher threat areas to receive follow up doses and booster shots on a voluntary basis. As of June 2008, over 8 million doses of anthrax vaccine adsorbed had been administered to over 2 million US military personnel as part of the AVIP. In December 2008, the FDA approved Biothrax for intramuscular injections thus reducing the immunization schedule from a total of 6 shots to 5 shots (see below). In February 2009, Emergent BioSolutions announced that the Drugs Controller General of India (DGCI) had approved licensing of Biothrax for distribution by Biological E. of Hyderabad . In 2011, Biothrax was approved for sale in Singapore by the Singapore Health Sciences Authority. The FDA approved the company's license (officially called a supplemental Biologics License Application , or sBLA) to manufacture Biothrax in a large building in Lansing, Michigan known as "Building 55." According to Homeland Preparedness News , "The use of Building 55 to manufacture Biothrax could expand manufacturing capacity to an estimated 20 to 25 million doses annually." The US federal government has a goal to stockpile 75 million doses of anthrax vaccines. The new facility and its capacity will help Emergent meet the government's security needs. Emergent worked with the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) within the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response in the United States Department of Health and Human Services on the project. The facility's value is estimated at $104 million, according to Yahoo Finance. The loss of memory B-Cells leads to declining concentrations of IgG which can sequester APA, and therefore declining tolerance to the presence of anthrax bacteria. There is the potential that other memory B-Cell populations will be adversely affected as well. [ citation needed ] Furin is the protein activator for pro- parathyroid hormone , transforming growth factor beta 1 , von Willebrand factor , pro- albumin , pro- beta-secretase , membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase , gonadotropin , and nerve growth factor . Furin is also essential to maintain peripheral immune tolerance by creating memory T-cells and suppressor T-cells. Based on a retrospective cohort study of female military members inoculated during pregnancy, there may be a small risk of birth defect for inoculation during first trimester. However, the difference between the vaccinated and unvaccinated control groups was not large enough to be conclusive. The approved US FDA package insert for Biothrax contains the following notice: Pregnant women should not be vaccinated against anthrax unless the potential benefits of vaccination have been determined to outweigh the potential risk to the fetus. If this drug is used during pregnancy, or if the patient becomes pregnant while taking this product, the patient should be apprised of the potential hazard to the fetus. The approved US FDA package insert for Biothrax contains the following notice: Severe allergic reaction (e.g., anaphylaxis) after a previous dose of Biothrax. Administer with caution to patients with a possible history of latex sensitivity because the vial stopper contains dry natural rubber and may cause allergic reactions. There have been no long-term sequelae of the known adverse events (local or systemic reactions) and no pattern of frequently reported serious adverse events for anthrax vaccine adsorbed. The approved FDA package insert for anthrax vaccine adsorbed contains the following notice: "The most common (>10%) local (injection-site) adverse reactions observed in clinical studies were tenderness, pain, erythema and arm motion limitation. The most common (>5%) systemic adverse reactions were muscle aches, fatigue and headache." Also, "Serious allergic reactions, including anaphylactic shock , have been observed during post-marketing surveillance in individuals receiving Biothrax". The approved US FDA package insert for anthrax vaccine adsorbed contains the following notice: Immunosuppressive therapies may diminish the immune response to Biothrax. Some studies show that use of antibiotics effective against anthrax plus administration of anthrax vaccine adsorbed is the most beneficial approach for purposes of post-exposure prophylaxis . This practice has been endorsed by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), the Johns Hopkins Working Group on Civilian Biodefense, and the 2002 Institute of Medicine report on the vaccine. However, anthrax vaccine adsorbed is not licensed for post-exposure prophylaxis for inhalational anthrax or for use in a 3-dose regimen. Any such use, therefore, would be on an off-label or IND (officially experimental) basis. "... the safety and efficacy of Biothrax for post-exposure setting have not been established.". The loss of memory B-Cells leads to declining concentrations of IgG which can sequester APA, and therefore declining tolerance to the presence of anthrax bacteria. There is the potential that other memory B-Cell populations will be adversely affected as well. [ citation needed ] Furin is the protein activator for pro- parathyroid hormone , transforming growth factor beta 1 , von Willebrand factor , pro- albumin , pro- beta-secretase , membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase , gonadotropin , and nerve growth factor . Furin is also essential to maintain peripheral immune tolerance by creating memory T-cells and suppressor T-cells. Based on a retrospective cohort study of female military members inoculated during pregnancy, there may be a small risk of birth defect for inoculation during first trimester. However, the difference between the vaccinated and unvaccinated control groups was not large enough to be conclusive. The approved US FDA package insert for Biothrax contains the following notice: Pregnant women should not be vaccinated against anthrax unless the potential benefits of vaccination have been determined to outweigh the potential risk to the fetus. If this drug is used during pregnancy, or if the patient becomes pregnant while taking this product, the patient should be apprised of the potential hazard to the fetus. The approved US FDA package insert for Biothrax contains the following notice: Severe allergic reaction (e.g., anaphylaxis) after a previous dose of Biothrax. Administer with caution to patients with a possible history of latex sensitivity because the vial stopper contains dry natural rubber and may cause allergic reactions. There have been no long-term sequelae of the known adverse events (local or systemic reactions) and no pattern of frequently reported serious adverse events for anthrax vaccine adsorbed. The approved FDA package insert for anthrax vaccine adsorbed contains the following notice: "The most common (>10%) local (injection-site) adverse reactions observed in clinical studies were tenderness, pain, erythema and arm motion limitation. The most common (>5%) systemic adverse reactions were muscle aches, fatigue and headache." Also, "Serious allergic reactions, including anaphylactic shock , have been observed during post-marketing surveillance in individuals receiving Biothrax". The approved US FDA package insert for anthrax vaccine adsorbed contains the following notice: Immunosuppressive therapies may diminish the immune response to Biothrax. Some studies show that use of antibiotics effective against anthrax plus administration of anthrax vaccine adsorbed is the most beneficial approach for purposes of post-exposure prophylaxis . This practice has been endorsed by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), the Johns Hopkins Working Group on Civilian Biodefense, and the 2002 Institute of Medicine report on the vaccine. However, anthrax vaccine adsorbed is not licensed for post-exposure prophylaxis for inhalational anthrax or for use in a 3-dose regimen. Any such use, therefore, would be on an off-label or IND (officially experimental) basis. "... the safety and efficacy of Biothrax for post-exposure setting have not been established.". Although many individuals have expressed health concerns after receiving anthrax vaccine, a congressionally directed study by the Institute of Medicine (part of the National Academy of Sciences ) concluded that this anthrax vaccine is as safe as other vaccines. The academy considered more than a dozen studies using various scientific designs, and heard personally from many concerned US military service members. While effective in protecting against anthrax, the licensed vaccine schedule is not very efficient, involving a cumbersome five (previously six) dose injection series. Typically, five injections are given over a period of 18 months in order to induce a protective immune system response. In addition, in 2004 the US Department of Health and Human Services contracted with Vaxgen Inc. to supply up to 75 million doses of a recombinant anthrax vaccine, for $877 million. To be acceptable to HHS, this vaccine was to be protective against anthrax in three doses or less. On 19 December 2006, HHS voided the contract, because of stability problems with the vaccine, and a failure to start a Phase 2 clinical trial on time. In May 2008, Emergent Biosolutions, the Maryland-based successor to BioPort, both controlled by former Lebanese banker Faud el Hibri, acquired rights to Vaxgen's patents and processes. In October 2012, the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases agreed to provide $6.5 million to the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency for initial work on a potential future anthrax vaccine that could be delivered through the nasal passage instead of via a needle. The HPA has long produced the UK's AVP anthrax vaccine . Research is being continuously done to develop and test new improved candidate anthrax vaccines. The primary immunogen of acellular existing vaccines, i.e., Protective Antigen (PA), is highly thermolabile due to inherent structural and chemical instability. Various endeavors are underway to thermostabilize PA molecule by solvent engineering and genetic engineering approaches to generate a thermostable anthrax vaccine formulation without compromising on the immunogenicity and its protective potential. The generation of a thermostable anthrax vaccine would minimize the current cold chain requirement for its storage and transport. Anthrax vaccines which would be amenable to other modes of administration such as oral, nasal, skin patch etc., are also being experimented. Human Genome Sciences announced in 2007, the development of a new anthrax neutralizing monoclonal antibody with the trademark name of 'ABthrax'. The vaccine sensitizes the human immune system to the presence of the Anthrax Toxin Factor. In 2008, HGS reported on testing on 400 human volunteers given ABthrax. In 2009, HGS announced that they had made first delivery of 20,000 doses of ABthrax to the United States Department of Defense. Currently three anthrax antitoxin antibodies, namely, Anthrax immune globulin intravenous or 'AIGIV' (polyclonal), 'Obiltoxaximab' or 'ANTHIM' (monoclonal), and 'Raxibacumab' or 'ABthrax' (monoclonal) are approved for the treatment of inhalation anthrax. Although many individuals have expressed health concerns after receiving anthrax vaccine, a congressionally directed study by the Institute of Medicine (part of the National Academy of Sciences ) concluded that this anthrax vaccine is as safe as other vaccines. The academy considered more than a dozen studies using various scientific designs, and heard personally from many concerned US military service members. While effective in protecting against anthrax, the licensed vaccine schedule is not very efficient, involving a cumbersome five (previously six) dose injection series. Typically, five injections are given over a period of 18 months in order to induce a protective immune system response. In addition, in 2004 the US Department of Health and Human Services contracted with Vaxgen Inc. to supply up to 75 million doses of a recombinant anthrax vaccine, for $877 million. To be acceptable to HHS, this vaccine was to be protective against anthrax in three doses or less. On 19 December 2006, HHS voided the contract, because of stability problems with the vaccine, and a failure to start a Phase 2 clinical trial on time. In May 2008, Emergent Biosolutions, the Maryland-based successor to BioPort, both controlled by former Lebanese banker Faud el Hibri, acquired rights to Vaxgen's patents and processes. In October 2012, the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases agreed to provide $6.5 million to the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency for initial work on a potential future anthrax vaccine that could be delivered through the nasal passage instead of via a needle. The HPA has long produced the UK's AVP anthrax vaccine . Research is being continuously done to develop and test new improved candidate anthrax vaccines. The primary immunogen of acellular existing vaccines, i.e., Protective Antigen (PA), is highly thermolabile due to inherent structural and chemical instability. Various endeavors are underway to thermostabilize PA molecule by solvent engineering and genetic engineering approaches to generate a thermostable anthrax vaccine formulation without compromising on the immunogenicity and its protective potential. The generation of a thermostable anthrax vaccine would minimize the current cold chain requirement for its storage and transport. Anthrax vaccines which would be amenable to other modes of administration such as oral, nasal, skin patch etc., are also being experimented. Human Genome Sciences announced in 2007, the development of a new anthrax neutralizing monoclonal antibody with the trademark name of 'ABthrax'. The vaccine sensitizes the human immune system to the presence of the Anthrax Toxin Factor. In 2008, HGS reported on testing on 400 human volunteers given ABthrax. In 2009, HGS announced that they had made first delivery of 20,000 doses of ABthrax to the United States Department of Defense. Currently three anthrax antitoxin antibodies, namely, Anthrax immune globulin intravenous or 'AIGIV' (polyclonal), 'Obiltoxaximab' or 'ANTHIM' (monoclonal), and 'Raxibacumab' or 'ABthrax' (monoclonal) are approved for the treatment of inhalation anthrax.

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/List_of_anthrax_outbreaks/html

List of anthrax outbreaks

This page lists notable outbreaks of anthrax , a disease of humans and other mammals caused by Bacillus anthracis , organized by year. The victims died within a few weeks of exposure to the bacteria. 11 others survived. Traces of the leak were allegedly covered up by Soviet authorities. The Soviet Union strongly denied any involvement and blamed locals consuming infected meat, in fear of revealing Biological Weapons Convention violations. A leaflet campaign warned residents not to buy meat from unofficial markets. The incident was kept secret until the 1990s. Victims suffered from pulmonary anthrax but Soviet scientists claimed that it was gastrointestinal to support the claims that infected meat was responsible for the outbreak. Some journalists claimed that the death toll was as high as 100 victims. 15 infected 17 infected It is possible that Bruce Edwards Ivins was responsible for this incident. He was a doctor working on an anthrax vaccination for more than 20 years, which got pulled off the market. Federal investigators have suggested that he infected the mail with anthrax spores so the public would realize they need the anthrax vaccination. He later killed himself with a tylenol overdose before charges could be brought against him. Government officials sent samples of the suspected anthrax to a laboratory in Delhi for confirmation testing. People with the victims reported that the victims vomited blood and complained of chest and stomach aches. The Hindustan Times reported that village residents lynched a man who had treated some anthrax patients with herbs. 2,300 animal deaths

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Anthrax

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Charlie Benante

Musician songwriter Charles Lee Benante is an American musician, best known as the drummer for thrash metal band Anthrax and crossover thrash band Stormtroopers of Death . Known as one of the pioneers of double bass drumming and credited for popularizing the blast beat technique, he is Anthrax's main composer and has released eleven studio albums with the band. Benante joined the reunited Pantera in 2022, replacing original drummer Vinnie Paul , who died in 2018.Benante joined Anthrax in 1983, prior to the recording of the band's debut album Fistful of Metal , and has appeared on every release by the band. He is known for having a very fast double kick technique and has been credited as one of the pioneers of double bass , as well as with popularizing the blast beat technique with thrash metal . He is also a guitarist, having contributed lead guitar to S.O.D.'s Speak English or Die album. Along with his musician duties, Benante is also a graphic artist and has created many of Anthrax's album covers and T-shirt designs. In 2021, Benante released a solo album entitled Silver Linings . Paul Stenning referred to the album as "a very worthy memento of attacking a crazy year with a positive outlook." On July 14, 2022, it was announced that Benante had joined the reunited Pantera by filling in for original drummer, and his close friend, Vinnie Paul . Benante is a fan of the 1975 film Jaws , and owns a sizeable collection of the film's merchandise. He was featured in the documentary The Shark Is Still Working , which was included on the Jaws 2012 Blu-ray release. Throughout the course of 2012, Benante faced several personal issues that forced him to miss several concerts with Anthrax. Early on in the year his mother died, which also resulted in Frank Bello (Benante's mother being Bello's grandmother) taking some time off during the band's tour in Argentina. Benante stepped out again during the summer's Rockstar Mayhem Fest run after suffering a "minor hand injury". Also during the summer, Benante was involved in a domestic dispute with his wife in front of his daughter which had them both arrested. Benante later missed the band's UK and European tour in order to take care of "personal stuff" according to Scott Ian. In 2013, it was announced that Benante would be sitting out Australian tour dates, also for personal reasons. Concern was raised in 2012 by MetalSucks over Benante's well-being and future with the band. In March 2019, it was confirmed that Benante was dating Butcher Babies frontwoman Carla Harvey . In 2020, Benante had a cameo in the music video for " Everything She Wants ," a Wham! -cover performed by Alien Ant Farm . On April 21, 2023, Benante's sister Rosie died. Benante uses and endorses Tama drums and hardware, Paiste cymbals, Vic Firth sticks, Evans Drumheads , and Roland electronics. Prior to switching to Tama's Speed Cobra pedals in 2010, Benante was one of the few drummers who used Tama's HP35 Camco chain-drive pedals, equipment he had used since 1984.

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Anthrax

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Volume 8: The Threat Is Real

Ignition Tommy Boy Anthrax Paul Crook "Inside Out" Released: 1998 "Crush" Released: 1998 "Piss N Vinegar" Released: 1998 "Born Again Idiot" Released: 1998 Volume 8: The Threat Is Real is the eighth studio album by American thrash metal band Anthrax . The album was released on July 21, 1998, by Ignition Records and debuted at number 118 on the Billboard 200 chart. The record was produced by the band and Paul Crook . It features the song "Crush", which appeared in the video game ATV Offroad Fury for PlayStation 2 and in the game's soundtrack. Other released singles from the album were "Inside Out", "Piss N Vinegar" and "Born Again Idiot". "Pieces", the hidden track at the end of the album, was written by bassist Frank Bello as a tribute to his brother Anthony who was murdered outside his girlfriend's home in the Bronx on March 25, 1996, by an unidentified assailant. The track features Bello on vocals.Stephen Thomas Erlewine , in a mixed review for AllMusic , wrote that the album is a continuation of the band's "writing slump" which started with 1993's Sound of White Noise . He said that there aren't many "memorable songs" on the record, and went to call it "transitional album" leading the band to "new, uncharted territory". Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club found the album to be "aggressive to the point of being exhausting". Martin Popoff in his Collector's Guide to Heavy Metal remarks how the band put a bit of everything in the songs, including multiple speeds, "humor scattered here and there", "big grungy guitars", "meat and potatoes riffing and roaring vocals from Bush", while "experimenting with some different textures and dynamics". The result is not just "an accessible thrash metal record", as is typical with Anthrax. In his 2014 autobiography I'm the Man: The Story of that Guy from Anthrax , Scott Ian said "I'm still proud of the songs we wrote for Volume 8: The Threat is Real . They were really diverse and heavy, modern sounding with a crushing metal groove. 1998 is the year nu metal took over but we were definitely not a part of that scene. If anything we were old metal, so getting anyone to support us was proving difficult." All lyrics written by John Bush and Scott Ian ; all music by Charlie Benante , except where noted.position

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Anthrax

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Sverdlovsk anthrax leak

On 2 April 1979, spores of Bacillus anthracis (the causative agent of anthrax ) were accidentally released from a Soviet military research facility in the city of Sverdlovsk, Soviet Union (now Yekaterinburg , Russia ). The ensuing outbreak of the disease resulted in the deaths of at least 68 people, although the exact number of victims remains unknown. The cause of the outbreak was denied for years by the Soviet authorities , which blamed the deaths on consumption of tainted meat from the area, and subcutaneous exposure due to butchers handling the tainted meat. The accident was the first major indication in the Western world that the Soviet Union had embarked upon an offensive programme aimed at the development and large-scale production of biological weapons .Sverdlovsk had been a major production center of the Soviet military-industrial complex since World War II . By the 1970s, 87 per cent of the city's industrial production was military; only 13 percent for public consumption. It produced tanks , ballistic missiles , rockets and other armaments . The city has at times been referred to as Russia's Pittsburgh because of its large steelmaking industry. During the Cold War, Sverdlovsk became a Soviet " closed city " to which travel was restricted for foreigners. The biological warfare (BW) facility in Sverdlovsk was built during the period 1947 to 1949 and was a spin-off of the Soviet Union's main military BW facility in Kirov . It was allocated the former site of the Cherkassk-Sverdlovsk Infantry Academy in Sverdlovsk on Ulitsa Zvezdnaya, 1, and abutted the southern industrialised sector of the city. The new facility, known as the USSR Ministry of Defence's Scientific-Research Institute of Hygiene, became operational on 19 July 1949. Alibek suggests that the construction of the institute incorporated technical knowledge which had been extracted from captured Japanese scientists who had participated in the Japanese biological warfare programme . Research was initiated at Sverdlovsk on bacterial pathogens including Bacillus anthracis. In 1951, a programme was launched which focussed on botulinum toxin . Later in the 1970s, interest in the latter ceased and there was a major shift in focus to B. anthracis . In 1974, the facility was re-named as the Scientific-Research Institute of Bacterial Vaccine Preparations. [ citation needed ] The BW facility at Sverdlovsk was located within a military base known as Compound 19 ( 19th gorodok , Russian: 19-й городок ) which itself was created between 1947 and 1949. Compound 19 abutted the southern industrialised sector of the city in the Chkalovskii district. It was located immediately adjacent to the Vtorchermet housing estate. A meat-processing plant was located nearby with a view to supplying components of bacterial nutrient media. There was a high degree of autonomy with regard to the secret base. As well as the military institute, Compound 19 embraced its own 75-bed military hospital, a postal service, a range of shops, a kindergarten, schools, a social club, a sports stadium, parks and walkways, a civil registry office and its own special prosecutor's office. Sentries and construction workers at the site required special security clearance. A Russian television crew visited the site shortly after the collapse of the USSR. It is likely that much of what they observed may not have been greatly different from the situation in 1979. They reported that Compound 19 comprised around 200 hectares and was sub-divided into three main zones. The first, residential zone, housed the scientists and their families, around 7,000 inhabitants, along with the ancillary services described above. Nestled within the outer zone there was a check-point which provided restricted access to a so-called industrial zone. At the very heart of Compound 19, guarded by a final check-point and barbed wire, was the most secret special working zone which housed the main administration building together with secret laboratories and production units housed underground. During the 1960s, Compound 32, an army base with barracks and apartments for Soviet soldiers serving in armoured and artillery units, and with no connection to BW, was added to the southern edge of Compound 19. [ citation needed ]In their authoritative account, Leitenberg and Zilinskas with Kuhn report that, at some point during the period 2–3 April 1979, a mass of B. anthracis spores were released from a four-story building located in Compound 19's special zone. The building housed a production unit which produced dry B. anthracis spores for weapons use. The unit was manned by 40 personnel and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Nikolai Chernyshov. The spores created a plume which the wind carried over parts of Sverdlovsk itself as well as a number of rural villages. Russian sources indicate that the release occurred as a result of a defect in an air-handling system which carried exhaust from a spray dryer. The release, according to one Russian source took place during the evening or night of 2–3 April. Based on interviews with friends and families of victims, together with a study of wind data, Meselson and his investigative team conclude that the release probably took place during the day of 2 April. The precise number of fatalities associated with the military leakage of anthrax spores is not known. Meselson's group report that the incident led directly to the deaths of at least 68 people in Sverdlovsk itself and to cases of animal anthrax in nearby villages (Rudnii, Bol'shoe Sedelnikovo, Maloe Sedelnikovo, Pervomaiskii, Kashino and Abramovo) to the south-east of the city. Leitenberg and Zilinskas with Kuhn quote a Russian source which indicates that "According to the official data, 95 people were infected, 68 (71.5 per cent) died [but] actually the number of the dead and infected was larger". The leakage of anthrax hit the ceramics factory, south of Compound 19, the hardest. The factory, which employed 2,180 personnel, was in possession of a ventilation system which sucked air from the outside, directing some to the furnaces with the remainder being directed to the workforce . In the coming weeks at least 18 workers at the factory died. In response to the incident, the Soviet authorities acted to mobilise medical teams in the affected district. Tetracycline was administered to affected households, sick rooms were disinfected and potentially contaminated sheets and clothing were collected. Checks for illness in family members were made. Individuals who had fevers were directed to polyclinics and those who were very ill were transferred to the local Hospital 40. A Moscow-controlled Extraordinary Commission was eventually established to manage the response and on the 22 April firemen and factory workers began hosing down buildings with solutions of chlorine. The large-scale vaccination of the population in the affected Chkalovskii district was also undertaken by the authorities. In all, some 80 per cent of around 59,000 eligible individuals were injected with the Soviet STI anthrax vaccine. The latter had been manufactured by the Scientific-Research Institute of Vaccines and Sera based in Tbilisi , Georgia. The first indication in the West of the accident in Sverdlovsk was a story which appeared in January 1980 in an obscure Frankfurt-based magazine named Possev which was published by a group of Russian emigres. It claimed that there had been an outbreak of anthrax in April 1979 in Sverdlovsk after an explosion at a military settlement south-west of the city. In 1986, Matthew Meselson of Harvard University was granted approval by Soviet authorities for a four-day trip to Moscow where he interviewed several senior Soviet health officials about the outbreak. He later issued a report which agreed with the Soviet assessment that the outbreak was caused by a contaminated meat processing plant, concluding the Soviets' official explanation was completely "plausible and consistent with what is known from medical literature and recorded human experiences with anthrax". However, the Soviet version of events was fatally undermined when, in October 1991, the Wall Street Journal , sent its Moscow Bureau Chief, Peter Gumbel, to Sverdlovsk to investigate the outbreak. After interviewing numerous families, hospital workers and doctors, he is reported to have found the Soviet version of events "riddled with inconsistencies, half-truths and plain falsehoods". This was followed by an admission in May 1992 by President Boris Yeltsin , who had been Sverdlovsk's Communist Party chief at the time of the accident, that the KGB had revealed to him that "our military development was the cause". Based on these reports a team of Western scientists led by Meselson gained access to the region in June 1992. Before they arrived they had been provided by the authorities with a list of 68 known incident victims in Sverdlovsk. By visiting and questioning in their homes surviving relatives of those who had died, the investigating researchers ascertained both where the victims had been living and where they had been during daylight hours at the time during which hospital admission records indicated a possible release into the atmosphere of anthrax dust. When the locations were plotted on maps, the places where the victims lived did not form a clear geographical pattern. However, there was a very precise indication from their reported locations during working hours, that all of the victims had been directly downwind at the time of the release of the spores via aerosol . Livestock in the area were also affected. Had the winds been blowing in the direction of the city at that time, it could have resulted in the pathogen being spread to hundreds of thousands of people. Meselson's original contention for many years had been that the outbreak was a natural one and that the Soviet authorities were not lying when they disclaimed having an active offensive bio-warfare program, but the information uncovered in the investigation left no room for doubt. In April 1992, President Boris Yeltsin issued a decree On ensuring the implementation of international pledges in the sphere of biological weapons . Under the reforming president, there was a desire, over time, to shift the Ministry of Defence's BW institutes from military jurisdiction to work for the civil economy. It was against this background, that at some point between 1992 and 1994, a representative from the US investment bank and stock brokerage firm Paine Webber Incorporated, held a meeting with members of Russia's Committee on Convention Problems of Chemical and Biological Weapons which was specifically focused on the potential for cooperation with Compound No. 19 (Ekaterinburg) in the areas of infectious diseases in animals and production of veterinary vaccines. The project eventually floundered because of the Russian military's desire to maintain the "closed" (highly restricted access) status of its biological facilities. [ citation needed ] Medical anthropologist Jeanne Guillemin , member of the 1992 expedition team and wife of Meselson, published a comprehensive book about the investigation in 1999, titled Anthrax – The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak. In August 2016, the journal Science reported that anthrax scientist Paul Keim of Northern Arizona University (Flagstaff) and colleagues had attempted to sequence the B . anthracis genome from two samples taken from victims of the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak. The samples had been preserved by local Russian pathologists who investigated the outbreak as it was occurring. Later, they shared the material with Professor Meselson during his investigative trip in 1992 (see above). The samples had been fixed in formalin and embedded in paraffin and the DNA was, as a result, badly degraded. Nevertheless, the US researchers were able to isolate the pathogen's DNA and piece together its entire genome, comparing it with hundreds of other anthrax isolates. Keim and his team reported that they had not found any genomic evidence that the Soviet military had attempted to grow an antibiotic- or vaccine-resistant strain or genetically engineered the strain in any way. Meselson commented that although this was a perfectly ordinary strain, "that doesn't mean it wasn't nasty. It was extracted from people who were killed by it." Zilinskas and Mauger in 2018 provided the most up-to-date information regarding the current status of the Sverdlovsk military facility. Under the National System of Chemical and Biological Safety/Security of the Russian Federation, funding has been provided to the Sverdlovsk institute for the renovation of two facilities for the production of antibiotics. Such products could be used in the civil medical sector. Major reconstruction work has also been carried out with regard to a building that used to produce B. anthracis spores. A building used for media and substrate production has also been extensively renovated. Refurbishment has also been underway in recent years of an open-air test site—the so-called Pyshma field test base—for the Sverdlovsk institute. Once complete, it was intended to be used to "assess the effectiveness of means and methods of biological prospecting and the elimination of the consequences of emergency situations". As of late 2015 [ update ] , this refurbishment project remained incomplete. In August 2020, the US Commerce Department's Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) imposed "blacklist" restrictions on three Russian military biological institutes for their alleged involvement with the Russian biological weapons programme. One of these was the Sverdlovsk institute (now operating under the name 48th Central Scientific Research Institute, Yekaterinburg). On 2 March 2021, additional US sanctions were imposed on the 48 Central Scientific Research Institute Yekaterinburg (aka 48th TsNII Yekaterinburg) along with its associated military BW institutes in Kirov and Sergiev Posad.

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Anthrax

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Among the Living

Among the Living is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax . It was released on March 16, 1987, by Megaforce Records in the US and by Island Records in the rest of the world. The album is dedicated to Cliff Burton of Metallica , who died in a bus accident six months before its release while Metallica were on tour with Anthrax as the opening act. Veteran engineer Eddie Kramer , at his first venture with a thrash metal act, co-produced the album. Recording proceeded smoothly, but different visions for the sound of the final release created disagreements between Anthrax and the producer during the audio mixing . Anthrax members described the album as their major breakthrough, as it marked the progression from the band playing in small clubs to arenas and stadiums. The album was critically acclaimed, and promoted the band among the "Big Four" of thrash metal. The band's second gold record , Among the Living was certified gold by the RIAA on July 31, 1990.The original members of Anthrax grew up in New York City listening to 1970s rock and hard rock and turned to heavy metal in the 1980s, profoundly influenced by bands like Iron Maiden , Judas Priest and Motörhead . Drummer Charlie Benante was also a fan of bands playing music considered extreme at the time, such as Raven and Venom , and he and guitarist Scott Ian enjoyed hardcore as much as metal. Guitarist Dan Spitz , originally in the band Overkill , was an accomplished, trained musician, while Joey Belladonna had a background as a singer in cover bands of arena rock acts Bad Company , Foreigner and Journey . The integration of these differing musical sensibilities resulted in Anthrax's second album, Spreading the Disease , praised by critics for showing decisive progress from the band's debut release, Fistful of Metal , and for introducing a unique sound, which opposed the fast and heavy riffing of thrash metal with Belladonna's clean and melodic vocals. That album also marked the beginning of the songwriting method that would see the band through its most successful period. Benante would create riffs and rough musical structures for all the songs, that would later be developed, integrated and arranged with the other musicians. Ian composed all the lyrics and worked on them with Belladonna to create vocal melodies that were fit to his high-pitched, melodic singing style. Anthrax had spent about six months in 1985 recording Spreading the Disease , their first album for the major label Island Records , which sold more than 100,000 copies worldwide. They had been on tour to support the album since its release, both as headliners in small clubs and as an opening act for other bands. When opening for W.A.S.P. and Black Sabbath on their tour supporting the album Seventh Star , Anthrax played for the first time in mid-sized arenas and were thrilled by the experience and by audiences' reaction to their music. After a brief stop to rehearse new songs in July 1986, Anthrax joined longtime friends and Megaforce Records labelmates Metallica on the European leg of Metallica's Damage, Inc. Tour supporting Master of Puppets . In Sweden on September 27, Metallica bassist Cliff Burton was killed when the band's tour bus skidded off the road. His death profoundly impacted the thrash-metal community in which he was a highly regarded figure, and the members of Anthrax dedicated their new album Among the Living to his memory. In 2012, Ian said in an interview that part of the reason "... the album sounds so angry is because Cliff died. We'd lost our friend and it was so wrong and unfair." The music press largely considers Among the Living one of the strongest thrash metal albums ever recorded. In comparison with Spreading the Disease , the songs on the album generally feature faster rhythms granted by Benante's double-pedal bass-drum beats, stronger hardcore influences in the frequent gang choruses and a more aggressive vocal delivery by Belladonna. According to Ian, the general sonic approach of the songs is similar to "A.I.R.", the opening track of Spreading the Disease . The structure of the tracks is conventional and sometimes inspired by other rock songs, such as AC/DC 's " Whole Lotta Rosie " for "Caught in a Mosh", but with many rhythm changes and melodies that sometimes yield to the aggressive and dry sound. One critic considered this last feature a probable carryover from the Stormtroopers of Death project, a seminal crossover band formed in 1985 by Benante, Ian and original Anthrax bassist Danny Lilker , that had combined metal riffs with hardcore on an album of short, fast and satirical songs titled Speak English or Die . Anthrax composed the songs "I Am the Law", "Indians" and " I'm the Man " during the tour of 1986, rehearsed the first two and included "I Am the Law" in their live setlist. Most of the songs were written in July 1986, after the tour had ended. At the end of July 1986, Anthrax arranged and rehearsed the new songs at Top Cat rehearsal studios in New York City, before leaving for the UK, where they joined Metallica for their European dates. Music critics praised the use of humor in Among the Living' s lyrics and were inspired by disparate sources. Socially conscious matters are present in songs such as "Indians", about the plight of Native Americans forced to live on reservations, "One World", which deals with the risk of nuclear holocaust and "Imitation of Life", about false personas, especially in the music business. [lower-alpha 1] "Efilnikufesin (N.F.L.)" ("nise fukin life" spelled backwards) is a protest song against drug abuse and was inspired by comedian John Belushi 's drug addiction and death. Ian is still baffled that journalists ask him why he wrote a song about the National Football League , just showing that "they haven't bothered to read the lyrics, or understand the whole point of the song." Two of the album's songs are based on characters and situations taken from Stephen King 's work: "Among the Living" draws from the novel The Stand , and "A Skeleton in the Closet" from the novella " Apt Pupil ", a part of the Different Seasons collection. Both Ian and Benante were avid readers of King's works. "I Am the Law" is based on riffs left over from the recording sessions of Spreading the Disease and is co-credited with Lilker. The title is the catchphrase of Judge Dredd , a comic book character whose stories were originally published in the British magazine 2000 AD , of which Ian was a reader and fan. "Caught in a Mosh" recounts a roadie 's experience during an agitated concert; many metalheads consider it a classic thrash-metal anthem. Critics read it as a glorification of the slam pit and a metaphor for life struggles. The last song written for the album was "Horror of It All" as a tribute to Cliff Burton, whose death affected the band members. The band wanted a producer who could capture the energy of their live show and requested Eddie Kramer for the task. Kramer was a famous producer and engineer who had worked with Jimi Hendrix , Led Zeppelin and Kiss , among others. The live sound that Kramer had captured in the Kiss album Alive! (1975) had especially impressed Ian and Benante when they were young. "When Eddie said yes to us, it was a total headfuck," guitarist Scott Ian recalled. The band recorded the new songs in about six weeks at Quadradial Studios in Miami, Florida. It was difficult at the time to record the sound of down-tuned guitars, typical of thrash metal bands such as Anthrax, and manage to distinguish it from the bass guitar and the bass drum. As Kramer recalled: "I'd never recorded anything quite like it. I wasn't sure of what they were looking for initially. And it was a challenge to figure out ways to record heavy guitars with heavy drums – it was just a different process." Kramer set up the recording sessions as group live performances and the band members were enthusiastic regarding the atmosphere and the sound produced. "We always felt like when we were in a room rehearsing, we were at our best," Ian said. "We were killing it and we had all the confidence in the world." The production then moved for retouching and mixing of the tracks to Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas , a facility owned by Chris Blackwell , the president of Anthrax's record label Island Records. Ian had suggested that recording studio only because Iron Maiden had been working there since 1983. In Nassau, Kramer created a first mix full of sound effects and reverb and claimed to have done a "modern mixing", similar to producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange 's work for Def Leppard 's best-selling album Pyromania . The band members were dissatisfied with the mix and rejected it, arguing with Kramer to return to a clean, dry sound as close to the original live recording as possible. In a 2013 interview, Kramer remarked how "... the guys had a totally different attitude, a totally different way of thinking, and I remember it being contentious during the mixing." Pressed by the possibility of being fired, Kramer relented to the band members' request and wrapped up the mixing process in less than two weeks. The cover art is by illustrator and painter Don Brautigam, a cover artist since the early 1970s, who worked on both Among the Living and Metallica's iconic Master of Puppets . The painting of Among the Living has been the subject of discussion, because it was long believed to depict the character Rev. Henry Kane, the antagonist from the film Poltergeist II: The Other Side , while others thought it depicted Randall Flagg , the subject of the album's title track and the antagonist from the Stephen King novel The Stand . Drummer Charlie Benante, who conceived the concept for the cover, explained: "It was just about how much evil there is amongst us. I wanted to show just the same type of person on the cover. The same type of people and then, the one person that was sticking out kind of giving you a wave, like a 'hi!'". In 1988, Brautigam was the cover artist for the following Anthrax album State of Euphoria . Among the Living was mastered by George Marino at Sterling Sound in New York City, and was released worldwide on March 22, 1987, through Jon Zazula's label Megaforce Records and Island Records. The album was preceded by the release of the single "I Am the Law" in February 1987, in 7-inch and 12-inch formats, which charted in the UK. Both versions had the non-album track "Bud E. Luvbomb and Satan's Lounge Band" as B-side, and the 12-inch also featured "I'm the Man," a song recorded in the same sessions as the rest of the album's tracks. It is among the first songs to have mixed rap and metal. The band's management thought that the song could not fit the sound and drive of Among the Living and decided to release it as a B-side. It was later re-released as a successful EP and became one of the most recognizable Anthrax songs. The second single "Indians" was released in June 1987. The 12-inch vinyl featured covers of Black Sabbath's " Sabbath Bloody Sabbath " and of S.O.D.'s "Taint", both expressly recorded for the release. A music video directed by Jean Pellerin and Doug Freel was shot for "Indians" and received moderate rotation on MTV in the late-1980s thrash-metal heyday. Among the Living charted in Europe and reached No. 62 on the US Billboard 200 chart, despite no radio airplay. It sold steadily through the years, and on July 31, 1990, the album was certified Gold, the second Anthrax album to do so after State of Euphoria in 1989. On November 10, 2009, a deluxe edition of the album was released that included a bonus concert DVD . The release features alternate takes of several album tracks, live versions and the B-side songs "I Am the Law" and "Bud E Luv Bomb And Satan's Lounge Band." The re-recorded version of "Among the Living" from the album The Greater of Two Evils can be heard in the teaser for the 2006 film Clerks II . A cover version of "Caught in a Mosh" is included in the 2007 videogame Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s , while the master recording is included in 2009's Guitar Hero: Smash Hits and in 2010's Rock Band 3 . The same game included "Among the Living" and "Indians" as downloadable content. "Indians" is also included in the 2010 videogame Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock . To celebrate the band's 40th anniversary, Anthrax and Z2 Comics released a graphic novel with stories inspired by the songs from Among the Living in July 2021. The collection features contributions from an all-star group of writers and artists from the worlds of music and comics, including Corey Taylor , Grant Morrison , Brian Posehn , Gerard and Mikey Way , Rob Zombie , Brian Azzarello , Jimmy Palmiotti and Rick Remender . The re-recorded version of "Among the Living" from the album The Greater of Two Evils can be heard in the teaser for the 2006 film Clerks II . A cover version of "Caught in a Mosh" is included in the 2007 videogame Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s , while the master recording is included in 2009's Guitar Hero: Smash Hits and in 2010's Rock Band 3 . The same game included "Among the Living" and "Indians" as downloadable content. "Indians" is also included in the 2010 videogame Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock . To celebrate the band's 40th anniversary, Anthrax and Z2 Comics released a graphic novel with stories inspired by the songs from Among the Living in July 2021. The collection features contributions from an all-star group of writers and artists from the worlds of music and comics, including Corey Taylor , Grant Morrison , Brian Posehn , Gerard and Mikey Way , Rob Zombie , Brian Azzarello , Jimmy Palmiotti and Rick Remender . Soon after the release of the album, Anthrax embarked on a short tour in Japan, but they officially started the Among the Living Tour on May 26, 1987, at the Penny Arcade of Rochester, with Metal Church opening. They played in mid-sized venues as headliners during the summer and then moved to Europe. They were on the bill of the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington , England on August 22, 1987, alongside Bon Jovi , Dio , Metallica, W.A.S.P. and Cinderella . Anthrax played for an audience of 80,000 that day, and in the European tour that followed in September and October sold out 7,000-seaters venues. Back in the US in November, Anthrax went on a tour as headliners in 5000-plus-seaters venues, with Celtic Frost as opening act. At the beginning of 1988, Kiss requested Anthrax as support band for their Crazy Nights World Tour in the US. The tour concluded in the first days of April, when Anthrax returned to the studio to record the album State of Euphoria . The songs of Among the Living have always been present in the band's live set lists since 1987, with at least four of them as fixed staples of their shows. In 2005, Anthrax reunited their Among the Living lineup, bringing Belladonna and Spitz back into the fold. During the world tour that followed they played live numerous cuts from the album and performed the record front-to-back at some shows. The band played Among the Living in its entirety again during the Metal Alliance 2013 tour and in 2017. Among the Living was acclaimed by contemporary and modern music critics and is often cited to this day as a favourite among Anthrax fans. It is generally considered the breakthrough album for Anthrax, their best and most influential, which for its merits propelled the band among the icons of thrash metal. The band's musicianship and the lyrics dedicated to social issues and pop-culture tributes were universally praised. On Classic Rock magazine, Malcolm Dome appreciated the consistent quality of the album and wrote that Anthrax's "musicianship is on par with anything Metallica were doing at the time." J. D. Considine of Rolling Stone wrote that "Benante and his bandmates may have been regular guys in other respects, but as musicians there was no denying the technical agility that went into each aural onslaught". He also remarked how Anthrax strived to be equal to their fans in the mosh pits and "democratized (their) brilliance by attaching it to some of the band's catchiest, most approachable material." According to Greg Moffitt of BBC Music , Among the Living stroke "a deft balance between marauding speed and judicious use of melody, a juggling feat they'd fumble on later albums." Canadian journalist Martin Popoff had the same opinion about the music, but observed how the introduction for the first time of "a punk ethic" in songs like "Caught in a Mosh", "Efilnikufesin" and "One World" started to undermine "the seriousness of the band, something that was soon to cause image problems." In fact, the album was a critical success, but Anthrax were criticized by both journalists and fans for the inconsistency of their musical evolution and, most of all, for their stage look, which was made up of short pants and t-shirts with commercial images or hardcore logos, in striking contrast with the denim and leather apparel of other thrash metal groups. The band members' apparent endorsement of the skateboarding world was another reason for controversy in contemporary music magazines and among fans. Anthrax members acknowledge the importance of the album for the band and for the thrash metal scene. Ian declared that Among the Living "wasn't just an important moment in our career. It gave us a career!" In several articles for the British magazine Kerrang! in 1988, journalist Don Kaye elected Anthrax in the so-called "Big Four of Thrash Metal" elite, alongside Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer . The title was accepted by the metal community and remained attached to Anthrax for the rest of their career. Martin Popoff placed Among the Living at No. 49 in his The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time book in 2004. In July 2005, Among the Living was inducted into the Decibel Hall of Fame, the sixth album overall to be featured. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die (2006). In August 2014, Revolver placed the album on its "14 Thrash Albums You Need to Own" list. In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Among the Living as 20th on their list of 'The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.' On October 26, 2020, Kerrang! placed Among the Living at No. 6 in the list of "The 25 greatest thrash metal albums ever". Regarding singular songs, "Caught in a Mosh" is ranked No. 29 in VH1 's "40 Greatest Metal Songs." In several articles for the British magazine Kerrang! in 1988, journalist Don Kaye elected Anthrax in the so-called "Big Four of Thrash Metal" elite, alongside Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer . The title was accepted by the metal community and remained attached to Anthrax for the rest of their career. Martin Popoff placed Among the Living at No. 49 in his The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time book in 2004. In July 2005, Among the Living was inducted into the Decibel Hall of Fame, the sixth album overall to be featured. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die (2006). In August 2014, Revolver placed the album on its "14 Thrash Albums You Need to Own" list. In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Among the Living as 20th on their list of 'The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.' On October 26, 2020, Kerrang! placed Among the Living at No. 6 in the list of "The 25 greatest thrash metal albums ever". Regarding singular songs, "Caught in a Mosh" is ranked No. 29 in VH1 's "40 Greatest Metal Songs." All credits adapted from the original releases. All tracks are written by Anthrax, except "I Am the Law" and "Imitation of Life" by Anthrax and Danny Lilkerposition position^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

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Anthrax

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Bruce Edwards Ivins

Bruce Edwards Ivins ( / ˈ aɪ v ɪ n z / ; April 22, 1946 – July 29, 2008) was an American microbiologist , vaccinologist , senior biodefense researcher at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick , Maryland , and the person suspected by the FBI of the 2001 anthrax attacks . Ivins died on July 29, 2008, of an overdose of acetaminophen ( Tylenol / paracetamol ) in a suicide after learning that criminal charges were likely to be filed against him by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for an alleged criminal connection to the attacks. At a news conference at the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) on August 6, 2008 (eight days after Ivins' self-inflicted death), FBI and DOJ officials formally announced that the Government had concluded that Ivins was likely solely responsible for the deaths of five persons, and for the injury of dozens of others, resulting from the September–October 2001 mailings to members of Congress and to members of the media, of several anonymous letters which contained Bacillus anthracis , commonly referred to as anthrax. On February 19, 2010, the FBI released a 92-page summary of evidence against Ivins and announced that it had concluded its investigation. The FBI conclusions have been contested by many, including senior microbiologists, the widow of one of the victims, and several prominent American politicians. Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT), who was among the targets in the attack, Senator Chuck Grassley (R-IA), Senator Arlen Specter (R-PA), Representative Rush Holt (D-NJ), and Representative Jerrold Nadler (D-NY) all argued that Ivins was not solely responsible for the attacks. No formal charges were ever filed against Ivins for the crime, and no direct evidence of his involvement has been uncovered. The FBI subsequently requested a panel from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to review its scientific work on the case. On May 15, 2011, the panel released its findings, which "conclude[d] that the bureau overstated the strength of genetic analysis linking the mailed anthrax to a supply kept by Bruce E. Ivins." The NAS committee stated that its primary finding was that "it is not possible to reach a definitive conclusion about the origins of the B. anthracis in the mailings based on the available scientific evidence alone." Bruce Ivins was born and spent his youth in Lebanon, Ohio , about 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Cincinnati . His parents were Thomas Randall Ivins and Mary Johnson ( née Knight) Ivins, and he was the youngest of three brothers. Ivins' father, a pharmacist, owned a drugstore and was active in the local Rotary Club and Chamber of Commerce . The family went regularly to Lebanon Presbyterian Church, although Ivins was later a Catholic parishioner. According to C.W. Ivins, one of his older brothers, their mother Mary was violent and physically abusive to all three children. When she discovered she was pregnant with Bruce, a pregnancy that was unplanned and unwanted, she repeatedly tried to abort the child by throwing herself down a set of stairs. Ivins would eventually hear the story of his mother's attempt to abort him. Avidly interested in science, Ivins was an active participant in extracurricular activities in high school, including the National Honor Society , science fairs , the current events club, and the scholarship team all four years. He ran on the track and cross-country teams, worked on the yearbook and school newspaper, and was in the school choir and junior and senior class plays. In December 1975, Ivins married nursing student Mary Diane Betsch (known as Diane), to whom he remained married until his death. The couple had two children. Diane Ivins was a homemaker and full time parent who also ran a daycare center out of the family's home. His wife, children, and brothers were all still alive at the time of his death; his parents were deceased. Ivins graduated with honors from the University of Cincinnati (UC) with a B.S. degree in 1968, an M.S. degree in 1971, and a Ph.D. degree in 1976, all in microbiology . Ivins conducted his Ph.D. research under the supervision of Dr. Peter F. Bonventre. His dissertation focused on different aspects of toxicity in disease-causing bacteria. Ivins was a scientist for 36 years and senior biodefense researcher at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) in Fort Detrick , Maryland for 18 years. After conducting research on Legionella and cholera , in 1979, Ivins turned his attention to anthrax after the anthrax outbreak in the Soviet city of Sverdlovsk (now known as Yekaterinburg), which killed at least 105 after an accidental release at a military facility. Ivins had published at least 44 scientific papers dating back to May 18, 1969. His earliest known published work pertained to the response of peritoneal macrophages , a type of white blood cell, to infection by Chlamydia psittaci , an infectious bacterium that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Ivins often cited the 2001 anthrax attacks in his papers to bolster the significance of his research in years subsequent to the attacks. In a 2006 paper published in the prestigious journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , he wrote with his co-authors Shortening the duration of antibiotic postexposure prophylaxis in a bioterrorism event involving B. anthracis by adding postexposure vaccination could greatly alleviate problems of noncompliance and side effects associated with prolonged antibiotic therapy. The value of adding vaccination to postexposure antibiotic prophylaxis should be considered in planning the public health response to bioterrorism events involving inhalational anthrax. Ivins was a co-inventor on two United States patents for anthrax vaccine technology, U.S. patent 6,316,006 and U.S. patent 6,387,665 . Both of these patents are owned by his employer at the time, the United States Army . On March 14, 2003, Ivins and two of his colleagues at USAMRIID received the Decoration for Exceptional Civilian Service — the highest award given to Defense Department civilian employees — for helping solve technical problems in the manufacture of anthrax vaccines. The 2001 anthrax attacks involved the mailing of several letters proclaiming, "Death to America ... Death to Israel ... Allah is Great", and contaminated with anthrax, to the offices of U.S. Senators Tom Daschle and Patrick Leahy , as well as to the offices of ABC News , CBS News , NBC News , the New York Post , and the National Enquirer . Ivins became involved in the investigation of the anthrax attacks because he was regarded as a skilled microbiologist. Starting in mid-October, he and his colleagues worked long hours testing samples to distinguish real anthrax letters from the numerous hoaxes that were sent out at this time. Ivins also helped the FBI analyze the powdery material recovered from one of the anthrax-tainted envelopes sent to a U.S. senator's office in Washington, D.C. Results of the investigation were initially distributed to the public via ABC News, claiming "four well placed sources" had confirmed that "trace amounts of the chemical additives bentonite " were found in the anthrax samples, and that this was the chemical signature of Iraqi-made anthrax. However, it was later confirmed that no bentonite was ever found in the anthrax samples. While it is presumed that Ivins was one of ABC News' four sources, ABC refused to reveal their identities, which has contributed to a mystery surrounding Ivins' role in the initial investigation and its widely reported findings. In 2002, an investigation was carried out as a result of an incident at Fort Detrick where anthrax spores had escaped carefully guarded rooms into the building's unprotected areas. The incident called into question the ability of USAMRIID to keep its deadly agents within laboratory walls seven months after the anthrax mailings. A coworker reportedly told Ivins that she was concerned she was exposed to anthrax spores when handling an anthrax-contaminated letter. Ivins tested the technician's desk area December 2001 and found growth that had the hallmarks of anthrax. He decontaminated her desk, computer, keypad and monitor, but did not notify his superiors. For six years, the FBI focused its investigation on Steven Hatfill , considering him to be the chief suspect in the attacks. In March 2008, however, authorities exonerated Hatfill and settled a lawsuit he initiated for $5.8 million. According to ABC News, some in the FBI considered Ivins a suspect as early as 2002. FBI Director Robert Mueller changed leadership of the investigation in late 2006, and at that time Ivins became the main focus of the investigation. After Hatfill was no longer considered a suspect, Ivins began "showing signs of serious strain". As a result of his changed behavior, he lost access to sensitive areas at his job. Ivins began being treated for depression and expressed some suicidal thoughts . On March 19, 2008, police found Ivins unconscious at his home in Frederick and sent him to the hospital. In June 2008, Ivins was involuntarily committed to a psychiatric hospital. The FBI said that during a June 5 group therapy session there, he had a conversation with a witness, during which he made a series of statements about the anthrax mailings that the FBI said could best be characterized as " non-denial denials ". When asked about the anthrax attacks and whether he could have had anything to do with them, the FBI said that Ivins admitted he suffered from loss of memory, stating that he would wake up dressed and wonder if he had gone out during the night. His responses allegedly included the following: Late in July 2008, investigators informed Ivins of his impending prosecution for alleged involvement in the 2001 anthrax attacks that Ivins himself had previously assisted authorities in investigating. It was reported that the death penalty would have been sought in the case. Ivins maintained his security clearance until July 10; he had been publicly critical of the laboratory's security procedures for several years. W. Russell Byrne, a colleague who worked in the bacteriology division of the Fort Detrick research facility, said FBI agents "hounded" Ivins by twice raiding his home and that Ivins had been hospitalized for depression earlier in the month. According to Byrne and local police, Ivins had been removed from his workplace out of fears that he might harm himself or others. "I think he was just psychologically exhausted by the whole process", Byrne said. "There are people who you just know are ticking bombs", Byrne said. "He was not one of them." However, Tom Ivins, who last spoke to his brother in 1985, said, "It makes sense ... he considered himself like a god." The Los Angeles Times wrote that Ivins stood to profit from the attacks because he was a co-inventor on two patents for a genetically engineered anthrax vaccine. San Francisco -area biotechnology company VaxGen licensed the vaccine and won a federal contract valued at $877.5 million to provide the vaccine under the Project Bioshield Act . However, anti-vaccine activist Meryl Nass expressed skepticism about this purported motive: "Historically, government employees do not receive these royalties: the government does." On August 6, 2008, eight days after Ivins' self-inflicted death, U.S. Attorney Jeffrey A. Taylor officially made a statement that Ivins was the "sole culprit" in the 2001 anthrax attacks. Taylor stated that Ivins had submitted false anthrax evidence to throw investigators off his trail, was unable to adequately explain his late laboratory working hours around the time of the attacks, tried to frame his co-workers, had immunized himself against anthrax in early September 2001, was one of more than 100 people with access to the same strain of anthrax used in the killings, and had used similar language in an email to that in one of the anthrax mailings. Ivins was also reportedly upset that the anthrax vaccine that he had spent years helping develop was being pulled from the market. Ivins became involved in the investigation of the anthrax attacks because he was regarded as a skilled microbiologist. Starting in mid-October, he and his colleagues worked long hours testing samples to distinguish real anthrax letters from the numerous hoaxes that were sent out at this time. Ivins also helped the FBI analyze the powdery material recovered from one of the anthrax-tainted envelopes sent to a U.S. senator's office in Washington, D.C. Results of the investigation were initially distributed to the public via ABC News, claiming "four well placed sources" had confirmed that "trace amounts of the chemical additives bentonite " were found in the anthrax samples, and that this was the chemical signature of Iraqi-made anthrax. However, it was later confirmed that no bentonite was ever found in the anthrax samples. While it is presumed that Ivins was one of ABC News' four sources, ABC refused to reveal their identities, which has contributed to a mystery surrounding Ivins' role in the initial investigation and its widely reported findings. In 2002, an investigation was carried out as a result of an incident at Fort Detrick where anthrax spores had escaped carefully guarded rooms into the building's unprotected areas. The incident called into question the ability of USAMRIID to keep its deadly agents within laboratory walls seven months after the anthrax mailings. A coworker reportedly told Ivins that she was concerned she was exposed to anthrax spores when handling an anthrax-contaminated letter. Ivins tested the technician's desk area December 2001 and found growth that had the hallmarks of anthrax. He decontaminated her desk, computer, keypad and monitor, but did not notify his superiors. For six years, the FBI focused its investigation on Steven Hatfill , considering him to be the chief suspect in the attacks. In March 2008, however, authorities exonerated Hatfill and settled a lawsuit he initiated for $5.8 million. According to ABC News, some in the FBI considered Ivins a suspect as early as 2002. FBI Director Robert Mueller changed leadership of the investigation in late 2006, and at that time Ivins became the main focus of the investigation. After Hatfill was no longer considered a suspect, Ivins began "showing signs of serious strain". As a result of his changed behavior, he lost access to sensitive areas at his job. Ivins began being treated for depression and expressed some suicidal thoughts . On March 19, 2008, police found Ivins unconscious at his home in Frederick and sent him to the hospital. In June 2008, Ivins was involuntarily committed to a psychiatric hospital. The FBI said that during a June 5 group therapy session there, he had a conversation with a witness, during which he made a series of statements about the anthrax mailings that the FBI said could best be characterized as " non-denial denials ". When asked about the anthrax attacks and whether he could have had anything to do with them, the FBI said that Ivins admitted he suffered from loss of memory, stating that he would wake up dressed and wonder if he had gone out during the night. His responses allegedly included the following: Late in July 2008, investigators informed Ivins of his impending prosecution for alleged involvement in the 2001 anthrax attacks that Ivins himself had previously assisted authorities in investigating. It was reported that the death penalty would have been sought in the case. Ivins maintained his security clearance until July 10; he had been publicly critical of the laboratory's security procedures for several years. W. Russell Byrne, a colleague who worked in the bacteriology division of the Fort Detrick research facility, said FBI agents "hounded" Ivins by twice raiding his home and that Ivins had been hospitalized for depression earlier in the month. According to Byrne and local police, Ivins had been removed from his workplace out of fears that he might harm himself or others. "I think he was just psychologically exhausted by the whole process", Byrne said. "There are people who you just know are ticking bombs", Byrne said. "He was not one of them." However, Tom Ivins, who last spoke to his brother in 1985, said, "It makes sense ... he considered himself like a god." The Los Angeles Times wrote that Ivins stood to profit from the attacks because he was a co-inventor on two patents for a genetically engineered anthrax vaccine. San Francisco -area biotechnology company VaxGen licensed the vaccine and won a federal contract valued at $877.5 million to provide the vaccine under the Project Bioshield Act . However, anti-vaccine activist Meryl Nass expressed skepticism about this purported motive: "Historically, government employees do not receive these royalties: the government does." On August 6, 2008, eight days after Ivins' self-inflicted death, U.S. Attorney Jeffrey A. Taylor officially made a statement that Ivins was the "sole culprit" in the 2001 anthrax attacks. Taylor stated that Ivins had submitted false anthrax evidence to throw investigators off his trail, was unable to adequately explain his late laboratory working hours around the time of the attacks, tried to frame his co-workers, had immunized himself against anthrax in early September 2001, was one of more than 100 people with access to the same strain of anthrax used in the killings, and had used similar language in an email to that in one of the anthrax mailings. Ivins was also reportedly upset that the anthrax vaccine that he had spent years helping develop was being pulled from the market. On the morning of July 27, 2008, Ivins was again found unconscious at his home. He was taken to Frederick Memorial Hospital and died on July 29 from what was then called an overdose of Tylenol with codeine , an apparent suicide . No autopsy was ordered following his death because, according to an officer in the local police department, the state medical examiner "determined that an autopsy wouldn't be necessary" based on laboratory test results of blood taken from the body. A summary of the police report of his death, released in 2009, lists the cause of death as liver and kidney failure , citing his purchase of two bottles of Tylenol PM (containing diphenhydramine ), contradicting earlier reports of Tylenol with codeine. His family declined to put him on the liver transplant list, and he was removed from life support. The FBI declined to comment on the situation. Ivins' attorney released a statement saying that Ivins had co-operated with the FBI's six-year investigation and was innocent. Paul Kemp, Ivins' attorney, stated that the government's case against Ivins was "not convincing." Justice Department official Dean Boyd stated that Ivins mailed anthrax to NBC in retaliation for an investigation of Ivins' laboratory's work on anthrax conducted by Gary Matsumoto, a former NBC News journalist. At the time, however, Matsumoto was working for ABC, not NBC. Also, Ivins passed a lie detector test in which he was questioned about his possible participation in the anthrax attacks. Boyd responded by saying that the FBI now believes that Ivins used countermeasures to deceive the polygraph examiners. "There are clearly a lot of unanswered questions," said Senator Chuck Grassley, who called for a congressional investigation into the allegations that Ivins was the anthrax killer. Those who argue for Ivins' innocence say that the anthrax used in the attacks was too sophisticated to be produced by a lone researcher without relevant training. Richard O. Spertzel , a microbiologist who led the United Nations' biological weapons inspections of Iraq, wrote that the anthrax used could not have come from the lab where Ivins worked. "In my opinion, there are maybe four or five people in the whole country who might be able to make this stuff, and I'm one of them," said Spertzel, who was also the former deputy commander of USAMRIID. "And even with a good lab and staff to help run it, it might take me a year to come up with a product as good." The spores in the Daschle letter were 1.5 to 3 micrometres across, many times smaller than the finest known grade of anthrax produced by either the U.S. or Soviet bioweapons programs. An electron microscope , which costs hundreds of thousands of dollars, would be needed to verify that the target spore size had been consistently achieved. The presence of the anti-clumping additive silicon dioxide in the anthrax samples also suggests a high degree of sophistication as specialists working at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory were unable to duplicate this property despite 56 attempts. While not outright rejecting the theory of Ivins' involvement, Senator Leahy said that "if he is the one who sent the letter, I do not believe in any way, shape or manner that he is the only person involved in this attack on Congress and the American people. I do not believe that at all." On August 6, 2008, the FBI released a collection of emails written by Ivins. In some, Ivins describes episodes of depression, anxiety , and paranoia for which he was medicated; these are referenced in the summary of the case against Ivins. A psychiatrist engaged by The New York Times to analyze the released documents found evidence of psychoses , but could not rule out the possibility that Ivins was feigning or exaggerating mental illness for purposes of attention or sympathy. A United States government investigative panel, called the Expert Behavioral Analysis Panel, issued a report in March 2011 which detailed more of Ivins' mental health issues. According to the panel's report, the Army did not examine Ivins' background adequately before clearing him to work with anthrax, and such clearance should not have been given. The report endorses the government's implication of Ivins: circumstantial evidence from Ivins' psychiatric history supported the conclusion that Ivins was the anthrax killer. Social worker Jean C. Duley applied for a protective order , writing that Ivins had stalked and threatened to kill her and had a long history of homicidal threats. Duley stated that she had treated Ivins for six months, after which she said he threatened to "go out in a blaze of glory". When she forwarded this information to the FBI, she said he left rants on her voicemail that blamed her for his legal issues. Duley had been set to give testimony against Ivins on August 1, 2008. Ivins, however, had no criminal record, whereas Duley had a history of convictions for driving under the influence and charges of battery of her ex-husband. The charges forced her to quit her job, and attorney costs used up her savings, according to her fiancé. In a 1999 newspaper interview, Duley described herself as a former motorcycle gang member and drug user: "Heroin. Cocaine. PCP. You name it, I did it." According to an article originally appearing in the Frederick News-Post on August 12, 2009, Duley was under house arrest when she recorded Ivins' allegedly threatening messages. The News-Post also made available a recording of the allegedly threatening calls. The newspaper characterized the messages as not being threatening but instead "the sad ramblings of a broken man who felt betrayed". In her July 2008 restraining order, Duley alleged that Ivins had a history of threats. She further alleged a "detailed homicidal plan" to kill his co-workers after learning he was going to be indicted on capital murder charges and stated that, upon hearing of his possible indictment, Ivins had purchased a gun and a bulletproof vest . Ivins was subsequently committed for psychiatric evaluation and his home was raided by federal agents who confiscated ammunition and a bulletproof vest. He was released from his committal on July 24, five days before his death. Henry S. Heine, a microbiologist who was Ivins' fellow researcher at the USAMRIID, told a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) panel on April 22, 2010, that he considered it impossible that Ivins could have produced the anthrax used in the attacks without detection. Heine told the 16-member panel that producing the quantity of spores in the letters would have taken at least a year of intensive work using the equipment at the USAMRIID laboratory. Such an effort would not have escaped colleagues' notice, and laboratory technicians who worked closely with Ivins have told him they saw no such work. Heine also stated that if biological containment measures where Ivins worked were inadequate to prevent the spores from floating out of the laboratory into animal cages and offices, saying "You'd have had dead animals or dead people". Heine said he did not dispute that there was a genetic link between the spores in the letters and the anthrax in Ivins' flask, which led the FBI to conclude that Ivins had grown the spores from a sample taken from the flask. Heine pointed out that samples from the flask were widely shared. Accusing Ivins of the attacks, he said, was like tracing a murder to the clerk at the sporting goods shop who sold the bullets. Asked by reporters after his testimony whether he believed there was any chance that Ivins had carried out the attacks, Heine replied, "Absolutely not." At the USAMRIID, he said, "among the senior scientists, no one believes it." The FBI asked the NAS to review the Bureau's scientific work on the case. A panel was created, chaired by Alice P. Gast , president of Lehigh University . On May 15, 2011, the panel released its findings, which "conclude[d] that the bureau overstated the strength of genetic analysis linking the mailed anthrax to a supply kept by Bruce E. Ivins." Following the release of an NAS report in February 2011, Congressman Rush D. Holt, Jr. (D-NJ), a physicist from whose district the anthrax letters were mailed, re-introduced legislation "to create a 9/11-style Commission , complete with subpoena power, with a mandate to review the entire matter." Senator Chuck Grassley told The Washington Post : "There are no more excuses for avoiding an independent review." Journalist Glenn Greenwald , who was vocal in his criticism of the anthrax investigation, argued that "[o]ther than a desire to avoid finding out who the culprit was (or to avoid having the FBI's case against Ivins subjected to scrutiny), there's no rational reason to oppose an independent investigation into this matter." Paul Kemp, Ivins' attorney, stated that the government's case against Ivins was "not convincing." Justice Department official Dean Boyd stated that Ivins mailed anthrax to NBC in retaliation for an investigation of Ivins' laboratory's work on anthrax conducted by Gary Matsumoto, a former NBC News journalist. At the time, however, Matsumoto was working for ABC, not NBC. Also, Ivins passed a lie detector test in which he was questioned about his possible participation in the anthrax attacks. Boyd responded by saying that the FBI now believes that Ivins used countermeasures to deceive the polygraph examiners. "There are clearly a lot of unanswered questions," said Senator Chuck Grassley, who called for a congressional investigation into the allegations that Ivins was the anthrax killer. Those who argue for Ivins' innocence say that the anthrax used in the attacks was too sophisticated to be produced by a lone researcher without relevant training. Richard O. Spertzel , a microbiologist who led the United Nations' biological weapons inspections of Iraq, wrote that the anthrax used could not have come from the lab where Ivins worked. "In my opinion, there are maybe four or five people in the whole country who might be able to make this stuff, and I'm one of them," said Spertzel, who was also the former deputy commander of USAMRIID. "And even with a good lab and staff to help run it, it might take me a year to come up with a product as good." The spores in the Daschle letter were 1.5 to 3 micrometres across, many times smaller than the finest known grade of anthrax produced by either the U.S. or Soviet bioweapons programs. An electron microscope , which costs hundreds of thousands of dollars, would be needed to verify that the target spore size had been consistently achieved. The presence of the anti-clumping additive silicon dioxide in the anthrax samples also suggests a high degree of sophistication as specialists working at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory were unable to duplicate this property despite 56 attempts. While not outright rejecting the theory of Ivins' involvement, Senator Leahy said that "if he is the one who sent the letter, I do not believe in any way, shape or manner that he is the only person involved in this attack on Congress and the American people. I do not believe that at all." On August 6, 2008, the FBI released a collection of emails written by Ivins. In some, Ivins describes episodes of depression, anxiety , and paranoia for which he was medicated; these are referenced in the summary of the case against Ivins. A psychiatrist engaged by The New York Times to analyze the released documents found evidence of psychoses , but could not rule out the possibility that Ivins was feigning or exaggerating mental illness for purposes of attention or sympathy. A United States government investigative panel, called the Expert Behavioral Analysis Panel, issued a report in March 2011 which detailed more of Ivins' mental health issues. According to the panel's report, the Army did not examine Ivins' background adequately before clearing him to work with anthrax, and such clearance should not have been given. The report endorses the government's implication of Ivins: circumstantial evidence from Ivins' psychiatric history supported the conclusion that Ivins was the anthrax killer. Social worker Jean C. Duley applied for a protective order , writing that Ivins had stalked and threatened to kill her and had a long history of homicidal threats. Duley stated that she had treated Ivins for six months, after which she said he threatened to "go out in a blaze of glory". When she forwarded this information to the FBI, she said he left rants on her voicemail that blamed her for his legal issues. Duley had been set to give testimony against Ivins on August 1, 2008. Ivins, however, had no criminal record, whereas Duley had a history of convictions for driving under the influence and charges of battery of her ex-husband. The charges forced her to quit her job, and attorney costs used up her savings, according to her fiancé. In a 1999 newspaper interview, Duley described herself as a former motorcycle gang member and drug user: "Heroin. Cocaine. PCP. You name it, I did it." According to an article originally appearing in the Frederick News-Post on August 12, 2009, Duley was under house arrest when she recorded Ivins' allegedly threatening messages. The News-Post also made available a recording of the allegedly threatening calls. The newspaper characterized the messages as not being threatening but instead "the sad ramblings of a broken man who felt betrayed". In her July 2008 restraining order, Duley alleged that Ivins had a history of threats. She further alleged a "detailed homicidal plan" to kill his co-workers after learning he was going to be indicted on capital murder charges and stated that, upon hearing of his possible indictment, Ivins had purchased a gun and a bulletproof vest . Ivins was subsequently committed for psychiatric evaluation and his home was raided by federal agents who confiscated ammunition and a bulletproof vest. He was released from his committal on July 24, five days before his death.Henry S. Heine, a microbiologist who was Ivins' fellow researcher at the USAMRIID, told a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) panel on April 22, 2010, that he considered it impossible that Ivins could have produced the anthrax used in the attacks without detection. Heine told the 16-member panel that producing the quantity of spores in the letters would have taken at least a year of intensive work using the equipment at the USAMRIID laboratory. Such an effort would not have escaped colleagues' notice, and laboratory technicians who worked closely with Ivins have told him they saw no such work. Heine also stated that if biological containment measures where Ivins worked were inadequate to prevent the spores from floating out of the laboratory into animal cages and offices, saying "You'd have had dead animals or dead people". Heine said he did not dispute that there was a genetic link between the spores in the letters and the anthrax in Ivins' flask, which led the FBI to conclude that Ivins had grown the spores from a sample taken from the flask. Heine pointed out that samples from the flask were widely shared. Accusing Ivins of the attacks, he said, was like tracing a murder to the clerk at the sporting goods shop who sold the bullets. Asked by reporters after his testimony whether he believed there was any chance that Ivins had carried out the attacks, Heine replied, "Absolutely not." At the USAMRIID, he said, "among the senior scientists, no one believes it." The FBI asked the NAS to review the Bureau's scientific work on the case. A panel was created, chaired by Alice P. Gast , president of Lehigh University . On May 15, 2011, the panel released its findings, which "conclude[d] that the bureau overstated the strength of genetic analysis linking the mailed anthrax to a supply kept by Bruce E. Ivins." Following the release of an NAS report in February 2011, Congressman Rush D. Holt, Jr. (D-NJ), a physicist from whose district the anthrax letters were mailed, re-introduced legislation "to create a 9/11-style Commission , complete with subpoena power, with a mandate to review the entire matter." Senator Chuck Grassley told The Washington Post : "There are no more excuses for avoiding an independent review." Journalist Glenn Greenwald , who was vocal in his criticism of the anthrax investigation, argued that "[o]ther than a desire to avoid finding out who the culprit was (or to avoid having the FBI's case against Ivins subjected to scrutiny), there's no rational reason to oppose an independent investigation into this matter." Ivins was a Roman Catholic . The News-Post made public several letters to the editor written by Ivins dealing with his religious views. These were cited in the Department of Justice summary of the case against Ivins as suggesting that he may have harbored a grudge against pro-choice Catholic senators Daschle and Leahy, recipients of anthrax mailings. In a letter, Ivins stated, "By blood and faith, Jews are God's chosen, and have no need for 'dialogue' with any gentile ." Ivins praised a rabbi for refusing a dialogue with a Muslim cleric. Ivins' pastimes included playing keyboard at his local church, Saint John the Evangelist; he was a member of the American Red Cross ; he was an avid juggler and founder of the Frederick Jugglers. Ivins played keyboards in a Celtic band and would often compose and play songs for coworkers who were moving to new jobs. According to multiple former colleagues and acquaintances, as well as FBI investigators, Ivins maintained a decades-long obsession with college sororities , particularly Kappa Kappa Gamma (KKG), and with particular women. Ivins' attorney, Paul Kemp, described this fixation as dating back to Ivins' time as a college student at the University of Cincinnati , when he was rebuffed by a member of Kappa Kappa Gamma. But according to Dr. Rick Sams, a pharmacologist and former school friend, Ivins had described feelings of resentment toward women stemming from his high school years. During the 2001 anthrax investigations, FBI investigators learned (in part from information provided by Ivins himself) that after college, Ivins had made uninvited visits to Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority houses at multiple universities, including the University of North Carolina, the University of Maryland, and West Virginia University, and had once stolen a sorority chapter's ritual book and cipher device. In more recent years, he made extensive online posts about Kappa Kappa Gamma using various pseudonymous handles, including edits to Wikipedia on the topic. Dr. Nancy Haigwood , the director of the Oregon National Primate Research Center and a Kappa Kappa Gamma member who was a colleague of Ivins at the University of North Carolina when he was a post-doctoral fellow, later recounted to the New York Times a series of intrusive and unsettling interactions with Ivins in the late 1970s and 80s, claiming that "he damaged my property, he impersonated me and he stalked me". A United States government investigative panel, called the Expert Behavioral Analysis Panel, issued a report in March 2011 which described in more detail Ivins' obsession with the sorority and his alleged violations of Haigwood, which including stealing a notebook documenting her doctoral research and vandalizing her residence. Such behavior does not appear to have been anomalous for Ivins, who himself admitted to FBI investigators that he once drove through the night to Ithaca, New York , to leave gifts for a young woman who had left her job in his laboratory to attend Cornell University . Authorities investigating the anthrax attacks found anthrax spores in a postal drop box located at 10 Nassau Street in Princeton, New Jersey , 300 feet (91 m) from a storage facility where the Princeton University chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma kept rush paraphernalia, initiation robes, and other property as of 2001. However, no evidence was found to place Ivins in Princeton on the day the letters were mailed. Katherine Breckinridge Graham, an advisor to KKG's Princeton chapter, stated that there was nothing to indicate that any of the sorority members had anything to do with Ivins. Ivins was a Roman Catholic . The News-Post made public several letters to the editor written by Ivins dealing with his religious views. These were cited in the Department of Justice summary of the case against Ivins as suggesting that he may have harbored a grudge against pro-choice Catholic senators Daschle and Leahy, recipients of anthrax mailings. In a letter, Ivins stated, "By blood and faith, Jews are God's chosen, and have no need for 'dialogue' with any gentile ." Ivins praised a rabbi for refusing a dialogue with a Muslim cleric. Ivins' pastimes included playing keyboard at his local church, Saint John the Evangelist; he was a member of the American Red Cross ; he was an avid juggler and founder of the Frederick Jugglers. Ivins played keyboards in a Celtic band and would often compose and play songs for coworkers who were moving to new jobs. According to multiple former colleagues and acquaintances, as well as FBI investigators, Ivins maintained a decades-long obsession with college sororities , particularly Kappa Kappa Gamma (KKG), and with particular women. Ivins' attorney, Paul Kemp, described this fixation as dating back to Ivins' time as a college student at the University of Cincinnati , when he was rebuffed by a member of Kappa Kappa Gamma. But according to Dr. Rick Sams, a pharmacologist and former school friend, Ivins had described feelings of resentment toward women stemming from his high school years. During the 2001 anthrax investigations, FBI investigators learned (in part from information provided by Ivins himself) that after college, Ivins had made uninvited visits to Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority houses at multiple universities, including the University of North Carolina, the University of Maryland, and West Virginia University, and had once stolen a sorority chapter's ritual book and cipher device. In more recent years, he made extensive online posts about Kappa Kappa Gamma using various pseudonymous handles, including edits to Wikipedia on the topic. Dr. Nancy Haigwood , the director of the Oregon National Primate Research Center and a Kappa Kappa Gamma member who was a colleague of Ivins at the University of North Carolina when he was a post-doctoral fellow, later recounted to the New York Times a series of intrusive and unsettling interactions with Ivins in the late 1970s and 80s, claiming that "he damaged my property, he impersonated me and he stalked me". A United States government investigative panel, called the Expert Behavioral Analysis Panel, issued a report in March 2011 which described in more detail Ivins' obsession with the sorority and his alleged violations of Haigwood, which including stealing a notebook documenting her doctoral research and vandalizing her residence. Such behavior does not appear to have been anomalous for Ivins, who himself admitted to FBI investigators that he once drove through the night to Ithaca, New York , to leave gifts for a young woman who had left her job in his laboratory to attend Cornell University . Authorities investigating the anthrax attacks found anthrax spores in a postal drop box located at 10 Nassau Street in Princeton, New Jersey , 300 feet (91 m) from a storage facility where the Princeton University chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma kept rush paraphernalia, initiation robes, and other property as of 2001. However, no evidence was found to place Ivins in Princeton on the day the letters were mailed. Katherine Breckinridge Graham, an advisor to KKG's Princeton chapter, stated that there was nothing to indicate that any of the sorority members had anything to do with Ivins. In 2011, journalist David Willman 's book on Ivins, The Mirage Man: Bruce Ivins, the Anthrax Attacks, and America's Rush to War , was published. The book details Ivins' troubled history and mental problems. The 2001 anthrax attack was featured in the TV series The Hot Zone . Ivins was played by actor Tony Goldwyn . The 2022 Netflix documentary, The Anthrax Attacks: In the Shadow of 9/11 , features Bruce Ivins prominently and shows him portrayed by actor Clark Gregg in re-enactments.

Wiki

Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Anthrax_Island/html

Anthrax Island

Anthrax Island may refer to one of three sites for hazardous biological disease testing:

Wiki

Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Bring_the_Noise/html

Bring the Noise

" Bring the Noise " is a song by the American hip hop group Public Enemy . It was included on the soundtrack of the 1987 film Less than Zero ; the song was also released as a single that year. It later became the first song on the group's 1988 album, It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back . The single reached No. 56 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The song's lyrics , most of which are delivered by Chuck D with interjections from Flavor Flav , include boasts of Public Enemy's prowess, an endorsement of Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan , retorts to unspecified critics , and arguments for rap as a legitimate musical genre on par with rock . The lyrics also have a notable metrical complexity, making extensive use of meters like dactylic hexameter . The title phrase appears in the chorus. The song includes several shout-outs to fellow hip hop artists like Run-D.M.C. , Eric B , LL Cool J and, unusually for a rap group, Yoko Ono , Sonny Bono and thrash metal band Anthrax , allegedly because Chuck D was flattered about Scott Ian wearing Public Enemy shirts while performing Anthrax gigs. Anthrax later collaborated with Chuck D to cover the song. The song's production by The Bomb Squad , which exemplifies their characteristic style, features a dissonant mixture of funk samples , drum machine patterns, record scratching by DJ Terminator X , siren sound effects and other industrial noise. Critic Robert Christgau has described the song as "postminimal rap refracted through Blood Ulmer and On the Corner , as gripping as it is abrasive, and the black militant dialogue-as-diatribe that goes with it is almost as scary as " Stones in My Passway " or " Holidays in the Sun ". "Bring the Noise" was ranked No. 160 on Rolling Stone ' s list of the 500 greatest songs of all time .The recording begins with a sample of Malcolm X 's voice saying "Too black, too strong" repeatedly from his public speech at the Northern Negro Grass Roots Leadership Conference on November 10, 1963, in King Solomon Baptist Church in Detroit, Michigan entitled Message to the Grass Roots . "Much More" by De La Soul , "Here We Go Again!" by Portrait , "I Know" by Seo Taiji & Boys "Everything I Am" by Kanye West , and "Here We Go Again" by Everclear all sample Chuck D's voice saying "Here we go again" in "Bring the Noise". His exclamation "Now they got me in a cell" from the first verse of the song is also sampled in the Beastie Boys song " Egg Man ". The track, 'Undisputed', from the 1999 album Rave Un2 The Joy Fantastic by Prince samples Chuck D's voice saying "Once again, back, it's the incredible" in its chorus and also features an appearance from Chuck D himself. This same sample is used in on Fat Joe's album All or Nothing on the track "Safe 2 Say (The Incredible)". Rakim , on his 1997 single "Guess Who's Back", uses the same sample. Also, the game Sonic Rush samples the beginning of "Bring the Noise" in the music for the final boss battle. In addition, Ludacris ' hit " How Low " samples Chuck D's "How low can you go?" line. In 2010, it was sampled by Adil Omar and DJ Solo of Soul Assassins on their single "Incredible". LL Cool J used a sample on the line of Chuck D's "I Want Bass" during the final verse on the song, " The Boomin' System " from the 1990s Mama Said Knock You Out album. Also, the lines "[To save] face, how low can you go" and "[So keep] pace how slow can you go" in Linkin Park 's song "Wretches and Kings" on their album, A Thousand Suns (which is also produced by Rick Rubin ) refer to Chuck D's line: "Bass! How low can you go?" Additionally, Public Enemy sampled the song themselves in several other songs on It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , including the lines "Now they got me in a cell" and "Death Row/What a brother knows" in " Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos " and the lines "Bass!" and "How low can you go?" in " Night of the Living Baseheads "."Much More" by De La Soul , "Here We Go Again!" by Portrait , "I Know" by Seo Taiji & Boys "Everything I Am" by Kanye West , and "Here We Go Again" by Everclear all sample Chuck D's voice saying "Here we go again" in "Bring the Noise". His exclamation "Now they got me in a cell" from the first verse of the song is also sampled in the Beastie Boys song " Egg Man ". The track, 'Undisputed', from the 1999 album Rave Un2 The Joy Fantastic by Prince samples Chuck D's voice saying "Once again, back, it's the incredible" in its chorus and also features an appearance from Chuck D himself. This same sample is used in on Fat Joe's album All or Nothing on the track "Safe 2 Say (The Incredible)". Rakim , on his 1997 single "Guess Who's Back", uses the same sample. Also, the game Sonic Rush samples the beginning of "Bring the Noise" in the music for the final boss battle. In addition, Ludacris ' hit " How Low " samples Chuck D's "How low can you go?" line. In 2010, it was sampled by Adil Omar and DJ Solo of Soul Assassins on their single "Incredible". LL Cool J used a sample on the line of Chuck D's "I Want Bass" during the final verse on the song, " The Boomin' System " from the 1990s Mama Said Knock You Out album. Also, the lines "[To save] face, how low can you go" and "[So keep] pace how slow can you go" in Linkin Park 's song "Wretches and Kings" on their album, A Thousand Suns (which is also produced by Rick Rubin ) refer to Chuck D's line: "Bass! How low can you go?" Additionally, Public Enemy sampled the song themselves in several other songs on It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , including the lines "Now they got me in a cell" and "Death Row/What a brother knows" in " Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos " and the lines "Bass!" and "How low can you go?" in " Night of the Living Baseheads "."Keep It in the Family" (live) " I'm the Man '91 " Thrash metal band Anthrax recorded a version of "Bring the Noise", which sampled the vocals from the original Public Enemy recording. Chuck D has stated that upon the initial request of Anthrax, he "didn't take them wholehearted seriously", but after the collaboration was done, "it made too much sense", and it was eventually included on both the Anthrax compilation Attack of the Killer B's and as the final track on Public Enemy's own Apocalypse 91... The Enemy Strikes Black album. The song's release was followed by a joint-tour featuring the two groups, with shows ending with both groups on stage performing the song together. Chuck D went on to say that shows on the tour were "some of the hardest" they ever experienced, and that at the start of the tour, Anthrax "commenced to destroy, slaughter and wipe the fuckin' stage" with Public Enemy as the opener, forcing the group to not only up the intensity of their set, but to innovate by having a dedicated light board operator - a first in hiphop. According to Chuck D, the show intensities eventually began to even out, and when the two bands joined on stage for "Bring the Noise", "it was shrapnel". Anthrax first played "Bring the Noise" live in 1989, two years before the Public Enemy collaboration was released, and it has been a live staple ever since. The recording was ranked No. 12 on VH1 's 2006 list of the 40 Greatest Metal Songs and is featured in the video games Die Hard Trilogy , WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW , WWE WrestleMania 21 , WWE Day of Reckoning , Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 , Tony Hawk's Pro Skater HD , Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2 and Rock Band 4 as DLC. The title of the Anthrax version is sometimes spelled " Bring tha Noise " or " Bring tha Noize ". "Bring the Noise" – 3:34 "Keep It in the Family" (live) – 7:19 "I'm the Man '91" – 5:56"Bring the Noise" – 3:34 "Keep It in the Family" (live) – 7:19 "I'm the Man '91" – 5:56In 2007, "Bring the Noise" was remixed by Italian house DJ Benny Benassi as well as Ferry Corsten . Benassi's remix slowed the track down, and cut off many of the lyrics. Benassi mixed two versions of the song. The Pump-kin version exemplifies a heavy melody, while the S-faction edit added more emphasis to the bassline. The S-faction version won a Grammy Award for best remixed recording at the 2008 Grammy Awards . The Pump-kin remix appeared on his album Rock 'n' Rave (2008). The song was also used for the EA Sports game, NBA Live 09 . Ferry Corsten only mixed one version which was released around the same time as Benny Benassi's remixes, it was released on February 26, 2008 on iTunes . In 2007, Gigi D'Agostino also released a track called "Quoting", which is a remix made by him of "Bring the Noise". He made it in the bass line of Lento Violento a style created by him, similar to hard style but slower and harder. "Bring the Noise" (Pump-kin edit) – 3:37 "Bring the Noise" (S-faction edit) – 3:32 "Bring the Noise" (Pump-kin remix) – 6:38 "Bring the Noise" (S-faction remix) – 6:57 "Bring the Noise" (Pump-kin instrumental) – 6:38 "Bring the Noise" (S-faction instrumental) – 6:57 "Bring the Noise" (radio edit) "Bring the Noise" (extended mix) "Lento Violento Man" – Quoting"Bring the Noise" (Pump-kin edit) – 3:37 "Bring the Noise" (S-faction edit) – 3:32 "Bring the Noise" (Pump-kin remix) – 6:38 "Bring the Noise" (S-faction remix) – 6:57 "Bring the Noise" (Pump-kin instrumental) – 6:38 "Bring the Noise" (S-faction instrumental) – 6:57"Bring the Noise" (radio edit) "Bring the Noise" (extended mix)"Lento Violento Man" – QuotingThe alternative metal band Staind covered "Bring the Noise" with Limp Bizkit vocalist Fred Durst on the Take a Bite Outta Rhyme: A Rock Tribute to Rap 2000 compilation album . This version also appeared on the advance version of their 1999 album Dysfunction . A remix of "Bring the Noise" titled "Bring the Noise 20XX", featuring Zakk Wylde , is a playable track in the video games Guitar Hero 5 and DJ Hero . A traditional country version by Unholy Trio is included on the Bloodshot Records sampler "Down to the Promised Land". An unofficial remix entitled "Bring DA Noise", (based on Led Zeppelin's – "Immigrant Song") was released for free download in 2005 by Irish radio presenter DJ Laz-e. The 2012 video game Yakuza 5 features a track titled "Skankfunk - Vendor Pop", which samples the ending of the Anthrax version of "Bring The Noise", which plays during one of Tatsuo Shinada's substories titled "Shinada's Interview."

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Anthrax

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Gruinard Island

Gruinard Island ( / ˈ ɡ r ɪ n j ər d / GRIN -yərd ; Scottish Gaelic : Eilean Ghruinneard ) is a small, oval-shaped Scottish island approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 miles) long by 1 km ( 5 ⁄ 8 mi) wide, located in Gruinard Bay , about halfway between Gairloch and Ullapool . At its closest point to the mainland, it is about 1 km ( 5 ⁄ 8 mi) offshore. In 1942, the island became a sacrifice zone , and was dangerous for all mammals after military experiments with the anthrax bacterium, until it was decontaminated in 1990.The island was mentioned by Dean Munro who travelled the area in the mid-16th century. He wrote that it was Clan MacKenzie territory, "full of woods" (it is treeless today), and that it was " guid for fostering of thieves and rebellis " (good for fostering thieves and rebels). Historically, the counties of Ross-shire and Cromartyshire have both laid claim to Gruinard Island due to the position of the island in between Gairloch and Ullapool . In the late 1780's, the villages became substantial fishing and sheep farming communities leading Gruinard Island to be utilized as an area of land for grazing sheep or as a small dock for fishing. By 1881, the population on the island was 6, soon becoming uninhabited with no record detailing any established population. In 1926, Rosalynd Maitland purchased the Eilean Darach estate which included Gruinard Island. Rosalynd Maitland bequeathed the island to her niece Molly Dunphie who was friends with Winston Churchill . In 1942, during World War II , a biological warfare test was carried out on Gruinard by scientists from the Biology Department of Porton Down . The test was conducted as part of Operation Vegetarian , an ultimately unused plan which called for the dispersal of linseed cakes spiked with anthrax across the German countryside. It was recognised that tests would cause long-lasting contamination of the immediate area by anthrax spores, so a remote and uninhabited island was required. Gruinard was surveyed, deemed suitable, and requisitioned from its owners by the British government . Porton Down meteorologist Sir Oliver Graham Sutton was put in charge of a fifty-man team to conduct the trial, with David Willis Wilson Henderson in charge of the germ bomb. Biology Department head Paul Fildes made frequent visits. The anthrax strain chosen was a highly virulent type called " Vollum 14578 ", named after R. L. Vollum, Professor of Bacteriology at the University of Oxford , who supplied it. Eighty sheep were taken to the island and bombs filled with anthrax spores were detonated close to where selected groups were tethered. The sheep became infected with anthrax and began to die within days of exposure. Some of the experiments were recorded on 16 mm colour movie film, which was declassified in 1997. One sequence shows the detonation of an anthrax bomb fixed at the end of a tall pole supported with guy ropes . After the bomb explodes, a brownish aerosol cloud drifts away towards the target animals. A later sequence shows anthrax-infected sheep carcasses being burned in incinerators at the end of the experiment. After the tests were completed, scientists concluded that a large release of anthrax spores would thoroughly pollute German cities, rendering them uninhabitable for decades afterwards. Those conclusions were supported by the inability to decontaminate the island after the experiment—the spores were sufficiently durable to resist any efforts at decontamination. In 1945, when the island's owner sought its return, the Ministry of Supply recognised that the island was contaminated, and so could not be de-requisitioned until it was deemed safe. In 1946, the government agreed to acquire the island and to take responsibility for it. The owner or their heirs would be able to repurchase the island for £500 when it was declared "fit for habitation by man and beast". For many years, it was judged too hazardous and expensive to decontaminate the island sufficiently to allow public access, and Gruinard Island was quarantined indefinitely. Visits to the island were prohibited, except for periodic checks by Porton Down personnel to determine the level of contamination. In 1981 newspapers began receiving messages with the heading " Operation Dark Harvest " which demanded that the government decontaminate the island, and reported that a "team of microbiologists from two universities" had landed on the island with the aid of local people and collected 300 pounds (140 kilograms) of soil. The group threatened to leave samples of the soil "at appropriate points that will ensure the rapid loss of indifference of the government and the equally rapid education of the general public". The same day a sealed package of soil was left outside the military research facility at Porton Down ; tests revealed that it contained anthrax bacilli. A few days later another sealed package of soil was left in Blackpool , where the governing Conservative Party was holding its annual conference. The soil did not contain anthrax, but officials said that the soil was similar to that found on the island. Starting in 1986 a determined effort was made to decontaminate Gruinard Island, 280 tonnes of formaldehyde solution diluted in sea water was sprayed over all 485 acres (196 hectares) of the island and the worst-contaminated topsoil around the dispersal site was removed. Run-off from the formaldehyde seeped into the ocean and slowly led to the destruction of intertidal organisms such as barnacles, crustaceans, and seaweed. By 2000, research into intertidal organisms recovery launched and is still ongoing; however, researchers from that survey project in 2007 have said that "recolonization is ongoing, rather than complete." A flock of sheep was placed on the island not long after the cleanup in 1987 and remained healthy. On 24 April 1990, after 48 years of quarantine and four years after the solution was applied, junior defence minister Michael Neubert visited the island and announced its safety by removing the warning signs. On 1 May 1990, the island was repurchased by the heirs of the original owner for the original sale price of £500. There was some confusion in which members of the public did not know it was being resold solely to its original owners and people from around the world sent letters to the British government asking to purchase the island for £500. On 26 March 2022, the island was burned "from one end to the other" by a wildfire . Eyewitnesses described the scene as "apocalyptic". The cause of the wildfire has not been confirmed but around 200 hectares have been destroyed by the fire. A spokeswoman on behalf of the Gruinard estate did not explicitly state the cause of the fire only that "It hasn't caused any damage. It has done good." Local speculation believes the fire was set as an act of muirburn, a Scottish term when native moorland is burned to provide fresh growth for game and livestock.

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Anthrax

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Robert Koch

Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch ( English: / k ɒ x / KOKH , German: [ ˈʁoːbɛʁt ˈkɔx ] ⓘ ; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician and microbiologist . As the discoverer of the specific causative agents of deadly infectious diseases including tuberculosis , cholera and anthrax , he is regarded as one of the main founders of modern bacteriology . As such he is popularly nicknamed the father of microbiology (with Louis Pasteur ), and as the father of medical bacteriology. His discovery of the anthrax bacterium ( Bacillus anthracis ) in 1876 is considered as the birth of modern bacteriology. Koch used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease" and directly provided proofs for the germ theory of diseases , therefore creating the scientific basis of public health , saving millions of lives. For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine. While working as a private physician, Koch developed many innovative techniques in microbiology. He was the first to use the oil immersion lens , condenser , and microphotography in microscopy. His invention of the bacterial culture method using agar and glass plates (later developed as the Petri dish by his assistant Julius Richard Petri ) made him the first to grow bacteria in the laboratory. In appreciation of his work, he was appointed to government advisor at the Imperial Health Office in 1880, promoted to a senior executive position ( Geheimer Regierungsrat ) in 1882, Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine at Berlin University in 1885, and the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (later renamed Robert Koch Institute after his death) in 1891. The methods Koch used in bacteriology led to establishment of a medical concept known as Koch's postulates , four generalized medical principles to ascertain the relationship of pathogens with specific diseases. The concept is still in use in most situations and influences subsequent epidemiological principles such as the Bradford Hill criteria . A major controversy followed when Koch discovered tuberculin as a medication for tuberculosis which was proven to be ineffective, but developed for diagnosis of tuberculosis after his death. For his research on tuberculosis, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905. The day he announced the discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, 24 March 1882, has been observed by the World Health Organization as " World Tuberculosis Day " every year since 1982.Koch was born in Clausthal, Germany , on 11 December 1843, to Hermann Koch (1814–1877) and Mathilde Julie Henriette (née Biewend; 1818–1871). His father was a mining engineer. He was the third of thirteen siblings. He excelled academically from an early age. Before entering school in 1848, he had taught himself how to read and write. He completed secondary education in 1862, having excelled in science and math. At the age of 19, in 1862, Koch entered the University of Göttingen to study natural science. He took up mathematics, physics and botany. He was appointed assistant in the university's Pathological Museum. After three semesters, he decided to change his area of study to medicine, as he aspired to be a physician. During his fifth semester at the medical school, Jacob Henle , an anatomist who had published a theory of contagion in 1840, asked him to participate in his research project on uterine nerve structure. This research won him a research prize from the university and enabled him to briefly study under Rudolf Virchow , who was at the time considered as "Germany's most renowned physician." In his sixth semester, Koch began to research at the Physiological Institute, where he studied the secretion of succinic acid , which is a signaling molecule that is also involved in the metabolism of the mitochondria . This would eventually form the basis of his dissertation. In January 1866, he graduated from the medical school, earning honours of the highest distinction, maxima cum laude . Robert Koch is widely known for his work with anthrax , discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be Bacillus anthracis . After officially becoming a district physician in Wollstein (today's Wolsztyn), Poland, in 1872, Robert began to delve into the disease called Anthrax. Near Wollstein, anthrax disease was regularly taking the lives of humans and livestock without evidence explaining why. Eventually, in 1876, Koch was able to make an incredible discovery that anthrax was triggered by one singular pathogen. Koch's discovery of the dormant stage, the anthrax spores, allowed him to successfully unravel the mystery behind the anthrax disease. By gaining a better understanding of this pathogen, he was able to shed light on the bacterium's remarkable resistance against environmental factors ("Robert Koch – Nobel Lecture" 2018). This groundbreaking achievement marked Koch as the pioneer scientist to discover that a microscopic organism was causing a disease to spread. His findings were especially impressive as they were done in a poorly equipped laboratory in Wollstein. He published the discovery in a booklet as " Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis " ( The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis ) in 1876 while working at in Wöllstein. His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium marked the first photography of a bacterium. He discovered the formation of spores in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions. However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease. To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope. His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of spontaneous generation and supporting the germ theory of disease . Robert Koch is widely known for his work with anthrax , discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be Bacillus anthracis . After officially becoming a district physician in Wollstein (today's Wolsztyn), Poland, in 1872, Robert began to delve into the disease called Anthrax. Near Wollstein, anthrax disease was regularly taking the lives of humans and livestock without evidence explaining why. Eventually, in 1876, Koch was able to make an incredible discovery that anthrax was triggered by one singular pathogen. Koch's discovery of the dormant stage, the anthrax spores, allowed him to successfully unravel the mystery behind the anthrax disease. By gaining a better understanding of this pathogen, he was able to shed light on the bacterium's remarkable resistance against environmental factors ("Robert Koch – Nobel Lecture" 2018). This groundbreaking achievement marked Koch as the pioneer scientist to discover that a microscopic organism was causing a disease to spread. His findings were especially impressive as they were done in a poorly equipped laboratory in Wollstein. He published the discovery in a booklet as " Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis " ( The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis ) in 1876 while working at in Wöllstein. His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium marked the first photography of a bacterium. He discovered the formation of spores in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions. However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease. To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope. His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of spontaneous generation and supporting the germ theory of disease . After graduation in 1866, Koch briefly worked as an assistant in the General Hospital of Hamburg. In October that year he moved to Idiot's Hospital of Langenhagen, near Hanover, as a general physician. In 1868, he moved to Neimegk and then to Rakwitz in 1869. As the Franco-Prussian War started in 1870, he enlisted in the German army as a volunteer surgeon in 1871 to support the war effort. He was discharged a year later and was appointed as a district physician ( Kreisphysikus ) in Wollstein in Prussian Posen (now Wolsztyn , Poland). As his family settled there, his wife gave him a microscope as a birthday gift. With the microscope, he set up a private laboratory and started his career in microbiology. Koch began conducting research on microorganisms in a laboratory connected to his patient examination room. His early research in this laboratory yielded one of his major contributions to the field of microbiology, as he developed the technique of growing bacteria. Furthermore, he managed to isolate and grow selected pathogens in a pure laboratory culture . His discovery of the anthrax bacillus (later named Bacillus anthracis ) hugely impressed Ferdinand Julius Cohn , professor at the University of Breslau (now the University of Wrocław ), who helped him publish the discovery in 1876. Cohn had established the Institute of Plant Physiology and invited Koch to demonstrate his new bacterium there in 1877. Koch was transferred to Breslau as district physician in 1879. A year after, he left for Berlin when he was appointed a government advisor at the Imperial Health Office, where he worked from 1880 to 1885. Following his discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, he was promoted to Geheimer Regierungsrat , a senior executive position, in June 1882. In 1885, Koch received two appointments as an administrator and professor at Berlin University . He became Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine. In 1891, he relinquished his professorship and became a director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (now the Robert Koch Institute ) which consisted of a clinical division and beds for the division of clinical research. For this he accepted harsh conditions. The Prussian Ministry of Health insisted after the 1890 scandal with tuberculin , which Koch had discovered and intended as a remedy for tuberculosis, that any of Koch's inventions would unconditionally belong to the government and he would not be compensated. Koch lost the right to apply for patent protection. In 1906, he moved to East Africa to research a cure for trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). He established the Bugula research camp where up to 1000 people a day were treated with the experimental drug Atoxyl . Robert Koch made two important developments in microscopy; he was the first to use an oil immersion lens and a condenser that enabled smaller objects to be seen. In addition, he was also the first to effectively use photography ( microphotography ) for microscopic observation. He introduced the "bedrock methods" of bacterial staining using methylene blue and Bismarck (Vesuvin) brown dye . In an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as potato slices. Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical, pure cells. He found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with gelatin . However, he soon realized that gelatin, like potato slices, was not the optimal medium for bacterial growth, as it did not remain solid at 37 °C, the ideal temperature for growth of most human pathogens. And also many bacteria can hydrolyze gelatin making it a liquid. As suggested to him by his post-doctoral assistant Walther Hesse , who got the idea from his wife Fanny Hesse , in 1881, Koch started using agar to grow and isolate pure cultures. Agar is a polysaccharide that remains solid at 37 °C, is not degraded by most bacteria, and results in a stable transparent medium. Koch's booklet published in 1881 titled " Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen " ( Methods for the Study of Pathogenic Organisms ) has been known as the "Bible of Bacteriology." In it he described a novel method of using glass slide with agar to grow bacteria. The method involved pouring a liquid agar on to the glass slide and then spreading a thin layer of gelatin over. The gelatin made the culture medium solidify, in which bacterial samples could be spread uniformly. The whole bacterial culture was then put in a glass plate together with a small wet paper. Koch named this container as feuchte Kammer (moist chamber). The typical chamber was a circular glass dish 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height and had a lid to prevent contamination. The glass plate and the transparent culture media made observation of the bacterial growth easy. Koch publicly demonstrated his plating method at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881. There, Louis Pasteur exclaimed, "C'est un grand progrès, Monsieur !" ("What a great progress, Sir!") It was using Koch's microscopy and agar-plate culture method that his students discovered new bacteria. Friedrich Loeffler discovered the bacteria of glanders ( Burkholderia mallei ) in 1882 and diphtheria ( Corynebacterium diphtheriae ) in 1884; and Georg Theodor August Gaffky , the bacterium of typhoid ( Salmonella enterica ) in 1884. Koch's assistant Julius Richard Petri developed an improved method and published it in 1887 as " Eine kleine Modification des Koch'schen Plattenverfahrens " (A minor modification of the plating technique of Koch). The culture plate was given an eponymous name Petri dish . It is often asserted that Petri developed a new culture plate, but this was not so. He simply discarded the use of glass plate and instead used the circular glass dish directly, not just as moist chamber, but as the main culture container. This further reduced chances of contaminations. It would also have been appropriate if the name "Koch dish" had been given. During his time as the government advisor with the Imperial Health Agency in Berlin in the 1880s, Koch became interested in tuberculosis research. At the time, it was widely believed that tuberculosis was an inherited disease. However Koch was convinced that the disease was caused by a bacterium and was infectious. In 1882, he published his findings on tuberculosis, in which he reported the causative agent of the disease to be the slow-growing Mycobacterium tuberculosis . He published the discovery as " Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose " ( The Etiology of Tuberculosis ), and presented before the German Physiological Society at Berlin on 24 March 1882. Koch said, When the cover-glasses were exposed to this staining fluid [methylene blue mixed with potassium hydroxide ] for 24 hours, very fine rod-like forms became apparent in the tubercular mass for the first time, having, as further observations showed, the power of multiplication and of spore formation and hence belonging to the same group of organisms as the anthrax bacillus... Microscopic examination then showed that only the previously blue-stained cell nuclei and detritus became brown, while the tubercle bacilli remained a beautiful blue. There was no particular reaction to this announcement. Eminent scientists such as Rudolf Virchow remained skeptical. Virchow clung to his theory that all diseases are due to faulty cellular activities. On the other hand, Paul Ehrlich later recollected that this moment was his "single greatest scientific experience." Koch expanded the report and published under the same title as a booklet in 1884, in which he concluded that the discovery of tuberculosis bacterium fulfilled the three principles, eventually known as Koch's postulates , which were formulated by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler in 1883, saying: All these factors together allow me to conclude that the bacilli present in the tuberculous lesions do not only accompany tuberculosis, but rather cause it. These bacilli are the true agents of tuberculosis. In August 1883, the German government sent a medical team led by Koch to Alexandria, Egypt , to investigate a cholera epidemic there. Koch soon found that the intestinal mucosa of people who died of cholera always had bacterial infection, yet could not confirm whether the bacteria were the causative pathogens. As the outbreak in Egypt declined, he was transferred to Calcutta (now Kolkata ) India, where there was a more severe outbreak. He soon found that the river Ganges was the source of cholera. He performed autopsies of almost 100 bodies, and found in each bacterial infection. He identified the same bacteria from water tanks, linking the source of the infection. He isolated the bacterium in pure culture on 7 January 1884. He subsequently confirmed that the bacterium was a new species, and described as "a little bent, like a comma." His experiment using fresh blood samples indicated that the bacterium could kill red blood cells, and he hypothesized that some sort of poison was used by the bacterium to cause the disease. In 1959, Indian scientist Sambhu Nath De discovered this poison, the cholera toxin . Koch reported his discovery to the German Secretary of State for the Interior on 2 February, and published it in the Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift ( German Medical Weekly ) the following month. Although Koch was convinced that the bacterium was the cholera pathogen, he could not entirely establish a critical evidence the bacterium produced the symptoms in healthy subjects (following Koch's postulates ). His experiment on animals using his pure bacteria culture did not cause the disease, and correctly explained that animals are immune to human pathogen. The bacterium was then known as "the comma bacillus", and scientifically as Bacillus comma . It was later realised that the bacterium was already described by an Italian physician Filippo Pacini in 1854, and was also observed by the Catalan physician Joaquim Balcells i Pascual around the same time. But they failed to identify the bacterium as the causative agent of cholera. Koch's colleague Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer correctly identified the comma bacillus as Pacini's vibrioni and renamed it as Vibrio cholera in 1896. Koch gave much of his research attention on tuberculosis throughout his career. After medical expeditions to various parts of the world, he again focussed on tuberculosis from the mid-1880s. By that time the Imperial Health Office was carrying out a project for disinfection of sputum of tuberculosis patients. Koch experimented with arsenic and creosote as possible disinfectants. These chemicals and other available drugs did not work. His report in 1883 also mentioned a failed experiment on an attempt to make tuberculosis vaccine. By 1888, Koch turned his attention to synthetic dyes as antibacterial chemicals. He developed a method for examining antibacterial activity by mixing the gelatin-based culture media with a yellow dye, auramin . His notebook indicates that by February 1890, he tested hundreds of compounds. In one of such tests, he found that an extract from the tuberculosis bacterium culture dissolved in glycerine could cure tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Based on a series of experiments from April to July 1891, he could conclude that the extract did not kill the tuberculosis bacterium, but destroyed (by necrosis ) the infected tissues, thereby depriving bacterial growth. He made a vague announcement in August 1890 at the Tenth International Medical Congress in Berlin, saying, In a communication which I made a few months ago to the International Medical Congress [in London in 1881], I described a substance of which the result is to make laboratory animals insensitive to inoculation of tubercle bacilli, and in the case of already infected animals, to bring the tuberculous process to a halt. I can tell […] that much, that guinea pigs, which are highly susceptible to the disease [tuberculosis], no longer react upon inoculation with tubercle virus [bacterium] when treated with that substance and that in guinea pigs, which are sick (with tuberculosis), the pathological process can be brought to a complete standstill. By November 1890, Koch demonstrated the effectiveness of the extract in treating humans by administering the vaccine through the Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) technique. This absorbs the vaccine through the skin by means of multiple shallow punctures on the skin and many patients and doctors went to Berlin to get Koch's remedy. While this was effective in humans, his experiments also revealed that when the substance was inoculated into his tuberculosis-infected test guinea pigs, they presented with severe symptoms. This outcome, characterized by an exaggerated immune response, coined the term "Koch's phenomenon." This is known as an extreme skin reaction that manifests itself at the BCG vaccination site within a few days after the vaccine is administered to an individual infected with tuberculosis. When a normal guinea pig was inoculated with pure tubercle bacillus , the wound would close rapidly and heal within several days. Afterwards, the site of the injection would open and form an ulcer until the animal died. However, if the same inoculated culture was injected into a guinea pig that was previously infected with tuberculosis, the site of the injection becomes dark, and eventually heals normally and quickly (Moreland, 2024). The uncertainty in the chemical nature coined the term phenomenon in the name "Koch's phenomenon." Koch published his experiments in the 15 January 1891 issue of Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift , and The British Medical Journal immediately published the English version simultaneously. The English version was also reproduced in Nature , and The Lancet in the same month. The Lancet presented it as "glad tidings of great joy." Koch simply referred to the medication as "brownish, transparent fluid." Josephs Pohl-Pincus had used the name tuberculin in 1844 for tuberculosis culture media, and Koch subsequently adopted as "tuberkulin." The first report on the clinical trial in 1891 was disappointing. By then 1061 patients with tuberculosis of internal organs and of 708 patients with tuberculosis of external tissues were given the treatment. An attempt to use tuberculin as a therapeutic drug is regarded as Koch's "greatest failure." With it his reputation greatly waned. But he devoted the rest of his life trying to make tuberculin as a usable medication. His discovery was not a total failure: the substance is now used to test for hypersensitivity in tuberculosis patients. Koch observed the phenomenon of acquired immunity . On 26 December 1900, he arrived as part of an expedition to German New Guinea , which was then a protectorate of the German Reich. Koch serially examined the Papuan people , the indigenous inhabitants, and their blood samples and noticed they contained Plasmodium parasites, the cause of malaria , but their bouts of malaria were mild or could not even be noticed, i.e. were subclinical . On the contrary, German settlers and Chinese workers, who had been brought to New Guinea, fell sick immediately. The longer they had stayed in the country, however, the more they too seemed to develop a resistance against it. During his time as government advisor, Koch published a report on how he discovered and experimentally showed tuberculosis bacterium as the pathogen of tuberculosis. He described the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in Koch's four postulates . Koch's discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases. These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, became the "gold standard" in infectious diseases. Although Koch worked out the principles, he did not formulate the postulates, which were introduced by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler. Loeffler, reporting his discovery of diphtheria bacillus in 1883, stated three postulates as follows: The fourth postulate was added by an American plant pathologist Erwin Frink Smith in 1905, and is stated as: Robert Koch made two important developments in microscopy; he was the first to use an oil immersion lens and a condenser that enabled smaller objects to be seen. In addition, he was also the first to effectively use photography ( microphotography ) for microscopic observation. He introduced the "bedrock methods" of bacterial staining using methylene blue and Bismarck (Vesuvin) brown dye . In an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as potato slices. Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical, pure cells. He found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with gelatin . However, he soon realized that gelatin, like potato slices, was not the optimal medium for bacterial growth, as it did not remain solid at 37 °C, the ideal temperature for growth of most human pathogens. And also many bacteria can hydrolyze gelatin making it a liquid. As suggested to him by his post-doctoral assistant Walther Hesse , who got the idea from his wife Fanny Hesse , in 1881, Koch started using agar to grow and isolate pure cultures. Agar is a polysaccharide that remains solid at 37 °C, is not degraded by most bacteria, and results in a stable transparent medium. Koch's booklet published in 1881 titled " Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen " ( Methods for the Study of Pathogenic Organisms ) has been known as the "Bible of Bacteriology." In it he described a novel method of using glass slide with agar to grow bacteria. The method involved pouring a liquid agar on to the glass slide and then spreading a thin layer of gelatin over. The gelatin made the culture medium solidify, in which bacterial samples could be spread uniformly. The whole bacterial culture was then put in a glass plate together with a small wet paper. Koch named this container as feuchte Kammer (moist chamber). The typical chamber was a circular glass dish 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height and had a lid to prevent contamination. The glass plate and the transparent culture media made observation of the bacterial growth easy. Koch publicly demonstrated his plating method at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881. There, Louis Pasteur exclaimed, "C'est un grand progrès, Monsieur !" ("What a great progress, Sir!") It was using Koch's microscopy and agar-plate culture method that his students discovered new bacteria. Friedrich Loeffler discovered the bacteria of glanders ( Burkholderia mallei ) in 1882 and diphtheria ( Corynebacterium diphtheriae ) in 1884; and Georg Theodor August Gaffky , the bacterium of typhoid ( Salmonella enterica ) in 1884. Koch's assistant Julius Richard Petri developed an improved method and published it in 1887 as " Eine kleine Modification des Koch'schen Plattenverfahrens " (A minor modification of the plating technique of Koch). The culture plate was given an eponymous name Petri dish . It is often asserted that Petri developed a new culture plate, but this was not so. He simply discarded the use of glass plate and instead used the circular glass dish directly, not just as moist chamber, but as the main culture container. This further reduced chances of contaminations. It would also have been appropriate if the name "Koch dish" had been given. Koch's booklet published in 1881 titled " Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen " ( Methods for the Study of Pathogenic Organisms ) has been known as the "Bible of Bacteriology." In it he described a novel method of using glass slide with agar to grow bacteria. The method involved pouring a liquid agar on to the glass slide and then spreading a thin layer of gelatin over. The gelatin made the culture medium solidify, in which bacterial samples could be spread uniformly. The whole bacterial culture was then put in a glass plate together with a small wet paper. Koch named this container as feuchte Kammer (moist chamber). The typical chamber was a circular glass dish 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height and had a lid to prevent contamination. The glass plate and the transparent culture media made observation of the bacterial growth easy. Koch publicly demonstrated his plating method at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881. There, Louis Pasteur exclaimed, "C'est un grand progrès, Monsieur !" ("What a great progress, Sir!") It was using Koch's microscopy and agar-plate culture method that his students discovered new bacteria. Friedrich Loeffler discovered the bacteria of glanders ( Burkholderia mallei ) in 1882 and diphtheria ( Corynebacterium diphtheriae ) in 1884; and Georg Theodor August Gaffky , the bacterium of typhoid ( Salmonella enterica ) in 1884. Koch's assistant Julius Richard Petri developed an improved method and published it in 1887 as " Eine kleine Modification des Koch'schen Plattenverfahrens " (A minor modification of the plating technique of Koch). The culture plate was given an eponymous name Petri dish . It is often asserted that Petri developed a new culture plate, but this was not so. He simply discarded the use of glass plate and instead used the circular glass dish directly, not just as moist chamber, but as the main culture container. This further reduced chances of contaminations. It would also have been appropriate if the name "Koch dish" had been given. During his time as the government advisor with the Imperial Health Agency in Berlin in the 1880s, Koch became interested in tuberculosis research. At the time, it was widely believed that tuberculosis was an inherited disease. However Koch was convinced that the disease was caused by a bacterium and was infectious. In 1882, he published his findings on tuberculosis, in which he reported the causative agent of the disease to be the slow-growing Mycobacterium tuberculosis . He published the discovery as " Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose " ( The Etiology of Tuberculosis ), and presented before the German Physiological Society at Berlin on 24 March 1882. Koch said, When the cover-glasses were exposed to this staining fluid [methylene blue mixed with potassium hydroxide ] for 24 hours, very fine rod-like forms became apparent in the tubercular mass for the first time, having, as further observations showed, the power of multiplication and of spore formation and hence belonging to the same group of organisms as the anthrax bacillus... Microscopic examination then showed that only the previously blue-stained cell nuclei and detritus became brown, while the tubercle bacilli remained a beautiful blue. There was no particular reaction to this announcement. Eminent scientists such as Rudolf Virchow remained skeptical. Virchow clung to his theory that all diseases are due to faulty cellular activities. On the other hand, Paul Ehrlich later recollected that this moment was his "single greatest scientific experience." Koch expanded the report and published under the same title as a booklet in 1884, in which he concluded that the discovery of tuberculosis bacterium fulfilled the three principles, eventually known as Koch's postulates , which were formulated by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler in 1883, saying: All these factors together allow me to conclude that the bacilli present in the tuberculous lesions do not only accompany tuberculosis, but rather cause it. These bacilli are the true agents of tuberculosis. In August 1883, the German government sent a medical team led by Koch to Alexandria, Egypt , to investigate a cholera epidemic there. Koch soon found that the intestinal mucosa of people who died of cholera always had bacterial infection, yet could not confirm whether the bacteria were the causative pathogens. As the outbreak in Egypt declined, he was transferred to Calcutta (now Kolkata ) India, where there was a more severe outbreak. He soon found that the river Ganges was the source of cholera. He performed autopsies of almost 100 bodies, and found in each bacterial infection. He identified the same bacteria from water tanks, linking the source of the infection. He isolated the bacterium in pure culture on 7 January 1884. He subsequently confirmed that the bacterium was a new species, and described as "a little bent, like a comma." His experiment using fresh blood samples indicated that the bacterium could kill red blood cells, and he hypothesized that some sort of poison was used by the bacterium to cause the disease. In 1959, Indian scientist Sambhu Nath De discovered this poison, the cholera toxin . Koch reported his discovery to the German Secretary of State for the Interior on 2 February, and published it in the Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift ( German Medical Weekly ) the following month. Although Koch was convinced that the bacterium was the cholera pathogen, he could not entirely establish a critical evidence the bacterium produced the symptoms in healthy subjects (following Koch's postulates ). His experiment on animals using his pure bacteria culture did not cause the disease, and correctly explained that animals are immune to human pathogen. The bacterium was then known as "the comma bacillus", and scientifically as Bacillus comma . It was later realised that the bacterium was already described by an Italian physician Filippo Pacini in 1854, and was also observed by the Catalan physician Joaquim Balcells i Pascual around the same time. But they failed to identify the bacterium as the causative agent of cholera. Koch's colleague Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer correctly identified the comma bacillus as Pacini's vibrioni and renamed it as Vibrio cholera in 1896. Koch gave much of his research attention on tuberculosis throughout his career. After medical expeditions to various parts of the world, he again focussed on tuberculosis from the mid-1880s. By that time the Imperial Health Office was carrying out a project for disinfection of sputum of tuberculosis patients. Koch experimented with arsenic and creosote as possible disinfectants. These chemicals and other available drugs did not work. His report in 1883 also mentioned a failed experiment on an attempt to make tuberculosis vaccine. By 1888, Koch turned his attention to synthetic dyes as antibacterial chemicals. He developed a method for examining antibacterial activity by mixing the gelatin-based culture media with a yellow dye, auramin . His notebook indicates that by February 1890, he tested hundreds of compounds. In one of such tests, he found that an extract from the tuberculosis bacterium culture dissolved in glycerine could cure tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Based on a series of experiments from April to July 1891, he could conclude that the extract did not kill the tuberculosis bacterium, but destroyed (by necrosis ) the infected tissues, thereby depriving bacterial growth. He made a vague announcement in August 1890 at the Tenth International Medical Congress in Berlin, saying, In a communication which I made a few months ago to the International Medical Congress [in London in 1881], I described a substance of which the result is to make laboratory animals insensitive to inoculation of tubercle bacilli, and in the case of already infected animals, to bring the tuberculous process to a halt. I can tell […] that much, that guinea pigs, which are highly susceptible to the disease [tuberculosis], no longer react upon inoculation with tubercle virus [bacterium] when treated with that substance and that in guinea pigs, which are sick (with tuberculosis), the pathological process can be brought to a complete standstill. By November 1890, Koch demonstrated the effectiveness of the extract in treating humans by administering the vaccine through the Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) technique. This absorbs the vaccine through the skin by means of multiple shallow punctures on the skin and many patients and doctors went to Berlin to get Koch's remedy. While this was effective in humans, his experiments also revealed that when the substance was inoculated into his tuberculosis-infected test guinea pigs, they presented with severe symptoms. This outcome, characterized by an exaggerated immune response, coined the term "Koch's phenomenon." This is known as an extreme skin reaction that manifests itself at the BCG vaccination site within a few days after the vaccine is administered to an individual infected with tuberculosis. When a normal guinea pig was inoculated with pure tubercle bacillus , the wound would close rapidly and heal within several days. Afterwards, the site of the injection would open and form an ulcer until the animal died. However, if the same inoculated culture was injected into a guinea pig that was previously infected with tuberculosis, the site of the injection becomes dark, and eventually heals normally and quickly (Moreland, 2024). The uncertainty in the chemical nature coined the term phenomenon in the name "Koch's phenomenon." Koch published his experiments in the 15 January 1891 issue of Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift , and The British Medical Journal immediately published the English version simultaneously. The English version was also reproduced in Nature , and The Lancet in the same month. The Lancet presented it as "glad tidings of great joy." Koch simply referred to the medication as "brownish, transparent fluid." Josephs Pohl-Pincus had used the name tuberculin in 1844 for tuberculosis culture media, and Koch subsequently adopted as "tuberkulin." The first report on the clinical trial in 1891 was disappointing. By then 1061 patients with tuberculosis of internal organs and of 708 patients with tuberculosis of external tissues were given the treatment. An attempt to use tuberculin as a therapeutic drug is regarded as Koch's "greatest failure." With it his reputation greatly waned. But he devoted the rest of his life trying to make tuberculin as a usable medication. His discovery was not a total failure: the substance is now used to test for hypersensitivity in tuberculosis patients. Koch observed the phenomenon of acquired immunity . On 26 December 1900, he arrived as part of an expedition to German New Guinea , which was then a protectorate of the German Reich. Koch serially examined the Papuan people , the indigenous inhabitants, and their blood samples and noticed they contained Plasmodium parasites, the cause of malaria , but their bouts of malaria were mild or could not even be noticed, i.e. were subclinical . On the contrary, German settlers and Chinese workers, who had been brought to New Guinea, fell sick immediately. The longer they had stayed in the country, however, the more they too seemed to develop a resistance against it. During his time as government advisor, Koch published a report on how he discovered and experimentally showed tuberculosis bacterium as the pathogen of tuberculosis. He described the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in Koch's four postulates . Koch's discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases. These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, became the "gold standard" in infectious diseases. Although Koch worked out the principles, he did not formulate the postulates, which were introduced by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler. Loeffler, reporting his discovery of diphtheria bacillus in 1883, stated three postulates as follows: The fourth postulate was added by an American plant pathologist Erwin Frink Smith in 1905, and is stated as: In July 1867, Koch married Emma (Emmy) Adolfine Josephine Fraatz, and the two had a daughter, Gertrude, in 1868. Their marriage ended after 26 years in 1893, and later that same year, he married actress Hedwig Freiberg (1872–1945). On 9 April 1910, Koch suffered a heart attack and never made a complete recovery. On 27 May, three days after giving a lecture on his tuberculosis research at the Prussian Academy of Sciences , Koch died in Baden-Baden at the age of 66. Following his death, the Institute named its establishment after him in his honour. He was irreligious. Koch was made a Knight Grand Cross in the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle on 19 November 1890, and was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1897. In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis." In 1906, research on tuberculosis and tropical diseases won him the Order Pour le Merite and in 1908, the Robert Koch Medal , established to honour the greatest living physicians. Emperor Wilhelm I awarded him the Order of the Crown, 100,000 marks and appointment as Privy Imperial Councillor, Surgeon-General of Health Service, and Fellow of the Science Senate of Kaiser Wilhelm Society. Koch established the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin 1891. After his death it was renamed Robert Koch Institute in his honour. The World Health Organization observes " World Tuberculosis Day " every 24 March since 1982 to commemorate the day Koch discovered tuberculosis bacterium. Koch's name is one of 23 from the fields of hygiene and tropical medicine featured on the frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine building in Keppel Street , Bloomsbury . A large marble statue of Koch stands in a small park known as Robert Koch Platz, just north of the Charity Hospital , in the Mitte section of Berlin . His life was the subject of a 1939 German produced motion picture that featured Oscar winning actor Emil Jannings in the title role. On 10 December 2017, Google showed a Doodle in celebration of Koch's birthday. Koch and his relationship to Paul Ehrlich , who developed a mechanism to diagnose TB, were portrayed in the 1940 movie Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet .At their first meeting at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881, Koch and Pasteur were friendly towards each other. But the rest of their careers followed with scientific disputes. The conflict started when Koch interpreted his discovery of anthrax bacillus in 1876 as causality, that is, the germ caused the anthrax infections. Although his postulates were not yet formulated, he did not establish the bacterium as the cause of the disease: it was an inference. Pasteur therefore argued that Koch's discovery was not the full proof of causality, but Pasteur's anthrax vaccine developed in 1881 was. Koch published his conclusion in 1881 with a statement: "anthrax never occurs without viable anthrax bacilli or spores. In my opinion no more conclusive proof can be given that anthrax bacilli are the true and only cause of anthrax," and that vaccination such as claimed by Pasteur would be impossible. To prove his vaccine, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to Germany for demonstration and disproved Koch's idea. They had a heated public debate at the International Congress for Hygiene in Geneva in 1882, where Koch criticised Pasteur's methods as "unreliable," and claimed they "are false and [as such ] they inevitably lead to false conclusions." Koch later continued to attack Pasteur, saying, "Pasteur is not a physician, and one cannot expect him to make sound judgments about pathological processes and the symptoms of disease." When Koch discovered tuberculin in 1890 as a medication for tuberculosis, he kept the experiment secret and avoided disclosing the source. It was only after a year under public pressure that he publicly announced the experiment and the source. Clinical trials with tuberculin were disastrous and complete failures. Rudolf Virchow's autopsy report of 21 subjects treated with tuberculin to the Berlin Medical Society on 7 January 1891 revealed that instead of healing tuberculosis, the subjects died because of the treatment. One week later, Koch publicised that the drug was a glycerine extract of a pure cultivation of the tuberculosis bacilli. The German official report in late 1891 declared that tuberculosis was not cured with tuberculin. From this moment onwards, Koch's prestige fell apart. The reason for his initial secrecy was due to an ambition for monetary benefits for the new drug, and with that establishment of his own research institute. Since 1885, he had tried to leave government service and create an independent state-run institute of his own. Following the disappointment, he was released from the University of Berlin and forced to work as Director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases, a newly established institute, in 1891. He was prohibited from working on tuberculin and from claim for patent rights in any of his subsequent works. Koch initially believed that human ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis ) and cattle tuberculosis bacilli (now called Mycobacterium bovis ) were different pathogens when he made the discovery in 1882. Two years later, he revoked that position and asserted that the two bacilli were the same type. This later assumption was taken as a fact in veterinary practice. Based on it, legislations were made in US for inspection of meat and milk. In 1898, an American veterinarian Theobald Smith published a detailed comparative study and found that the tuberculosis bacteria are different based on their structure, growth patterns, and pathogenicity. In addition he also discovered that there were variations in each type. In his conclusion, he made two important points: Human tuberculosis bacillus cannot infect cattle. But cattle bacillus may infect humans since it is very pathogenic. By that time, there was evidence that cattle tuberculosis was transmitted to humans through meat and milk. Upon these reports, Koch conceded that the two bacilli were different but still advocated that cattle tuberculosis was of no health concern. Speaking at the Third International Congress on Tuberculosis , held in London in July 1901, he said that cattle tuberculosis is not dangerous to humans and there is no need for medical attention. He said, "I therefore consider it unnecessary to take any measures against this form of TB. The fight against TB clearly has to concentrate on the human bacillus. " Chair of the congress, Joseph Lister reprimanded Koch and explained the medical evidences of cattle tuberculosis in humans. The Nobel Committee selected the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to be awarded for the discovery of the transmission of malaria. But it could not make the final decision on whom to give it to — the British surgeon Ronald Ross or the Italian biologist Giovanni Battista Grassi . Ross had discovered that the human malarial parasite was carried by certain mosquitoes in 1897, and the next year that bird malaria could be transmitted from infected to healthy birds by the bite of a mosquito. Grassi had discovered Plasmodium vivax and the bird malaria parasite, and towards the end of 1898 the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum between humans through mosquitoes Anopheles claviger . To the surprise of the Nobel Committee, the two nominees exchanged polemic arguments against each other publicly justifying the importance of their own works. Robert Koch was then appointed as a "neutral arbitrator" to make the final decision. To his disadvantage, Grassi had criticised Koch on his malaria research in 1898 during an investigation of the epidemic, while Ross had established a cordial relationship with Koch. Ross was selected for the award, as Koch "threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor." At their first meeting at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881, Koch and Pasteur were friendly towards each other. But the rest of their careers followed with scientific disputes. The conflict started when Koch interpreted his discovery of anthrax bacillus in 1876 as causality, that is, the germ caused the anthrax infections. Although his postulates were not yet formulated, he did not establish the bacterium as the cause of the disease: it was an inference. Pasteur therefore argued that Koch's discovery was not the full proof of causality, but Pasteur's anthrax vaccine developed in 1881 was. Koch published his conclusion in 1881 with a statement: "anthrax never occurs without viable anthrax bacilli or spores. In my opinion no more conclusive proof can be given that anthrax bacilli are the true and only cause of anthrax," and that vaccination such as claimed by Pasteur would be impossible. To prove his vaccine, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to Germany for demonstration and disproved Koch's idea. They had a heated public debate at the International Congress for Hygiene in Geneva in 1882, where Koch criticised Pasteur's methods as "unreliable," and claimed they "are false and [as such ] they inevitably lead to false conclusions." Koch later continued to attack Pasteur, saying, "Pasteur is not a physician, and one cannot expect him to make sound judgments about pathological processes and the symptoms of disease." When Koch discovered tuberculin in 1890 as a medication for tuberculosis, he kept the experiment secret and avoided disclosing the source. It was only after a year under public pressure that he publicly announced the experiment and the source. Clinical trials with tuberculin were disastrous and complete failures. Rudolf Virchow's autopsy report of 21 subjects treated with tuberculin to the Berlin Medical Society on 7 January 1891 revealed that instead of healing tuberculosis, the subjects died because of the treatment. One week later, Koch publicised that the drug was a glycerine extract of a pure cultivation of the tuberculosis bacilli. The German official report in late 1891 declared that tuberculosis was not cured with tuberculin. From this moment onwards, Koch's prestige fell apart. The reason for his initial secrecy was due to an ambition for monetary benefits for the new drug, and with that establishment of his own research institute. Since 1885, he had tried to leave government service and create an independent state-run institute of his own. Following the disappointment, he was released from the University of Berlin and forced to work as Director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases, a newly established institute, in 1891. He was prohibited from working on tuberculin and from claim for patent rights in any of his subsequent works. Koch initially believed that human ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis ) and cattle tuberculosis bacilli (now called Mycobacterium bovis ) were different pathogens when he made the discovery in 1882. Two years later, he revoked that position and asserted that the two bacilli were the same type. This later assumption was taken as a fact in veterinary practice. Based on it, legislations were made in US for inspection of meat and milk. In 1898, an American veterinarian Theobald Smith published a detailed comparative study and found that the tuberculosis bacteria are different based on their structure, growth patterns, and pathogenicity. In addition he also discovered that there were variations in each type. In his conclusion, he made two important points: Human tuberculosis bacillus cannot infect cattle. But cattle bacillus may infect humans since it is very pathogenic. By that time, there was evidence that cattle tuberculosis was transmitted to humans through meat and milk. Upon these reports, Koch conceded that the two bacilli were different but still advocated that cattle tuberculosis was of no health concern. Speaking at the Third International Congress on Tuberculosis , held in London in July 1901, he said that cattle tuberculosis is not dangerous to humans and there is no need for medical attention. He said, "I therefore consider it unnecessary to take any measures against this form of TB. The fight against TB clearly has to concentrate on the human bacillus. " Chair of the congress, Joseph Lister reprimanded Koch and explained the medical evidences of cattle tuberculosis in humans. The Nobel Committee selected the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to be awarded for the discovery of the transmission of malaria. But it could not make the final decision on whom to give it to — the British surgeon Ronald Ross or the Italian biologist Giovanni Battista Grassi . Ross had discovered that the human malarial parasite was carried by certain mosquitoes in 1897, and the next year that bird malaria could be transmitted from infected to healthy birds by the bite of a mosquito. Grassi had discovered Plasmodium vivax and the bird malaria parasite, and towards the end of 1898 the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum between humans through mosquitoes Anopheles claviger . To the surprise of the Nobel Committee, the two nominees exchanged polemic arguments against each other publicly justifying the importance of their own works. Robert Koch was then appointed as a "neutral arbitrator" to make the final decision. To his disadvantage, Grassi had criticised Koch on his malaria research in 1898 during an investigation of the epidemic, while Ross had established a cordial relationship with Koch. Ross was selected for the award, as Koch "threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor."

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For All Kings

For All Kings is the eleventh studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax , released on February 26, 2016. It is the band's first studio album to feature Jon Donais on lead guitar, replacing Rob Caggiano . The album artwork was designed by Alex Ross .In January 2013, guitarist Rob Caggiano left Anthrax and was replaced by Jon Donais of Shadows Fall . Talk of a follow-up to Worship Music surfaced later that year, with bassist Frank Bello stating that the band was "getting the itch to write new music". In September that year, guitarist Scott Ian confirmed that Bello and drummer Charlie Benante were "coming over to start writing for the next record" and subsequently posted images on Twitter of the band working on new material. By the end of October, the band had arranged seven new songs, with Ian describing the direction of the new music as "aggressive, fast, even riff-ier than the last record". By February 2014, the band had a total of 12 songs written, though were continuing to write so that they would have more material to choose from for inclusion on the final album. Recording began in late 2014 with producer Jay Ruston in a studio in Los Angeles . Some 15–20 more songs were written during the sessions, what the band considered its most productive period. "Soror Irrumator", a song scheduled to appear on For All Kings , was featured on the second volume of the Catch the Throne mixtape. A lyric video for the song "Evil Twin" was released in October 2015, and several days later, the album title was announced. The album's release date and front cover were revealed the following month. The artwork, created by Alex Ross on a suggestion by Benante, displays massive statues of the band members. The track listing was revealed on December 4. Despite earlier suggestion by the band, "Soror Irrumator" did not appear on the album's track listing. The album was released on February 26, 2016. Explaining the album title, which is also the title of the album's third track, Ian said: "The meaning, to me, for this title is that everybody can be a king. Everybody can have control over their own lives, control over their destiny, just by growing up and becoming a responsible human being. I'm not necessarily saying that being a "king" is being the boss in your relationship, or any relationship for that matter. A king of yourself is what I mean. Taking responsibility and ownership for your own shit is basically what it means to me." Ian, who writes the band's lyrics, said he tried to incorporate different structural ideas for the lyrics to those featured on previous albums, crediting author David Mitchell as an influence. Ian has said that "Breathing Lightning" is lyrically influenced by author Stephen King : "If I had to pick one thing that I love the most from him, it would be The Dark Tower books [...] The character Roland , it's just something that stays with me a lot, this character from those books. So I kind of re-entered that world again. 'Cause I wrote "Lone Justice" way back when, on the Spreading The Disease record, which was based on that character, and I decided to re-visit it, because, metaphorically, there's so many things you could use it for[...]I'm kind of weaving in and out of reality and fantasy in that song. And 'Breathing Lightning', of course, is a metaphor for shooting." According to Benante, "Evil Twin" was inspired by events like the 2015 attack on the offices and staff of the French satirical publication Charlie Hebdo and various other mass shootings. Ian added that it was about by the actions of people "who feel they have become judge, jury and executioner over their fellow man", calling this mindset the "evil twin" of humanity. Ian has described "Blood Eagle Wings" as the "centerpiece" of the album, and admitted having difficulty with writing the lyrics. Lyrically, the track concerns "Any great city, whether it's London , Rome , Paris , New York City , Los Angeles – these cities are alive because of how many people were killed to make them what they are. How much blood was spilled over time." For All Kings sold 34,000 copies in its first week of release in the United States, entering at number 9 on the Billboard 200 chart, marking the first time the band has had an album enter at the chart's top 10 since Sound of White Noise which was released in 1993 and debuted at number 7. The album's sales and chart performance also show an increase over the band's previous album, Worship Music which had first week sales of 28,000 and debuted at number 12. Eight weeks after its release, For All Kings sold over 57,000 copies in the US. The album has sold about 73,000 copies in the US as of November 2016. For All Kings received generally positive reviews from critics. Praise was given for its consistency and focus, as well as the contributions of newest member, lead guitarist Jon Donais, and many critics cited the 8-minute "Blood Eagle Wings" as a standout. Dom Lawson, writing for The Guardian gave the album a 4/5 star rating, describing it as being "full of the anthemic choruses and hulking riffs that have always driven their sound". He acknowledges that it is "in some ways a more focused effort" than 2011's Worship Music , though also compliments the band's mixing of thrash metal with more radio-friendly hard rock (such as on "Breathing Lightning") adding that "It's a blend that suits the band – and vocalist Joey Belladonna in particular – to a tee." J.C. Maçek III of PopMatters was also positive, giving the album a rating of 7/10 and stating that For All Kings "stands out as powerful thrash metal with a distinctive sound that is unmistakably Anthrax." He also points out how the album displays a darker side of the band than they displayed in the 80s, remarking that "It's hard to imagine this Anthrax donning colorful surfing shorts and performing more comedic songs like " I'm the Man " but also points out that as a consequence, the album "is somewhat lacking in "fun"". Chad Bowar of Loudwire , like Lawson, observes that the album "delivers the thrash that they are known for, but also sees them explore other sonic pathways without losing touch with their core sound", and also praises vocalist Joey Belladonna for sounding "even better and completely at ease" compared to Worship Music , in which he performed songs not originally written for him. He cites tracks such as "Evil Twin", "Suzerain" and "Monster at the End" as standouts. However, others were more critical of the album. Jon Hadusek of Consequence of Sound cited the album, alongside other recent releases in the thrash metal genre such as Slayer 's Repentless and Megadeth 's Dystopia as being "a safe and agreeable slice of thrash, but it's also robotic, formulaic, and dated." He adds that "the songs on For All Kings feel like they were written in haste, by the old tried and true formula" and chided the band for "repeating themselves". He concludes that the album is "A victory lap for victory lap's sake. The definition of a fans-only release." Joel McIver of Record Collector writes that "truly warp-speed thrash beats are, disappointingly, largely absent" on the album. For All Kings sold 34,000 copies in its first week of release in the United States, entering at number 9 on the Billboard 200 chart, marking the first time the band has had an album enter at the chart's top 10 since Sound of White Noise which was released in 1993 and debuted at number 7. The album's sales and chart performance also show an increase over the band's previous album, Worship Music which had first week sales of 28,000 and debuted at number 12. Eight weeks after its release, For All Kings sold over 57,000 copies in the US. The album has sold about 73,000 copies in the US as of November 2016. For All Kings received generally positive reviews from critics. Praise was given for its consistency and focus, as well as the contributions of newest member, lead guitarist Jon Donais, and many critics cited the 8-minute "Blood Eagle Wings" as a standout. Dom Lawson, writing for The Guardian gave the album a 4/5 star rating, describing it as being "full of the anthemic choruses and hulking riffs that have always driven their sound". He acknowledges that it is "in some ways a more focused effort" than 2011's Worship Music , though also compliments the band's mixing of thrash metal with more radio-friendly hard rock (such as on "Breathing Lightning") adding that "It's a blend that suits the band – and vocalist Joey Belladonna in particular – to a tee." J.C. Maçek III of PopMatters was also positive, giving the album a rating of 7/10 and stating that For All Kings "stands out as powerful thrash metal with a distinctive sound that is unmistakably Anthrax." He also points out how the album displays a darker side of the band than they displayed in the 80s, remarking that "It's hard to imagine this Anthrax donning colorful surfing shorts and performing more comedic songs like " I'm the Man " but also points out that as a consequence, the album "is somewhat lacking in "fun"". Chad Bowar of Loudwire , like Lawson, observes that the album "delivers the thrash that they are known for, but also sees them explore other sonic pathways without losing touch with their core sound", and also praises vocalist Joey Belladonna for sounding "even better and completely at ease" compared to Worship Music , in which he performed songs not originally written for him. He cites tracks such as "Evil Twin", "Suzerain" and "Monster at the End" as standouts. However, others were more critical of the album. Jon Hadusek of Consequence of Sound cited the album, alongside other recent releases in the thrash metal genre such as Slayer 's Repentless and Megadeth 's Dystopia as being "a safe and agreeable slice of thrash, but it's also robotic, formulaic, and dated." He adds that "the songs on For All Kings feel like they were written in haste, by the old tried and true formula" and chided the band for "repeating themselves". He concludes that the album is "A victory lap for victory lap's sake. The definition of a fans-only release." Joel McIver of Record Collector writes that "truly warp-speed thrash beats are, disappointingly, largely absent" on the album. All songs written by Joey Belladonna, Frank Bello, Charlie Benante and Scott Ian Note: The Megaforce iTunes/download version of the album combines "Impaled" / "You Gotta Believe" and "Breathing Lightning" / "Breathing Out" as single tracks, with running times of 7:32 and 6:33 respectively. Although "Impaled" and "Breathing Out" are not indicated on the track listing on the packaging, the CD is mastered with these tracks separately as well. The Limited Edition Box Set of the album includes a cover of " Carry On Wayward Son ", which is close to the original of progressive rock band Kansas from 1976. Also the artwork of the cover is a deviation of the original Leftoverture cover.Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. Anthrax Production Jay Ruston – production, mixing Paul Logus – mastering at PLX Mastering, NYC James Ingram – engineering Josh Newell – engineering Michael Peterson – engineering Asim Ali – additional engineering Andy Lagis – additional engineering Alex Elsammak – assistant engineering Ken Eisennagel – assistant engineering Molly Martin – assistant engineering Tony Perry – assistant engineering Michael Miller – drum technician Ian Galloway – guitar technician Artwork and packaging Alex Ross – album artwork Charlie Benante – album design Douglas Hesser – graphic design Stephen Thompson – additional art

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Stormtroopers_of_Death/html

Stormtroopers of Death

Stormtroopers of Death (abbreviated to S.O.D. ) was an American crossover thrash band formed in New York City in 1985. They are credited as being amongst the first groups to fuse hardcore punk with thrash metal into a style often referred to as crossover thrash. The band is also known for reuniting Anthrax members, guitarist Scott Ian and drummer Charlie Benante , with their former bassist Dan Lilker . Their instrumental song "March of the S.O.D." from their 1985 debut album, Speak English or Die , was the Headbangers Ball intro anthem for many years. Another song from the same album, "Chromatic Death", was also used during the show as a segue between ads and videos. The band was controversial due to their deliberately offensive explicit lyrics. Ian described the songs on Speak English Or Die as "ridiculous" and "just a big inside joke", adding: "Some people thought we were racist, and those people are stupid." Bassist Dan Lilker stated: "The lyrics were never intended to be serious, just to piss people off." The band had several periods of inactivity following their formation in 1985. According to singer Billy Milano, the 24-song extended play of live and unreleased material called Rise of the Infidels , released in August 2007 by Megaforce Records , "will finally be the last of S.O.D.", laying to rest rumors of another reunion.After finishing his guitar tracks on the Anthrax album Spreading the Disease , Scott Ian would draw pictures of a character known as "Sargent D." The pictures would be accompanied by slogans such as "I'm not racist; I hate everyone" and "Speak English or Die", and Ian would write lyrics about the character. He decided to form a hardcore band based on Sargent D, so he recruited Anthrax drummer Charlie Benante , ex-Anthrax bassist Dan Lilker , and Psychos bassist Billy Milano on vocals. They recorded a 63-song demo called Crab Society North and set to work on an album for Johnny Zazula's Megaforce Records . The album, titled Speak English or Die , was recorded and mixed over three days, and has since been hailed as a landmark album that was among the first to fuse hardcore punk with thrash metal . They toured in support of the album in 1985, opening for Motörhead and The Plasmatics , among others. Their music served as the theme of the 1980s incarnation of MTV's Headbangers Ball . They planned a follow-up titled USA For S.O.D., which was ultimately scrapped and never recorded. After their tour ended, Lilker carried on with the band Nuclear Assault while Benante and Ian continued with Anthrax. Milano formed the spin-off band Method of Destruction , known as M.O.D. The band's first album U.S.A. for M.O.D. , featured many lyrics written by Scott Ian, as well as an altered version of "Aren't You Hungry", an unrecorded S.O.D. song played during their 1985 tour. S.O.D. reformed for a one-off gig in New York City in 1992, which was recorded and released as the live album Live at Budokan . The record featured most songs from the Speak English or Die album, a few songs from the demo and covers of Ministry , Nirvana and Fear . In 1997, S.O.D. reunited again to play the Milwaukee Metal Fest. They played their first European gig at the With Full Force festival in Germany, and in 1999 they released their second studio album, titled Bigger Than the Devil . Its hardcore metal and black humor was welcomed by fans and the band toured again in the late 1990s. Bigger Than the Devil featured the original S.O.D. version of "Aren't You Hungry". In 2001, the DVD/video Speak English or Live was released. It added to the original Live at Budokan video by including a gig from a German metal festival and footage of the band recording overdubs for live tracks recorded in Japan. These would be included on the platinum reissue of Speak English or Die , along with two new studio tracks, to celebrate one million copies of Speak English or Die sold. In 2002, the concert film Kill Yourself: The Movie was released on DVD. The footage in it from the "Ronnie Dobbs Entitilitus Foundation Benefit" was recorded at the Maritime Hall in San Francisco on Friday, November 12, 1999. Heavy metal news outlets reported in 2003 that the band had split up due to disagreements between Ian and Milano. In 2007, however, S.O.D. reconvened and released its third album, Rise of the Infidels . The album consists of previously unrecorded material and live recordings. However, Milano said that the album would be the band's final release. In October 2011, Scott Ian was asked by UnRatd Magazine if there was any chance of another reunion, to which he replied: "No. I think I can safely say that, yeah. It was never supposed to be any thing more than it was. As far as I'm concerned we did too much with it. It started out as a comic book strip that I drew in the studio and then turned into this record that we made, but you know, that's all that it is for me. It's the opposite of The Damned Things (a supergroup featuring Ian alongside members of Fall Out Boy and Every Time I Die ), for me, it was never meant to be a real band with a schedule and making records and touring. S.O.D. was supposed to be the 'anti' of that, it was supposed to just be about having fun and never having it turn into something real where all of a sudden it's not just fun anymore – it becomes a job, it becomes a business. And I'm glad everyone around the world got to see it at least once because in '99 and 2000 we played everywhere and I don't feel the need to go out and do that again." In December 2012, it was announced that Billy Milano and Dan Lilker had reunited in a new band called United Forces. In July 2015, Horns Up Rocks reported that S.O.D. would reunite again in celebration of their 30th anniversary. However, bassist Dan Lilker said that there were no plans for an S.O.D. reunion, and added that Billy Milano did not "consult anybody else that played in S.O.D. He just kind of announced something." In 2017, Lilker formed a new version of S.O.D. under the name Not S.O.D. – Fist Banging Maniacs, with Brazilian musicians João Gordo , Cléber Orsioli and Guilherme Cersosimo filling in for Milano, Ian and Benante respectively. In April 2020, Benante posted video of himself along with Ian and Lilker on YouTube performing S.O.D. songs during the COVID-19 lockdown. In May 2020, Benante, Ian and Lilker, along with Mike Patton on vocals, posted a video on YouTube of "Speak Spanish or Die". After finishing his guitar tracks on the Anthrax album Spreading the Disease , Scott Ian would draw pictures of a character known as "Sargent D." The pictures would be accompanied by slogans such as "I'm not racist; I hate everyone" and "Speak English or Die", and Ian would write lyrics about the character. He decided to form a hardcore band based on Sargent D, so he recruited Anthrax drummer Charlie Benante , ex-Anthrax bassist Dan Lilker , and Psychos bassist Billy Milano on vocals. They recorded a 63-song demo called Crab Society North and set to work on an album for Johnny Zazula's Megaforce Records . The album, titled Speak English or Die , was recorded and mixed over three days, and has since been hailed as a landmark album that was among the first to fuse hardcore punk with thrash metal . They toured in support of the album in 1985, opening for Motörhead and The Plasmatics , among others. Their music served as the theme of the 1980s incarnation of MTV's Headbangers Ball . They planned a follow-up titled USA For S.O.D., which was ultimately scrapped and never recorded. After their tour ended, Lilker carried on with the band Nuclear Assault while Benante and Ian continued with Anthrax. Milano formed the spin-off band Method of Destruction , known as M.O.D. The band's first album U.S.A. for M.O.D. , featured many lyrics written by Scott Ian, as well as an altered version of "Aren't You Hungry", an unrecorded S.O.D. song played during their 1985 tour. S.O.D. reformed for a one-off gig in New York City in 1992, which was recorded and released as the live album Live at Budokan . The record featured most songs from the Speak English or Die album, a few songs from the demo and covers of Ministry , Nirvana and Fear . In 1997, S.O.D. reunited again to play the Milwaukee Metal Fest. They played their first European gig at the With Full Force festival in Germany, and in 1999 they released their second studio album, titled Bigger Than the Devil . Its hardcore metal and black humor was welcomed by fans and the band toured again in the late 1990s. Bigger Than the Devil featured the original S.O.D. version of "Aren't You Hungry". In 2001, the DVD/video Speak English or Live was released. It added to the original Live at Budokan video by including a gig from a German metal festival and footage of the band recording overdubs for live tracks recorded in Japan. These would be included on the platinum reissue of Speak English or Die , along with two new studio tracks, to celebrate one million copies of Speak English or Die sold. In 2002, the concert film Kill Yourself: The Movie was released on DVD. The footage in it from the "Ronnie Dobbs Entitilitus Foundation Benefit" was recorded at the Maritime Hall in San Francisco on Friday, November 12, 1999.Heavy metal news outlets reported in 2003 that the band had split up due to disagreements between Ian and Milano. In 2007, however, S.O.D. reconvened and released its third album, Rise of the Infidels . The album consists of previously unrecorded material and live recordings. However, Milano said that the album would be the band's final release. In October 2011, Scott Ian was asked by UnRatd Magazine if there was any chance of another reunion, to which he replied: "No. I think I can safely say that, yeah. It was never supposed to be any thing more than it was. As far as I'm concerned we did too much with it. It started out as a comic book strip that I drew in the studio and then turned into this record that we made, but you know, that's all that it is for me. It's the opposite of The Damned Things (a supergroup featuring Ian alongside members of Fall Out Boy and Every Time I Die ), for me, it was never meant to be a real band with a schedule and making records and touring. S.O.D. was supposed to be the 'anti' of that, it was supposed to just be about having fun and never having it turn into something real where all of a sudden it's not just fun anymore – it becomes a job, it becomes a business. And I'm glad everyone around the world got to see it at least once because in '99 and 2000 we played everywhere and I don't feel the need to go out and do that again." In December 2012, it was announced that Billy Milano and Dan Lilker had reunited in a new band called United Forces. In July 2015, Horns Up Rocks reported that S.O.D. would reunite again in celebration of their 30th anniversary. However, bassist Dan Lilker said that there were no plans for an S.O.D. reunion, and added that Billy Milano did not "consult anybody else that played in S.O.D. He just kind of announced something." In 2017, Lilker formed a new version of S.O.D. under the name Not S.O.D. – Fist Banging Maniacs, with Brazilian musicians João Gordo , Cléber Orsioli and Guilherme Cersosimo filling in for Milano, Ian and Benante respectively. In April 2020, Benante posted video of himself along with Ian and Lilker on YouTube performing S.O.D. songs during the COVID-19 lockdown. In May 2020, Benante, Ian and Lilker, along with Mike Patton on vocals, posted a video on YouTube of "Speak Spanish or Die". "March of the S.O.D." (1985) "Seasoning the Obese" (1999) From the Megavault (1985) Deeper into the Vault (1991) Crossover (1993) Stars on Thrash (1998) Suburban Open Air '99 (1999) Death Is Just the Beginning, Vol. 5 (1999) Dynamit Vol. 16 (1999) Nuclear Blast Soundcheck Series, Vol. 18 (1999) A Tribute to the Scorpions (2000) Death Is Just the Beginning, Vol. 6 (2000) New York's Hardest, Vol. 3 (2001) Death Is Just the Beginning, Vol. 7 (2002)"March of the S.O.D." (1985) "Seasoning the Obese" (1999)From the Megavault (1985) Deeper into the Vault (1991) Crossover (1993) Stars on Thrash (1998) Suburban Open Air '99 (1999) Death Is Just the Beginning, Vol. 5 (1999) Dynamit Vol. 16 (1999) Nuclear Blast Soundcheck Series, Vol. 18 (1999) A Tribute to the Scorpions (2000) Death Is Just the Beginning, Vol. 6 (2000) New York's Hardest, Vol. 3 (2001) Death Is Just the Beginning, Vol. 7 (2002)

Wiki

Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/John_Bush_(singer)/html

John Bush (singer)

John Bush (born August 24, 1963) is an American heavy metal singer. He came to prominence in the 1980s as the lead singer and lyricist of Armored Saint , a heavy metal band from Los Angeles, California. In 1992, he joined thrash metal band Anthrax , with whom he remained until 2005 and briefly rejoined in 2009–2010. Bush has also been active with the reformed Armored Saint intermittently from 1999 to the present. Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic praised Bush's "remarkable voice" while authors Howie Abrams and Sacha Jenkins ranked him as the eighth-best vocalist in the genre. Bush started his singing career at Woodrow Wilson High School (Los Angeles) in 1979, fronting a short-lived rock band called "Royal Decree", with brothers Felipe "Phil" Sandoval (lead guitar) and Gonzalo "Gonzo" Sandoval (drums), and bassist Joey Vera , also Woodrow Wilson High School alumni. In 1982, they all became founding members of Armored Saint , along with new lead guitarist Dave Prichard, from South Pasadena High School . In 1984, Bush had a cameo appearance in the Huey Lewis and the News video " The Heart of Rock & Roll " at the 1:38 mark (exiting from the limo). Since their formation in 1982, Armored Saint has released eight full-length albums, one EP , a live album, a greatest hits compilation and two DVDs, all with Bush on vocals. In the early 1980s, Bush was invited by Metallica to join them as lead singer. Even after the release of Kill 'Em All , Metallica vocalist James Hetfield felt unsure about his own singing abilities. Hetfield wanted to concentrate on his guitar and personally asked Bush to join Metallica. Bush was the only vocalist that the band considered as a potential frontman. He turned down the offer as he wanted to stay with Armored Saint. Bush states that part of his loyalty to Armored Saint came from the band being made up of his closest childhood friends. In 1990, original Armored Saint guitarist Dave Prichard died of leukemia during the recording of Symbol of Salvation . Jeff Duncan replaced Prichard and the band finished the recording of Symbol of Salvation , going out on tour afterwards. Despite rave reviews from the metal press, [ citation needed ] the band decided that they just did not want to continue without Prichard, and amicably disbanded. In 1999, whilst Bush was a member of Anthrax, he got together with Armored Saint bassist Joey Vera . Together they decided to bring back the Symbol of Salvation lineup for an Armored Saint reunion. The resultant album Revelation was released in 2000 and a short tour followed. The following year, Armored Saint released a collection of demos, live tracks and other rarities in the two-disc package Nod to the Old School . They have since released three more studio albums, La Raza in 2010, Win Hands Down in 2015, and Punching the Sky in 2020. Following the 1992 dissolution of Armored Saint, Bush received a call from Scott Ian of Anthrax , who offered Bush the chance to fill the spot left behind by singer Joey Belladonna , who had been fired from the band. Bush accepted and joined the band, adding alternative rock sensibilities. Anthrax recorded Sound of White Noise , Stomp 442 , & Volume 8: The Threat Is Real with Bush in the 90s before entering a temporary hiatus during 1999. Despite Bush's reunion with Armored Saint during that same year, Bush remained a member of Anthrax. Returning to the band, Bush recorded vocals for his fourth album with the band, the critically acclaimed We've Come for You All in 2003. The successful WCFYA tour was documented with a live album/DVD titled Music of Mass Destruction . In 2004, Anthrax released The Greater of Two Evils , a re-recording of several of the band's more popular songs from the pre-Bush era with the then-current lineup. In early 2005, Anthrax issued a press release stating that the band's Among the Living lineup was reuniting. Anthrax stated that Bush had not been fired, but with Joey Belladonna's return and talk of a new album in the works, it was unclear if Bush would record with them again. However, Joey Belladonna's exit from Anthrax in January 2007 fueled reports that Bush would return. However, Anthrax chose to recruit a new vocalist, Dan Nelson . In June 2007, Bush stated during an interview that he was not bitter about the split with Anthrax, revealing that they had asked him to take part in the reunion tour, which would have seen him and Belladonna splitting vocal duties, but that he turned it down because "it just wasn't right" for him. He was later approached again by the band to re-join following Belladonna's exit, which he again turned down, explaining: "I couldn't go back and say, 'Here I am...' It would be like coming in with my tail between my legs, and that's not right for me. I just couldn't do that. It just didn't feel right to do that. It was about soul, your gut. How does that feel? Does it feel right? Good enough. Sold. Answer." In August 2009, after Anthrax parted ways with their replacement singer Dan Nelson, Bush rejoined his former bandmates in Anthrax for a live performance on August 1, 2009, at the Sonisphere Festival in Knebworth, England. Following this performance, there were many calls for him to return full-time. Bush also performed with Anthrax at the Loud Park '09 Festival in Japan on October 17, 2009, followed by five concerts on the Soundwave tour in Australia in February 2010. On December 14, 2009, it was announced that the "Big Four" thrash bands would play in Poland and Czech Republic during the following year, among several other shows during the Sonisphere festival. It was expected that Anthrax would continue with Bush, but the other members ultimately chose to reunite with Joey Belladonna , as Bush was not up for recommitting to the group full-time. The band has since toured and recorded again with Belladonna. In September 2015, Bush caused some minor controversy after he went public concerning royalty issues with Anthrax, explaining: "they've had a lot of — a lot — of accounting and management issues that were affecting me personally. Dan Spitz has an issue with the band [...] he feels like he hasn't been paid by the band. And the dude made seven records with Anthrax. And the dude should be paid on those records that he made with the band. [...] It's, like, I'm out there signing Anthrax records I made. I just wanna be paid for the records [that were] made and sold. And it gives me pride in those records. And then when you don't [get paid], you become very bitter about it, and it's not cool." He did reveal however that the band had a new accounting company and that "they seem to be on the up and up now." Nevertheless, he was forced to respond to his comments on Armored Saint's Facebook page after fans criticised Anthrax for not paying Bush, admitting that "In hindsight I would have preferred to keep this between myself and the members of Anthrax." and clarifying that he had received royalties from the band though they had been "inconsistent", before declaring himself "Done with this topic." Bush has done commercial voiceovers for the fast food chain Burger King . In April 2011, German instrumental rock band Long Distance Calling released a self-titled full-length album, which features John Bush performing vocals for the track "Middleville". "Middleville" is the only track with vocals on that album. In December 2011, Metallica performed a 30th anniversary show with several guests, including Bush who joined Metallica onstage to perform " The Four Horsemen ", a song from Kill 'Em All in which Bush took the lead vocal just as Hetfield had wanted him to do almost three decades prior. After the performance, drummer Lars Ulrich took the microphone to say "It could have been a whole different story," then added in amazement at Bush's performance: "Wow!" Bush provided vocals for the 2013 action video game Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance . He is featured on the tracks "Return to Ashes" and "The Hot Wind Blowing". Bush performed vocals for the track "Bound by Silence" from Metal Allegiance 's 2018 album Volume II – Power Drunk Majesty . He appeared on the 2019 David Ellefson album Sleeping Giants , supplying lead vocals for the track "If You Were God". [ citation needed ]Since their formation in 1982, Armored Saint has released eight full-length albums, one EP , a live album, a greatest hits compilation and two DVDs, all with Bush on vocals. In the early 1980s, Bush was invited by Metallica to join them as lead singer. Even after the release of Kill 'Em All , Metallica vocalist James Hetfield felt unsure about his own singing abilities. Hetfield wanted to concentrate on his guitar and personally asked Bush to join Metallica. Bush was the only vocalist that the band considered as a potential frontman. He turned down the offer as he wanted to stay with Armored Saint. Bush states that part of his loyalty to Armored Saint came from the band being made up of his closest childhood friends. In 1990, original Armored Saint guitarist Dave Prichard died of leukemia during the recording of Symbol of Salvation . Jeff Duncan replaced Prichard and the band finished the recording of Symbol of Salvation , going out on tour afterwards. Despite rave reviews from the metal press, [ citation needed ] the band decided that they just did not want to continue without Prichard, and amicably disbanded. In 1999, whilst Bush was a member of Anthrax, he got together with Armored Saint bassist Joey Vera . Together they decided to bring back the Symbol of Salvation lineup for an Armored Saint reunion. The resultant album Revelation was released in 2000 and a short tour followed. The following year, Armored Saint released a collection of demos, live tracks and other rarities in the two-disc package Nod to the Old School . They have since released three more studio albums, La Raza in 2010, Win Hands Down in 2015, and Punching the Sky in 2020.Following the 1992 dissolution of Armored Saint, Bush received a call from Scott Ian of Anthrax , who offered Bush the chance to fill the spot left behind by singer Joey Belladonna , who had been fired from the band. Bush accepted and joined the band, adding alternative rock sensibilities. Anthrax recorded Sound of White Noise , Stomp 442 , & Volume 8: The Threat Is Real with Bush in the 90s before entering a temporary hiatus during 1999. Despite Bush's reunion with Armored Saint during that same year, Bush remained a member of Anthrax. Returning to the band, Bush recorded vocals for his fourth album with the band, the critically acclaimed We've Come for You All in 2003. The successful WCFYA tour was documented with a live album/DVD titled Music of Mass Destruction . In 2004, Anthrax released The Greater of Two Evils , a re-recording of several of the band's more popular songs from the pre-Bush era with the then-current lineup. In early 2005, Anthrax issued a press release stating that the band's Among the Living lineup was reuniting. Anthrax stated that Bush had not been fired, but with Joey Belladonna's return and talk of a new album in the works, it was unclear if Bush would record with them again. However, Joey Belladonna's exit from Anthrax in January 2007 fueled reports that Bush would return. However, Anthrax chose to recruit a new vocalist, Dan Nelson . In June 2007, Bush stated during an interview that he was not bitter about the split with Anthrax, revealing that they had asked him to take part in the reunion tour, which would have seen him and Belladonna splitting vocal duties, but that he turned it down because "it just wasn't right" for him. He was later approached again by the band to re-join following Belladonna's exit, which he again turned down, explaining: "I couldn't go back and say, 'Here I am...' It would be like coming in with my tail between my legs, and that's not right for me. I just couldn't do that. It just didn't feel right to do that. It was about soul, your gut. How does that feel? Does it feel right? Good enough. Sold. Answer." In August 2009, after Anthrax parted ways with their replacement singer Dan Nelson, Bush rejoined his former bandmates in Anthrax for a live performance on August 1, 2009, at the Sonisphere Festival in Knebworth, England. Following this performance, there were many calls for him to return full-time. Bush also performed with Anthrax at the Loud Park '09 Festival in Japan on October 17, 2009, followed by five concerts on the Soundwave tour in Australia in February 2010. On December 14, 2009, it was announced that the "Big Four" thrash bands would play in Poland and Czech Republic during the following year, among several other shows during the Sonisphere festival. It was expected that Anthrax would continue with Bush, but the other members ultimately chose to reunite with Joey Belladonna , as Bush was not up for recommitting to the group full-time. The band has since toured and recorded again with Belladonna. In September 2015, Bush caused some minor controversy after he went public concerning royalty issues with Anthrax, explaining: "they've had a lot of — a lot — of accounting and management issues that were affecting me personally. Dan Spitz has an issue with the band [...] he feels like he hasn't been paid by the band. And the dude made seven records with Anthrax. And the dude should be paid on those records that he made with the band. [...] It's, like, I'm out there signing Anthrax records I made. I just wanna be paid for the records [that were] made and sold. And it gives me pride in those records. And then when you don't [get paid], you become very bitter about it, and it's not cool." He did reveal however that the band had a new accounting company and that "they seem to be on the up and up now." Nevertheless, he was forced to respond to his comments on Armored Saint's Facebook page after fans criticised Anthrax for not paying Bush, admitting that "In hindsight I would have preferred to keep this between myself and the members of Anthrax." and clarifying that he had received royalties from the band though they had been "inconsistent", before declaring himself "Done with this topic." Bush has done commercial voiceovers for the fast food chain Burger King . In April 2011, German instrumental rock band Long Distance Calling released a self-titled full-length album, which features John Bush performing vocals for the track "Middleville". "Middleville" is the only track with vocals on that album. In December 2011, Metallica performed a 30th anniversary show with several guests, including Bush who joined Metallica onstage to perform " The Four Horsemen ", a song from Kill 'Em All in which Bush took the lead vocal just as Hetfield had wanted him to do almost three decades prior. After the performance, drummer Lars Ulrich took the microphone to say "It could have been a whole different story," then added in amazement at Bush's performance: "Wow!" Bush provided vocals for the 2013 action video game Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance . He is featured on the tracks "Return to Ashes" and "The Hot Wind Blowing". Bush performed vocals for the track "Bound by Silence" from Metal Allegiance 's 2018 album Volume II – Power Drunk Majesty . He appeared on the 2019 David Ellefson album Sleeping Giants , supplying lead vocals for the track "If You Were God". [ citation needed ]Bush is married to Tori and has a daughter and a son.

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Anthrax

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Bacillus anthracis

Bacillus anthracis is a gram-positive and rod-shaped bacterium that causes anthrax , a deadly disease to livestock and, occasionally, to humans. It is the only permanent ( obligate ) pathogen within the genus Bacillus . Its infection is a type of zoonosis , as it is transmitted from animals to humans. It was discovered by a German physician Robert Koch in 1876, and became the first bacterium to be experimentally shown as a pathogen. The discovery was also the first scientific evidence for the germ theory of diseases . B. anthracis measures about 3 to 5 μm long and 1 to 1.2 μm wide. The reference genome consists of a 5,227,419 bp circular chromosome and two extrachromosomal DNA plasmids , pXO1 and pXO2, of 181,677 and 94,830 bp respectively, which are responsible for the pathogenicity. It forms a protective layer called endospore by which it can remain inactive for many years and suddenly becomes infective under suitable environmental conditions. Because of the resilience of the endospore, the bacterium is one of the most popular biological weapons . The protein capsule (poly-D-gamma-glutamic acid) is key to evasion of the immune response. It feeds on the heme of blood protein haemoglobin using two secretory siderophore proteins, IsdX1 and IsdX2. Untreated B. anthracis infection is usually deadly. Infection is indicated by inflammatory, black, necrotic lesions ( eschars ). The sores usually appear on the face, neck, arms, or hands. Fatal symptoms include a flu-like fever, chest discomfort, diaphoresis (excessive sweating), and body aches. The first animal vaccine against anthrax was developed by French chemist Louis Pasteur in 1881. Different animal and human vaccines are now available. The infection can be treated with common antibiotics such as penicillins , quinolones , and tetracyclines .B. anthracis are rod-shaped bacteria, approximately 3 to 5 μm long and 1 to 1.2 μm wide. When grown in culture , they tend to form long chains of bacteria. On agar plates, they form large colonies several millimeters across that are generally white or cream colored. Most B. anthracis strains produce a capsule that gives colonies a slimy mucus-like appearance. It is one of few bacteria known to synthesize a weakly immunogenic and antiphagocytic protein capsule (poly-D-gamma-glutamic acid) that disguises the vegetative bacterium from the host immune system. Most bacteria are surrounded by a polysaccharide capsule rather than poly-g-D-glutamic acid which provides an evolutionary advantage to B. anthracis . Polysaccharides are associated with adhesion of neutrophil-secreted defensins that inactivate and degrade the bacteria. By not containing this macromolecule in the capsule, B. anthracis can evade a neutrophilic attack and continue to propagate infection. The difference in capsule composition is also significant because poly-g-D-glutamic acid has been hypothesized to create a negative charge which protects the vegetative phase of the bacteria from phagocytosis by macrophages . The capsule is degraded to a lower molecular mass and released from the bacterial cell surface to act as a decoy to protect the bacteria from complement . Like Bordetella pertussis , it forms a calmodulin -dependent adenylate cyclase exotoxin known as anthrax edema factor , along with anthrax lethal factor . It bears close genotypic and phenotypic resemblance to Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis . All three species share cellular dimensions and morphology . All form oval spores located centrally in an unswollen sporangium . B. anthracis endospores, in particular, are highly resilient, surviving extremes of temperature, low-nutrient environments, and harsh chemical treatment over decades or centuries. [ citation needed ] The endospore is a dehydrated cell with thick walls and additional layers that form inside the cell membrane. It can remain inactive for many years, but if it comes into a favorable environment, it begins to grow again. It initially develops inside the rod-shaped form. Features such as the location within the rod, the size and shape of the endospore, and whether or not it causes the wall of the rod to bulge out are characteristic of particular species of Bacillus . Depending upon the species, the endospores are round, oval, or occasionally cylindrical. They are highly refractile and contain dipicolinic acid . Electron micrograph sections show they have a thin outer endospore coat, a thick spore cortex , and an inner spore membrane surrounding the endospore contents. The endospores resist heat, drying, and many disinfectants (including 95% ethanol). Because of these attributes, B. anthracis endospores are extraordinarily well-suited to use (in powdered and aerosol form) as biological weapons . Such weaponization has been accomplished in the past by at least five state bioweapons programs—those of the United Kingdom , Japan , the United States , Russia , and Iraq —and has been attempted by several others. B. anthracis has a single chromosome which is a circular, 5,227,293-bp DNA molecule. It also has two circular, extrachromosomal, double-stranded DNA plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2. Both the pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids are required for full virulence and represent two distinct plasmid families. The pXO1 plasmid (182 kb) contains the genes that encode for the anthrax toxin components: pag (protective antigen, PA), lef (lethal factor, LF), and cya (edema factor, EF). These factors are contained within a 44.8-kb pathogenicity island (PAI). The lethal toxin is a combination of PA with LF and the edema toxin is a combination of PA with EF. The PAI also contains genes which encode a transcriptional activator AtxA and the repressor PagR, both of which regulate the expression of the anthrax toxin genes. pXO2 encodes a five-gene operon ( capBCADE ) which synthesizes a poly-γ-D-glutamic acid (polyglutamate) capsule. This capsule allows B. anthracis to evade the host immune system by protecting itself from phagocytosis . Expression of the capsule operon is activated by the transcriptional regulators AcpA and AcpB, located in the pXO2 pathogenicity island (35 kb). AcpA and AcpB expression are under the control of AtxA from pXO1. The pXO1 plasmid (182 kb) contains the genes that encode for the anthrax toxin components: pag (protective antigen, PA), lef (lethal factor, LF), and cya (edema factor, EF). These factors are contained within a 44.8-kb pathogenicity island (PAI). The lethal toxin is a combination of PA with LF and the edema toxin is a combination of PA with EF. The PAI also contains genes which encode a transcriptional activator AtxA and the repressor PagR, both of which regulate the expression of the anthrax toxin genes. pXO2 encodes a five-gene operon ( capBCADE ) which synthesizes a poly-γ-D-glutamic acid (polyglutamate) capsule. This capsule allows B. anthracis to evade the host immune system by protecting itself from phagocytosis . Expression of the capsule operon is activated by the transcriptional regulators AcpA and AcpB, located in the pXO2 pathogenicity island (35 kb). AcpA and AcpB expression are under the control of AtxA from pXO1. The 89 known strains of B. anthracis include: Vollum M-36, virulent British research strain; passed through macaques 36 times Vollum 1B, weaponized by the US and UK in the 1940s-60s Vollum-14578, used in UK bio-weapons trials which severely contaminated Gruinard Island in 1942 V770-NP1-R, the avirulent, nonencapsulated strain used in the BioThrax vaccine Ames Ancestor Ames FloridaWhole genome sequencing has made reconstruction of the B. anthracis phylogeny extremely accurate. A contributing factor to the reconstruction is B. anthracis being monomorphic, meaning it has low genetic diversity, including the absence of any measurable lateral DNA transfer since its derivation as a species. The lack of diversity is due to a short evolutionary history that has precluded mutational saturation in single nucleotide polymorphisms . A short evolutionary time does not necessarily mean a short chronological time. When DNA is replicated, mistakes occur which become genetic mutations. The buildup of these mutations over time leads to the evolution of a species. During the B. anthracis lifecycle, it spends a significant amount of time in the soil spore reservoir stage, in which DNA replication does not occur. These prolonged periods of dormancy have greatly reduced the evolutionary rate of the organism. B. anthracis belongs to the B. cereus group consisting of the strains: B. cereus , B. anthracis , B. thuringiensis , B. mycoides , and B. pseudomycoides . The first three strains are pathogenic or opportunistic to insects or mammals, while the last three are not considered pathogenic. The strains of this group are genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous overall, but some of the strains are more closely related and phylogenetically intermixed at the chromosome level. The B. cereus group generally exhibits complex genomes and most carry varying numbers of plasmids. B. cereus is a soil-dwelling bacterium which can colonize the gut of invertebrates as a symbiont and is a frequent cause of food poisoning It produces an emetic toxin, enterotoxins, and other virulence factors. The enterotoxins and virulence factors are encoded on the chromosome, while the emetic toxin is encoded on a 270-kb plasmid, pCER270. B. thuringiensis is an microrganism pathogen and is characterized by production of parasporal crystals of insecticidal toxins Cry and Cyt. The genes encoding these proteins are commonly located on plasmids which can be lost from the organism, making it indistinguishable from B. cereus . A phylogenomic analysis of the Cereus clade combined with average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis revealed that the B. anthracis species also includes strains annotated as B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. PlcR is a global transcriptional regulator which controls most of the secreted virulence factors in B. cereus and B. thuringiensis . It is chromosomally encoded and is ubiquitous throughout the cell. In B. anthracis , however, the plcR gene contains a single base change at position 640, a nonsense mutation, which creates a dysfunctional protein. While 1% of the B. cereus group carries an inactivated plcR gene, none of them carries the specific mutation found only in B. anthracis . The plcR gene is part of a two-gene operon with papR . The papR gene encodes a small protein which is secreted from the cell and then reimported as a processed heptapeptide forming a quorum-sensing system. The lack of PlcR in B. anthracis is a principle characteristic differentiating it from other members of the B. cereus group. While B. cereus and B. thuringiensis depend on the plcR gene for expression of their virulence factors, B. anthracis relies on the pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids for its virulence. Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis , i.e. B. cereus with the two plasmids, is also capable of causing anthrax.B. anthracis belongs to the B. cereus group consisting of the strains: B. cereus , B. anthracis , B. thuringiensis , B. mycoides , and B. pseudomycoides . The first three strains are pathogenic or opportunistic to insects or mammals, while the last three are not considered pathogenic. The strains of this group are genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous overall, but some of the strains are more closely related and phylogenetically intermixed at the chromosome level. The B. cereus group generally exhibits complex genomes and most carry varying numbers of plasmids. B. cereus is a soil-dwelling bacterium which can colonize the gut of invertebrates as a symbiont and is a frequent cause of food poisoning It produces an emetic toxin, enterotoxins, and other virulence factors. The enterotoxins and virulence factors are encoded on the chromosome, while the emetic toxin is encoded on a 270-kb plasmid, pCER270. B. thuringiensis is an microrganism pathogen and is characterized by production of parasporal crystals of insecticidal toxins Cry and Cyt. The genes encoding these proteins are commonly located on plasmids which can be lost from the organism, making it indistinguishable from B. cereus . A phylogenomic analysis of the Cereus clade combined with average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis revealed that the B. anthracis species also includes strains annotated as B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. PlcR is a global transcriptional regulator which controls most of the secreted virulence factors in B. cereus and B. thuringiensis . It is chromosomally encoded and is ubiquitous throughout the cell. In B. anthracis , however, the plcR gene contains a single base change at position 640, a nonsense mutation, which creates a dysfunctional protein. While 1% of the B. cereus group carries an inactivated plcR gene, none of them carries the specific mutation found only in B. anthracis . The plcR gene is part of a two-gene operon with papR . The papR gene encodes a small protein which is secreted from the cell and then reimported as a processed heptapeptide forming a quorum-sensing system. The lack of PlcR in B. anthracis is a principle characteristic differentiating it from other members of the B. cereus group. While B. cereus and B. thuringiensis depend on the plcR gene for expression of their virulence factors, B. anthracis relies on the pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids for its virulence. Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis , i.e. B. cereus with the two plasmids, is also capable of causing anthrax.B. anthracis possesses an antiphagocytic capsule essential for full virulence. The organism also produces three plasmid-coded exotoxins: edema factor, a calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase that causes elevation of intracellular cAMP and is responsible for the severe edema usually seen in B. anthracis infections, lethal toxin which is responsible for causing tissue necrosis, and protective antigen, so named because of its use in producing protective anthrax vaccines, which mediates cell entry of edema factor and lethal toxin. [ citation needed ] The symptoms in anthrax depend on the type of infection and can take anywhere from 1 day to more than 2 months to appear. All types of anthrax have the potential, if untreated, to spread throughout the body and cause severe illness and even death. Four forms of human anthrax disease are recognized based on their portal of entry . A number of anthrax vaccines have been developed for preventive use in livestock and humans. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA) may protect against cutaneous and inhalation anthrax. However, this vaccine is only used for at-risk adults before exposure to anthrax and has not been approved for use after exposure. Infections with B. anthracis can be treated with β-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin , and others which are active against Gram-positive bacteria. Penicillin-resistant B. anthracis can be treated with fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin or tetracycline antibiotics such as doxycycline . [ citation needed ]B. anthracis possesses an antiphagocytic capsule essential for full virulence. The organism also produces three plasmid-coded exotoxins: edema factor, a calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase that causes elevation of intracellular cAMP and is responsible for the severe edema usually seen in B. anthracis infections, lethal toxin which is responsible for causing tissue necrosis, and protective antigen, so named because of its use in producing protective anthrax vaccines, which mediates cell entry of edema factor and lethal toxin. [ citation needed ]The symptoms in anthrax depend on the type of infection and can take anywhere from 1 day to more than 2 months to appear. All types of anthrax have the potential, if untreated, to spread throughout the body and cause severe illness and even death. Four forms of human anthrax disease are recognized based on their portal of entry .A number of anthrax vaccines have been developed for preventive use in livestock and humans. Anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA) may protect against cutaneous and inhalation anthrax. However, this vaccine is only used for at-risk adults before exposure to anthrax and has not been approved for use after exposure. Infections with B. anthracis can be treated with β-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin , and others which are active against Gram-positive bacteria. Penicillin-resistant B. anthracis can be treated with fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin or tetracycline antibiotics such as doxycycline . [ citation needed ]Components of tea , such as polyphenols , have the ability to inhibit the activity both of B. anthracis and its toxin considerably; spores, however, are not affected. The addition of milk to the tea completely inhibits its antibacterial activity against anthrax. Activity against the B. anthracis in the laboratory does not prove that drinking tea affects the course of an infection, since it is unknown how these polyphenols are absorbed and distributed within the body. B. anthracis can be cultured on PLET agar, a selective and differential media designed to select specifically for B. anthracis . Advances in genotyping methods have led to improved genetic analysis for variation and relatedness. These methods include multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis ( MLVA ) and typing systems using canonical single-nucleotide polymorphisms . The Ames ancestor chromosome was sequenced in 2003 and contributes to the identification of genes involved in the virulence of B. anthracis . Recently, B. anthracis isolate H9401 was isolated from a Korean patient suffering from gastrointestinal anthrax. The goal of the Republic of Korea is to use this strain as a challenge strain to develop a recombinant vaccine against anthrax. The H9401 strain isolated in the Republic of Korea was sequenced using 454 GS-FLX technology and analyzed using several bioinformatics tools to align, annotate, and compare H9401 to other B. anthracis strains. The sequencing coverage level suggests a molecular ratio of pXO1:pXO2:chromosome as 3:2:1 which is identical to the Ames Florida and Ames Ancestor strains. H9401 has 99.679% sequence homology with Ames Ancestor with an amino acid sequence homology of 99.870%. H9401 has a circular chromosome (5,218,947 bp with 5,480 predicted ORFs ), the pXO1 plasmid (181,700 bp with 202 predicted ORFs), and the pXO2 plasmid (94,824 bp with 110 predicted ORFs). As compared to the Ames Ancestor chromosome above, the H9401 chromosome is about 8.5 kb smaller. Due to the high pathogenecity and sequence similarity to the Ames Ancestor, H9401 will be used as a reference for testing the efficacy of candidate anthrax vaccines by the Republic of Korea. Since the genome of B. anthracis was sequenced, alternative ways to battle this disease are being endeavored. Bacteria have developed several strategies to evade recognition by the immune system. The predominant mechanism for avoiding detection, employed by all bacteria is molecular camouflage. Slight modifications in the outer layer that render the bacteria practically invisible to lysozymes. Three of these modifications have been identified and characterized. These include (1) N-glycosylation of N-acetyl-muramic acid, (2) O-acetylation of N-acetylmuramic acid and (3) N-deacetylation of N-acetyl-glucosamine. Research during the last few years has focused on inhibiting such modifications. As a result the enzymatic mechanism of polysaccharide de-acetylases is being investigated, that catalyze the removal of an acetyl group from N-acetyl-glucosamine and N-acetyl-muramic acid, components of the peptidoglycan layer. [ citation needed ]Advances in genotyping methods have led to improved genetic analysis for variation and relatedness. These methods include multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis ( MLVA ) and typing systems using canonical single-nucleotide polymorphisms . The Ames ancestor chromosome was sequenced in 2003 and contributes to the identification of genes involved in the virulence of B. anthracis . Recently, B. anthracis isolate H9401 was isolated from a Korean patient suffering from gastrointestinal anthrax. The goal of the Republic of Korea is to use this strain as a challenge strain to develop a recombinant vaccine against anthrax. The H9401 strain isolated in the Republic of Korea was sequenced using 454 GS-FLX technology and analyzed using several bioinformatics tools to align, annotate, and compare H9401 to other B. anthracis strains. The sequencing coverage level suggests a molecular ratio of pXO1:pXO2:chromosome as 3:2:1 which is identical to the Ames Florida and Ames Ancestor strains. H9401 has 99.679% sequence homology with Ames Ancestor with an amino acid sequence homology of 99.870%. H9401 has a circular chromosome (5,218,947 bp with 5,480 predicted ORFs ), the pXO1 plasmid (181,700 bp with 202 predicted ORFs), and the pXO2 plasmid (94,824 bp with 110 predicted ORFs). As compared to the Ames Ancestor chromosome above, the H9401 chromosome is about 8.5 kb smaller. Due to the high pathogenecity and sequence similarity to the Ames Ancestor, H9401 will be used as a reference for testing the efficacy of candidate anthrax vaccines by the Republic of Korea. Since the genome of B. anthracis was sequenced, alternative ways to battle this disease are being endeavored. Bacteria have developed several strategies to evade recognition by the immune system. The predominant mechanism for avoiding detection, employed by all bacteria is molecular camouflage. Slight modifications in the outer layer that render the bacteria practically invisible to lysozymes. Three of these modifications have been identified and characterized. These include (1) N-glycosylation of N-acetyl-muramic acid, (2) O-acetylation of N-acetylmuramic acid and (3) N-deacetylation of N-acetyl-glucosamine. Research during the last few years has focused on inhibiting such modifications. As a result the enzymatic mechanism of polysaccharide de-acetylases is being investigated, that catalyze the removal of an acetyl group from N-acetyl-glucosamine and N-acetyl-muramic acid, components of the peptidoglycan layer. [ citation needed ]As with most other pathogenic bacteria, B. anthracis must acquire iron to grow and proliferate in its host environment. The most readily available iron sources for pathogenic bacteria are the heme groups used by the host in the transport of oxygen. To scavenge heme from host hemoglobin and myoglobin , B. anthracis uses two secretory siderophore proteins, IsdX1 and IsdX2. These proteins can separate heme from hemoglobin, allowing surface proteins of B. anthracis to transport it into the cell. B. anthracis must evade the immune system to establish a successful infection. B. anthracis spores are immediately phagocytosed by macrophages and dendritic cells once they enter the host. The dendritic cells can control the infection through effective intracellular elimination, but the macrophages can transport the bacteria directly inside the host by crossing a thin layer of epithelial or endothelial cells to reach the circulatory system. Normally, in the phagocytosis process, the pathogen is digested upon internalization by the macrophage. However, rather than being degraded, the anthrax spores hijack the function of the macrophage to evade recognition by the host immune system. Phagocytosis of B. anthracis spores begins when the transmembrane receptors on the extracellular membrane of the phagocyte interacts with a molecule on the surface of the spore. CD14, an extracellular protein embedded in the host membrane, binds to rhamnose residues of BclA, a glycoprotein of the B. anthracis exosporium, which promotes inside-out activation of the integrin Mac-1, enhancing spore internalization by macrophages. This cascade results in phagocytic cellular activation and induction of an inflammatory response. The presence of B. anthracis can be determined through samples taken on non-porous surfaces. How to sample with cellulose sponge on non-porous surfaces How to sample with macrofoam swab on non-porous surfacesFrench physician Casimir Davaine (1812-1882) demonstrated the symptoms of anthrax were invariably accompanied by the microbe B. anthracis . German physician Aloys Pollender (1799–1879) is credited for discovery. B. anthracis was the first bacterium conclusively demonstrated to cause disease, by Robert Koch in 1876. The species name anthracis is from the Greek anthrax (ἄνθραξ), meaning "coal" and referring to the most common form of the disease, cutaneous anthrax, in which large, black skin lesions are formed. Throughout the 19th century, Anthrax was an infection that involved several very important medical developments. The first vaccine containing live organisms was Louis Pasteur's veterinary anthrax vaccine.

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Anthrax_immune_globulin/html

Anthrax immune globulin

none Anthrax immune globulin , tradename Anthrasil, is a human immune globulin that is used in combination with antibiotics to treat anthrax . It was developed by Cangene and purchased in 2011 by the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) under Project Bioshield . On 24 March 2015 it was granted approval by the United States Food and Drug Administration for use in treating inhalation anthrax in conjunction with antibiotics . Anthrax immune globulin is prepared from the plasma of donors who have been vaccinated against anthrax. [ citation needed ]Due to the ethical and feasibility concerns with testing the efficacy of anthrax immune globulin in humans, it was tested in rabbits and monkeys under the FDA's animal efficacy rule . Following efficacy testing, anthrax immune globulin was tested for safety in human volunteers, where the most common side effects were headache, back pain, nausea and infusion site pain and swelling. [ citation needed ]

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Anthrax

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Thrash metal

Thrash metal (or simply thrash ) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and fast tempo. The songs usually use fast percussive beats and low-register guitar riffs , overlaid with shredding -style lead guitar work. The lyrical subject matter often includes criticism of The Establishment , opposition to armed conflicts , and at times shares a disdain for the Christian religion with that of black metal . The language is typically direct and denunciatory, an approach borrowed from Punk . The genre emerged in the early 1980s as musicians began fusing the double bass drumming and complex guitar stylings of the new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) with the speed and aggression of hardcore punk and the technicality of progressive music . Philosophically, thrash metal developed as a backlash against both the conservatism of the Reagan era and the much more moderate, pop -influenced, and widely accessible heavy metal subgenre of glam metal which also developed concurrently in the 1980s. The early thrash metal movement revolved around independent record labels, including Megaforce , Metal Blade , Combat , Roadrunner , and Noise , and the underground tape trading industry in both Europe and North America. The genre was commercially successful during the mid-to-late 1980s and early 1990s, with the "Big Four" of thrash metal – Metallica , Slayer , Megadeth , and Anthrax – being joined by Exodus , Overkill and Testament , as well as Brazil's Sepultura and the "Big Four" of German thrash metal : Kreator , Destruction , Sodom , and Tankard . Some of those bands are often credited for helping create, develop and popularize the genre. The thrash metal genre had declined in popularity by the mid-1990s, with the commercial success of numerous genres such as alternative rock , grunge , and later pop-punk and nu metal . During that period, some bands either disbanded or moved away from their thrash metal roots and more towards groove metal or alternative metal . The genre has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 2000s, with the arrival of various bands such as Bonded by Blood , Evile , Hatchet , Havok , Lamb of God , Municipal Waste , and Warbringer , who have all been credited for leading the so-called "thrash metal revival" scene. Thrash metal generally features fast tempos , low-register, complex guitar riffs , high-register guitar solos , and double bass drumming . The rhythm guitar parts are played with heavy distortion and often palm muted to create a tighter and more precise sound. Vocally, thrash metal can employ anything from melodic singing to shouted or screamed vocals. Most guitar solos are played at high speed and technically demanding, as they are usually characterized by shredding , and use advanced techniques such as sweep picking , legato phrasing , alternate picking , tremolo picking , string skipping , and two-hand tapping . David Ellefson , the original bassist of Megadeth , described thrash metal as "a combination of the attitude from punk rock but the riffs and complexities of traditional metal." The guitar riffs often use chromatic scales and emphasize the tritone and diminished intervals, instead of using conventional single-scale-based riffing. For example, the intro riff of Metallica 's " Master of Puppets " (the title track of the namesake album ) is a chromatic descent, followed by a chromatic ascent based on the tritone . Speed, pacing, and time changes also define thrash metal. Thrash tends to have an accelerating feel which may be due in large part to its aggressive drumming style. For example, drummers often use two bass drums, or a double-bass pedal to create a relentless, driving beat. Cymbal stops/ chokes are often used to transition from one riff to another or to precede an acceleration in tempo. Some common characteristics of the genre are fast guitar riffs with aggressive picking styles and fast guitar solos, and extensive use of two bass drums as opposed to the conventional use of only one, typical of most rock music. To keep up with the other instruments, many bassists use a plectrum (pick). However, some prominent thrash metal bassists have used their fingers , such as Frank Bello , Greg Christian , Steve Di Giorgio , Robert Trujillo , and Cliff Burton . Several bassists use a distorted bass tone , an approach popularized by Burton and Motörhead 's Lemmy . Lyrical themes in thrash metal include warfare, corruption, injustice, murder, suicide, isolation, alienation, addiction, and other maladies that afflict the individual and society. In addition, politics, particularly pessimism and dissatisfaction towards politics, are common themes among thrash metal bands. Humor and irony can occasionally be found ( Anthrax for example), but they are limited, and are an exception rather than a rule. Black Sabbath 's 1975 song " Symptom of the Universe " is often referred to as a compelling early influence on thrash, and was a direct inspiration for Diamond Head 's pioneering song " Am I Evil? ". The new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) bands emerging from Britain in the late 1970s further influenced the development of early thrash. The early work of artists such as Diamond Head, Iron Maiden , Venom , Motörhead , Tygers of Pan Tang , Raven , and Angel Witch , among others, introduced the fast-paced and intricate musicianship that became core aspects of thrash. Phil Taylor 's double-bass drumming featured in Motörhead's 1979 song " Overkill " has been acknowledged by many thrash drummers, most notably Lars Ulrich , as a primary influence on their playing. Thrash metal bands have also taken inspiration from Judas Priest , with Slayer guitarist Kerry King saying that, "There would be no Slayer without Priest." Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel played a key role in bringing the NWOBHM to a larger audience, as he was responsible for discovering both Metallica and Slayer and producing their earliest studio recordings. In addition to the NWOBHM and the late 1960s and 1970s hard rock and heavy metal scenes, progressive rock has been cited as an important influence on the creation of thrash metal and its subgenre technical thrash metal (or " progressive thrash metal"), the latter of which adds elements of progressive, jazz or classical music . Greg Prato of Ultimate Guitar noted: "Although the thrash movement seemed to have much more in common with punk than prog fashion-wise (leather jackets vs. capes), musically, there were certainly moments when thrash leaned more towards the prog side of things." Void is hailed as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover, whose chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential. Their 1982 split LP with fellow Washington band The Faith showed both bands exhibiting quick, fiery, high-speed punk rock . It has been argued that those recordings laid the foundation for early thrash metal, at least in terms of selected tempos. In Latin America, this genre also gained a lot of strength, and its creation is also attributed to it, since it began to gain popularity due to the dictatorships that many countries faced at that time, with bands like V8 (1979) with their debut albums Demo 1982 or Luchando por el metal , and Bloke (1980) from Argentina , Transmetal (1987) from México , also the band Massakre (1985) in Chile . In Europe, the earliest band of the emerging thrash movement was Venom from Newcastle upon Tyne , formed in 1979. Their 1982 album Black Metal has been cited as a major influence on many subsequent genres and bands in the extreme metal world, such as Bathory , Hellhammer , Slayer, and Mayhem . The European scene was almost exclusively influenced by the most aggressive music Germany and England were producing at the time. British bands such as Tank and Raven , along with German bands Accept (whose 1982 song " Fast as a Shark " is often credited as one of the first-ever thrash/speed metal songs) and Living Death , motivated musicians from central Europe to start bands of their own, eventually producing groups such as Sodom , Kreator , and Destruction from Germany, as well as Switzerland's Celtic Frost (formed by two-thirds of Hellhammer ), Coroner and Carrion (who later became Poltergeist ) and Denmark's Artillery . The crossover with hardcore punk has also been cited as important influence on thrash, especially the English hardcore punk band Discharge , whose "influence on heavy metal is incalculable and metal superstars such as Metallica, Anthrax, Machine Head , Sepultura , Soulfly , Prong and Arch Enemy have covered Discharge's songs in tribute." In 1981, Los Angeles band Leather Charm wrote a song entitled "Hit the Lights". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitarist James Hetfield , met drummer Lars Ulrich through a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formed Metallica , one of the "Big Four" thrash bands, with lead guitarist Dave Mustaine , who would later form Megadeth , another of the "Big Four" originators of thrash, and bassist Ron McGovney . McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly of Trauma ), and Mustaine was later replaced by Kirk Hammett of the then-unsigned Bay Area thrash metal act Exodus , and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area . Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel asked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as "Mettallica") to record "Hit the Lights" for the first edition of his Metal Massacre compilation in 1982. An updated version of "Hit the Lights" would later open their first studio album, Kill 'Em All , released in mid-1983. The term "thrash metal" was first used in the music press by Kerrang! magazine's journalist Malcolm Dome while referring to another of the "Big Four", Anthrax (who, like Metallica, formed in 1981), and their song "Metal Thrashing Mad". Before this, Metallica frontman James Hetfield referred to his band's sound as speed metal or power metal . Another "Big Four" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King met while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassist Tom Araya and drummer Dave Lombardo , and Slayer was formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel; the band's live performance of Iron Maiden 's "Phantom of the Opera" so impressed him that he promptly signed them to his label. In December 1983, five months after the release of Metallica's debut Kill 'Em All , Slayer released their debut album, Show No Mercy . To the north, Canada produced influential thrash and speed metal bands such as Annihilator , Anvil , Exciter , Razor , Sacrifice , and Voivod . The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore record Ride the Lightning , as well as Anthrax's debut Fistful of Metal . Slayer and Overkill released extended plays on independent labels during this era, Haunting the Chapel and Overkill respectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut album Bonded by Blood , Slayer's Hell Awaits and Anthrax's Spreading the Disease , all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth's Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! , Overkill's Feel the Fire , Kreator's Endless Pain , Destruction's Infernal Overkill , Possessed 's Seven Churches , Celtic Frost 's To Mega Therion , Watchtower 's Energetic Disassembly and the Sepultura EP Bestial Devastation . Seven Churches and To Mega Therion are often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980s extreme metal scene (as well as the then-developing genres of death metal and black metal , respectively), while Energetic Disassembly has been cited as the first progressive/technical thrash metal album. From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal, [ citation needed ] as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debut Master of Puppets was released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton , who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator released Pleasure to Kill in April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene. Megadeth released Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and which AllMusic later cited as "a classic of early thrash". Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s, [ unreliable source? ] released Reign in Blood in October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre. Also in October, Nuclear Assault released their debut album Game Over , followed a month later by Dark Angel 's Darkness Descends , which marked the debut of renowned drummer Gene Hoglan . Flotsam and Jetsam 's debut album Doomsday for the Deceiver (released on the Fourth of July in 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being "the first of only a handful" to ever receive a 6K rating from Kerrang! magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted , who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement. Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such as Suicidal Tendencies , D.R.I. , S.O.D. (who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), and Corrosion of Conformity paved the way to what became known as crossover thrash , a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. In 1987, Anthrax released their third album Among the Living , which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Death Angel took a similar approach with their 1987 debut, The Ultra-Violence . In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, including Suicidal Tendencies , who are often considered to be one of the "fathers of crossover thrash", and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitarists Rocky George and Mike Clark ); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums, How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today (1988) and Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu (1989). D.R.I. 's music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s, Crossover (1987), 4 of a Kind (1988), and Thrash Zone (1989), and other bands would follow suit, including The Exploited , Excel (from Suicidal Tendencies' hometown of Venice ) and New York hardcore acts M.O.D. (fronted by former S.O.D. singer Billy Milano ), the Cro-Mags and the Crumbsuckers . Sepultura's third album, Beneath the Remains (1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released by Roadrunner Records . Testament released three albums between 1987 and 1989, The Legacy , The New Order , and Practice What You Preach , all showing the band's musical growth and gaining Testament nearly the same level of popularity as the "Big Four", while Exodus ' third album Fabulous Disaster (1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, the mosh-pit anthem " The Toxic Waltz ". Vio-lence , Forbidden , and Sadus , three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albums Eternal Nightmare , Forbidden Evil , and Illusions , respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass of Steve Di Giorgio . Also in 1988, Blind Illusion released its only studio album for more than two decades, The Sane Asylum , which received some particular attention as it was produced by Kirk Hammett , and is also notable for featuring bassist Les Claypool and former Possessed guitarist Larry LaLonde ; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming band Primus . Canadian thrashers Annihilator released their highly technical debut Alice in Hell in 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom released Agent Orange , and Kreator would release Extreme Aggression . Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner's No More Color , Dark Angel's Leave Scars , Toxik 's Think This , and Watchtower 's Control and Resistance , which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones of jazz-metal fusion and a major influence on the technical death metal genre, while Forced Entry 's debut album Uncertain Future helped pioneer the late 1980s Seattle music scene. From 1987 to 1989, Overkill released Taking Over , Under the Influence , and The Years of Decay , three albums considered their best. Each of the "Big Four" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer released South of Heaven , Megadeth released So Far, So Good... So What! , Anthrax released State of Euphoria while Metallica's ...And Justice for All spawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, the World War I –themed song " One ". Many thrash metal bands benefited from the exposure they received on MTV 's Headbangers Ball , radio stations such as KNAC in Long Beach and Z Rock in Dallas , and coverage on numerous publications, including Kerrang! and RIP Magazine . These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during the late 1980s, but helped push album sales of the genre's "Big Four" and similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums. One of the most notable events in thrash metal's growing popularity during this period was the summer of 1988 Monsters of Rock tour in North America (co-headlined by Van Halen and Scorpions ), at which Metallica was one of the supporting acts and drew the largest audiences of the two-month-long arena and stadium tour. In the following year, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus and Helloween on a US arena tour sponsored by Headbangers Ball . A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth's Rust in Peace , Anthrax's Persistence of Time , Slayer's Seasons in the Abyss , Suicidal Tendencies' Lights...Camera...Revolution! , Testament's Souls of Black , Kreator's Coma of Souls , Destruction's Cracked Brain , Forbidden's Twisted into Form , Exodus' Impact Is Imminent , Sacred Reich 's The American Way , Prong 's Beg to Differ , Pantera 's Cowboys from Hell and Exhorder 's Slaughter in the Vatican ; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developing groove metal genre. All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called the Clash of the Titans ; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in North America had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle band Alice in Chains , who were the supporting act. Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill's Horrorscope , Heathen 's Victims of Deception , Dark Angel 's Time Does Not Heal , Sepultura's Arise , Coroner's Mental Vortex , Prong's Prove You Wrong and Forced Entry's As Above, So Below . In 1991, Metallica released their eponymous fifth studio album , known as "The Black Album". The album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with original hard rock elements, but still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal. It would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones. The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of the alternative metal and grunge movements (the latter started by Nirvana , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains and Pearl Jam ). In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the "Big Four" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles. Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid–to–late 1990s albums Load , and ReLoad , which displayed minor blues and southern rock influences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound. Megadeth took a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 album Countdown to Extinction . Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albums The Ritual , Force of Habit , and Cuatro , respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash, Corrosion of Conformity , began changing their sound into a slower and Black Sabbath -influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures of sludge , doom metal , blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, including Blind (1991), Deliverance (1994) and Wiseblood (1996). In the wake of the success of groove metal , instigated by Pantera (who went on to become one of the most successful heavy metal bands of the 1990s), several thrash metal established bands started to expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre. Anthrax, who had recently replaced Joey Belladonna with John Bush as their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and including Sound of White Noise (1993). Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albums Independent , I Hear Black , Grin , Cleansing , Low , and Distortion . Sepultura's 1993 album Chaos A.D. also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands like Korn , who reciprocally became the inspiration behind the nu metal style of the band's next album Roots (1996). Roots would influence a generation of bands from Linkin Park to Slipknot , which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene. Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, the second wave of black metal emerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially in Norway . This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the "first wave" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm. As further extreme metal genres came to prominence in the 1990s ( industrial metal , death metal, and black metal each finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal "family tree" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles. For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began using death growls , a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel of synthesizers , popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs. A few thrash metal bands from the 1980s and early 1990s, particularly the genre's U.S. "big four", continued recording and touring with success in the 2000s. In 2003, Anthrax released their first studio album in five years We've Come for You All , followed a month later by Metallica's double platinum-certified album St. Anger . After one more album, The World Needs a Hero , in 2001, Megadeth disbanded in 2002 due to an arm injury that had left Dave Mustaine unable to play guitar; he would eventually reform the band for a handful albums, including The System Has Failed (2004) which was originally going to be released as a solo album by him, before reuniting with co-founding member and bassist David Ellefson in 2010. Slayer released three albums in the 2000s: God Hates Us All (2001), which saw a return to their signature thrash metal sound, followed by Christ Illusion (2006) and World Painted Blood (2009), both of which marked their first studio albums with drummer Dave Lombardo in nearly two decades. Although their career had declined from its peak in the 1990s, Overkill was perhaps one of the most-active thrash metal groups outside of the "big four", having never disbanded or taken longer breaks in-between records, and by 2000's Bloodletting , they were the first band in the genre to release more than ten studio albums. Overkill regained their previous level of popularity in the 2010s, with three of their albums, The Electric Age (2012), White Devil Armory (2014) and The Grinding Wheel (2017), entering the Top 100 on the Billboard charts. The resurgence of interest in the thrash metal genre during the early 2000s was widely attributed to the Thrash of the Titans festival, which was held in August 2001 as a co-benefit concert for Testament singer Chuck Billy and Death 's Chuck Schuldiner , who were both battling cancer. The show is also notable for seeing several of Testament's Bay Area thrash metal contemporaries, including Exodus, Death Angel, Vio-lence , Forbidden Evil , Sadus and Legacy (a precursor to Testament), reunited. Many thrash metal bands from outside of the Bay Area would subsquently reunite, including Anthrax (twice with Joey Belladonna and briefly with John Bush ), Dark Angel , Nuclear Assault , Sacred Reich , UK bands Onslaught , Sabbat , and Xentrix , and Canada's Sacrifice , renewing interest in previous decades. The term "thrash-revivalists" has been applied to such bands as Lamb of God , Municipal Waste , Evile , Havok , Warbringer , Vektor , Bonded by Blood , Hatchet , and Power Trip . Evile's 2007 debut album Enter the Grave , produced by former Metallica producer and engineer Flemming Rasmussen , received considerable praise for its sound, which combined elements of the sounds of Slayer and the Bay Area scene (particularly Exodus and Testament). Los Angeles-based bands Warbringer and Bonded by Blood took a similar approach on their respective debut albums, War Without End and Feed the Beast , both released in 2008. Perhaps the most commercially successful band from the 2000s and 2010s thrash metal revival movement is Lamb of God, who are also considered a key part of the new wave of American heavy metal movement, have received two gold-certified albums in the U.S., and continue to play from small clubs to arenas and stadiums. Notable bands returned to their roots with releases such as Kreator's Violent Revolution (2001), Metallica's Death Magnetic (2008), Megadeth's Endgame (2009), Slayer's World Painted Blood (2009), Exodus' Exhibit B: The Human Condition (2010), Overkill's Ironbound (2010), Anthrax's Worship Music (2011), Testament's Dark Roots of Earth (2012), and Flotsam and Jetsam's Ugly Noise (2012). More recent bands of the genre, such as Havok and Legion of the Damned have turned their focus towards a more aggressive rendition of thrash metal, incorporating elements of melodic death metal .Black Sabbath 's 1975 song " Symptom of the Universe " is often referred to as a compelling early influence on thrash, and was a direct inspiration for Diamond Head 's pioneering song " Am I Evil? ". The new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) bands emerging from Britain in the late 1970s further influenced the development of early thrash. The early work of artists such as Diamond Head, Iron Maiden , Venom , Motörhead , Tygers of Pan Tang , Raven , and Angel Witch , among others, introduced the fast-paced and intricate musicianship that became core aspects of thrash. Phil Taylor 's double-bass drumming featured in Motörhead's 1979 song " Overkill " has been acknowledged by many thrash drummers, most notably Lars Ulrich , as a primary influence on their playing. Thrash metal bands have also taken inspiration from Judas Priest , with Slayer guitarist Kerry King saying that, "There would be no Slayer without Priest." Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel played a key role in bringing the NWOBHM to a larger audience, as he was responsible for discovering both Metallica and Slayer and producing their earliest studio recordings. In addition to the NWOBHM and the late 1960s and 1970s hard rock and heavy metal scenes, progressive rock has been cited as an important influence on the creation of thrash metal and its subgenre technical thrash metal (or " progressive thrash metal"), the latter of which adds elements of progressive, jazz or classical music . Greg Prato of Ultimate Guitar noted: "Although the thrash movement seemed to have much more in common with punk than prog fashion-wise (leather jackets vs. capes), musically, there were certainly moments when thrash leaned more towards the prog side of things." Void is hailed as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover, whose chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential. Their 1982 split LP with fellow Washington band The Faith showed both bands exhibiting quick, fiery, high-speed punk rock . It has been argued that those recordings laid the foundation for early thrash metal, at least in terms of selected tempos. In Latin America, this genre also gained a lot of strength, and its creation is also attributed to it, since it began to gain popularity due to the dictatorships that many countries faced at that time, with bands like V8 (1979) with their debut albums Demo 1982 or Luchando por el metal , and Bloke (1980) from Argentina , Transmetal (1987) from México , also the band Massakre (1985) in Chile . In Europe, the earliest band of the emerging thrash movement was Venom from Newcastle upon Tyne , formed in 1979. Their 1982 album Black Metal has been cited as a major influence on many subsequent genres and bands in the extreme metal world, such as Bathory , Hellhammer , Slayer, and Mayhem . The European scene was almost exclusively influenced by the most aggressive music Germany and England were producing at the time. British bands such as Tank and Raven , along with German bands Accept (whose 1982 song " Fast as a Shark " is often credited as one of the first-ever thrash/speed metal songs) and Living Death , motivated musicians from central Europe to start bands of their own, eventually producing groups such as Sodom , Kreator , and Destruction from Germany, as well as Switzerland's Celtic Frost (formed by two-thirds of Hellhammer ), Coroner and Carrion (who later became Poltergeist ) and Denmark's Artillery . The crossover with hardcore punk has also been cited as important influence on thrash, especially the English hardcore punk band Discharge , whose "influence on heavy metal is incalculable and metal superstars such as Metallica, Anthrax, Machine Head , Sepultura , Soulfly , Prong and Arch Enemy have covered Discharge's songs in tribute." In 1981, Los Angeles band Leather Charm wrote a song entitled "Hit the Lights". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitarist James Hetfield , met drummer Lars Ulrich through a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formed Metallica , one of the "Big Four" thrash bands, with lead guitarist Dave Mustaine , who would later form Megadeth , another of the "Big Four" originators of thrash, and bassist Ron McGovney . McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly of Trauma ), and Mustaine was later replaced by Kirk Hammett of the then-unsigned Bay Area thrash metal act Exodus , and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area . Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel asked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as "Mettallica") to record "Hit the Lights" for the first edition of his Metal Massacre compilation in 1982. An updated version of "Hit the Lights" would later open their first studio album, Kill 'Em All , released in mid-1983. The term "thrash metal" was first used in the music press by Kerrang! magazine's journalist Malcolm Dome while referring to another of the "Big Four", Anthrax (who, like Metallica, formed in 1981), and their song "Metal Thrashing Mad". Before this, Metallica frontman James Hetfield referred to his band's sound as speed metal or power metal . Another "Big Four" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King met while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassist Tom Araya and drummer Dave Lombardo , and Slayer was formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel; the band's live performance of Iron Maiden 's "Phantom of the Opera" so impressed him that he promptly signed them to his label. In December 1983, five months after the release of Metallica's debut Kill 'Em All , Slayer released their debut album, Show No Mercy . To the north, Canada produced influential thrash and speed metal bands such as Annihilator , Anvil , Exciter , Razor , Sacrifice , and Voivod . The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore record Ride the Lightning , as well as Anthrax's debut Fistful of Metal . Slayer and Overkill released extended plays on independent labels during this era, Haunting the Chapel and Overkill respectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut album Bonded by Blood , Slayer's Hell Awaits and Anthrax's Spreading the Disease , all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth's Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! , Overkill's Feel the Fire , Kreator's Endless Pain , Destruction's Infernal Overkill , Possessed 's Seven Churches , Celtic Frost 's To Mega Therion , Watchtower 's Energetic Disassembly and the Sepultura EP Bestial Devastation . Seven Churches and To Mega Therion are often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980s extreme metal scene (as well as the then-developing genres of death metal and black metal , respectively), while Energetic Disassembly has been cited as the first progressive/technical thrash metal album. From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal, [ citation needed ] as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debut Master of Puppets was released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton , who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator released Pleasure to Kill in April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene. Megadeth released Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and which AllMusic later cited as "a classic of early thrash". Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s, [ unreliable source? ] released Reign in Blood in October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre. Also in October, Nuclear Assault released their debut album Game Over , followed a month later by Dark Angel 's Darkness Descends , which marked the debut of renowned drummer Gene Hoglan . Flotsam and Jetsam 's debut album Doomsday for the Deceiver (released on the Fourth of July in 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being "the first of only a handful" to ever receive a 6K rating from Kerrang! magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted , who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement. Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such as Suicidal Tendencies , D.R.I. , S.O.D. (who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), and Corrosion of Conformity paved the way to what became known as crossover thrash , a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. In 1987, Anthrax released their third album Among the Living , which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Death Angel took a similar approach with their 1987 debut, The Ultra-Violence . In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, including Suicidal Tendencies , who are often considered to be one of the "fathers of crossover thrash", and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitarists Rocky George and Mike Clark ); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums, How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today (1988) and Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu (1989). D.R.I. 's music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s, Crossover (1987), 4 of a Kind (1988), and Thrash Zone (1989), and other bands would follow suit, including The Exploited , Excel (from Suicidal Tendencies' hometown of Venice ) and New York hardcore acts M.O.D. (fronted by former S.O.D. singer Billy Milano ), the Cro-Mags and the Crumbsuckers . Sepultura's third album, Beneath the Remains (1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released by Roadrunner Records . Testament released three albums between 1987 and 1989, The Legacy , The New Order , and Practice What You Preach , all showing the band's musical growth and gaining Testament nearly the same level of popularity as the "Big Four", while Exodus ' third album Fabulous Disaster (1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, the mosh-pit anthem " The Toxic Waltz ". Vio-lence , Forbidden , and Sadus , three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albums Eternal Nightmare , Forbidden Evil , and Illusions , respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass of Steve Di Giorgio . Also in 1988, Blind Illusion released its only studio album for more than two decades, The Sane Asylum , which received some particular attention as it was produced by Kirk Hammett , and is also notable for featuring bassist Les Claypool and former Possessed guitarist Larry LaLonde ; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming band Primus . Canadian thrashers Annihilator released their highly technical debut Alice in Hell in 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom released Agent Orange , and Kreator would release Extreme Aggression . Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner's No More Color , Dark Angel's Leave Scars , Toxik 's Think This , and Watchtower 's Control and Resistance , which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones of jazz-metal fusion and a major influence on the technical death metal genre, while Forced Entry 's debut album Uncertain Future helped pioneer the late 1980s Seattle music scene. From 1987 to 1989, Overkill released Taking Over , Under the Influence , and The Years of Decay , three albums considered their best. Each of the "Big Four" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer released South of Heaven , Megadeth released So Far, So Good... So What! , Anthrax released State of Euphoria while Metallica's ...And Justice for All spawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, the World War I –themed song " One ". Many thrash metal bands benefited from the exposure they received on MTV 's Headbangers Ball , radio stations such as KNAC in Long Beach and Z Rock in Dallas , and coverage on numerous publications, including Kerrang! and RIP Magazine . These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during the late 1980s, but helped push album sales of the genre's "Big Four" and similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums. One of the most notable events in thrash metal's growing popularity during this period was the summer of 1988 Monsters of Rock tour in North America (co-headlined by Van Halen and Scorpions ), at which Metallica was one of the supporting acts and drew the largest audiences of the two-month-long arena and stadium tour. In the following year, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus and Helloween on a US arena tour sponsored by Headbangers Ball . In 1981, Los Angeles band Leather Charm wrote a song entitled "Hit the Lights". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitarist James Hetfield , met drummer Lars Ulrich through a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formed Metallica , one of the "Big Four" thrash bands, with lead guitarist Dave Mustaine , who would later form Megadeth , another of the "Big Four" originators of thrash, and bassist Ron McGovney . McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly of Trauma ), and Mustaine was later replaced by Kirk Hammett of the then-unsigned Bay Area thrash metal act Exodus , and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area . Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel asked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as "Mettallica") to record "Hit the Lights" for the first edition of his Metal Massacre compilation in 1982. An updated version of "Hit the Lights" would later open their first studio album, Kill 'Em All , released in mid-1983. The term "thrash metal" was first used in the music press by Kerrang! magazine's journalist Malcolm Dome while referring to another of the "Big Four", Anthrax (who, like Metallica, formed in 1981), and their song "Metal Thrashing Mad". Before this, Metallica frontman James Hetfield referred to his band's sound as speed metal or power metal . Another "Big Four" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King met while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassist Tom Araya and drummer Dave Lombardo , and Slayer was formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel; the band's live performance of Iron Maiden 's "Phantom of the Opera" so impressed him that he promptly signed them to his label. In December 1983, five months after the release of Metallica's debut Kill 'Em All , Slayer released their debut album, Show No Mercy . To the north, Canada produced influential thrash and speed metal bands such as Annihilator , Anvil , Exciter , Razor , Sacrifice , and Voivod .The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore record Ride the Lightning , as well as Anthrax's debut Fistful of Metal . Slayer and Overkill released extended plays on independent labels during this era, Haunting the Chapel and Overkill respectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut album Bonded by Blood , Slayer's Hell Awaits and Anthrax's Spreading the Disease , all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth's Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! , Overkill's Feel the Fire , Kreator's Endless Pain , Destruction's Infernal Overkill , Possessed 's Seven Churches , Celtic Frost 's To Mega Therion , Watchtower 's Energetic Disassembly and the Sepultura EP Bestial Devastation . Seven Churches and To Mega Therion are often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980s extreme metal scene (as well as the then-developing genres of death metal and black metal , respectively), while Energetic Disassembly has been cited as the first progressive/technical thrash metal album. From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal, [ citation needed ] as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debut Master of Puppets was released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton , who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator released Pleasure to Kill in April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene. Megadeth released Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and which AllMusic later cited as "a classic of early thrash". Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s, [ unreliable source? ] released Reign in Blood in October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre. Also in October, Nuclear Assault released their debut album Game Over , followed a month later by Dark Angel 's Darkness Descends , which marked the debut of renowned drummer Gene Hoglan . Flotsam and Jetsam 's debut album Doomsday for the Deceiver (released on the Fourth of July in 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being "the first of only a handful" to ever receive a 6K rating from Kerrang! magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted , who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement. Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such as Suicidal Tendencies , D.R.I. , S.O.D. (who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), and Corrosion of Conformity paved the way to what became known as crossover thrash , a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. In 1987, Anthrax released their third album Among the Living , which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Death Angel took a similar approach with their 1987 debut, The Ultra-Violence . In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, including Suicidal Tendencies , who are often considered to be one of the "fathers of crossover thrash", and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitarists Rocky George and Mike Clark ); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums, How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today (1988) and Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu (1989). D.R.I. 's music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s, Crossover (1987), 4 of a Kind (1988), and Thrash Zone (1989), and other bands would follow suit, including The Exploited , Excel (from Suicidal Tendencies' hometown of Venice ) and New York hardcore acts M.O.D. (fronted by former S.O.D. singer Billy Milano ), the Cro-Mags and the Crumbsuckers . Sepultura's third album, Beneath the Remains (1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released by Roadrunner Records . Testament released three albums between 1987 and 1989, The Legacy , The New Order , and Practice What You Preach , all showing the band's musical growth and gaining Testament nearly the same level of popularity as the "Big Four", while Exodus ' third album Fabulous Disaster (1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, the mosh-pit anthem " The Toxic Waltz ". Vio-lence , Forbidden , and Sadus , three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albums Eternal Nightmare , Forbidden Evil , and Illusions , respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass of Steve Di Giorgio . Also in 1988, Blind Illusion released its only studio album for more than two decades, The Sane Asylum , which received some particular attention as it was produced by Kirk Hammett , and is also notable for featuring bassist Les Claypool and former Possessed guitarist Larry LaLonde ; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming band Primus . Canadian thrashers Annihilator released their highly technical debut Alice in Hell in 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom released Agent Orange , and Kreator would release Extreme Aggression . Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner's No More Color , Dark Angel's Leave Scars , Toxik 's Think This , and Watchtower 's Control and Resistance , which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones of jazz-metal fusion and a major influence on the technical death metal genre, while Forced Entry 's debut album Uncertain Future helped pioneer the late 1980s Seattle music scene. From 1987 to 1989, Overkill released Taking Over , Under the Influence , and The Years of Decay , three albums considered their best. Each of the "Big Four" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer released South of Heaven , Megadeth released So Far, So Good... So What! , Anthrax released State of Euphoria while Metallica's ...And Justice for All spawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, the World War I –themed song " One ". Many thrash metal bands benefited from the exposure they received on MTV 's Headbangers Ball , radio stations such as KNAC in Long Beach and Z Rock in Dallas , and coverage on numerous publications, including Kerrang! and RIP Magazine . These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during the late 1980s, but helped push album sales of the genre's "Big Four" and similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums. One of the most notable events in thrash metal's growing popularity during this period was the summer of 1988 Monsters of Rock tour in North America (co-headlined by Van Halen and Scorpions ), at which Metallica was one of the supporting acts and drew the largest audiences of the two-month-long arena and stadium tour. In the following year, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus and Helloween on a US arena tour sponsored by Headbangers Ball . The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore record Ride the Lightning , as well as Anthrax's debut Fistful of Metal . Slayer and Overkill released extended plays on independent labels during this era, Haunting the Chapel and Overkill respectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut album Bonded by Blood , Slayer's Hell Awaits and Anthrax's Spreading the Disease , all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth's Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! , Overkill's Feel the Fire , Kreator's Endless Pain , Destruction's Infernal Overkill , Possessed 's Seven Churches , Celtic Frost 's To Mega Therion , Watchtower 's Energetic Disassembly and the Sepultura EP Bestial Devastation . Seven Churches and To Mega Therion are often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980s extreme metal scene (as well as the then-developing genres of death metal and black metal , respectively), while Energetic Disassembly has been cited as the first progressive/technical thrash metal album. From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal, [ citation needed ] as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debut Master of Puppets was released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton , who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator released Pleasure to Kill in April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene. Megadeth released Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and which AllMusic later cited as "a classic of early thrash". Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s, [ unreliable source? ] released Reign in Blood in October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre. Also in October, Nuclear Assault released their debut album Game Over , followed a month later by Dark Angel 's Darkness Descends , which marked the debut of renowned drummer Gene Hoglan . Flotsam and Jetsam 's debut album Doomsday for the Deceiver (released on the Fourth of July in 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being "the first of only a handful" to ever receive a 6K rating from Kerrang! magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted , who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement. Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such as Suicidal Tendencies , D.R.I. , S.O.D. (who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), and Corrosion of Conformity paved the way to what became known as crossover thrash , a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. In 1987, Anthrax released their third album Among the Living , which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Death Angel took a similar approach with their 1987 debut, The Ultra-Violence . In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, including Suicidal Tendencies , who are often considered to be one of the "fathers of crossover thrash", and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitarists Rocky George and Mike Clark ); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums, How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today (1988) and Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu (1989). D.R.I. 's music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s, Crossover (1987), 4 of a Kind (1988), and Thrash Zone (1989), and other bands would follow suit, including The Exploited , Excel (from Suicidal Tendencies' hometown of Venice ) and New York hardcore acts M.O.D. (fronted by former S.O.D. singer Billy Milano ), the Cro-Mags and the Crumbsuckers . Sepultura's third album, Beneath the Remains (1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released by Roadrunner Records . Testament released three albums between 1987 and 1989, The Legacy , The New Order , and Practice What You Preach , all showing the band's musical growth and gaining Testament nearly the same level of popularity as the "Big Four", while Exodus ' third album Fabulous Disaster (1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, the mosh-pit anthem " The Toxic Waltz ". Vio-lence , Forbidden , and Sadus , three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albums Eternal Nightmare , Forbidden Evil , and Illusions , respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass of Steve Di Giorgio . Also in 1988, Blind Illusion released its only studio album for more than two decades, The Sane Asylum , which received some particular attention as it was produced by Kirk Hammett , and is also notable for featuring bassist Les Claypool and former Possessed guitarist Larry LaLonde ; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming band Primus . Canadian thrashers Annihilator released their highly technical debut Alice in Hell in 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom released Agent Orange , and Kreator would release Extreme Aggression . Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner's No More Color , Dark Angel's Leave Scars , Toxik 's Think This , and Watchtower 's Control and Resistance , which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones of jazz-metal fusion and a major influence on the technical death metal genre, while Forced Entry 's debut album Uncertain Future helped pioneer the late 1980s Seattle music scene. From 1987 to 1989, Overkill released Taking Over , Under the Influence , and The Years of Decay , three albums considered their best. Each of the "Big Four" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer released South of Heaven , Megadeth released So Far, So Good... So What! , Anthrax released State of Euphoria while Metallica's ...And Justice for All spawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, the World War I –themed song " One ". Many thrash metal bands benefited from the exposure they received on MTV 's Headbangers Ball , radio stations such as KNAC in Long Beach and Z Rock in Dallas , and coverage on numerous publications, including Kerrang! and RIP Magazine . These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during the late 1980s, but helped push album sales of the genre's "Big Four" and similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums. One of the most notable events in thrash metal's growing popularity during this period was the summer of 1988 Monsters of Rock tour in North America (co-headlined by Van Halen and Scorpions ), at which Metallica was one of the supporting acts and drew the largest audiences of the two-month-long arena and stadium tour. In the following year, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus and Helloween on a US arena tour sponsored by Headbangers Ball . A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth's Rust in Peace , Anthrax's Persistence of Time , Slayer's Seasons in the Abyss , Suicidal Tendencies' Lights...Camera...Revolution! , Testament's Souls of Black , Kreator's Coma of Souls , Destruction's Cracked Brain , Forbidden's Twisted into Form , Exodus' Impact Is Imminent , Sacred Reich 's The American Way , Prong 's Beg to Differ , Pantera 's Cowboys from Hell and Exhorder 's Slaughter in the Vatican ; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developing groove metal genre. All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called the Clash of the Titans ; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in North America had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle band Alice in Chains , who were the supporting act. Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill's Horrorscope , Heathen 's Victims of Deception , Dark Angel 's Time Does Not Heal , Sepultura's Arise , Coroner's Mental Vortex , Prong's Prove You Wrong and Forced Entry's As Above, So Below . In 1991, Metallica released their eponymous fifth studio album , known as "The Black Album". The album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with original hard rock elements, but still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal. It would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones. The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of the alternative metal and grunge movements (the latter started by Nirvana , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains and Pearl Jam ). In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the "Big Four" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles. Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid–to–late 1990s albums Load , and ReLoad , which displayed minor blues and southern rock influences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound. Megadeth took a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 album Countdown to Extinction . Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albums The Ritual , Force of Habit , and Cuatro , respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash, Corrosion of Conformity , began changing their sound into a slower and Black Sabbath -influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures of sludge , doom metal , blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, including Blind (1991), Deliverance (1994) and Wiseblood (1996). In the wake of the success of groove metal , instigated by Pantera (who went on to become one of the most successful heavy metal bands of the 1990s), several thrash metal established bands started to expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre. Anthrax, who had recently replaced Joey Belladonna with John Bush as their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and including Sound of White Noise (1993). Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albums Independent , I Hear Black , Grin , Cleansing , Low , and Distortion . Sepultura's 1993 album Chaos A.D. also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands like Korn , who reciprocally became the inspiration behind the nu metal style of the band's next album Roots (1996). Roots would influence a generation of bands from Linkin Park to Slipknot , which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene. Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, the second wave of black metal emerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially in Norway . This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the "first wave" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm. As further extreme metal genres came to prominence in the 1990s ( industrial metal , death metal, and black metal each finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal "family tree" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles. For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began using death growls , a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel of synthesizers , popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs.A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth's Rust in Peace , Anthrax's Persistence of Time , Slayer's Seasons in the Abyss , Suicidal Tendencies' Lights...Camera...Revolution! , Testament's Souls of Black , Kreator's Coma of Souls , Destruction's Cracked Brain , Forbidden's Twisted into Form , Exodus' Impact Is Imminent , Sacred Reich 's The American Way , Prong 's Beg to Differ , Pantera 's Cowboys from Hell and Exhorder 's Slaughter in the Vatican ; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developing groove metal genre. All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called the Clash of the Titans ; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in North America had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle band Alice in Chains , who were the supporting act. Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill's Horrorscope , Heathen 's Victims of Deception , Dark Angel 's Time Does Not Heal , Sepultura's Arise , Coroner's Mental Vortex , Prong's Prove You Wrong and Forced Entry's As Above, So Below . In 1991, Metallica released their eponymous fifth studio album , known as "The Black Album". The album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with original hard rock elements, but still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal. It would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones.The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of the alternative metal and grunge movements (the latter started by Nirvana , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains and Pearl Jam ). In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the "Big Four" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles. Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid–to–late 1990s albums Load , and ReLoad , which displayed minor blues and southern rock influences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound. Megadeth took a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 album Countdown to Extinction . Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albums The Ritual , Force of Habit , and Cuatro , respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash, Corrosion of Conformity , began changing their sound into a slower and Black Sabbath -influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures of sludge , doom metal , blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, including Blind (1991), Deliverance (1994) and Wiseblood (1996). In the wake of the success of groove metal , instigated by Pantera (who went on to become one of the most successful heavy metal bands of the 1990s), several thrash metal established bands started to expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre. Anthrax, who had recently replaced Joey Belladonna with John Bush as their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and including Sound of White Noise (1993). Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albums Independent , I Hear Black , Grin , Cleansing , Low , and Distortion . Sepultura's 1993 album Chaos A.D. also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands like Korn , who reciprocally became the inspiration behind the nu metal style of the band's next album Roots (1996). Roots would influence a generation of bands from Linkin Park to Slipknot , which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene. Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, the second wave of black metal emerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially in Norway . This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the "first wave" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm. As further extreme metal genres came to prominence in the 1990s ( industrial metal , death metal, and black metal each finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal "family tree" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles. For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began using death growls , a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel of synthesizers , popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs.A few thrash metal bands from the 1980s and early 1990s, particularly the genre's U.S. "big four", continued recording and touring with success in the 2000s. In 2003, Anthrax released their first studio album in five years We've Come for You All , followed a month later by Metallica's double platinum-certified album St. Anger . After one more album, The World Needs a Hero , in 2001, Megadeth disbanded in 2002 due to an arm injury that had left Dave Mustaine unable to play guitar; he would eventually reform the band for a handful albums, including The System Has Failed (2004) which was originally going to be released as a solo album by him, before reuniting with co-founding member and bassist David Ellefson in 2010. Slayer released three albums in the 2000s: God Hates Us All (2001), which saw a return to their signature thrash metal sound, followed by Christ Illusion (2006) and World Painted Blood (2009), both of which marked their first studio albums with drummer Dave Lombardo in nearly two decades. Although their career had declined from its peak in the 1990s, Overkill was perhaps one of the most-active thrash metal groups outside of the "big four", having never disbanded or taken longer breaks in-between records, and by 2000's Bloodletting , they were the first band in the genre to release more than ten studio albums. Overkill regained their previous level of popularity in the 2010s, with three of their albums, The Electric Age (2012), White Devil Armory (2014) and The Grinding Wheel (2017), entering the Top 100 on the Billboard charts. The resurgence of interest in the thrash metal genre during the early 2000s was widely attributed to the Thrash of the Titans festival, which was held in August 2001 as a co-benefit concert for Testament singer Chuck Billy and Death 's Chuck Schuldiner , who were both battling cancer. The show is also notable for seeing several of Testament's Bay Area thrash metal contemporaries, including Exodus, Death Angel, Vio-lence , Forbidden Evil , Sadus and Legacy (a precursor to Testament), reunited. Many thrash metal bands from outside of the Bay Area would subsquently reunite, including Anthrax (twice with Joey Belladonna and briefly with John Bush ), Dark Angel , Nuclear Assault , Sacred Reich , UK bands Onslaught , Sabbat , and Xentrix , and Canada's Sacrifice , renewing interest in previous decades. The term "thrash-revivalists" has been applied to such bands as Lamb of God , Municipal Waste , Evile , Havok , Warbringer , Vektor , Bonded by Blood , Hatchet , and Power Trip . Evile's 2007 debut album Enter the Grave , produced by former Metallica producer and engineer Flemming Rasmussen , received considerable praise for its sound, which combined elements of the sounds of Slayer and the Bay Area scene (particularly Exodus and Testament). Los Angeles-based bands Warbringer and Bonded by Blood took a similar approach on their respective debut albums, War Without End and Feed the Beast , both released in 2008. Perhaps the most commercially successful band from the 2000s and 2010s thrash metal revival movement is Lamb of God, who are also considered a key part of the new wave of American heavy metal movement, have received two gold-certified albums in the U.S., and continue to play from small clubs to arenas and stadiums. Notable bands returned to their roots with releases such as Kreator's Violent Revolution (2001), Metallica's Death Magnetic (2008), Megadeth's Endgame (2009), Slayer's World Painted Blood (2009), Exodus' Exhibit B: The Human Condition (2010), Overkill's Ironbound (2010), Anthrax's Worship Music (2011), Testament's Dark Roots of Earth (2012), and Flotsam and Jetsam's Ugly Noise (2012). More recent bands of the genre, such as Havok and Legion of the Damned have turned their focus towards a more aggressive rendition of thrash metal, incorporating elements of melodic death metal .Thrash metal is directly responsible for the development of underground metal genres, such as death metal, black metal , and groove metal . In addition to this, metalcore , grindcore , and deathcore employ similar riffs in their composition, the former with more focus on melody rather than chromaticism. The blending of punk ethos and metal's brutal nature led to even more extreme, underground styles after thrash metal began gaining mild commercial success in the late 1980s. With gorier subject matter, heavier down tuning of guitars, more consistent use of blast beat drumming , and darker, atonal death growls , death metal was established in the mid-1980s. Black metal, also related to thrash metal, emerged at the same time, with many black metal bands taking influence from thrash metal bands such as Venom . Black metal continued deviating from thrash metal, often providing more orchestral overtones, open tremolo picking , blast beat drumming, shrieked or raspy vocals and pagan or occult -based aesthetics to distinguish itself from thrash metal. Thrash metal would later combine with its spinoffs, thus giving rise to genres like blackened thrash metal and deathrash . Groove metal takes the intensity and sonic qualities of thrash metal and plays them at mid- tempo , with most bands making only occasional forays into fast tempo, but since the early 1990s, it started to favor a more death metal–derived sound. Thrash metal with stronger punk elements is called crossover thrash . Its overall sound is more punk-influenced than traditional thrash metal but has more heavy metal elements than hardcore punk and thrashcore . Thrash metal emerged predominantly from a handful of regional scenes, each of which was generally distinguished by the unique characteristics of its bands.

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Anthrax

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The Hot Zone (American TV series)

Lynda Obst Kelly Souders Brian Peterson Jeff Vintar Ridley Scott Michael Uppendahl The Hot Zone is an American anthology drama television series, based on the 1994 non-fiction book of the same name by Richard Preston and airing on National Geographic . The first season, consisting of six episodes, aired from May 27 to 29, 2019, and was intended as a miniseries. Largely set in 1989 [ clarification needed ] , it follows U.S. Army scientist Nancy Jaax who is confronted with the possibility of a potentially deadly outbreak of Ebola . Jaax, a veterinary pathologist , first identifies the ebolavirus after it appears in monkeys in a Primate Quarantine Facility in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. The season was positively reviewed, and renewed for a second season. The second season, titled The Hot Zone: Anthrax , focuses on the 2001 anthrax attacks , a week after September 11 . The season, also consisting of six episodes, aired from November 28 to 30, 2021. In 1980 Africa, a seriously ill French man is flown from his rural estate to a city hospital. Near death, he violently vomits blood on his attending physician, Dr. Shem Musoke . In 1976, Carter and Travis Rhodes make their way to a clinic run by French nuns, who report an outbreak that has killed several villagers. Seeking a local doctor who has moved on to treat sick patients, Carter and Rhodes are stopped by the Zaire military and led to the remains of a village burnt to the ground — along with its residents, including the doctor they sought — to stop the spread of the virus, witnessing a soldier execute an infected survivor. In 1976, Carter and Rhodes return to the clinic, where they meet NGO worker Melinda and learn one of the French nuns has fallen seriously ill. Rhodes is able to obtain a blood sample from the nun as she dies. Due to the reuse of needles at the clinic caused by supply constraints, Carter and Rhodes realize the spread of the virus is much wider in scope. The surviving nun, showing visible signs of an Ebola infection, provokes a soldier to shoot and kill her. Carter learns from the clinic's files that a pregnant woman from another village sought care there. Hoping to find a patient who has survived the virus to better understand and treat it, Carter pays a helicopter pilot to ferry the trio to the village. In 1976, Carter, Rhodes, and Melinda find that the village's faith healer has isolated the sick family in their home. Rhodes draws the woman's blood and prepares to leave before Carter reveals that the pilot will not return for three days. In 1976, Rhodes and Melinda assist the pregnant villager give birth, though they are powerless to do anything but watch as she and most of her family succumb to the infection. In 1976, the village's faith healer explains to Carter that the local forests, once teeming with monkeys, have gone quiet. When the faith healer's infection progresses, he convinces Carter to help spare the region's population from a much larger outbreak that would spread from his funeral. As a devastated Rhodes and Melinda watch the pregnant woman's son die from his infection, they are alerted to the faith healer's burning home by horrified villagers. An incensed Rhodes vows to report Carter. In 1979, a missing air filter in a Soviet Union military research facility allows anthrax to escape in Sverdlovsk , causing an outbreak that is quickly covered up. Fourteen years later, a Russian defector confirms the existence of the outbreak with the preserved heart of a victim. He warns U.S. officials of the possibility of a future outbreak from weaponized anthrax . On September 11, Ivins leads a chaotic evacuation of USAMRIID after planes strike the World Trade Center . En route to New York, Ryker witnesses American Airlines Flight 77 flying overheard toward the Pentagon .In 1980 Africa, a seriously ill French man is flown from his rural estate to a city hospital. Near death, he violently vomits blood on his attending physician, Dr. Shem Musoke . In 1976, Carter and Travis Rhodes make their way to a clinic run by French nuns, who report an outbreak that has killed several villagers. Seeking a local doctor who has moved on to treat sick patients, Carter and Rhodes are stopped by the Zaire military and led to the remains of a village burnt to the ground — along with its residents, including the doctor they sought — to stop the spread of the virus, witnessing a soldier execute an infected survivor. In 1976, Carter and Rhodes return to the clinic, where they meet NGO worker Melinda and learn one of the French nuns has fallen seriously ill. Rhodes is able to obtain a blood sample from the nun as she dies. Due to the reuse of needles at the clinic caused by supply constraints, Carter and Rhodes realize the spread of the virus is much wider in scope. The surviving nun, showing visible signs of an Ebola infection, provokes a soldier to shoot and kill her. Carter learns from the clinic's files that a pregnant woman from another village sought care there. Hoping to find a patient who has survived the virus to better understand and treat it, Carter pays a helicopter pilot to ferry the trio to the village. In 1976, Carter, Rhodes, and Melinda find that the village's faith healer has isolated the sick family in their home. Rhodes draws the woman's blood and prepares to leave before Carter reveals that the pilot will not return for three days. In 1976, Rhodes and Melinda assist the pregnant villager give birth, though they are powerless to do anything but watch as she and most of her family succumb to the infection. In 1976, the village's faith healer explains to Carter that the local forests, once teeming with monkeys, have gone quiet. When the faith healer's infection progresses, he convinces Carter to help spare the region's population from a much larger outbreak that would spread from his funeral. As a devastated Rhodes and Melinda watch the pregnant woman's son die from his infection, they are alerted to the faith healer's burning home by horrified villagers. An incensed Rhodes vows to report Carter.In 1979, a missing air filter in a Soviet Union military research facility allows anthrax to escape in Sverdlovsk , causing an outbreak that is quickly covered up. Fourteen years later, a Russian defector confirms the existence of the outbreak with the preserved heart of a victim. He warns U.S. officials of the possibility of a future outbreak from weaponized anthrax . On September 11, Ivins leads a chaotic evacuation of USAMRIID after planes strike the World Trade Center . En route to New York, Ryker witnesses American Airlines Flight 77 flying overheard toward the Pentagon .On April 18, 2018, it was announced that National Geographic had given a series order to the production. Executive producers were set to include Lynda Obst, Kelly Souders, Brian Peterson, Jeff Vintar, and Ridley Scott. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Fox 21 Television Studios , Scott Free Productions , and Lynda Obst Productions. On August 9, 2018, it was announced that Kelly Souders and Brian Wayne Peterson were joining the series as showrunners, executive producers, and writers. On February 8, 2019, it was announced that the series would premiere on May 27, 2019. In November 2020, National Geographic renewed the series for a second season. On July 25, 2018, it was announced during the Television Critics Association 's annual summer press tour that Julianna Margulies had been cast in the first season's lead role. On September 13, 2018, it was reported that Noah Emmerich , Liam Cunningham , Topher Grace , Paul James , Nick Searcy , Robert Wisdom , and Robert Sean Leonard had joined the cast in starring roles and that James D'Arcy would make a guest starring appearance. On December 6, 2018, it was announced that Grace Gummer would appear in a recurring capacity. In early 2021, following the announcement of a second season with a different story, Tony Goldwyn , Daniel Dae Kim , Harry Hamlin , Dylan Baker , Ian Colletti Dawn Olivieri , and Denyce Lawton were announced as cast members. Principal photography for the first season took place from September 13, 2018, to November 16, 2018, in Toronto and was also expected to film in South Africa . Exterior photography of the rear loading docks of the "monkey lab" took place at the now-closed Life Savers Factory located at 100 Cumberland Ave, Hamilton, Ontario . Loading docks can be viewed from Burris Street as well as homes in reverse shots. Exterior and interior shots of "Commuter Station" took place at the historic Hamilton Canadian National Railway Station, located at 360 James St N, in Hamilton, Ontario.On April 18, 2018, it was announced that National Geographic had given a series order to the production. Executive producers were set to include Lynda Obst, Kelly Souders, Brian Peterson, Jeff Vintar, and Ridley Scott. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Fox 21 Television Studios , Scott Free Productions , and Lynda Obst Productions. On August 9, 2018, it was announced that Kelly Souders and Brian Wayne Peterson were joining the series as showrunners, executive producers, and writers. On February 8, 2019, it was announced that the series would premiere on May 27, 2019. In November 2020, National Geographic renewed the series for a second season. On July 25, 2018, it was announced during the Television Critics Association 's annual summer press tour that Julianna Margulies had been cast in the first season's lead role. On September 13, 2018, it was reported that Noah Emmerich , Liam Cunningham , Topher Grace , Paul James , Nick Searcy , Robert Wisdom , and Robert Sean Leonard had joined the cast in starring roles and that James D'Arcy would make a guest starring appearance. On December 6, 2018, it was announced that Grace Gummer would appear in a recurring capacity. In early 2021, following the announcement of a second season with a different story, Tony Goldwyn , Daniel Dae Kim , Harry Hamlin , Dylan Baker , Ian Colletti Dawn Olivieri , and Denyce Lawton were announced as cast members.Principal photography for the first season took place from September 13, 2018, to November 16, 2018, in Toronto and was also expected to film in South Africa . Exterior photography of the rear loading docks of the "monkey lab" took place at the now-closed Life Savers Factory located at 100 Cumberland Ave, Hamilton, Ontario . Loading docks can be viewed from Burris Street as well as homes in reverse shots. Exterior and interior shots of "Commuter Station" took place at the historic Hamilton Canadian National Railway Station, located at 360 James St N, in Hamilton, Ontario.On December 20, 2018, a "first look" still image from the series was released featuring Julianna Margulies in character as Dr. Nancy Jaax. On February 8, 2019, a trailer for the series was released. The show airs on National Geographic. The series is available to stream internationally with Disney+ through its Star hub, with the second season released in selected territories. The entire series was removed from Disney+ on May 26, 2023, implying it may have been silently cancelled. Going Viral is a 2019 one-hour documentary companion to the miniseries. On February 8, 2019, it was announced that National Geographic had greenlit a companion documentary film to premiere alongside the series in May 2019. The film was set to be executive produced by Betsy Forhan and feature interviews with subjects including Richard Preston , Dr. Nahid Bhadelia , Dr. Anthony S. Fauci , Dr. Pardis Sabeti , and Dr. Ian Crozier . The production company involved with the film was slated to be National Geographic Studios. Rotten Tomatoes gave an approval rating of 85%, based on 20 reviews. Its critical consensus reads: "An anxiety-producing dramatization of real-world events, The Hot Zone acts as a sobering reminder of exactly how deadly a disease can be." On Metacritic , the season had a score of 69 out of 100, based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Rotten Tomatoes gave an approval rating of 85%, based on 20 reviews. Its critical consensus reads: "An anxiety-producing dramatization of real-world events, The Hot Zone acts as a sobering reminder of exactly how deadly a disease can be." On Metacritic , the season had a score of 69 out of 100, based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Wiki

Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Biological_warfare/html

Biological warfare

Biological warfare , also known as germ warfare , is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria , viruses , insects , and fungi with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war . Biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons", "biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are living organisms or replicating entities (i.e. viruses , which are not universally considered "alive"). Entomological (insect) warfare is a subtype of biological warfare. Biological warfare is subject to a forceful normative prohibition. Offensive biological warfare in international armed conflicts is a war crime under the 1925 Geneva Protocol and several international humanitarian law treaties . In particular, the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) bans the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons. In contrast, defensive biological research for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes is not prohibited by the BWC. Biological warfare is distinct from warfare involving other types of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), including nuclear warfare , chemical warfare , and radiological warfare . None of these are considered conventional weapons , which are deployed primarily for their explosive , kinetic , or incendiary potential. Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some chemical weapons , biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons . These agents may be lethal or non-lethal , and may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire population. They may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely , it may also be considered bioterrorism . Biological warfare and chemical warfare overlap to an extent, as the use of toxins produced by some living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the BWC and the Chemical Weapons Convention . Toxins and psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents . Unlike bioweapons, these midspectrum agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods. A biological attack could conceivably result in large numbers of civilian casualties and cause severe disruption to economic and societal infrastructure. A nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms under which other nations or groups interact with it. When indexed to weapon mass and cost of development and storage, biological weapons possess destructive potential and loss of life far in excess of nuclear, chemical or conventional weapons. Accordingly, biological agents are potentially useful as strategic deterrents, in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield. As a tactical weapon for military use, a significant problem with biological warfare is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force. Some biological agents ( smallpox , pneumonic plague ) have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets . This feature can be undesirable, as the agent(s) may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. Worse still, such a weapon could "escape" the laboratory where it was developed, even if there was no intent to use it – for example by infecting a researcher who then transmits it to the outside world before realizing that they were infected. Several cases are known of researchers becoming infected and dying of Ebola , which they had been working with in the lab (though nobody else was infected in those cases) – while there is no evidence that their work was directed towards biological warfare, it demonstrates the potential for accidental infection even of careful researchers fully aware of the dangers. While containment of biological warfare is less of a concern for certain criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military and civilian populations of virtually all nations.Rudimentary forms of biological warfare have been practiced since antiquity. The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500–1200 BCE, in which victims of tularemia were driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic. The Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with the fungus ergot , though with unknown results. Scythian archers dipped their arrows and Roman soldiers their swords into excrements and cadavers – victims were commonly infected by tetanus as result. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa . Specialists disagree about whether this operation was responsible for the spread of the Black Death into Europe, Near East and North Africa, resulting in the deaths of approximately 25 million Europeans. Biological agents were extensively used in many parts of Africa from the sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or powder spread on the war front as well as poisoning of horses and water supply of the enemy forces. In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, hypnotize , make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the poison of the enemy as well. The creation of biologicals was reserved for a specific and professional class of medicine-men. During the French and Indian War , in June 1763 a group of Native Americans laid siege to British-held Fort Pitt . The commander of Fort Pitt, Simeon Ecuyer, ordered his men to take smallpox-infested blankets from the infirmary and give it to a Lenape delegation during the siege. A reported outbreak that began the spring before left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country from 1763 to 1764. It is not clear whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was already present among the Delaware people as outbreaks happened on their own every dozen or so years and the delegates were met again later and seemingly had not contracted smallpox. During the American Revolutionary War , Continental Army officer George Washington mentioned to the Continental Congress that he had heard a rumor from a sailor that his opponent during the Siege of Boston , General William Howe , had deliberately sent civilians out of the city in the hopes of spreading the ongoing smallpox epidemic to American lines; Washington, remaining unconvinced, wrote that he "could hardly give credit to" the claim. Washington had already inoculated his soldiers, diminishing the effect of the epidemic. Some historians have claimed that a detachment of the Corps of Royal Marines stationed in New South Wales , Australia, deliberately used smallpox there in 1789. Dr Seth Carus states: "Ultimately, we have a strong circumstantial case supporting the theory that someone deliberately introduced smallpox in the Aboriginal population." By 1900 the germ theory and advances in bacteriology brought a new level of sophistication to the techniques for possible use of bio-agents in war. Biological sabotage in the form of anthrax and glanders was undertaken on behalf of the Imperial German government during World War I (1914–1918), with indifferent results. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the first use of chemical and biological weapons against enemy nationals in international armed conflicts. With the onset of World War II , the Ministry of Supply in the United Kingdom established a biological warfare program at Porton Down , headed by the microbiologist Paul Fildes . The research was championed by Winston Churchill and soon tularemia , anthrax , brucellosis , and botulism toxins had been effectively weaponized. In particular, Gruinard Island in Scotland, was contaminated with anthrax during a series of extensive tests for the next 56 years. Although the UK never offensively used the biological weapons it developed, its program was the first to successfully weaponize a variety of deadly pathogens and bring them into industrial production. Other nations, notably France and Japan, had begun their own biological weapons programs. When the United States entered the war, Allied resources were pooled at the request of the British. The U.S. then established a large research program and industrial complex at Fort Detrick, Maryland , in 1942 under the direction of George W. Merck . The biological and chemical weapons developed during that period were tested at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah . Soon there were facilities for the mass production of anthrax spores, brucellosis , and botulism toxins, although the war was over before these weapons could be of much operational use. The most notorious program of the period was run by the secret Imperial Japanese Army Unit 731 during the war , based at Pingfan in Manchuria and commanded by Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii . This biological warfare research unit conducted often fatal human experiments on prisoners, and produced biological weapons for combat use. Although the Japanese effort lacked the technological sophistication of the American or British programs, it far outstripped them in its widespread application and indiscriminate brutality. Biological weapons were used against Chinese soldiers and civilians in several military campaigns. In 1940, the Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. Many of these operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, although up to 400,000 people may have died. During the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign in 1942, around 1,700 Japanese troops died out of a total 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with disease when their own biological weapons attack rebounded on their own forces. During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in San Diego , California , during Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night . The plan was set to launch on 22 September 1945, but it was not executed because of Japan's surrender on 15 August 1945. In Britain, the 1950s saw the weaponization of plague , brucellosis , tularemia and later equine encephalomyelitis and vaccinia viruses, but the programme was unilaterally cancelled in 1956. The United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories weaponized anthrax , tularemia , brucellosis , Q-fever and others. In 1969, US President Richard Nixon decided to unilaterally terminate the offensive biological weapons program of the US , allowing only scientific research for defensive measures. This decision increased the momentum of the negotiations for a ban on biological warfare, which took place from 1969 to 1972 in the United Nation's Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva. These negotiations resulted in the Biological Weapons Convention , which was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975 after its ratification by 22 states. Despite being a party and depositary to the BWC, the Soviet Union continued and expanded its massive offensive biological weapons program , under the leadership of the allegedly civilian institution Biopreparat . The Soviet Union attracted international suspicion after the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax leak killed approximately 65 to 100 people. According to historians Benny Morris and Benjamin Kedar , Israel conducted a biological warfare operation codenamed "Cast Thy Bread" during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . The Haganah initially used typhoid bacteria to contaminate water wells in newly-cleared Arab villages to prevent the population including militiamen from returning. Later, the biological warfare campaign expanded to include Jewish settlements that were in imminent danger of being captured by Arab troops and inhabited Arab towns not slated for capture. There was also plans to expand the biological warfare campaign into other Arab states including Egypt, Lebanon and Syria, but they were not carried out. Rudimentary forms of biological warfare have been practiced since antiquity. The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500–1200 BCE, in which victims of tularemia were driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic. The Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with the fungus ergot , though with unknown results. Scythian archers dipped their arrows and Roman soldiers their swords into excrements and cadavers – victims were commonly infected by tetanus as result. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa . Specialists disagree about whether this operation was responsible for the spread of the Black Death into Europe, Near East and North Africa, resulting in the deaths of approximately 25 million Europeans. Biological agents were extensively used in many parts of Africa from the sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or powder spread on the war front as well as poisoning of horses and water supply of the enemy forces. In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, hypnotize , make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the poison of the enemy as well. The creation of biologicals was reserved for a specific and professional class of medicine-men. During the French and Indian War , in June 1763 a group of Native Americans laid siege to British-held Fort Pitt . The commander of Fort Pitt, Simeon Ecuyer, ordered his men to take smallpox-infested blankets from the infirmary and give it to a Lenape delegation during the siege. A reported outbreak that began the spring before left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country from 1763 to 1764. It is not clear whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was already present among the Delaware people as outbreaks happened on their own every dozen or so years and the delegates were met again later and seemingly had not contracted smallpox. During the American Revolutionary War , Continental Army officer George Washington mentioned to the Continental Congress that he had heard a rumor from a sailor that his opponent during the Siege of Boston , General William Howe , had deliberately sent civilians out of the city in the hopes of spreading the ongoing smallpox epidemic to American lines; Washington, remaining unconvinced, wrote that he "could hardly give credit to" the claim. Washington had already inoculated his soldiers, diminishing the effect of the epidemic. Some historians have claimed that a detachment of the Corps of Royal Marines stationed in New South Wales , Australia, deliberately used smallpox there in 1789. Dr Seth Carus states: "Ultimately, we have a strong circumstantial case supporting the theory that someone deliberately introduced smallpox in the Aboriginal population." By 1900 the germ theory and advances in bacteriology brought a new level of sophistication to the techniques for possible use of bio-agents in war. Biological sabotage in the form of anthrax and glanders was undertaken on behalf of the Imperial German government during World War I (1914–1918), with indifferent results. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the first use of chemical and biological weapons against enemy nationals in international armed conflicts. With the onset of World War II , the Ministry of Supply in the United Kingdom established a biological warfare program at Porton Down , headed by the microbiologist Paul Fildes . The research was championed by Winston Churchill and soon tularemia , anthrax , brucellosis , and botulism toxins had been effectively weaponized. In particular, Gruinard Island in Scotland, was contaminated with anthrax during a series of extensive tests for the next 56 years. Although the UK never offensively used the biological weapons it developed, its program was the first to successfully weaponize a variety of deadly pathogens and bring them into industrial production. Other nations, notably France and Japan, had begun their own biological weapons programs. When the United States entered the war, Allied resources were pooled at the request of the British. The U.S. then established a large research program and industrial complex at Fort Detrick, Maryland , in 1942 under the direction of George W. Merck . The biological and chemical weapons developed during that period were tested at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah . Soon there were facilities for the mass production of anthrax spores, brucellosis , and botulism toxins, although the war was over before these weapons could be of much operational use. The most notorious program of the period was run by the secret Imperial Japanese Army Unit 731 during the war , based at Pingfan in Manchuria and commanded by Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii . This biological warfare research unit conducted often fatal human experiments on prisoners, and produced biological weapons for combat use. Although the Japanese effort lacked the technological sophistication of the American or British programs, it far outstripped them in its widespread application and indiscriminate brutality. Biological weapons were used against Chinese soldiers and civilians in several military campaigns. In 1940, the Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. Many of these operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, although up to 400,000 people may have died. During the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign in 1942, around 1,700 Japanese troops died out of a total 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with disease when their own biological weapons attack rebounded on their own forces. During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in San Diego , California , during Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night . The plan was set to launch on 22 September 1945, but it was not executed because of Japan's surrender on 15 August 1945. In Britain, the 1950s saw the weaponization of plague , brucellosis , tularemia and later equine encephalomyelitis and vaccinia viruses, but the programme was unilaterally cancelled in 1956. The United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories weaponized anthrax , tularemia , brucellosis , Q-fever and others. In 1969, US President Richard Nixon decided to unilaterally terminate the offensive biological weapons program of the US , allowing only scientific research for defensive measures. This decision increased the momentum of the negotiations for a ban on biological warfare, which took place from 1969 to 1972 in the United Nation's Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva. These negotiations resulted in the Biological Weapons Convention , which was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975 after its ratification by 22 states. Despite being a party and depositary to the BWC, the Soviet Union continued and expanded its massive offensive biological weapons program , under the leadership of the allegedly civilian institution Biopreparat . The Soviet Union attracted international suspicion after the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax leak killed approximately 65 to 100 people. According to historians Benny Morris and Benjamin Kedar , Israel conducted a biological warfare operation codenamed "Cast Thy Bread" during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . The Haganah initially used typhoid bacteria to contaminate water wells in newly-cleared Arab villages to prevent the population including militiamen from returning. Later, the biological warfare campaign expanded to include Jewish settlements that were in imminent danger of being captured by Arab troops and inhabited Arab towns not slated for capture. There was also plans to expand the biological warfare campaign into other Arab states including Egypt, Lebanon and Syria, but they were not carried out. International restrictions on biological warfare began with the 1925 Geneva Protocol , which prohibits the use but not the possession or development of biological and chemical weapons in international armed conflicts. Upon ratification of the Geneva Protocol, several countries made reservations regarding its applicability and use in retaliation. Due to these reservations, it was in practice a " no-first-use " agreement only. The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) supplements the Geneva Protocol by prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons. Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction. As of March 2021, 183 states have become party to the treaty . The BWC is considered to have established a strong global norm against biological weapons, which is reflected in the treaty's preamble, stating that the use of biological weapons would be "repugnant to the conscience of mankind". The BWC's effectiveness has been limited due to insufficient institutional support and the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance. In 1985, the Australia Group was established, a multilateral export control regime of 43 countries aiming to prevent the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons. In 2004, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1540 , which obligates all UN Member States to develop and enforce appropriate legal and regulatory measures against the proliferation of chemical , biological, radiological , and nuclear weapons and their means of delivery, in particular, to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction to non-state actors . Biological weapons are difficult to detect, economical and easy to use, making them appealing to terrorists. The cost of a biological weapon is estimated to be about 0.05 percent the cost of a conventional weapon in order to produce similar numbers of mass casualties per kilometer square. Moreover, their production is very easy as common technology can be used to produce biological warfare agents, like that used in production of vaccines, foods, spray devices, beverages and antibiotics. A major factor in biological warfare that attracts terrorists is that they can easily escape before the government agencies or secret agencies have even started their investigation. This is because the potential organism has an incubation period of 3 to 7 days, after which the results begin to appear, thereby giving terrorists a lead. A technique called Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short Palindromic Repeat ( CRISPR-Cas9 ) is now so cheap and widely available that scientists fear that amateurs will start experimenting with them. In this technique, a DNA sequence is cut off and replaced with a new sequence, e.g. one that codes for a particular protein, with the intent of modifying an organism's traits. Concerns have emerged regarding do-it-yourself biology research organizations due to their associated risk that a rogue amateur DIY researcher could attempt to develop dangerous bioweapons using genome editing technology. In 2002, when CNN went through Al-Qaeda's (AQ's) experiments with crude poisons, they found out that AQ had begun planning ricin and cyanide attacks with the help of a loose association of terrorist cells. The associates had infiltrated many countries like Turkey, Italy, Spain, France and others. In 2015, to combat the threat of bioterrorism, a National Blueprint for Biodefense was issued by the Blue-Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense. Also, 233 potential exposures of select biological agents outside of the primary barriers of the biocontainment in the US were described by the annual report of the Federal Select Agent Program. Though a verification system can reduce bioterrorism, an employee, or a lone terrorist having adequate knowledge of a bio-technology company's facilities, can cause potential danger by utilizing, without proper oversight and supervision, that company's resources. Moreover, it has been found that about 95% of accidents that have occurred due to low security have been done by employees or those who had a security clearance. Entomological warfare (EW) is a type of biological warfare that uses insects to attack the enemy. The concept has existed for centuries and research and development have continued into the modern era. EW has been used in battle by Japan and several other nations have developed and been accused of using an entomological warfare program. EW may employ insects in a direct attack or as vectors to deliver a biological agent , such as plague . Essentially, EW exists in three varieties. One type of EW involves infecting insects with a pathogen and then dispersing the insects over target areas. The insects then act as a vector , infecting any person or animal they might bite. Another type of EW is a direct insect attack against crops; the insect may not be infected with any pathogen but instead represents a threat to agriculture. The final method uses uninfected insects, such as bees or wasps, to directly attack the enemy. Theoretically, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as synthetic biology could be used in the future to design novel types of biological warfare agents. Would demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective; Would confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents; Would enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent; Would increase the transmissibility of a pathogen; Would alter the host range of a pathogen; Would enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection tools; Would enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin. Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology are focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio) in the lab. Recently, the CRISPR/Cas system has emerged as a promising technique for gene editing. It was hailed by The Washington Post as "the most important innovation in the synthetic biology space in nearly 30 years." While other methods take months or years to edit gene sequences, CRISPR speeds that time up to weeks. Due to its ease of use and accessibility, it has raised a number of ethical concerns, especially surrounding its use in the biohacking space. Ideal characteristics of a biological agent to be used as a weapon against humans are high infectivity , high virulence , non-availability of vaccines and availability of an effective and efficient delivery system . Stability of the weaponized agent (the ability of the agent to retain its infectivity and virulence after a prolonged period of storage) may also be desirable, particularly for military applications, and the ease of creating one is often considered. Control of the spread of the agent may be another desired characteristic. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent, as many biological agents used in weapons can be manufactured relatively quickly, cheaply and easily. Rather, it is the weaponization, storage, and delivery in an effective vehicle to a vulnerable target that pose significant problems. For example, Bacillus anthracis is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores , perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, this organism is not considered transmissible from person to person, and thus rarely if ever causes secondary infections. A pulmonary anthrax infection starts with ordinary influenza -like symptoms and progresses to a lethal hemorrhagic mediastinitis within 3–7 days, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher in untreated patients. Finally, friendly personnel and civilians can be protected with suitable antibiotics . Agents considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized, include bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis , Brucella spp., Burkholderia mallei , Burkholderia pseudomallei , Chlamydophila psittaci , Coxiella burnetii , Francisella tularensis , some of the Rickettsiaceae (especially Rickettsia prowazekii and Rickettsia rickettsii ), Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae , and Yersinia pestis . Many viral agents have been studied and/or weaponized, including some of the Bunyaviridae (especially Rift Valley fever virus ), Ebolavirus , many of the Flaviviridae (especially Japanese encephalitis virus ), Machupo virus , Coronaviruses , Marburg virus , Variola virus, and yellow fever virus . Fungal agents that have been studied include Coccidioides spp. Toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin , staphylococcal enterotoxin B , botulinum toxin , saxitoxin , and many mycotoxins . These toxins and the organisms that produce them are sometimes referred to as select agents . In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's Select Agent Program. The former US biological warfare program categorized its weaponized anti-personnel bio-agents as either Lethal Agents ( Bacillus anthracis , Francisella tularensis , Botulinum toxin) or Incapacitating Agents ( Brucella suis , Coxiella burnetii , Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B). The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases ( bioherbicides , or mycoherbicides ) for destroying enemy agriculture. Biological weapons also target fisheries as well as water-based vegetation. It was believed that the destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy watersheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotic (epidemics among plants). On the other hand, some sources report that these agents were stockpiled but never weaponized . When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. Enterotoxins and Mycotoxins were not affected by Nixon's order. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare and chemical warfare because they may work in a similar manner as biotoxins or bioregulators. The Army Biological Laboratory tested each agent and the Army's Technical Escort Unit was responsible for the transport of all chemical, biological, radiological (nuclear) materials. Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides ) during the Second World War, which were then used by the UK in the counterinsurgency operations of the Malayan Emergency . Inspired by the use in Malaysia, the US military effort in the Vietnam War included a mass dispersal of a variety of herbicides , famously Agent Orange , with the aim of destroying farmland and defoliating forests used as cover by the Viet Cong . Sri Lanka deployed military defoliants in its prosecution of the Eelam War against Tamil insurgents. During World War I, German saboteurs used anthrax and glanders to sicken cavalry horses in U.S. and France, sheep in Romania, and livestock in Argentina intended for the Entente forces . One of these German saboteurs was Anton Dilger . Also, Germany itself became a victim of similar attacks – horses bound for Germany were infected with Burkholderia by French operatives in Switzerland. During World War II, the U.S. and Canada secretly investigated the use of rinderpest , a highly lethal disease of cattle, as a bioweapon. In the 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease , and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill the chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named "Ecology". During the Mau Mau Uprising in 1952, the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used to kill cattle. Ideal characteristics of a biological agent to be used as a weapon against humans are high infectivity , high virulence , non-availability of vaccines and availability of an effective and efficient delivery system . Stability of the weaponized agent (the ability of the agent to retain its infectivity and virulence after a prolonged period of storage) may also be desirable, particularly for military applications, and the ease of creating one is often considered. Control of the spread of the agent may be another desired characteristic. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent, as many biological agents used in weapons can be manufactured relatively quickly, cheaply and easily. Rather, it is the weaponization, storage, and delivery in an effective vehicle to a vulnerable target that pose significant problems. For example, Bacillus anthracis is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores , perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, this organism is not considered transmissible from person to person, and thus rarely if ever causes secondary infections. A pulmonary anthrax infection starts with ordinary influenza -like symptoms and progresses to a lethal hemorrhagic mediastinitis within 3–7 days, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher in untreated patients. Finally, friendly personnel and civilians can be protected with suitable antibiotics . Agents considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized, include bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis , Brucella spp., Burkholderia mallei , Burkholderia pseudomallei , Chlamydophila psittaci , Coxiella burnetii , Francisella tularensis , some of the Rickettsiaceae (especially Rickettsia prowazekii and Rickettsia rickettsii ), Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae , and Yersinia pestis . Many viral agents have been studied and/or weaponized, including some of the Bunyaviridae (especially Rift Valley fever virus ), Ebolavirus , many of the Flaviviridae (especially Japanese encephalitis virus ), Machupo virus , Coronaviruses , Marburg virus , Variola virus, and yellow fever virus . Fungal agents that have been studied include Coccidioides spp. Toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin , staphylococcal enterotoxin B , botulinum toxin , saxitoxin , and many mycotoxins . These toxins and the organisms that produce them are sometimes referred to as select agents . In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's Select Agent Program. The former US biological warfare program categorized its weaponized anti-personnel bio-agents as either Lethal Agents ( Bacillus anthracis , Francisella tularensis , Botulinum toxin) or Incapacitating Agents ( Brucella suis , Coxiella burnetii , Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B).The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases ( bioherbicides , or mycoherbicides ) for destroying enemy agriculture. Biological weapons also target fisheries as well as water-based vegetation. It was believed that the destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy watersheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotic (epidemics among plants). On the other hand, some sources report that these agents were stockpiled but never weaponized . When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. Enterotoxins and Mycotoxins were not affected by Nixon's order. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare and chemical warfare because they may work in a similar manner as biotoxins or bioregulators. The Army Biological Laboratory tested each agent and the Army's Technical Escort Unit was responsible for the transport of all chemical, biological, radiological (nuclear) materials. Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides ) during the Second World War, which were then used by the UK in the counterinsurgency operations of the Malayan Emergency . Inspired by the use in Malaysia, the US military effort in the Vietnam War included a mass dispersal of a variety of herbicides , famously Agent Orange , with the aim of destroying farmland and defoliating forests used as cover by the Viet Cong . Sri Lanka deployed military defoliants in its prosecution of the Eelam War against Tamil insurgents. During World War I, German saboteurs used anthrax and glanders to sicken cavalry horses in U.S. and France, sheep in Romania, and livestock in Argentina intended for the Entente forces . One of these German saboteurs was Anton Dilger . Also, Germany itself became a victim of similar attacks – horses bound for Germany were infected with Burkholderia by French operatives in Switzerland. During World War II, the U.S. and Canada secretly investigated the use of rinderpest , a highly lethal disease of cattle, as a bioweapon. In the 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease , and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill the chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named "Ecology". During the Mau Mau Uprising in 1952, the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used to kill cattle. The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases ( bioherbicides , or mycoherbicides ) for destroying enemy agriculture. Biological weapons also target fisheries as well as water-based vegetation. It was believed that the destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy watersheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotic (epidemics among plants). On the other hand, some sources report that these agents were stockpiled but never weaponized . When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. Enterotoxins and Mycotoxins were not affected by Nixon's order. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare and chemical warfare because they may work in a similar manner as biotoxins or bioregulators. The Army Biological Laboratory tested each agent and the Army's Technical Escort Unit was responsible for the transport of all chemical, biological, radiological (nuclear) materials. Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides ) during the Second World War, which were then used by the UK in the counterinsurgency operations of the Malayan Emergency . Inspired by the use in Malaysia, the US military effort in the Vietnam War included a mass dispersal of a variety of herbicides , famously Agent Orange , with the aim of destroying farmland and defoliating forests used as cover by the Viet Cong . Sri Lanka deployed military defoliants in its prosecution of the Eelam War against Tamil insurgents. During World War I, German saboteurs used anthrax and glanders to sicken cavalry horses in U.S. and France, sheep in Romania, and livestock in Argentina intended for the Entente forces . One of these German saboteurs was Anton Dilger . Also, Germany itself became a victim of similar attacks – horses bound for Germany were infected with Burkholderia by French operatives in Switzerland. During World War II, the U.S. and Canada secretly investigated the use of rinderpest , a highly lethal disease of cattle, as a bioweapon. In the 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease , and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill the chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named "Ecology". During the Mau Mau Uprising in 1952, the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used to kill cattle. In 2010 at The Meeting of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction in Geneva the sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance was suggested as well-tested means for enhancing the monitoring of infections and parasitic agents, for the practical implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005). The aim was to prevent and minimize the consequences of natural outbreaks of dangerous infectious diseases as well as the threat of alleged use of biological weapons against BTWC States Parties. Many countries require their active-duty military personnel to get vaccinated for certain diseases that may potentially be used as a bioweapon such as anthrax, smallpox, and various other vaccines depending on the Area of Operations of the individual military units and commands. It is important to note that most classical and modern biological weapons' pathogens can be obtained from a plant or an animal which is naturally infected. In the largest biological weapons accident known—the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg ) in the Soviet Union in 1979—sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city and still off-limits to visitors today, (see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak ). Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example, in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24–36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with the compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). The incubation period for humans is estimated to be about 11.8 days to 12.1 days. This suggested period is the first model that is independently consistent with data from the largest known human outbreak. These projections refine previous estimates of the distribution of early-onset cases after a release and support a recommended 60-day course of prophylactic antibiotic treatment for individuals exposed to low doses of anthrax. By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. From most specific to least specific: Single cause of a certain disease caused by an uncommon agent, with lack of an epidemiological explanation. Unusual, rare, genetically engineered strain of an agent. High morbidity and mortality rates in regards to patients with the same or similar symptoms. Unusual presentation of the disease. Unusual geographic or seasonal distribution. Stable endemic disease, but with an unexplained increase in relevance. Rare transmission (aerosols, food, water). No illness presented in people who were/are not exposed to "common ventilation systems (have separate closed ventilation systems) when illness is seen in persons in close proximity who have a common ventilation system." Different and unexplained diseases coexisting in the same patient without any other explanation. Rare illness that affects a large, disparate population (respiratory disease might suggest the pathogen or agent was inhaled). Illness is unusual for a certain population or age-group in which it takes presence. Unusual trends of death and/or illness in animal populations, previous to or accompanying illness in humans. Many affected reaching out for treatment at the same time. Similar genetic makeup of agents in affected individuals. Simultaneous collections of similar illness in non-contiguous areas, domestic, or foreign. An abundance of cases of unexplained diseases and deaths. The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapon attacks. During the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team, Task Force Scorpio , to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. In the Netherlands , the company TNO has designed Bioaerosol Single Particle Recognition eQuipment (BiosparQ). This system would be implemented into the national response plan for bioweapon attacks in the Netherlands. Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen", which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the ELISA , a similar widely employed immunological technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. In 2010 at The Meeting of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction in Geneva the sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance was suggested as well-tested means for enhancing the monitoring of infections and parasitic agents, for the practical implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005). The aim was to prevent and minimize the consequences of natural outbreaks of dangerous infectious diseases as well as the threat of alleged use of biological weapons against BTWC States Parties. Many countries require their active-duty military personnel to get vaccinated for certain diseases that may potentially be used as a bioweapon such as anthrax, smallpox, and various other vaccines depending on the Area of Operations of the individual military units and commands. It is important to note that most classical and modern biological weapons' pathogens can be obtained from a plant or an animal which is naturally infected. In the largest biological weapons accident known—the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg ) in the Soviet Union in 1979—sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city and still off-limits to visitors today, (see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak ). Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example, in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24–36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with the compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). The incubation period for humans is estimated to be about 11.8 days to 12.1 days. This suggested period is the first model that is independently consistent with data from the largest known human outbreak. These projections refine previous estimates of the distribution of early-onset cases after a release and support a recommended 60-day course of prophylactic antibiotic treatment for individuals exposed to low doses of anthrax. By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. From most specific to least specific: Single cause of a certain disease caused by an uncommon agent, with lack of an epidemiological explanation. Unusual, rare, genetically engineered strain of an agent. High morbidity and mortality rates in regards to patients with the same or similar symptoms. Unusual presentation of the disease. Unusual geographic or seasonal distribution. Stable endemic disease, but with an unexplained increase in relevance. Rare transmission (aerosols, food, water). No illness presented in people who were/are not exposed to "common ventilation systems (have separate closed ventilation systems) when illness is seen in persons in close proximity who have a common ventilation system." Different and unexplained diseases coexisting in the same patient without any other explanation. Rare illness that affects a large, disparate population (respiratory disease might suggest the pathogen or agent was inhaled). Illness is unusual for a certain population or age-group in which it takes presence. Unusual trends of death and/or illness in animal populations, previous to or accompanying illness in humans. Many affected reaching out for treatment at the same time. Similar genetic makeup of agents in affected individuals. Simultaneous collections of similar illness in non-contiguous areas, domestic, or foreign. An abundance of cases of unexplained diseases and deaths.The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapon attacks. During the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team, Task Force Scorpio , to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. In the Netherlands , the company TNO has designed Bioaerosol Single Particle Recognition eQuipment (BiosparQ). This system would be implemented into the national response plan for bioweapon attacks in the Netherlands. Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen", which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the ELISA , a similar widely employed immunological technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. Bioweaponeers: Writers and activists:

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Anthrax

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Anthrax albofasciatus

Anthrax albofasciatus is a species of fly in the family Bombyliidae . United States , Mexico , Guatemala , Honduras .

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Anthrax

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Pleurothallis anthrax

Pleurothallis anthrax is a species of orchid native to southern Colombia and Venezuela.

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Anthrax

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Jonathan Donais

Jonathan Donais (born April 5, 1979), also known as Jon Donais , is an American guitarist, best known as the lead guitarist for thrash metal band Anthrax since 2013, and as co-founder of metalcore band Shadows Fall .Prior to co-founding Shadows Fall with fellow guitarist Matt Bachand in 1996, Donais was a member of metalcore band Aftershock from 1993 to 1997, which morphed into Killswitch Engage , although after his departure. Shadows Fall's first line-up included Donais and Bachand alongside Damien McPherson (vocals), Mark Laliberte (bass), and David Germain (drums). By late 1996, the band recorded and released a demo titled Mourning a Dead World, of which only about 200 copies were produced. It consisted of the songs Lifeless, Suffer the Season, Fleshold, Forever Lost, A Souls Salvation, and Deadworld. McPherson decided to leave the band, and was replaced by Philip Labonte in 1997. Around the same time, bass guitarist Paul Romanko, formerly of the hardcore band Pushbutton Warfare, was recruited as a permanent replacement for Laliberte, who had originally joined on a temporary basis. Now with a more solid lineup, the band released its first EP, To Ashes , with Aftershock member Adam Dutkiewicz playing as a session drummer. The band's name, according to Bachand, comes from the title of a comic book published in the early 1990s. Shadows Fall went on hiatus in Summer 2015 after completing "farewell" tours in Europe and North America. On June 22, 2021, vocalist Brian Fair confirmed that Shadows Fall were reuniting for their first show in over half a decade at the Worcester Palladium on December 18. Supporting acts for this show were Unearth , Darkest Hour , Within the Ruins , Sworn Enemy and Carnivora. Flair also said that the band could release new music. Prior to Shadow Falls going on hiatus, Donais was announced, on January 11, 2013, to be joining thrash metal legends Anthrax on their Metal Alliance Tour, replacing Rob Caggiano who had left the band to join Volbeat . Donais made his live debut with Anthrax in Australia without a single rehearsal with the band. "I jammed with Scott [Ian , guitarist] a little bit, but it was, 'Here. Learn these songs and be ready,'" he recalled. "Oh. God. That first show — I was shaking." Donais was originally a touring member until August 13, 2013. The first Anthrax release that Donais appeared on was Chile on Hell live album and video in 2014, which was from a concert recorded at the Teatro Caupolican in Santiago , Chile, on May 10, 2013. Donais appeared on the bands following studio album For All Kings in 2016. According to Donais, his predecessor in Anthrax, Rob Caggiano, hooked him up with his current gig. "'Cause he knew he was gonna leave, and he wanted to make sure that they were all set." Donais' appearance with the band has been an overall positive experience for the band with bassist Frank Bello saying: "I think Jon has brought a great energy to the band. He stepped up and then some on this record." Scott Ian said, "Jon's approach towards lead guitar playing, he's more of a guy who's looking to construct something that makes sense and helps a song rather than the 45 seconds for him to be showing off how many notes he can play in X amount of measures." Donais has said that it was "a dream come true! I'm playing for a band that have been a huge influence for me.". Donais is set to appear on the bands new studio album, which is expected to be released in 2024, he has also said that he is not involved in the song writing process saying "Nope. Nope. Nope. All bands work different, man. They have a way that's worked, and they've [had a] strong 40-year career. So, if it's not broken, don't mess with it." Donais is also a member of supergroup Living Wreckage which is composed of Donais, vocalist Jeff Gard ( Death Ray Vision ), guitarist Matt LeBreton (Downpour), bassist Matt Bachand (Shadows Fall, Act of Defiance ) and drummer Jon Morency (Let Us Prey), the band came about during COVID-19 pandemic and was composed of musicians who lived near each other so "we could get in the basement once a week and just do it the old school way of, you know, having some beers, jammin and just having fun with friends. And that's what it is. We're all friends from the same area. We're in the same scene. So things fell together really quickly and Matt LeBreton, the other guitar player, he writes a lot too. So between the both of us songs are coming out left and right pretty fast." The bands music is a cross between thrash metal and arena rock , like " Skid Row , Tesla , the mainstream MTV stuff that was in the eighties. And then also nineties metal and rock. Bands like Sepultura , Nevermore and Alice in Chains , Soundgarden , stuff like that." Prior to co-founding Shadows Fall with fellow guitarist Matt Bachand in 1996, Donais was a member of metalcore band Aftershock from 1993 to 1997, which morphed into Killswitch Engage , although after his departure. Shadows Fall's first line-up included Donais and Bachand alongside Damien McPherson (vocals), Mark Laliberte (bass), and David Germain (drums). By late 1996, the band recorded and released a demo titled Mourning a Dead World, of which only about 200 copies were produced. It consisted of the songs Lifeless, Suffer the Season, Fleshold, Forever Lost, A Souls Salvation, and Deadworld. McPherson decided to leave the band, and was replaced by Philip Labonte in 1997. Around the same time, bass guitarist Paul Romanko, formerly of the hardcore band Pushbutton Warfare, was recruited as a permanent replacement for Laliberte, who had originally joined on a temporary basis. Now with a more solid lineup, the band released its first EP, To Ashes , with Aftershock member Adam Dutkiewicz playing as a session drummer. The band's name, according to Bachand, comes from the title of a comic book published in the early 1990s. Shadows Fall went on hiatus in Summer 2015 after completing "farewell" tours in Europe and North America. On June 22, 2021, vocalist Brian Fair confirmed that Shadows Fall were reuniting for their first show in over half a decade at the Worcester Palladium on December 18. Supporting acts for this show were Unearth , Darkest Hour , Within the Ruins , Sworn Enemy and Carnivora. Flair also said that the band could release new music. Prior to Shadow Falls going on hiatus, Donais was announced, on January 11, 2013, to be joining thrash metal legends Anthrax on their Metal Alliance Tour, replacing Rob Caggiano who had left the band to join Volbeat . Donais made his live debut with Anthrax in Australia without a single rehearsal with the band. "I jammed with Scott [Ian , guitarist] a little bit, but it was, 'Here. Learn these songs and be ready,'" he recalled. "Oh. God. That first show — I was shaking." Donais was originally a touring member until August 13, 2013. The first Anthrax release that Donais appeared on was Chile on Hell live album and video in 2014, which was from a concert recorded at the Teatro Caupolican in Santiago , Chile, on May 10, 2013. Donais appeared on the bands following studio album For All Kings in 2016. According to Donais, his predecessor in Anthrax, Rob Caggiano, hooked him up with his current gig. "'Cause he knew he was gonna leave, and he wanted to make sure that they were all set." Donais' appearance with the band has been an overall positive experience for the band with bassist Frank Bello saying: "I think Jon has brought a great energy to the band. He stepped up and then some on this record." Scott Ian said, "Jon's approach towards lead guitar playing, he's more of a guy who's looking to construct something that makes sense and helps a song rather than the 45 seconds for him to be showing off how many notes he can play in X amount of measures." Donais has said that it was "a dream come true! I'm playing for a band that have been a huge influence for me.". Donais is set to appear on the bands new studio album, which is expected to be released in 2024, he has also said that he is not involved in the song writing process saying "Nope. Nope. Nope. All bands work different, man. They have a way that's worked, and they've [had a] strong 40-year career. So, if it's not broken, don't mess with it." Donais is also a member of supergroup Living Wreckage which is composed of Donais, vocalist Jeff Gard ( Death Ray Vision ), guitarist Matt LeBreton (Downpour), bassist Matt Bachand (Shadows Fall, Act of Defiance ) and drummer Jon Morency (Let Us Prey), the band came about during COVID-19 pandemic and was composed of musicians who lived near each other so "we could get in the basement once a week and just do it the old school way of, you know, having some beers, jammin and just having fun with friends. And that's what it is. We're all friends from the same area. We're in the same scene. So things fell together really quickly and Matt LeBreton, the other guitar player, he writes a lot too. So between the both of us songs are coming out left and right pretty fast." The bands music is a cross between thrash metal and arena rock , like " Skid Row , Tesla , the mainstream MTV stuff that was in the eighties. And then also nineties metal and rock. Bands like Sepultura , Nevermore and Alice in Chains , Soundgarden , stuff like that." Donais main influences are guitarists Zakk Wylde ( Black Label Society ) and Dimebag Darrell ( Pantera ) (both of which he has toured with), alongside Randy Rhoads ( Ozzy Osbourne ), James Hetfield ( Metallica ), Warren DeMartini ( Ratt ), John Sykes ( Thin Lizzy , Whitesnake ) and Alex Skolnick ( Testament ). Early bands that influenced him include Skid Row , Guns N' Roses , Tesla and Whitesnake. He has also recommended DVD's of the teaching of Paul Gilbert and John Petrucci .

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Dan Lilker

United Forces Daniel Adam Lilker (born October 18, 1964) is an American musician best known as a bass player, but also guitarist, pianist, drummer and vocalist. He has played bass in numerous heavy metal bands, including Anthrax , Nuclear Assault , S.O.D. and Holy Moses , and grindcore bands Brutal Truth and Exit-13 .Lilker was the bassist for the thrash metal band Nuclear Assault and was a founding member of Anthrax with Scott Ian . Lilker was then playing rhythm guitar and recorded bass guitar and co-wrote on their first album, Fistful of Metal (1984). Not long after the release of that album, he was dismissed from Anthrax and was replaced on bass by one of the band's roadies Frank Bello . Despite this, Lilker has remained close to the band, receiving a co-writing credit for at least one song on their next two albums, Spreading the Disease (1985) and Among the Living (1987), and he was offered to fill in for Bello on their upcoming spring 2024 tour dates. In addition to Anthrax and Nuclear Assault, Lilker has played bass in grindcore band Brutal Truth and crossover band Stormtroopers of Death with Scott Ian and Charlie Benante (from Anthrax), and Billy Milano (Anthrax roadie, M.O.D. singer). He has also played bass with Exit-13 , Malformed Earthborn, The Ravenous, Overlord Exterminator, Venomous Concept , Crucifist, Nokturnal Hellstorm, Nunfuckritual and Extra Hot Sauce. During his tenure with Anthrax, Lilker played bass by fingerpicking , but since forming Nuclear Assault, he has mostly been using a pick . Lilker played on Holy Moses ' 1994's No Matter What's the Cause . He is known for his fast, guitar-like riffing through heavy distortion. Lilker has been a columnist with Zero Tolerance Magazine since the publication's inception in 2005. In 2009, it was reported that Chicago journalist Dave Hofer was writing a biography of Lilker. Lilker formed United Forces with Stormtroopers of Death bandmate Billy Milano as their singer in 2012. In January 2014, Lilker announced his plans to retire from being a full-time recording and touring musician. He also announced that Brutal Truth would break up on his 50th birthday. However, Lilker remained as a member of Nuclear Assault, who released new material in 2015 for the EP Pounder , and had continued performing live sporadically until their breakup in 2022.

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Frank Bello

Frank Bello (born July 9, 1965) is an American musician who plays bass for the thrash metal band Anthrax . Bello was also in Helmet from 2004 to 2005.Bello is the nephew of Anthrax drummer Charlie Benante . He had a younger brother Anthony, who was murdered in the Bronx , New York City, in 1996. His murder was never solved. Bello has a tattoo on his right upper arm with a design of Anthony's face, with the words 'In Memory of Anthony' below it. On April 21, 2023, Benante announced the passing of Bello's mother Rosie. Bello was originally a roadie and guitar technician for Anthrax, but later replaced Dan Lilker soon after the release of the band's 1984 debut album Fistful of Metal , and has held this position ever since, excluding a brief departure in 2004, during which he was a member of Helmet – another New York City-based metal band. His stint in Helmet was brief, as Bello reunited with Anthrax the following year, and has remained in the band since. Bello has referred to Paul McCartney , Steve Harris , Gene Simmons , Geezer Butler , Geddy Lee , Chris Squire , Tom Petersson and Jaco Pastorius as influences and inspirations to his bass playing. He mostly plays bass fingerstyle, but also uses a pick on certain songs. For example he can be seen using one in the videos for "Room for One More" and "Fueled". He also used a pick most of the time during his stint with Helmet. In May 2021, Bello announced the forthcoming publication of his autobiography, Fathers, Brothers, and Sons: Surviving Anguish, Abandonment, and Anthrax . The book's co-writer is British author Joel McIver and it includes a foreword by Gene Simmons of Kiss . Bello played Richard Hell in Greetings from Tim Buckley , a film on Tim and Jeff Buckley , which premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival . He also played a small role as a stick-up man in Joe's Apartment , and appeared in the intro scene in the Law & Order episode "The Brotherhood", credited as "Rocker". He also played himself in an episode of Married... with Children and Newsradio.Bello played Richard Hell in Greetings from Tim Buckley , a film on Tim and Jeff Buckley , which premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival . He also played a small role as a stick-up man in Joe's Apartment , and appeared in the intro scene in the Law & Order episode "The Brotherhood", credited as "Rocker". He also played himself in an episode of Married... with Children and Newsradio.In the early days on Anthrax, Bello used an ESP Precision-styled bass, possibly a 400 series, that had EMG P-bass and J-bass pickups. ESP released this bass as a signature model, available only in Japan, in the mid-to-late 1980s. Sometime during the late 1980s, he switched to an ESP Surveyor P-bass, which had nearly all the same specifications of his previous basses, but with a finished headstock. He began using Fender basses during the beginning of the 1990s, due to a falling out with ESP which, according to ESP Vice President Jeff Moore, was due to miscommunication. He began using Fender P-basses around the time of Persistence of Time until the release of his signature model. Bello had a signature model Fender Jazz bass . The model combines a Fender Aerodyne body with a Precision Bass -width neck, Alder body wood (as opposed to the Aerodyne's Basswood) and a mix of Precision and Jazz bass pickups along with non-standard custom-chosen hardware. Pickups used on the bass are Seymour Duncan SPB-3 precision bass pickup in the neck position and a Samarium Cobalt Noiseless Jazz Bass pickup in the bridge position, although Bello's personal bass now is equipped with EMG HZ Passive pickups which Bello prefers "as the output is... a lot louder" and he gets "a lot more punch". Bello also had a signature Squier electric jazz bass. It features P/J style pick up combination and a skull inlay/body graphic. The ESP Frank Bello and LTD FB-4 are both based on the ESP Vintage-4 model, customized to Bello's specifications with a Black Satin finish and black anodized aluminum pickguard, ebony fingerboard with black pearloid block inlays, EMG PJ-X active pickups and a Gotoh bridge. The basses feature bolt-on construction at 34" scale, an alder body, and maple neck with 21 XJ frets. There is a writing of "R.I.P. Dimebag" on Bello's bass guitar (Fender model) for tribute to deceased Pantera and Damageplan guitarist Dimebag Darrell , which he inscribed into his bass the night of his death. After constant touring with Megadeth 's bass player, David Ellefson , Bello switched to a Hartke LH1000 and HyDrive cabinets. On tour, he also use a SansAmp Bass driver for a "grinding tone" for the "Got The Time" song. Previously, he used Ampeg SVT amplifiers and cabinets during the early 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. During the late 1980s, he used a rack system that relied on a Yamaha PB1 Preamp and Crown Power Base-1 power amplifiers. While in Helmet, Bello used Fender 800-PRO amplifiers with a Sansamp Bass Driver DI distortion pedal. In 2022 Charvel Guitars introduced a Frank Bello signature bass from their custom shop with a P Bass body, PJ EMG pickup configuration, Mirrored tele bass style pickguard and a maple neck and fretboard. Later in the year they released a Pro-Mod Mexican made version In 2023 Tech 21 release a Frank Bello signature SansAmp, the Street Driver 48 Bello has shown support for Little Kids Rock, a national nonprofit that works to restore and revitalize music education in disadvantaged U.S. public schools, by donating several bass guitars and amps to 15 New York City public schools. He also visited a Little Kids Rock classroom to show encouragement to young musicians, answer their questions, and jam with them on their favorite songs. Helmet - "Size Matters" (album, 2004) Crobot - "Mountain" (single, 2021) Frank Bello - "Then I'm Gone" (3-songs single, 2022).

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Diasporus anthrax

Eleutherodactylus anthrax Lynch, 2001 Diasporus anthrax is a species of frogs in the family Eleutherodactylidae . It is endemic to Colombia where it is found along the eastern base of the Cordillera Central and the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental . The specific name anthrax is Greek for Greek, meaning a carbuncle , a red gemstone. It refers to the red patches on the hidden surfaces of the limbs. Diasporus anthrax are small frogs, with a body size of 14–19 mm (0.55–0.75 in) . It is easily distinguished from related species by its white belly with dark spots and red spots on the hidden surface of the extremities. The male advertisement call is distinctive and consists of a single note about 0.06 seconds in duration. Its dominant frequency is about 4400 Hz , higher than advertisement calls of other Diasporus species. It inhabits humid tropical and sub-Andean forest at elevations of 280–1,200 m (920–3,940 ft) above sea level . They seem to occur near water bodies and human settlements. Specimens have been found on a tree branch, on a trail, in a trashcan, and inside of a petiole of Xanthosoma sagittifolium . Although these frogs appear rare based on museum collections and sightings during field expeditions, acoustic surveys suggest that they can be fairly abundant inside forest patches.

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T.N.T. (song)

" T.N.T. " is a song released in 1975 by Australian hard rock band AC/DC , taken from their Australian album T.N.T. and the international version of High Voltage . It was released as a single in 1976 and was written by Bon Scott , Angus Young and Malcolm Young . It peaked at No.19 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart. The song's title is a reference to the explosive chemical TNT . A slightly modified line from the song, "Lock up your daughters", was used as the title of AC/DC's first headlining tour of Great Britain in 1976 after the band's move from Melbourne, Australia, to London, earlier that year. "T.N.T." later appeared on Live and the Live: 2 CD Collector's Edition , with Brian Johnson providing vocals. In January 2018, as part of Triple M 's "Ozzest 100", the 'most Australian' songs of all time, "T.N.T." was ranked number 81. ‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.Anthrax Jay Ruston Rob Caggiano The Anthrax cover of this song was released on their 2013 covers EP Anthems . They debuted the song live 21 February 2013 at The HiFi in Brisbane, Australia ahead of Soundwave . Later on their tour in the US, Slash and Kirk Hammett (at separate gigs) joined them for this song.

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Anthrax analis

Anthrax analis is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . It's a parasitoid whose hosts include Cicindela scutellaris , Cicindela hirticollis , Cicindela marginata , Cicindela punctulata , and Cicindela tranquebarica . Canada, Mexico, United States, Costa Rica, Cuba, Nicaragua.

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Madhouse: The Very Best of Anthrax

Madhouse: The Very Best of Anthrax is the sixteenth release and second compilation album by the band Anthrax . The album was released in 2001 by the Island Def Jam Music Group without the direct participation of any band member, unlike the 1999 release Return of the Killer A's . Such was the haphazard nature of the release that guitarist and founding member Scott Ian openly criticized Island Def Jam for what he saw as the shoddy nature of the compilation, especially the accidental inclusion of the Persistence of Time track "Time" in place of the band's hit cover version of Joe Jackson 's "Got the Time", which was listed on the cover. The iTunes Music Store digital version of the album, and presumably subsequent pressings of the CD version, correct this mistake but incorrectly list "Keep It in the Family" as a live version. Metallica's James Hetfield is featured on the "I'm The Man"."Madhouse" (Anthrax) – 4:18 "A.I.R." (Anthrax) – 5:48 "Armed and Dangerous" ( Neil Turbin , Scott Ian ) – 5:45 "I Am the Law" (Anthrax, Lilker) – 5:56 "Indians" (Anthrax) – 5:41 "Caught in a Mosh" (Anthrax) – 5:00 "I'm the Man" featuring James Hetfield (Anthrax, Rooney, Moore) – 3:04 "Antisocial" (Bonvoisin, Krief) – 4:27 "Belly of the Beast" (Anthrax) – 4:47 " Got the Time " ( Joe Jackson ) - 2:44 "Keep It in the Family" (Anthrax) – 7:09 "Bring the Noise" (Anthrax, Ridenhour, Shocklee, Sadler) – 3:28"Madhouse" (Anthrax) – 4:18 "A.I.R." (Anthrax) – 5:48 "Armed and Dangerous" ( Neil Turbin , Scott Ian ) – 5:45 "I Am the Law" (Anthrax, Lilker) – 5:56 "Indians" (Anthrax) – 5:41 "Caught in a Mosh" (Anthrax) – 5:00 "I'm the Man" featuring James Hetfield (Anthrax, Rooney, Moore) – 3:04 "Antisocial" (Bonvoisin, Krief) – 4:27 "Belly of the Beast" (Anthrax) – 4:47 " Got the Time " ( Joe Jackson ) - 2:44 "Keep It in the Family" (Anthrax) – 7:09 "Bring the Noise" (Anthrax, Ridenhour, Shocklee, Sadler) – 3:28

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Calosoma anthrax

Calosoma grumi Semenov, 1900 Calosoma anthrax is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae . It is found in China and Mongolia. These two subspecies belong to the species Calosoma anthrax : Calosoma anthrax anthrax Semenov, 1900 (China and Mongolia) Calosoma anthrax grumi Semenov, 1900 (China)

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Anthrax

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Anthrax striatipennis

Anthrax striatipennis is a species of bee flies (insects in the family Bombyliidae ). United States .

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Joey Belladonna

Anthrax Belladonna Beyond Frontiers Chief Big Way Joey Belladonna (born Joseph Bellardini ; October 13, 1960) is an American singer, best known as the vocalist for thrash metal band Anthrax . He is also the vocalist and drummer of the cover band Chief Big Way and the vocalist for the cover band Beyond Frontiers. Belladonna has six Grammy Award nominations and is known for his wild, energetic stage behavior, and tenor vocal range. Belladonna was born Joseph Bellardini in Oswego, New York . He is Italian American on his father's side and Native American ( Iroquois ) on his mother's side. In his youth, Belladonna looked up to bands such as the Beatles , Led Zeppelin , Kansas and Rush ; bands that Belladonna said created "stuff that was very intricate but yet catchy and hooky you know, with great vocals." In 1983, Belladonna, still using his birth name Joey Bellardini at the time, became the vocalist for the band Bible Black , founded by Craig Gruber and Gary Driscoll (former members of Elf and Rainbow ) and Andrew "Duck" MacDonald (who later joined Blue Cheer ). Belladonna's predecessors in the band were Jeff Fenholt , who later had brief stints with Black Sabbath and Joshua , and Louis Marullo, aka Eric Adams , who left to join Manowar . Belladonna recorded the songs "Deceiver" and "Midnight Dance" with Bible Black. The band never officially released an album. Belladonna was the lead singer of Anthrax from 1984 to 1992, and was considered part of the classic-lineup (also featuring Dan Spitz , Scott Ian , Frank Bello and Charlie Benante ). After he was replaced by John Bush , he spent the next decade touring in minivans and taking odd jobs. Belladonna returned to the band when the "classic" lineup reunited and toured during 2005 and 2006. He found out on the internet that he had been replaced again by Dan Nelson . His voice has been featured on six studio albums and several EPs that have sold a total of eight million copies worldwide. During Belladonna's first tenure with Anthrax, the band was nominated for three Grammys, and he was voted the No. 1 metal singer two years in a row in Metal Forces magazine. In early 2010, Belladonna officially rejoined Anthrax in time for the "Big Four" shows at the Sonisphere festival . Following these and other shows, Belladonna returned to the studio with the band to record new vocals for their long-awaited album Worship Music . Since his return, Anthrax has been nominated for three additional Grammy awards. After his departure from Anthrax in 1992, Belladonna continued to make music in 'Belladonna', a solo project of which he has been the only consistent member. In the mid-1990s, Belladonna released its self-titled debut album, which was well received by both critics and fans alike. The second album, Spells of Fear , was released in 1998 and was heavily criticized for bad production and poor musicianship. Demo recordings of a third album, which was never professionally mastered, was self-released by the band in 2003. It was a return to better songwriting and musicianship and like the debut album it was well received by the fans. When asked whether he plans to release any more solo material in the future despite having re-joined Anthrax as a full-time member, Belladonna responded with: "Yeah definitely. I'm working on some stuff and I have almost a full record worth of material sitting right here which is very well demoed up but it is still far from done in its own way. I just keep running out of time whether someone's schedule is messed up or whatever it is happening at the time and it's unfortunate. Now of course Anthrax is back on the go so I just don't have the time to sit for hours with the material but there is definitely some cool metal here. By the time I get to do these songs I'll probably have a fresh batch of ideas and songs to put on top of those. (...) I'd like to put another record out some day, put something out that I can again call my own as I have some great ideas." Belladonna also plays drums and sings lead vocals in a cover band named Chief Big Way which features mainly classic rock hits from the 1970s and 80s. The band, based around Syracuse, New York , plays small neighborhood bars. He also sings in a Journey cover band called Beyond Frontiers. In 1983, Belladonna, still using his birth name Joey Bellardini at the time, became the vocalist for the band Bible Black , founded by Craig Gruber and Gary Driscoll (former members of Elf and Rainbow ) and Andrew "Duck" MacDonald (who later joined Blue Cheer ). Belladonna's predecessors in the band were Jeff Fenholt , who later had brief stints with Black Sabbath and Joshua , and Louis Marullo, aka Eric Adams , who left to join Manowar . Belladonna recorded the songs "Deceiver" and "Midnight Dance" with Bible Black. The band never officially released an album.Belladonna was the lead singer of Anthrax from 1984 to 1992, and was considered part of the classic-lineup (also featuring Dan Spitz , Scott Ian , Frank Bello and Charlie Benante ). After he was replaced by John Bush , he spent the next decade touring in minivans and taking odd jobs. Belladonna returned to the band when the "classic" lineup reunited and toured during 2005 and 2006. He found out on the internet that he had been replaced again by Dan Nelson . His voice has been featured on six studio albums and several EPs that have sold a total of eight million copies worldwide. During Belladonna's first tenure with Anthrax, the band was nominated for three Grammys, and he was voted the No. 1 metal singer two years in a row in Metal Forces magazine. In early 2010, Belladonna officially rejoined Anthrax in time for the "Big Four" shows at the Sonisphere festival . Following these and other shows, Belladonna returned to the studio with the band to record new vocals for their long-awaited album Worship Music . Since his return, Anthrax has been nominated for three additional Grammy awards. After his departure from Anthrax in 1992, Belladonna continued to make music in 'Belladonna', a solo project of which he has been the only consistent member. In the mid-1990s, Belladonna released its self-titled debut album, which was well received by both critics and fans alike. The second album, Spells of Fear , was released in 1998 and was heavily criticized for bad production and poor musicianship. Demo recordings of a third album, which was never professionally mastered, was self-released by the band in 2003. It was a return to better songwriting and musicianship and like the debut album it was well received by the fans. When asked whether he plans to release any more solo material in the future despite having re-joined Anthrax as a full-time member, Belladonna responded with: "Yeah definitely. I'm working on some stuff and I have almost a full record worth of material sitting right here which is very well demoed up but it is still far from done in its own way. I just keep running out of time whether someone's schedule is messed up or whatever it is happening at the time and it's unfortunate. Now of course Anthrax is back on the go so I just don't have the time to sit for hours with the material but there is definitely some cool metal here. By the time I get to do these songs I'll probably have a fresh batch of ideas and songs to put on top of those. (...) I'd like to put another record out some day, put something out that I can again call my own as I have some great ideas." Belladonna also plays drums and sings lead vocals in a cover band named Chief Big Way which features mainly classic rock hits from the 1970s and 80s. The band, based around Syracuse, New York , plays small neighborhood bars. He also sings in a Journey cover band called Beyond Frontiers.

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State of Euphoria

State of Euphoria is the fourth studio album by the American heavy metal band Anthrax . It was released on September 19, 1988, through Megaforce / Island Records . State of Euphoria was produced by Anthrax and Mark Dodson , with Alex Perialas engineering. Guitarist Scott Ian has been quoted as saying that the band hired Dodson to produce this album because of his work with Judas Priest and Metal Church . The album reached No. 30 on the Billboard 200 chart in late 1988 and was certified Gold by the RIAA on February 8, 1989. The songs "Who Cares Wins", dealing with the plight of the homeless , and " Antisocial " (a cover of the song by the French band Trust ) were released as singles with accompanying music videos . The song "Misery Loves Company" is based on the Stephen King novel Misery , while "Now It's Dark" was inspired by the David Lynch film Blue Velvet , specifically the behavior of the sexually depraved, self-asphyxiating, murderous sociopath Frank Booth , as played by Dennis Hopper . The song "Make Me Laugh" is critical of Jim and Tammy Fae Bakker and televangelism in general, a popular target of thrash metal bands of that period. The song specifically mentioned minutiae such as the air-conditioned doghouse and Christian amusement park. The majority of the album's music was composed by drummer Charlie Benante while lyrics were composed by rhythm guitarist Scott Ian . The back cover of the album contains a parody picture of the band drawn by Mort Drucker , a caricaturist best known for his artwork in the magazine Mad .Critical reception for the album was lukewarm upon its release. The album failed to live up to the expectations, commercial and otherwise, set by the band's previous releases, Spreading the Disease , Among the Living and the I'm the Man EP . Aside from "Be All, End All" and "Antisocial", most of the songs on State of Euphoria have not appeared on the band's live setlists since the album's accompanying tour in 1988–1989. The only songs from this album that have never been played live at least once are "Schism", "Misery Loves Company" and "13". The members of Anthrax have since spoken about their mixed opinions on State of Euphoria , and drummer Charlie Benante has been quoted as saying that the band feels the album was not finished properly. Anthrax spent nearly a year touring in support of State of Euphoria . Prior to the album's release, the band supported Iron Maiden on their Seventh Tour of a Seventh Tour in Europe, and opened for Ozzy Osbourne on his No Rest for the Wicked tour in the United States from November 1988 to January 1989. The band also opened for Metallica on their Damaged Justice tour. Anthrax continued touring in 1989, playing six shows in the UK with Living Colour in March, and headlining the Headbangers Ball Tour (with support from Helloween and Exodus ) in April–May. Following the Headbangers Ball tour, Anthrax toured Europe with Suicidal Tendencies , King's X and M.O.D. , which took place in June–July 1989. All tracks are written by Anthrax , except " Antisocial " by Bernie Bonvoisin and Norbert Kriefposition position^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

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Anthrax

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Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program

The Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP), is the name of the policy set forth by the U.S. federal government to immunize its military and certain civilian personnel with BioThrax , an anthrax vaccine manufactured by Emergent BioSolutions Inc. It was set up by the Clinton administration . In June 2001, the program was halted by the DoD due to changes in the manufacturing process not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the wake of the 2001 anthrax attacks and long after the 2003 invasion of Iraq , all military personnel were required to receive the anthrax vaccine. In Court, it was ruled that vaccination could not be forced on military personnel without a special order by the president. Thereafter it ran into and judicial obstacles (mainly concerning the methods and viability of the vaccine). Between March 1998 and December 2008, nearly 8 million doses of BioThrax were administered to over 2 million U.S. military personnel as part of the program. In December 2008, the FDA approved a new version of BioThrax which requires five intramuscular doses instead of six subcutaneous doses. The vaccination requirement was instituted in 1998 because of concerns that anthrax could be used as a biological weapon (see anthrax weaponization ). Secretary of Defense William Cohen stated that "anthrax poses a clear and present danger to our armed forces. It is the weapon of choice for germ warfare because it is easy to weaponize and is as lethal as the Ebola virus." Anthrax had previously been used in warfare as early as World War I, against livestock, and was also tested during World War II by Japan, against Chinese civilian populations, and by the US, Canada, and Great Britain on sheep at Gruinard Island. The Japanese attack was part of a larger program of biological warfare and human experimentation that is estimated to have killed 580,000 people. The Soviet Union weaponized anthrax, and 64 people were killed in an accident at Sverdlovsk in 1979. The Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo had carried out a successful attack using sarin and an unsuccessful one in 1993 using anthrax. Iraq was found in 1995 to have a biological weapons program that included anthrax. In 2001, shortly after 9/11, five people were killed in an anthrax attack delivered by mail to the US Senate. The US armed forces had a longstanding custom of mandating various vaccines for service members, so the leadership expected that the vaccination requirement would be a matter of routine. But according to the director of the program, "Things have changed. They used to stand you in line, give you two or three shots, and off you went. Nobody asked what they were for. [...] There has been a ... shift in the relationship between health care providers and patients. No longer do you just put a patient in a doctor's office or in a shot line." The program included the National Guard and Reserve, whose members had less of an expectation of being subject to such a requirement or of being exposed to biological warfare. Service members began to complain about side effects of the vaccine, and debate ensued about whether these problems were really vaccine-related. The DOD maintained that the vaccine was safe, but surveys showed that many service members did not believe the information that was being given to them about it. Treatment of troops who refused or hesitated was up to the discretion of their commanding officers, and therefore varied widely. Some were not punished at all, others acquiesced after further counseling, while still others received serious penalties such as dishonorable discharges. Following the 9/11 attacks, an exemption requested by marine James Muhammad led to his court martial, with his lawyer advising him to plead guilty because he would not be allowed to present his religious reasons and might be subject to the death penalty. The legal situation was complicated by the fact that the vaccine was experimental. Although service members are required to obey orders, it is also illegal under US law to use an experimental drug on patients without their consent. In the reserves, the requirement led many members to quit, switch to inactive status, or move to another unit. In the Air Force Reserve, a GAO report cited a negative effect on "retention of trained and experienced guard and reserve pilots." Legal challenges and questions about safety led to the cancellation of the program in 2008. [ citation needed ]In 1998, the Clinton administration required the inoculation of all military members with the anthrax vaccine known as Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) and by the trade name BioThrax. In 1999 at Offutt Air Force Base , the first ever Anthrax refusal court-martial in the United States Air Force was prosecuted. In the case of U.S. v. Bickley , Captain Jeffrey A. Lustick, USAF, prosecuted an airman's refusal to submit to the immunization. The airman was convicted and later administratively separated from the U.S. Air Force. In June 2001, the DoD halted vaccinations due to non-FDA approved changes in BioPort's manufacturing process. On October 15, 2001, military members filed a FDA Citizen Petition highlighting the fact that the license for AVA had never formally been finalized by the FDA in accordance with the requirements of 21 CFR § 10.30 as Docket # 01P-0471. The Petition was later utilized as the foundational basis for a Preliminary Injunction by a Federal Court to temporarily halt the program [ Doe v. Rumsfeld , 297 F. Supp. 2d 119 (D.D.C. 2003)]. On June 28, 2002, in the wake of the 2001 anthrax attacks and leading up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , all military personnel were required to receive AVA in addition to their other vaccinations of smallpox . The military does give this vaccination regularly as well as Japanese encephalitis (JEV) when the service member is to be deployed to Southeast Asia, and other vaccines such as pneumococcal, tetanus , among others. While some military personnel had questions about the safety of the vaccine, it was considered a lawful order at that time, and this made refusing the vaccine at peril of the subordinate, including possible discharge (i.e., losing their job and any benefits depending on the type of discharge). This pressure, at least for the National Guard and Reserve pilots and crewmembers, became a deciding retention factor. Later that month, the DOD made it policy to include any personnel spending 15 days or more in high anthrax-risk areas, such as the Persian Gulf or the Korean peninsula. In December 2003, Judge Emmet G. Sullivan of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that the Department of Defense could not force military personnel to take the vaccine unless through a special order by the president. In October 2004, for about 8 days in (October 20–28), anthrax vaccinations were resumed, but then an injunction against mandatory vaccination was filed on the basis that AVA was not proven to work against inhalation anthrax. The ruling held that the mandatory program was illegal. The DoD was now required to either let the individual member choose under an informed consent policy, or allowed the president to bypass this requirement by executive order ( Doe v. Rumsfeld , 341 F. Supp. 2d 1, 6 (D.D.C. 2004)). For military members who had started the vaccination (which usually takes build-up and booster shots), they tended to continue the vaccination program under informed consent. For those who had a choice, they usually decided against it. The government stated that they will resume the vaccination program under informed consent in April 2005. On December 15, 2005, the FDA re-issued a Final Rule & Order on the license status of AVA, clearing the way for mandatory vaccination reinstatement. After reviewing extensive scientific evidence and carefully considering comments from the public, the FDA again determined that the vaccine is licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. Pertaining to the previous ruling, the DC District Federal Appeals Court declined to vacate or overturn the injunction in 2006, instead mooting the case based on the FDA's new 2005 licensing of the vaccine.[ Doe v. Rumsfeld , 127 Fed. App'x 327 (D.C. Cir. 2006)] On October 16, 2006 the military announced intentions to resume vaccinations for select personnel again, but the vaccinations remained voluntary until further guidance by the DoD. The DoD's official resumption status of the program awaited publication of service messages. On December 13, 2006, a new class-action lawsuit, filed on behalf of six unnamed plaintiffs, revived the legal battle over the military's mandatory anthrax immunization program. According to court documents, the basic premise of the lawsuit is the plaintiffs' claim that the vaccine is "unapproved for its applied/intended use." The lawsuit says that "plaintiffs will suffer substantial and irreparable injury if they are forced to take the vaccine," which the suit says has not been properly approved by the government, despite the FDA issuing its "final rule" on the vaccine on December 15, 2005. The suit also says the DOD has failed to follow presidential orders and federal laws that require the government to obtain informed consent before giving an unapproved and experimental vaccine to anyone. On February 8, 2007, the military has resumed mandatory vaccinations of certain troops. Specific policies and troop selection varies according to branch of service. By August 2007, the original court affirmed that the AVIP was not substantially justified prior to the consequent FDA licensure and requisite rule making for the vaccine in December 2005. The Court ultimately granted "prevailing party" status for the plaintiffs against defendants DoD and FDA [ Doe v. Rumsfeld , 501 F. Supp. 2d 186, 188 (D.D.C. 2007)]. By March 2008, a different Federal Judge affirmed the prior ruling in its opinion regarding corrections of records writing, "Taken as a whole, Judge Sullivan's decisions in Doe v. Rumsfeld conclude that, prior to the FDA's December 2005 rulemaking, it was a violation of federal law for military personnel to be subjected to involuntary AVA inoculation because the vaccine was neither the subject of a presidential waiver nor licensed for use against inhalation anthrax." By August 6, 2008, an FBI press briefing theorized that the "failing" anthrax vaccine immunization program led as the primary motivator in the fall 2001 anthrax letter attacks allegedly perpetrated by U.S. Army scientist Bruce Ivins. FBI documents reveal the FDA "suspended further production" of anthrax vaccine just prior to the attacks (Ivins' emails and FBI analysis available on pp. 12–16 of affidavit). Failed potency tests prevented FDA approval. FBI released emails by Ivins showing the vaccine "isn't passing the potency test" and that "no approved lots" were available just prior to the letter attacks. The FBI explained Ivins' involvement with the failed potency tests. FBI affidavits also documented Ivins receiving the highest Defense Department honors for "getting the anthrax vaccine back into production". The U.S. Department of Justice press statements theorized Ivins' anthrax letter attack motive: "by launching these attacks, he creates a situation, a scenario, where people all of a sudden realize the need to have this vaccine." On October 1, 2008, Michael O. Leavitt , Secretary of Health and Human Services, declared a need "to provide targeted liability protections for anthrax countermeasures" because "I have determined there is a credible risk that the threat of exposure of B. anthracis and the resulting disease constitutes a public health emergency" until the year 2015. Emergent BioSolutions immediately prepared to supply 14.5 million doses of anthrax vaccine by 2011. In December 2008, the FDA approved a new version of BioThrax which requires five intramuscular doses instead of six subcutaneous doses. The vaccine is required for US military members who are deployed to the Middle East, although some have objected to the vaccine because of side effects. On February 19, 2010, the FBI released its final summary on the Amerithrax investigation. The "motive", according to the FBI, was detailed on page 8 of the report: "Motive. According to his e-mails and statements to friends, in the months leading up to the anthrax attacks in the fall of 2001, Dr. Ivins was under intense personal and professional pressure. The anthrax vaccine program to which he had devoted his entire career of more than 20 years was failing. The anthrax vaccines were receiving criticism in several scientific circles, because of both potency problems and allegations that the anthrax vaccine contributed to Gulf War syndrome . Short of some major breakthrough or intervention, he feared that the vaccine research program was going to be discontinued. Following the anthrax attacks, however, his program was suddenly rejuvenated." The FBI continued on page 39 finding, "within a few months of the anthrax attacks, the FDA fast-tracked the approval process and approved the Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed ("AVA"), even though it didn't meet the original potency standards. This was a significant development for the anthrax researchers." To date, the DOD has not announced a reevaluation of the AVIP, nor consideration of correcting the records of previously punished soldiers, in light of the above-mentioned legislative, legal and criminal findings related to the anthrax vaccine.In 1998, the Clinton administration required the inoculation of all military members with the anthrax vaccine known as Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) and by the trade name BioThrax. In 1999 at Offutt Air Force Base , the first ever Anthrax refusal court-martial in the United States Air Force was prosecuted. In the case of U.S. v. Bickley , Captain Jeffrey A. Lustick, USAF, prosecuted an airman's refusal to submit to the immunization. The airman was convicted and later administratively separated from the U.S. Air Force. In June 2001, the DoD halted vaccinations due to non-FDA approved changes in BioPort's manufacturing process. On October 15, 2001, military members filed a FDA Citizen Petition highlighting the fact that the license for AVA had never formally been finalized by the FDA in accordance with the requirements of 21 CFR § 10.30 as Docket # 01P-0471. The Petition was later utilized as the foundational basis for a Preliminary Injunction by a Federal Court to temporarily halt the program [ Doe v. Rumsfeld , 297 F. Supp. 2d 119 (D.D.C. 2003)]. On June 28, 2002, in the wake of the 2001 anthrax attacks and leading up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , all military personnel were required to receive AVA in addition to their other vaccinations of smallpox . The military does give this vaccination regularly as well as Japanese encephalitis (JEV) when the service member is to be deployed to Southeast Asia, and other vaccines such as pneumococcal, tetanus , among others. While some military personnel had questions about the safety of the vaccine, it was considered a lawful order at that time, and this made refusing the vaccine at peril of the subordinate, including possible discharge (i.e., losing their job and any benefits depending on the type of discharge). This pressure, at least for the National Guard and Reserve pilots and crewmembers, became a deciding retention factor. Later that month, the DOD made it policy to include any personnel spending 15 days or more in high anthrax-risk areas, such as the Persian Gulf or the Korean peninsula. In December 2003, Judge Emmet G. Sullivan of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that the Department of Defense could not force military personnel to take the vaccine unless through a special order by the president. In October 2004, for about 8 days in (October 20–28), anthrax vaccinations were resumed, but then an injunction against mandatory vaccination was filed on the basis that AVA was not proven to work against inhalation anthrax. The ruling held that the mandatory program was illegal. The DoD was now required to either let the individual member choose under an informed consent policy, or allowed the president to bypass this requirement by executive order ( Doe v. Rumsfeld , 341 F. Supp. 2d 1, 6 (D.D.C. 2004)). For military members who had started the vaccination (which usually takes build-up and booster shots), they tended to continue the vaccination program under informed consent. For those who had a choice, they usually decided against it. The government stated that they will resume the vaccination program under informed consent in April 2005. On December 15, 2005, the FDA re-issued a Final Rule & Order on the license status of AVA, clearing the way for mandatory vaccination reinstatement. After reviewing extensive scientific evidence and carefully considering comments from the public, the FDA again determined that the vaccine is licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. Pertaining to the previous ruling, the DC District Federal Appeals Court declined to vacate or overturn the injunction in 2006, instead mooting the case based on the FDA's new 2005 licensing of the vaccine.[ Doe v. Rumsfeld , 127 Fed. App'x 327 (D.C. Cir. 2006)] On October 16, 2006 the military announced intentions to resume vaccinations for select personnel again, but the vaccinations remained voluntary until further guidance by the DoD. The DoD's official resumption status of the program awaited publication of service messages. On December 13, 2006, a new class-action lawsuit, filed on behalf of six unnamed plaintiffs, revived the legal battle over the military's mandatory anthrax immunization program. According to court documents, the basic premise of the lawsuit is the plaintiffs' claim that the vaccine is "unapproved for its applied/intended use." The lawsuit says that "plaintiffs will suffer substantial and irreparable injury if they are forced to take the vaccine," which the suit says has not been properly approved by the government, despite the FDA issuing its "final rule" on the vaccine on December 15, 2005. The suit also says the DOD has failed to follow presidential orders and federal laws that require the government to obtain informed consent before giving an unapproved and experimental vaccine to anyone. On February 8, 2007, the military has resumed mandatory vaccinations of certain troops. Specific policies and troop selection varies according to branch of service. By August 2007, the original court affirmed that the AVIP was not substantially justified prior to the consequent FDA licensure and requisite rule making for the vaccine in December 2005. The Court ultimately granted "prevailing party" status for the plaintiffs against defendants DoD and FDA [ Doe v. Rumsfeld , 501 F. Supp. 2d 186, 188 (D.D.C. 2007)]. By March 2008, a different Federal Judge affirmed the prior ruling in its opinion regarding corrections of records writing, "Taken as a whole, Judge Sullivan's decisions in Doe v. Rumsfeld conclude that, prior to the FDA's December 2005 rulemaking, it was a violation of federal law for military personnel to be subjected to involuntary AVA inoculation because the vaccine was neither the subject of a presidential waiver nor licensed for use against inhalation anthrax." By August 6, 2008, an FBI press briefing theorized that the "failing" anthrax vaccine immunization program led as the primary motivator in the fall 2001 anthrax letter attacks allegedly perpetrated by U.S. Army scientist Bruce Ivins. FBI documents reveal the FDA "suspended further production" of anthrax vaccine just prior to the attacks (Ivins' emails and FBI analysis available on pp. 12–16 of affidavit). Failed potency tests prevented FDA approval. FBI released emails by Ivins showing the vaccine "isn't passing the potency test" and that "no approved lots" were available just prior to the letter attacks. The FBI explained Ivins' involvement with the failed potency tests. FBI affidavits also documented Ivins receiving the highest Defense Department honors for "getting the anthrax vaccine back into production". The U.S. Department of Justice press statements theorized Ivins' anthrax letter attack motive: "by launching these attacks, he creates a situation, a scenario, where people all of a sudden realize the need to have this vaccine." On October 1, 2008, Michael O. Leavitt , Secretary of Health and Human Services, declared a need "to provide targeted liability protections for anthrax countermeasures" because "I have determined there is a credible risk that the threat of exposure of B. anthracis and the resulting disease constitutes a public health emergency" until the year 2015. Emergent BioSolutions immediately prepared to supply 14.5 million doses of anthrax vaccine by 2011. In December 2008, the FDA approved a new version of BioThrax which requires five intramuscular doses instead of six subcutaneous doses. The vaccine is required for US military members who are deployed to the Middle East, although some have objected to the vaccine because of side effects. On February 19, 2010, the FBI released its final summary on the Amerithrax investigation. The "motive", according to the FBI, was detailed on page 8 of the report: "Motive. According to his e-mails and statements to friends, in the months leading up to the anthrax attacks in the fall of 2001, Dr. Ivins was under intense personal and professional pressure. The anthrax vaccine program to which he had devoted his entire career of more than 20 years was failing. The anthrax vaccines were receiving criticism in several scientific circles, because of both potency problems and allegations that the anthrax vaccine contributed to Gulf War syndrome . Short of some major breakthrough or intervention, he feared that the vaccine research program was going to be discontinued. Following the anthrax attacks, however, his program was suddenly rejuvenated." The FBI continued on page 39 finding, "within a few months of the anthrax attacks, the FDA fast-tracked the approval process and approved the Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed ("AVA"), even though it didn't meet the original potency standards. This was a significant development for the anthrax researchers." To date, the DOD has not announced a reevaluation of the AVIP, nor consideration of correcting the records of previously punished soldiers, in light of the above-mentioned legislative, legal and criminal findings related to the anthrax vaccine.This is a pamphlet distributed to military members regarding their vaccinations after the Emergency Use Authorization from the FDA after April 4, 2005.

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Anthrax

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Bioterrorism

Methods Tactics Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents . These agents include bacteria , viruses , insects , fungi , and/or their toxins , and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-modified form, in much the same way as in biological warfare . Further, modern agribusiness is vulnerable to anti-agricultural attacks by terrorists, and such attacks can seriously damage economy as well as consumer confidence . The latter destructive activity is called agrobioterrorism and is a subtype of agro-terrorism . Bioterrorism agents are typically found in nature, but could be mutated or altered to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or in food. Biological agents are attractive to terrorists because they are extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days. Some bioterrorism agents, like the smallpox virus , can be spread from person to person and some, like anthrax , cannot. Bioterrorism may be favored because biological agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to obtain, can be easily disseminated, and can cause widespread fear and panic beyond the actual physical damage. Military leaders, however, have learned that, as a military asset, bioterrorism has some important limitations; it is difficult to use a bioweapon in a way that only affects the enemy and not friendly forces. A biological weapon is useful to terrorists mainly as a method of creating mass panic and disruption to a state or a country. However, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists. The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans, but disrupt the economy, have also been discussed. One such pathogen is the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, which is capable of causing widespread economic damage and public concern (as witnessed in the 2001 and 2007 FMD outbreaks in the UK), while having almost no capacity to infect humans.By the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. This generally proved to be ineffective. Shortly after the start of World War I, Germany launched a biological sabotage campaign in the United States, Russia, Romania, and France. At that time, Anton Dilger lived in Germany, but in 1915 he was sent to the United States carrying cultures of glanders , a virulent disease of horses and mules. Dilger set up a laboratory in his home in Chevy Chase , Maryland. He used stevedores working the docks in Baltimore to infect horses with glanders while they were waiting to be shipped to Britain. Dilger was under suspicion as being a German agent, but was never arrested. Dilger eventually fled to Madrid, Spain, where he died during the Influenza Pandemic of 1918 . In 1916, the Russians arrested a German agent with similar intentions. Germany and its allies infected French cavalry horses and many of Russia's mules and horses on the Eastern Front. These actions hindered artillery and troop movements, as well as supply convoys. In 1972, police in Chicago arrested two college students, Allen Schwander and Stephen Pera, who had planned to poison the city's water supply with typhoid and other bacteria. Schwander had founded a terrorist group, "R.I.S.E.", while Pera collected and grew cultures from the hospital where he worked. The two men fled to Cuba after being released on bail. Schwander died of natural causes in 1974, while Pera returned to the U.S. in 1975 and was put on probation. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the eradication of smallpox, a highly contagious and incurable disease. Although the disease has been eliminated in the wild, frozen stocks of smallpox virus are still maintained by the governments of the United States and Russia. Disastrous consequences are feared if rogue politicians or terrorists were to get hold of the smallpox strains. Since vaccination programs are now terminated, the world population is more susceptible to smallpox than ever before. In Oregon in 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population. They infected salad bars in 11 restaurants, produce in grocery stores, doorknobs, and other public domains with Salmonella typhimurium bacteria in the city of The Dalles , Oregon . The attack infected 751 people with severe food poisoning . There were no fatalities. This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century. It was also the single largest bioterrorism attack on U.S. soil. In June 1993, the religious group Aum Shinrikyo released anthrax in Tokyo. Eyewitnesses reported a foul odor. The attack was a failure, because it did not infect a single person. The reason for this is due to the fact that the group used the vaccine strain of the bacterium. The spores which were recovered from the site of the attack showed that they were identical to an anthrax vaccine strain that was given to animals at the time. These vaccine strains are missing the genes that cause a symptomatic response. In September and October 2001, several cases of anthrax broke out in the United States, apparently deliberately caused. Letters laced with infectious anthrax were concurrently delivered to news media offices and the U.S. Congress, alongside an ambiguously related case in Chile . The letters killed five people. There are multiple considerable scenarios, how terrorists might employ biological agents. In 2000, tests conducted by various US agencies showed that indoor attacks in densely populated spaces are much more serious than outdoor attacks. Such enclosed spaces are large buildings, trains, indoor arenas, theaters, malls, tunnels and similar. Contra-measures against such scenarios are building architecture and ventilation systems engineering. In 1993, sewage was spilled out into a river, subsequently drawn into the water system and affected 400,000 people in Milwaukee , Wisconsin. The disease-causing organism was cryptosporidium parvum . This man-made disaster can be a template for a terrorist scenario. Nevertheless, terrorist scenarios are considered more likely near the points of delivery than at the water sources before the water treatment . Release of biological agents is more likely for a single building or a neighborhood. Counter-measures against this scenario include the further limitation of access to the water supply systems, tunnels, and infrastructure. Agricultural crop-duster flights might be misused as delivery devices for biological agents as well. Counter-measures against this scenario are background checks of employees of crop-dusting companies and surveillance procedures. In the most common hoax scenario, no biological agents are employed. For instance, an envelope with powder in it that says, "You've just been exposed to anthrax." Such hoaxes have been shown to have a large psychological impact on the population . Anti-agriculture attacks are considered to require relatively little expertise and technology. Biological agents that attack livestock, fish, vegetation, and crops are mostly not contagious to humans and are therefore easier for attackers to handle. Even a few cases of infection can disrupt a country's agricultural production and exports for months, as evidenced by FMD outbreaks.Under current United States law , bio-agents which have been declared by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services or the U.S. Department of Agriculture to have the "potential to pose a severe threat to public health and safety" are officially defined as " select agents ." The CDC categorizes these agents (A, B or C) and administers the Select Agent Program , which regulates the laboratories which may possess, use, or transfer select agents within the United States. As with US attempts to categorize harmful recreational drugs, designer viruses are not yet categorized and avian H5N1 has been shown to achieve high mortality and human-communication in a laboratory setting. These high-priority agents pose a risk to national security, can be easily transmitted and disseminated, result in high mortality, have potential major public health impact, may cause public panic, or require special action for public health preparedness. Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates. Category C agents are emerging pathogens that might be engineered for mass dissemination because of their availability, ease of production and dissemination, high mortality rate, or ability to cause a major health impact.These high-priority agents pose a risk to national security, can be easily transmitted and disseminated, result in high mortality, have potential major public health impact, may cause public panic, or require special action for public health preparedness.Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates.Category C agents are emerging pathogens that might be engineered for mass dissemination because of their availability, ease of production and dissemination, high mortality rate, or ability to cause a major health impact.Planning may involve the development of biological identification systems. Until recently in the United States, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some outbreaks, such as food poisoning due to E. coli or Salmonella , could be of either natural or deliberate origin. Export controls on biological agents are not applied uniformly, providing terrorists a route for acquisition. Laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify contaminated areas and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities. In addition, forensic technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial source. Efforts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns. Early detection and rapid response to bioterrorism depend on close cooperation between public health authorities and law enforcement; however, such cooperation is lacking. National detection assets and vaccine stockpiles are not useful if local and state officials do not have access to them. Aspects of protection against bioterrorism in the United States include: On a CNN news broadcast in 2011, the CNN chief medical correspondent, Dr. Sanjay Gupta, weighed in on the American government's recent approach to bioterrorist threats. He explains how, even though the United States would be better fending off bioterrorist attacks now than they would be a decade ago, the amount of money available to fight bioterrorism over the last three years has begun to decrease. Looking at a detailed report that examined the funding decrease for bioterrorism in fifty-one American cities, Dr. Gupta stated that the cities "wouldn't be able to distribute vaccines as well" and "wouldn't be able to track viruses." He also said that film portrayals of global pandemics, such as Contagion , were actually quite possible and may occur in the United States under the right conditions. A news broadcast by MSNBC in 2010 also stressed the low levels of bioterrorism preparedness in the United States. The broadcast stated that a bipartisan report gave the Obama administration a failing grade for its efforts to respond to a bioterrorist attack. The news broadcast invited the former New York City police commissioner, Howard Safir, to explain how the government would fare in combating such an attack. He said how "biological and chemical weapons are probable and relatively easy to disperse." Furthermore, Safir thought that efficiency in bioterrorism preparedness is not necessarily a question of money, but is instead dependent on putting resources in the right places. The broadcast suggested that the nation was not ready for something more serious. In a September 2016 interview conducted by Homeland Preparedness News, Daniel Gerstein, a senior policy researcher for the RAND Corporation, stresses the importance in preparing for potential bioterrorist attacks on the nation. He implored the U.S. government to take the proper and necessary actions to implement a strategic plan of action to save as many lives as possible and to safeguard against potential chaos and confusion. He believes that because there have been no significant instances of bioterrorism since the anthrax attacks in 2001, the government has allowed itself to become complacent making the country that much more vulnerable to unsuspecting attacks, thereby further endangering the lives of U.S. citizens. Gerstein formerly served in the Science and Technology Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security from 2011 to 2014. He claims there has not been a serious plan of action since 2004 during George W. Bush's presidency, in which he issued a Homeland Security directive delegating responsibilities among various federal agencies. He also stated that the blatant mishandling of the Ebola virus outbreak in 2014 attested to the government's lack of preparation. This past May, legislation that would create a national defense strategy was introduced in the Senate, coinciding with the timing of ISIS-affiliated terrorist groups get closer to weaponizing biological agents. In May 2016, Kenyan officials apprehended two members of an Islamic extremist group in motion to set off a biological bomb containing anthrax. Mohammed Abdi Ali, the believed leader of the group, who was a medical intern, was arrested along with his wife, a medical student. The two were caught just before carrying out their plan. The Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense, which comprises a group of experts on national security and government officials, in which Gerstein had previously testified to, submitted its National Blueprint for Biodefense to Congress in October 2015 listing their recommendations for devising an effective plan. Bill Gates said in a February 18, 2017 Business Insider op-ed (published near the time of his Munich Security Conference speech) that it is possible for an airborne pathogen to kill at least 30 million people over the course of a year. In a New York Times report, the Gates Foundation predicted that a modern outbreak similar to the Spanish Influenza pandemic (which killed between 50 million and 100 million people) could end up killing more than 360 million people worldwide, even considering widespread availability of vaccines and other healthcare tools. The report cited increased globalization , rapid international air travel, and urbanization as increased reasons for concern. In a March 9, 2017, interview with CNBC, former U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman , who was co-chair of the bipartisan Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense , said a worldwide pandemic could end the lives of more people than a nuclear war. Lieberman also expressed worry that a terrorist group like ISIS could develop a synthetic influenza strain and introduce it to the world to kill civilians. In July 2017, Robert C. Hutchinson, former agent at the Department of Homeland Security , called for a "whole-of-government" response to the next global health threat, which he described as including strict security procedures at our borders and proper execution of government preparedness plans. Also, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as synthetic biology, could be used in the future to design new types of biological warfare agents. Special attention has to be laid on future experiments (of concern) that: Would demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective; Would confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents; Would enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent; Would increase transmissibility of a pathogen; Would alter the host range of a pathogen; Would enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection tools; Would enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology, however, are focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio) in the lab. The CRISPR/Cas system has emerged as a promising technique for gene editing. It was hailed by The Washington Post as "the most important innovation in the synthetic biology space in nearly 30 years." While other methods take months or years to edit gene sequences, CRISPR speeds that time up to weeks. However, due to its ease of use and accessibility, it has raised a number of ethical concerns, especially surrounding its use in the biohacking space. In 1999, the University of Pittsburgh 's Center for Biomedical Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance) . RODS is designed to collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales. In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and Ron Aryel , a subcontractor, conceived the idea of obtaining live data feeds from "non-traditional" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nationwide. On February 5, 2002, George W. Bush visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a $ 300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. In a speech delivered at the nearby Masonic temple , Bush compared the RODS system to a modern " DEW " line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system). The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the Handbook of Biosurveillance , edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism). Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information. Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic health record systems, medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by ranching and feedlot operations, food processors, drinking water systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others. In Europe , disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak. Researchers have experimented with devices to detect the existence of a threat: Some research shows that ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008, issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. The United States Department of Defense conducts global biosurveillance through several programs, including the Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System. Another powerful tool developed within New York City for use in countering bioterrorism is the development of the New York City Syndromic Surveillance System. This system is essentially a way of tracking disease progression throughout New York City, and was developed by the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (NYC DOHMH) in the wake of the 9/11 attacks. The system works by tracking the symptoms of those taken into the emergency department—based on the location of the hospital to which they are taken and their home address—and assessing any patterns in symptoms. These established trends can then be observed by medical epidemiologists to determine if there are any disease outbreaks in any particular locales; maps of disease prevalence can then be created rather easily. This is an obviously beneficial tool in fighting bioterrorism as it provides a means through which such attacks could be discovered in their nascence; assuming bioterrorist attacks result in similar symptoms across the board, this strategy allows New York City to respond immediately to any bioterrorist threats that they may face with some level of alacrity.Export controls on biological agents are not applied uniformly, providing terrorists a route for acquisition. Laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify contaminated areas and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities. In addition, forensic technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial source. Efforts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns. Early detection and rapid response to bioterrorism depend on close cooperation between public health authorities and law enforcement; however, such cooperation is lacking. National detection assets and vaccine stockpiles are not useful if local and state officials do not have access to them. Aspects of protection against bioterrorism in the United States include: On a CNN news broadcast in 2011, the CNN chief medical correspondent, Dr. Sanjay Gupta, weighed in on the American government's recent approach to bioterrorist threats. He explains how, even though the United States would be better fending off bioterrorist attacks now than they would be a decade ago, the amount of money available to fight bioterrorism over the last three years has begun to decrease. Looking at a detailed report that examined the funding decrease for bioterrorism in fifty-one American cities, Dr. Gupta stated that the cities "wouldn't be able to distribute vaccines as well" and "wouldn't be able to track viruses." He also said that film portrayals of global pandemics, such as Contagion , were actually quite possible and may occur in the United States under the right conditions. A news broadcast by MSNBC in 2010 also stressed the low levels of bioterrorism preparedness in the United States. The broadcast stated that a bipartisan report gave the Obama administration a failing grade for its efforts to respond to a bioterrorist attack. The news broadcast invited the former New York City police commissioner, Howard Safir, to explain how the government would fare in combating such an attack. He said how "biological and chemical weapons are probable and relatively easy to disperse." Furthermore, Safir thought that efficiency in bioterrorism preparedness is not necessarily a question of money, but is instead dependent on putting resources in the right places. The broadcast suggested that the nation was not ready for something more serious. In a September 2016 interview conducted by Homeland Preparedness News, Daniel Gerstein, a senior policy researcher for the RAND Corporation, stresses the importance in preparing for potential bioterrorist attacks on the nation. He implored the U.S. government to take the proper and necessary actions to implement a strategic plan of action to save as many lives as possible and to safeguard against potential chaos and confusion. He believes that because there have been no significant instances of bioterrorism since the anthrax attacks in 2001, the government has allowed itself to become complacent making the country that much more vulnerable to unsuspecting attacks, thereby further endangering the lives of U.S. citizens. Gerstein formerly served in the Science and Technology Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security from 2011 to 2014. He claims there has not been a serious plan of action since 2004 during George W. Bush's presidency, in which he issued a Homeland Security directive delegating responsibilities among various federal agencies. He also stated that the blatant mishandling of the Ebola virus outbreak in 2014 attested to the government's lack of preparation. This past May, legislation that would create a national defense strategy was introduced in the Senate, coinciding with the timing of ISIS-affiliated terrorist groups get closer to weaponizing biological agents. In May 2016, Kenyan officials apprehended two members of an Islamic extremist group in motion to set off a biological bomb containing anthrax. Mohammed Abdi Ali, the believed leader of the group, who was a medical intern, was arrested along with his wife, a medical student. The two were caught just before carrying out their plan. The Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense, which comprises a group of experts on national security and government officials, in which Gerstein had previously testified to, submitted its National Blueprint for Biodefense to Congress in October 2015 listing their recommendations for devising an effective plan. Bill Gates said in a February 18, 2017 Business Insider op-ed (published near the time of his Munich Security Conference speech) that it is possible for an airborne pathogen to kill at least 30 million people over the course of a year. In a New York Times report, the Gates Foundation predicted that a modern outbreak similar to the Spanish Influenza pandemic (which killed between 50 million and 100 million people) could end up killing more than 360 million people worldwide, even considering widespread availability of vaccines and other healthcare tools. The report cited increased globalization , rapid international air travel, and urbanization as increased reasons for concern. In a March 9, 2017, interview with CNBC, former U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman , who was co-chair of the bipartisan Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense , said a worldwide pandemic could end the lives of more people than a nuclear war. Lieberman also expressed worry that a terrorist group like ISIS could develop a synthetic influenza strain and introduce it to the world to kill civilians. In July 2017, Robert C. Hutchinson, former agent at the Department of Homeland Security , called for a "whole-of-government" response to the next global health threat, which he described as including strict security procedures at our borders and proper execution of government preparedness plans. Also, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as synthetic biology, could be used in the future to design new types of biological warfare agents. Special attention has to be laid on future experiments (of concern) that: Would demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective; Would confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents; Would enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent; Would increase transmissibility of a pathogen; Would alter the host range of a pathogen; Would enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection tools; Would enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology, however, are focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio) in the lab. The CRISPR/Cas system has emerged as a promising technique for gene editing. It was hailed by The Washington Post as "the most important innovation in the synthetic biology space in nearly 30 years." While other methods take months or years to edit gene sequences, CRISPR speeds that time up to weeks. However, due to its ease of use and accessibility, it has raised a number of ethical concerns, especially surrounding its use in the biohacking space. In 1999, the University of Pittsburgh 's Center for Biomedical Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance) . RODS is designed to collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales. In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and Ron Aryel , a subcontractor, conceived the idea of obtaining live data feeds from "non-traditional" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nationwide. On February 5, 2002, George W. Bush visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a $ 300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. In a speech delivered at the nearby Masonic temple , Bush compared the RODS system to a modern " DEW " line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system). The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the Handbook of Biosurveillance , edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism). Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information. Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic health record systems, medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by ranching and feedlot operations, food processors, drinking water systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others. In Europe , disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak. Researchers have experimented with devices to detect the existence of a threat: Some research shows that ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008, issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. The United States Department of Defense conducts global biosurveillance through several programs, including the Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System. Another powerful tool developed within New York City for use in countering bioterrorism is the development of the New York City Syndromic Surveillance System. This system is essentially a way of tracking disease progression throughout New York City, and was developed by the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (NYC DOHMH) in the wake of the 9/11 attacks. The system works by tracking the symptoms of those taken into the emergency department—based on the location of the hospital to which they are taken and their home address—and assessing any patterns in symptoms. These established trends can then be observed by medical epidemiologists to determine if there are any disease outbreaks in any particular locales; maps of disease prevalence can then be created rather easily. This is an obviously beneficial tool in fighting bioterrorism as it provides a means through which such attacks could be discovered in their nascence; assuming bioterrorist attacks result in similar symptoms across the board, this strategy allows New York City to respond immediately to any bioterrorist threats that they may face with some level of alacrity.Government agencies which would be called on to respond to a bioterrorism incident would include law enforcement, hazardous materials and decontamination units, and emergency medical units, if available. The US military has specialized units, which can respond to a bioterrorism event; among them are the United States Marine Corps ' Chemical Biological Incident Response Force and the U.S. Army 's 20th Support Command (CBRNE) , which can detect, identify, and neutralize threats, and decontaminate victims exposed to bioterror agents. US response would include the Centers for Disease Control . Historically, governments and authorities have relied on quarantines to protect their populations. International bodies such as the World Health Organization already devote some of their resources to monitoring epidemics and have served clearing-house roles in historical epidemics. Media attention toward the seriousness of biological attacks increased in 2013 to 2014. In July 2013, Forbes published an article with the title "Bioterrorism: A Dirty Little Threat With Huge Potential Consequences." In November 2013, Fox News reported on a new strain of botulism, saying that the Centers for Disease and Control lists botulism as one of two agents that have "the highest risks of mortality and morbidity", noting that there is no antidote for botulism. USA Today reported that the U.S. military in November was trying to develop a vaccine for troops from the bacteria that cause the disease Q fever, an agent the military once used as a biological weapon. In February 2014, the former special assistant and senior director for biodefense policy to President George W. Bush called the bioterrorism risk imminent and uncertain and Congressman Bill Pascrell called for increasing federal measures against bioterrorism as a "matter of life or death." The New York Times wrote a story saying the United States would spend $40 million to help certain low and middle-income countries deal with the threats of bioterrorism and infectious diseases. Bill Gates has warned that bioterrorism could kill more people than nuclear war. In February 2018, a CNN employee discovered on an airplane a "sensitive, top-secret document in the seatback pouch explaining how the Department of Homeland Security would respond to a bioterrorism attack at the Super Bowl ." President Donald Trump promoted his first budget around keeping America safe. However, one aspect of defense would receive less money: "protecting the nation from deadly pathogens, man-made or natural," according to The New York Times . Agencies tasked with biosecurity get a decrease in funding under the Administration's budget proposal. For example: "The next weapon of mass destruction may not be a bomb," Lawrence O. Gostin, the director of the World Health Organization's Collaborating Center on Public Health Law and Human Rights, told The New York Times . "It may be a tiny pathogen that you can't see, smell or taste, and by the time we discover it, it'll be too late." Tom Inglesy, the CEO and director of the Center for Health Security at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and an internationally recognized expert on public health preparedness, pandemic and emerging infectious disease said in 2017 that the lack of an internationally standardized approval process that could be used to guide countries in conducting public health experiments for resurrecting a disease that has already been eradicated increases the risk that the disease could be used in bioterrorism. This was in reference to the lab synthesis of horsepox in 2017 by researchers at the University of Alberta . The researchers recreated horsepox, an extinct cousin of the smallpox virus , in order to research new ways to treat cancer. President Donald Trump promoted his first budget around keeping America safe. However, one aspect of defense would receive less money: "protecting the nation from deadly pathogens, man-made or natural," according to The New York Times . Agencies tasked with biosecurity get a decrease in funding under the Administration's budget proposal. For example: "The next weapon of mass destruction may not be a bomb," Lawrence O. Gostin, the director of the World Health Organization's Collaborating Center on Public Health Law and Human Rights, told The New York Times . "It may be a tiny pathogen that you can't see, smell or taste, and by the time we discover it, it'll be too late." Tom Inglesy, the CEO and director of the Center for Health Security at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and an internationally recognized expert on public health preparedness, pandemic and emerging infectious disease said in 2017 that the lack of an internationally standardized approval process that could be used to guide countries in conducting public health experiments for resurrecting a disease that has already been eradicated increases the risk that the disease could be used in bioterrorism. This was in reference to the lab synthesis of horsepox in 2017 by researchers at the University of Alberta . The researchers recreated horsepox, an extinct cousin of the smallpox virus , in order to research new ways to treat cancer. Dissemination: Sponge cake, other food sources Official investigation started after anonymous tip to Ministry of Health and Welfare. He was charged, but was not convicted of any deaths; later implicated in 200 – 400 illnesses and 4 deaths 751 illnesses, Early investigation by CDC suggested the event was a naturally occurring outbreak. Cult member arrested on unrelated charge confessed involvement with the event Aum Shinrikyo experimented with Botulinum toxin , Q fever , Cholera and Anthrax . An attempt was also made at sourcing Ebola from Africa. Several attempts were made between 1990 and 1995, but they failed to cause any casualties due to non-virulent strains and issues with deliver systems. Chemical attacks with sarin would end up killing around 20 people. Infected 12 of her coworkers, she was arrested, convicted, & sentenced to 20 years in prison Suspected perpetrator was a US DOD scientist 22 infected, 5 deaths

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Anthrax

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Exhyalanthrax afer

Exhyalanthrax afer is a member of the fly family Bombyliidae first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1794. Larvae feed on pupae of tachinid and ichneumonid parasitoids of the pine processionary caterpillar, Thaumetopoea pityocampa . The pupae of other Lepidoptera and from cocoons of the pine sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer . Adults are most often seen visiting flowers to feed on nectar. Afrotropical: Chad, Eritrea, Ghana, Kenya, Yemen. Oriental: Pakistan. Palaearctic: Afghanistan, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bulgaria, China (Beijing, Nei Monggol, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Xizang), Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, France (incl. Corsica), Germany, Gibraltar, Greece (incl. Lesbos), Gruzia, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Italy (incl. Sardinia, Sicily), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Libya, Macedonia, Malta, Mongolia, Morocco, Netherlands, Oman, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (WS), Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain (incl. Ibiza, Mallorca), Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Yugoslavia,

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Anthrax

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Antisocial (Trust song)

" Antisocial " is a song by the French hard rock band Trust , from their album Répression . The song was written by Bernie Bonvoisin and Norbert Krief . Unusually for a hard rock track, it was played on mainstream radio stations RTL and France Inter , helping the album sell over 800,000 copies in 1980. Evoking a dehumanised, individualistic and brutal society, the lyrics captured the alienation of a generation disillusioned by the excesses of its elders and the 1973 oil crisis . According to rock critic Michka Assayas , "Antisocial" is "the hymn that definitely buried the Glorious Thirty ". American thrash metal band Anthrax covered the song, using the alternate English lyrics, on their 1988 album State of Euphoria . Their cover of the song also appears on the second disc of their compilation album, Anthrology: No Hit Wonders (1985–1991) , along with a version featuring the verses sung in French. Track Listing (international version) Track Listing (foreign import) 1. "Antisocial" (Trust cover) 2. "Make Me Laugh" 3. "Antisocial (live)" (Trust cover) Notes The artwork for the "Antisocial" single would also later be used for " Penikufesin ". The foreign import used unique artwork, different from the international version. It showed the "NOT" Man riding on a skateboard spray-painting "Antisocial" onto the side of a wall. On the international single, the title of the song on the cover artwork was shown as "Anti-Social".

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Anthrax

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Paranthrene anthrax

Paranthrene anthrax is a moth of the family Sesiidae . It is known from Sierra Leone .

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Anthrax

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Anthrax varius

Anthrax varius is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae , first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1794.

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Anthrax

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Chrysanthrax arenosus

Chrysanthrax arenosus is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . Mexico , United States .

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Anthrax

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Platypeza anthrax

Platypeza elongata Banks, 1915 Platypeza anthrax is a species of flat-footed flies (insects in the family Platypezidae ).

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Anthrax

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Anthrax nigriventris

Anthrax nigriventris is a species of bee flies (insects in the family Bombyliidae ). Mexico , United States .

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Anthrax

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Anthems (Anthrax EP)

Anthems is the sixth EP by American thrash metal band Anthrax . It was released on March 19, 2013 through Megaforce Records in North America, and three days later in Europe by Nuclear Blast . This was the group's last release to feature lead guitarist Rob Caggiano , who left the band subsequently. The record features cover songs from some of the band's favorite acts of the 1970s, along with two versions of "Crawl", a song from their previous studio album, Worship Music . The EP was recorded during 2012 at various locations. Although it was initially scheduled to be released as part of a special edition of Worship Music , the record was released both separately and on a deluxe edition. It received favorable reviews by music critics and debuted at number 52 on the Billboard 200 , selling approximately 8,500 copies in its first week of release. By April 10, 2013, Anthems had sold 14,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen Soundscan . The band's cover of " T.N.T. " was nominated for the Best Metal Performance award at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards .Anthrax intended to release Anthems as a tribute to the bands that influenced them over the years. Vocalist Joey Belladonna explained: "These are all bands I grew up with and have listened to forever. It's just great music. I had fun singing these songs and I was happy recording together with Anthrax, doing classic rock songs." When asked how the band got the idea to do such a record, bassist Frank Bello answered: "The reason why that happened, if you ever came to an Anthrax sound check, you'd probably hear every other song but an Anthrax song." He further said that the band got the idea while jamming to some older songs. "We just wanted to say this is where we also came from. That gave us our start and that is what sparked us." The band started working on this project in the summer of 2012. The album was recorded in 2012 at different locations: at drummer Charlie Benante 's home studio, in producer Jay Ruston's New York studio and during tour. Some of the tracks were recorded earlier, during the recording sessions of their previous studio release Worship Music . Benante, in an interview for Loudwire , stated: "To commemorate the first year of Worship Music being out, we're putting together a little companion EP with some fun shit on it." The original idea was to record a few songs that would have been placed on a deluxe edition of their previous album, but the band did not manage to finish the project in time. However, when the band had recorded enough songs, they contacted their US and European labels who offered to put out Anthems as a stand-alone EP, a proposal which the band accepted. In addition, Benante and artist Stephen Thompson have redesigned each track's original artwork to "Anthrax" it. Anthems is an eight-track EP which contains cover songs from classic 1970s rock bands that influenced Anthrax. Apart from the six cover tracks, the album features a studio version and a remix of "Crawl", a song from their previous album Worship Music . The first single released from the EP was the cover of Rush 's " Anthem ", which garnered positive reaction from music critics. Graham Hartmann from Loudwire called the cover version "unique, as Anthrax throw their trademark thrash spin on the prog classic". The second song released from the record was " Smokin' " from Boston , which prominently features session keyboardist Fred Mandel . Drummer Charlie Benante explained the selection of the Boston song by saying: "One of the great things about "Smokin'" is that there's a really cool section that has a real "Anthrax-y" feel to it, the guitars and drums and playing the same type of rhythm, the kick drums are going with the guitars – I immediately heard in my head what we could do with it." The EP received favorable reviews by music critics. AllMusic reviewer Jason Lymangrover gave the album two-and-a-half stars, saying the tracks are "meticulously executed in the fun, dumb spirit that most Anthrax fans will love". Chad Bowar from About.com named the album "certainly not essential", but assumed that the fans of the band will enjoy it. In a review for Metal Forces , Jim McDonald felt that the songs on Anthems were "perfect covers" with "superb melodies". Aside from "Jailbreak", which he pointed as the "sole low point", McDonald went on to say "all in all, Anthems is an interesting diversion while fans wait for the next album". Kory Grow from Revolver also made positive comments on the record, saying that Belladonna's voice "perfectly" fits the covers. Writing in PopMatters , reviewer J.C. Maçek stated that Anthrax delivered "the most accurate cover songs they possibly can". However, he noted that the band was "too careful" on this record, adding "nothing new" to it. Chris Ayers of Exclaim! was more enthusiastic towards the album, labeling it a "metal milestone" in Anthrax's "storied career". The album sold 8,500 copies in its first week of release to debut at number 52 on the Billboard 200 chart. Another 3,500 copies were sold in the second week, with the EP falling to number 142. By April 10, 2013, Anthems had sold about 14,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen Soundscan . [ better source needed ]Credits are adapted from AllMusic . Anthrax Additional musicians Technical personnel Jay Ruston – producer, engineer, mixing Paul Logus – mastering Michael Lord – orchestration Douglas Heusser – graphic design Stephen Thompson – artwork position

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Anthrax

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities (1942) Office of Malaria Control in War Areas (1942–46) Communicable Disease Center (1946–67) National Communicable Disease Center (1967–70) Center for Disease Control (1970–80) Centers for Disease Control (1980–92) The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services , and is headquartered in Atlanta , Georgia . The agency's main goal is the protection of public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and worldwide. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease , food borne pathogens , environmental health , occupational safety and health , health promotion , injury prevention , and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens . The CDC also conducts research and provides information on non-infectious diseases , such as obesity and diabetes , and is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes . The CDC's current Director is Mandy Cohen who assumed office on July 10, 2023. The Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations and the Rockefeller Foundation . The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency. The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With a budget at the time of about $1 million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States (see National Malaria Eradication Program ). Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with DDT . In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn. Under Joseph Walter Mountin , the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases . In 1947, the CDC made a token payment of $10 to Emory University for 15 acres (61,000 m 2 ) of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2019. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the "gift" was Robert W. Woodruff , chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company . Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established. In 1951, Chief Epidemiologist Alexander Langmuir's warnings of potential biological warfare during the Korean War spurred the creation of the Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) as a two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology. The success of the EIS program led to the launch of Field Epidemiology Training Programs (FETP) in 1980, training more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries. In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally. The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network ( TEPHINET ) has graduated 950 students. The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1, 1967, and the Center for Disease Control on June 24, 1970. At the end of the Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973 , it was promoted to being a principal operating agency of PHS. It was renamed to the plural Centers for Disease Control effective October 14, 1980, as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established. By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and the Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in 1973, and the National Center for Health Statistics in 1987. An act of the United States Congress appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases , disabilities , injury control, workplace hazards , environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects , West Nile virus , obesity , avian , swine , and pandemic flu , E. coli , and bioterrorism , to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of penicillin . In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including Botulinum toxin , West Nile virus , Yersinia pestis and Dengue fever virus. On April 21, 2005, then–CDC Director Julie Gerberding formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats". She established four Coordinating Centers. In 2009 the Obama Administration re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer. As of 2013, the CDC's Biosafety Level 4 laboratories were among the few that exist in the world. They included one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world, with the other one located at the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation. In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were "potentially infected" with anthrax . The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the Atlanta City Council had voted to do so the prior December. The CDC and Emory University had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a MARTA expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars. The headquarters were located in an unincorporated area , statistically in the Druid Hills census-designated place . On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations." Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times). The Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations and the Rockefeller Foundation . The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency. The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With a budget at the time of about $1 million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States (see National Malaria Eradication Program ). Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with DDT . In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn. Under Joseph Walter Mountin , the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases . In 1947, the CDC made a token payment of $10 to Emory University for 15 acres (61,000 m 2 ) of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2019. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the "gift" was Robert W. Woodruff , chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company . Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established. In 1951, Chief Epidemiologist Alexander Langmuir's warnings of potential biological warfare during the Korean War spurred the creation of the Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) as a two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology. The success of the EIS program led to the launch of Field Epidemiology Training Programs (FETP) in 1980, training more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries. In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally. The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network ( TEPHINET ) has graduated 950 students. The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1, 1967, and the Center for Disease Control on June 24, 1970. At the end of the Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973 , it was promoted to being a principal operating agency of PHS. It was renamed to the plural Centers for Disease Control effective October 14, 1980, as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established. By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and the Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in 1973, and the National Center for Health Statistics in 1987. An act of the United States Congress appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases , disabilities , injury control, workplace hazards , environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects , West Nile virus , obesity , avian , swine , and pandemic flu , E. coli , and bioterrorism , to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of penicillin . In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including Botulinum toxin , West Nile virus , Yersinia pestis and Dengue fever virus. On April 21, 2005, then–CDC Director Julie Gerberding formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats". She established four Coordinating Centers. In 2009 the Obama Administration re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer. As of 2013, the CDC's Biosafety Level 4 laboratories were among the few that exist in the world. They included one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world, with the other one located at the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation. In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were "potentially infected" with anthrax . The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the Atlanta City Council had voted to do so the prior December. The CDC and Emory University had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a MARTA expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars. The headquarters were located in an unincorporated area , statistically in the Druid Hills census-designated place . On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations." Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times). The CDC is organized into "Centers, Institutes, and Offices" (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing the agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats. As of the most recent reorganization in February 2023, the CIOs are: Director National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Division of Global Migration Health National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion National Center for Environmental Health / Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry National Center for Injury Prevention and Control National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Public Health Infrastructure Center Global Health Center Immediate Office of the Director Chief of Staff Office of the Chief Operating Officer Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity Office of Communications Office of Health Equity Office of Science CDC Washington Office Office of Laboratory Science and Safety Office of Readiness and Response Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology National Center for Health Statistics National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Division of Global Migration Health National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion National Center for Environmental Health / Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry National Center for Injury Prevention and Control National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Public Health Infrastructure Center Global Health Center Immediate Office of the Director Chief of Staff Office of the Chief Operating Officer Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity Office of Communications Office of Health Equity Office of Science CDC Washington Office Office of Laboratory Science and Safety Office of Readiness and Response Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology National Center for Health Statistics Chief of Staff Office of the Chief Operating Officer Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity Office of Communications Office of Health Equity Office of Science CDC Washington Office Office of Laboratory Science and Safety Office of Readiness and Response Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology National Center for Health Statistics Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics The Office of Public Health Preparedness was created during the 2001 anthrax attacks shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Its purpose was to coordinate among the government the response to a range of biological terrorism threats. Most CDC centers are located in Atlanta . Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative Edward R. Roybal ), contains the premier BSL4 laboratory in the United States. A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations: In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in the U.S. Most CDC centers are located in Atlanta . Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative Edward R. Roybal ), contains the premier BSL4 laboratory in the United States. A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations: In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in the U.S. CDC's budget for fiscal year 2018 was $11.9 billion; this decreased to $11.09 billion for fiscal year 2019. The CDC offers grants to help organizations advance health, safety and awareness at the community level in the United States. The CDC awards [ when? ] over 85 percent of its annual budget through these grants. As of 2021 , [ update ] CDC staff numbered approximately 15,000 personnel (including 6,000 contractors and 840 United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers) in 170 occupations. Eighty percent held bachelor's degrees or higher; almost half had advanced degrees (a master's degree or a doctorate such as a PhD, D.O. , or M.D. ). Common CDC job titles include engineer, entomologist , epidemiologist , biologist, physician, veterinarian , behavioral scientist , nurse , medical technologist , economist, public health advisor, health communicator, toxicologist , chemist, computer scientist , and statistician. The CDC also operates a number of notable training and fellowship programs, including those indicated below. The Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) is composed of "boots-on-the-ground disease detectives" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally. When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or "Epi-Aids", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks. The EIS program is a model for the international Field Epidemiology Training Program . The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States. PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently [ when? ] has 159 associates in 34 states. The Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) is composed of "boots-on-the-ground disease detectives" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally. When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or "Epi-Aids", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks. The EIS program is a model for the international Field Epidemiology Training Program .The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States. PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently [ when? ] has 159 associates in 34 states. The Director of CDC is a Senior Executive Service position that may be filled either by a career employee, or as a political appointment that does not require Senate confirmation , with the latter method typically being used. The director serves at the pleasure of the President and may be fired at any time. On January 20, 2025, the CDC Director position will change to require Senate confirmation, due to a provision in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 . The CDC Director concurrently serves as the Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry . Twenty directors have [ when? ] served the CDC or its predecessor agencies, including three who have served during the Trump administration (including Anne Schuchat who twice served as acting director) and three who have served during the Carter administration (including one acting director not shown here). Two served under Bill Clinton, but only one under the Nixon to Ford terms.The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox , measles , and others. The CDC targets the transmission of influenza , including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene. Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials." The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus . The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens. During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa , the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital , the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases. As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus. The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity , physical inactivity and tobacco-use. The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by Lisa C. Richardson , is also within this remit. The CDC implemented their National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria as a measure against the spread of antibiotic resistance in the United States. This initiative has a budget of $161 million and includes the development of the Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network . Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. They work with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate. The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID). The CDC has been working with the WHO to implement the International Health Regulations (IHR) , an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD). The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and President's Malaria Initiative . The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in a comprehensive book, CDC Health Information for International Travel , which is commonly known as the "yellow book." The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific travel destinations . The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels: "Watch": Level 1 (practice usual precautions) "Alert": Level 2 (practice enhanced precautions) "Warning": Level 3 (avoid nonessential travel) The CDC uses a number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines. The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA. "VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination." The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of the latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines. The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events. The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety. CDC also runs a program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot. The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox , measles , and others. The CDC targets the transmission of influenza , including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene. Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials." The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus . The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens. During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa , the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital , the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases. As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus. The CDC targets the transmission of influenza , including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene. Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials." The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus . The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens. During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa , the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital , the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases. As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus. The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity , physical inactivity and tobacco-use. The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by Lisa C. Richardson , is also within this remit. The CDC implemented their National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria as a measure against the spread of antibiotic resistance in the United States. This initiative has a budget of $161 million and includes the development of the Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network . Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. They work with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate. The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID). The CDC has been working with the WHO to implement the International Health Regulations (IHR) , an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD). The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and President's Malaria Initiative . The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in a comprehensive book, CDC Health Information for International Travel , which is commonly known as the "yellow book." The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific travel destinations . The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels: "Watch": Level 1 (practice usual precautions) "Alert": Level 2 (practice enhanced precautions) "Warning": Level 3 (avoid nonessential travel) The CDC uses a number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines. The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA. "VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination." The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of the latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines. The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events. The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety. CDC also runs a program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot. The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization incorporated in the State of Georgia . The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the Public Health Service Act to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals. From 1995 to 2022, the Foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs. Bill Cosby formerly served as a member of the Foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term. The Foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as cardiovascular disease , cancer , emergency response , and infectious diseases , particularly HIV/AIDS , Ebola , rotavirus , and COVID-19 . In 2015, BMJ associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies. The Foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as cardiovascular disease , cancer , emergency response , and infectious diseases , particularly HIV/AIDS , Ebola , rotavirus , and COVID-19 . In 2015, BMJ associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies. For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the Tuskegee syphilis experiment . In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease. The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their informed consent to serve as research subjects. The Tuskegee Study was initiated in 1932 by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995. An area of partisan dispute related to CDC funding is studying firearms effectiveness. Although the CDC was one of the first government agencies to study gun related data, in 1996 the Dickey Amendment , passed with the support of the National Rifle Association of America , states "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control". Advocates for gun control oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it. Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, Mark L. Rosenberg and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000. They focused on "identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them". Their first report, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1993 entitled "Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home", reported "mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefold—a "huge" increase." In response, the NRA launched a "campaign to shut down the Injury Center." Two conservative pro-gun groups, Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership and Doctors for Integrity and Policy Research joined the pro-gun effort, and, by 1995, politicians also supported the pro-gun initiative. In 1996, Jay Dickey (R) Arkansas introduced the Dickey Amendment statement stating "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control" as a rider. in the 1996 appropriations bill ." In 1997, "Congress re-directed all of the money for gun research to the study of traumatic brain injury." David Satcher , CDC head 1993-98 advocated for firearms research. In 2016 over a dozen "public health insiders, including current and former CDC senior leaders" told The Trace interviewers that CDC senior leaders took a cautious stance in their interpretation of the Dickey Amendment and that they could do more but were afraid of political and personal retribution. In 2013, the American Medical Association , the American Psychological Association , and the American Academy of Pediatrics sent a letter to the leaders of the Senate Appropriations Committee asking them "to support at least $10 million within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in FY 2014 along with sufficient new taxes at the National Institutes of Health to support research into the causes and prevention of violence. Furthermore, we urge Members to oppose any efforts to reduce, eliminate, or condition CDC funding related to violence prevention research." Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets. In October 2014, the CDC gave a nurse with a fever who was later diagnosed with Ebola permission to board a commercial flight to Cleveland . The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, CDC director Rochelle Walensky acknowledged "some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications", based on the findings of an internal examination. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020. However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the Food and Drug Administration began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests. In February 2020, as the CDC's early coronavirus test malfunctioned nationwide, CDC Director Robert R. Redfield reassured fellow officials on the White House Coronavirus Task Force that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials. It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab. Later investigations by the FDA and the Department of Health and Human Services found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests. In November 2020, NPR reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway. In May 2020, The Atlantic reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests — tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus. The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability. In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the Department of Health and Human Services . Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public. On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website. It restored the data a day later. In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing. The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts. The guidelines were crafted by the White House Coronavirus Task Force without the sign-off of Anthony Fauci of the NIH. Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard. Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for "the importance of reopening schools" was also crafted outside the CDC. On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency. The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy. In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials. In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports. In the lead up to 2020 Thanksgiving , the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, "It's not a requirement. It's a recommendation for the American public to consider." The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned. The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to "ben[d] to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public [...] cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured" as of 2022. In May 2021, following criticism by scientists, the CDC updated its COVID-19 guidance to acknowledge airborne transmission of COVID-19, after having previously claimed that the majority of infections occurred via "close contact, not airborne transmission". In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of Delta Air Lines , CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with Covid-19 from 10 days to five. Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data. On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States. In January 2022, it was revealed that the CDC had communicated with moderators at Facebook and Instagram over COVID-19 information and discussion on the platforms, including information that the CDC considered false or misleading and that might influence people not to get the COVID-19 vaccines. During the pandemic, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo , the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In emails Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to "hurt the president" and writing "hit pieces on the administration". In October 2020, emails obtained by Politico showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear." A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points. By January 2022, according to an NBC News poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic. As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates. The diminishing level of trust in the CDC and the information releases also incited " vaccine hesitancy " with the result that "just 53 percent of Americans said they would be somewhat or extremely likely to get a vaccine." In September 2020, amid the accusations and the faltering image of the CDC, the agency's leadership was called into question. Former acting director at the CDC, Richard Besser , said of Redfield that "I find it concerning that the CDC director has not been outspoken when there have been instances of clear political interference in the interpretation of science." In addition, Mark Rosenberg , the first director of CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control , also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science. Historically, the CDC has not been a political agency; however, the COVID-19 pandemic , and specifically the Trump Administration's handling of the pandemic, resulted in a "dangerous shift" according to a previous CDC director and others. Four previous directors claim that the agency's voice was "muted for political reasons." Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding". In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden Administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, mask-wearing guidance , and the state of the pandemic. In 2024, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins and physicist Alan Sokal co-authored an op-ed in The Boston Globe criticizing the use of the terminology " sex assigned at birth " instead of " sex " by the CDC, the American Medical Association , the American Psychological Association , and the American Academy of Pediatrics . Dawkins and Sokal wrote that sex is an "objective biological reality" that "is determined at conception and is then observed at birth," rather than assigned by a medical professional. Calling this " social constructionism gone amok," Dawkins and Sokal argued that "distort[ing] the scientific facts in the service of a social cause" risks undermining trust in medical institutions. For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the Tuskegee syphilis experiment . In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease. The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their informed consent to serve as research subjects. The Tuskegee Study was initiated in 1932 by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995. An area of partisan dispute related to CDC funding is studying firearms effectiveness. Although the CDC was one of the first government agencies to study gun related data, in 1996 the Dickey Amendment , passed with the support of the National Rifle Association of America , states "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control". Advocates for gun control oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it. Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, Mark L. Rosenberg and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000. They focused on "identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them". Their first report, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1993 entitled "Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home", reported "mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefold—a "huge" increase." In response, the NRA launched a "campaign to shut down the Injury Center." Two conservative pro-gun groups, Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership and Doctors for Integrity and Policy Research joined the pro-gun effort, and, by 1995, politicians also supported the pro-gun initiative. In 1996, Jay Dickey (R) Arkansas introduced the Dickey Amendment statement stating "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control" as a rider. in the 1996 appropriations bill ." In 1997, "Congress re-directed all of the money for gun research to the study of traumatic brain injury." David Satcher , CDC head 1993-98 advocated for firearms research. In 2016 over a dozen "public health insiders, including current and former CDC senior leaders" told The Trace interviewers that CDC senior leaders took a cautious stance in their interpretation of the Dickey Amendment and that they could do more but were afraid of political and personal retribution. In 2013, the American Medical Association , the American Psychological Association , and the American Academy of Pediatrics sent a letter to the leaders of the Senate Appropriations Committee asking them "to support at least $10 million within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in FY 2014 along with sufficient new taxes at the National Institutes of Health to support research into the causes and prevention of violence. Furthermore, we urge Members to oppose any efforts to reduce, eliminate, or condition CDC funding related to violence prevention research." Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets. In October 2014, the CDC gave a nurse with a fever who was later diagnosed with Ebola permission to board a commercial flight to Cleveland . The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, CDC director Rochelle Walensky acknowledged "some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications", based on the findings of an internal examination. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020. However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the Food and Drug Administration began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests. In February 2020, as the CDC's early coronavirus test malfunctioned nationwide, CDC Director Robert R. Redfield reassured fellow officials on the White House Coronavirus Task Force that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials. It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab. Later investigations by the FDA and the Department of Health and Human Services found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests. In November 2020, NPR reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway. In May 2020, The Atlantic reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests — tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus. The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability. In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the Department of Health and Human Services . Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public. On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website. It restored the data a day later. In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing. The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts. The guidelines were crafted by the White House Coronavirus Task Force without the sign-off of Anthony Fauci of the NIH. Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard. Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for "the importance of reopening schools" was also crafted outside the CDC. On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency. The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy. In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials. In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports. In the lead up to 2020 Thanksgiving , the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, "It's not a requirement. It's a recommendation for the American public to consider." The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned. The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to "ben[d] to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public [...] cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured" as of 2022. In May 2021, following criticism by scientists, the CDC updated its COVID-19 guidance to acknowledge airborne transmission of COVID-19, after having previously claimed that the majority of infections occurred via "close contact, not airborne transmission". In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of Delta Air Lines , CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with Covid-19 from 10 days to five. Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data. On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States. In January 2022, it was revealed that the CDC had communicated with moderators at Facebook and Instagram over COVID-19 information and discussion on the platforms, including information that the CDC considered false or misleading and that might influence people not to get the COVID-19 vaccines. During the pandemic, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo , the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In emails Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to "hurt the president" and writing "hit pieces on the administration". In October 2020, emails obtained by Politico showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear." A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points. By January 2022, according to an NBC News poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic. As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates. The diminishing level of trust in the CDC and the information releases also incited " vaccine hesitancy " with the result that "just 53 percent of Americans said they would be somewhat or extremely likely to get a vaccine." In September 2020, amid the accusations and the faltering image of the CDC, the agency's leadership was called into question. Former acting director at the CDC, Richard Besser , said of Redfield that "I find it concerning that the CDC director has not been outspoken when there have been instances of clear political interference in the interpretation of science." In addition, Mark Rosenberg , the first director of CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control , also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science. Historically, the CDC has not been a political agency; however, the COVID-19 pandemic , and specifically the Trump Administration's handling of the pandemic, resulted in a "dangerous shift" according to a previous CDC director and others. Four previous directors claim that the agency's voice was "muted for political reasons." Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding". In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden Administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, mask-wearing guidance , and the state of the pandemic. During the pandemic, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo , the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In emails Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to "hurt the president" and writing "hit pieces on the administration". In October 2020, emails obtained by Politico showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear." A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points. By January 2022, according to an NBC News poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic. As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates. The diminishing level of trust in the CDC and the information releases also incited " vaccine hesitancy " with the result that "just 53 percent of Americans said they would be somewhat or extremely likely to get a vaccine." In September 2020, amid the accusations and the faltering image of the CDC, the agency's leadership was called into question. Former acting director at the CDC, Richard Besser , said of Redfield that "I find it concerning that the CDC director has not been outspoken when there have been instances of clear political interference in the interpretation of science." In addition, Mark Rosenberg , the first director of CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control , also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science. Historically, the CDC has not been a political agency; however, the COVID-19 pandemic , and specifically the Trump Administration's handling of the pandemic, resulted in a "dangerous shift" according to a previous CDC director and others. Four previous directors claim that the agency's voice was "muted for political reasons." Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding". In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden Administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, mask-wearing guidance , and the state of the pandemic. In 2024, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins and physicist Alan Sokal co-authored an op-ed in The Boston Globe criticizing the use of the terminology " sex assigned at birth " instead of " sex " by the CDC, the American Medical Association , the American Psychological Association , and the American Academy of Pediatrics . Dawkins and Sokal wrote that sex is an "objective biological reality" that "is determined at conception and is then observed at birth," rather than assigned by a medical professional. Calling this " social constructionism gone amok," Dawkins and Sokal argued that "distort[ing] the scientific facts in the service of a social cause" risks undermining trust in medical institutions. On May 16, 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's blog published an article instructing the public on what to do to prepare for a zombie invasion. While the article did not claim that such a scenario was possible, it did use the popular culture appeal as a means of urging citizens to prepare for all potential hazards, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods. According to David Daigle, the associate director for Communications, Public Health Preparedness and Response, the idea arose when his team was discussing their upcoming hurricane-information campaign and Daigle mused that "we say pretty much the same things every year, in the same way, and I just wonder how many people are paying attention." A social-media employee mentioned that the subject of zombies had come up a lot on Twitter when she had been tweeting about the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and radiation . The team realized that a campaign like this would most likely reach a different audience from the one that normally pays attention to hurricane-preparedness warnings and went to work on the zombie campaign, launching it right before hurricane season began. "The whole idea was, if you're prepared for a zombie apocalypse, you're prepared for pretty much anything," said Daigle. Once the blog article was posted, the CDC announced an open contest for YouTube submissions of the most creative and effective videos covering preparedness for a zombie apocalypse (or apocalypse of any kind), to be judged by the "CDC Zombie Task Force". Submissions were open until October 11, 2011. They also released a zombie-themed graphic novella available on their website. Zombie-themed educational materials for teachers are available on the site. On May 16, 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's blog published an article instructing the public on what to do to prepare for a zombie invasion. While the article did not claim that such a scenario was possible, it did use the popular culture appeal as a means of urging citizens to prepare for all potential hazards, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods. According to David Daigle, the associate director for Communications, Public Health Preparedness and Response, the idea arose when his team was discussing their upcoming hurricane-information campaign and Daigle mused that "we say pretty much the same things every year, in the same way, and I just wonder how many people are paying attention." A social-media employee mentioned that the subject of zombies had come up a lot on Twitter when she had been tweeting about the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and radiation . The team realized that a campaign like this would most likely reach a different audience from the one that normally pays attention to hurricane-preparedness warnings and went to work on the zombie campaign, launching it right before hurricane season began. "The whole idea was, if you're prepared for a zombie apocalypse, you're prepared for pretty much anything," said Daigle. Once the blog article was posted, the CDC announced an open contest for YouTube submissions of the most creative and effective videos covering preparedness for a zombie apocalypse (or apocalypse of any kind), to be judged by the "CDC Zombie Task Force". Submissions were open until October 11, 2011. They also released a zombie-themed graphic novella available on their website. Zombie-themed educational materials for teachers are available on the site.

Wiki

Anthrax

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Armed and Dangerous (EP)

Armed and Dangerous is the first EP by American heavy metal band Anthrax , released in February 1985 through Megaforce Records . The band produced the album with Carl Canedy and Jon Zazula acting as executive producer. This is the first Anthrax release to feature Joey Belladonna on vocals, and the first Anthrax release to feature Frank Bello on bass guitar. The 1992 issue includes the songs "Soldiers of Metal" and "Howling Furies" as its last two tracks. The line-up for those two tracks is Neil Turbin , Scott Ian , Dan Spitz , Greg D'Angelo (except where Charlie Benante rerecorded the drums), and Dan Lilker . It was released as a double album (along with Fistful of Metal ) in (Germany) in 2000. The song "Armed and Dangerous" also appears on the album Spreading the Disease with a different mix, which does not include the fade-in intro leading into the initial acoustic guitar melody. That intro was omitted from the album version for unverified reasons but it is possible that it was for album continuity. The song "Raise Hell" was an original Anthrax recording exclusive to the EP, and " God Save the Queen " was originally recorded by the Sex Pistols on the Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols album. Despite being marked as live versions, "Metal Thrashing Mad" and "Panic" are studio re-recordings of tracks featured on the band's debut album.Carl Canedy – producer Alex Perialas – Norman Dunn – engineers George Marino – mastering Jon Zazula – executive producer

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Anthrax

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Anthrax pluto

Anthrax pluto is a species of fly in the family Bombyliidae . United States .

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Death_of_Robert_Stevens/html

Death of Robert Stevens

Robert K. " Bob " Stevens (June 20, 1938 – October 5, 2001) was a British-born American photojournalist for the Sun , a subsidiary of American Media , located in Boca Raton , Florida , United States . He was the first journalist killed in the 2001 anthrax attacks when letters containing anthrax were mailed to multiple media outlets in the United States. The anthrax attacks also killed four others in the United States and sickened seventeen others. Robert Stevens was born in Britain, but he resided in Lantana, Florida , with his wife Maureen Stevens, also from Britain. Stevens and his wife had three children, Nicholas Stevens, Heidi Hogan, and Casey Tozzi. Many people described Stevens as a person who loved to spend time outdoors. Robert Stevens was a newspaper photo editor for Sun , owned by American Media, until he was hospitalized on October 2, 2001. American Media published many different tabloids including the National Enquirer and the Sun. Many of the publications that Stevens worked on made claims that Elvis was not dead or that celebrities were pregnant with Martians. In early October 2001, letters which contained anthrax were mailed to multiple locations across the United States. After a recent visit to North Carolina, Robert Stevens reported having symptoms similar to the flu. When he was first hospitalized, doctors believed he had developed meningitis. After the doctors completed further testing, it was discovered that he had developed pulmonary anthrax. This had also already been confirmed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . Stevens died on October 5, 2001, making his death the first death from anthrax in 25 years. After an investigation was conducted by the FBI, it was revealed that Stevens had come into contact with anthrax through the letter that was mailed to him at American Media in Boca Raton, Florida. Stevens was the first person killed in these attacks. In addition to killing Stevens, the anthrax killed two postal workers in Washington, a hospital worker in New York, and a 94-year-old woman from Connecticut, and it caused seventeen other people to become sick. In addition, an envelope containing anthrax was opened in what was once the office of Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle . As a result, the House of Representatives was closed down. During their investigation, the FBI concluded that Bruce Edwards Ivins , a microbiologist for the United States Army , had mailed the deadly letters. The FBI obtained some of the anthrax spores and analyzed them. After analyzing the spores, the FBI traced the spores to a military lab located at Fort Detrick, Maryland. Ivins quickly became a suspect in the investigation. The FBI began to suspect Ivins when they noticed he had logged in many late-night hours right before the attacks. He was questioned in March 2005 about the attacks, but he could not provide a valid reason why he had worked late those nights. In addition to this, Ivins had sent out several emails in which he discussed his mental state and treatment. In 2008 Ivins killed himself just as the FBI was preparing to arrest him. Leading up to his death, Ivins had been hospitalized for psychiatric evaluation after threatening to kill people he worked with, investigators of the anthrax attacks, and many other people who had supposedly wronged him. Maureen Stevens, wife of Robert Stevens, filed a US $50 million lawsuit in 2003 against the government of the United States. In the lawsuit, Maureen Stevens claimed "that the government was negligent in failing to stop someone from working at an Army infectious disease lab from creating weapons-grade anthrax used in letters that killed five people and sickened 17 others." Ten years after filing the lawsuit, Maureen Stevens settled with the United States government for US$2.5 million. After Maureen and her lawyer settled with the government, Maureen's lawyer said, "Justice has been served." During their investigation, the FBI concluded that Bruce Edwards Ivins , a microbiologist for the United States Army , had mailed the deadly letters. The FBI obtained some of the anthrax spores and analyzed them. After analyzing the spores, the FBI traced the spores to a military lab located at Fort Detrick, Maryland. Ivins quickly became a suspect in the investigation. The FBI began to suspect Ivins when they noticed he had logged in many late-night hours right before the attacks. He was questioned in March 2005 about the attacks, but he could not provide a valid reason why he had worked late those nights. In addition to this, Ivins had sent out several emails in which he discussed his mental state and treatment. In 2008 Ivins killed himself just as the FBI was preparing to arrest him. Leading up to his death, Ivins had been hospitalized for psychiatric evaluation after threatening to kill people he worked with, investigators of the anthrax attacks, and many other people who had supposedly wronged him. Maureen Stevens, wife of Robert Stevens, filed a US $50 million lawsuit in 2003 against the government of the United States. In the lawsuit, Maureen Stevens claimed "that the government was negligent in failing to stop someone from working at an Army infectious disease lab from creating weapons-grade anthrax used in letters that killed five people and sickened 17 others." Ten years after filing the lawsuit, Maureen Stevens settled with the United States government for US$2.5 million. After Maureen and her lawyer settled with the government, Maureen's lawyer said, "Justice has been served." The anthrax mailings that killed five people and sickened seventeen others came right after the September 11 terrorist attacks . Because they came immediately following 9/11, investigators believed that Al Qaeda was also somehow responsible for the anthrax attacks — only this time, they were using biological weapons . However, it was soon discovered that the strain of anthrax used was connected to a military research laboratory in Maryland. Robert Stevens was the first anthrax victim to be killed in 25 years. The type of anthrax with which he was killed was rare and lethal. During the investigation, the FBI shut down the offices in which Stevens was employed to collect evidence of anthrax. Another thing that makes the death of Robert Stevens important is that at the time it was very rare for anthrax to be in the form of white powder. At the time experts believed that anthrax could be found in the soil, in sheep, in cattle, and in horses. The machines used to process mail as it came through the system caused anthrax spores to go into the air. Then, by cleaning those same machines, the anthrax spores spread even farther and onto other mail causing twenty two other people to become sick; five of whom died. The main reaction to these events was fear that the deaths were the work of terrorists in the United States only a few weeks after the September 11 attacks, and the United States Postal System also became fearful as the letters containing anthrax were mailed through the postal service. Because of this fear, online sales of ciprofloxacin , an antibiotic used to treat anthrax, drastically went up. People purchasing the antibiotic were paying more than ten times the normal cost of the drug.

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Anthrax

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Spreading the Disease

Spreading the Disease is the second studio album by the American heavy metal band Anthrax , released in October 1985 by Megaforce Records and Island Records . It was the band's first album to feature vocalist Joey Belladonna and bassist Frank Bello . A special two-disc edition of the album was released in 2015, celebrating its 30th anniversary. After Anthrax finished touring in support of Fistful of Metal , vocalist Neil Turbin was expelled from the band. Matt Fallon replaced him, but was quickly fired because he lacked confidence in the studio. Producer Carl Canedy suggested the group to audition Joey Belladonna , who was not familiar with thrash metal . Though the band members were not pleased with Belladonna's musical background, they hired him and booked a few shows with their new frontman. Spreading the Disease was recorded at the Pyramid Sound Studios in Ithaca, New York with Canedy, while Jon Zazula served as executive producer. The album featured the single " Madhouse ", for which a music video was produced, but it did not receive much airplay on MTV , because the station believed the content was degrading to people with mental illnesses. Spreading the Disease was the band's major label debut and was released by Megaforce / Island Records . It was the last Anthrax album to feature songwriting from Turbin. This was also the first to feature songwriting from bassist Dan Lilker after his departure from the band, though more of his songwriting would be featured on the following album, Among the Living . Turbin wrote the lyrics for "Armed and Dangerous" and "Gung-Ho", and Lilker contributed to the music. Zazula was given songwriting credit for "Medusa", his only contribution for Anthrax. Zazula was originally credited as the sole writer of the song, but album reissues credit the rest of the band as well. Former vocalist Matt Fallon , who left during the recording sessions, claimed in a 2016 interview that he contributed to the lyrics but was left uncredited. The band has not commented on these accusations. After recording Spreading the Disease , guitarist Scott Ian , drummer Charlie Benante and Lilker, who had joined Nuclear Assault , founded the Stormtroopers of Death and recorded the crossover thrash album Speak English or Die . In his autobiography, I'm the Man: The Story of That Guy from Anthrax (2014: 91), Scott Ian said the acronym in the song "A.I.R." stands for "Adolescence in Red" and that it was a wordplay of his on George Gershwin 's Rhapsody in Blue . The outro of "Gung-Ho" is a rondo from "Sinfonie de Fanfares" by the Baroque composer Jean-Joseph Mouret .The cover art was made by Peter Corriston and Dave Heffernon, who had worked on Led Zeppelin 's Physical Graffiti sleeve. Benante came up with the concept of a man being investigated for radiation levels. Spreading the Disease was released on October 30, 1985 and received widespread acclaim by music critics. In a contemporary review, Howard Johnson of the British magazine Kerrang! recommended the album as the best example of thrash metal and equated Anthrax to Metallica in terms of songwriting capability. More recently, AllMusic 's Steve Huey said the album was a great leap forward from its predecessor and one of Anthrax's finest. He praised the lyrics for paying tribute to fictional characters as in "Lone Justice" and "Medusa". Canadian journalist Martin Popoff calls the album "a shocking blast of noise from a long-haired bunch of punks that knew their own business", praising the "deceptively chaotic songcraft" and Belladonna's vocals. Sputnikmusic's Mike Stagno also liked Belladonna's vocals, as well as the tight riffs of guitarists Ian and Spitz. Stagno said Spreading the Disease had "excellent" sound and production and recommended the album for fans of thrash metal. Frank Trojan of Rock Hard wrote that Spreading the Disease had more potential and intelligence than Fistful of Metal , as well as more differentiated songs. British author Joel McIver described Spreading the Disease as "the sound of pure determination, at a point in metal history where boundaries were being pushed every day." All tracks are written by Anthrax except where noted Anthrax Danny Lilker Anthrax LilkerCredits are adapted from the album's liner notes. Jon Zazula – executive producer Carl Canedy – producer, assistant engineer Alex Perialas – engineer Norman Dunn – assistant engineer

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The Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria

The Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria is a live video with performances by Metallica , Slayer , Megadeth , and Anthrax , the "big four" of American thrash metal . The concert took place on June 22, 2010, at the Sonisphere Festival at Vasil Levski National Stadium , Sofia, Bulgaria. It was shown at 450 movie theaters in the United States and over 350 movie theaters across Europe, Canada, and Latin America on June 22, 2010. Reviews of the DVD were mostly favorable. Websites such as AllMusic and About.com were positive, though Blogcritics gave the DVD a mixed review. The DVD peaked at number one on the United States, United Kingdom, Austrian, and Canadian charts, and also charted on five other charts. It was certified gold in Germany, and provided Slayer with its first platinum certification .On June 16, 2010, at the Sonisphere Festival at Bemowo Airport in Warsaw , Poland, the "big four" of American thrash metal —Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax—performed together for the first time. The bandmembers (except for Slayer's Jeff Hanneman ) were first photographed together on the previous day. Their live concert in Bulgaria's capital, on June 22, was for one night only. Directed by Nick Wickham, the event was filmed and transmitted via satellite to over 450 movie theaters in the United States and over 350 movie theaters across Europe, Canada, and Latin America, including London's famed Leicester Square. Tickets were made available for around $ 20 at TheBigFourLive.com, which also listed the theaters where the concert was being screened. Delayed screenings took place in Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. The film's contents and artwork were revealed on August 25, 2010. A limited-edition guitar pick was unveiled a day after the artwork was revealed. The European release was initially scheduled for October 11, but Metallica later announced on their official site that the European release would be pushed back to October 15, with an International release on October 18, and a North American release on October 19, 2010. On September 15, it was announced that a "super deluxe" limited edition box set would be released on the same date as the regular edition, and a 36-second video preview of the box set was released on September 17. In mid September, publication was postponed further to a European release on October 29, an International release on November 1, and a North American release on November 2, 2010. Four teaser clips from the video were released on October 12, and nine days later, Metallica's performance of " Sad but True ", taken from the film, was released. A three-and-a-half-minute trailer was released on September 21, 2010. The Slayer title card before the band's performance is the only one of the four bands that did not feature their official logo. In addition, all Slayer members (except drummer Dave Lombardo ) did not participate in the "Am I Evil?" performance due to lack of interest. In 2016, Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine expressed interest in doing more Big 4 shows, although this is unlikely due to the breakup of Slayer. The album was received positively by music critics. Thom Jurek gave it four out of five stars in his review for AllMusic , and stated that "each [song] is incredibly energetic, clearly riding the crowd excitement of the event, and the performances are stellar without a lapse." He pointed to Anthrax's " Madhouse " and " Antisocial "; Megadeth's " Head Crusher " and the " Peace Sells / Holy Wars Reprise "; Slayer's " Angel of Death ", "Seasons in the Abyss", and " Raining Blood "; and Metallica's " Fade to Black ", " Creeping Death ", " Master of Puppets ", and " For Whom the Bell Tolls " as musical highlights, and described the encore performance of " Am I Evil? ", in which members of all four bands perform, as "an historic high point." In a mixed review for Blogcritics , Chris Beaumont summed up that "Watching these promo DVDs makes me want the Blu-ray that much more. The performances are great, the sets are great, and it is hard not to get excited about these guys taking the stage together. This is metal." Chad Bowar, writing for About.com, said that the concert was "one of the defining moments and biggest events in recent metal history" and commented that the bands "can still put on a great show" despite their age. He distinguished the styles of each band, writing: "Anthrax has a more lighthearted, fun approach, while Megadeth is 100 percent business with very little banter and focus on the music. Slayer has a more ominous vibe, although their evil mystique has lessened over the years. Metallica were very inclusive, with James Hetfield acting as everybody's favorite uncle interacting with the crowd and taking time to soak it all in." A complete list can be found at AllMusic. Anthrax Megadeth Slayer Metallica Production and assistance Warren Lee – bass technician, guitar technician Michael Pearce; Philip Richardson – editing John Wedge Branon – engineer, production manager, tour manager David May – executive producer Chris Blair; Michael McGuire – pyrotechnics Mike Osman – sound technician Alan Doyle – stage manager Chris David – video technician

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Anthrax

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We've Come for You All

"Taking the Music Back" Released: September 3, 2003 "Safe Home" Released: January 27, 2004 We've Come for You All is the ninth studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax . It was released on May 6, 2003 through Nuclear Blast in Europe and Sanctuary Records in North America. This was the first Anthrax record to feature Rob Caggiano on lead guitar and their last studio album with John Bush on vocals. The album was recorded over a one-year span at the BearTracks Recording Studio in Suffern, New York . The cover art was designed by comic book artist Alex Ross , while the production was handled by Scrap 60 Productions team. The Who vocalist Roger Daltrey and Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell made guest appearances on the album. The album received positive reviews by contemporary music critics, with About.com crediting it for "getting the band back on track". Despite this, the album only reached number 122 on the Billboard 200 , with first week sales of 10,000 copies. To date, We've Come for You All has sold over 62,000 copies in the United States. It was nominated for Outstanding Hard Rock Album at the 2004 California Music Awards, but lost to Blink 182 's untitled album . This album followed Volume 8: The Threat Is Real , which was released in 1998. Anthrax decided to sign with record label Nuclear Blast for the release of their upcoming album. Asked if changing the record company will affect the songwriting, guitarist Scott Ian replied: "To be honest, I don't care about that at all. You know, business is business and the creative side is the creative side. Creatively, there was no big challenge. We just wanted to try to make the best record we can." The band started writing new material during the months of May and June 2001, and entered the studio in November the same year. The recording process was shortly interrupted because the band went on a tour with Judas Priest early in 2002. They returned to the studio in March and in the next few months worked on the record and successfully finished it. According to Ian, the whole process of making the album took the band a year. Ian also said that there is no leftover material out of the recording sessions, except for the song "Ghost", which was released as a B-side on the single "Taking the Music Back". The Who vocalist Roger Daltrey and Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell made guest appearances on the album, as well as E-Town Concrete vocalist Anthony Martini. Daltrey was featured in the song "Taking the Music Back", Martini provided vocals on "Refuse to be Denied", while Darrell contributed to the songs "Cadillac Rock Box" and "Strap It On". The band explained their appearances by saying they "felt the need to invite some friends to make something special for the album and the result is simply fantastic." The album was produced by Scrap 60 Productions team, consisted of Anthrax guitarist Rob Caggiano , Eddie Wohl , and Steve Regina. The front cover was designed by comic book artist Alex Ross . Vocalist John Bush stated that the band was honored to work with Ross, who also did the artwork for their previous pair of recordings. Bush explained that the band gave Ross a complete freedom over the concept of the artwork. Apart from suggesting the album's title as an idea, Bush said that the other members had not participated much in creating the cover art. The release date of the album was delayed several times. The album was originally set for a release on February 4, 2003 in Europe and Japan, and on February 24 in the US and Canada. After the prolongation of the release date for territories outside Japan and Europe, drummer Charlie Benante posted an explanation on the band's official website: "I hate to tell you this but ... the record got pushed back to April 15. It's only been 73 years since Vol. 8 [was released], what's another week or two? The record company needed the extra time to put more time into the promotion. One day all this crap will be over, you'll be rocking out to some killer shit." It was later announced that the release date for Europe would be also pushed back to March 3, 2003, eventually setting it on May 6. The problems occurred after a breakdown in negotiations between Beyond Records and Sanctuary Records over a buy-out of the band's contract. According to Blabbermouth , Beyond Records was in the process of selling their entire catalog to Sanctuary, but the arrangement had fallen through. However, the problems were resolved and the record was successfully distributed through Sanctuary in North America and Nuclear Blast in Europe. The album debuted at No. 122 on the Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of just under 10,000 units. Since its release in May 2003, We've Come for You All sold about 62,000 copies in the United States. Apart from entering the French Albums Chart at number 95, the record did not manage to chart in any other country. Referring to the low record sales, Ian posted a message on the band's official web site saying: "That's more than I thought it would do after five years away. That's basically what [the group's last album] Volume 8 did in its first week and this one was based on mostly just Internet promo." Bush opined that this record wasn't very different from their previous releases. "It's still an Anthrax album with many different parts that can appeal to a wide audience. Our sound is recognizable each time you listen to one of our songs and that's something we really want for our music. You have the fastest rhythms, the more danceable ones, you have everything you can expect from an Anthrax record." Benante said that elements from their earlier albums are still present on the record, though it explores "other territories". Johnny Loftus from AllMusic described the music as a strained fusion of thrash and traditional heavy metal , accompanied by the harsh vocals of Bush. He noted the record for using modern production techniques, as well as displaying melodies and instrumentation that have always been Anthrax's trademark. Magazine Rock Hard observed that the record was a combination of "tradition and modernity", with strong vocals and "thrashy" tunes. They pointed that the sound was extremely complex with "super fat" production, having nothing similar with the nu metal sound of the early 2000s. Exclaim! wrote that the songs had rock-based structures, unlike the band's earlier releases which featured "brutal beats and razor riffs". Gregory Bradley also noted that a couple of songs had "distinct hard-rock vibe", while others demonstrated "very metal" sound. In their guide to Anthrax discography, Kerrang! wrote that We've Come for You All was "leaning towards a groove -orientated hard rock sound" with several slower and radio friendly efforts. We've Come for You All received positive reviews upon release, with About.com crediting it for "getting the band back on track". AllMusic 's Johnny Loftus noted the album for its "pile-driving thrash" sound, which reminded him of the group's earlier days. Loftus concluded that We've Come for You All was the definitive thrash metal album, released in a period when albums from that genre were not common. In a review for Raidió Teilifís Éireann , Harry Guerin wrote that the band has preserved their sense of melody and aggression. He praised the fast blast beat percussion on "Black Dahlia", and finished the review by saying that the album would likely exceed the expectations of their most devoted fans. Writing for Metal Review , Gregory Bradley stopped short of calling the album a return to form, but asserted that the record was an "acceptable" release. Bradley did, however, credit the album for having some "very metal" songs, singling out "What Doesn't Die" and "Black Dahlia" in particular. Chris Ayers from Exclaim! opined that We've Come for You All was the band's strongest release since Sound of White Noise (1993) and easily the best of the John Bush era: "Grittier and more confident, the self-produced We've Come for You All is a certified classic that proves the ageless Anthrax are still a viable metal option." Vik Bansal, of MusicOMH , summarized the album as "a bold, sleek and raucous slab of modern metal", containing elements that were absent from many heavy metal albums at the time. Bansal cited "What Doesn't Die" for particular praise, noting the "razor-sharp" riffs on the song. He noted "Cadillac Rock Box" for sounding similar to bands like Lynyrd Skynyrd and Black Sabbath . Bansal summed up his review by stating that We've Come for You All is a "mighty album from a still mighty band". All tracks are written by John Bush , Rob Caggiano , Scott Ian , Frank Bello and Charlie Benante , except where notedCredits are adapted from AllMusic . position

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Anthrax

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Slayer

1981–2019 2024–present Slayer is an American thrash metal band from Huntington Park, California , formed in 1981 by guitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman , drummer Dave Lombardo and bassist/vocalist Tom Araya . Slayer's fast and aggressive musical style made them one of the "big four" bands of thrash metal , alongside Metallica , Megadeth , and Anthrax . Slayer's current lineup consists of King, Araya, drummer Paul Bostaph and guitarist Gary Holt , who initially joined as a touring member in 2011 before joining the band permanently after Hanneman's death in 2013. Drummer Jon Dette was also a member of the band. In the original lineup, King, Hanneman and Araya contributed to the band's lyrics, and all of the band's music was written by King and Hanneman. The band's lyrics and album art, which cover topics such as serial killers , torture , genocide , organized crime , secret societies , occultism , terrorism , religion or antireligion , fascism , racism and war , have generated album bans, delays, lawsuits and criticism from religious groups. However, its music has been highly influential, being cited by many bands as an influence musically, visually and lyrically; the band's third album, Reign in Blood (1986), has been described as one of the heaviest and most influential thrash metal albums. Slayer released twelve studio albums, three live albums, a box set, six music videos, two extended plays and a cover album. Four of the band's studio albums have received gold certification in the United States. Slayer sold 5 million copies in the United States from 1991 to 2013, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The band has received five Grammy Award nominations, winning one in 2007 for the song " Eyes of the Insane " and one in 2008 for the song "Final Six", both of which were from the album Christ Illusion (2006). After more than three decades of recording and performing, Slayer announced in January 2018 that it would embark on a farewell tour , which took place from May 2018 to November 2019, after which the band disbanded. Slayer later announced their reunion in February 2024. Slayer was formed in 1981 by Kerry King , Jeff Hanneman , Dave Lombardo and Tom Araya in Huntington Park, California. The group started out playing covers of songs by bands such as Iron Maiden , Black Sabbath , Judas Priest and Venom at parties and clubs in Southern California . The band's early image relied heavily on Satanic themes that featured pentagrams , make-up, spikes, and inverted crosses. Rumors that the band was originally known as Dragonslayer, after the 1981 film of the same name , were denied by King, as he later stated: "We never were; it's a myth to this day." According to Lombardo, the original band name was to be Wings of Fire before they settled in with Slayer. It was he who designed the iconic logo. For inspiration, Lombardo thought in a perspective of a murderer of how they would carve out the logo with a knife and since he's lefthanded, the logo is unintentionally slanted to the right. In 1983, Slayer was invited to open for the band Bitch at the Woodstock Club in Anaheim, California , to perform eight songs, six of which were covers. The band was spotted by Brian Slagel , a former music journalist who had recently founded Metal Blade Records . Impressed with Slayer, he met with the band backstage and asked them to record an original song for his upcoming Metal Massacre III compilation album. The band agreed and their song "Aggressive Perfector" created an underground buzz upon its release in mid 1983, which led to Slagel offering the band a recording contract with Metal Blade. Without any recording budget, the band had to self-finance its debut album. Combining the savings of Araya, who was employed as a respiratory therapist , and money borrowed from King's father, the band entered the studio in November 1983. The album was rushed into release, stocking shelves three weeks after tracks were completed. Show No Mercy , released in December 1983 by Metal Blade Records, generated underground popularity for the band. The group began a club tour of California to promote the album. The tour gave the band additional popularity and sales of Show No Mercy eventually reached more than 20,000 in the US and another 20,000 worldwide. In February 1984, King briefly joined Dave Mustaine 's new band Megadeth . Hanneman was worried about King's decision, stating in an interview, "I guess we're gonna get a new guitar player." While Mustaine wanted King to stay on a permanent basis, King left after five shows, stating Mustaine's band was "taking too much of my time." The split caused a rift between King and Mustaine, which evolved into a long running feud between the two bands. In June 1984, Slayer released a three-track EP called Haunting the Chapel . The EP featured a darker, more thrash-oriented style than Show No Mercy , and laid the groundwork for the future direction of the band. The opening track, "Chemical Warfare", has become a live staple, played at nearly every show since 1984. Later that year, Slayer began their first national club tour, traveling in Araya's Camaro towing a U-Haul trailer. The band recorded the live album Live Undead in November 1984 while in New York City . In March 1985, Slayer began a national tour with Venom and Exodus , resulting in their first live home video dubbed Combat Tour: The Ultimate Revenge . The video featured live footage filmed at the Studio 54 club. The band then made its live European debut at the Heavy Sound Festival in Belgium opening for UFO . Also in 1985, Slayer toured or played selected shows with bands like Megadeth, Destruction , D.R.I. , Possessed , Agent Steel , S.O.D. , Nasty Savage and Metal Church . Show No Mercy had sold over 40,000 copies, which led to the band returning to the studio to record their second full-length album. Metal Blade financed a recording budget, which allowed the band to hire producer Ron Fair . Released in March 1985, Slayer's second full-length album, Hell Awaits , expanded on the darkness of Haunting the Chapel , with hell and Satan as common song subjects. The album was the band's most progressive offering, featuring longer and more complex song structures. The intro of the title track is a backwards recording of a demonic-sounding voice repeating "Join us", ending with "Welcome back" before the track begins. The album was a hit, with fans choosing Slayer for best band, best live band, Hell Awaits , as 1985's best album, and Dave Lombardo as best drummer in the British magazine Metal Forces ' 1985 Readers Poll. Following the success of Hell Awaits , Slayer was offered a recording contract with Russell Simmons and Rick Rubin 's newly founded Def Jam Records , a largely hip hop -based label. The band accepted, and with an experienced producer and major label recording budget, the band underwent a sonic makeover for their third album Reign in Blood , resulting in shorter, faster songs with clearer production. The complex arrangements and long songs featured on Hell Awaits were ditched in favor of stripped down, hardcore punk influenced song structures. Def Jam's distributor, Columbia Records , refused to release the album due to the song " Angel of Death " which detailed Holocaust concentration camps and the human experiments conducted by Nazi physician Josef Mengele . The album was distributed by Geffen Records on October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy, Reign in Blood did not appear on Geffen Records' release schedule. Although the album received virtually no radio airplay, it became the band's first to enter the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 94, and the band's first album certified gold in the United States. Slayer embarked on the Reign in Pain world tour, with Overkill in the US from October to December 1986, and Malice in Europe in April and May 1987. They also played with other bands such as Agnostic Front , Testament , Metal Church , D.R.I. , Dark Angel and Flotsam and Jetsam . The band was added as the opening act on W.A.S.P. 's US tour, but just one month into it, drummer Lombardo left the band: "I wasn't making any money. I figured if we were gonna be doing this professionally, on a major label, I wanted my rent and utilities paid." To continue with the tour, Slayer enlisted Tony Scaglione of Whiplash . However, Lombardo was convinced by his wife to return in 1987. At the insistence of Rubin, Slayer recorded a cover version of Iron Butterfly 's " In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida " for the film Less than Zero . Although the band was not happy with the final product, Hanneman deeming it "a poor representation of Slayer" and King labeling it "a hunk of shit", it was one of their first songs to garner radio airplay . In late 1987, Slayer returned to the studio to record their fourth studio album. To contrast the speed of Reign in Blood , the band consciously decided to slow down the tempos , and incorporate more melodic singing. According to Hanneman, "We knew we couldn't top Reign in Blood , so we had to slow down. We knew whatever we did was gonna be compared to that album, and I remember we actually discussed slowing down. It was weird—we've never done that on an album, before or since." Released in July 1988, South of Heaven received mixed responses from both fans and critics, although it was Slayer's most commercially successful release at the time, debuting at number 57 on the Billboard 200, and their second album to receive gold certification in the United States. Press response to the album was mixed, with AllMusic citing the album as "disturbing and powerful", and Kim Neely of Rolling Stone calling it "genuinely offensive satanic drivel". King said "that album was my most lackluster performance", although Araya called it a "late bloomer" which eventually grew on people. Slayer toured from August 1988 to January 1989 to promote South of Heaven , supporting Judas Priest in the US on their Ram It Down tour , and touring Europe with Nuclear Assault and the US with Motörhead and Overkill . Slayer returned to the studio in early 1990 with co-producer Andy Wallace to record its fifth studio album. Following the backlash created by South of Heaven , Slayer returned to the "pounding speed of Reign in Blood , while retaining their newfound melodic sense." Seasons in the Abyss , released on October 9, 1990, was the first Slayer album to be released under Rubin's new Def American label, as he had parted ways with Def Jam owner Russell Simmons over creative differences. The album debuted at number 44 on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold in 1992. The album spawned Slayer's first music video for the album's title track, which was filmed in front of the Giza pyramids in Egypt. Slayer returned as a live act in September 1990 to co-headline the European Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth, Suicidal Tendencies , and Testament . During the sold out European leg of this tour, tickets had prices skyrocket to 1,000 Deutschmark (US$680) on the black market. With the popularity of American thrash at its peak, the band toured with Testament again in early 1991 and triple-headlined the North American version of the Clash of the Titans tour that summer with Megadeth, Anthrax , and opening act Alice in Chains . The band released a double live album, Decade of Aggression in 1991, to celebrate ten years since their formation. The compilation debuted at number 55 on the Billboard 200. In May 1992, Lombardo left the band due to conflicts with the other members, as well as his desire to be off tour for the birth of his first child. Lombardo formed his own band Grip Inc. , with Voodoocult guitarist Waldemar Sorychta , and Slayer recruited former Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph to fill in the drummer position. Slayer made its debut appearance with Bostaph at the 1992 Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington . Bostaph's first studio effort was a medley of three Exploited songs, "War", "UK '82", and "Disorder", with rapper Ice-T , for the Judgment Night movie soundtrack in 1993. In 1994, Slayer released Divine Intervention , the band's first album with Bostaph on the drums. The album featured songs about Reinhard Heydrich , an architect of the Holocaust, and Jeffrey Dahmer , an American serial killer and sex offender. Other themes included murder, the evils of church, and the lengths to which governments went to wield power, Araya's interest in serial killers inspired much of the content of the lyrics. Slayer geared up for a world tour in 1995, with openers Biohazard and Machine Head . A video of concert footage, Live Intrusion was released, featuring a joint cover of Venom's "Witching Hour" with Machine Head. Following the tour, Slayer was billed third at the 1995 Monsters of Rock festival, headlined by Metallica . In 1996, Undisputed Attitude , an album of punk covers , was released. The band covered songs by Minor Threat , T.S.O.L. , Dirty Rotten Imbeciles , D.I. , Verbal Abuse , Dr. Know , and The Stooges . The album featured three original tracks, "Gemini", "Can't Stand You", "Ddamm"; the latter two were written by Hanneman in 1984–1985 for a side project entitled Pap Smear. Bostaph left Slayer shortly after the album's recording to work on his own project, Truth About Seafood. With Bostaph's departure, Slayer recruited Testament drummer Jon Dette , and headlined the 1996 Ozzfest alongside Ozzy Osbourne , Danzig , Biohazard , Sepultura , and Fear Factory . Dette was fired after a year, due to a fallout with band members. After that, Bostaph returned to continue the tour. Diabolus in Musica (Latin for "The Devil in Music") was released in 1998, and debuted at number 31 on the Billboard 200, selling over 46,000 copies in its first week. It was complete by September 1997, and scheduled to be released the following month, but got delayed by nine months after their label was taken over by Columbia Records . The album received a mixed critical reception, and was criticized for adopting characteristics of nu metal music such as tuned down guitars, murky chord structures, and churning beats. Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin described the album as "a feeble attempt at incorporating updated elements into the group's sound, the presence of which elevated the band's efforts somewhat and offered hope that Slayer could refrain from endlessly rehashing their previous material for their future output", while Ben Ratliff of The New York Times had similar sentiments, writing on June 22, 1998, that: "Eight of the 11 songs on Diabolus in Musica , a few of which were played at the show, are in the same gray key, and the band's rhythmic ideas have a wearying sameness too." The album was the band's first to primarily feature dropped tuning, making use of the tritone interval referred to in the Middle Ages as the Devil's interval. Slayer teamed up with digital hardcore group Atari Teenage Riot to record a song for the Spawn soundtrack titled "No Remorse (I Wanna Die)". The band paid tribute to Black Sabbath by recording a cover of "Hand of Doom" for the second of two tribute albums, titled Nativity in Black II . A world tour followed to support the new album, with Slayer making an appearance at the United Kingdom Ozzfest 1998 . During mid-2001, the band joined Morbid Angel , Pantera , Skrape and Static-X on the Extreme Steel Tour of North America, which was Pantera's last major tour. After delays regarding remixing and artwork, including slip covers created to cover the original artwork as it was deemed "too graphic", Slayer's next album, God Hates Us All , was released on September 11, 2001 . The band received its first Grammy nomination for the lead track "Disciple", although the Grammy was awarded to Tool , for " Schism ". The September 11 attacks on America jeopardized the 2001 European tour Tattoo the Planet originally set to feature Pantera, Static-X, Cradle of Filth , Biohazard and Vision of Disorder . The dates in the United Kingdom were postponed due to flight restrictions, with a majority of bands deciding to withdraw, leaving Slayer and Cradle of Filth remaining for the European leg of the tour. Pantera, Static-X, Vision of Disorder and Biohazard were replaced by other bands depending on location; Amorphis , In Flames , Moonspell , Children of Bodom , and Necrodeath . Biohazard eventually decided to rejoin the tour later on, and booked new gigs in the countries, where they missed a few dates. Drummer Bostaph left Slayer before Christmas in 2001, due to a chronic elbow injury, which would hinder his ability to play. Since the band's European tour was unfinished at that time, the band's manager, Rick Sales, contacted original drummer Dave Lombardo and asked if he would like to finish the remainder of the tour. Lombardo accepted the offer, and stayed as a permanent member. Slayer toured playing Reign in Blood in its entirety throughout the fall of 2003, under the tour banner "Still Reigning". Their playing of the final song, " Raining Blood ", culminated with the band drenched in a rain of stage blood. Live footage of this was recorded at the Augusta Civic Center in Augusta, Maine , on July 11, 2004, and released on the 2004 DVD Still Reigning . The band also released War at the Warfield and a box set, Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featuring rarities, live CD and DVD performances and various Slayer merchandise. From 2002 to 2004, the band performed over 250 tour dates, headlining major music festivals including H82k2, Summer tour, Ozzfest 2004 and a European tour with Slipknot . While preparing for the Download Festival in England, Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich was taken to a hospital with an unknown and mysterious illness, and was unable to perform. Metallica vocalist James Hetfield searched for volunteers at the last minute to replace Ulrich; Lombardo and Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison volunteered, with Lombardo performing the songs "Battery" and "The Four Horsemen". The next studio album, Christ Illusion , was originally scheduled for release on June 6, 2006, and would be the first album with original drummer Lombardo since 1990's Seasons in the Abyss . However, the band decided to delay the release of the record, as they did not want to be among the many, according to King, "half-ass, stupid fucking loser bands" releasing records on June 6, although USA Today reported the idea was thwarted because the band failed to secure sufficient studio recording time. Slayer released Eternal Pyre on June 6 as a limited-edition EP . Eternal Pyre featured the song "Cult", a live performance of " War Ensemble " in Germany and video footage of the band recording "Cult". Five thousand copies were released and sold exclusively through Hot Topic chain stores, and sold out within hours of release. On June 30, Nuclear Blast Records released a 7" vinyl picture disc version limited to a thousand copies. Christ Illusion was eventually released on August 8, 2006, and debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200, selling over 62,000 copies in its first week. The album became Slayer's highest charting, improving on its previous highest charting album, Divine Intervention , which had debuted at number 8. However, despite its high positioning, the album dropped to number 44 in the following week. Three weeks after the album's release, Slayer were inducted into the Kerrang! Hall of Fame for their influence to the heavy metal scene. A worldwide tour dubbed The Unholy Alliance Tour , was undertaken to support the new record. The tour was originally set to launch on June 6 in San Diego, but was postponed to June 10, as Araya had to undergo gall bladder surgery. In Flames , Mastodon , Children of Bodom , Lamb of God , and Thine Eyes Bleed (featuring Araya's brother, Johnny) and Ted Maul (London Hammersmith Apollo) were supporting Slayer. The tour made its way through America and Europe and the bands who participated, apart from Thine Eyes Bleed, reunited to perform at Japan 's Loudpark Festival on October 15, 2006. The video for the album's first single, " Eyes of the Insane ", was released on October 30, 2006. The track was featured on the Saw III soundtrack, and won a Grammy-award for " Best Metal Performance " at the 49th Grammy Awards, although the band was unable to attend due to touring obligations. A week later, the band visited the 52nd Services Squadron located on the Spangdahlem U.S. Air Force Base in Germany to meet and play a show. This was the first visit ever to a military base for the band. The band made its first network TV appearance on the show Jimmy Kimmel Live! on January 19, playing the song "Eyes of the Insane", and four additional songs for fans after the show (although footage from " Jihad " was cut due to its controversial lyrical themes). In 2007, Slayer toured Australia and New Zealand in April with Mastodon, and appeared at the Download Festival , Rock Am Ring , and a summer tour with Marilyn Manson and Bleeding Through . In 2008, Araya stated uncertainty about the future of the band, and that he could not see himself continuing the career at a later age. He said that once the band finished its upcoming album, which was the final record in their contract, the band would sit down and discuss its future. King was optimistic that the band would produce at least another two albums before considering to disband: "We're talking of going in the studio next February and getting the next record out so if we do things in a timely manner I don't see there's any reason why we can't have more than one album out." Slayer, along with Trivium , Mastodon , and Amon Amarth , teamed up for a European tour titled 'The Unholy Alliance: Chapter III', throughout October and November 2008. Slayer headlined the second Mayhem Festival in the summer of 2009. Slayer, along with Megadeth , also co-headlined Canadian Carnage, the first time they performed together in more than 15 years when they co-headlined four shows in Canada in late June 2009 with openers Machine Head and Suicide Silence . The band's eleventh studio album, World Painted Blood , was released by American Recordings . It was available on November 3 in North America and November 2 for the rest of the world. The band stated that the album takes elements of all their previous works including Seasons in the Abyss , South of Heaven , and Reign in Blood . Slayer, along with Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Bemowo Airport, in Warsaw , Poland. One of the following Big 4 performances in ( Sofia , Bulgaria, June 22, 2010) was sent via satellite in HD to cinemas. They also went on to play several other dates as part of the Sonisphere Festival. Megadeth and Slayer joined forces once again for the American Carnage Tour from July to October 2010 with opening acts Anthrax and Testament , and European Carnage Tour in March and April 2011. The "Big Four" played more dates at Sonisphere in England and France for the first time ever. Slayer returned to Australia in February and March 2011 as part of the Soundwave Festival and also played in California with the other members of the "Big Four". In early 2011, Hanneman was diagnosed with necrotizing fasciitis . According to the band, doctors said that it likely originated from a spider bite. Araya said of Hanneman's condition: "Jeff was seriously ill. Jeff ended up contracting a bacteria that ate away his flesh on his arm, so they cut open his arm, from his wrist to his shoulder, and they did a skin graft on him, they cleaned up ... It was a flesh-eating virus, so he was really, really bad. So we'll wait for him to get better, and when he's a hundred percent, he's gonna come out and join us." The band decided to play their upcoming tour dates without Hanneman. Gary Holt of Exodus was announced as Hanneman's temporary replacement. Cannibal Corpse guitarist Pat O'Brien filled in for Holt during a tour in Europe. On April 23, 2011, at the American Big 4 show in Indio, California , Hanneman rejoined his bandmates to play the final two songs of their set, "South of Heaven" and "Angel of Death". This turned out to be Hanneman's final live performance with the band. When asked if Slayer would make another album, Lombardo replied "Yes absolutely; Although there's nothing written, there are definitely plans." However, Araya said Slayer would not begin writing a new album until Hanneman's condition improved. To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Reign In Blood , the band performed all of the album's tracks at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival at the Alexandra Palace in London. In November 2011, Lombardo posted a tweet that the band had started to write new music. This presumably meant that Hanneman's condition improved, and it was believed he was ready to enter the studio. King had worked with Lombardo that year and they completed three songs. The band planned on entering the studio in either March or April 2012 and were hoping to have the album recorded before the group's US tour in late May and release it by the summer of that year. However, King said the upcoming album would not be finished until September and October of that year, making a 2013 release likely. In July 2012, King revealed two song titles for the upcoming album, "Chasing Death" and "Implode". In February 2013, Lombardo was fired right before Slayer was to play at Australia's Soundwave festival due to an argument with band members over a pay dispute. Slayer and American Recordings released a statement, saying "Mr. Lombardo came to the band less than a week before their scheduled departure for Australia to present an entirely new set of terms for his engagement that were contrary to those that had been previously agreed upon", although Lombardo claimed there was a gag order in place. Dette returned to fill in for Lombardo for the Soundwave dates. It was confirmed that Lombardo was officially out of Slayer for the third time, and, in May, Bostaph rejoined the band. King said in February 2024 that he had severed ties with Lombardo ever since, adding that "he's dead to me." On May 2, 2013, Hanneman died due to liver failure in a local hospital near his home in Southern California's Inland Empire ; the cause of death was later determined to be alcohol-related cirrhosis . King confirmed that the band would continue, saying "Jeff is going to be in everybody's thoughts for a long time. It's unfortunate you can't keep unfortunate things from happening. But we're going to carry on – and he'll be there in spirit." However, Araya felt more uncertain about the band's future, expressing his belief that "After 30 years [with Hanneman active in the band], it would literally be like starting over", and doubting that Slayer's fanbase would approve such a change. Despite the uncertainty regarding the band's future, Slayer still worked on a followup to World Painted Blood . Additionally, it was reported that the new album would still feature material written by Hanneman. At the 2014 Revolver ' s Golden Gods Awards ceremony, Slayer debuted "Implode", its first new song in five years. The group announced that they had signed with Nuclear Blast , and planned to release a new album in 2015. It was reported that Holt would take over Hanneman's guitar duties full-time, although Holt did not participate in the songwriting. In February, Slayer announced a seventeen date American tour to start in June featuring Suicidal Tendencies and Exodus . In 2015, Slayer headlined the Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival for the second time. Repentless , the band's twelfth studio album, was released on September 11, 2015. Slayer toured for 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 years in support of Repentless . The band toured Europe with Anthrax and Kvelertak in October and November 2015, and embarked on three North American tours: one with Testament and Carcass in February and March 2016, then with Anthrax and Death Angel in September and October 2016, and with Lamb of God and Behemoth in July and August 2017. A lone date in Southeast Asia in 2017 was held in the Philippines. In August 2016, guitarist Kerry King was asked if Slayer would release a follow-up to Repentless . He replied, "We've got lots of leftover material from the last album, 'cause we wrote so much stuff, and we recorded a bunch of it too. If the lyrics don't change the song musically, those songs are done. So we are way ahead of the ballgame without even doing anything for the next record. And I've been working on stuff on my downtime. Like, I'll warm up and a riff will come to mind and I'll record it. I've gotten a handful of those on this run. So wheels are still turning. I haven't worked on anything lyrically yet except for what was done on the last record, so that's something I've gotta get on. But, yeah, Repentless isn't quite a year old yet." King also stated that Slayer was not expected to enter the studio until at least 2018. In an October interview on Hatebreed frontman Jamey Jasta 's podcast, King stated that he was "completely open" to having guitarist Gary Holt (who had no songwriting contributions on Repentless ) involved in the songwriting process of the next Slayer album. He explained, "I'm entirely open to having Gary work on something. I know he's gotta work on an Exodus record and I've got tons already for this one. But, you know, if he's gonna stick around... I didn't want it on the last one, and I knew that. I'm completely open to having that conversation. I haven't talked to Tom about it, I haven't talked to Gary open about it, but I'm open. That's not saying it is or isn't gonna happen. But my ears are open." In a June 2017 interview with the Ultimate Guitar Archive , Holt said that he was ready to contribute with the songwriting for the next album. When speaking to Revolver , King was asked if there were any plans in place for the band to begin working on the album, he said, "Funny thing is, Repentless isn't even two years old yet, though it seems like it is. But from that session, there are six or eight songs that are recorded—some with vocals, some with leads, but all with keeper guitar, drums and bass. So when those songs get finished lyrically, if the lyrics don't change the songs, they'll be ready to be on the next record. So we already have more than half a record complete, if those songs make it." He also gave conceivable consideration that it could be released next year, "I'm certainly not gonna promise it, because every time I do, I make a liar of myself! [Laughs]" When asked about any plans or the timeline the band would like to release the album, King said, "It depends on touring—getting time to rehearse, getting time to make up new stuff. We haven't even done Australia on this run yet at all. We're hitting Japan finally later this year. But if things go well, I'd like to record next year. But timelines change all the time." In an October 2017 interview, Holt once again expressed his desire to contribute to the songwriting for the next Slayer album, saying, "When that time comes and we are ready for the next album, if Kerry wants me to contribute, I've got riffs. I've got stuff right now that I've written that I am not using for Exodus, because it was kind of maybe just unintentional subconscious thing, like, 'It sounds a little too Slayer.'" On January 22, 2018, Slayer announced their farewell world tour through a video featuring a montage of press clippings, early posters and press photos spanning the band's entire career. Although the members of Slayer have never publicly explained why they were retiring, it was thought that one of the reasons behind this decision was Tom Araya 's desire not to tour anymore and to spend more time with his family. This was confirmed by former drummer Dave Lombardo in a 2019 interview, who said: "Apparently, from what I hear. Tom has been wanting to retire when I was in the band — he wanted to stop. He had the neck issues. He's been wanting to retire for a long time now. So now that he's got it, I'm happy for him, and I hope he gets what he wants out of life and his future." The farewell tour began with a North American trek in May and June 2018, supported by Lamb of God , Anthrax , Behemoth and Testament . The second leg of the North American tour took place in July and August, with Napalm Death replacing Behemoth, followed in November and December by a European tour with Lamb of God, Anthrax and Obituary . The farewell tour continued into 2019, with plans to visit places such as South America, Australia and Japan; in addition to European festivals such as Hellfest and Graspop , the band toured the United States in May 2019 with Lamb of God, Amon Amarth and Cannibal Corpse . Slayer also played one show in Mexico at Force Fest in October 2018. On December 2, 2018, Holt announced that he would not perform the remainder of the band's European tour to be with his dying father. Vio-lence and former Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel would fill in for him as a result. Holt had stated that Slayer would not release a new album before the end of the farewell tour. On how long the tour would last, Holt's Exodus bandmate Steve "Zetro" Souza commented, "I'm speculating it's gonna take a year and a half or two years to do the one final thing, but I believe it's finished. Everybody knows what I know; just because I'm on the outside, I have no insight on that." The final North American leg of the tour, dubbed "The Last Campaign", took place in November 2019, and also included support from Primus , Ministry and Philip H. Anselmo & The Illegals . Despite being referred to as a farewell tour for Slayer, their manager Rick Sales has stated that "the band is not breaking up, they made a decision to stop touring. That doesn't mean the end of the band. It's just the end of touring". Kristen Mulderig, who works with Rick Sales Entertainment Group, has also been quoted as saying that there would be Slayer-related activities following the tour's conclusion. However, within two days after the tour's completion, King's wife Ayesha stated on her Instagram page that there is "not a chance in hell" that Slayer would ever reunite to perform more shows or release new music. In March 2020, when talking to Guitar World about his latest endorsement with Dean Guitars , King hinted that he would continue to make music outside of Slayer, simply saying, "Dean didn't sign me for nothing!" King stated in an August 2020 interview on the Dean Guitars YouTube channel that he had "more than two records' worth of music" for his yet-to-be disclosed new project. Bostaph later confirmed that he and King are working on a new project that would "sound like Slayer without it being Slayer — but not intentionally so." This project was later revealed to be King's solo debut album, From Hell I Rise , to be released on May 17, 2024, and the lineup of the album includes King, Bostaph, Death Angel vocalist Mark Osegueda, Hellyeah bassist Kyle Sanders, and former Vio-lence and Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel . In addition to King and Bostaph, the other members of Slayer have remained musically active. Holt continues to record and perform with Exodus , releasing a new album, Persona Non Grata , in 2021. Lombardo has been involved with various acts since his third split with Slayer in 2013, such as Suicidal Tendencies , Dead Cross , the Misfits , Mr. Bungle and Testament , the latter of where he had previously served as the drummer for the band's 1999 album The Gathering and rejoined in March 2022, only to leave again in the following April. Jon Dette has been a member of at least two bands, Animetal USA and Meshiaak, and performed with Anthrax and Volbeat as a fill-in drummer. Araya, aside from an appearance in the Bay Area thrash metal documentary film Murder in the Front Row , had not been publicly active in the music industry nor given any interviews between the conclusion of Slayer's final tour and the band's 2024 reunion. The members of Slayer had expressed mixed opinions about a reunion. When asked by the Let There Be Talk podcast in June 2020 about the possibility of the band ever reforming, Holt stated, "If it does, if it ever happens, it has nothing to do with me. Someone else would call and say, 'We wanna [do this].' To my knowledge, it's done. And I think it should be that way. The band went out fucking on a bang, went out on Slayer's terms, and how many people get to say they did that?". Holt stated in March 2021 that he was open to a potential Slayer reunion, but it was unlikely to happen in the near future: "Look, if the powers that be ever — like, in a year or something — said, 'Hey, you know what? We feel like playing some shows,' I'm there to do it. But those aren't decisions for me to make, or even me to really speculate on. As far as my knowledge, the band is over, and the final show was November 30, 2019. And I'm full speed ahead with Exodus now." In October 2021, King expressed regret that Slayer had retired "too early." While congratulating Machine Head on their 30th anniversary as a band, he said, "Apparently, it's 30 years, which is quite an achievement. Not a lot of bands get there. We did, and then we quit too early. Fuck us. Fuck me. I hate fucking not playing." When interviewed two months later by Metal Hammer , King did not rule out the possibility of any more "Big Four" shows with Metallica , Megadeth and Anthrax, but expressed doubt that a Slayer reunion would ever happen: "The way that I'm moving forward is I don't think Slayer are ever going to play again. There's no business of me playing by myself!" King's wife Ayesha has also ruled out the possibility of a Slayer reunion, insisting that her husband and Araya would "never be Slayer again". In a February 2024 interview with Rolling Stone , King clarified that a reunion of the band was unlikely: "Could Slayer play a show again? I'm sure there's a scenario. Am I looking for it? No, I'm just getting ready to start my career. So if that happens, it happens. But I'm going to be doing this [solo band] for the next 10 years at least." King revealed in the same interview that he has not spoken to Araya since the band's split. Kerry also says that his relationship with Tom is positive, but his relation with that of former drummer Dave Lombardo is estranged. Talking about the Dave Lombardo situation, King said that Dave "was listening to this woman that was his attorney at the time, and she thought we had Metallica money, which we've never had fucking Metallica money. So she's just blowing shit in his ear, and he thinks he should be getting more than he should be getting." On February 21, 2024, Slayer announced that they will play their first show since disbanding in 2019 at Riot Fest on September 22, and their second show five days later at Louder Than Life . The lineup of this reunion is the 2013-2019 lineup of bassist/vocalist Tom Araya , guitarists Kerry King and Gary Holt and drummer Paul Bostaph . They will also headline the first of four nights of the Aftershock Festival in Sacramento on October 10, 2024, and while announcing this show, the band said in a statement, "There's been a lot of excited fans out there about our playing a couple of festival dates, so it's great to be able to add this last one". Slayer was formed in 1981 by Kerry King , Jeff Hanneman , Dave Lombardo and Tom Araya in Huntington Park, California. The group started out playing covers of songs by bands such as Iron Maiden , Black Sabbath , Judas Priest and Venom at parties and clubs in Southern California . The band's early image relied heavily on Satanic themes that featured pentagrams , make-up, spikes, and inverted crosses. Rumors that the band was originally known as Dragonslayer, after the 1981 film of the same name , were denied by King, as he later stated: "We never were; it's a myth to this day." According to Lombardo, the original band name was to be Wings of Fire before they settled in with Slayer. It was he who designed the iconic logo. For inspiration, Lombardo thought in a perspective of a murderer of how they would carve out the logo with a knife and since he's lefthanded, the logo is unintentionally slanted to the right. In 1983, Slayer was invited to open for the band Bitch at the Woodstock Club in Anaheim, California , to perform eight songs, six of which were covers. The band was spotted by Brian Slagel , a former music journalist who had recently founded Metal Blade Records . Impressed with Slayer, he met with the band backstage and asked them to record an original song for his upcoming Metal Massacre III compilation album. The band agreed and their song "Aggressive Perfector" created an underground buzz upon its release in mid 1983, which led to Slagel offering the band a recording contract with Metal Blade. Without any recording budget, the band had to self-finance its debut album. Combining the savings of Araya, who was employed as a respiratory therapist , and money borrowed from King's father, the band entered the studio in November 1983. The album was rushed into release, stocking shelves three weeks after tracks were completed. Show No Mercy , released in December 1983 by Metal Blade Records, generated underground popularity for the band. The group began a club tour of California to promote the album. The tour gave the band additional popularity and sales of Show No Mercy eventually reached more than 20,000 in the US and another 20,000 worldwide. In February 1984, King briefly joined Dave Mustaine 's new band Megadeth . Hanneman was worried about King's decision, stating in an interview, "I guess we're gonna get a new guitar player." While Mustaine wanted King to stay on a permanent basis, King left after five shows, stating Mustaine's band was "taking too much of my time." The split caused a rift between King and Mustaine, which evolved into a long running feud between the two bands. In June 1984, Slayer released a three-track EP called Haunting the Chapel . The EP featured a darker, more thrash-oriented style than Show No Mercy , and laid the groundwork for the future direction of the band. The opening track, "Chemical Warfare", has become a live staple, played at nearly every show since 1984. Later that year, Slayer began their first national club tour, traveling in Araya's Camaro towing a U-Haul trailer. The band recorded the live album Live Undead in November 1984 while in New York City . In March 1985, Slayer began a national tour with Venom and Exodus , resulting in their first live home video dubbed Combat Tour: The Ultimate Revenge . The video featured live footage filmed at the Studio 54 club. The band then made its live European debut at the Heavy Sound Festival in Belgium opening for UFO . Also in 1985, Slayer toured or played selected shows with bands like Megadeth, Destruction , D.R.I. , Possessed , Agent Steel , S.O.D. , Nasty Savage and Metal Church . Show No Mercy had sold over 40,000 copies, which led to the band returning to the studio to record their second full-length album. Metal Blade financed a recording budget, which allowed the band to hire producer Ron Fair . Released in March 1985, Slayer's second full-length album, Hell Awaits , expanded on the darkness of Haunting the Chapel , with hell and Satan as common song subjects. The album was the band's most progressive offering, featuring longer and more complex song structures. The intro of the title track is a backwards recording of a demonic-sounding voice repeating "Join us", ending with "Welcome back" before the track begins. The album was a hit, with fans choosing Slayer for best band, best live band, Hell Awaits , as 1985's best album, and Dave Lombardo as best drummer in the British magazine Metal Forces ' 1985 Readers Poll. Following the success of Hell Awaits , Slayer was offered a recording contract with Russell Simmons and Rick Rubin 's newly founded Def Jam Records , a largely hip hop -based label. The band accepted, and with an experienced producer and major label recording budget, the band underwent a sonic makeover for their third album Reign in Blood , resulting in shorter, faster songs with clearer production. The complex arrangements and long songs featured on Hell Awaits were ditched in favor of stripped down, hardcore punk influenced song structures. Def Jam's distributor, Columbia Records , refused to release the album due to the song " Angel of Death " which detailed Holocaust concentration camps and the human experiments conducted by Nazi physician Josef Mengele . The album was distributed by Geffen Records on October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy, Reign in Blood did not appear on Geffen Records' release schedule. Although the album received virtually no radio airplay, it became the band's first to enter the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 94, and the band's first album certified gold in the United States. Slayer embarked on the Reign in Pain world tour, with Overkill in the US from October to December 1986, and Malice in Europe in April and May 1987. They also played with other bands such as Agnostic Front , Testament , Metal Church , D.R.I. , Dark Angel and Flotsam and Jetsam . The band was added as the opening act on W.A.S.P. 's US tour, but just one month into it, drummer Lombardo left the band: "I wasn't making any money. I figured if we were gonna be doing this professionally, on a major label, I wanted my rent and utilities paid." To continue with the tour, Slayer enlisted Tony Scaglione of Whiplash . However, Lombardo was convinced by his wife to return in 1987. At the insistence of Rubin, Slayer recorded a cover version of Iron Butterfly 's " In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida " for the film Less than Zero . Although the band was not happy with the final product, Hanneman deeming it "a poor representation of Slayer" and King labeling it "a hunk of shit", it was one of their first songs to garner radio airplay . In late 1987, Slayer returned to the studio to record their fourth studio album. To contrast the speed of Reign in Blood , the band consciously decided to slow down the tempos , and incorporate more melodic singing. According to Hanneman, "We knew we couldn't top Reign in Blood , so we had to slow down. We knew whatever we did was gonna be compared to that album, and I remember we actually discussed slowing down. It was weird—we've never done that on an album, before or since." Released in July 1988, South of Heaven received mixed responses from both fans and critics, although it was Slayer's most commercially successful release at the time, debuting at number 57 on the Billboard 200, and their second album to receive gold certification in the United States. Press response to the album was mixed, with AllMusic citing the album as "disturbing and powerful", and Kim Neely of Rolling Stone calling it "genuinely offensive satanic drivel". King said "that album was my most lackluster performance", although Araya called it a "late bloomer" which eventually grew on people. Slayer toured from August 1988 to January 1989 to promote South of Heaven , supporting Judas Priest in the US on their Ram It Down tour , and touring Europe with Nuclear Assault and the US with Motörhead and Overkill . Slayer returned to the studio in early 1990 with co-producer Andy Wallace to record its fifth studio album. Following the backlash created by South of Heaven , Slayer returned to the "pounding speed of Reign in Blood , while retaining their newfound melodic sense." Seasons in the Abyss , released on October 9, 1990, was the first Slayer album to be released under Rubin's new Def American label, as he had parted ways with Def Jam owner Russell Simmons over creative differences. The album debuted at number 44 on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold in 1992. The album spawned Slayer's first music video for the album's title track, which was filmed in front of the Giza pyramids in Egypt. Slayer returned as a live act in September 1990 to co-headline the European Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth, Suicidal Tendencies , and Testament . During the sold out European leg of this tour, tickets had prices skyrocket to 1,000 Deutschmark (US$680) on the black market. With the popularity of American thrash at its peak, the band toured with Testament again in early 1991 and triple-headlined the North American version of the Clash of the Titans tour that summer with Megadeth, Anthrax , and opening act Alice in Chains . The band released a double live album, Decade of Aggression in 1991, to celebrate ten years since their formation. The compilation debuted at number 55 on the Billboard 200. In May 1992, Lombardo left the band due to conflicts with the other members, as well as his desire to be off tour for the birth of his first child. Lombardo formed his own band Grip Inc. , with Voodoocult guitarist Waldemar Sorychta , and Slayer recruited former Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph to fill in the drummer position. Slayer made its debut appearance with Bostaph at the 1992 Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington . Bostaph's first studio effort was a medley of three Exploited songs, "War", "UK '82", and "Disorder", with rapper Ice-T , for the Judgment Night movie soundtrack in 1993. In 1994, Slayer released Divine Intervention , the band's first album with Bostaph on the drums. The album featured songs about Reinhard Heydrich , an architect of the Holocaust, and Jeffrey Dahmer , an American serial killer and sex offender. Other themes included murder, the evils of church, and the lengths to which governments went to wield power, Araya's interest in serial killers inspired much of the content of the lyrics. Slayer geared up for a world tour in 1995, with openers Biohazard and Machine Head . A video of concert footage, Live Intrusion was released, featuring a joint cover of Venom's "Witching Hour" with Machine Head. Following the tour, Slayer was billed third at the 1995 Monsters of Rock festival, headlined by Metallica . In 1996, Undisputed Attitude , an album of punk covers , was released. The band covered songs by Minor Threat , T.S.O.L. , Dirty Rotten Imbeciles , D.I. , Verbal Abuse , Dr. Know , and The Stooges . The album featured three original tracks, "Gemini", "Can't Stand You", "Ddamm"; the latter two were written by Hanneman in 1984–1985 for a side project entitled Pap Smear. Bostaph left Slayer shortly after the album's recording to work on his own project, Truth About Seafood. With Bostaph's departure, Slayer recruited Testament drummer Jon Dette , and headlined the 1996 Ozzfest alongside Ozzy Osbourne , Danzig , Biohazard , Sepultura , and Fear Factory . Dette was fired after a year, due to a fallout with band members. After that, Bostaph returned to continue the tour. Diabolus in Musica (Latin for "The Devil in Music") was released in 1998, and debuted at number 31 on the Billboard 200, selling over 46,000 copies in its first week. It was complete by September 1997, and scheduled to be released the following month, but got delayed by nine months after their label was taken over by Columbia Records . The album received a mixed critical reception, and was criticized for adopting characteristics of nu metal music such as tuned down guitars, murky chord structures, and churning beats. Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin described the album as "a feeble attempt at incorporating updated elements into the group's sound, the presence of which elevated the band's efforts somewhat and offered hope that Slayer could refrain from endlessly rehashing their previous material for their future output", while Ben Ratliff of The New York Times had similar sentiments, writing on June 22, 1998, that: "Eight of the 11 songs on Diabolus in Musica , a few of which were played at the show, are in the same gray key, and the band's rhythmic ideas have a wearying sameness too." The album was the band's first to primarily feature dropped tuning, making use of the tritone interval referred to in the Middle Ages as the Devil's interval. Slayer teamed up with digital hardcore group Atari Teenage Riot to record a song for the Spawn soundtrack titled "No Remorse (I Wanna Die)". The band paid tribute to Black Sabbath by recording a cover of "Hand of Doom" for the second of two tribute albums, titled Nativity in Black II . A world tour followed to support the new album, with Slayer making an appearance at the United Kingdom Ozzfest 1998 .During mid-2001, the band joined Morbid Angel , Pantera , Skrape and Static-X on the Extreme Steel Tour of North America, which was Pantera's last major tour. After delays regarding remixing and artwork, including slip covers created to cover the original artwork as it was deemed "too graphic", Slayer's next album, God Hates Us All , was released on September 11, 2001 . The band received its first Grammy nomination for the lead track "Disciple", although the Grammy was awarded to Tool , for " Schism ". The September 11 attacks on America jeopardized the 2001 European tour Tattoo the Planet originally set to feature Pantera, Static-X, Cradle of Filth , Biohazard and Vision of Disorder . The dates in the United Kingdom were postponed due to flight restrictions, with a majority of bands deciding to withdraw, leaving Slayer and Cradle of Filth remaining for the European leg of the tour. Pantera, Static-X, Vision of Disorder and Biohazard were replaced by other bands depending on location; Amorphis , In Flames , Moonspell , Children of Bodom , and Necrodeath . Biohazard eventually decided to rejoin the tour later on, and booked new gigs in the countries, where they missed a few dates. Drummer Bostaph left Slayer before Christmas in 2001, due to a chronic elbow injury, which would hinder his ability to play. Since the band's European tour was unfinished at that time, the band's manager, Rick Sales, contacted original drummer Dave Lombardo and asked if he would like to finish the remainder of the tour. Lombardo accepted the offer, and stayed as a permanent member. Slayer toured playing Reign in Blood in its entirety throughout the fall of 2003, under the tour banner "Still Reigning". Their playing of the final song, " Raining Blood ", culminated with the band drenched in a rain of stage blood. Live footage of this was recorded at the Augusta Civic Center in Augusta, Maine , on July 11, 2004, and released on the 2004 DVD Still Reigning . The band also released War at the Warfield and a box set, Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featuring rarities, live CD and DVD performances and various Slayer merchandise. From 2002 to 2004, the band performed over 250 tour dates, headlining major music festivals including H82k2, Summer tour, Ozzfest 2004 and a European tour with Slipknot . While preparing for the Download Festival in England, Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich was taken to a hospital with an unknown and mysterious illness, and was unable to perform. Metallica vocalist James Hetfield searched for volunteers at the last minute to replace Ulrich; Lombardo and Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison volunteered, with Lombardo performing the songs "Battery" and "The Four Horsemen". The next studio album, Christ Illusion , was originally scheduled for release on June 6, 2006, and would be the first album with original drummer Lombardo since 1990's Seasons in the Abyss . However, the band decided to delay the release of the record, as they did not want to be among the many, according to King, "half-ass, stupid fucking loser bands" releasing records on June 6, although USA Today reported the idea was thwarted because the band failed to secure sufficient studio recording time. Slayer released Eternal Pyre on June 6 as a limited-edition EP . Eternal Pyre featured the song "Cult", a live performance of " War Ensemble " in Germany and video footage of the band recording "Cult". Five thousand copies were released and sold exclusively through Hot Topic chain stores, and sold out within hours of release. On June 30, Nuclear Blast Records released a 7" vinyl picture disc version limited to a thousand copies. Christ Illusion was eventually released on August 8, 2006, and debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200, selling over 62,000 copies in its first week. The album became Slayer's highest charting, improving on its previous highest charting album, Divine Intervention , which had debuted at number 8. However, despite its high positioning, the album dropped to number 44 in the following week. Three weeks after the album's release, Slayer were inducted into the Kerrang! Hall of Fame for their influence to the heavy metal scene. A worldwide tour dubbed The Unholy Alliance Tour , was undertaken to support the new record. The tour was originally set to launch on June 6 in San Diego, but was postponed to June 10, as Araya had to undergo gall bladder surgery. In Flames , Mastodon , Children of Bodom , Lamb of God , and Thine Eyes Bleed (featuring Araya's brother, Johnny) and Ted Maul (London Hammersmith Apollo) were supporting Slayer. The tour made its way through America and Europe and the bands who participated, apart from Thine Eyes Bleed, reunited to perform at Japan 's Loudpark Festival on October 15, 2006. The video for the album's first single, " Eyes of the Insane ", was released on October 30, 2006. The track was featured on the Saw III soundtrack, and won a Grammy-award for " Best Metal Performance " at the 49th Grammy Awards, although the band was unable to attend due to touring obligations. A week later, the band visited the 52nd Services Squadron located on the Spangdahlem U.S. Air Force Base in Germany to meet and play a show. This was the first visit ever to a military base for the band. The band made its first network TV appearance on the show Jimmy Kimmel Live! on January 19, playing the song "Eyes of the Insane", and four additional songs for fans after the show (although footage from " Jihad " was cut due to its controversial lyrical themes). In 2007, Slayer toured Australia and New Zealand in April with Mastodon, and appeared at the Download Festival , Rock Am Ring , and a summer tour with Marilyn Manson and Bleeding Through . In 2008, Araya stated uncertainty about the future of the band, and that he could not see himself continuing the career at a later age. He said that once the band finished its upcoming album, which was the final record in their contract, the band would sit down and discuss its future. King was optimistic that the band would produce at least another two albums before considering to disband: "We're talking of going in the studio next February and getting the next record out so if we do things in a timely manner I don't see there's any reason why we can't have more than one album out." Slayer, along with Trivium , Mastodon , and Amon Amarth , teamed up for a European tour titled 'The Unholy Alliance: Chapter III', throughout October and November 2008. Slayer headlined the second Mayhem Festival in the summer of 2009. Slayer, along with Megadeth , also co-headlined Canadian Carnage, the first time they performed together in more than 15 years when they co-headlined four shows in Canada in late June 2009 with openers Machine Head and Suicide Silence . The band's eleventh studio album, World Painted Blood , was released by American Recordings . It was available on November 3 in North America and November 2 for the rest of the world. The band stated that the album takes elements of all their previous works including Seasons in the Abyss , South of Heaven , and Reign in Blood . Slayer, along with Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Bemowo Airport, in Warsaw , Poland. One of the following Big 4 performances in ( Sofia , Bulgaria, June 22, 2010) was sent via satellite in HD to cinemas. They also went on to play several other dates as part of the Sonisphere Festival. Megadeth and Slayer joined forces once again for the American Carnage Tour from July to October 2010 with opening acts Anthrax and Testament , and European Carnage Tour in March and April 2011. The "Big Four" played more dates at Sonisphere in England and France for the first time ever. Slayer returned to Australia in February and March 2011 as part of the Soundwave Festival and also played in California with the other members of the "Big Four". In early 2011, Hanneman was diagnosed with necrotizing fasciitis . According to the band, doctors said that it likely originated from a spider bite. Araya said of Hanneman's condition: "Jeff was seriously ill. Jeff ended up contracting a bacteria that ate away his flesh on his arm, so they cut open his arm, from his wrist to his shoulder, and they did a skin graft on him, they cleaned up ... It was a flesh-eating virus, so he was really, really bad. So we'll wait for him to get better, and when he's a hundred percent, he's gonna come out and join us." The band decided to play their upcoming tour dates without Hanneman. Gary Holt of Exodus was announced as Hanneman's temporary replacement. Cannibal Corpse guitarist Pat O'Brien filled in for Holt during a tour in Europe. On April 23, 2011, at the American Big 4 show in Indio, California , Hanneman rejoined his bandmates to play the final two songs of their set, "South of Heaven" and "Angel of Death". This turned out to be Hanneman's final live performance with the band. When asked if Slayer would make another album, Lombardo replied "Yes absolutely; Although there's nothing written, there are definitely plans." However, Araya said Slayer would not begin writing a new album until Hanneman's condition improved. To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Reign In Blood , the band performed all of the album's tracks at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival at the Alexandra Palace in London. In November 2011, Lombardo posted a tweet that the band had started to write new music. This presumably meant that Hanneman's condition improved, and it was believed he was ready to enter the studio. King had worked with Lombardo that year and they completed three songs. The band planned on entering the studio in either March or April 2012 and were hoping to have the album recorded before the group's US tour in late May and release it by the summer of that year. However, King said the upcoming album would not be finished until September and October of that year, making a 2013 release likely. In July 2012, King revealed two song titles for the upcoming album, "Chasing Death" and "Implode". In February 2013, Lombardo was fired right before Slayer was to play at Australia's Soundwave festival due to an argument with band members over a pay dispute. Slayer and American Recordings released a statement, saying "Mr. Lombardo came to the band less than a week before their scheduled departure for Australia to present an entirely new set of terms for his engagement that were contrary to those that had been previously agreed upon", although Lombardo claimed there was a gag order in place. Dette returned to fill in for Lombardo for the Soundwave dates. It was confirmed that Lombardo was officially out of Slayer for the third time, and, in May, Bostaph rejoined the band. King said in February 2024 that he had severed ties with Lombardo ever since, adding that "he's dead to me." On May 2, 2013, Hanneman died due to liver failure in a local hospital near his home in Southern California's Inland Empire ; the cause of death was later determined to be alcohol-related cirrhosis . King confirmed that the band would continue, saying "Jeff is going to be in everybody's thoughts for a long time. It's unfortunate you can't keep unfortunate things from happening. But we're going to carry on – and he'll be there in spirit." However, Araya felt more uncertain about the band's future, expressing his belief that "After 30 years [with Hanneman active in the band], it would literally be like starting over", and doubting that Slayer's fanbase would approve such a change. Despite the uncertainty regarding the band's future, Slayer still worked on a followup to World Painted Blood . Additionally, it was reported that the new album would still feature material written by Hanneman. At the 2014 Revolver ' s Golden Gods Awards ceremony, Slayer debuted "Implode", its first new song in five years. The group announced that they had signed with Nuclear Blast , and planned to release a new album in 2015. It was reported that Holt would take over Hanneman's guitar duties full-time, although Holt did not participate in the songwriting. In February, Slayer announced a seventeen date American tour to start in June featuring Suicidal Tendencies and Exodus . In 2015, Slayer headlined the Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival for the second time. Repentless , the band's twelfth studio album, was released on September 11, 2015. Slayer toured for 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 years in support of Repentless . The band toured Europe with Anthrax and Kvelertak in October and November 2015, and embarked on three North American tours: one with Testament and Carcass in February and March 2016, then with Anthrax and Death Angel in September and October 2016, and with Lamb of God and Behemoth in July and August 2017. A lone date in Southeast Asia in 2017 was held in the Philippines. In August 2016, guitarist Kerry King was asked if Slayer would release a follow-up to Repentless . He replied, "We've got lots of leftover material from the last album, 'cause we wrote so much stuff, and we recorded a bunch of it too. If the lyrics don't change the song musically, those songs are done. So we are way ahead of the ballgame without even doing anything for the next record. And I've been working on stuff on my downtime. Like, I'll warm up and a riff will come to mind and I'll record it. I've gotten a handful of those on this run. So wheels are still turning. I haven't worked on anything lyrically yet except for what was done on the last record, so that's something I've gotta get on. But, yeah, Repentless isn't quite a year old yet." King also stated that Slayer was not expected to enter the studio until at least 2018. In an October interview on Hatebreed frontman Jamey Jasta 's podcast, King stated that he was "completely open" to having guitarist Gary Holt (who had no songwriting contributions on Repentless ) involved in the songwriting process of the next Slayer album. He explained, "I'm entirely open to having Gary work on something. I know he's gotta work on an Exodus record and I've got tons already for this one. But, you know, if he's gonna stick around... I didn't want it on the last one, and I knew that. I'm completely open to having that conversation. I haven't talked to Tom about it, I haven't talked to Gary open about it, but I'm open. That's not saying it is or isn't gonna happen. But my ears are open." In a June 2017 interview with the Ultimate Guitar Archive , Holt said that he was ready to contribute with the songwriting for the next album. When speaking to Revolver , King was asked if there were any plans in place for the band to begin working on the album, he said, "Funny thing is, Repentless isn't even two years old yet, though it seems like it is. But from that session, there are six or eight songs that are recorded—some with vocals, some with leads, but all with keeper guitar, drums and bass. So when those songs get finished lyrically, if the lyrics don't change the songs, they'll be ready to be on the next record. So we already have more than half a record complete, if those songs make it." He also gave conceivable consideration that it could be released next year, "I'm certainly not gonna promise it, because every time I do, I make a liar of myself! [Laughs]" When asked about any plans or the timeline the band would like to release the album, King said, "It depends on touring—getting time to rehearse, getting time to make up new stuff. We haven't even done Australia on this run yet at all. We're hitting Japan finally later this year. But if things go well, I'd like to record next year. But timelines change all the time." In an October 2017 interview, Holt once again expressed his desire to contribute to the songwriting for the next Slayer album, saying, "When that time comes and we are ready for the next album, if Kerry wants me to contribute, I've got riffs. I've got stuff right now that I've written that I am not using for Exodus, because it was kind of maybe just unintentional subconscious thing, like, 'It sounds a little too Slayer.'" On January 22, 2018, Slayer announced their farewell world tour through a video featuring a montage of press clippings, early posters and press photos spanning the band's entire career. Although the members of Slayer have never publicly explained why they were retiring, it was thought that one of the reasons behind this decision was Tom Araya 's desire not to tour anymore and to spend more time with his family. This was confirmed by former drummer Dave Lombardo in a 2019 interview, who said: "Apparently, from what I hear. Tom has been wanting to retire when I was in the band — he wanted to stop. He had the neck issues. He's been wanting to retire for a long time now. So now that he's got it, I'm happy for him, and I hope he gets what he wants out of life and his future." The farewell tour began with a North American trek in May and June 2018, supported by Lamb of God , Anthrax , Behemoth and Testament . The second leg of the North American tour took place in July and August, with Napalm Death replacing Behemoth, followed in November and December by a European tour with Lamb of God, Anthrax and Obituary . The farewell tour continued into 2019, with plans to visit places such as South America, Australia and Japan; in addition to European festivals such as Hellfest and Graspop , the band toured the United States in May 2019 with Lamb of God, Amon Amarth and Cannibal Corpse . Slayer also played one show in Mexico at Force Fest in October 2018. On December 2, 2018, Holt announced that he would not perform the remainder of the band's European tour to be with his dying father. Vio-lence and former Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel would fill in for him as a result. Holt had stated that Slayer would not release a new album before the end of the farewell tour. On how long the tour would last, Holt's Exodus bandmate Steve "Zetro" Souza commented, "I'm speculating it's gonna take a year and a half or two years to do the one final thing, but I believe it's finished. Everybody knows what I know; just because I'm on the outside, I have no insight on that." The final North American leg of the tour, dubbed "The Last Campaign", took place in November 2019, and also included support from Primus , Ministry and Philip H. Anselmo & The Illegals . Despite being referred to as a farewell tour for Slayer, their manager Rick Sales has stated that "the band is not breaking up, they made a decision to stop touring. That doesn't mean the end of the band. It's just the end of touring". Kristen Mulderig, who works with Rick Sales Entertainment Group, has also been quoted as saying that there would be Slayer-related activities following the tour's conclusion. However, within two days after the tour's completion, King's wife Ayesha stated on her Instagram page that there is "not a chance in hell" that Slayer would ever reunite to perform more shows or release new music. In March 2020, when talking to Guitar World about his latest endorsement with Dean Guitars , King hinted that he would continue to make music outside of Slayer, simply saying, "Dean didn't sign me for nothing!" King stated in an August 2020 interview on the Dean Guitars YouTube channel that he had "more than two records' worth of music" for his yet-to-be disclosed new project. Bostaph later confirmed that he and King are working on a new project that would "sound like Slayer without it being Slayer — but not intentionally so." This project was later revealed to be King's solo debut album, From Hell I Rise , to be released on May 17, 2024, and the lineup of the album includes King, Bostaph, Death Angel vocalist Mark Osegueda, Hellyeah bassist Kyle Sanders, and former Vio-lence and Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel . In addition to King and Bostaph, the other members of Slayer have remained musically active. Holt continues to record and perform with Exodus , releasing a new album, Persona Non Grata , in 2021. Lombardo has been involved with various acts since his third split with Slayer in 2013, such as Suicidal Tendencies , Dead Cross , the Misfits , Mr. Bungle and Testament , the latter of where he had previously served as the drummer for the band's 1999 album The Gathering and rejoined in March 2022, only to leave again in the following April. Jon Dette has been a member of at least two bands, Animetal USA and Meshiaak, and performed with Anthrax and Volbeat as a fill-in drummer. Araya, aside from an appearance in the Bay Area thrash metal documentary film Murder in the Front Row , had not been publicly active in the music industry nor given any interviews between the conclusion of Slayer's final tour and the band's 2024 reunion. The members of Slayer had expressed mixed opinions about a reunion. When asked by the Let There Be Talk podcast in June 2020 about the possibility of the band ever reforming, Holt stated, "If it does, if it ever happens, it has nothing to do with me. Someone else would call and say, 'We wanna [do this].' To my knowledge, it's done. And I think it should be that way. The band went out fucking on a bang, went out on Slayer's terms, and how many people get to say they did that?". Holt stated in March 2021 that he was open to a potential Slayer reunion, but it was unlikely to happen in the near future: "Look, if the powers that be ever — like, in a year or something — said, 'Hey, you know what? We feel like playing some shows,' I'm there to do it. But those aren't decisions for me to make, or even me to really speculate on. As far as my knowledge, the band is over, and the final show was November 30, 2019. And I'm full speed ahead with Exodus now." In October 2021, King expressed regret that Slayer had retired "too early." While congratulating Machine Head on their 30th anniversary as a band, he said, "Apparently, it's 30 years, which is quite an achievement. Not a lot of bands get there. We did, and then we quit too early. Fuck us. Fuck me. I hate fucking not playing." When interviewed two months later by Metal Hammer , King did not rule out the possibility of any more "Big Four" shows with Metallica , Megadeth and Anthrax, but expressed doubt that a Slayer reunion would ever happen: "The way that I'm moving forward is I don't think Slayer are ever going to play again. There's no business of me playing by myself!" King's wife Ayesha has also ruled out the possibility of a Slayer reunion, insisting that her husband and Araya would "never be Slayer again". In a February 2024 interview with Rolling Stone , King clarified that a reunion of the band was unlikely: "Could Slayer play a show again? I'm sure there's a scenario. Am I looking for it? No, I'm just getting ready to start my career. So if that happens, it happens. But I'm going to be doing this [solo band] for the next 10 years at least." King revealed in the same interview that he has not spoken to Araya since the band's split. Kerry also says that his relationship with Tom is positive, but his relation with that of former drummer Dave Lombardo is estranged. Talking about the Dave Lombardo situation, King said that Dave "was listening to this woman that was his attorney at the time, and she thought we had Metallica money, which we've never had fucking Metallica money. So she's just blowing shit in his ear, and he thinks he should be getting more than he should be getting." On February 21, 2024, Slayer announced that they will play their first show since disbanding in 2019 at Riot Fest on September 22, and their second show five days later at Louder Than Life . The lineup of this reunion is the 2013-2019 lineup of bassist/vocalist Tom Araya , guitarists Kerry King and Gary Holt and drummer Paul Bostaph . They will also headline the first of four nights of the Aftershock Festival in Sacramento on October 10, 2024, and while announcing this show, the band said in a statement, "There's been a lot of excited fans out there about our playing a couple of festival dates, so it's great to be able to add this last one". Slayer is considered a thrash metal band. In an article from December 1986 by the Washington Post , writer Joe Brown described Slayer as speed metal , a genre he defined as "an unholy hybrid of punk rock thrash and heavy metal that attracts an almost all-male teen-age following". Describing Slayer's music, Brown wrote: "Over a jackhammer beat, Slayer's stun guitars created scraping sheets of corrosive metal noise, with occasional solos that sounded like squealing brakes, over which the singer-bassist emitted a larynx-lacerating growl-yowl." In an article from September 1988 by the New York Times , writer Jon Pareles also described Slayer as speed metal, additionally writing that the band "brings the sensational imagery of tabloids and horror movies" and has lyrics that "revel in death, gore and allusions to Satanism and Nazism." Pareles also described other "Big Four" thrash metal bands Metallica and Megadeth as speed metal bands. Slayer's early works were praised for their "breakneck speed and instrumental prowess", combining the structure of hardcore punk tempos and speed metal. The band released fast, aggressive material. The album Reign in Blood is the band's fastest, performed at an average of 220 beats per minute ; the album Diabolus in Musica was the band's first to feature C ♯ tuning; God Hates Us All was the first to feature drop B tuning and seven-string guitars tuned to B ♭ . [ citation needed ] AllMusic cited the album as "abandoning the extravagances and accessibility of their late-'80s/early-'90s work and returning to perfect the raw approach", with some fans labeling it as nu metal . King and Hanneman's dual guitar solos have been referred to as "wildly chaotic", and "twisted genius". Original drummer Lombardo would use two bass drums (instead of a double pedal, which is used on a single bass drum). Lombardo's speed and aggression earned him the title of the "godfather of double bass" by Drummerworld . Lombardo stated his reasons for using two bass drums: "When you hit the bass drum, the head is still resonating. When you hit it in the same place right after that, you kinda get a 'slapback' from the bass drum head hitting the other pedal. You're not letting them breathe." When playing the two bass drums, Lombardo would use the "heel-up" technique . In the original lineup, King, Hanneman and Araya contributed to the band's lyrics, and King and Hanneman wrote the music with additional arrangement from Lombardo, and sometimes Araya. Araya formed a lyric writing partnership with Hanneman, which sometimes overshadowed the creative input of King. Hanneman stated that writing lyrics and music was a "free-for-all": "It's all just whoever comes up with what. Sometimes I'll be more on a roll and I'll have more stuff, same with Kerry – it's whoever's hot, really. Anybody can write anything; if it's good, we use it; if not, we don't." When writing material, the band would write the music first before incorporating lyrics. King or Hanneman used a 24-track and drum machine to show band members the riff that they created, and to get their opinion. Either King, Hanneman or Lombardo would mention if any alterations could be made. The band played the riff to get the basic song structure, and figured out where the lyrics and solos would be placed. Slayer is one of the most influential bands in heavy metal history. Steve Huey of AllMusic believes the musical style of Slayer makes the band stronger than the other members of the "Big Four" thrash metal bands Metallica , Megadeth and Anthrax , all of which rose to fame during the 1980s. Slayer's "downtuned rhythms, infectious guitar licks, graphically violent lyrics and grisly artwork set the standard for dozens of emerging thrash bands" and their "music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal" states MTV , ranking Slayer as the sixth "greatest metal band of all time", ranking number 50 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . Hanneman and King ranked number 10 in Guitar World ' s "100 greatest metal guitarists of all time" in 2004, and were voted "Best Guitarist/Guitar Team" in Revolver 's reader's poll. Original drummer Lombardo was also voted "Best Drummer" and the band entered the top five in the categories "Best Band Ever", "Best Live Band", "Album of the Year" (for Christ Illusion ) and "Band of the Year". Music author Joel McIver considers Slayer very influential in the extreme metal scene, especially in the development of the death metal and black metal subgenres. According to John Consterdine of Terrorizer , without "Slayer's influence, extreme metal as we know it wouldn't exist." Kam Lee of Massacre and former member of Death stated: "there wouldn't be death metal or black metal or even extreme metal (the likes of what it is today) if not for Slayer." Johan Reinholdz of Andromeda said that Slayer "were crucial in the development of thrash metal which then became the foundation for a lot of different subgenres. They inspired generations of metal bands." Alex Skolnick of Testament declared: "Before Slayer, metal had never had such razor-sharp articulation, tightness, and balance between sound and stops. This all-out sonic assault was about the shock, the screams, the drums, and [...] most importantly the riffs." Groups who cited Slayer among their major influences include Cannibal Corpse , Pantera , Kreator , Sepultura , Children of Bodom , Mayhem , Darkthrone , Avenged Sevenfold , Bullet for My Valentine , Trivium , As I Lay Dying , All That Remains , System of a Down , Killswitch Engage , Slipknot , Machine Head , DevilDriver , Lamb of God , Behemoth , Evile and Lacuna Coil . Steve Asheim , drummer for Deicide , declared that "there obviously would not have been a Deicide as we know it without the existence of Slayer." Sepultura guitarist Andreas Kisser affirmed that "without Slayer, Sepultura would never be possible." Weezer mentions them in the song "Heart Songs" from their 2008 self-titled "Red" album . The verse goes: " Iron Maiden , Judas Priest , and Slayer taught me how to shred..." Dave Grohl recalled, "Me and my friends, we just wanted to listen to fucking Slayer and take acid and smash stuff." The band's 1986 release Reign in Blood has been an influence to extreme and thrash metal bands since its release and is considered the record which set the bar for death metal. It had a significant influence on the genre leaders such as Death , Obituary , Cannibal Corpse , Morbid Angel and Napalm Death . The album was hailed the "heaviest album of all time" by Kerrang! , a "genre-definer" by Stylus , and a "stone-cold classic upon its release" by AllMusic . In 2006, Reign in Blood was named the best metal album of the last 20 years by Metal Hammer . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Slayer sold 4,900,000 copies in the United States from 1991 to 2013. A lawsuit was brought against the band in 1996, by the parents of Elyse Pahler , who accused the band of encouraging their daughter's murderers through their lyrics. Pahler was drugged, strangled, stabbed, trampled on, and raped as a sacrifice to the devil by three fans of the band. The case was unsealed by the court on May 19, 2000, stating Slayer and related business markets distribute harmful products to teens, encouraging violent acts through their lyrics, and "none of the vicious crimes committed against Elyse Marie Pahler would have occurred without the intentional marketing strategy of the death-metal band Slayer". The lawsuit was dismissed in 2001, for multiple reasons including "principles of free speech, lack of a duty and lack of foreseeability". A second lawsuit was filed by the parents, an amended complaint for damages against Slayer, their label, and other industry and label entities. The lawsuit was again dismissed. Judge E. Jeffrey Burke stated, "I do not consider Slayer's music obscene, indecent or harmful to minors." Slayer has been accused of holding Nazi sympathies, due to the band's eagle logo bearing resemblance to the Eagle atop swastika and the lyrics of " Angel of Death ". "Angel of Death" was inspired by the acts of Josef Mengele , the doctor who conducted human experiments on prisoners during World War II at the Auschwitz concentration camp , and was dubbed the "Angel of Death" by inmates. Slayer's cover of Minor Threat 's "Guilty of Being White" raised questions about a possible message of white supremacy in the band's music. The controversy surrounding the cover involved the changing of the refrain "guilty of being white" to "guilty of being right", at the song's ending. This incensed Minor Threat frontman Ian MacKaye , who stated "that is so offensive to me". King said it was changed for "tongue-in-cheek" humor as he thought the allegation of racism at the time was "ridiculous". In a 2004 interview with Araya, when asked, "Did critics realize you were wallowing in parody?". Araya replied, "No. People thought we were serious!...back then you had that PMRC , who literally took everything to heart, when in actuality you're trying to create an image. You're trying to scare people on purpose." Araya also denied rumors that Slayer members are Satanists , but they find the subject of Satanism interesting and "we are all on this planet to learn and experience". The song " Jihad " of the album Christ Illusion sparked controversy among families of the September 11 victims. The song deals with the attack from the perspective of a religious terrorist. The band stated the song is spoken through perspective without being sympathetic to the cause, and supports neither side. Seventeen bus benches promoting the same album in Fullerton, California , were deemed offensive by city officials. City officials contacted the band's record label and demanded that the ads be removed. All benches were eliminated. In India, Christ Illusion was recalled by EMI India after protests with Christian religious groups due to the nature of the graphic artwork. The album cover was designed by Slayer's longtime collaborator Larry Carroll and features Christ in a "sea of despair", with amputated arms, missing an eye, while standing in a sea of blood with severed heads. Joseph Dias of the Mumbai Christian group Catholic Secular Forum in India took "strong exception" to the original album artwork, and issued a memorandum to Mumbai's police commissioner in protest. On October 11, 2006, EMI announced that all stocks had been destroyed, noting it had no plans to re-release the record in India in the future. Current lineup Former members Former touring musicians

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Anthrax

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Villa cingulata

Anthrax cingulata Meigen , 1804 Villa cingulata is a Palearctic species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . Afghanistan , Albania , Armenia , Austria , Azerbaijan , Belgium , Bosnia-Hercegovina , Croatia , Czech Republic , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Georgia , Hungary , Iran , Italy (incl. Sardinia , Sicily ), Luxemburg , Macedonia , Moldova , Netherlands , Poland .

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Anthrax

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Anthrax cascadensis

Anthrax cascadensis is a species of bee flies (insects in the family Bombyliidae ). Canada , United States .

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Anthrax

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Chrysanthrax cypris

Chrysanthrax cypris is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . It is a parasitoid of tiphiid wasps . United States.

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Anthrax

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Neil Turbin

Neil Turbin (born December 24, 1963) is an American singer known for being the first full-time vocalist for thrash metal band Anthrax . He is the current lead vocalist and songwriter of heavy metal band DeathRiders and a member of hard rock band Bleed the Hunger. When Turbin was first contacted by Anthrax he was already in a band called AMRA, but left after a few months, which prompted him to answer Anthrax's advertisement. He attended the same high school as Scott Ian and Danny Lilker , Bayside High School in New York City, and was in a class with Ian in his freshman year. Turbin earned the position as the first official band vocalist in August 1982. His first performance with Anthrax was at Great Gildersleeves on September 12, 1982. [ citation needed ] He performed and recorded with the band on the original demo recordings and their first studio album, Fistful of Metal . Turbin wrote the lyrics to all songs on that album (with exception of the cover of Alice Cooper 's "I'm Eighteen"). He also has writing credits on five of the seven songs on the band's Armed and Dangerous EP, as well as two songs on Spreading the Disease , both of which were recorded by third Anthrax vocalist Joey Belladonna , who replaced second Anthrax vocalist Matt Fallon . Turbin's exit from Anthrax came two weeks after the band's first North American tour, "Anthrax US Attack Tour 1984", ending with a show at Roseland Ballroom on August 3. In 2009, the video game Brütal Legend was released, featuring the Anthrax song "Metal Thrashing Mad" on its soundtrack, with Turbin's vocals. Many of the songs Turbin wrote and recorded with the band have been re-recorded with different vocalists and appear on multiple albums and DVDs, including the double-platinum certified The Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria . In 2021, Turbin along with other former members and music elite participated in "Anthrax 40th Anniversary Celebrations", which aired on Anthrax's official YouTube channel on May 3, 2021. DeathRiders is named after one of Turbin's songs and was formed in 2001 to support his debut solo album, Threatcon Delta . Deathriders toured Monterrey Metalfest, Mexico in 2005; Sweden Rock in 2006; Tokyo, Japan, and the US in 2008; Rocktower 2009 Germany; Nightmare on St. Pauli Festival Germany 2009; Headbangers Open Air Germany 2009; and Expo Rock Tijuana 2010. They performed eight shows at the world-famous Whisky a Go Go in Hollywood in 2010. DeathRiders' Stay Screamin 2011 European Tour took them to Metal Bash 2011 in Germany; Highway To Dokk'em Open Air Festival 2011; and other venues throughout Tilburg, Netherlands, Vienna, Austria and Berlin, Germany. DeathRiders were featured alongside Michael Angelo Batio , Faster Pussycat , and Phil Lewis of L.A. Guns at Rainbow Bar & Grill 's 41st anniversary outdoor party on April 21, 2013. They also performed at NAMM Metal Jam at Whisky a Go Go in West Hollywood, California on January 23, 2013, which featured many well-known metal artists including current and past members of Queensrÿche , Dio's Disciples , Racer X and Michael Schenker Group . In 2014, the band toured Europe Headbangers Open Air Brande-Hoernerkirchen, Germany, and the Headbangers Open Air 2014 warm-up show at Lauschbar in Itzehoe, Germany. DeathRiders' Fistful of Metal Alive 2014 European tour included numerous dates in Netherlands including in Dynamo Eindhoven, with an all-Dutch touring lineup. In 2015, the band performed at NAMM Metal Jam and Neil and Michael's Metal Jam, with Michael Angelo Batio joining the band on guitar at The Slidebar in Fullerton, California. DeathRiders featuring Neil Turbin - Vocals, Jonas Hornqvist - Guitar, Richard Svard - Bass, Matt Thompson (King Diamond) - Drums, Andy La Rocque (King Diamond) - Producer released Never Surrender video and single on June 21, 2021 on BandCamp and DeathRidersChannel official Youtube as well as Rayzor Distro. Bleed the Hunger was formed by Turbin and DeathRiders recording guitarist Jonas Hornqvist in January 2015. Neil Turbin East Los formed in 2019 toured in Tijuana, Mexico, played Metal Never Dies Fest 2019 with Toxik and Whiplash, LiveNation Mosh for Slayer Bricks Rock Bar, N.A.M.M. Metal Jam 2020, Turbin's solo thrash band lineup includes: Neil Turbin - Vocals Frank Gastellum - Guitar Dino Gonzalez - Drums Kevin Mayorga - Bass Hugo Garcia - Guitar Screamin Soul Demon Neils Rock N Soul band performed live on mainstream radio stations with Screamin Soul Demon in 2020 on Real Talk With GLove - Florida Man Radio Orlando FM 105.5 / 660 AM and The Answer San Diego FM 96.1 / AM 107.1 Neil Turbin - Vocals, Guitar Erik Stone - Bass Patrick Johansson - Drums Geff Becerill - Keyboards Nate Montalvo - Guitar Sticky Wicked is a side project band that includes Turbin, Rowan Robertson , Jay Singh and Clackers Kay. The band actively toured in California in 2015. Sharyot originally from Brazil, now in Los Angeles is a heavy metal band and they contacted Turbin after he co-wrote and sang backing vocals on two songs on Quiet Riot: Hollywood Cowboys . Turbin was a special guest vocalist featured on the single and video for Stained Heart, produced by Neil Citron. Co-host and music journalist since 2015, Turbin has been on 80+ episodes and interviewed icons of rock, metal and film for The Metal Voice , with Jimmy Kay and Alan Dixon based in Montreal Canada. In 2019, Turbin received an official red carpet induction into the Metal Hall of Fame by Pat Gesualdo, President of the Metal Hall of Fame, at the Bowl for Ronnie charity event, on November 7, 2019, held at Pinz Bowling Center in Studio City, California . In 2020, Turbin offered one-on-one master vocal lessons, Vocal Firepower , online and in-person through vocalfirepower.com One of Neil's early students was Rick Rangel, guitarist/vocalist of Fueled by Fire. Other students included known singers in heavy metal, soul, and pop genres. Turbin was included in a regular lineup rotation at Ultimate Jam Night (now called Soundcheck Live) at Lucky Strike Live Hollywood in February, March, April and May 2015. He performed onstage on a regular weekly basis with Billy Sheehan , Monte Pittman , Chuck Wright , Jason Sutter , Jonathan "Sugarfoot" Moffett, Mitch Perry, Ira Black , Debby Holiday, Reinhold Schwarzwald, Howie Simon, Mayuko Okai, Tzusumi Okai, Rowan Robertson , Francesco DiCosmo , Anthony "Tiny" Biuso , Louis Metoyer, Sam Bam Koltun, Sean McNabb , Jeff Duncan , Shawn Duncan, Matt Duncan , Joe Lester , and The Atomic Punks. In 2003, Turbin released his first solo album, Threatcon Delta , on American record label "Metal Mayhem Music". The album contains 14 songs, including a cover of a Jimi Hendrix song and an AC/DC cover. Prominent guest musicians on the album include Claude Schnell , Jeff Scott Soto , Vernon Anderson , and Paul Shortino . When Turbin was first contacted by Anthrax he was already in a band called AMRA, but left after a few months, which prompted him to answer Anthrax's advertisement. He attended the same high school as Scott Ian and Danny Lilker , Bayside High School in New York City, and was in a class with Ian in his freshman year. Turbin earned the position as the first official band vocalist in August 1982. His first performance with Anthrax was at Great Gildersleeves on September 12, 1982. [ citation needed ] He performed and recorded with the band on the original demo recordings and their first studio album, Fistful of Metal . Turbin wrote the lyrics to all songs on that album (with exception of the cover of Alice Cooper 's "I'm Eighteen"). He also has writing credits on five of the seven songs on the band's Armed and Dangerous EP, as well as two songs on Spreading the Disease , both of which were recorded by third Anthrax vocalist Joey Belladonna , who replaced second Anthrax vocalist Matt Fallon . Turbin's exit from Anthrax came two weeks after the band's first North American tour, "Anthrax US Attack Tour 1984", ending with a show at Roseland Ballroom on August 3. In 2009, the video game Brütal Legend was released, featuring the Anthrax song "Metal Thrashing Mad" on its soundtrack, with Turbin's vocals. Many of the songs Turbin wrote and recorded with the band have been re-recorded with different vocalists and appear on multiple albums and DVDs, including the double-platinum certified The Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria . In 2021, Turbin along with other former members and music elite participated in "Anthrax 40th Anniversary Celebrations", which aired on Anthrax's official YouTube channel on May 3, 2021. DeathRiders is named after one of Turbin's songs and was formed in 2001 to support his debut solo album, Threatcon Delta . Deathriders toured Monterrey Metalfest, Mexico in 2005; Sweden Rock in 2006; Tokyo, Japan, and the US in 2008; Rocktower 2009 Germany; Nightmare on St. Pauli Festival Germany 2009; Headbangers Open Air Germany 2009; and Expo Rock Tijuana 2010. They performed eight shows at the world-famous Whisky a Go Go in Hollywood in 2010. DeathRiders' Stay Screamin 2011 European Tour took them to Metal Bash 2011 in Germany; Highway To Dokk'em Open Air Festival 2011; and other venues throughout Tilburg, Netherlands, Vienna, Austria and Berlin, Germany. DeathRiders were featured alongside Michael Angelo Batio , Faster Pussycat , and Phil Lewis of L.A. Guns at Rainbow Bar & Grill 's 41st anniversary outdoor party on April 21, 2013. They also performed at NAMM Metal Jam at Whisky a Go Go in West Hollywood, California on January 23, 2013, which featured many well-known metal artists including current and past members of Queensrÿche , Dio's Disciples , Racer X and Michael Schenker Group . In 2014, the band toured Europe Headbangers Open Air Brande-Hoernerkirchen, Germany, and the Headbangers Open Air 2014 warm-up show at Lauschbar in Itzehoe, Germany. DeathRiders' Fistful of Metal Alive 2014 European tour included numerous dates in Netherlands including in Dynamo Eindhoven, with an all-Dutch touring lineup. In 2015, the band performed at NAMM Metal Jam and Neil and Michael's Metal Jam, with Michael Angelo Batio joining the band on guitar at The Slidebar in Fullerton, California. DeathRiders featuring Neil Turbin - Vocals, Jonas Hornqvist - Guitar, Richard Svard - Bass, Matt Thompson (King Diamond) - Drums, Andy La Rocque (King Diamond) - Producer released Never Surrender video and single on June 21, 2021 on BandCamp and DeathRidersChannel official Youtube as well as Rayzor Distro. Bleed the Hunger was formed by Turbin and DeathRiders recording guitarist Jonas Hornqvist in January 2015.Neil Turbin East Los formed in 2019 toured in Tijuana, Mexico, played Metal Never Dies Fest 2019 with Toxik and Whiplash, LiveNation Mosh for Slayer Bricks Rock Bar, N.A.M.M. Metal Jam 2020, Turbin's solo thrash band lineup includes: Neil Turbin - Vocals Frank Gastellum - Guitar Dino Gonzalez - Drums Kevin Mayorga - Bass Hugo Garcia - Guitar Screamin Soul Demon Neils Rock N Soul band performed live on mainstream radio stations with Screamin Soul Demon in 2020 on Real Talk With GLove - Florida Man Radio Orlando FM 105.5 / 660 AM and The Answer San Diego FM 96.1 / AM 107.1 Neil Turbin - Vocals, Guitar Erik Stone - Bass Patrick Johansson - Drums Geff Becerill - Keyboards Nate Montalvo - Guitar Sticky Wicked is a side project band that includes Turbin, Rowan Robertson , Jay Singh and Clackers Kay. The band actively toured in California in 2015.Sharyot originally from Brazil, now in Los Angeles is a heavy metal band and they contacted Turbin after he co-wrote and sang backing vocals on two songs on Quiet Riot: Hollywood Cowboys . Turbin was a special guest vocalist featured on the single and video for Stained Heart, produced by Neil Citron.Co-host and music journalist since 2015, Turbin has been on 80+ episodes and interviewed icons of rock, metal and film for The Metal Voice , with Jimmy Kay and Alan Dixon based in Montreal Canada. In 2019, Turbin received an official red carpet induction into the Metal Hall of Fame by Pat Gesualdo, President of the Metal Hall of Fame, at the Bowl for Ronnie charity event, on November 7, 2019, held at Pinz Bowling Center in Studio City, California . In 2020, Turbin offered one-on-one master vocal lessons, Vocal Firepower , online and in-person through vocalfirepower.com One of Neil's early students was Rick Rangel, guitarist/vocalist of Fueled by Fire. Other students included known singers in heavy metal, soul, and pop genres.Turbin was included in a regular lineup rotation at Ultimate Jam Night (now called Soundcheck Live) at Lucky Strike Live Hollywood in February, March, April and May 2015. He performed onstage on a regular weekly basis with Billy Sheehan , Monte Pittman , Chuck Wright , Jason Sutter , Jonathan "Sugarfoot" Moffett, Mitch Perry, Ira Black , Debby Holiday, Reinhold Schwarzwald, Howie Simon, Mayuko Okai, Tzusumi Okai, Rowan Robertson , Francesco DiCosmo , Anthony "Tiny" Biuso , Louis Metoyer, Sam Bam Koltun, Sean McNabb , Jeff Duncan , Shawn Duncan, Matt Duncan , Joe Lester , and The Atomic Punks.In 2003, Turbin released his first solo album, Threatcon Delta , on American record label "Metal Mayhem Music". The album contains 14 songs, including a cover of a Jimi Hendrix song and an AC/DC cover. Prominent guest musicians on the album include Claude Schnell , Jeff Scott Soto , Vernon Anderson , and Paul Shortino . Turbin is known for his high-pitched screams in his natural voice up to C6. He is the only early Big 4 vocalist to sing in this range, as demonstrated on the songs "Death from Above", "Deathrider", and "Metal Thrashing Mad" on Fistful of Metal .Turbin cites heavy metal and NWOBHM vocalists from bands such as Judas Priest , Deep Purple , Black Sabbath , AC/DC , Motörhead , Accept , Riot and Saxon as influences of his vocal style, although he was also heavily influenced by the New York punk scene of the 1970s–1980s including bands such as Generation X, Ramones , Niki Buzz, The Bullets, Vendetta , Mayday , Steve Johnstad, Son , Wayne County & the Electric Chairs , Neon Leon, Walter Lure & The Heartbreakers, The Clash , The Sex Pistols and MC5 . Turbin spent time at the infamous punk club CBGB's and worked at other important punk scene venues Ritz when it first opened and also Max's Kansas City , from 1979 to 1980. He has stated that he favors writing with a neo-classical , rhythm and blues , and soulful hard rock influence. Kuni – Masque (1986) Robby Lochner (1997) – "Still Burning" and "Inside Information" DC to Daylight (1997) – "Still Burning" and "Inside Information" A Tribute to Limp Bizkit (2002) – " Faith " Jack Frost – Out in the Cold (2005) – "Crucifixation" Race Track Rock (antiMUSIC records compilation) (2007) – "Piece of Me" Quiet Riot – Hollywood Cowboys (2019) – "Change or Die", "Insanity" – Frontiers Records THOR – We Fight Forever (2021) – "We Fight Forever" – Cleopatra RecordsKuni – Masque (1986) Robby Lochner (1997) – "Still Burning" and "Inside Information" DC to Daylight (1997) – "Still Burning" and "Inside Information" A Tribute to Limp Bizkit (2002) – " Faith " Jack Frost – Out in the Cold (2005) – "Crucifixation" Race Track Rock (antiMUSIC records compilation) (2007) – "Piece of Me" Quiet Riot – Hollywood Cowboys (2019) – "Change or Die", "Insanity" – Frontiers Records THOR – We Fight Forever (2021) – "We Fight Forever" – Cleopatra Records

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Anthrax larrea

Anthrax larrea is a species of bee flies (insects in the family Bombyliidae ). United States .

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Dan Spitz

Dan Spitz (born January 28, 1963) is an American musician best known for his work as the lead guitarist of the thrash metal band Anthrax from 1983 to 1995 and from 2005 to 2007. Spitz also founded the Christian music group Red Lamb , which was known for lyrics on autism awareness. Spitz has earned Swiss and American degrees in luxury mechanical watchmaking and micro-mechanical engineering, certified as watchmaker instructor for the North American operations of Swiss watch company Chopard . Dan Spitz was an early member of Overkill in 1981 and joined Anthrax in 1983. From 1983 to 1995, he was lead guitarist and backing vocalist on the Anthrax albums Fistful of Metal , Armed and Dangerous , Spreading the Disease , Among the Living , State of Euphoria , Persistence of Time and Sound of White Noise . Anthrax sold more than 30 million albums worldwide during this period. In 1995, Spitz left Anthrax to pursue a career in luxury Swiss watchmaking, attending the Swiss watchmaking school WOSTEP on a full scholarship. He was certified a Mechanical Complications Specialist, earning Swiss degrees in micro-mechanical engineering, and opened his own luxury watch service. In 2012 Spitz was voted the number 1 interview of the year for the watchmaking magazine Hodinkee . In 2016, the production company Great Big Story produced a documentary on Spitz's work as a watchmaker. Spitz reunited with Anthrax for a classic lineup reunion tour in 2005, appearing on the tour DVD Alive 2 . He left the band again in 2007 to return to his watchmaking career. In 2010 Spitz formed a new Christian rock/metal band Red Lamb , which also included singer Don Chaffin from Voices of Extreme and keyboardist Chris Vrenna. Dave Mustaine was an early member but ultimately stepped back into a songwriting role with Spitz. Mustaine and Spitz wrote the song "Puzzle Box" which was claimed to be the first heavy metal song to deal with autism ; the song's video featured Bob and Suzanne Wright, co-founders of Autism Speaks. In 2017, Spitz formed another Christian metal band with former Journey drummer Deen Castronovo . Spitz was born in a small town in Rockland County, New York as the second son of a lawyer and a high school substitute teacher. Spitz comes from an orthodox Levite tribe Jewish family and converted to Christianity / Messianic Judaism in 1993. His older brother, Dave Spitz is also an accomplished heavy metal musician who has been a member of Black Sabbath and Great White . In June 2009, Spitz had a massive heart attack, causing him to undergo an emergency triple bypass. He fully recovered but required stents in many arteries. Spitz was originally known for his use of Jackson Guitars and he collaborated on guitar designs with Grover Jackson . During the Anthrax Reunion tour, Spitz endorsed Paul Reed Smith Guitars , using a custom model with a "Spitz" head stock. In the early days of Anthrax, Spitz used Marshall amplifiers, using one of the first incarnations of a pre JCM800 derived from a collaboration with Jim Marshall. Around the time of "Among the Living," Spitz switched to Mesa/Boogie , using many Mark IIC heads modified by Spitz. During the Anthrax Reunion in 2005–2007, Spitz used Matchless heads and Marshall point-to-point wired 2203 modded heads he hand-built himself that were pushed by a Keeley-modded Boss DS-1 . [ citation needed ]

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Metallica

Metallica is an American heavy metal band. The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by vocalist and guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich , and has been based in San Francisco for most of its career. The band's fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding "big four" bands of thrash metal , alongside Megadeth , Anthrax and Slayer . Metallica's current lineup comprises founding members and primary songwriters Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo . Guitarist Dave Mustaine , who formed Megadeth after being fired from Metallica, and bassists Ron McGovney , Cliff Burton and Jason Newsted are former members of the band. Metallica first found commercial success with the release of its third album, Master of Puppets (1986), which is cited as one of the heaviest metal albums and the band's best work. The band's next album, ...And Justice for All (1988), gave Metallica its first Grammy Award nomination. Its fifth album, Metallica (1991), was a turning point for the band that saw them transition from their thrash roots; it appealed to a more mainstream audience, achieving substantial commercial success and selling more than 16 million copies in the United States to date, making it the best-selling album of the SoundScan era. After experimenting with different genres and directions in subsequent releases, Metallica returned to its thrash metal roots with its ninth album, Death Magnetic (2008), which drew similar praise to that of the band's earlier albums. The band's eleventh and most recent album, 72 Seasons , was released in 2023. In 2000, Metallica led the case against the peer-to-peer file sharing service Napster , in which the band and several other artists filed lawsuits against the service for sharing their copyright-protected material without consent, eventually reaching a settlement. Metallica was the subject of the acclaimed 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster , which documented the troubled production of the band's eighth album, St. Anger (2003), and the internal struggles within the band at the time. In 2009, Metallica was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . The band co-wrote the screenplay for and starred alongside Dane DeHaan in the 2013 concert film Metallica: Through the Never , in which the band performed live against a fictional thriller storyline. Metallica has released eleven studio albums, four live albums (including two performances with the San Francisco Symphony ), twelve video albums, one cover album, two extended plays, 37 singles and 39 music videos. The band has won ten Grammy Awards from 26 nominations and had six consecutive studio albums – from Metallica through Hardwired... to Self-Destruct (2016) – debut at number one on the Billboard 200 . Metallica ranks as one of the most commercially successful bands of all time , having sold more than 125 million albums worldwide as of 2018 [ update ] . Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by magazines such as Rolling Stone , which ranked the band in 61st place on its list of 100 greatest artists of all time . As of 2017 [ update ] , Metallica is the third-best-selling music artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991, selling 58 million albums in the United States. Metallica was formed in Los Angeles in late 1981 when Danish drummer Lars Ulrich placed an advertisement in a Los Angeles newspaper, The Recycler , which read, "Drummer looking for other metal musicians to jam with Tygers of Pan Tang , Diamond Head and Iron Maiden ." Guitarists James Hetfield and Hugh Tanner of Leather Charm answered the advertisement. Although he had not formed a band, Ulrich asked Metal Blade Records founder Brian Slagel if he could record a song for the label's upcoming compilation album, Metal Massacre . Slagel accepted, and Ulrich recruited Hetfield to sing and play rhythm guitar. The band was officially formed on October 28, 1981, five months after Ulrich and Hetfield first met. The band name came from Ulrich's friend Ron Quintana, who was brainstorming names for a fanzine and was considering MetalMania or Metallica . After hearing the two names, Ulrich wanted the latter for his band, so he suggested Quintana use MetalMania instead. Dave Mustaine replied to an advertisement for a lead guitarist; Ulrich and Hetfield recruited him after seeing his expensive guitar equipment. In early 1982, Metallica recorded its first original song, "Hit the Lights", for the Metal Massacre I compilation. Hetfield sang and played both bass and rhythm guitar, while Lars Ulrich played drums and Lloyd Grant was credited with a guitar solo. Metal Massacre I was released on June 14, 1982; early pressings listed the band incorrectly as "Mettallica", angering the band. The song generated word of mouth , and the band played its first live performance on March 14, 1982, at Radio City in Anaheim, California , with newly recruited bassist Ron McGovney . Their first live success came early; they were chosen to open for British heavy metal band Saxon at one gig of their 1982 U.S. tour. This was Metallica's second gig. Metallica recorded its first demo, Power Metal , whose name was inspired by Quintana's early business cards, in early 1982. The term " thrash metal " was coined in February 1984 by Kerrang! journalist Malcolm Dome in reference to Anthrax 's song " Metal Thrashing Mad ". Prior to this, Hetfield referred to Metallica's sound as " power metal ". In late 1982, Ulrich and Hetfield attended a show at the West Hollywood nightclub Whisky a Go Go , which featured bassist Cliff Burton in the band Trauma . The two were "blown away" by Burton's use of a wah-wah pedal and asked him to join Metallica. Hetfield and Mustaine wanted McGovney to leave because they thought he "didn't contribute anything, he just followed." Although Burton initially declined the offer, by the end of the year, he had accepted on the condition that the band move to El Cerrito in the San Francisco Bay Area . Metallica's first live performance with Burton was at the nightclub The Stone in March 1983, and the first recording to feature Burton was the Megaforce demo (1983). Metallica was ready to record their debut album, but when Metal Blade was unable to cover the cost, they began looking for other options. Concert promoter Jonathan "Jonny Z" Zazula , who had heard the demo No Life 'til Leather (1982), offered to broker a record deal between Metallica and New York City –based record labels. After those record labels showed no interest, Zazula borrowed enough money to cover the recording budget and signed Metallica to his own label, Megaforce Records . In May 1983, Metallica traveled to Rochester, New York , to record its debut album, Metal Up Your Ass , which was produced by Paul Curcio. The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983. Exodus guitarist Kirk Hammett replaced Mustaine the same afternoon. Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub in Dover, New Jersey , called The Showplace; the support act was Anthrax's original lineup, which included Dan Lilker and Neil Turbin . This was the first time the two bands performed live together. Mustaine, who went on to form Megadeth , has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett "stole" his job. Mustaine was "pissed off" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine had actually written. In a 1985 interview with Metal Forces , Mustaine said, "It's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on that No Life 'til Leather tape and got voted No. 1 guitarist in your magazine." On Megadeth's debut album, Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! (1985), Mustaine included the song "Mechanix", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled "The Four Horsemen" on Kill 'Em All . Mustaine said he did this to "straighten Metallica up" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar. Because of conflicts with its record label and the distributors' refusal to release an album titled Metal Up Your Ass , the album was renamed Kill 'Em All . It was released on Megaforce Records in the U.S. and on Music for Nations in Europe, and peaked at number 155 on the Billboard 200 in 1986. [lower-alpha 1] Although the album was not initially a financial success, it earned Metallica a growing fan base in the underground metal scene. To support the release, Metallica embarked on the Kill 'Em All for One tour with Raven . In February 1984, Metallica supported Venom on the Seven Dates of Hell tour, during which the bands performed in front of 7,000 people at the Aardschok Festival in Zwolle , Netherlands. Metallica recorded its second studio album, Ride the Lightning , at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen , Denmark, from February to March 1984. It was released in August 1984 and reached number 100 on the Billboard 200. A French printing press mistakenly printed green covers for the album, which are now considered collectors' items. Mustaine received writing credit for "Ride the Lightning" and "The Call of Ktulu". Elektra Records A&R director Michael Alago and co-founder of Q-Prime Management Cliff Burnstein attended a Metallica concert in September 1984; they were impressed with the performance, signed Metallica to Elektra and made the band a client of Q-Prime Management. Metallica's growing success was such that the band's British label, Music for Nations, released " Creeping Death " as a limited-edition single, which sold 40,000 copies as an import in the U.S. Two of the three songs on the record – cover versions of Diamond Head's " Am I Evil? " and Blitzkrieg 's "Blitzkrieg" – appeared on the 1988 Elektra reissue of Kill 'Em All . Metallica embarked on its first major European tour with Tank to an average crowd of 1,300. Returning to the U.S., it embarked on a co-headlining tour with W.A.S.P. and support from Armored Saint . Metallica played its largest show at the Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park , England, on August 17, 1985, with Bon Jovi and Ratt , playing to 70,000 people. At a show in Oakland, California , at the Day on the Green festival, the band played to a crowd of 60,000. Metallica's third studio album, Master of Puppets , was recorded at Sweet Silence Studios from September to December 1985 and released in March 1986. The album reached number 29 on the Billboard 200 and spent 72 weeks on the chart. It was the band's first album to be certified Gold on November 4, 1986, and was certified six times Platinum in 2003. Steve Huey of AllMusic considered the album "the band's greatest achievement". Following the release of the album, Metallica supported Ozzy Osbourne on a U.S. tour. Hetfield broke his wrist while skateboarding; he continued with the tour, performing vocals, with guitar technician John Marshall playing rhythm guitar. On September 27, 1986, during the European leg of Metallica's Damage, Inc. Tour , members drew cards to determine which bunks on the tour bus they would sleep in. Burton won and chose to sleep in Hammett's bunk. At around sunrise near Dörarp , Sweden, the bus driver lost control and skidded, which caused the bus to overturn several times. Ulrich, Hammett and Hetfield sustained no serious injuries; however, Burton was pinned under the bus and died. Hetfield said: I saw the bus lying right on him. I saw his legs sticking out. I freaked. The bus driver, I recall, was trying to yank the blanket out from under him to use for other people. I just went, "Don't fucking do that!" I already wanted to kill the [bus driver]. I don't know if he was drunk or if he hit some ice. All I knew was, he was driving and Cliff wasn't alive anymore. Burton's death left Metallica's future in doubt. The three remaining members decided Burton would want them to carry on, and with the Burton family's blessings, the band sought a replacement. Roughly 40 people – including Hammett's childhood friend, Les Claypool of Primus ; Troy Gregory of Prong ; and Jason Newsted , formerly of Flotsam and Jetsam – auditioned for the band to fill Burton's spot. Newsted learned Metallica's entire setlist; after the audition, Metallica invited him to Tommy's Joynt in San Francisco. Hetfield, Ulrich and Hammett decided on Newsted as Burton's replacement; his first live performance with Metallica was at the Country Club in Reseda, California . The members initiated Newsted by tricking him into eating a ball of wasabi . The band finished its tour in February 1987. After Newsted joined Metallica, the band left their El Cerrito practice space – a suburban house formerly rented by sound engineer Mark Whitaker and dubbed "the Metalli-mansion" – and relocated to the adjacent cities of Berkeley and Albany before eventually settling in the Marin County city of San Rafael , north of San Francisco. In March 1987, Hetfield again broke his wrist while skateboarding, forcing the band to cancel an appearance on Saturday Night Live . In August 1987, an all-covers extended play (EP), titled The $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited , was released. The EP was recorded in an effort to use the band's newly constructed recording studio, test Newsted's talents, and to relieve grief and stress following the death of Burton. A video titled Cliff 'Em All commemorating Burton's three years in Metallica was released in 1987; the video included bass solos, home videos and pictures. Metallica's first studio album since Burton's death, ...And Justice for All , was recorded from January to May 1988 and released in September. The album was a commercial success, reaching number 6 on the Billboard 200, and was the band's first album to enter the top 10. The album was certified Platinum nine weeks after its release. There were complaints about the production, however; Steve Huey of AllMusic said Ulrich's drums were clicking more than thudding, and the guitars "buzz thinly". To promote the album, Metallica embarked on a tour called Damaged Justice . In 1989, Metallica received its first Grammy Award nomination for ...And Justice for All in the new Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance Vocal or Instrument category. Metallica was the favorite to win, but the award was given to Jethro Tull for the album Crest of a Knave . The award was controversial with fans and the press; Metallica was standing off-stage waiting to receive the award after performing the song " One ". Jethro Tull had been advised by its manager not to attend the ceremony because he was expecting Metallica to win. The award was named in Entertainment Weekly ' s "Grammy's 10 Biggest Upsets" list. Following the release of ...And Justice for All , Metallica released its debut music video for the song "One", which the band performed in an abandoned warehouse. The footage was remixed with the film Johnny Got His Gun . Rather than organize an ongoing licensing deal, Metallica purchased the rights to the film. The remixed video was submitted to MTV with an alternative, performance-only version that was held back in case MTV banned the remixed version. MTV accepted the remixed version; the video was viewers' first exposure to Metallica. In 1999, it was voted number 38 in MTV's "Top 100 Videos of All Time" countdown and was featured on the network's 25th-anniversary edition of ADD Video , which showcased the most popular videos on MTV in the last 25 years. In October 1990, Metallica entered One on One Recording's studio in North Hollywood to record its next album. Bob Rock , who had worked with Aerosmith , The Cult , Bon Jovi and Mötley Crüe , was hired as the producer. Metallica – also known as The Black Album – was remixed three times, cost US$1 million, and ended Hammett and Ulrich's marriages. [ citation needed ] Although the release was delayed until 1991, Metallica debuted at number one in 10 countries, selling 650,000 units in the U.S. during its first week. The album brought Metallica mainstream attention; it has been certified 16 times Platinum in the U.S., which makes it the 25th-best-selling album in the country. The making of Metallica and the following tour was documented in A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica . The tour in support of the album, called the Wherever We May Roam Tour , lasted 14 months and included dates in the U.S., Japan and the U.K. In September 1991, 1.6 million rock music fans converged in Moscow to enjoy the first open-air rock concert to be held in the former Soviet Union ; it was part of the Monsters of Rock series. However, in a June 2020 interview, Lars estimated the attendance at about a half million during their time slot. In April 1992, Metallica appeared at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert and performed a three-song set. Hetfield later performed " Stone Cold Crazy " with the remaining members of Queen and Tony Iommi . On August 8, 1992, during the co-headlining Guns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tour at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal , Hetfield suffered second- and third-degree burns to his arms, face, hands and legs. There had been some confusion with the new pyrotechnics setup, which resulted in Hetfield walking into a 12-foot (3.7 m) flame during "Fade to Black". Newsted said Hetfield's skin was "bubbling like on The Toxic Avenger ". Metallica returned to the stage 17 days later with guitar technician and Metal Church member John Marshall replacing Hetfield on guitar for the remainder of the tour, although Hetfield was able to sing. Later in 1993, Metallica went on the Nowhere Else to Roam Tour, playing five shows in Mexico City . Live Shit: Binge & Purge , the band's first box set, was released in November 1993. The collection contains three live CDs, three home videos, and a book filled with riders and letters. After almost three years of touring to promote Metallica , including a headlining performance at Woodstock '94 , Metallica returned to the studio to write and record its sixth studio album. The band went on a brief hiatus in the summer of 1995 and played a short tour, Escape from the Studio '95, which comprised three outdoor shows, including a headline show at Donington Park supported by Slayer , Skid Row , Slash's Snakepit , Therapy? and Corrosion of Conformity . The band spent about a year writing and recording new songs, resulting in the release of Load in 1996. Load debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and ARIA Charts ; it was the band's second number one album. The cover art, Blood and Semen III , was created by Andres Serrano , who pressed a mixture of his own semen and blood between sheets of plexiglass. The release marked another change in the band's musical direction and a new image; the band members' hair was cut. Metallica headlined the alternative rock festival Lollapalooza festival in mid-1996. During early production of the album, the band had recorded enough material to fill a double album. It was decided that half of the songs were to be released; the band would continue to work on the remaining songs and release them the following year. This resulted in follow-up album, titled Reload . The cover art was again created by Serrano, this time using a mixture of blood and urine. Reload , too, debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and reached number two on the Top Canadian Album chart. Hetfield said in the 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster that the band initially thought some of the songs on these albums were of average quality; these were "polished and reworked" until judged releasable. To promote Reload , Metallica performed " Fuel " and " The Memory Remains " with Marianne Faithfull on NBC 's Saturday Night Live in December 1997. In 1998, Metallica compiled a double album of cover songs, titled Garage Inc. The first disc contained newly recorded covers of songs by Diamond Head , Killing Joke , the Misfits , Thin Lizzy , Mercyful Fate , Black Sabbath and others, and the second disc featured the original version of The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited , which had become a scarce collectors' item. The album entered the Billboard 200 at number two. On April 21 and 22, 1999, Metallica recorded two performances with the San Francisco Symphony , which was conducted by Michael Kamen , who had previously worked with producer Rock on " Nothing Else Matters ". Kamen approached Metallica in 1991 with the idea of pairing the band's music with a symphony orchestra. Kamen and his staff of over 100 composed additional orchestral material for Metallica songs. Metallica wrote two new Kamen-scored songs for the event: " No Leaf Clover " and "-Human". The audio recording and concert footage were released in 1999 as the album and concert film S&M . It entered the Billboard 200 at number two and the Australian ARIA charts and Top Internet Albums chart at number one. In 2000, Metallica discovered that a demo of its song " I Disappear ", which was supposed to be released in combination with the Mission: Impossible II soundtrack , was receiving radio airplay. Tracing the source of the leak, the band found the file on the Napster peer-to-peer file-sharing network and also found that the band's entire catalogue was freely available. Metallica filed a lawsuit at the U.S. District Court , Central District of California , alleging that Napster violated three areas of the law: copyright infringement , unlawful use of digital audio interface device and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO). Ulrich provided a statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee regarding copyright infringement on July 11, 2000. Federal Judge Marilyn Hall Patel ordered the site to place a filter on the program within 72 hours or be shut down. A settlement between Metallica and Napster was reached when German media conglomerate Bertelsmann BMG showed interest in purchasing the rights to Napster for $94 million. Under the terms of settlement, Napster agreed to block users who shared music by artists who do not want their music shared. On June 3, 2002, Napster filed for Chapter 11 protection under U.S. bankruptcy laws. On September 3, 2002, an American bankruptcy judge blocked the sale of Napster to Bertelsmann and forced Napster to liquidate its assets, according to Chapter 7 of the U.S. bankruptcy laws. At the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards , Ulrich appeared with host Marlon Wayans in a skit that criticized the idea of using Napster to share music. Wayans played a college student listening to Metallica's "I Disappear". Ulrich walked in and asked for an explanation, and he responded to Wayans' excuse that using Napster was just "sharing" by saying that Wayans' idea of sharing was "borrowing things that were not yours without asking." He called in the Metallica road crew, who proceeded to confiscate all of Wayans' belongings, leaving him almost naked in an empty room. Napster creator Shawn Fanning responded later in the ceremony by presenting an award wearing a Metallica shirt that read: "I borrowed this shirt from a friend. Maybe, if I like it, I'll buy one of my own." Ulrich was later booed on stage at the award show when he introduced the final musical act, Blink-182 . Newsted left Metallica on January 17, 2001, just as plans were being made to enter the recording studio. He said he left the band for "private and personal reasons, and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love." During a Playboy interview with Metallica, Newsted said he wanted to release an album with his side project , Echobrain . Hetfield was opposed to the idea and said, "When someone does a side project, it takes away from the strength of Metallica" and that a side project is "like cheating on your wife in a way." Newsted said Hetfield had recorded vocals for a song used in the film South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut , and appeared on two Corrosion of Conformity albums. Hetfield replied: "My name isn't on those records. And I'm not out trying to sell them" and raised questions such as, "Where would it end? Does he start touring with it? Does he sell shirts? Is it his band?" In April 2001, filmmakers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky began following Metallica to document the recording process of the band's next studio album. Over two years they recorded more than 1,000 hours of footage. On July 19, 2001, before preparations to enter the recording studio, Hetfield entered rehab to treat his "alcoholism and other addictions". All recording plans were put on hold and the band's future was in doubt. Hetfield left rehab on December 4, 2001, and the band returned to the recording studio on April 12, 2002. Hetfield was required to limit his work to four hours a day between noon and 4 pm, and to spend the rest of his time with his family. The footage recorded by Berlinger and Sinofsky was compiled into the documentary Metallica: Some Kind of Monster , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2004. In the documentary, Newsted said his former bandmates' decision to hire a therapist to help solve their problems which he felt they could have solved on their own was "really fucking lame and weak". In June 2003, Metallica's eighth studio album, St. Anger , debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, and drew mixed reactions from critics. Ulrich's "steely" sounding snare drum and the absence of guitar solos received particular criticism. Kevin Forest Moreau of Shakingthrough.net said, "the guitars stumble in a monotone of mid-level, processed rattle; the drums don't propel as much as struggle to disguise an all-too-turgid pace; and the rage is both unfocused and leavened with too much narcissistic navel-gazing". Brent DiCrescenzo of Pitchfork described it as "an utter mess". However, Blender magazine called it the "grimiest and grimmest of the band's Bob Rock productions", and New York Magazine called it "utterly raw and rocking". The title track, " St. Anger ", won the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 2004; it was used as the official theme song for WWE 's SummerSlam 2003 . For the duration of St. Anger ' s recording period, producer Bob Rock played bass on the album and in several live shows at which Metallica performed during that time. Once the record was completed, the band started to hold auditions for Newsted's permanent replacement. Bassists Pepper Keenan , Jeordie White , Scott Reeder , Eric Avery , Danny Lohner , and Chris Wyse — among others — auditioned for the role. After three months of auditions, Robert Trujillo , formerly of Suicidal Tendencies and Ozzy Osbourne's band, was chosen as the new bassist. Newsted, who had joined Canadian thrash metal band Voivod by that time, was Trujillo's replacement in Osbourne's band during the 2003 Ozzfest tour, which included Voivod. Before the band's set at the 2004 Download Festival , Ulrich was rushed to the hospital after having an anxiety seizure and was unable to perform. Hetfield searched for last-minute volunteers to replace Ulrich. Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo and Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison volunteered. Lombardo performed "Battery" and "The Four Horsemen", Ulrich's drum technician Flemming Larsen performed "Fade to Black", and Jordison performed the remainder of the set. Having toured for two years in support of St. Anger on the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 and the Madly in Anger with the World Tour , with multi-platinum rock band Godsmack in support, Metallica took a break from performing and spent most of 2005 with friends and family. The band opened for The Rolling Stones at SBC Park in San Francisco on November 13 and 15, 2005. In February 2006, Metallica announced on its official website that after 15 years, long-time producer Bob Rock would not be producing the band's next studio album. Instead, the band chose to work with producer Rick Rubin . Around the same time, a petition signed by 1,500 fans was posted online in an attempt to encourage the band to prohibit Rock from producing Metallica albums, saying he had too much influence on the band's sound and musical direction. Rock said the petition hurt his children's feelings; he said, "sometimes, even with a great coach, a team keeps losing. You have to get new blood in there." In December 2006, Metallica released a DVD titled The Videos 1989–2004 , which sold 28,000 copies in its first week and entered the Billboard Top Videos chart at number three. Metallica recorded a guitar-based interpretation of Ennio Morricone 's " The Ecstasy of Gold " for a tribute album titled We All Love Ennio Morricone , which was released in February 2007. The track received a Grammy nomination at the 50th Grammy Awards for the category " Best Rock Instrumental Performance ". A recording of "The Ecstasy of Gold" has been played to introduce Metallica's performances since the 1980s. Metallica scheduled the release of the album Death Magnetic as September 12, 2008, and the band filmed a music video for the album's first single, " The Day That Never Comes ". On September 2, 2008, a record store in France began selling copies of Death Magnetic nearly two weeks before its scheduled worldwide release date, which resulted in the album being made available on peer-to-peer clients. This prompted the band's UK distributor Vertigo Records to officially release the album on September 10, 2008. Rumors of Metallica or Warner Bros. taking legal action against the French retailer were unconfirmed, though drummer Lars Ulrich responded to the leak by saying, "...We're ten days from release. I mean, from here, we're golden. If this thing leaks all over the world today or tomorrow, happy days. Happy days. Trust me", and, "By 2008 standards, that's a victory. If you'd told me six months ago that our record wouldn't leak until 10 days out, I would have signed up for that." Death Magnetic debuted at number one in the U.S., selling 490,000 units; Metallica became the first band to have five consecutive studio albums debut at number one in the history of the Billboard 200. A week after its release, Death Magnetic remained at number one on the Billboard 200 and the European album chart; it also became the fastest selling album of 2008 in Australia. Death Magnetic remained at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart for three consecutive weeks. Metallica was one of two artists whose album — the other being Jack Johnson 's album Sleep Through the Static — remained on the Billboard 200 for three consecutive weeks at number one in 2008. Death Magnetic also remained at number one on Billboard ' s Hard Rock, Modern Rock/Alternative and Rock album charts for five consecutive weeks. The album reached number one in 32 countries outside the U.S., including the UK, Canada, and Australia. In November 2008, Metallica's record deal with Warner Bros. ended and the band considered releasing its next album through the internet. On January 14, 2009, it was announced that Metallica would be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on April 4, 2009, and that former bassist Jason Newsted — who left the band in 2001 — would perform with the band at the ceremony. Initially, it was announced that the matter had been discussed and that bassist Trujillo had agreed not to play because he "wanted to see the Black Album band". However, during the band's set of "Master of Puppets" and "Enter Sandman", both Trujillo and Newsted were on stage. Ray Burton, father of the late Cliff Burton, accepted the honor on his behalf. Although he was not to be inducted with them, Metallica invited Dave Mustaine to take part in the induction ceremony. Mustaine declined because of his touring commitments in Europe. Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Warsaw Babice Airport , Poland, as a part of the Sonisphere Festival series. The show in Sofia, Bulgaria, on June 22, 2010, was broadcast via satellite to cinemas. The bands also played concerts in Bucharest on June 26, 2010, and Istanbul on June 27, 2010. On June 28, 2010, Death Magnetic was certified double platinum by the RIAA . Metallica's World Magnetic Tour ended in Melbourne on November 21, 2010. The band had been touring for more than two years in support of Death Magnetic . To accompany the final tour dates in Australia and New Zealand, a live, limited edition EP of past performances in Australia called Six Feet Down Under was released. The EP was followed by Six Feet Down Under (Part II) , which was released on November 12, 2010. Part 2 contains a further eight songs recorded during the first two Oceanic Legs of the World Magnetic Tour. On November 26, 2010, Metallica released a live EP titled Live at Grimey's , which was recorded in June 2008 at Grimey's Record Store, just before the band's appearance at Bonnaroo Music Festival that year. In a June 2009 interview with Italy's Rock TV, Ulrich said Metallica was planning to continue touring until August 2010, and that there were no plans for a tenth album. He said he was sure the band would collaborate with producer Rick Rubin again. According to Blabbermouth.net , the band was considering recording its next album in the second half of 2011. In November 2010, during an interview with The Pulse of Radio, Ulrich said Metallica would return to writing in 2011. Ulrich said, "There's a bunch of balls in the air for 2011, but I think the main one is we really want to get back to writing again. We haven't really written since, what, '06, '07, and we want to get back to kind of just being creative again. Right now we are going to just chill out and then probably start up again in, I'd say, March or April, and start probably putting the creative cap back on and start writing some songs." On November 9, 2010, Metallica announced it would be headlining the Rock in Rio festival in Rio de Janeiro on September 25, 2011. On December 13, 2010, the band announced it would again play as part of the "big four" during the Sonisphere Festival at Knebworth House , Hertfordshire, on July 8, 2011. It was the first time all of the "big four" members played on the same stage in the UK. On December 17, 2010, Another "big four" Sonisphere performance that would take place in France on July 9 was announced. On January 25, 2011, another "big four" performance on April 23, 2011, at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California , was announced. It was the first time all of the "big four" members played on the same stage in the U.S. On February 17, 2011, a show in Gelsenkirchen , Germany, on July 2, 2011, was announced. On February 22, a "big four" show in Milan on July 6, 2011, was announced. On March 2, 2011, another "big four" concert, which took place in Gothenburg on July 3, 2011, was announced. The final "big four" concert was in New York City, at Yankee Stadium, on September 14, 2011. In an interview at the April 2011 Big Four concert, Robert Trujillo said Metallica will work with Rick Rubin again as producer for the new album and were "really excited to write some new music. There's no shortage of riffage in Metallica world right now." He added, "The first album with Rick was also the first album for me, so in a lot of ways, you're kind of testing the water. Now that we're comfortable with Rick and his incredible engineer, Greg Fidelman , who worked with Slayer, actually, on this last record — it's my hero — it's a great team. And it's only gonna better; I really believe that. So I'm super-excited." In June 2011, Rubin said Metallica had begun writing its new album. On June 15, 2011, Metallica announced that recording sessions with singer-songwriter Lou Reed had concluded. The album, which was titled Lulu , was recorded over several months and comprised ten songs based on Frank Wedekind 's "Lulu" plays Earth Spirit and Pandora's Box . The album was released on October 31, 2011. The recording of the album was problematic at times; Lars Ulrich later said Lou Reed challenged him to a "street fight". On October 16, 2011, Robert Trujillo confirmed that the band was back in the studio and writing new material. He said, "The writing process for the new Metallica album has begun. We've been in the studio with Rick Rubin, working on a couple of things, and we're going to be recording during the most of next year." Metallica was due to make its first appearance in India at the "India Rocks" concert, supporting the 2011 Indian Grand Prix . However, the concert was canceled when the venue was proven to be unsafe. Fans raided the stage during the event and the organizers were later arrested for fraud. Metallica made its Indian debut in Bangalore on October 30, 2011. On November 10, it was announced that Metallica would headline the main stage on Saturday June 9, 2012, at the Download Festival at Donington Park and that the band would play The Black Album in its entirety. Metallica celebrated its 30th anniversary by playing four shows at the Fillmore in San Francisco in December 2011. The shows were exclusive to Met Club members and tickets were charged at $6 each or $19.81 for all four nights. The shows consisted of songs from the band's career and featured guest appearances by artists who had either helped or had influenced Metallica. These shows were notable because Lloyd Grant, Dave Mustaine, Jason Newsted, Glenn Danzig , Ozzy Osbourne, Jerry Cantrell , Apocalyptica , members of Diamond Head, and King Diamond joined Metallica on stage for all appropriate songs. In December 2011, Metallica began releasing songs that were written for Death Magnetic but were not included on the album online. On December 13, 2011, the band released Beyond Magnetic , a digital EP release exclusively on iTunes . It was released on CD in January 2012. On February 7, 2012, Metallica announced that it would start a new music festival called Orion Music + More , which took place on June 23 and 24, 2012, in Atlantic City. Metallica also confirmed that it would headline the festival on both days and would perform two of its most critically acclaimed albums in their entirety: The Black Album on one night, and Ride the Lightning on the other. In a July 2012 interview with Canadian radio station 99.3 The Fox , Ulrich said Metallica would not release its new album until at least early 2014. In November 2012, Metallica left Warner Bros. Records and launched an independent record label , Blackened Recordings , which will produce the band's future releases. The band acquired the rights to all of its studio albums, which were all reissued through the new label. Blackened releases were licensed through Warner subsidiary Rhino Entertainment in North America and internationally through Universal Music . On September 20, 2012, Metallica announced via its official website that a new DVD containing footage of shows it performed in Quebec in 2009 would be released that December; fans would get the chance to vote for two setlists that would appear on the DVD. The film, titled Quebec Magnetic , was released in the U.S. on December 10, 2012. In an interview with Classic Rock on January 8, 2013, Ulrich said regarding the band's upcoming album, "What we're doing now certainly sounds like a continuation [of Death Magnetic ]". He also said, "I love Rick [Rubin]. We all love Rick. We're in touch with Rick constantly. We'll see where it goes. It would stun me if the record came out in 2013." Also in 2013, the band starred in a 3D concert film titled Metallica: Through the Never , which was directed by Antal Nimród and was released in IMAX theaters on September 27. In an interview dated July 22, 2013, Ulrich told Ultimate Guitar , "2014 will be all about making a new Metallica record"; he said the album will most likely be released during 2015. Kirk Hammett and Robert Trujillo later confirmed the band's intention to enter the studio. At the second Orion Music + More festival held in Detroit, the band played under the name "Dehaan" — a reference to actor Dane DeHaan , who starred in Metallica: Through the Never . The band performed its debut album Kill 'Em All in its entirety, celebrating the 30th anniversary of its release. On December 8, 2013, the band played a show called "Freeze 'Em All" in Antarctica, becoming the first band to play on all seven continents. The performance was filmed and released as a live album the same month. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in January 2014, Metallica performed "One" with Chinese pianist Lang Lang . In March 2014, Metallica began a tour called "Metallica By Request", in which fans request songs for the band to perform. A new song, titled "Lords of Summer" was written for the concerts and released as a "first take" demo in June 2014. In June 2014, the band headlined the Glastonbury Festival in an attempt to attract new fans. Ulrich said, "We have one shot, you never know if you'll be invited back". In November 2014, Metallica performed at the closing ceremony of BlizzCon 2014 . In January 2015, Metallica announced a "Metallica Night" with the San Jose Sharks , which featured a Q&A session with the band and a charity auction benefiting the San Francisco Bay Chapter of the Sierra Club, but no performances. They were announced to headline Lollapalooza in March 2015, returning to perform there for the first time in 20 years. On May 2, 2015, Metallica performed their third annual Metallica Day at AT&T Park . Metallica were also announced to play at X Games for the first time at X Games Austin 2015 in Austin, Texas. On June 14, 2015, Hetfield and Hammett performed The Star-Spangled Banner live via electric guitars prior to game 5 of the NBA Finals between the Cleveland Cavaliers and Golden State Warriors at Oracle Arena in Oakland, California . In late October, the band unveiled a new website with an introduction from Ulrich containing footage from the studio of the band working on new material. On November 2, Metallica were announced to play "The Night Before" Super Bowl 50 at AT&T Park. Metallica announced they would be opening the U.S. Bank Stadium on August 20, 2016, with Avenged Sevenfold and Volbeat as support. In April 2016, during the week leading up to Record Store Day , for which the band was its ambassador for 2016, Ulrich told Billboard that the band's expanded role within the music industry had played a part in the amount of time that it had taken to write and record the album. "The way we do things now is very different than the way we did things back in the days of Kill 'Em All and Ride the Lightning . Nowadays we like to do so many different things." Ulrich was also optimistic that production of the album had almost reached its completion. "Unless something radical happens it would be difficult for me to believe that it won't come out in 2016". On August 18, 2016, the band announced via their website that their tenth studio album, Hardwired... to Self-Destruct , would be released worldwide on November 18, 2016, via their independent label, Blackened Recordings. They also unveiled the track listing, album artwork, and released a music video for the album's first single, "Hardwired". The album was released as scheduled and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . Metallica announced they would be touring the US and Canada in summer of 2017 for the WorldWired Tour . The stadium tour also includes Avenged Sevenfold, Volbeat and Gojira as supporting acts. On August 7, 2017, Metallica was invited by the San Francisco Giants again for the fifth annual "Metallica Night" with Hammett and Hetfield performing the national anthem. In January 2018, the band announced that they would be reissuing The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited on April 13 for Record Store Day , and the sixth annual "Metallica Night" was also announced a few weeks later, this time in April, with all proceeds going to the All Within My Hands Foundation, which the band created in late 2017. In February 2018, the band announced a second set of North American tour dates, most of which for cities that they had not visited in up to thirty years. In an interview with Australian magazine The Music ' s official podcast in March 2019, Trujillo said that Metallica had begun jamming on new material for its next studio album. "I'm excited about the next record because I believe it will also be a culmination of the two [previous] records and another journey. There's no shortage of original ideas, that's the beauty of being in this band." He estimated that the album would be released "a lot sooner than the previous two did... this time around I think we'll be able to jump on it a lot quicker and jump in the studio and start working. We've all vowed to get this one going sooner than later." In an interview with Australian magazine Mixdown the following month, Hammett said that the band had tentative plans to enter the studio after the conclusion of its WorldWired Tour. He stated, "We're in our third year since Hardwired . Maybe we can get a bit more focus and go into the studio a bit sooner." After not contributing any writing to Hardwired... to Self-Destruct , Hammett said regarding his ideas for the new album, "I have a ton of material. I've over-compensated, so I'm ready to go anytime." In March 2019, Metallica announced that its WorldWired Tour would continue into Australia and New Zealand in October with Slipknot in support. Later that month, the band announced that it would perform at the grand opening of San Francisco's new Chase Center with the San Francisco Symphony in September to celebrate the twenty-year anniversary of S&M . The commemorative shows, titled S&M2 , were screened in more than 3,000 theaters worldwide on October 9; the event featured arrangements from the original S&M concerts as well as new arrangements for songs recorded since then and a cover of the Alexander Mosolov piece Iron Foundry , and were conducted by Edwin Outwater and San Francisco Symphony music director Michael Tilson Thomas . S&M2 went on to earn $5.5 million at the box office, making it the biggest global rock event cinema release of all time; a second screening was later announced for October 30 as a result. In August 2020, the band announced that they would release the S&M2 performances as an album, DVD and box set. In July 2019, Metallica announced a set of South American tour dates for April 2020 with Greta Van Fleet in support. In September, ahead of that year's Global Citizen Festival , it was announced that Metallica would perform at the following year's festival in September 2020 alongside artists such as Billie Eilish , Miley Cyrus and Coldplay , in what would be the final event of Global Poverty Project 's year-long Global Goal Live: The Possible Dream campaign. The following day, on September 27, Metallica announced that Hetfield had re-entered a rehabilitation program and that its Australia/New Zealand tour would be postponed. In a statement by Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo, the band spoke of the devastation of the news, saying that Hetfield "[had] been struggling with addiction on and off for many years" and that all tickets would be fully refunded. Ulrich later added that Hetfield was "in the process of healing himself", and that the band hoped to return to Australia and New Zealand in 2020. The band's other commitments, including a benefit concert in March 2020, were still expected to continue as planned; a further five US festival appearances were announced in October. These shows were later postponed or cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and to support Hetfield's recovery. In March 2020, the band began a series on YouTube and Facebook called #MetallicaMondays , where they streamed full archived shows every Monday to relieve boredom while staying home and social distancing amid the pandemic. In May 2020, while in quarantine, Metallica performed a virtual acoustic version of "Blackened", titled "Blackened 2020", which was later made available for download. In an interview with Marc Benioff in April 2020, Ulrich stated that Metallica could work on its next studio album while in quarantine. Trujillo told The Vinyl Guide in June that the band was "excited about cultivating new ideas" for its new album. "We communicate every week, which is really great, so we have our connection intact [...] what we've started doing is basically just really concentrating on our home studios and being creative from our homes and navigating through ideas and building on new ideas. And that's where we're at right now". He also said that the band was working towards eventually entering a studio to record the album. On August 10, 2020, Metallica played a show at Gundlach-Bundschu Winery in Sonoma, California , which was only attended by a few crew members, and it was recorded and played for drive-in movies across the U.S. and Canada on August 29. In May 2021, the band announced that they would do one more #MetallicaMondays on May 24 to benefit their All Within My Hands Foundation. The concert dates to September 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska . On Labor Day, September 6, 2021, the band's All Within My Hands Foundation raised $377,450. Metallica teamed up with workwear brand Carhartt on the initiative, with the clothing brand donating all of their sales proceeds on the holiday to the band's Metallica Scholars initiative, which provides opportunities to people interested in pursuing essential workforce jobs. On November 28, 2022, the band released the single " Lux Æterna ". On January 19, 2023, Metallica released the second single titled " Screaming Suicide ". On March 1, 2023, Metallica released the third single titled "If Darkness Had a Son". On March 30, 2023, Metallica released a music video for the album's title track, "72 Seasons". The band released their eleventh studio album 72 Seasons on April 14, 2023. Metallica was formed in Los Angeles in late 1981 when Danish drummer Lars Ulrich placed an advertisement in a Los Angeles newspaper, The Recycler , which read, "Drummer looking for other metal musicians to jam with Tygers of Pan Tang , Diamond Head and Iron Maiden ." Guitarists James Hetfield and Hugh Tanner of Leather Charm answered the advertisement. Although he had not formed a band, Ulrich asked Metal Blade Records founder Brian Slagel if he could record a song for the label's upcoming compilation album, Metal Massacre . Slagel accepted, and Ulrich recruited Hetfield to sing and play rhythm guitar. The band was officially formed on October 28, 1981, five months after Ulrich and Hetfield first met. The band name came from Ulrich's friend Ron Quintana, who was brainstorming names for a fanzine and was considering MetalMania or Metallica . After hearing the two names, Ulrich wanted the latter for his band, so he suggested Quintana use MetalMania instead. Dave Mustaine replied to an advertisement for a lead guitarist; Ulrich and Hetfield recruited him after seeing his expensive guitar equipment. In early 1982, Metallica recorded its first original song, "Hit the Lights", for the Metal Massacre I compilation. Hetfield sang and played both bass and rhythm guitar, while Lars Ulrich played drums and Lloyd Grant was credited with a guitar solo. Metal Massacre I was released on June 14, 1982; early pressings listed the band incorrectly as "Mettallica", angering the band. The song generated word of mouth , and the band played its first live performance on March 14, 1982, at Radio City in Anaheim, California , with newly recruited bassist Ron McGovney . Their first live success came early; they were chosen to open for British heavy metal band Saxon at one gig of their 1982 U.S. tour. This was Metallica's second gig. Metallica recorded its first demo, Power Metal , whose name was inspired by Quintana's early business cards, in early 1982. The term " thrash metal " was coined in February 1984 by Kerrang! journalist Malcolm Dome in reference to Anthrax 's song " Metal Thrashing Mad ". Prior to this, Hetfield referred to Metallica's sound as " power metal ". In late 1982, Ulrich and Hetfield attended a show at the West Hollywood nightclub Whisky a Go Go , which featured bassist Cliff Burton in the band Trauma . The two were "blown away" by Burton's use of a wah-wah pedal and asked him to join Metallica. Hetfield and Mustaine wanted McGovney to leave because they thought he "didn't contribute anything, he just followed." Although Burton initially declined the offer, by the end of the year, he had accepted on the condition that the band move to El Cerrito in the San Francisco Bay Area . Metallica's first live performance with Burton was at the nightclub The Stone in March 1983, and the first recording to feature Burton was the Megaforce demo (1983). Metallica was ready to record their debut album, but when Metal Blade was unable to cover the cost, they began looking for other options. Concert promoter Jonathan "Jonny Z" Zazula , who had heard the demo No Life 'til Leather (1982), offered to broker a record deal between Metallica and New York City –based record labels. After those record labels showed no interest, Zazula borrowed enough money to cover the recording budget and signed Metallica to his own label, Megaforce Records . In May 1983, Metallica traveled to Rochester, New York , to record its debut album, Metal Up Your Ass , which was produced by Paul Curcio. The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983. Exodus guitarist Kirk Hammett replaced Mustaine the same afternoon. Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub in Dover, New Jersey , called The Showplace; the support act was Anthrax's original lineup, which included Dan Lilker and Neil Turbin . This was the first time the two bands performed live together. Mustaine, who went on to form Megadeth , has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett "stole" his job. Mustaine was "pissed off" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine had actually written. In a 1985 interview with Metal Forces , Mustaine said, "It's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on that No Life 'til Leather tape and got voted No. 1 guitarist in your magazine." On Megadeth's debut album, Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! (1985), Mustaine included the song "Mechanix", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled "The Four Horsemen" on Kill 'Em All . Mustaine said he did this to "straighten Metallica up" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar. Because of conflicts with its record label and the distributors' refusal to release an album titled Metal Up Your Ass , the album was renamed Kill 'Em All . It was released on Megaforce Records in the U.S. and on Music for Nations in Europe, and peaked at number 155 on the Billboard 200 in 1986. [lower-alpha 1] Although the album was not initially a financial success, it earned Metallica a growing fan base in the underground metal scene. To support the release, Metallica embarked on the Kill 'Em All for One tour with Raven . In February 1984, Metallica supported Venom on the Seven Dates of Hell tour, during which the bands performed in front of 7,000 people at the Aardschok Festival in Zwolle , Netherlands. Metallica recorded its second studio album, Ride the Lightning , at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen , Denmark, from February to March 1984. It was released in August 1984 and reached number 100 on the Billboard 200. A French printing press mistakenly printed green covers for the album, which are now considered collectors' items. Mustaine received writing credit for "Ride the Lightning" and "The Call of Ktulu". Elektra Records A&R director Michael Alago and co-founder of Q-Prime Management Cliff Burnstein attended a Metallica concert in September 1984; they were impressed with the performance, signed Metallica to Elektra and made the band a client of Q-Prime Management. Metallica's growing success was such that the band's British label, Music for Nations, released " Creeping Death " as a limited-edition single, which sold 40,000 copies as an import in the U.S. Two of the three songs on the record – cover versions of Diamond Head's " Am I Evil? " and Blitzkrieg 's "Blitzkrieg" – appeared on the 1988 Elektra reissue of Kill 'Em All . Metallica embarked on its first major European tour with Tank to an average crowd of 1,300. Returning to the U.S., it embarked on a co-headlining tour with W.A.S.P. and support from Armored Saint . Metallica played its largest show at the Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park , England, on August 17, 1985, with Bon Jovi and Ratt , playing to 70,000 people. At a show in Oakland, California , at the Day on the Green festival, the band played to a crowd of 60,000. Metallica's third studio album, Master of Puppets , was recorded at Sweet Silence Studios from September to December 1985 and released in March 1986. The album reached number 29 on the Billboard 200 and spent 72 weeks on the chart. It was the band's first album to be certified Gold on November 4, 1986, and was certified six times Platinum in 2003. Steve Huey of AllMusic considered the album "the band's greatest achievement". Following the release of the album, Metallica supported Ozzy Osbourne on a U.S. tour. Hetfield broke his wrist while skateboarding; he continued with the tour, performing vocals, with guitar technician John Marshall playing rhythm guitar. On September 27, 1986, during the European leg of Metallica's Damage, Inc. Tour , members drew cards to determine which bunks on the tour bus they would sleep in. Burton won and chose to sleep in Hammett's bunk. At around sunrise near Dörarp , Sweden, the bus driver lost control and skidded, which caused the bus to overturn several times. Ulrich, Hammett and Hetfield sustained no serious injuries; however, Burton was pinned under the bus and died. Hetfield said: I saw the bus lying right on him. I saw his legs sticking out. I freaked. The bus driver, I recall, was trying to yank the blanket out from under him to use for other people. I just went, "Don't fucking do that!" I already wanted to kill the [bus driver]. I don't know if he was drunk or if he hit some ice. All I knew was, he was driving and Cliff wasn't alive anymore. Burton's death left Metallica's future in doubt. The three remaining members decided Burton would want them to carry on, and with the Burton family's blessings, the band sought a replacement. Roughly 40 people – including Hammett's childhood friend, Les Claypool of Primus ; Troy Gregory of Prong ; and Jason Newsted , formerly of Flotsam and Jetsam – auditioned for the band to fill Burton's spot. Newsted learned Metallica's entire setlist; after the audition, Metallica invited him to Tommy's Joynt in San Francisco. Hetfield, Ulrich and Hammett decided on Newsted as Burton's replacement; his first live performance with Metallica was at the Country Club in Reseda, California . The members initiated Newsted by tricking him into eating a ball of wasabi . The band finished its tour in February 1987. After Newsted joined Metallica, the band left their El Cerrito practice space – a suburban house formerly rented by sound engineer Mark Whitaker and dubbed "the Metalli-mansion" – and relocated to the adjacent cities of Berkeley and Albany before eventually settling in the Marin County city of San Rafael , north of San Francisco. In March 1987, Hetfield again broke his wrist while skateboarding, forcing the band to cancel an appearance on Saturday Night Live . In August 1987, an all-covers extended play (EP), titled The $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited , was released. The EP was recorded in an effort to use the band's newly constructed recording studio, test Newsted's talents, and to relieve grief and stress following the death of Burton. A video titled Cliff 'Em All commemorating Burton's three years in Metallica was released in 1987; the video included bass solos, home videos and pictures. Metallica's first studio album since Burton's death, ...And Justice for All , was recorded from January to May 1988 and released in September. The album was a commercial success, reaching number 6 on the Billboard 200, and was the band's first album to enter the top 10. The album was certified Platinum nine weeks after its release. There were complaints about the production, however; Steve Huey of AllMusic said Ulrich's drums were clicking more than thudding, and the guitars "buzz thinly". To promote the album, Metallica embarked on a tour called Damaged Justice . In 1989, Metallica received its first Grammy Award nomination for ...And Justice for All in the new Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance Vocal or Instrument category. Metallica was the favorite to win, but the award was given to Jethro Tull for the album Crest of a Knave . The award was controversial with fans and the press; Metallica was standing off-stage waiting to receive the award after performing the song " One ". Jethro Tull had been advised by its manager not to attend the ceremony because he was expecting Metallica to win. The award was named in Entertainment Weekly ' s "Grammy's 10 Biggest Upsets" list. Following the release of ...And Justice for All , Metallica released its debut music video for the song "One", which the band performed in an abandoned warehouse. The footage was remixed with the film Johnny Got His Gun . Rather than organize an ongoing licensing deal, Metallica purchased the rights to the film. The remixed video was submitted to MTV with an alternative, performance-only version that was held back in case MTV banned the remixed version. MTV accepted the remixed version; the video was viewers' first exposure to Metallica. In 1999, it was voted number 38 in MTV's "Top 100 Videos of All Time" countdown and was featured on the network's 25th-anniversary edition of ADD Video , which showcased the most popular videos on MTV in the last 25 years. In October 1990, Metallica entered One on One Recording's studio in North Hollywood to record its next album. Bob Rock , who had worked with Aerosmith , The Cult , Bon Jovi and Mötley Crüe , was hired as the producer. Metallica – also known as The Black Album – was remixed three times, cost US$1 million, and ended Hammett and Ulrich's marriages. [ citation needed ] Although the release was delayed until 1991, Metallica debuted at number one in 10 countries, selling 650,000 units in the U.S. during its first week. The album brought Metallica mainstream attention; it has been certified 16 times Platinum in the U.S., which makes it the 25th-best-selling album in the country. The making of Metallica and the following tour was documented in A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica . The tour in support of the album, called the Wherever We May Roam Tour , lasted 14 months and included dates in the U.S., Japan and the U.K. In September 1991, 1.6 million rock music fans converged in Moscow to enjoy the first open-air rock concert to be held in the former Soviet Union ; it was part of the Monsters of Rock series. However, in a June 2020 interview, Lars estimated the attendance at about a half million during their time slot. In April 1992, Metallica appeared at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert and performed a three-song set. Hetfield later performed " Stone Cold Crazy " with the remaining members of Queen and Tony Iommi . On August 8, 1992, during the co-headlining Guns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tour at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal , Hetfield suffered second- and third-degree burns to his arms, face, hands and legs. There had been some confusion with the new pyrotechnics setup, which resulted in Hetfield walking into a 12-foot (3.7 m) flame during "Fade to Black". Newsted said Hetfield's skin was "bubbling like on The Toxic Avenger ". Metallica returned to the stage 17 days later with guitar technician and Metal Church member John Marshall replacing Hetfield on guitar for the remainder of the tour, although Hetfield was able to sing. Later in 1993, Metallica went on the Nowhere Else to Roam Tour, playing five shows in Mexico City . Live Shit: Binge & Purge , the band's first box set, was released in November 1993. The collection contains three live CDs, three home videos, and a book filled with riders and letters. After almost three years of touring to promote Metallica , including a headlining performance at Woodstock '94 , Metallica returned to the studio to write and record its sixth studio album. The band went on a brief hiatus in the summer of 1995 and played a short tour, Escape from the Studio '95, which comprised three outdoor shows, including a headline show at Donington Park supported by Slayer , Skid Row , Slash's Snakepit , Therapy? and Corrosion of Conformity . The band spent about a year writing and recording new songs, resulting in the release of Load in 1996. Load debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and ARIA Charts ; it was the band's second number one album. The cover art, Blood and Semen III , was created by Andres Serrano , who pressed a mixture of his own semen and blood between sheets of plexiglass. The release marked another change in the band's musical direction and a new image; the band members' hair was cut. Metallica headlined the alternative rock festival Lollapalooza festival in mid-1996. During early production of the album, the band had recorded enough material to fill a double album. It was decided that half of the songs were to be released; the band would continue to work on the remaining songs and release them the following year. This resulted in follow-up album, titled Reload . The cover art was again created by Serrano, this time using a mixture of blood and urine. Reload , too, debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and reached number two on the Top Canadian Album chart. Hetfield said in the 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster that the band initially thought some of the songs on these albums were of average quality; these were "polished and reworked" until judged releasable. To promote Reload , Metallica performed " Fuel " and " The Memory Remains " with Marianne Faithfull on NBC 's Saturday Night Live in December 1997. In 1998, Metallica compiled a double album of cover songs, titled Garage Inc. The first disc contained newly recorded covers of songs by Diamond Head , Killing Joke , the Misfits , Thin Lizzy , Mercyful Fate , Black Sabbath and others, and the second disc featured the original version of The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited , which had become a scarce collectors' item. The album entered the Billboard 200 at number two. On April 21 and 22, 1999, Metallica recorded two performances with the San Francisco Symphony , which was conducted by Michael Kamen , who had previously worked with producer Rock on " Nothing Else Matters ". Kamen approached Metallica in 1991 with the idea of pairing the band's music with a symphony orchestra. Kamen and his staff of over 100 composed additional orchestral material for Metallica songs. Metallica wrote two new Kamen-scored songs for the event: " No Leaf Clover " and "-Human". The audio recording and concert footage were released in 1999 as the album and concert film S&M . It entered the Billboard 200 at number two and the Australian ARIA charts and Top Internet Albums chart at number one. In 2000, Metallica discovered that a demo of its song " I Disappear ", which was supposed to be released in combination with the Mission: Impossible II soundtrack , was receiving radio airplay. Tracing the source of the leak, the band found the file on the Napster peer-to-peer file-sharing network and also found that the band's entire catalogue was freely available. Metallica filed a lawsuit at the U.S. District Court , Central District of California , alleging that Napster violated three areas of the law: copyright infringement , unlawful use of digital audio interface device and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO). Ulrich provided a statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee regarding copyright infringement on July 11, 2000. Federal Judge Marilyn Hall Patel ordered the site to place a filter on the program within 72 hours or be shut down. A settlement between Metallica and Napster was reached when German media conglomerate Bertelsmann BMG showed interest in purchasing the rights to Napster for $94 million. Under the terms of settlement, Napster agreed to block users who shared music by artists who do not want their music shared. On June 3, 2002, Napster filed for Chapter 11 protection under U.S. bankruptcy laws. On September 3, 2002, an American bankruptcy judge blocked the sale of Napster to Bertelsmann and forced Napster to liquidate its assets, according to Chapter 7 of the U.S. bankruptcy laws. At the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards , Ulrich appeared with host Marlon Wayans in a skit that criticized the idea of using Napster to share music. Wayans played a college student listening to Metallica's "I Disappear". Ulrich walked in and asked for an explanation, and he responded to Wayans' excuse that using Napster was just "sharing" by saying that Wayans' idea of sharing was "borrowing things that were not yours without asking." He called in the Metallica road crew, who proceeded to confiscate all of Wayans' belongings, leaving him almost naked in an empty room. Napster creator Shawn Fanning responded later in the ceremony by presenting an award wearing a Metallica shirt that read: "I borrowed this shirt from a friend. Maybe, if I like it, I'll buy one of my own." Ulrich was later booed on stage at the award show when he introduced the final musical act, Blink-182 . Newsted left Metallica on January 17, 2001, just as plans were being made to enter the recording studio. He said he left the band for "private and personal reasons, and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love." During a Playboy interview with Metallica, Newsted said he wanted to release an album with his side project , Echobrain . Hetfield was opposed to the idea and said, "When someone does a side project, it takes away from the strength of Metallica" and that a side project is "like cheating on your wife in a way." Newsted said Hetfield had recorded vocals for a song used in the film South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut , and appeared on two Corrosion of Conformity albums. Hetfield replied: "My name isn't on those records. And I'm not out trying to sell them" and raised questions such as, "Where would it end? Does he start touring with it? Does he sell shirts? Is it his band?" In April 2001, filmmakers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky began following Metallica to document the recording process of the band's next studio album. Over two years they recorded more than 1,000 hours of footage. On July 19, 2001, before preparations to enter the recording studio, Hetfield entered rehab to treat his "alcoholism and other addictions". All recording plans were put on hold and the band's future was in doubt. Hetfield left rehab on December 4, 2001, and the band returned to the recording studio on April 12, 2002. Hetfield was required to limit his work to four hours a day between noon and 4 pm, and to spend the rest of his time with his family. The footage recorded by Berlinger and Sinofsky was compiled into the documentary Metallica: Some Kind of Monster , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2004. In the documentary, Newsted said his former bandmates' decision to hire a therapist to help solve their problems which he felt they could have solved on their own was "really fucking lame and weak". In June 2003, Metallica's eighth studio album, St. Anger , debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, and drew mixed reactions from critics. Ulrich's "steely" sounding snare drum and the absence of guitar solos received particular criticism. Kevin Forest Moreau of Shakingthrough.net said, "the guitars stumble in a monotone of mid-level, processed rattle; the drums don't propel as much as struggle to disguise an all-too-turgid pace; and the rage is both unfocused and leavened with too much narcissistic navel-gazing". Brent DiCrescenzo of Pitchfork described it as "an utter mess". However, Blender magazine called it the "grimiest and grimmest of the band's Bob Rock productions", and New York Magazine called it "utterly raw and rocking". The title track, " St. Anger ", won the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 2004; it was used as the official theme song for WWE 's SummerSlam 2003 . For the duration of St. Anger ' s recording period, producer Bob Rock played bass on the album and in several live shows at which Metallica performed during that time. Once the record was completed, the band started to hold auditions for Newsted's permanent replacement. Bassists Pepper Keenan , Jeordie White , Scott Reeder , Eric Avery , Danny Lohner , and Chris Wyse — among others — auditioned for the role. After three months of auditions, Robert Trujillo , formerly of Suicidal Tendencies and Ozzy Osbourne's band, was chosen as the new bassist. Newsted, who had joined Canadian thrash metal band Voivod by that time, was Trujillo's replacement in Osbourne's band during the 2003 Ozzfest tour, which included Voivod. Before the band's set at the 2004 Download Festival , Ulrich was rushed to the hospital after having an anxiety seizure and was unable to perform. Hetfield searched for last-minute volunteers to replace Ulrich. Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo and Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison volunteered. Lombardo performed "Battery" and "The Four Horsemen", Ulrich's drum technician Flemming Larsen performed "Fade to Black", and Jordison performed the remainder of the set. Having toured for two years in support of St. Anger on the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 and the Madly in Anger with the World Tour , with multi-platinum rock band Godsmack in support, Metallica took a break from performing and spent most of 2005 with friends and family. The band opened for The Rolling Stones at SBC Park in San Francisco on November 13 and 15, 2005. In February 2006, Metallica announced on its official website that after 15 years, long-time producer Bob Rock would not be producing the band's next studio album. Instead, the band chose to work with producer Rick Rubin . Around the same time, a petition signed by 1,500 fans was posted online in an attempt to encourage the band to prohibit Rock from producing Metallica albums, saying he had too much influence on the band's sound and musical direction. Rock said the petition hurt his children's feelings; he said, "sometimes, even with a great coach, a team keeps losing. You have to get new blood in there." In December 2006, Metallica released a DVD titled The Videos 1989–2004 , which sold 28,000 copies in its first week and entered the Billboard Top Videos chart at number three. Metallica recorded a guitar-based interpretation of Ennio Morricone 's " The Ecstasy of Gold " for a tribute album titled We All Love Ennio Morricone , which was released in February 2007. The track received a Grammy nomination at the 50th Grammy Awards for the category " Best Rock Instrumental Performance ". A recording of "The Ecstasy of Gold" has been played to introduce Metallica's performances since the 1980s. Metallica scheduled the release of the album Death Magnetic as September 12, 2008, and the band filmed a music video for the album's first single, " The Day That Never Comes ". On September 2, 2008, a record store in France began selling copies of Death Magnetic nearly two weeks before its scheduled worldwide release date, which resulted in the album being made available on peer-to-peer clients. This prompted the band's UK distributor Vertigo Records to officially release the album on September 10, 2008. Rumors of Metallica or Warner Bros. taking legal action against the French retailer were unconfirmed, though drummer Lars Ulrich responded to the leak by saying, "...We're ten days from release. I mean, from here, we're golden. If this thing leaks all over the world today or tomorrow, happy days. Happy days. Trust me", and, "By 2008 standards, that's a victory. If you'd told me six months ago that our record wouldn't leak until 10 days out, I would have signed up for that." Death Magnetic debuted at number one in the U.S., selling 490,000 units; Metallica became the first band to have five consecutive studio albums debut at number one in the history of the Billboard 200. A week after its release, Death Magnetic remained at number one on the Billboard 200 and the European album chart; it also became the fastest selling album of 2008 in Australia. Death Magnetic remained at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart for three consecutive weeks. Metallica was one of two artists whose album — the other being Jack Johnson 's album Sleep Through the Static — remained on the Billboard 200 for three consecutive weeks at number one in 2008. Death Magnetic also remained at number one on Billboard ' s Hard Rock, Modern Rock/Alternative and Rock album charts for five consecutive weeks. The album reached number one in 32 countries outside the U.S., including the UK, Canada, and Australia. In November 2008, Metallica's record deal with Warner Bros. ended and the band considered releasing its next album through the internet. On January 14, 2009, it was announced that Metallica would be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on April 4, 2009, and that former bassist Jason Newsted — who left the band in 2001 — would perform with the band at the ceremony. Initially, it was announced that the matter had been discussed and that bassist Trujillo had agreed not to play because he "wanted to see the Black Album band". However, during the band's set of "Master of Puppets" and "Enter Sandman", both Trujillo and Newsted were on stage. Ray Burton, father of the late Cliff Burton, accepted the honor on his behalf. Although he was not to be inducted with them, Metallica invited Dave Mustaine to take part in the induction ceremony. Mustaine declined because of his touring commitments in Europe. Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Warsaw Babice Airport , Poland, as a part of the Sonisphere Festival series. The show in Sofia, Bulgaria, on June 22, 2010, was broadcast via satellite to cinemas. The bands also played concerts in Bucharest on June 26, 2010, and Istanbul on June 27, 2010. On June 28, 2010, Death Magnetic was certified double platinum by the RIAA . Metallica's World Magnetic Tour ended in Melbourne on November 21, 2010. The band had been touring for more than two years in support of Death Magnetic . To accompany the final tour dates in Australia and New Zealand, a live, limited edition EP of past performances in Australia called Six Feet Down Under was released. The EP was followed by Six Feet Down Under (Part II) , which was released on November 12, 2010. Part 2 contains a further eight songs recorded during the first two Oceanic Legs of the World Magnetic Tour. On November 26, 2010, Metallica released a live EP titled Live at Grimey's , which was recorded in June 2008 at Grimey's Record Store, just before the band's appearance at Bonnaroo Music Festival that year. In a June 2009 interview with Italy's Rock TV, Ulrich said Metallica was planning to continue touring until August 2010, and that there were no plans for a tenth album. He said he was sure the band would collaborate with producer Rick Rubin again. According to Blabbermouth.net , the band was considering recording its next album in the second half of 2011. In November 2010, during an interview with The Pulse of Radio, Ulrich said Metallica would return to writing in 2011. Ulrich said, "There's a bunch of balls in the air for 2011, but I think the main one is we really want to get back to writing again. We haven't really written since, what, '06, '07, and we want to get back to kind of just being creative again. Right now we are going to just chill out and then probably start up again in, I'd say, March or April, and start probably putting the creative cap back on and start writing some songs." On November 9, 2010, Metallica announced it would be headlining the Rock in Rio festival in Rio de Janeiro on September 25, 2011. On December 13, 2010, the band announced it would again play as part of the "big four" during the Sonisphere Festival at Knebworth House , Hertfordshire, on July 8, 2011. It was the first time all of the "big four" members played on the same stage in the UK. On December 17, 2010, Another "big four" Sonisphere performance that would take place in France on July 9 was announced. On January 25, 2011, another "big four" performance on April 23, 2011, at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California , was announced. It was the first time all of the "big four" members played on the same stage in the U.S. On February 17, 2011, a show in Gelsenkirchen , Germany, on July 2, 2011, was announced. On February 22, a "big four" show in Milan on July 6, 2011, was announced. On March 2, 2011, another "big four" concert, which took place in Gothenburg on July 3, 2011, was announced. The final "big four" concert was in New York City, at Yankee Stadium, on September 14, 2011. In an interview at the April 2011 Big Four concert, Robert Trujillo said Metallica will work with Rick Rubin again as producer for the new album and were "really excited to write some new music. There's no shortage of riffage in Metallica world right now." He added, "The first album with Rick was also the first album for me, so in a lot of ways, you're kind of testing the water. Now that we're comfortable with Rick and his incredible engineer, Greg Fidelman , who worked with Slayer, actually, on this last record — it's my hero — it's a great team. And it's only gonna better; I really believe that. So I'm super-excited." In June 2011, Rubin said Metallica had begun writing its new album. On June 15, 2011, Metallica announced that recording sessions with singer-songwriter Lou Reed had concluded. The album, which was titled Lulu , was recorded over several months and comprised ten songs based on Frank Wedekind 's "Lulu" plays Earth Spirit and Pandora's Box . The album was released on October 31, 2011. The recording of the album was problematic at times; Lars Ulrich later said Lou Reed challenged him to a "street fight". On October 16, 2011, Robert Trujillo confirmed that the band was back in the studio and writing new material. He said, "The writing process for the new Metallica album has begun. We've been in the studio with Rick Rubin, working on a couple of things, and we're going to be recording during the most of next year." Metallica was due to make its first appearance in India at the "India Rocks" concert, supporting the 2011 Indian Grand Prix . However, the concert was canceled when the venue was proven to be unsafe. Fans raided the stage during the event and the organizers were later arrested for fraud. Metallica made its Indian debut in Bangalore on October 30, 2011. On November 10, it was announced that Metallica would headline the main stage on Saturday June 9, 2012, at the Download Festival at Donington Park and that the band would play The Black Album in its entirety. Metallica celebrated its 30th anniversary by playing four shows at the Fillmore in San Francisco in December 2011. The shows were exclusive to Met Club members and tickets were charged at $6 each or $19.81 for all four nights. The shows consisted of songs from the band's career and featured guest appearances by artists who had either helped or had influenced Metallica. These shows were notable because Lloyd Grant, Dave Mustaine, Jason Newsted, Glenn Danzig , Ozzy Osbourne, Jerry Cantrell , Apocalyptica , members of Diamond Head, and King Diamond joined Metallica on stage for all appropriate songs. In December 2011, Metallica began releasing songs that were written for Death Magnetic but were not included on the album online. On December 13, 2011, the band released Beyond Magnetic , a digital EP release exclusively on iTunes . It was released on CD in January 2012. On February 7, 2012, Metallica announced that it would start a new music festival called Orion Music + More , which took place on June 23 and 24, 2012, in Atlantic City. Metallica also confirmed that it would headline the festival on both days and would perform two of its most critically acclaimed albums in their entirety: The Black Album on one night, and Ride the Lightning on the other. In a July 2012 interview with Canadian radio station 99.3 The Fox , Ulrich said Metallica would not release its new album until at least early 2014. In November 2012, Metallica left Warner Bros. Records and launched an independent record label , Blackened Recordings , which will produce the band's future releases. The band acquired the rights to all of its studio albums, which were all reissued through the new label. Blackened releases were licensed through Warner subsidiary Rhino Entertainment in North America and internationally through Universal Music . On September 20, 2012, Metallica announced via its official website that a new DVD containing footage of shows it performed in Quebec in 2009 would be released that December; fans would get the chance to vote for two setlists that would appear on the DVD. The film, titled Quebec Magnetic , was released in the U.S. on December 10, 2012. In an interview with Classic Rock on January 8, 2013, Ulrich said regarding the band's upcoming album, "What we're doing now certainly sounds like a continuation [of Death Magnetic ]". He also said, "I love Rick [Rubin]. We all love Rick. We're in touch with Rick constantly. We'll see where it goes. It would stun me if the record came out in 2013." Also in 2013, the band starred in a 3D concert film titled Metallica: Through the Never , which was directed by Antal Nimród and was released in IMAX theaters on September 27. In an interview dated July 22, 2013, Ulrich told Ultimate Guitar , "2014 will be all about making a new Metallica record"; he said the album will most likely be released during 2015. Kirk Hammett and Robert Trujillo later confirmed the band's intention to enter the studio. At the second Orion Music + More festival held in Detroit, the band played under the name "Dehaan" — a reference to actor Dane DeHaan , who starred in Metallica: Through the Never . The band performed its debut album Kill 'Em All in its entirety, celebrating the 30th anniversary of its release. On December 8, 2013, the band played a show called "Freeze 'Em All" in Antarctica, becoming the first band to play on all seven continents. The performance was filmed and released as a live album the same month. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in January 2014, Metallica performed "One" with Chinese pianist Lang Lang . In March 2014, Metallica began a tour called "Metallica By Request", in which fans request songs for the band to perform. A new song, titled "Lords of Summer" was written for the concerts and released as a "first take" demo in June 2014. In June 2014, the band headlined the Glastonbury Festival in an attempt to attract new fans. Ulrich said, "We have one shot, you never know if you'll be invited back". In November 2014, Metallica performed at the closing ceremony of BlizzCon 2014 . In January 2015, Metallica announced a "Metallica Night" with the San Jose Sharks , which featured a Q&A session with the band and a charity auction benefiting the San Francisco Bay Chapter of the Sierra Club, but no performances. They were announced to headline Lollapalooza in March 2015, returning to perform there for the first time in 20 years. On May 2, 2015, Metallica performed their third annual Metallica Day at AT&T Park . Metallica were also announced to play at X Games for the first time at X Games Austin 2015 in Austin, Texas. On June 14, 2015, Hetfield and Hammett performed The Star-Spangled Banner live via electric guitars prior to game 5 of the NBA Finals between the Cleveland Cavaliers and Golden State Warriors at Oracle Arena in Oakland, California . In late October, the band unveiled a new website with an introduction from Ulrich containing footage from the studio of the band working on new material. On November 2, Metallica were announced to play "The Night Before" Super Bowl 50 at AT&T Park. Metallica announced they would be opening the U.S. Bank Stadium on August 20, 2016, with Avenged Sevenfold and Volbeat as support. In April 2016, during the week leading up to Record Store Day , for which the band was its ambassador for 2016, Ulrich told Billboard that the band's expanded role within the music industry had played a part in the amount of time that it had taken to write and record the album. "The way we do things now is very different than the way we did things back in the days of Kill 'Em All and Ride the Lightning . Nowadays we like to do so many different things." Ulrich was also optimistic that production of the album had almost reached its completion. "Unless something radical happens it would be difficult for me to believe that it won't come out in 2016". On August 18, 2016, the band announced via their website that their tenth studio album, Hardwired... to Self-Destruct , would be released worldwide on November 18, 2016, via their independent label, Blackened Recordings. They also unveiled the track listing, album artwork, and released a music video for the album's first single, "Hardwired". The album was released as scheduled and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . Metallica announced they would be touring the US and Canada in summer of 2017 for the WorldWired Tour . The stadium tour also includes Avenged Sevenfold, Volbeat and Gojira as supporting acts. On August 7, 2017, Metallica was invited by the San Francisco Giants again for the fifth annual "Metallica Night" with Hammett and Hetfield performing the national anthem. In January 2018, the band announced that they would be reissuing The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited on April 13 for Record Store Day , and the sixth annual "Metallica Night" was also announced a few weeks later, this time in April, with all proceeds going to the All Within My Hands Foundation, which the band created in late 2017. In February 2018, the band announced a second set of North American tour dates, most of which for cities that they had not visited in up to thirty years. In an interview with Australian magazine The Music ' s official podcast in March 2019, Trujillo said that Metallica had begun jamming on new material for its next studio album. "I'm excited about the next record because I believe it will also be a culmination of the two [previous] records and another journey. There's no shortage of original ideas, that's the beauty of being in this band." He estimated that the album would be released "a lot sooner than the previous two did... this time around I think we'll be able to jump on it a lot quicker and jump in the studio and start working. We've all vowed to get this one going sooner than later." In an interview with Australian magazine Mixdown the following month, Hammett said that the band had tentative plans to enter the studio after the conclusion of its WorldWired Tour. He stated, "We're in our third year since Hardwired . Maybe we can get a bit more focus and go into the studio a bit sooner." After not contributing any writing to Hardwired... to Self-Destruct , Hammett said regarding his ideas for the new album, "I have a ton of material. I've over-compensated, so I'm ready to go anytime." In March 2019, Metallica announced that its WorldWired Tour would continue into Australia and New Zealand in October with Slipknot in support. Later that month, the band announced that it would perform at the grand opening of San Francisco's new Chase Center with the San Francisco Symphony in September to celebrate the twenty-year anniversary of S&M . The commemorative shows, titled S&M2 , were screened in more than 3,000 theaters worldwide on October 9; the event featured arrangements from the original S&M concerts as well as new arrangements for songs recorded since then and a cover of the Alexander Mosolov piece Iron Foundry , and were conducted by Edwin Outwater and San Francisco Symphony music director Michael Tilson Thomas . S&M2 went on to earn $5.5 million at the box office, making it the biggest global rock event cinema release of all time; a second screening was later announced for October 30 as a result. In August 2020, the band announced that they would release the S&M2 performances as an album, DVD and box set. In July 2019, Metallica announced a set of South American tour dates for April 2020 with Greta Van Fleet in support. In September, ahead of that year's Global Citizen Festival , it was announced that Metallica would perform at the following year's festival in September 2020 alongside artists such as Billie Eilish , Miley Cyrus and Coldplay , in what would be the final event of Global Poverty Project 's year-long Global Goal Live: The Possible Dream campaign. The following day, on September 27, Metallica announced that Hetfield had re-entered a rehabilitation program and that its Australia/New Zealand tour would be postponed. In a statement by Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo, the band spoke of the devastation of the news, saying that Hetfield "[had] been struggling with addiction on and off for many years" and that all tickets would be fully refunded. Ulrich later added that Hetfield was "in the process of healing himself", and that the band hoped to return to Australia and New Zealand in 2020. The band's other commitments, including a benefit concert in March 2020, were still expected to continue as planned; a further five US festival appearances were announced in October. These shows were later postponed or cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and to support Hetfield's recovery. In March 2020, the band began a series on YouTube and Facebook called #MetallicaMondays , where they streamed full archived shows every Monday to relieve boredom while staying home and social distancing amid the pandemic. In May 2020, while in quarantine, Metallica performed a virtual acoustic version of "Blackened", titled "Blackened 2020", which was later made available for download. In an interview with Marc Benioff in April 2020, Ulrich stated that Metallica could work on its next studio album while in quarantine. Trujillo told The Vinyl Guide in June that the band was "excited about cultivating new ideas" for its new album. "We communicate every week, which is really great, so we have our connection intact [...] what we've started doing is basically just really concentrating on our home studios and being creative from our homes and navigating through ideas and building on new ideas. And that's where we're at right now". He also said that the band was working towards eventually entering a studio to record the album. On August 10, 2020, Metallica played a show at Gundlach-Bundschu Winery in Sonoma, California , which was only attended by a few crew members, and it was recorded and played for drive-in movies across the U.S. and Canada on August 29. In May 2021, the band announced that they would do one more #MetallicaMondays on May 24 to benefit their All Within My Hands Foundation. The concert dates to September 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska . On Labor Day, September 6, 2021, the band's All Within My Hands Foundation raised $377,450. Metallica teamed up with workwear brand Carhartt on the initiative, with the clothing brand donating all of their sales proceeds on the holiday to the band's Metallica Scholars initiative, which provides opportunities to people interested in pursuing essential workforce jobs. On November 28, 2022, the band released the single " Lux Æterna ". On January 19, 2023, Metallica released the second single titled " Screaming Suicide ". On March 1, 2023, Metallica released the third single titled "If Darkness Had a Son". On March 30, 2023, Metallica released a music video for the album's title track, "72 Seasons". The band released their eleventh studio album 72 Seasons on April 14, 2023. Metallica's sound has been described as heavy metal , thrash metal , speed metal , and hard rock . Metallica was influenced by early heavy metal and hard rock bands and artists Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Kiss , Led Zeppelin , Queen , Ted Nugent , AC/DC , Rush , Aerosmith , and Judas Priest and by new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) bands Raven , Venom , Motörhead , Saxon , Diamond Head , Blitzkrieg , and Iron Maiden as well as European bands Scorpions , Accept , and Mercyful Fate . Early punk rock bands Ramones , Sex Pistols , and the Misfits also influenced Metallica's style as did post-punk band Killing Joke and hardcore punk acts Discharge , GBH , and Suicidal Tendencies . Lars Ulrich has cited Iron Maiden as probably the biggest influence on Metallica's career. The band's early releases contained fast tempos, harmonized leads, and nine-minute instrumental tracks. Steve Huey of AllMusic said Ride the Lightning featured "extended, progressive epics; tight, concise groove-rockers". He also said Metallica expanded its compositional technique and range of expression to take on a more aggressive approach in following releases, and lyrics dealt with personal and socially conscious issues. Religious and military leaders, rage, insanity, monsters, and drugs — among other themes — were explored on Master of Puppets . In 1991, Huey said Metallica with new producer Bob Rock simplified and streamlined its music for a more commercial approach to appeal to mainstream audiences. Robert Palmer of Rolling Stone said the band abandoned its aggressive, fast tempos to expand its music and expressive range . The change in direction proved commercially successful; Metallica was the band's first album to peak at number one on the Billboard 200. Metallica noticed changes to the rock scene created by the grunge movement of the early-1990s. In Load —an album that has been described as having "an almost alternative rock " approach—the band changed musical direction again and focused on non-metal influences. Metallica's new lyrical approach moved away from drugs and monsters, and focused on anger, loss, and retribution. Some fans and critics were not pleased with this change, which included haircuts, the cover art of Load , and headlining the Lollapalooza festival of 1996. David Fricke of Rolling Stone described the move as "goodbye to the moldy stricture and dead-end Puritanism of no-frills thrash", and called Load the heaviest record of 1996. With the release of ReLoad in 1997, the band displayed blues and early hard rock influences, incorporating more rhythm and harmony in song structures. St. Anger marked another large change in the band's sound. Guitar solos were excluded from the album, leaving a "raw and unpolished sound". The band used drop C tuning ; Ulrich's snare drum received particular criticism. New York Magazine ' s Ethan Brown said it "reverberates with a thwong". The album's lyrics deal with Hetfield's drug rehabilitation and include references to the devil, anti-drug themes, claustrophobia, impending doom, and religious hypocrisy. At the advice of producer Rick Rubin, for its ninth studio album Death Magnetic , the band returned to standard tuning and guitar solos. As a return to Metallica's thrash roots, Death Magnetic was a riff -oriented album featuring intense guitar solos and subtle lyrics about suicide and redemption. In February 2017, Metallica launched All Within My Hands Foundation, "dedicated to creating sustainable communities by supporting workforce education, the fight against hunger, and other critical local services". For example, the group works with various selected charities to organize volunteer projects at food banks. It also works with workforce training institutions on its Metallica Scholars grant program to help chosen students learn new trade skills. The Foundation has also donated and further raised funds for World Central Kitchen 's Ukraine war relief efforts and granted $200,000 for relief efforts after the destructive August 2023 Maui, Hawaii fire . The band has also performed fundraising concerts for the Foundation. Metallica has become one of the most influential heavy metal bands of all time and is credited as one of the "big four" of thrash metal, along with Slayer, Anthrax, and Megadeth. The band has sold more than 125 million records worldwide, including an RIAA-certified 66 million and Nielsen SoundScan -reported 58,000,000 in the US, making Metallica one of the most commercially successful bands of all time . The writers of The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll said Metallica gave heavy metal "a much-needed charge". Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Greg Prato of Allmusic said Metallica "expanded the limits of thrash, using speed and volume not for their own sake, but to enhance their intricately structured compositions", and called the band "easily the best, most influential heavy metal band of the '80s, responsible for bringing the music back to Earth". Jonathan Davis of Korn said he respects Metallica as his favorite band; he said, "I love that they've done things their own way and they've persevered over the years and they're still relevant to this day. I think they're one of the greatest bands ever." Godsmack drummer Shannon Larkin said Metallica has been the biggest influence on the band, stating, "they really changed my life when I was 16 years old — I'd never heard anything that heavy". Chuck Billy of Testament has also cited Metallica as an influence on the band, as well as Hetfield as "an inspiration with clever lyrics"; he added, "When I first started hearing Metallica it was something new to me the way his cadence of vocal styles sang to the music." Vocalist and guitarist Robb Flynn of Machine Head said that when creating the band's 2007 album, The Blackening , "What we mean is an album that has the power, influence and epic grandeur of that album Master of Puppets — and the staying power — a timeless record like that". Gojira lead guitarist Christian Andreu said it was while listening to Ride the Lightning that he started making music; saying "we find on the album 'Fade to Black', 'For Whom the Bell Tolls', emblematic pieces". Trivium guitarists Corey Beaulieu and Matt Heafy said that when they heard Metallica they wanted to start playing guitar. M. Shadows of Avenged Sevenfold said touring with Metallica was the band's career highlight, and said, "Selling tons of records and playing huge shows will never compare to meeting your idols Metallica ". God Forbid guitarists Doc and Dallas Coyle were inspired by Metallica as they grew up, and the band's bassist John Outcalt admires Burton as a "rocker". Ill Niño drummer Dave Chavarri said he finds early Metallica releases are "heavy, raw, rebellious. It said, 'fuck you'", and Adema drummer Kris Kohls said the band is influenced by Metallica. On April 4, 2009, Metallica were inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame . They entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame the second year they were eligible and first year they were nominated. Metallica's induction into the Hall included its current lineup, James Hetfield , Kirk Hammett , Robert Trujillo , and Lars Ulrich , and former members Jason Newsted and Cliff Burton . MTV ranked Metallica the third "Greatest Heavy Metal Band in History". Metallica was ranked 42nd on VH1 's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time", was listed fifth on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock", and the band was number one on VH1's "20 Greatest Metal Bands" list. Rolling Stone placed the band 61st on its list of "The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time"; its albums Master of Puppets and Metallica were ranked at numbers 167 and 252 respectively on the magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Master of Puppets was named in Q Magazine ' s "50 Heaviest Albums of All Time", and was ranked number one on IGN's "Top 25 Metal Albums", and number one on Metal-rules.com's "Top 100 Heavy Metal Albums" list. " Enter Sandman " was ranked number 399 on Rolling Stone ' s "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Kerrang ! released a tribute album titled Master of Puppets: Remastered with the April 8, 2006, edition of the magazine to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Master of Puppets . The album featured cover versions of Metallica songs by Machine Head, Bullet for My Valentine , Chimaira , Mastodon , Mendeed , and Trivium — all of which are influenced by Metallica. At least 15 Metallica tribute albums have been released. On September 10, 2006, Metallica guest starred on The Simpsons ' eighteenth-season premiere, " The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer ". Hammett's and Hetfield's voices were used in three episodes of the animated television series Metalocalypse . Finnish cello metal band Apocalyptica released a tribute album titled Plays Metallica by Four Cellos , which features eight Metallica songs played on cellos. A parody band named Beatallica plays music using a combination of The Beatles and Metallica songs. Beatallica faced legal troubles when Sony , which owns The Beatles' catalog, issued a cease and desist order, claiming "substantial and irreparable injury" and ordering the group to pay damages. Ulrich, a fan of Beatallica, asked Metallica's lawyer Peter Paterno to help settle the case. On March 7, 1999, Metallica was inducted into the San Francisco Walk of Fame. The mayor of San Francisco, Willie Brown , proclaimed the day "Official Metallica Day". The band was awarded the MTV Icon award in 2003, and a concert paying tribute to the band with artists performing its songs was held. Performances included Sum 41 and a medley of "For Whom the Bell Tolls", "Enter Sandman", and "Master of Puppets". Staind covered "Nothing Else Matters", Avril Lavigne played "Fuel", hip-hop artist Snoop Dogg performed "Sad but True", Korn played " One ", and Limp Bizkit performed "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)". The Guitar Hero video game series included several of Metallica's songs. "One" was used in Guitar Hero III . The album Death Magnetic was later released as purchasable, downloadable content for the game. "Trapped Under Ice" was featured in the sequel, Guitar Hero World Tour . In 2009, Metallica collaborated with the game's developers to make Guitar Hero: Metallica , which included a number of Metallica's songs. Harmonix ' video game series Rock Band included "Enter Sandman" and "Battery"; "Ride the Lightning", "Blackened", and "...And Justice for All" were released as downloadable tracks. In 2013, due to expiring content licenses, "Ride the Lightning", "Blackened", and "...And Justice for All" are no longer available for download. In October 2020, Miley Cyrus announced that she was planning on recording a Metallica covers album and on January 7, 2021, she announced that she has recorded a cover version of " Nothing Else Matters " that would feature Elton John on piano, drummer Chad Smith from Red Hot Chili Peppers and cellist Yo-Yo Ma . The song was produced by Andrew Watt . Former lead guitarist and Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine has been involved in a historic feud with Metallica. During his time as a founding member during the first two years of the band, Mustaine's tenure was marred by his alcoholism and even a physical altercation with James Hetfield. Mustaine continued to make numerous inflammatory statements against his former band in the press due to buried tension primarily stemming from his firing in 1983 among other issues such as existing songwriting credits across Metallica's first three albums. By the late 1980s, it was believed that the feud had largely subsided; later confirmed after Megadeth were hired to open for Metallica on numerous European dates in 1993. Despite this, Mustaine expressed his anger at Metallica during his appearance in the band's documentary Metallica: Some Kind of Monster , in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting. The two bands would again find themselves on friendlier terms in 2011 when they took part in the lauded 'Big 4 Tour', alongside Slayer and Anthrax . That same year, Mustaine took part in Metallica's exclusive 30th anniversary show in San Francisco which invited other former members: Ron McGovney , Lloyd Grant, and Jason Newsted . Often clashing during the early 1980s, both bands were fighting for dominance in the Los Angeles rock scene during Metallica's primitive years prior to their relocation to the Bay Area. Both James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich expressed their hatred of the hair metal scene in Los Angeles during the time and frequently attacked multiple up-and-coming local bands in multiple interviews, including Mötley Crüe . Ulrich and Sixx had allegedly been involved in a spat prior to a show at the Troubadour in Hollywood in 1982. Then-lead guitarist Dave Mustaine insulted Mötley Crüe during a 1983 interview, claiming Crüe and glam metal were an abbreviation for "Gay LA Music". Though despite their public disdain for glam metal, Metallica were impressed by the production and commercial success of Dr. Feelgood in 1989, later hiring the album's producer Bob Rock to produce their self-titled fifth album in 1991. Several years later; both Sixx and Ulrich would reignite the feud after Ulrich accused Mötley Crüe of performing to a backing track at the 1997 American Music Awards . Sixx responded via an online forum in which he insulted numerous band members and also attacked Metallica's then-recent album Load . Despite this, Sixx would praise Metallica's then-latest album St. Anger during a 2003 interview, contrary to the negative attention it received upon release. In 2006, both Tommy Lee and former bassist Jason Newsted took part in a reality show entitled Rock Star: Supernova as they would both participate in creating a supergroup while the show's premise revolved around finding a frontman via contest. During a 2011 meet-and-greet in Mexico City , Hetfield was approached by a fan attacking Mötley Crüe due to their public image and frequent appearances in tabloids. Hetfield refused to directly respond to the fan's comments towards Mötley Crüe but laughed in his insults toward the band. In 2015, drummer Tommy Lee reignited the feud when he tweeted a picture of Ulrich with the words "Straight Outta Tempo" superimposed over his face. Following the post by Lee, singer Vince Neil had stated online that he was unaware of the feud with Metallica; however, during a later interview with an Oregon radio show, Neil was again asked about the band's current relationship with Metallica and hung up on the show's host. Things were alleged to have calmed down by 2017, when Hetfield appeared on Sixx's radio show 'Sixx Sense'. During an interview in 2021, Sixx applauded Metallica's longevity and praised several of their releases during an interview. Following his hiring in 1986, former bassist Jason Newsted had regularly experienced incidents of hazing and a perceived lack of acceptance from his bandmates despite his strong efforts in a majority of the band's live performances. Many fans and outlets cite the band's fourth album 's unusual mixing to drown the bass tracks as a possible effort by Hetfield and Ulrich to minimize Newsted's involvement. This sentiment was further exacerbated by the fact that Newsted was only given songwriting credits on three songs during his 14-year span in the band which also saw him perform on four studio albums. Tensions between Hetfield and Newsted reached a breaking point in 2000 after Hetfield repeatedly blocked Newsted's request to venture into his side project Echobrain . Discussions broke down and Newsted abruptly left the band in January 2001 prior to the recording of St. Anger . Despite Newsted's animosity surrounding his decision, he was later inducted into the hall of fame as a member of the band in 2009 and also appeared at the band's 30th anniversary show in San Francisco in 2011. In August 2021, to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the self-titled album's release. Newsted was given a box set of the reissue to record and was uploaded to the band's YouTube channel. Former lead guitarist and Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine has been involved in a historic feud with Metallica. During his time as a founding member during the first two years of the band, Mustaine's tenure was marred by his alcoholism and even a physical altercation with James Hetfield. Mustaine continued to make numerous inflammatory statements against his former band in the press due to buried tension primarily stemming from his firing in 1983 among other issues such as existing songwriting credits across Metallica's first three albums. By the late 1980s, it was believed that the feud had largely subsided; later confirmed after Megadeth were hired to open for Metallica on numerous European dates in 1993. Despite this, Mustaine expressed his anger at Metallica during his appearance in the band's documentary Metallica: Some Kind of Monster , in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting. The two bands would again find themselves on friendlier terms in 2011 when they took part in the lauded 'Big 4 Tour', alongside Slayer and Anthrax . That same year, Mustaine took part in Metallica's exclusive 30th anniversary show in San Francisco which invited other former members: Ron McGovney , Lloyd Grant, and Jason Newsted . Often clashing during the early 1980s, both bands were fighting for dominance in the Los Angeles rock scene during Metallica's primitive years prior to their relocation to the Bay Area. Both James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich expressed their hatred of the hair metal scene in Los Angeles during the time and frequently attacked multiple up-and-coming local bands in multiple interviews, including Mötley Crüe . Ulrich and Sixx had allegedly been involved in a spat prior to a show at the Troubadour in Hollywood in 1982. Then-lead guitarist Dave Mustaine insulted Mötley Crüe during a 1983 interview, claiming Crüe and glam metal were an abbreviation for "Gay LA Music". Though despite their public disdain for glam metal, Metallica were impressed by the production and commercial success of Dr. Feelgood in 1989, later hiring the album's producer Bob Rock to produce their self-titled fifth album in 1991. Several years later; both Sixx and Ulrich would reignite the feud after Ulrich accused Mötley Crüe of performing to a backing track at the 1997 American Music Awards . Sixx responded via an online forum in which he insulted numerous band members and also attacked Metallica's then-recent album Load . Despite this, Sixx would praise Metallica's then-latest album St. Anger during a 2003 interview, contrary to the negative attention it received upon release. In 2006, both Tommy Lee and former bassist Jason Newsted took part in a reality show entitled Rock Star: Supernova as they would both participate in creating a supergroup while the show's premise revolved around finding a frontman via contest. During a 2011 meet-and-greet in Mexico City , Hetfield was approached by a fan attacking Mötley Crüe due to their public image and frequent appearances in tabloids. Hetfield refused to directly respond to the fan's comments towards Mötley Crüe but laughed in his insults toward the band. In 2015, drummer Tommy Lee reignited the feud when he tweeted a picture of Ulrich with the words "Straight Outta Tempo" superimposed over his face. Following the post by Lee, singer Vince Neil had stated online that he was unaware of the feud with Metallica; however, during a later interview with an Oregon radio show, Neil was again asked about the band's current relationship with Metallica and hung up on the show's host. Things were alleged to have calmed down by 2017, when Hetfield appeared on Sixx's radio show 'Sixx Sense'. During an interview in 2021, Sixx applauded Metallica's longevity and praised several of their releases during an interview. Following his hiring in 1986, former bassist Jason Newsted had regularly experienced incidents of hazing and a perceived lack of acceptance from his bandmates despite his strong efforts in a majority of the band's live performances. Many fans and outlets cite the band's fourth album 's unusual mixing to drown the bass tracks as a possible effort by Hetfield and Ulrich to minimize Newsted's involvement. This sentiment was further exacerbated by the fact that Newsted was only given songwriting credits on three songs during his 14-year span in the band which also saw him perform on four studio albums. Tensions between Hetfield and Newsted reached a breaking point in 2000 after Hetfield repeatedly blocked Newsted's request to venture into his side project Echobrain . Discussions broke down and Newsted abruptly left the band in January 2001 prior to the recording of St. Anger . Despite Newsted's animosity surrounding his decision, he was later inducted into the hall of fame as a member of the band in 2009 and also appeared at the band's 30th anniversary show in San Francisco in 2011. In August 2021, to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the self-titled album's release. Newsted was given a box set of the reissue to record and was uploaded to the band's YouTube channel. Current members Session/touring musicians Former members Studio albumsGrammy Awards

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Anthrax

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Steven Hatfill

Steven Jay Hatfill (born October 24, 1953) is an American physician , pathologist and biological weapons expert. He became the subject of extensive media coverage beginning in mid-2002, when he was a suspect in the 2001 anthrax attacks . His home was repeatedly raided by the FBI, his phone was tapped , and he was extensively surveilled for more than two years; he was also terminated from his job at Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC). At a news conference in August 2002, Hatfill denied that he had anything to do with the anthrax letters and said "irresponsible news media coverage based on government leaks " had " destroyed his reputation ". He filed a lawsuit in 2003, accusing the FBI agents and Justice Department officials who led the criminal investigation of leaking information about him to the press in violation of the Privacy Act . In 2008, the government settled Hatfill's lawsuit with a $4.6 million annuity totaling $5.8 million in payment. The government officially exonerated him of any involvement in the anthrax attacks, and the Justice Department identified another military scientist, Bruce Edwards Ivins , as the sole perpetrator of the anthrax attacks. Jeffrey A. Taylor , the U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia , wrote in a letter to Hatfill's lawyer that "we have concluded, based on laboratory access records, witness accounts and other information, that Dr. Hatfill did not have access to the particular anthrax used in the attacks, and that he was not involved in the anthrax mailings." In 2004, Hatfill filed lawsuits against several periodicals and journalists who had identified him as a figure warranting further investigation in the anthrax attacks. He sued the New York Times Company and New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof for defamation , defamation per se , and intentional infliction of emotional distress in connection with five of Kristof's columns in 2002. The courts dismissed this suit, finding that Hatfill was a limited purpose public figure . In 2007, Hatfill settled a similar libel lawsuit against Vanity Fair and Reader's Digest for an undisclosed amount, after both magazines agreed to formally retract any implication that Hatfill was involved in the anthrax mailings. In 2010, Hatfill was an independent researcher and an adjunct assistant professor of emergency medicine at the George Washington University Medical Center . He has criticized the response of health authorities to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa and suggested that it is possible that Ebola could be transmitted by aerosol , a position which other experts have criticized. In 2020, he became a coronavirus advisor to the Trump White House , where he strongly promoted the use of hydroxychloroquine to treat the virus despite FDA objections to the drug. After the 2020 election he became part of [ clarification needed ] Donald Trump 's attempt to overturn the election results . Hatfill was born in Saint Louis, Missouri , and graduated from Mattoon Senior High School , Mattoon, Illinois (1971), and Southwestern College in Winfield, Kansas (1975), where he studied biology . Hatfill was enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army from 1975 to 1977. (In 1999, during an interview with a journalist, he claimed to have been a "captain in the U.S. Special Forces ", but a subsequent investigation revealed that, according to the Army, he had never served with the Special Forces. ) Following his Army discharge, Hatfill qualified and worked as a medical laboratory technician , but soon resolved to become a doctor. He worked as a medical missionary in Kapanga, Zaire under a mentor, Dr. Glenn Eschtruth , who was murdered there in 1977. A brief marriage, from 1976 to 1978, to Eschtruth's daughter, Caroline Rush Eschtruth, produced one daughter.In 1978, Hatfill settled in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe ) and entered the Godfrey Huggins Medical School at the University of Rhodesia in Salisbury (now Harare ). (His claimed military associations during this period included assistance as a medic with the Selous Scouts and membership in the Rhodesian SAS , but according to one journalist the regimental association of the latter is "adamant Hatfill never belonged to the unit".) After failing in 1983, he graduated in 1984 with a M ChB degree and, in 1984 to 1985, completed a one-year internship at a small rural hospital in South Africa 's North West Province . The South African government recruited him to be medical officer on a 14-month tour of duty, from 1986 to 1988, in Antarctica with the South African National Antarctic Expedition (SANAE). In 1988, he completed a master's degree in microbiology at the University of Cape Town . Two years later, he worked toward a second master's degree—in medical biochemistry and radiation biology—at the University of Stellenbosch , while employed as a medical technician in the university's clinical hematology lab. A three-year hematological pathology residency at Stellenbosch from 1991 to 1993 followed. Hatfill also conducted research toward a Ph.D. between 1992 and 1995—under the supervision of microbiology professor Ralph Kirby at Rhodes University —on the treatment of leukemia with thalidomide . Hatfill submitted his Ph.D. thesis for examination to Rhodes University in January 1995, but it was failed in November. Hatfill later claimed to have completed a Ph.D. degree in " molecular cell biology " at Rhodes, as well as a post-doctoral fellowship (1994–95) at the University of Oxford in England and three master's degrees (in microbial genetics , medical biochemistry , and experimental pathology ), respectively. Some of these credentials have been seriously questioned or disputed. During a later investigation, officials at Rhodes maintained that their institution had never awarded him a Ph.D. In 2007, Hatfill's lawyer Tom Connolly – in his lawsuit against former U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft and the FBI – admitted that his client had "[p]uffed on his resume," falsely claiming he had earned a PhD and had "[f]orged a diploma" for the PhD. Back in the United States, another of Hatfill's post-doctoral appointments commenced at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), one of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland , in 1995. He then worked in 1997 to 1999 as a civilian researcher at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), the U.S. Department of Defense 's medical research institute for biological warfare (BW) defense at Fort Detrick , Frederick, Maryland . There, he studied, under a National Research Council fellowship, new drug treatments for the Ebola virus and became an authority on BW defense.In January 1999 Hatfill transferred to a "consulting job" at Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), which has a "sprawling campus" in nearby McLean, Virginia . The corporation did work for a multitude of federal agencies. Many projects were classified . Hatfill designed BW defense training curricula for government agencies. By this time there had been a number of hoax anthrax mailings in the United States. Hatfill and his collaborator, SAIC vice president Joseph Soukup, commissioned William C. Patrick , retired head of the old US bioweapons program (who had also been a mentor of Hatfill) to write a report on the possibilities of terrorist anthrax mailing attacks. Barbara Hatch Rosenberg (director of the Federation of American Scientists ' biochem weapons working group in 2002) said that the report was commissioned "under a CIA contract to SAIC". But SAIC said Hatfill and Soukup had commissioned it internally – there was no outside client. The resulting report, dated February 1999, was subsequently seen by some as a "blueprint" for the 2001 anthrax attacks . Amongst other things, it suggested the maximum amount of anthrax powder – 2.5 grams – that could be put in an envelope without making a suspicious bulge. The quantity in the envelope sent to Senator Patrick Leahy in October 2001 was 0.871 grams. After the attacks, the report drew the attention of the media and others, and led to their investigation of Patrick and Hatfill. As soon as it became known, in October 2001, that the Ames strain of anthrax had been used in the attacks, Barbara Hatch Rosenberg and others began suggesting that the mailings might be the work of a "rogue CIA agent" and they provided the name of the "most likely" person to the FBI. On November 21, 2001, Rosenberg made similar statements to the Biological and Toxic Weapons convention in Geneva. In December 2001, she published "A Compilation of Evidence and Comments on the Source of the Mailed Anthrax" via the web site of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) suggesting the attacks were "perpetrated with the unwitting assistance of a sophisticated government program". Rosenberg discussed the case with reporters from the New York Times . On January 4, 2002, Nicholas Kristof of the New York Times published a column titled "Profile of a Killer" stating "I think I know who sent out the anthrax last fall." For months, Rosenberg gave speeches and stated her beliefs to many reporters from around the world. She posted "Analysis of the Anthrax Attacks" to the FAS web site on January 17, 2002. On February 5, 2002, she published an article called "Is the FBI Dragging Its Feet?" At the time, the FBI denied reports that investigators had identified a chief suspect, saying "There is no prime suspect in this case at this time." The Washington Post reported that "FBI officials over the last week have flatly discounted Dr. Rosenberg's claims." On June 13, 2002, Rosenberg posted "The Anthrax Case: What the FBI Knows" to the FAS site. Five days later, Rosenberg presented her theories to senate staffers working for Senators Daschle and Leahy. On June 25, the FBI publicly searched Hatfill's apartment, turning him into a household name. "The FBI also pointed out that Hatfill had agreed to the search and is not considered a suspect." Both The American Prospect and Salon.com reported that "Hatfill is not a suspect in the anthrax case, the FBI says." On August 3, 2002, Rosenberg told the media that the FBI asked her if "a team of government scientists could be trying to frame Steven J. Hatfill." In August 2002, Attorney General John Ashcroft labeled Hatfill a " person of interest " in a press conference, although no charges were brought against him. Hatfill, who researched viruses, vehemently denied having any connection to the anthrax mailings and sued the FBI, the Justice Department, John Ashcroft, Alberto Gonzales , and others for violating his constitutional rights and the Privacy Act . On June 27, 2008, the Department of Justice announced it would settle Hatfill's case for $5.8 million. Hatfill later went to work at Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Baton Rouge , Louisiana . In September 2001, SAIC was commissioned by the Pentagon to create a replica of a mobile WMD "laboratory", alleged to have been used by Saddam Hussein , then President of Iraq. The Pentagon said the trailer was to be used as a training aid for teams seeking weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. His lawyer, Victor M. Glasberg, stated: "Steve's life has been devastated by a drumbeat of innuendo, implication and speculation. We have a frightening public attack on an individual who, guilty or not, should not be exposed to this type of public opprobrium based on speculation." In an embarrassing incident, FBI agents trailing Hatfill in a motor vehicle ran over his foot when he attempted to approach them in May 2003. Police responding to the incident did not cite the driver, but issued Hatfill a citation for "walking to create a hazard". He and his attorneys fought the ticket, but a hearing officer upheld the ticket and ordered Hatfill to pay the requisite $5 fine. FBI Director Robert Mueller changed leadership of the investigation in late 2006, and at that time another suspect, USAMRIID bacteriologist Bruce Ivins , became the main focus of the investigation. Considerable questions were raised about the credibility of the case against Ivins, as well. Hatfill's lawyer, Tom Connolly, was featured in a CBS News 60 Minutes interview about the anthrax incidents on March 11, 2007. In the interview Connolly revealed that Hatfill faked his Ph.D. degree: "It is true. It is true that he has puffed on his resume. Absolutely. Forged a diploma. Yes, that's true." He went on to state, "Listen, if puffing on your resume made you the anthrax killer, then half this town should be suspect." The New York Times stated that Hatfill had obtained an anti-anthrax medicine ( ciprofloxacin , which is an antibiotic medication) immediately prior to the anthrax mailings. Connolly explained, "Before the attacks he had surgery. So yes, he's on Cipro . But the fuller truth is in fact he was on Cipro because a doctor gave it to him after sinus surgery." Hatfill had previously said the antibiotic was for a lingering sinus infection. The omission in the Times' article, of the reason why he had been taking Cipro, is one reason Hatfill sued the newspaper. The newspaper won a summary judgment ruling in early 2007, squelching the libel suit that had been filed by Steven Hatfill against it and columnist Nicholas Kristof . As soon as it became known, in October 2001, that the Ames strain of anthrax had been used in the attacks, Barbara Hatch Rosenberg and others began suggesting that the mailings might be the work of a "rogue CIA agent" and they provided the name of the "most likely" person to the FBI. On November 21, 2001, Rosenberg made similar statements to the Biological and Toxic Weapons convention in Geneva. In December 2001, she published "A Compilation of Evidence and Comments on the Source of the Mailed Anthrax" via the web site of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) suggesting the attacks were "perpetrated with the unwitting assistance of a sophisticated government program". Rosenberg discussed the case with reporters from the New York Times . On January 4, 2002, Nicholas Kristof of the New York Times published a column titled "Profile of a Killer" stating "I think I know who sent out the anthrax last fall." For months, Rosenberg gave speeches and stated her beliefs to many reporters from around the world. She posted "Analysis of the Anthrax Attacks" to the FAS web site on January 17, 2002. On February 5, 2002, she published an article called "Is the FBI Dragging Its Feet?" At the time, the FBI denied reports that investigators had identified a chief suspect, saying "There is no prime suspect in this case at this time." The Washington Post reported that "FBI officials over the last week have flatly discounted Dr. Rosenberg's claims." On June 13, 2002, Rosenberg posted "The Anthrax Case: What the FBI Knows" to the FAS site. Five days later, Rosenberg presented her theories to senate staffers working for Senators Daschle and Leahy. On June 25, the FBI publicly searched Hatfill's apartment, turning him into a household name. "The FBI also pointed out that Hatfill had agreed to the search and is not considered a suspect." Both The American Prospect and Salon.com reported that "Hatfill is not a suspect in the anthrax case, the FBI says." On August 3, 2002, Rosenberg told the media that the FBI asked her if "a team of government scientists could be trying to frame Steven J. Hatfill." In August 2002, Attorney General John Ashcroft labeled Hatfill a " person of interest " in a press conference, although no charges were brought against him. Hatfill, who researched viruses, vehemently denied having any connection to the anthrax mailings and sued the FBI, the Justice Department, John Ashcroft, Alberto Gonzales , and others for violating his constitutional rights and the Privacy Act . On June 27, 2008, the Department of Justice announced it would settle Hatfill's case for $5.8 million. Hatfill later went to work at Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Baton Rouge , Louisiana . In September 2001, SAIC was commissioned by the Pentagon to create a replica of a mobile WMD "laboratory", alleged to have been used by Saddam Hussein , then President of Iraq. The Pentagon said the trailer was to be used as a training aid for teams seeking weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. His lawyer, Victor M. Glasberg, stated: "Steve's life has been devastated by a drumbeat of innuendo, implication and speculation. We have a frightening public attack on an individual who, guilty or not, should not be exposed to this type of public opprobrium based on speculation." In an embarrassing incident, FBI agents trailing Hatfill in a motor vehicle ran over his foot when he attempted to approach them in May 2003. Police responding to the incident did not cite the driver, but issued Hatfill a citation for "walking to create a hazard". He and his attorneys fought the ticket, but a hearing officer upheld the ticket and ordered Hatfill to pay the requisite $5 fine. FBI Director Robert Mueller changed leadership of the investigation in late 2006, and at that time another suspect, USAMRIID bacteriologist Bruce Ivins , became the main focus of the investigation. Considerable questions were raised about the credibility of the case against Ivins, as well. Hatfill's lawyer, Tom Connolly, was featured in a CBS News 60 Minutes interview about the anthrax incidents on March 11, 2007. In the interview Connolly revealed that Hatfill faked his Ph.D. degree: "It is true. It is true that he has puffed on his resume. Absolutely. Forged a diploma. Yes, that's true." He went on to state, "Listen, if puffing on your resume made you the anthrax killer, then half this town should be suspect." The New York Times stated that Hatfill had obtained an anti-anthrax medicine ( ciprofloxacin , which is an antibiotic medication) immediately prior to the anthrax mailings. Connolly explained, "Before the attacks he had surgery. So yes, he's on Cipro . But the fuller truth is in fact he was on Cipro because a doctor gave it to him after sinus surgery." Hatfill had previously said the antibiotic was for a lingering sinus infection. The omission in the Times' article, of the reason why he had been taking Cipro, is one reason Hatfill sued the newspaper. The newspaper won a summary judgment ruling in early 2007, squelching the libel suit that had been filed by Steven Hatfill against it and columnist Nicholas Kristof . In August 2003, Hatfill sued U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft , the U.S. Department of Justice , the FBI , FBI Supervisory Special Agent Van Harp, two DOJ employees, and an unknown number of FBI agents, alleging that the government denied his constitutional rights and attempted to scapegoat him for the anthrax attacks. The suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia . In March 2007, U.S. District Judge Reggie Walton allowed Hatfill to re- subpoena various reporters, seeking the names of government sources who had told reporters that Hatfill was under investigation. During an earlier round of discovery , Hatfill issued subpoenas to six reporters ( Michael Isikoff and Daniel Klaidman of Newsweek , Brian Ross of ABC , Allan Lengel of The Washington Post , Jim Stewart of CBS , and Toni Locy of USA Today ). In the second round of subpoenas, Hatfill subpoenaed eight news outlets, including three not previously subpoenaed. The federal government opposed Hatfill's move as an impermissible expansion of discovery. In March 2008, Walton held Toni Locy of USA Today in contempt of court for declining to identify her sources, fining her $500 per day, escalating to $5,000 a day, until she identified her sources. On appeal, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit suspended the fines against Locy, and in November 2008 threw out the order because the case had settled. Locy's position was supported by the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press and Reporters Without Borders , and she received the National Press Club 's John Aubuchon Freedom of the Press Award for her stance. In January 2008, Walton ordered the parties to attempt mediation , and set a tentative trial date of December 2008 if settlement talks failed. In June 2008, a settlement was announced, in which the Justice Department agreed to pay $4.6 million (consisting of $2.825 million in cash and an annuity paying $150,000 a year for 20 years) to Hatfill. The settlement did not include an admission of liability by the government. In June 2003, Hatfill sued the The New York Times Company and Nicholas D. Kristof for defamation in Virginia state court. Hatfill alleged that Kristof had published columns implying that he was responsible for the anthrax mailings, and thus defamed him. He refiled the suit in federal court in July 2004, alleging defamation and intentional infliction of emotional distress . After filing his complaint, Hatfill voluntarily dropped Kristof as a defendant because the federal district court lacked personal jurisdiction over the columnist. The federal district court initially granted the newspaper's motion to dismiss , holding that the language in Kristof's columns could not reasonably read as accusing Hatfill of responsibility for anthrax attacks, and that the columns reported information on the federal investigation into Hatfill, without accusing him of guilt. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit , in July 2005, reversed this ruling (holding that "Kristof's columns, taken together, are capable of defamatory meaning under Virginia law") and returned the case to the district court for further proceedings. In January 2007, Judge Claude M. Hilton threw out Hatfill's defamation suit against the The New York Times , granting summary judgment to the newspaper. The court held that Hatfill was either a " public figure " or "public official" and thus could only prevail in a defamation suit if the defendants acted with actual malice , and that Hatfill could not demonstrate that Kristof had acted with actual malice. The court additionally found that Hatfill could not, as a matter of law , meet his burden of proof that the allegedly defamatory statements were materially false; it also threw out his claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress. In July 2008, the Fourth Circuit, in a unanimous decision, affirmed the district court's ruling. In December 2008, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal , leaving the newspaper's win intact. Donald Wayne Foster , an expert in forensic linguistics and a professor at Vassar College , advised the FBI during the investigation of the anthrax attacks. He later wrote an article for Vanity Fair about his investigation of Hatfill. In the October 2003 article (entitled ""The Message in the Anthrax"), Foster described how he had tried to match up Hatfill's travels with the postmarks on the anthrax letters, and analyzed old interviews and an unpublished novel by Hatfill about a bioterror attack on the United States. Foster wrote that "When I lined up Hatfill's known movements with the postmark locations of reported biothreats, those hoax anthrax attacks appeared to trail him like a vapor cloud." In 2004, Hatfill sued Foster and Condé Nast Publications , alleging defamation . He also sued The Reader's Digest Association (which had published a condensed version of the article — entitled "Tracking The Anthrax Killer" — in the December 2003 issue of Readers Digest ). In 2007, the defendants settled the case before trial on undisclosed terms. A statement by Vanity Fair issued after the settlement was announced read: "To the extent any statements contained in the article might be read to convey that Condé Nast and Professor Foster were accusing Dr. Hatfill of perpetrating these attacks, Condé Nast and Professor Foster retract any such implication." Hatfill obtained from Google the IP address behind the blog of one "Luigi Warren" hosted by Google's Blogspot web-hosting service. According to Newsweek , "Luigi Warren" had "operated a lurid rumor mill about Hatfill for more than a decade – promoting, in particular, hearsay about the years he lived and worked in southern Africa during the throes of apartheid ." In 2010, Hatfill's attorneys sent a letter to a stem-cell research scientist at Harvard Medical School whom they accused of authoring the "Luigi Warren" posts. The Harvard researcher, however, did not make the posts in question, and instead maintained a different blog, in which he wrote that "the campaign to promote Steven Hatfill as a 'person of interest' ... was a bureaucratic ruse or diversion to maintain a useful strategic ambiguity ." The Harvard researcher believed that someone was impersonating him. Google revealed the IP address for the blog, which was traced to a computer at Stellenbosch University in South Africa (Hatfill's alma mater); the university identified a radiation oncologist as the user of the computer in question, and the blogger later agreed to an undisclosed settlement. In August 2003, Hatfill sued U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft , the U.S. Department of Justice , the FBI , FBI Supervisory Special Agent Van Harp, two DOJ employees, and an unknown number of FBI agents, alleging that the government denied his constitutional rights and attempted to scapegoat him for the anthrax attacks. The suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia . In March 2007, U.S. District Judge Reggie Walton allowed Hatfill to re- subpoena various reporters, seeking the names of government sources who had told reporters that Hatfill was under investigation. During an earlier round of discovery , Hatfill issued subpoenas to six reporters ( Michael Isikoff and Daniel Klaidman of Newsweek , Brian Ross of ABC , Allan Lengel of The Washington Post , Jim Stewart of CBS , and Toni Locy of USA Today ). In the second round of subpoenas, Hatfill subpoenaed eight news outlets, including three not previously subpoenaed. The federal government opposed Hatfill's move as an impermissible expansion of discovery. In March 2008, Walton held Toni Locy of USA Today in contempt of court for declining to identify her sources, fining her $500 per day, escalating to $5,000 a day, until she identified her sources. On appeal, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit suspended the fines against Locy, and in November 2008 threw out the order because the case had settled. Locy's position was supported by the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press and Reporters Without Borders , and she received the National Press Club 's John Aubuchon Freedom of the Press Award for her stance. In January 2008, Walton ordered the parties to attempt mediation , and set a tentative trial date of December 2008 if settlement talks failed. In June 2008, a settlement was announced, in which the Justice Department agreed to pay $4.6 million (consisting of $2.825 million in cash and an annuity paying $150,000 a year for 20 years) to Hatfill. The settlement did not include an admission of liability by the government. In June 2003, Hatfill sued the The New York Times Company and Nicholas D. Kristof for defamation in Virginia state court. Hatfill alleged that Kristof had published columns implying that he was responsible for the anthrax mailings, and thus defamed him. He refiled the suit in federal court in July 2004, alleging defamation and intentional infliction of emotional distress . After filing his complaint, Hatfill voluntarily dropped Kristof as a defendant because the federal district court lacked personal jurisdiction over the columnist. The federal district court initially granted the newspaper's motion to dismiss , holding that the language in Kristof's columns could not reasonably read as accusing Hatfill of responsibility for anthrax attacks, and that the columns reported information on the federal investigation into Hatfill, without accusing him of guilt. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit , in July 2005, reversed this ruling (holding that "Kristof's columns, taken together, are capable of defamatory meaning under Virginia law") and returned the case to the district court for further proceedings. In January 2007, Judge Claude M. Hilton threw out Hatfill's defamation suit against the The New York Times , granting summary judgment to the newspaper. The court held that Hatfill was either a " public figure " or "public official" and thus could only prevail in a defamation suit if the defendants acted with actual malice , and that Hatfill could not demonstrate that Kristof had acted with actual malice. The court additionally found that Hatfill could not, as a matter of law , meet his burden of proof that the allegedly defamatory statements were materially false; it also threw out his claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress. In July 2008, the Fourth Circuit, in a unanimous decision, affirmed the district court's ruling. In December 2008, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal , leaving the newspaper's win intact. Donald Wayne Foster , an expert in forensic linguistics and a professor at Vassar College , advised the FBI during the investigation of the anthrax attacks. He later wrote an article for Vanity Fair about his investigation of Hatfill. In the October 2003 article (entitled ""The Message in the Anthrax"), Foster described how he had tried to match up Hatfill's travels with the postmarks on the anthrax letters, and analyzed old interviews and an unpublished novel by Hatfill about a bioterror attack on the United States. Foster wrote that "When I lined up Hatfill's known movements with the postmark locations of reported biothreats, those hoax anthrax attacks appeared to trail him like a vapor cloud." In 2004, Hatfill sued Foster and Condé Nast Publications , alleging defamation . He also sued The Reader's Digest Association (which had published a condensed version of the article — entitled "Tracking The Anthrax Killer" — in the December 2003 issue of Readers Digest ). In 2007, the defendants settled the case before trial on undisclosed terms. A statement by Vanity Fair issued after the settlement was announced read: "To the extent any statements contained in the article might be read to convey that Condé Nast and Professor Foster were accusing Dr. Hatfill of perpetrating these attacks, Condé Nast and Professor Foster retract any such implication." Hatfill obtained from Google the IP address behind the blog of one "Luigi Warren" hosted by Google's Blogspot web-hosting service. According to Newsweek , "Luigi Warren" had "operated a lurid rumor mill about Hatfill for more than a decade – promoting, in particular, hearsay about the years he lived and worked in southern Africa during the throes of apartheid ." In 2010, Hatfill's attorneys sent a letter to a stem-cell research scientist at Harvard Medical School whom they accused of authoring the "Luigi Warren" posts. The Harvard researcher, however, did not make the posts in question, and instead maintained a different blog, in which he wrote that "the campaign to promote Steven Hatfill as a 'person of interest' ... was a bureaucratic ruse or diversion to maintain a useful strategic ambiguity ." The Harvard researcher believed that someone was impersonating him. Google revealed the IP address for the blog, which was traced to a computer at Stellenbosch University in South Africa (Hatfill's alma mater); the university identified a radiation oncologist as the user of the computer in question, and the blogger later agreed to an undisclosed settlement. Since the settlements of his legal cases, which included receiving $5.8 million (less legal costs) from the Justice Department (2008) and undisclosed sums from Condé Nast (2008) and the South African medical researcher (2010), Hatfill has pursued activities as an independent researcher. He was appointed an adjunct assistant professor of emergency medicine at the George Washington University Medical Center in 2010. In 2011, he added additional affiliations at GW in "Clinical Research and Leadership" and "Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine". (His BA degree and one MS degree — but not his other previously claimed medical degrees — appear on the GW Faculty Directory. ) He oversees construction of a "state-of-the-art boat" on which he intends to conduct his own scientific trials. He has allocated more than $1 million of his own money to construct a full-scale prototype of what he calls Beagle III . This craft, with a crew of military veterans and scientists, would ply the waters of "high-biodiversity areas" – the Amazon, or the great rivers of Borneo – seeking and studying rare plants and fungi as sources of new drugs. A Newsweek interviewer has described ... ...Hatfill's unbuilt, twin-diesel-powered boat. Inside the vessel's aluminum hull, he envisioned a plexus of laboratories, with DNA microarrays and other "space-age zuzu" for analyzing the genetic compositions of plants. Bedrooms would be equipped with video-conferencing systems and DVD players, and the executive cabin was modeled after the president's quarters on Air Force One .... Hatfill had also thrown in a roof-mounted cosmic ray detector, which would switch on near the equator to capture data on "high-energy cosmic ray showers". An onboard chef from the ranks of Le Cordon Bleu would fuel a crew of scientists and trainees, and a 30-day supply of dehydrated food would hedge against disaster. Hatfill owns a colonial-style brick home in Marion County, Florida as well as a property in the El Yunque rain forest, in Puerto Rico , where he has run a military-style Outward Bound -like program. Hatfill chairs the Asymmetrical Biodiversity Studies and Observation Group (ABSOG) in Malaysia , a not-for-profit trust he has established to support his drug discovery boat mission. Hatfill has also established Templar Associates II , a for-profit corporation in Puerto Rico as a revenue-generator and as an "environmental testing ground for new tactics, techniques, equipment, and procedures for ABSOG's designated mission as well as for the U.S. military". Hatfill is also medical director of EFP Tactical Medical Group , a London-based company that provides integrated training, security and tactical medical support services to government agencies, private corporations, and NGOs worldwide. (EFP Tacmed has extensive Middle Eastern and African contracts; it operates a remote jungle-training facility to test new equipment in "high-biodiversity areas".) He is also a board member of Doctors for Disaster Preparedness , a politically conservative Arizona-based non-profit described by some journalists as a "political fringe group". He claims status as a fellow of the Explorers Club . In 2014, Hatfill publicly criticized the response of U.S. public health authorities to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa and suggested that it is possible that Ebola could be transmitted by aerosol , an assertion which other experts have disputed; his views on this have been characterized as misrepresentations of the primary scientific literature by other experts. In November 2019, Hatfill and two other authors self-published Three Seconds Until Midnight . The book examines current preparedness and unpreparedness for a devastating future influenza pandemic. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic , Hatfill was interviewed on several right-wing media outlets including Stephen Bannon 's War Room: Pandemic , The Epoch Times , and Sinclair Broadcast Group 's Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson . He opposed the U.S. response to the pandemic, particularly the exclusion of hydroxychloroquine for early treatment of COVID-19, making unproven claims that the low fatality rate experienced by some nations is the result of their early use of the drug. In February 2020, Hatfill became an unpaid "volunteer" advisor to White House trade director Peter Navarro on the subject of the coronavirus pandemic. He interacted directly with senior officials at the Department of Health and Human Services , the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the White House, and he represented the administration in dealings with health care companies. Early in the pandemic he urged Navarro to quickly acquire tests and supplies, although he said such supplies should come only from U.S. sources. In an email to White House chief of staff Mark Meadows he said the president was being "grossly misadvised" by the White House Coronavirus Task Force, and recommended that the virus should be fought by widespread proactive administration of hydroxychloroquine, a malaria drug which the FDA had declared ineffective and potentially harmful to use for coronavirus. He repeatedly attacked Anthony Fauci and FDA commissioner Stephen Hahn , at one point telling Fauci that he was "full of crap". Although the two were not removed from the task force as he urged, they were increasingly sidelined by Donald Trump . Following the November 2020 election , Hatfill became an active participant in Trump's efforts to overturn the election results , flying to Arizona to help challenge its election results, writing proposals for "Trump's Legal Fight", and sharing anti-Biden rumors. According to House Majority Whip James E. Clyburn (D-S.C.) who chairs the House Select subcommittee investigating the COVID-19 crisis , "Dr. Hatfill has refused to provide documents and misleadingly downplayed his involvement in the pandemic response in communications with Select Subcommittee staff". Since the settlements of his legal cases, which included receiving $5.8 million (less legal costs) from the Justice Department (2008) and undisclosed sums from Condé Nast (2008) and the South African medical researcher (2010), Hatfill has pursued activities as an independent researcher. He was appointed an adjunct assistant professor of emergency medicine at the George Washington University Medical Center in 2010. In 2011, he added additional affiliations at GW in "Clinical Research and Leadership" and "Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine". (His BA degree and one MS degree — but not his other previously claimed medical degrees — appear on the GW Faculty Directory. ) He oversees construction of a "state-of-the-art boat" on which he intends to conduct his own scientific trials. He has allocated more than $1 million of his own money to construct a full-scale prototype of what he calls Beagle III . This craft, with a crew of military veterans and scientists, would ply the waters of "high-biodiversity areas" – the Amazon, or the great rivers of Borneo – seeking and studying rare plants and fungi as sources of new drugs. A Newsweek interviewer has described ... ...Hatfill's unbuilt, twin-diesel-powered boat. Inside the vessel's aluminum hull, he envisioned a plexus of laboratories, with DNA microarrays and other "space-age zuzu" for analyzing the genetic compositions of plants. Bedrooms would be equipped with video-conferencing systems and DVD players, and the executive cabin was modeled after the president's quarters on Air Force One .... Hatfill had also thrown in a roof-mounted cosmic ray detector, which would switch on near the equator to capture data on "high-energy cosmic ray showers". An onboard chef from the ranks of Le Cordon Bleu would fuel a crew of scientists and trainees, and a 30-day supply of dehydrated food would hedge against disaster. Hatfill owns a colonial-style brick home in Marion County, Florida as well as a property in the El Yunque rain forest, in Puerto Rico , where he has run a military-style Outward Bound -like program. Hatfill chairs the Asymmetrical Biodiversity Studies and Observation Group (ABSOG) in Malaysia , a not-for-profit trust he has established to support his drug discovery boat mission. Hatfill has also established Templar Associates II , a for-profit corporation in Puerto Rico as a revenue-generator and as an "environmental testing ground for new tactics, techniques, equipment, and procedures for ABSOG's designated mission as well as for the U.S. military". Hatfill is also medical director of EFP Tactical Medical Group , a London-based company that provides integrated training, security and tactical medical support services to government agencies, private corporations, and NGOs worldwide. (EFP Tacmed has extensive Middle Eastern and African contracts; it operates a remote jungle-training facility to test new equipment in "high-biodiversity areas".) He is also a board member of Doctors for Disaster Preparedness , a politically conservative Arizona-based non-profit described by some journalists as a "political fringe group". He claims status as a fellow of the Explorers Club . In 2014, Hatfill publicly criticized the response of U.S. public health authorities to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa and suggested that it is possible that Ebola could be transmitted by aerosol , an assertion which other experts have disputed; his views on this have been characterized as misrepresentations of the primary scientific literature by other experts. In November 2019, Hatfill and two other authors self-published Three Seconds Until Midnight . The book examines current preparedness and unpreparedness for a devastating future influenza pandemic. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic , Hatfill was interviewed on several right-wing media outlets including Stephen Bannon 's War Room: Pandemic , The Epoch Times , and Sinclair Broadcast Group 's Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson . He opposed the U.S. response to the pandemic, particularly the exclusion of hydroxychloroquine for early treatment of COVID-19, making unproven claims that the low fatality rate experienced by some nations is the result of their early use of the drug. In February 2020, Hatfill became an unpaid "volunteer" advisor to White House trade director Peter Navarro on the subject of the coronavirus pandemic. He interacted directly with senior officials at the Department of Health and Human Services , the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the White House, and he represented the administration in dealings with health care companies. Early in the pandemic he urged Navarro to quickly acquire tests and supplies, although he said such supplies should come only from U.S. sources. In an email to White House chief of staff Mark Meadows he said the president was being "grossly misadvised" by the White House Coronavirus Task Force, and recommended that the virus should be fought by widespread proactive administration of hydroxychloroquine, a malaria drug which the FDA had declared ineffective and potentially harmful to use for coronavirus. He repeatedly attacked Anthony Fauci and FDA commissioner Stephen Hahn , at one point telling Fauci that he was "full of crap". Although the two were not removed from the task force as he urged, they were increasingly sidelined by Donald Trump . Following the November 2020 election , Hatfill became an active participant in Trump's efforts to overturn the election results , flying to Arizona to help challenge its election results, writing proposals for "Trump's Legal Fight", and sharing anti-Biden rumors. According to House Majority Whip James E. Clyburn (D-S.C.) who chairs the House Select subcommittee investigating the COVID-19 crisis , "Dr. Hatfill has refused to provide documents and misleadingly downplayed his involvement in the pandemic response in communications with Select Subcommittee staff".

Wiki

Anthrax

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Stomp 442

"Fueled" Released: 1995 "Nothing" Released: 1996 Stomp 442 is the seventh studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax . It was released in 1995 by Elektra Records . The band and the Philadelphia -based producers Butcher Brothers produced the album, which includes the singles, "Fueled" and "Nothing". The album debuted at No. 47 on the Billboard 200 charts. The album is their last to be released by Elektra Records , as they left the label after claiming that they didn't do enough to promote the album. Stomp 442 is also Anthrax's first album without Dan Spitz on lead guitar. Though not credited as a member of the band, Paul Crook took over lead guitar duties.AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album a negative review, describing it as "a generic collection of speed metal bombast". He finished his review by saying that the record is a "disheartening experience." Reviewer Jimmy Neeson had a more positive view, noting, "A savage Anthrax album; and a worthy addition to any metal collection." Canadian journalist Martin Popoff described Stomp 442 as "a fine, responsible collection of working man's metal, if a bit of a repetition" compared to "the relatively unappreciated Sound of White Noise " of 1993. The album's cover gained controversy when retailer Walmart refused to stock it in its stores, because of the naked man standing next to the giant ball of garbage. In a 1996 interview with Tom Russell of Glasgow-based radio Clyde 1 , Bruce Dickinson revealed that the original design for the cover art was done for his album Balls to Picasso – originally to be titled Laughing in the Hiding Bush – but he couldn't afford it. His album's title was changed and he drew two squares on a toilet wall for the cover.All lyrics are written by Scott Ian and John Bush ; all music is composed by Charlie BenanteAll credits adapted from the original release. Butcher Bros. and Anthrax – producers, mixing Butcher Bros., Dirk Grobelny, Ian Cross – engineers Mike Monterulo, J.J. Bottari, Chris Gately, Phil Nowlan – assistant engineers Manny Lecuona – editing Bob Ludwig – masteringposition

Wiki

Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Heavy_metal_music/html

Heavy metal music

Heavy metal (or simply metal ) is a genre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, largely in the United Kingdom and United States. With roots in blues rock , psychedelic rock and acid rock , heavy metal bands developed a thick, monumental sound characterized by distorted guitars, extended guitar solos , emphatic beats and loudness . In 1968, three of the genre's most famous pioneers – British bands Led Zeppelin , Black Sabbath and Deep Purple – were founded. Though they came to attract wide audiences, they were often derided by critics. Several American bands modified heavy metal into more accessible forms during the 1970s: the raw, sleazy sound and shock rock of Alice Cooper and Kiss ; the blues-rooted rock of Aerosmith ; and the flashy guitar leads and party rock of Van Halen . During the mid-1970s, Judas Priest helped spur the genre's evolution by discarding much of its blues influence, while Motörhead introduced a punk rock sensibility and an increasing emphasis on speed. Beginning in the late 1970s, bands in the new wave of British heavy metal such as Iron Maiden and Saxon followed in a similar vein. By the end of the decade, heavy metal fans became known as " metalheads " or " headbangers ". The lyrics of some metal genres became associated with aggression and machismo , an issue that has at times led to accusations of misogyny. During the 1980s, glam metal became popular with groups such as Bon Jovi , Mötley Crüe and Poison . Meanwhile, however, underground scenes produced an array of more aggressive styles: thrash metal broke into the mainstream with bands such as Metallica , Slayer , Megadeth and Anthrax , while other extreme subgenres such as death metal and black metal became – and remain – subcultural phenomena. Since the mid-1990s, popular styles have expanded the definition of the genre. These include groove metal and nu metal , the latter of which often incorporates elements of grunge and hip-hop .Heavy metal is traditionally characterized by loud distorted guitars, emphatic rhythms, dense bass-and-drum sound and vigorous vocals. Heavy metal subgenres variously emphasize, alter or omit one or more of these attributes. In a 1988 article, The New York Times critic Jon Pareles wrote, "In the taxonomy of popular music, heavy metal is a major subspecies of hard-rock—the breed with less syncopation, less blues, more showmanship and more brute force." The typical band lineup includes a drummer, a bassist, a rhythm guitarist, a lead guitarist and a singer, who may or may not be an instrumentalist. Keyboard instruments are sometimes used to enhance the fullness of the sound. Deep Purple 's Jon Lord played an overdriven Hammond organ . In 1970, John Paul Jones used a Moog synthesizer on Led Zeppelin III ; by the 1990s, synthesizers were used in "almost every subgenre of heavy metal". The electric guitar and the sonic power that it projects through amplification has historically been the key element in heavy metal. The heavy metal guitar sound comes from a combined use of high volumes and heavy fuzz . For classic heavy metal guitar tone, guitarists maintain gain at moderate levels, without excessive preamp or pedal distortion, to retain open spaces and air in the music; the guitar amplifier is turned up loud to produce the "punch and grind" characteristic. Thrash metal guitar tone has scooped mid-frequencies and tightly compressed sound with multiple bass frequencies. Guitar solos are "an essential element of the heavy metal code ... that underscores the significance of the guitar" to the genre. Most heavy metal songs "feature at least one guitar solo", which is "a primary means through which the heavy metal performer expresses virtuosity". Some exceptions are nu metal and grindcore bands, which tend to omit guitar solos. With rhythm guitar parts, the "heavy crunch sound in heavy metal ... [is created by] palm muting " the strings with the picking hand and using distortion. Palm muting creates a tighter, more precise sound and it emphasizes the low end. The lead role of the guitar in heavy metal often collides with the traditional "frontman" or bandleader role of the vocalist, creating a musical tension as the two "contend for dominance" in a spirit of "affectionate rivalry". Heavy metal "demands the subordination of the voice" to the overall sound of the band. Reflecting metal's roots in the 1960s counterculture, an "explicit display of emotion" is required from the vocals as a sign of authenticity. Critic Simon Frith claims that the metal singer's "tone of voice" is more important than the lyrics. The prominent role of the bass ‍is also key to the metal sound, and the interplay of bass and guitar is a central element. The bass provides the low-end sound crucial to making the music "heavy". The bass plays a "more important role in heavy metal than in any other genre of rock". Metal basslines vary widely in complexity, from holding down a low pedal point as a foundation to doubling complex riffs and licks along with the lead or rhythm guitars. Some bands feature the bass as a lead instrument, an approach popularized by Metallica 's Cliff Burton with his heavy emphasis on bass ‍solos and use of chords while playing the ‍bass in the early 1980s. Lemmy of Motörhead often played overdriven power chords in his bass lines. The essence of heavy metal drumming is creating a loud, constant beat for the band using the "trifecta of speed, power, and precision". Heavy metal drumming "requires an exceptional amount of endurance", and drummers have to develop "considerable speed, coordination, and dexterity ... to play the intricate patterns" used in heavy metal. A characteristic metal drumming technique is the cymbal choke , which consists of striking a cymbal and then immediately silencing it by grabbing it with the other hand (or, in some cases, the same striking hand), producing a burst of sound. The metal drum setup is generally much larger than those employed in other forms of rock music. Black metal, death metal and some "mainstream metal" bands "all depend upon double-kicks and blast beats ". In live performance, loudness – an "onslaught of sound", in sociologist Deena Weinstein 's description – is considered vital. In his book, Metalheads , psychologist Jeffrey Arnett refers to heavy metal concerts as "the sensory equivalent of war". Following the lead set by Jimi Hendrix , Cream and the Who , early heavy metal acts such as Blue Cheer set new benchmarks for volume. As Blue Cheer's Dick Peterson put it, "All we knew was we wanted more power." A 1977 review of a Motörhead concert noted how "excessive volume in particular figured into the band's impact". Weinstein makes the case that in the same way that melody is the main element of pop and rhythm is the main focus of house music , powerful sound, timbre and volume are the key elements of metal. She argues that the loudness is designed to "sweep the listener into the sound" and to provide a "shot of youthful vitality". Heavy metal performers tended to be almost exclusively male until at least the mid-1980s, with some exceptions such as Girlschool . However, by the 2010s, women were making more of an impact, and PopMatters' Craig Hayes argues that metal "clearly empowers women". In the power metal and symphonic metal subgenres, there has been a sizable number of bands that have had women as the lead singers, such as Nightwish , Delain and Within Temptation . The rhythm in metal songs is emphatic, with deliberate stresses. Weinstein observes that the wide array of sonic effects available to metal drummers enables the "rhythmic pattern to take on a complexity within its elemental drive and insistency". In many heavy metal songs, the main groove is characterized by short, two- or three-note rhythmic figures – generally made up of eighth or 16th notes . These rhythmic figures are usually performed with a staccato attack created by using a palm-muted technique on the rhythm guitar. Brief, abrupt and detached rhythmic cells are joined into rhythmic phrases with a distinctive, often jerky texture. These phrases are used to create rhythmic accompaniment and melodic figures called riffs , which help to establish thematic hooks . Heavy metal songs also use longer rhythmic figures such as whole note - or dotted quarter note-length chords in slow-tempo power ballads . The tempos in early heavy metal music tended to be "slow, even ponderous". By the late 1970s, however, metal bands were employing a wide variety of tempos, and as recently as the 2000s, metal tempos range from slow ballad tempos (quarter note = 60 beats per minute ) to extremely fast blast beat tempos (quarter note = 350 beats per minute). One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar power chord. In technical terms, the power chord is relatively simple: it involves just one main interval , generally the perfect fifth , though an octave may be added as a doubling of the root . When power chords are played on the lower strings at high volumes and with distortion, additional low-frequency sounds are created, which add to the "weight of the sound" and create an effect of "overwhelming power". Although the perfect fifth interval is the most common basis for the power chord, power chords are also based on different intervals such as the minor third , major third , perfect fourth , diminished fifth or minor sixth . Most power chords are also played with a consistent finger arrangement that can be slid easily up and down the fretboard . Heavy metal is usually based on riffs created with three main harmonic traits: modal scale progressions, tritone and chromatic progressions, and the use of pedal points . Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales, in particular the Aeolian and Phrygian modes . Harmonically speaking, this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as the Aeolian progressions I-♭VI-♭VII, I-♭VII-(♭VI), or I-♭VI-IV-♭VII and Phrygian progressions implying the relation between I and ♭II (I-♭II-I, I-♭II-III, or I-♭II-VII for example). Tense-sounding chromatic or tritone relationships are used in a number of metal chord progressions. In addition to using modal harmonic relationships, heavy metal also uses " pentatonic and blues-derived features". The tritone, an interval spanning three whole tones – such as C to F# – was considered extremely dissonant and unstable by medieval and Renaissance music theorists. It was nicknamed the diabolus in musica – "the devil in music". Heavy metal songs often make extensive use of pedal point as a harmonic basis. A pedal point is a sustained tone, typically in the bass range, during which at least one foreign (i.e., dissonant) harmony is sounded in the other parts. According to Robert Walser, heavy metal harmonic relationships are "often quite complex" and the harmonic analysis done by metal players and teachers is "often very sophisticated". In the study of heavy metal chord structures, it has been concluded that "heavy metal music has proved to be far more complicated" than other music researchers had realized. Robert Walser stated that, alongside blues and R&B, the "assemblage of disparate musical styles known ... as ' classical music '" has been a major influence on heavy metal since the genre's earliest days, and that metal's "most influential musicians have been guitar players who have also studied classical music. Their appropriation and adaptation of classical models sparked the development of a new kind of guitar virtuosity [and] changes in the harmonic and melodic language of heavy metal." In an article written for Grove Music Online , Walser stated that the "1980s brought on ... the widespread adaptation of chord progressions and virtuosic practices from 18th-century European models, especially Bach and Antonio Vivaldi , by influential guitarists such as Ritchie Blackmore , Marty Friedman , Jason Becker , Uli Jon Roth , Eddie Van Halen , Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen ." Kurt Bachmann of Believer has stated that "if done correctly, metal and classical fit quite well together. Classical and metal are probably the two genres that have the most in common when it comes to feel, texture, creativity." Although a number of metal musicians cite classical composers as inspiration, classical and metal are rooted in different cultural traditions and practices – classical in the art music tradition, metal in the popular music tradition. As musicologists Nicolas Cook and Nicola Dibben note: "Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of 'art traditions.' An example is Walser's linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth-century Romanticism . However, it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues, rock, heavy metal, rap or dance music derive primarily from "art music.'" According to David Hatch and Stephen Millward, Black Sabbath and the numerous heavy metal bands that they inspired have concentrated lyrically "on dark and depressing subject matter to an extent hitherto unprecedented in any form of pop music." They take as an example Black Sabbath's second album, Paranoid (1970), which "included songs dealing with personal trauma—' Paranoid ' and ' Fairies Wear Boots ' (which described the unsavoury side effects of drug-taking)—as well as those confronting wider issues, such as the self-explanatory ' War Pigs ' and ' Hand of Doom .'" Deriving from the genre's roots in blues music, sex is another important topic – a thread running from Led Zeppelin's suggestive lyrics to the more explicit references of glam metal and nu metal bands. The thematic content of heavy metal has long been a target of criticism. According to Jon Pareles , "Heavy metal's main subject matter is simple and virtually universal. With grunts, moans and subliterary lyrics, it celebrates ... a party without limits ... [T]he bulk of the music is stylized and formulaic." Music critics have often deemed metal lyrics juvenile and banal, and others have objected to what they see as advocacy of misogyny and the occult. During the 1980s, the Parents Music Resource Center petitioned the U.S. Congress to regulate the popular music industry due to what the group asserted were objectionable lyrics, particularly those in heavy metal songs. Andrew Cope stated that claims that heavy metal lyrics are misogynistic are "clearly misguided" as these critics have "overlook[ed] the overwhelming evidence that suggests otherwise". Music critic Robert Christgau called metal "an expressive mode [that] it sometimes seems will be with us for as long as ordinary white boys fear girls, pity themselves, and are permitted to rage against a world they'll never beat". Heavy metal artists have had to defend their lyrics in front of the U.S. Senate and in court. In 1985, Twisted Sister frontman Dee Snider was asked to defend his song " Under the Blade " at a U.S. Senate hearing. At the hearing, the PMRC alleged that the song was about sadomasochism and rape ; Snider stated that the song was about his bandmate's throat surgery. In 1986, Ozzy Osbourne was sued over the lyrics of his song " Suicide Solution ". A lawsuit against Osbourne was filed by the parents of John McCollum, a depressed teenager who committed suicide allegedly after listening to Osbourne's song. Osbourne was not found to be responsible for the teen's death. In 1990, Judas Priest was sued in American court by the parents of two young men who had shot themselves five years earlier, allegedly after hearing the subliminal statement "do it" in the band's cover of the song " Better by You, Better than Me ". While the case attracted a great deal of media attention, it was ultimately dismissed. In 1991, U.K. police seized death metal records from the British record label Earache Records , in an "unsuccessful attempt to prosecute the label for obscenity". In some predominantly Muslim countries, heavy metal has been officially denounced as a threat to traditional values, and in countries such as Morocco, Egypt, Lebanon and Malaysia, there have been incidents of heavy metal musicians and fans being arrested and incarcerated. In 1997, the Egyptian police jailed many young metal fans, and they were accused of "devil worship" and blasphemy after police found metal recordings during searches of their homes. In 2013, Malaysia banned Lamb of God from performing in their country, on the grounds that the "band's lyrics could be interpreted as being religiously insensitive" and blasphemous. Some people consider heavy metal music to be a leading factor for mental health disorders, and that heavy metal fans are more likely to suffer poor mental health, but a study from 2009 suggests that this is not true and that fans of heavy metal music suffer from poor mental health at a similar or lower rate compared to the general population. For many artists and bands, visual imagery plays a large role in heavy metal. In addition to its sound and lyrics, a heavy metal band's image is expressed in album cover art, logos, stage sets, clothing, design of instruments and music videos . Down-the-back long hair is the "most crucial distinguishing feature of metal fashion". Originally adopted from the hippie subculture, by the 1980s and 1990s, heavy metal hair "symbolised the hate, angst and disenchantment of a generation that seemingly never felt at home", according to journalist Nader Rahman. Long hair gave members of the metal community "the power they needed to rebel against nothing in general". The classic uniform of heavy metal fans consists of light-colored, ripped, frayed or torn blue jeans, black T-shirts, boots, and black leather or denim jackets. Deena Weinstein wrote, "T-shirts are generally emblazoned with the logos or other visual representations of favorite metal bands." In the 1980s, a range of sources – from punk rock and goth music to horror films – influenced metal fashion. Many metal performers of the 1970s and 1980s used radically shaped and brightly colored instruments to enhance their stage appearance. Fashion and personal style was especially important for glam metal bands of the era. Performers typically wore long, dyed, hairspray-teased hair (hence the nickname "hair metal"); makeup such as lipstick and eyeliner; gaudy clothing, including leopard-skin-printed shirts or vests and tight denim, leather or spandex pants; and accessories such as headbands and jewelry. Pioneered by the heavy metal act X Japan in the late 1980s, bands in the Japanese movement known as visual kei , which includes many non-metal groups, emphasize elaborate costumes, hair and makeup. When performing live, many metal musicians – as well as the audience for whom they're playing – engage in headbanging , which involves rhythmically beating time with the head, often emphasized by long hair. The il cornuto , or "devil horns", hand gesture was popularized by vocalist Ronnie James Dio during his time with the bands Black Sabbath and Dio . Although Gene Simmons of Kiss claims to have been the first to make the gesture on the 1977 Love Gun album cover, there is speculation as to who started the phenomenon. Attendees of metal concerts do not dance in the usual sense. It has been argued that this is due to the music's largely male audience and "extreme heterosexualist ideology". Two primary body movements used are headbanging and an arm thrust that is both a sign of appreciation and a rhythmic gesture. The performance of air guitar is popular among metal fans both at concerts and listening to records at home. According to Deena Weinstein , thrash metal concerts have two elements that are not part of the other metal genres: moshing and stage diving , which "were imported from the punk/hardcore subculture ". Weinstein states that moshing participants bump and jostle each other as they move in a circle in an area called the "pit" near the stage. Stage divers climb onto the stage with the band and then jump "back into the audience". It has been argued that heavy metal has outlasted many other rock genres largely due to the emergence of an intense, exclusionary and strongly masculine subculture. While the metal fan base is largely young, white, male and blue-collar, the group is "tolerant of those outside its core demographic base who follow its codes of dress, appearance, and behavior". Identification with the subculture is strengthened not only by the group experience of concert-going and shared elements of fashion, but also by contributing to metal magazines and, more recently, websites. Attending live concerts in particular has been called the "holiest of heavy metal communions". The metal scene has been characterized as a "subculture of alienation" with its own code of authenticity. This code puts several demands on performers: they must appear both completely devoted to their music and loyal to the subculture that supports it; they must appear uninterested in mainstream appeal and radio hits; and they must never " sell out ". Deena Weinstein stated that for the fans themselves, the code promotes "opposition to established authority, and separateness from the rest of society". Musician and filmmaker Rob Zombie observed, "Most of the kids who come to my shows seem like really imaginative kids with a lot of creative energy they don't know what to do with" and that metal is "outsider music for outsiders. Nobody wants to be the weird kid; you just somehow end up being the weird kid. It's kind of like that, but with metal you have all the weird kids in one place." Scholars of metal have noted the tendency of fans to classify and reject some performers (and some other fans) as " poseurs " "who pretended to be part of the subculture, but who were deemed to lack authenticity and sincerity". The rhythm in metal songs is emphatic, with deliberate stresses. Weinstein observes that the wide array of sonic effects available to metal drummers enables the "rhythmic pattern to take on a complexity within its elemental drive and insistency". In many heavy metal songs, the main groove is characterized by short, two- or three-note rhythmic figures – generally made up of eighth or 16th notes . These rhythmic figures are usually performed with a staccato attack created by using a palm-muted technique on the rhythm guitar. Brief, abrupt and detached rhythmic cells are joined into rhythmic phrases with a distinctive, often jerky texture. These phrases are used to create rhythmic accompaniment and melodic figures called riffs , which help to establish thematic hooks . Heavy metal songs also use longer rhythmic figures such as whole note - or dotted quarter note-length chords in slow-tempo power ballads . The tempos in early heavy metal music tended to be "slow, even ponderous". By the late 1970s, however, metal bands were employing a wide variety of tempos, and as recently as the 2000s, metal tempos range from slow ballad tempos (quarter note = 60 beats per minute ) to extremely fast blast beat tempos (quarter note = 350 beats per minute). One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar power chord. In technical terms, the power chord is relatively simple: it involves just one main interval , generally the perfect fifth , though an octave may be added as a doubling of the root . When power chords are played on the lower strings at high volumes and with distortion, additional low-frequency sounds are created, which add to the "weight of the sound" and create an effect of "overwhelming power". Although the perfect fifth interval is the most common basis for the power chord, power chords are also based on different intervals such as the minor third , major third , perfect fourth , diminished fifth or minor sixth . Most power chords are also played with a consistent finger arrangement that can be slid easily up and down the fretboard . Heavy metal is usually based on riffs created with three main harmonic traits: modal scale progressions, tritone and chromatic progressions, and the use of pedal points . Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales, in particular the Aeolian and Phrygian modes . Harmonically speaking, this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as the Aeolian progressions I-♭VI-♭VII, I-♭VII-(♭VI), or I-♭VI-IV-♭VII and Phrygian progressions implying the relation between I and ♭II (I-♭II-I, I-♭II-III, or I-♭II-VII for example). Tense-sounding chromatic or tritone relationships are used in a number of metal chord progressions. In addition to using modal harmonic relationships, heavy metal also uses " pentatonic and blues-derived features". The tritone, an interval spanning three whole tones – such as C to F# – was considered extremely dissonant and unstable by medieval and Renaissance music theorists. It was nicknamed the diabolus in musica – "the devil in music". Heavy metal songs often make extensive use of pedal point as a harmonic basis. A pedal point is a sustained tone, typically in the bass range, during which at least one foreign (i.e., dissonant) harmony is sounded in the other parts. According to Robert Walser, heavy metal harmonic relationships are "often quite complex" and the harmonic analysis done by metal players and teachers is "often very sophisticated". In the study of heavy metal chord structures, it has been concluded that "heavy metal music has proved to be far more complicated" than other music researchers had realized. Robert Walser stated that, alongside blues and R&B, the "assemblage of disparate musical styles known ... as ' classical music '" has been a major influence on heavy metal since the genre's earliest days, and that metal's "most influential musicians have been guitar players who have also studied classical music. Their appropriation and adaptation of classical models sparked the development of a new kind of guitar virtuosity [and] changes in the harmonic and melodic language of heavy metal." In an article written for Grove Music Online , Walser stated that the "1980s brought on ... the widespread adaptation of chord progressions and virtuosic practices from 18th-century European models, especially Bach and Antonio Vivaldi , by influential guitarists such as Ritchie Blackmore , Marty Friedman , Jason Becker , Uli Jon Roth , Eddie Van Halen , Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen ." Kurt Bachmann of Believer has stated that "if done correctly, metal and classical fit quite well together. Classical and metal are probably the two genres that have the most in common when it comes to feel, texture, creativity." Although a number of metal musicians cite classical composers as inspiration, classical and metal are rooted in different cultural traditions and practices – classical in the art music tradition, metal in the popular music tradition. As musicologists Nicolas Cook and Nicola Dibben note: "Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of 'art traditions.' An example is Walser's linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth-century Romanticism . However, it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues, rock, heavy metal, rap or dance music derive primarily from "art music.'" The rhythm in metal songs is emphatic, with deliberate stresses. Weinstein observes that the wide array of sonic effects available to metal drummers enables the "rhythmic pattern to take on a complexity within its elemental drive and insistency". In many heavy metal songs, the main groove is characterized by short, two- or three-note rhythmic figures – generally made up of eighth or 16th notes . These rhythmic figures are usually performed with a staccato attack created by using a palm-muted technique on the rhythm guitar. Brief, abrupt and detached rhythmic cells are joined into rhythmic phrases with a distinctive, often jerky texture. These phrases are used to create rhythmic accompaniment and melodic figures called riffs , which help to establish thematic hooks . Heavy metal songs also use longer rhythmic figures such as whole note - or dotted quarter note-length chords in slow-tempo power ballads . The tempos in early heavy metal music tended to be "slow, even ponderous". By the late 1970s, however, metal bands were employing a wide variety of tempos, and as recently as the 2000s, metal tempos range from slow ballad tempos (quarter note = 60 beats per minute ) to extremely fast blast beat tempos (quarter note = 350 beats per minute). One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar power chord. In technical terms, the power chord is relatively simple: it involves just one main interval , generally the perfect fifth , though an octave may be added as a doubling of the root . When power chords are played on the lower strings at high volumes and with distortion, additional low-frequency sounds are created, which add to the "weight of the sound" and create an effect of "overwhelming power". Although the perfect fifth interval is the most common basis for the power chord, power chords are also based on different intervals such as the minor third , major third , perfect fourth , diminished fifth or minor sixth . Most power chords are also played with a consistent finger arrangement that can be slid easily up and down the fretboard . Heavy metal is usually based on riffs created with three main harmonic traits: modal scale progressions, tritone and chromatic progressions, and the use of pedal points . Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales, in particular the Aeolian and Phrygian modes . Harmonically speaking, this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as the Aeolian progressions I-♭VI-♭VII, I-♭VII-(♭VI), or I-♭VI-IV-♭VII and Phrygian progressions implying the relation between I and ♭II (I-♭II-I, I-♭II-III, or I-♭II-VII for example). Tense-sounding chromatic or tritone relationships are used in a number of metal chord progressions. In addition to using modal harmonic relationships, heavy metal also uses " pentatonic and blues-derived features". The tritone, an interval spanning three whole tones – such as C to F# – was considered extremely dissonant and unstable by medieval and Renaissance music theorists. It was nicknamed the diabolus in musica – "the devil in music". Heavy metal songs often make extensive use of pedal point as a harmonic basis. A pedal point is a sustained tone, typically in the bass range, during which at least one foreign (i.e., dissonant) harmony is sounded in the other parts. According to Robert Walser, heavy metal harmonic relationships are "often quite complex" and the harmonic analysis done by metal players and teachers is "often very sophisticated". In the study of heavy metal chord structures, it has been concluded that "heavy metal music has proved to be far more complicated" than other music researchers had realized. Robert Walser stated that, alongside blues and R&B, the "assemblage of disparate musical styles known ... as ' classical music '" has been a major influence on heavy metal since the genre's earliest days, and that metal's "most influential musicians have been guitar players who have also studied classical music. Their appropriation and adaptation of classical models sparked the development of a new kind of guitar virtuosity [and] changes in the harmonic and melodic language of heavy metal." In an article written for Grove Music Online , Walser stated that the "1980s brought on ... the widespread adaptation of chord progressions and virtuosic practices from 18th-century European models, especially Bach and Antonio Vivaldi , by influential guitarists such as Ritchie Blackmore , Marty Friedman , Jason Becker , Uli Jon Roth , Eddie Van Halen , Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen ." Kurt Bachmann of Believer has stated that "if done correctly, metal and classical fit quite well together. Classical and metal are probably the two genres that have the most in common when it comes to feel, texture, creativity." Although a number of metal musicians cite classical composers as inspiration, classical and metal are rooted in different cultural traditions and practices – classical in the art music tradition, metal in the popular music tradition. As musicologists Nicolas Cook and Nicola Dibben note: "Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of 'art traditions.' An example is Walser's linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth-century Romanticism . However, it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues, rock, heavy metal, rap or dance music derive primarily from "art music.'" According to David Hatch and Stephen Millward, Black Sabbath and the numerous heavy metal bands that they inspired have concentrated lyrically "on dark and depressing subject matter to an extent hitherto unprecedented in any form of pop music." They take as an example Black Sabbath's second album, Paranoid (1970), which "included songs dealing with personal trauma—' Paranoid ' and ' Fairies Wear Boots ' (which described the unsavoury side effects of drug-taking)—as well as those confronting wider issues, such as the self-explanatory ' War Pigs ' and ' Hand of Doom .'" Deriving from the genre's roots in blues music, sex is another important topic – a thread running from Led Zeppelin's suggestive lyrics to the more explicit references of glam metal and nu metal bands. The thematic content of heavy metal has long been a target of criticism. According to Jon Pareles , "Heavy metal's main subject matter is simple and virtually universal. With grunts, moans and subliterary lyrics, it celebrates ... a party without limits ... [T]he bulk of the music is stylized and formulaic." Music critics have often deemed metal lyrics juvenile and banal, and others have objected to what they see as advocacy of misogyny and the occult. During the 1980s, the Parents Music Resource Center petitioned the U.S. Congress to regulate the popular music industry due to what the group asserted were objectionable lyrics, particularly those in heavy metal songs. Andrew Cope stated that claims that heavy metal lyrics are misogynistic are "clearly misguided" as these critics have "overlook[ed] the overwhelming evidence that suggests otherwise". Music critic Robert Christgau called metal "an expressive mode [that] it sometimes seems will be with us for as long as ordinary white boys fear girls, pity themselves, and are permitted to rage against a world they'll never beat". Heavy metal artists have had to defend their lyrics in front of the U.S. Senate and in court. In 1985, Twisted Sister frontman Dee Snider was asked to defend his song " Under the Blade " at a U.S. Senate hearing. At the hearing, the PMRC alleged that the song was about sadomasochism and rape ; Snider stated that the song was about his bandmate's throat surgery. In 1986, Ozzy Osbourne was sued over the lyrics of his song " Suicide Solution ". A lawsuit against Osbourne was filed by the parents of John McCollum, a depressed teenager who committed suicide allegedly after listening to Osbourne's song. Osbourne was not found to be responsible for the teen's death. In 1990, Judas Priest was sued in American court by the parents of two young men who had shot themselves five years earlier, allegedly after hearing the subliminal statement "do it" in the band's cover of the song " Better by You, Better than Me ". While the case attracted a great deal of media attention, it was ultimately dismissed. In 1991, U.K. police seized death metal records from the British record label Earache Records , in an "unsuccessful attempt to prosecute the label for obscenity". In some predominantly Muslim countries, heavy metal has been officially denounced as a threat to traditional values, and in countries such as Morocco, Egypt, Lebanon and Malaysia, there have been incidents of heavy metal musicians and fans being arrested and incarcerated. In 1997, the Egyptian police jailed many young metal fans, and they were accused of "devil worship" and blasphemy after police found metal recordings during searches of their homes. In 2013, Malaysia banned Lamb of God from performing in their country, on the grounds that the "band's lyrics could be interpreted as being religiously insensitive" and blasphemous. Some people consider heavy metal music to be a leading factor for mental health disorders, and that heavy metal fans are more likely to suffer poor mental health, but a study from 2009 suggests that this is not true and that fans of heavy metal music suffer from poor mental health at a similar or lower rate compared to the general population. For many artists and bands, visual imagery plays a large role in heavy metal. In addition to its sound and lyrics, a heavy metal band's image is expressed in album cover art, logos, stage sets, clothing, design of instruments and music videos . Down-the-back long hair is the "most crucial distinguishing feature of metal fashion". Originally adopted from the hippie subculture, by the 1980s and 1990s, heavy metal hair "symbolised the hate, angst and disenchantment of a generation that seemingly never felt at home", according to journalist Nader Rahman. Long hair gave members of the metal community "the power they needed to rebel against nothing in general". The classic uniform of heavy metal fans consists of light-colored, ripped, frayed or torn blue jeans, black T-shirts, boots, and black leather or denim jackets. Deena Weinstein wrote, "T-shirts are generally emblazoned with the logos or other visual representations of favorite metal bands." In the 1980s, a range of sources – from punk rock and goth music to horror films – influenced metal fashion. Many metal performers of the 1970s and 1980s used radically shaped and brightly colored instruments to enhance their stage appearance. Fashion and personal style was especially important for glam metal bands of the era. Performers typically wore long, dyed, hairspray-teased hair (hence the nickname "hair metal"); makeup such as lipstick and eyeliner; gaudy clothing, including leopard-skin-printed shirts or vests and tight denim, leather or spandex pants; and accessories such as headbands and jewelry. Pioneered by the heavy metal act X Japan in the late 1980s, bands in the Japanese movement known as visual kei , which includes many non-metal groups, emphasize elaborate costumes, hair and makeup. When performing live, many metal musicians – as well as the audience for whom they're playing – engage in headbanging , which involves rhythmically beating time with the head, often emphasized by long hair. The il cornuto , or "devil horns", hand gesture was popularized by vocalist Ronnie James Dio during his time with the bands Black Sabbath and Dio . Although Gene Simmons of Kiss claims to have been the first to make the gesture on the 1977 Love Gun album cover, there is speculation as to who started the phenomenon. Attendees of metal concerts do not dance in the usual sense. It has been argued that this is due to the music's largely male audience and "extreme heterosexualist ideology". Two primary body movements used are headbanging and an arm thrust that is both a sign of appreciation and a rhythmic gesture. The performance of air guitar is popular among metal fans both at concerts and listening to records at home. According to Deena Weinstein , thrash metal concerts have two elements that are not part of the other metal genres: moshing and stage diving , which "were imported from the punk/hardcore subculture ". Weinstein states that moshing participants bump and jostle each other as they move in a circle in an area called the "pit" near the stage. Stage divers climb onto the stage with the band and then jump "back into the audience". It has been argued that heavy metal has outlasted many other rock genres largely due to the emergence of an intense, exclusionary and strongly masculine subculture. While the metal fan base is largely young, white, male and blue-collar, the group is "tolerant of those outside its core demographic base who follow its codes of dress, appearance, and behavior". Identification with the subculture is strengthened not only by the group experience of concert-going and shared elements of fashion, but also by contributing to metal magazines and, more recently, websites. Attending live concerts in particular has been called the "holiest of heavy metal communions". The metal scene has been characterized as a "subculture of alienation" with its own code of authenticity. This code puts several demands on performers: they must appear both completely devoted to their music and loyal to the subculture that supports it; they must appear uninterested in mainstream appeal and radio hits; and they must never " sell out ". Deena Weinstein stated that for the fans themselves, the code promotes "opposition to established authority, and separateness from the rest of society". Musician and filmmaker Rob Zombie observed, "Most of the kids who come to my shows seem like really imaginative kids with a lot of creative energy they don't know what to do with" and that metal is "outsider music for outsiders. Nobody wants to be the weird kid; you just somehow end up being the weird kid. It's kind of like that, but with metal you have all the weird kids in one place." Scholars of metal have noted the tendency of fans to classify and reject some performers (and some other fans) as " poseurs " "who pretended to be part of the subculture, but who were deemed to lack authenticity and sincerity". The origin of the term "heavy metal" in a musical context is uncertain. The phrase has been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy, where the periodic table organizes elements of both light and heavy metals (e.g., uranium). An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by countercultural writer William S. Burroughs . His 1961 novel The Soft Machine includes a character known as "Uranian Willy, the Heavy Metal Kid". Burroughs' next novel, Nova Express (1964), develops the theme, using "heavy metal" as a metaphor for addictive drugs: "With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms—Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes—And The Insect People of Minraud with metal music." Inspired by Burroughs' novels, the term was used in the title of the 1967 album Featuring the Human Host and the Heavy Metal Kids by Hapshash and the Coloured Coat , which has been claimed to be its first use in the context of music. The phrase was later lifted by Sandy Pearlman , who used the term to describe the Byrds for their supposed "aluminium style of context and effect", particularly on their album The Notorious Byrd Brothers (1968). Metal historian Ian Christe describes what the components of the term mean in " hippiespeak ": "heavy" is roughly synonymous with "potent" or "profound", and "metal" designates a certain type of mood, grinding and weighted as with metal. The word "heavy" in this sense was a basic element of beatnik and later countercultural hippie slang , and references to "heavy music" – typically slower, more amplified variations of standard pop fare – were already common by the mid-1960s, such as in reference to Vanilla Fudge . Iron Butterfly 's debut album, which was released in early 1968, was titled Heavy . The first use of "heavy metal" in a song lyric is in reference to a motorcycle in the Steppenwolf song " Born to Be Wild ", also released that year: "I like smoke and lightning / Heavy metal thunder / Racin' with the wind / And the feelin' that I'm under". An early documented use of the phrase in rock criticism appears in Sandy Pearlman's February 1967 Crawdaddy review of the Rolling Stones ' Got Live If You Want It (1966), albeit as a description of the sound rather than as a genre: "On this album the Stones go metal. Technology is in the saddle—as an ideal and as a method." [nb 1] Another appears in the 11 May 1968 issue of Rolling Stone , in which Barry Gifford wrote about the album A Long Time Comin' by U.S. band Electric Flag : "Nobody who's been listening to Mike Bloomfield —either talking or playing—in the last few years could have expected this. This is the new soul music, the synthesis of white blues and heavy metal rock." In the 7 September 1968 edition of the Seattle Daily Times , reviewer Susan Schwartz wrote that the Jimi Hendrix Experience "has a heavy-metal s blues sound". In January 1970, Lucian K. Truscott IV , reviewing Led Zeppelin II for the Village Voice , described the sound as "heavy" and made comparisons with Blue Cheer and Vanilla Fudge . Other early documented uses of the phrase are from reviews by critic Mike Saunders . In the 12 November 1970 issue of Rolling Stone , he commented on an album put out the previous year by the British band Humble Pie : " Safe as Yesterday Is , their first American release, proved that Humble Pie could be boring in lots of different ways. Here they were a noisy, unmelodic, heavy metal-leaden shit-rock band with the loud and noisy parts beyond doubt. There were a couple of nice songs ... and one monumental pile of refuse." He described the band's latest, self-titled release as "more of the same 27th-rate heavy metal crap". In a review of Sir Lord Baltimore 's Kingdom Come in the May 1971 edition of Creem , Saunders wrote, "Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book." Creem critic Lester Bangs is credited with popularizing the term via his early 1970s essays on bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. Through the decade, "heavy metal" was used by certain critics as a virtually automatic putdown. In 1979, lead New York Times popular music critic John Rockwell described what he called "heavy-metal rock" as "brutally aggressive music played mostly for minds clouded by drugs" and, in a different article, as "a crude exaggeration of rock basics that appeals to white teenagers". Coined by Black Sabbath drummer Bill Ward , "downer rock" was one of the earliest terms used to describe this style of music and was applied to acts such as Sabbath and Bloodrock . Classic Rock magazine described the downer rock culture revolving around the use of Quaaludes and the drinking of wine. The term would later be replaced by "heavy metal". Earlier on, as "heavy metal" emerged partially from heavy psychedelic rock, also known as acid rock , "acid rock" was often used interchangeably with "heavy metal" and " hard rock ". "Acid rock" generally describes heavy, hard or raw psychedelic rock. Musicologist Steve Waksman stated that "the distinction between acid rock, hard rock, and heavy metal can at some point never be more than tenuous", while percussionist John Beck defined "acid rock" as synonymous with hard rock and heavy metal. Apart from "acid rock", the terms "heavy metal" and "hard rock" have often been used interchangeably, particularly in discussing bands of the 1970s, a period when the terms were largely synonymous. For example, the 1983 edition of the Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll includes the following passage: "Known for its aggressive blues-based hard-rock style, Aerosmith was the top American heavy-metal band of the mid-Seventies". "The term 'heavy metal' is self-defeating," remarked Kiss bassist Gene Simmons . "When I think of heavy metal, I've always thought of elves and evil dwarves and evil princes and princesses. A lot of the Maiden and Priest records were real metal records. I sure as hell don't think Metallica 's metal, or Guns N' Roses is metal, or Kiss is metal. It just doesn't deal with the ground opening up and little dwarves coming out riding dragons! You know, like bad Dio records." Heavy metal's quintessential guitar style, which is built around distortion-heavy riffs and power chords, traces its roots to early 1950s Memphis blues guitarists such as Joe Hill Louis , Willie Johnson and particularly Pat Hare , who captured a "grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound" on records such as James Cotton 's " Cotton Crop Blues " (1954). Other early influences include the late 1950s instrumentals of Link Wray , particularly " Rumble " (1958); the early 1960s surf rock of Dick Dale , including " Let's Go Trippin' " (1961) and " Misirlou " (1962); and The Kingsmen 's version of " Louie Louie " (1963), which became a garage rock standard. However, the genre's direct lineage begins in the mid-1960s. American blues music was a major influence on the early British rockers of the era. Bands like The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds developed blues rock by recording covers of classic blues songs, often speeding up the tempos . As they experimented with the music, the U.K. blues-based bands – and in turn the U.S. acts they influenced – developed what would become the hallmarks of heavy metal (in particular, the loud, distorted guitar sound). The Kinks played a major role in popularising this sound with their 1964 hit " You Really Got Me ". In addition to The Kinks' Dave Davies , other guitarists such as The Who 's Pete Townshend and The Yardbirds' Jeff Beck were experimenting with feedback. Where the blues rock drumming style started out largely as simple shuffle beats on small kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex and amplified approach to match and be heard against the increasingly loud guitar. Vocalists similarly modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylized and dramatic. In terms of sheer volume, especially in live performance, The Who's "bigger-louder-wall-of- Marshalls " approach was seminal to the development of the later heavy metal sound. The combination of this loud and heavy blues rock with psychedelic rock and acid rock formed much of the original basis for heavy metal. The variant or subgenre of psychedelic rock often known as " acid rock " was particularly influential on heavy metal and its development; acid rock is often defined as a heavier, louder, or harder variant of psychedelic rock, or the more extreme side of the psychedelic rock genre, frequently containing a loud, improvised, and heavily distorted, guitar-centered sound. Acid rock has been described as psychedelic rock at its "rawest and most intense", emphasizing the heavier qualities associated with both the positive and negative extremes of the psychedelic experience rather than only the idyllic side of psychedelia. In contrast to more idyllic or whimsical pop psychedelic rock, American acid rock garage bands such as the 13th Floor Elevators epitomized the frenetic, heavier, darker, and more psychotic psychedelic rock sound known as acid rock, a sound characterized by droning guitar riffs, amplified feedback, and guitar distortion, while the 13th Floor Elevators' sound in particular featured yelping vocals and "occasionally demented" lyrics. Frank Hoffman noted that "[Psychedelic rock] was sometimes referred to as 'acid rock'. The latter label was applied to a pounding, hard rock variant that evolved out of the mid-1960s garage-punk movement. ... When rock began turning back to softer, roots-oriented sounds in late 1968, acid-rock bands mutated into heavy metal acts." One of the most influential bands in forging the merger of psychedelic rock and acid rock with the blues rock genre was the British power trio Cream , who derived a massive, heavy sound from unison riffing between guitarist Eric Clapton and bassist Jack Bruce , as well as Ginger Baker 's double bass drumming. Their first two LPs – Fresh Cream (1966) and Disraeli Gears (1967) – are regarded as essential prototypes for the future style of heavy metal. The Jimi Hendrix Experience 's debut album, Are You Experienced (1967), was also highly influential. Hendrix 's virtuosic technique would be emulated by many metal guitarists, and the album's most successful single, " Purple Haze ", is identified by some as the first heavy metal hit. Vanilla Fudge , whose first album also came out in 1967, has been called "one of the few American links between psychedelia and what soon became heavy metal," and the band has been cited as an early American heavy metal group. On their self-titled debut album, Vanilla Fudge created "loud, heavy, slowed-down arrangements" of contemporary hit songs, blowing these songs up to "epic proportions" and "bathing them in a trippy, distorted haze". During the late 1960s, many psychedelic singers, such as Arthur Brown , began to create outlandish, theatrical, and often macabre performances that influenced many metal acts. The American psychedelic rock band Coven , who opened for early heavy metal influencers such as Vanilla Fudge and the Yardbirds, portrayed themselves as practitioners of witchcraft or black magic , using dark – Satanic or occult – imagery in their lyrics, album art and live performances, which consisted of elaborate, theatrical " Satanic rites ". Coven's 1969 debut album, Witchcraft Destroys Minds & Reaps Souls , featured imagery of skulls, black masses , inverted crosses , and Satan worship, and both the album artwork and the band's live performances marked the first appearances in rock music of the sign of the horns , which would later become an important gesture in heavy metal culture. Coven's lyrical and thematic influences on heavy metal were quickly overshadowed by the darker and heavier sounds of Black Sabbath . Critics disagree over who can be thought of as the first heavy metal band. Most credit the British bands Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath , with American commentators tending to favour Led Zeppelin and British commentators tending to favour Black Sabbath, though many give equal credit to both. Deep Purple , the third band in what is sometimes considered the "unholy trinity" of heavy metal along with Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, fluctuated between many rock styles until late 1969 when they took a heavy metal direction. A few commentators – mainly American – argue for other groups, including Iron Butterfly , Steppenwolf , Blue Cheer , or Vanilla Fudge , as the first to play heavy metal. In 1968, the sound that would become known as heavy metal began to coalesce. That January, San Francisco band Blue Cheer released a cover of Eddie Cochran 's classic " Summertime Blues " as a part of their debut album, Vincebus Eruptum , and many consider it to be the first true heavy metal recording. The same month, Steppenwolf released their self-titled debut album , on which the track " Born to Be Wild " refers to "heavy metal thunder" in describing a motorcycle. In July, the Jeff Beck Group , whose leader had preceded Page as The Yardbirds' guitarist, released its debut record, Truth , which featured some of the "most molten, barbed, downright funny noises of all time", breaking ground for generations of metal ax-slingers. In September, Page's new band, Led Zeppelin , made its live debut in Denmark (but were billed as The New Yardbirds). The Beatles ' self-titled double album , released in November, included " Helter Skelter ", then one of the heaviest-sounding songs ever released by a major band. The Pretty Things ' rock opera S.F. Sorrow , released in December, featured "proto heavy metal" songs such as "Old Man Going" and "I See You". Iron Butterfly 's 1968 song " In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida " is sometimes described as an example of the transition between acid rock and heavy metal or the turning point in which acid rock became "heavy metal", and both Iron Butterfly's 1968 album In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida and Blue Cheer's 1968 album Vincebus Eruptum have been described as laying the foundation of heavy metal and greatly influential in the transformation of acid rock into heavy metal. In this counterculture period, MC5 , who began as part of the Detroit garage rock scene, developed a raw, distorted style that has been seen as a major influence on the future sound of both heavy metal and later punk music . The Stooges also began to establish and influence a heavy metal and later punk sound, with songs such as " I Wanna Be Your Dog ", featuring pounding and distorted heavy guitar power chord riffs. Pink Floyd released two of their heaviest and loudest songs to date, " Ibiza Bar " and " The Nile Song ", the latter of which being regarded as "one of the heaviest songs the band recorded." King Crimson 's debut album started with " 21st Century Schizoid Man ", which was considered heavy metal by several critics. In January 1969, Led Zeppelin's self-titled debut album was released and reached No. 10 on the Billboard album chart. In July, Led Zeppelin and a power trio with a Cream-inspired, but cruder sound, called Grand Funk Railroad played the Atlanta Pop Festival . That same month, another Cream-rooted trio led by Leslie West released Mountain , an album filled with heavy blues rock guitar and roaring vocals. In August, the group – now itself dubbed Mountain – played an hour-long set at the Woodstock Festival , exposing the crowd of 300,000 people to the emerging sound of heavy metal. Mountain's proto-metal or early heavy metal hit song " Mississippi Queen " from the album Climbing! is especially credited with paving the way for heavy metal and was one of the first heavy guitar songs to receive regular play on radio. In September 1969, the Beatles released the album Abbey Road containing the track " I Want You (She's So Heavy) ", which has been credited as an early example of or influence on heavy metal or doom metal . In October 1969, British band High Tide debuted with the heavy, proto-metal album Sea Shanties . Led Zeppelin defined central aspects of the emerging genre, with Page's highly distorted guitar style and singer Robert Plant 's dramatic, wailing vocals. Other bands, with a more consistently heavy, "purely" metal sound, would prove equally important in codifying the genre. The 1970 releases by Black Sabbath ( Black Sabbath , which is generally accepted as the first heavy metal album, and Paranoid ) and Deep Purple ( Deep Purple in Rock ) were crucial in this regard. Birmingham 's Black Sabbath had developed a particularly heavy sound in part due to a work accident in which guitarist Tony Iommi lost the ends of two fingers. Unable to play normally, Iommi had to tune his guitar down for easier fretting and rely on power chords with their relatively simple fingering. The bleak, industrial, working-class environment of Birmingham , a manufacturing city full of noisy factories and metalworking , has itself been credited with influencing Black Sabbath's heavy, chugging, metallic sound – and the sound of heavy metal in general. Deep Purple had fluctuated between styles in its early years, but by 1969, vocalist Ian Gillan and guitarist Ritchie Blackmore had led the band toward the developing heavy metal style. In 1970, Black Sabbath and Deep Purple scored major U.K. chart hits with " Paranoid " and " Black Night ", respectively. That same year, two other British bands released debut albums in a heavy metal mode: Uriah Heep with ... Very 'Eavy ... Very 'Umble and UFO with UFO 1 . Bloodrock released their self-titled debut album , a collection of heavy guitar riffs, gruff style vocals and sadistic and macabre lyrics. The influential Budgie brought the new metal sound into a power trio context, creating some of the heaviest music of the time. The occult lyrics and imagery employed by Black Sabbath and Uriah Heep would prove particularly influential; Led Zeppelin also began foregrounding such elements with its fourth album , released in 1971. In 1973, Deep Purple released the song " Smoke on the Water ", whose iconic riff is usually considered as the most recognizable one in "heavy rock" history, as a single of the classic live album Made in Japan . On the other side of the Atlantic, the trendsetting group was Grand Funk Railroad , who was described as "the most commercially successful American heavy-metal band from 1970 until they disbanded in 1976, [they] established the Seventies success formula: continuous touring." Other influential bands identified with metal emerged in the U.S. such as Sir Lord Baltimore ( Kingdom Come , 1970), Blue Öyster Cult ( Blue Öyster Cult , 1972), Aerosmith ( Aerosmith , 1973) and Kiss ( Kiss , 1974). Sir Lord Baltimore's 1970 debut album and both Humble Pie 's debut and self-titled third album were among the first albums to be described in print as "heavy metal", with As Safe As Yesterday Is referred to by the term "heavy metal" in a 1970 review in Rolling Stone magazine. Various smaller bands from the U.S., U.K. and Continental Europe – including Bang , Josefus , Leaf Hound , Primeval , Hard Stuff , Truth and Janey , Dust , JPT Scare Band , Frijid Pink , Cactus , Irish Coffee , May Blitz , Captain Beyond , Toad , Granicus , Iron Claw , and Yesterday's Children – though lesser known outside of their respective scenes, proved to be greatly influential on the emerging metal movement. In Germany, Scorpions debuted with Lonesome Crow in 1972. Blackmore, who had emerged as a virtuoso soloist with Deep Purple's highly influential album Machine Head (1972), left the band in 1975 to form Rainbow with Ronnie James Dio , singer and bassist for blues rock band Elf and future vocalist for Black Sabbath and heavy metal band Dio . Rainbow with Ronnie James Dio would expand on the mystical and fantasy -based lyrics and themes sometimes found in heavy metal, pioneering both power metal and neoclassical metal . These bands also built audiences via constant touring and increasingly elaborate stage shows. There are arguments about whether these and other early bands truly qualify as "heavy metal" or simply as "hard rock". Those closer to the music's blues roots or placing greater emphasis on melody are now commonly ascribed the latter label. AC/DC , which debuted with High Voltage in 1975, is a prime example. The 1983 Rolling Stone encyclopedia entry begins, "Australian heavy-metal band AC/DC ..." Rock historian Clinton Walker wrote, "Calling AC/DC a heavy metal band in the seventies was as inaccurate as it is today. ... [They] were a rock 'n' roll band that just happened to be heavy enough for metal." The issue is not only one of shifting definitions, but also a persistent distinction between musical style and audience identification; Ian Christe describes how the band "became the stepping-stone that led huge numbers of hard rock fans into heavy metal perdition". In certain cases, there is little debate. After Black Sabbath, the next major example is Britain's Judas Priest , which debuted with Rocka Rolla in 1974. In Christe's description, Black Sabbath's audience was ... left to scavenge for sounds with similar impact. By the mid-1970s, heavy metal aesthetic could be spotted, like a mythical beast, in the moody bass and complex dual guitars of Thin Lizzy , in the stagecraft of Alice Cooper , in the sizzling guitar and showy vocals of Queen , and in the thundering medieval questions of Rainbow. ... Judas Priest arrived to unify and amplify these diverse highlights from hard rock's sonic palette. For the first time, heavy metal became a true genre unto itself. Though Judas Priest did not have a top 40 album in the United States until 1980, for many it was the definitive post-Sabbath heavy metal band; its twin-guitar attack, featuring rapid tempos and a non-bluesy, more cleanly metallic sound, was a major influence on later acts. While heavy metal was growing in popularity, most critics were not enamored of the music. Objections were raised to metal's adoption of visual spectacle and other trappings of commercial artifice, but the main offense was its perceived musical and lyrical vacuity: reviewing a Black Sabbath album in the early 1970s, Robert Christgau described it as "dull and decadent ... dim-witted, amoral exploitation." Punk rock emerged in the mid-1970s as a reaction against contemporary social conditions as well as what was perceived as the overindulgent, overproduced rock music of the time, including heavy metal. Sales of heavy metal records declined sharply in the late 1970s in the face of punk, disco and more mainstream rock. With the major labels fixated on punk, many newer British heavy metal bands were inspired by the movement's aggressive, high-energy sound and " lo-fi ", do it yourself ethos. Underground metal bands began putting out cheaply recorded releases independently to small, devoted audiences. Motörhead , founded in 1975, was the first important band to straddle the punk/metal divide. With the explosion of punk in 1977, others followed. British music magazines such as the NME and Sounds took notice, with Sounds writer Geoff Barton christening the movement the "New Wave of British Heavy Metal". NWOBHM bands including Iron Maiden , Saxon and Def Leppard re-energized the heavy metal genre. Following the lead set by Judas Priest and Motörhead, they toughened up the sound, reduced its blues elements and emphasized increasingly fast tempos. "This seemed to be the resurgence of heavy metal," noted Ronnie James Dio , who joined Black Sabbath in 1979. "I've never thought there was a desurgence of heavy metal – if that's a word! – but it was important to me that, yet again [after Rainbow ] , I could be involved in something that was paving the way for those who are going to come after me." By 1980, the NWOBHM had broken into the mainstream, as albums by Iron Maiden and Saxon, as well as Motörhead, reached the British top 10. Though less commercially successful, NWOBHM bands such as Venom and Diamond Head would have a significant influence on metal's development. In 1981, Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the U.K. charts with the live album No Sleep 'til Hammersmith . The first generation of metal bands was ceding the limelight. Deep Purple broke up soon after Blackmore's departure in 1975, and Led Zeppelin split following drummer John Bonham 's death in 1980. Black Sabbath were plagued with infighting and substance abuse, while facing fierce competition from their opening band , Van Halen . Eddie Van Halen established himself as one of the leading metal guitarists of the era. His solo on " Eruption ", from the band's self-titled 1978 album , is considered a milestone. Eddie Van Halen's sound even crossed over into pop music when his guitar solo was featured on the track " Beat It " by Michael Jackson , which reached No. 1 in the U.S. in February 1983. Inspired by Van Halen's success, a metal scene began to develop in Southern California during the late 1970s. Based on the clubs of L.A.'s Sunset Strip , bands such as Mötley Crüe , Quiet Riot , Ratt and W.A.S.P. were influenced by traditional heavy metal of the 1970s. These acts incorporated the theatrics (and sometimes makeup) of glam metal or "hair metal" bands such as Alice Cooper and Kiss. Glam metal bands were often visually distinguished by long, overworked hairstyles accompanied by wardrobes which were sometimes considered cross-gender. The lyrics of these glam metal bands characteristically emphasized hedonism and wild behavior, including lyrics that involved sexual expletives and the use of narcotics. In the wake of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal and Judas Priest's breakthrough with British Steel (1980), heavy metal became increasingly popular in the early 1980s. Many metal artists benefited from the exposure they received on MTV , which began airing in 1981; sales often soared if a band's videos screened on the channel. Def Leppard's videos for Pyromania (1983) made them superstars in America, and Quiet Riot became the first domestic heavy metal band to top the Billboard chart with Metal Health (1983). One of the seminal events in metal's growing popularity was the 1983 US Festival in California, where the "heavy metal day" featuring Ozzy Osbourne, Van Halen, Scorpions, Mötley Crüe, Judas Priest and others drew the largest audiences of the three-day event. Between 1983 and 1984, heavy metal's share of all recordings sold in the U.S. increased from 8% to 20%. Several major professional magazines devoted to the genre were launched, including Kerrang! in 1981 and Metal Hammer in 1984, as well as a host of fan journals. In 1985, Billboard declared: "Metal has broadened its audience base. Metal music is no longer the exclusive domain of male teenagers. The metal audience has become older (college-aged), younger (pre-teen), and more female." By the mid-1980s, glam metal was a dominant presence on the U.S. charts, music television and the arena concert circuit. New bands such as L.A.'s Warrant and acts from the East Coast like Poison and Cinderella became major draws, while Mötley Crüe and Ratt remained very popular. Bridging the stylistic gap between hard rock and glam metal, New Jersey 's Bon Jovi became enormously successful with its third album, Slippery When Wet (1986). The similarly styled Swedish band Europe became international stars with The Final Countdown (1986), whose title track hit No. 1 in 25 countries. In 1987, MTV launched Headbangers Ball , a show devoted exclusively to heavy metal videos. However, the metal audience had begun to factionalize, with those in many underground metal scenes favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular style as "light metal" or "hair metal". One band that reached diverse audiences was Guns N' Roses . In contrast to their glam metal contemporaries in L.A., they were seen as much more raw and dangerous. [ citation needed ] With the release of their chart-topping album Appetite for Destruction in 1987, they "recharged and almost single-handedly sustained the Sunset Strip sleaze system for several years". The following year, Jane's Addiction emerged from the same L.A. hard-rock club scene with their major-label debut, Nothing's Shocking . Reviewing the album, Steve Pond of Rolling Stone declared, "As much as any band in existence, Jane's Addiction is the true heir to Led Zeppelin." The group was one of the first to be identified with the " alternative metal " trend that would come to the fore in the next decade. Meanwhile, new bands like New York City's Winger and New Jersey's Skid Row sustained the popularity of the glam metal style. Many subgenres of heavy metal developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s, such as crossover thrash . Several attempts have been made to map the complex world of underground metal, most notably by the editors of AllMusic , as well as critic Garry Sharpe-Young . Sharpe-Young's multivolume metal encyclopedia separates the underground into five major categories: thrash metal , death metal , black metal , power metal and the related subgenres of doom and gothic metal . In 1990, a review in Rolling Stone suggested retiring the term "heavy metal" as the genre was "ridiculously vague". The article stated that the term only fueled "misperceptions of rock & roll bigots who still assume that five bands as different as Ratt , Extreme , Anthrax , Danzig and Mother Love Bone " sound the same. Thrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of hardcore punk and the New Wave of British Heavy Metal, particularly songs in the revved-up style known as speed metal . The movement began in the United States, with Bay Area thrash metal being the leading scene. The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors. Low-register guitar riffs are typically overlaid with shredding leads. Lyrics often express nihilistic views or deal with social issues using visceral, gory language. Thrash has been described as a form of "urban blight music" and "a palefaced cousin of rap". The subgenre was popularized by the "Big Four of Thrash": Metallica , Anthrax , Megadeth and Slayer . Three German bands, Kreator , Sodom and Destruction , played a central role in bringing the style to Europe. Others, including the San Francisco Bay Area's Testament and Exodus , New Jersey's Overkill , and Brazil's Sepultura and Sarcófago , also had a significant impact. Although thrash metal began as an underground movement, and remained largely that for almost a decade, the leading bands of the scene began to reach a wider audience. Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the Billboard album chart in 1986 with Master of Puppets , the genre's first Platinum record. Two years later, the band's album ... And Justice for All hit No. 6, while Megadeth and Anthrax also had top 40 records on the American charts. Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four, Slayer released one of the genre's definitive records: Reign in Blood (1986) was credited for incorporating heavier guitar timbres and including explicit depictions of death, suffering, violence and occult into thrash metal's lyricism. Slayer attracted a following among far-right skinheads , and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band. Even though Slayer did not receive substantial media exposure, their music played a key role in the development of extreme metal . In the early 1990s, bands that got their start in thrash metal achieved breakout success, challenging and redefining the metal mainstream. Metallica's self-titled 1991 album topped the Billboard chart, as the band established an international following. Megadeth's Countdown to Extinction (1992) debuted at No. 2, Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100. Thrash metal soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres. "Slayer's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal," according to MTV News. The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor. The death metal movement in both North America and Europe adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts. Florida's Death , San Francisco Bay Area's Possessed and Ohio's Necrophagia are recognized as seminal bands in the style. All three have been credited with inspiring the subgenre's name. Possessed in particular did so via their 1984 demo, Death Metal , and their song "Death Metal", which came from their 1985 debut album, Seven Churches . In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Swedish death metal became notable and melodic forms of death metal were created. Death metal utilizes the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore, fused with lyrics preoccupied with Z-grade slasher movie violence and Satanism . Death metal vocals are typically bleak, involving guttural " death growls ", high-pitched screaming , the "death rasp" and other uncommon techniques. Complementing the deep, aggressive vocal style are down-tuned, heavily distorted guitars and extremely fast percussion, often with rapid double bass drumming and "wall of sound"–style blast beats . Frequent tempo and time signature changes and syncopation are also typical. Death metal, like thrash metal, generally rejects the theatrics of earlier metal styles, opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets. One major exception to this rule was Deicide 's Glen Benton , who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage. Morbid Angel adopted neo-fascist imagery. These two bands, along with Death and Obituary , were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid-1980s. In the U.K., the related style of grindcore , led by bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror , emerged from the anarcho-punk movement. The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid-1980s, led by the United Kingdom's Venom , Denmark's Mercyful Fate , Switzerland's Hellhammer and Celtic Frost , and Sweden's Bathory . By the late 1980s, Norwegian bands such as Mayhem and Burzum were heading a second wave. Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality, although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals, highly distorted guitars frequently played with rapid tremolo picking , a dark atmosphere and intentionally lo-fi production, often with ambient noise and background hiss. Satanic themes are common in black metal, though many bands take inspiration from ancient paganism , promoting a return to supposed pre-Christian values. Numerous black metal bands also "experiment with sounds from all possible forms of metal, folk, classical music, electronica and avant-garde". Darkthrone drummer Fenriz explained: "It had something to do with production, lyrics, the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly, raw, grim stuff. There wasn't a generic sound." Although bands such as Sarcófago had been donning corpsepaint , by 1990, Mayhem was regularly wearing it; many other black metal acts also adopted the look. Bathory inspired the Viking metal and folk metal movements, and Immortal brought blast beats to the fore. Some bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s, with Mayhem and Burzum linked to church burnings. Growing commercial hype around death metal generated a backlash; beginning in Norway, much of the Scandinavian metal underground shifted to support a black metal scene that resisted being co-opted by the commercial metal industry. By 1992, black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia, including Germany, France and Poland. The 1993 murder of Mayhem's Euronymous by Burzum's Varg Vikernes provoked intensive media coverage. Around 1996, when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating, several key bands, including Burzum and Finland's Beherit , moved toward an ambient style, while symphonic black metal was explored by Sweden's Tiamat and Switzerland's Samael . In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Norway's Dimmu Borgir and England's Cradle of Filth brought black metal closer to the mainstream. During the late 1980s, the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal. Though a relatively underground style in North America, it enjoys wide popularity in Europe, Japan and South America. Power metal focuses on upbeat, epic melodies and themes that "appeal to the listener's sense of valor and loveliness". The prototype for the sound was established in the mid- to late 1980s by Germany's Helloween , who, in their 1987 and 1988 Keeper of the Seven Keys albums, combined the power riffs, melodic approach and a high-pitched, "clean" singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash's speed and energy, "crystalliz[ing] the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal". Traditional power metal bands like Sweden's HammerFall , England's DragonForce and the U.S.'s Iced Earth have a sound clearly indebted to the classic NWOBHM style. Many power metal bands such as the U.S.'s Kamelot , Finland's Nightwish , Stratovarius and Sonata Arctica , Italy's Rhapsody of Fire and Russia's Catharsis feature a keyboard-based "symphonic" sound , sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers. Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America, where bands like Brazil's Angra and Argentina's Rata Blanca are popular. Closely related to power metal is progressive metal , which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like Rush and King Crimson . This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid-1980s, with innovators such as Queensrÿche , Fates Warning and Dream Theater . The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey's Symphony X , whose guitarist Michael Romeo is among the most recognized of latter-day shredders. Emerging in the mid-1980s with such bands as California's Saint Vitus , Maryland's The Obsessed , Chicago's Trouble and Sweden's Candlemass , the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles' emphasis on speed, slowing its music to a crawl. Doom metal traces its roots to the lyrical themes and musical approach of early Black Sabbath. The Melvins have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres. Doom metal emphasizes melody, melancholy tempos and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal. The 1991 release of Forest of Equilibrium , the debut album by U.K. band Cathedral , helped spark a new wave of doom metal. During the same period, the doom-death fusion style of British bands Paradise Lost , My Dying Bride and Anathema gave rise to European gothic metal . with its signature dual-vocalist arrangements, exemplified by Norway's Theatre of Tragedy and Tristania . New York's Type O Negative introduced an American take on the style. In the United States, sludge metal , which mixes doom metal and hardcore punk, emerged in the late 1980s; Eyehategod and Crowbar were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene . Early in the next decade, California's Kyuss and Sleep , inspired by the earlier doom metal bands, spearheaded the rise of stoner metal , while Seattle's Earth helped develop the drone metal subgenre. The late 1990s saw new bands form such as the Los Angeles–based Goatsnake , with a classic stoner/doom sound, and Sunn O))) , which crosses lines between doom, drone and dark ambient metal; the New York Times has compared their sound to an " Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake". The era of heavy metal's mainstream dominance in North America came to an end in the early 1990s with the emergence of Nirvana and other grunge bands, signaling the popular breakthrough of alternative rock . Grunge acts were influenced by the heavy metal sound, but rejected the excesses of the more popular metal bands, such as their "flashy and virtuosic solos" and "appearance-driven" MTV orientation. Glam metal fell out of favor due not only to the success of grunge, but also because of the growing popularity of the more aggressive sound typified by Metallica and the post-thrash groove metal of Pantera and White Zombie . In 1991, Metallica released their album Metallica , also known as The Black Album , which moved the band's sound out of the thrash metal genre and into standard heavy metal. The album was certified 16× Platinum by the RIAA . A few new, unambiguously metal bands had commercial success during the first half of the decade – Pantera's Far Beyond Driven topped the Billboard chart in 1994 – but, "In the dull eyes of the mainstream, metal was dead." Some bands tried to adapt to the new musical landscape. Metallica revamped its image: the band members cut their hair and, in 1996, headlined the alternative music festival Lollapalooza , which was founded by Jane's Addiction singer Perry Farrell . While this prompted a backlash among some longtime fans, Metallica remained one of the most successful bands in the world into the new century. Like Jane's Addiction, many of the most popular early 1990s groups with roots in heavy metal fall under the umbrella term "alternative metal". Bands in Seattle's grunge scene such as Soundgarden are credited for making a "place for heavy metal in alternative rock", and Alice in Chains were at the center of the alternative metal movement. The label was applied to a wide spectrum of other acts that fused metal with different styles: Faith No More combined their alternative rock sound with punk, funk , metal and hip-hop ; Primus joined elements of funk, punk, thrash metal and experimental music ; Tool mixed metal and progressive rock ; bands such as Fear Factory , Ministry and Nine Inch Nails began incorporating metal into their industrial sound (and vice versa); and Marilyn Manson went down a similar route, while also employing shock effects of the sort popularized by Alice Cooper. Alternative metal artists, though they did not represent a cohesive scene, were united by their willingness to experiment with the metal genre and their rejection of glam metal aesthetics (with the stagecraft of Marilyn Manson and White Zombie – also identified with alt metal – significant, if partial, exceptions). Alternative metal's mix of styles and sounds represented "the colorful results of metal opening up to face the outside world". In the mid- and late 1990s came a new wave of U.S. metal groups inspired by the alternative metal bands and their mix of genres. Dubbed "nu metal", bands such as Slipknot , Linkin Park , Limp Bizkit , Papa Roach , P.O.D. , Korn and Disturbed incorporated elements ranging from death metal to hip-hop, often including DJs and rap -style vocals. The mix demonstrated that "pancultural metal could pay off". Nu metal gained mainstream success through heavy MTV rotation and Ozzy Osbourne's 1996 introduction of Ozzfest , which led the media to talk of a resurgence of heavy metal. In 1999, Billboard noted that there were more than 500 specialty metal radio shows in the U.S., nearly three times as many as 10 years before. While nu metal was widely popular, traditional metal fans did not fully embrace the style. By early 2003, the movement's popularity was on the wane, though several nu metal acts such as Korn or Limp Bizkit retained substantial followings. Metalcore , a hybrid of extreme metal and hardcore punk , emerged as a commercial force in the mid-2000s, having mostly been an underground phenomenon throughout the 1980s and 1990s; pioneering bands include Earth Crisis , Converge , Hatebreed and Shai Hulud . By 2004, melodic metalcore – influenced by melodic death metal as well – was popular enough that Killswitch Engage 's The End of Heartache and Shadows Fall 's The War Within debuted at No. 21 and No. 20, respectively, on the Billboard album chart. Evolving even further from metalcore came mathcore , a more rhythmically complicated and progressive style brought to light by bands such as The Dillinger Escape Plan , Converge and Protest the Hero . Mathcore's main defining quality is the use of odd time signatures, and has been described to possess rhythmic comparability to free jazz . Heavy metal remained popular in the 2000s, particularly in continental Europe. By the new millennium, Scandinavia had emerged as one of the areas producing innovative and successful bands, while Belgium, the Netherlands and especially Germany were the most significant markets. Metal music is more favorably embraced in Scandinavia and Northern Europe than other regions due to social and political openness in these regions; Finland in particular has been often called the "Promised Land of Heavy Metal", as there are more than 50 metal bands for every 100,000 inhabitants – more than any other nation in the world. Established continental metal bands that placed multiple albums in the top 20 of the German charts between 2003 and 2008 include Finland's Children of Bodom , Norway's Dimmu Borgir, Germany's Blind Guardian and Sweden's HammerFall. In the 2000s, an extreme metal fusion genre known as deathcore emerged. Deathcore incorporates elements of death metal , hardcore punk and metalcore . Deathcore features characteristics such as death metal riffs , hardcore punk breakdowns , death growling, "pig squeal"-sounding vocals and screaming. Deathcore bands include Whitechapel , Suicide Silence , Despised Icon and Carnifex . The term "retro-metal" has been used to describe bands such as Texas-based The Sword , California's High on Fire , Sweden's Witchcraft and Australia's Wolfmother . The Sword's Age of Winters (2006) drew heavily on the work of Black Sabbath and Pentagram , Witchcraft added elements of folk rock and psychedelic rock, and Wolfmother's self-titled 2005 debut album had " Deep Purple -ish organs" and " Jimmy Page -worthy chordal riffing ". Mastodon , which plays a progressive/sludge style of metal, has inspired claims of a metal revival in the United States, dubbed by some critics the " New Wave of American Heavy Metal ". By the early 2010s, metalcore was evolving to more frequently incorporate synthesizers and elements from genres beyond rock and metal. The album Reckless & Relentless by British band Asking Alexandria , which sold 31,000 copies in its first week, and The Devil Wears Prada's 2011 album Dead Throne , which sold 32,400 in its first week, reached No. 9 and No. 10, respectively, on the Billboard 200 chart. In 2013, British band Bring Me the Horizon released their fourth studio album, Sempiternal , to critical acclaim. The album debuted at No. 3 on the U.K. Album Chart and at No. 1 in Australia. The album sold 27,522 copies in the U.S. and charted at No. 11 on the Billboard Chart, making it their highest-charting release in America until their follow-up album, That's the Spirit , which debuted at No. 2 in 2015. Also in the 2010s, a metal style called " djent " developed as a spinoff of standard progressive metal . Djent music uses rhythmic and technical complexity, heavily distorted, palm-muted guitar chords, syncopated riffs and polyrhythms alongside virtuoso soloing. Another typical characteristic is the use of extended range seven -, eight - and nine-string guitars . Djent bands include Periphery , Tesseract and Textures . Fusion of nu metal with electropop by singer-songwriters Poppy , Grimes and Rina Sawayama saw a popular and critical revival of the former genre in the late 2010s and 2020s, particular on their respective albums I Disagree , Miss Anthropocene and Sawayama . Heavy metal's quintessential guitar style, which is built around distortion-heavy riffs and power chords, traces its roots to early 1950s Memphis blues guitarists such as Joe Hill Louis , Willie Johnson and particularly Pat Hare , who captured a "grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound" on records such as James Cotton 's " Cotton Crop Blues " (1954). Other early influences include the late 1950s instrumentals of Link Wray , particularly " Rumble " (1958); the early 1960s surf rock of Dick Dale , including " Let's Go Trippin' " (1961) and " Misirlou " (1962); and The Kingsmen 's version of " Louie Louie " (1963), which became a garage rock standard. However, the genre's direct lineage begins in the mid-1960s. American blues music was a major influence on the early British rockers of the era. Bands like The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds developed blues rock by recording covers of classic blues songs, often speeding up the tempos . As they experimented with the music, the U.K. blues-based bands – and in turn the U.S. acts they influenced – developed what would become the hallmarks of heavy metal (in particular, the loud, distorted guitar sound). The Kinks played a major role in popularising this sound with their 1964 hit " You Really Got Me ". In addition to The Kinks' Dave Davies , other guitarists such as The Who 's Pete Townshend and The Yardbirds' Jeff Beck were experimenting with feedback. Where the blues rock drumming style started out largely as simple shuffle beats on small kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex and amplified approach to match and be heard against the increasingly loud guitar. Vocalists similarly modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylized and dramatic. In terms of sheer volume, especially in live performance, The Who's "bigger-louder-wall-of- Marshalls " approach was seminal to the development of the later heavy metal sound. The combination of this loud and heavy blues rock with psychedelic rock and acid rock formed much of the original basis for heavy metal. The variant or subgenre of psychedelic rock often known as " acid rock " was particularly influential on heavy metal and its development; acid rock is often defined as a heavier, louder, or harder variant of psychedelic rock, or the more extreme side of the psychedelic rock genre, frequently containing a loud, improvised, and heavily distorted, guitar-centered sound. Acid rock has been described as psychedelic rock at its "rawest and most intense", emphasizing the heavier qualities associated with both the positive and negative extremes of the psychedelic experience rather than only the idyllic side of psychedelia. In contrast to more idyllic or whimsical pop psychedelic rock, American acid rock garage bands such as the 13th Floor Elevators epitomized the frenetic, heavier, darker, and more psychotic psychedelic rock sound known as acid rock, a sound characterized by droning guitar riffs, amplified feedback, and guitar distortion, while the 13th Floor Elevators' sound in particular featured yelping vocals and "occasionally demented" lyrics. Frank Hoffman noted that "[Psychedelic rock] was sometimes referred to as 'acid rock'. The latter label was applied to a pounding, hard rock variant that evolved out of the mid-1960s garage-punk movement. ... When rock began turning back to softer, roots-oriented sounds in late 1968, acid-rock bands mutated into heavy metal acts." One of the most influential bands in forging the merger of psychedelic rock and acid rock with the blues rock genre was the British power trio Cream , who derived a massive, heavy sound from unison riffing between guitarist Eric Clapton and bassist Jack Bruce , as well as Ginger Baker 's double bass drumming. Their first two LPs – Fresh Cream (1966) and Disraeli Gears (1967) – are regarded as essential prototypes for the future style of heavy metal. The Jimi Hendrix Experience 's debut album, Are You Experienced (1967), was also highly influential. Hendrix 's virtuosic technique would be emulated by many metal guitarists, and the album's most successful single, " Purple Haze ", is identified by some as the first heavy metal hit. Vanilla Fudge , whose first album also came out in 1967, has been called "one of the few American links between psychedelia and what soon became heavy metal," and the band has been cited as an early American heavy metal group. On their self-titled debut album, Vanilla Fudge created "loud, heavy, slowed-down arrangements" of contemporary hit songs, blowing these songs up to "epic proportions" and "bathing them in a trippy, distorted haze". During the late 1960s, many psychedelic singers, such as Arthur Brown , began to create outlandish, theatrical, and often macabre performances that influenced many metal acts. The American psychedelic rock band Coven , who opened for early heavy metal influencers such as Vanilla Fudge and the Yardbirds, portrayed themselves as practitioners of witchcraft or black magic , using dark – Satanic or occult – imagery in their lyrics, album art and live performances, which consisted of elaborate, theatrical " Satanic rites ". Coven's 1969 debut album, Witchcraft Destroys Minds & Reaps Souls , featured imagery of skulls, black masses , inverted crosses , and Satan worship, and both the album artwork and the band's live performances marked the first appearances in rock music of the sign of the horns , which would later become an important gesture in heavy metal culture. Coven's lyrical and thematic influences on heavy metal were quickly overshadowed by the darker and heavier sounds of Black Sabbath . Critics disagree over who can be thought of as the first heavy metal band. Most credit the British bands Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath , with American commentators tending to favour Led Zeppelin and British commentators tending to favour Black Sabbath, though many give equal credit to both. Deep Purple , the third band in what is sometimes considered the "unholy trinity" of heavy metal along with Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, fluctuated between many rock styles until late 1969 when they took a heavy metal direction. A few commentators – mainly American – argue for other groups, including Iron Butterfly , Steppenwolf , Blue Cheer , or Vanilla Fudge , as the first to play heavy metal. In 1968, the sound that would become known as heavy metal began to coalesce. That January, San Francisco band Blue Cheer released a cover of Eddie Cochran 's classic " Summertime Blues " as a part of their debut album, Vincebus Eruptum , and many consider it to be the first true heavy metal recording. The same month, Steppenwolf released their self-titled debut album , on which the track " Born to Be Wild " refers to "heavy metal thunder" in describing a motorcycle. In July, the Jeff Beck Group , whose leader had preceded Page as The Yardbirds' guitarist, released its debut record, Truth , which featured some of the "most molten, barbed, downright funny noises of all time", breaking ground for generations of metal ax-slingers. In September, Page's new band, Led Zeppelin , made its live debut in Denmark (but were billed as The New Yardbirds). The Beatles ' self-titled double album , released in November, included " Helter Skelter ", then one of the heaviest-sounding songs ever released by a major band. The Pretty Things ' rock opera S.F. Sorrow , released in December, featured "proto heavy metal" songs such as "Old Man Going" and "I See You". Iron Butterfly 's 1968 song " In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida " is sometimes described as an example of the transition between acid rock and heavy metal or the turning point in which acid rock became "heavy metal", and both Iron Butterfly's 1968 album In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida and Blue Cheer's 1968 album Vincebus Eruptum have been described as laying the foundation of heavy metal and greatly influential in the transformation of acid rock into heavy metal. In this counterculture period, MC5 , who began as part of the Detroit garage rock scene, developed a raw, distorted style that has been seen as a major influence on the future sound of both heavy metal and later punk music . The Stooges also began to establish and influence a heavy metal and later punk sound, with songs such as " I Wanna Be Your Dog ", featuring pounding and distorted heavy guitar power chord riffs. Pink Floyd released two of their heaviest and loudest songs to date, " Ibiza Bar " and " The Nile Song ", the latter of which being regarded as "one of the heaviest songs the band recorded." King Crimson 's debut album started with " 21st Century Schizoid Man ", which was considered heavy metal by several critics. In January 1969, Led Zeppelin's self-titled debut album was released and reached No. 10 on the Billboard album chart. In July, Led Zeppelin and a power trio with a Cream-inspired, but cruder sound, called Grand Funk Railroad played the Atlanta Pop Festival . That same month, another Cream-rooted trio led by Leslie West released Mountain , an album filled with heavy blues rock guitar and roaring vocals. In August, the group – now itself dubbed Mountain – played an hour-long set at the Woodstock Festival , exposing the crowd of 300,000 people to the emerging sound of heavy metal. Mountain's proto-metal or early heavy metal hit song " Mississippi Queen " from the album Climbing! is especially credited with paving the way for heavy metal and was one of the first heavy guitar songs to receive regular play on radio. In September 1969, the Beatles released the album Abbey Road containing the track " I Want You (She's So Heavy) ", which has been credited as an early example of or influence on heavy metal or doom metal . In October 1969, British band High Tide debuted with the heavy, proto-metal album Sea Shanties . Led Zeppelin defined central aspects of the emerging genre, with Page's highly distorted guitar style and singer Robert Plant 's dramatic, wailing vocals. Other bands, with a more consistently heavy, "purely" metal sound, would prove equally important in codifying the genre. The 1970 releases by Black Sabbath ( Black Sabbath , which is generally accepted as the first heavy metal album, and Paranoid ) and Deep Purple ( Deep Purple in Rock ) were crucial in this regard. Birmingham 's Black Sabbath had developed a particularly heavy sound in part due to a work accident in which guitarist Tony Iommi lost the ends of two fingers. Unable to play normally, Iommi had to tune his guitar down for easier fretting and rely on power chords with their relatively simple fingering. The bleak, industrial, working-class environment of Birmingham , a manufacturing city full of noisy factories and metalworking , has itself been credited with influencing Black Sabbath's heavy, chugging, metallic sound – and the sound of heavy metal in general. Deep Purple had fluctuated between styles in its early years, but by 1969, vocalist Ian Gillan and guitarist Ritchie Blackmore had led the band toward the developing heavy metal style. In 1970, Black Sabbath and Deep Purple scored major U.K. chart hits with " Paranoid " and " Black Night ", respectively. That same year, two other British bands released debut albums in a heavy metal mode: Uriah Heep with ... Very 'Eavy ... Very 'Umble and UFO with UFO 1 . Bloodrock released their self-titled debut album , a collection of heavy guitar riffs, gruff style vocals and sadistic and macabre lyrics. The influential Budgie brought the new metal sound into a power trio context, creating some of the heaviest music of the time. The occult lyrics and imagery employed by Black Sabbath and Uriah Heep would prove particularly influential; Led Zeppelin also began foregrounding such elements with its fourth album , released in 1971. In 1973, Deep Purple released the song " Smoke on the Water ", whose iconic riff is usually considered as the most recognizable one in "heavy rock" history, as a single of the classic live album Made in Japan . On the other side of the Atlantic, the trendsetting group was Grand Funk Railroad , who was described as "the most commercially successful American heavy-metal band from 1970 until they disbanded in 1976, [they] established the Seventies success formula: continuous touring." Other influential bands identified with metal emerged in the U.S. such as Sir Lord Baltimore ( Kingdom Come , 1970), Blue Öyster Cult ( Blue Öyster Cult , 1972), Aerosmith ( Aerosmith , 1973) and Kiss ( Kiss , 1974). Sir Lord Baltimore's 1970 debut album and both Humble Pie 's debut and self-titled third album were among the first albums to be described in print as "heavy metal", with As Safe As Yesterday Is referred to by the term "heavy metal" in a 1970 review in Rolling Stone magazine. Various smaller bands from the U.S., U.K. and Continental Europe – including Bang , Josefus , Leaf Hound , Primeval , Hard Stuff , Truth and Janey , Dust , JPT Scare Band , Frijid Pink , Cactus , Irish Coffee , May Blitz , Captain Beyond , Toad , Granicus , Iron Claw , and Yesterday's Children – though lesser known outside of their respective scenes, proved to be greatly influential on the emerging metal movement. In Germany, Scorpions debuted with Lonesome Crow in 1972. Blackmore, who had emerged as a virtuoso soloist with Deep Purple's highly influential album Machine Head (1972), left the band in 1975 to form Rainbow with Ronnie James Dio , singer and bassist for blues rock band Elf and future vocalist for Black Sabbath and heavy metal band Dio . Rainbow with Ronnie James Dio would expand on the mystical and fantasy -based lyrics and themes sometimes found in heavy metal, pioneering both power metal and neoclassical metal . These bands also built audiences via constant touring and increasingly elaborate stage shows. There are arguments about whether these and other early bands truly qualify as "heavy metal" or simply as "hard rock". Those closer to the music's blues roots or placing greater emphasis on melody are now commonly ascribed the latter label. AC/DC , which debuted with High Voltage in 1975, is a prime example. The 1983 Rolling Stone encyclopedia entry begins, "Australian heavy-metal band AC/DC ..." Rock historian Clinton Walker wrote, "Calling AC/DC a heavy metal band in the seventies was as inaccurate as it is today. ... [They] were a rock 'n' roll band that just happened to be heavy enough for metal." The issue is not only one of shifting definitions, but also a persistent distinction between musical style and audience identification; Ian Christe describes how the band "became the stepping-stone that led huge numbers of hard rock fans into heavy metal perdition". In certain cases, there is little debate. After Black Sabbath, the next major example is Britain's Judas Priest , which debuted with Rocka Rolla in 1974. In Christe's description, Black Sabbath's audience was ... left to scavenge for sounds with similar impact. By the mid-1970s, heavy metal aesthetic could be spotted, like a mythical beast, in the moody bass and complex dual guitars of Thin Lizzy , in the stagecraft of Alice Cooper , in the sizzling guitar and showy vocals of Queen , and in the thundering medieval questions of Rainbow. ... Judas Priest arrived to unify and amplify these diverse highlights from hard rock's sonic palette. For the first time, heavy metal became a true genre unto itself. Though Judas Priest did not have a top 40 album in the United States until 1980, for many it was the definitive post-Sabbath heavy metal band; its twin-guitar attack, featuring rapid tempos and a non-bluesy, more cleanly metallic sound, was a major influence on later acts. While heavy metal was growing in popularity, most critics were not enamored of the music. Objections were raised to metal's adoption of visual spectacle and other trappings of commercial artifice, but the main offense was its perceived musical and lyrical vacuity: reviewing a Black Sabbath album in the early 1970s, Robert Christgau described it as "dull and decadent ... dim-witted, amoral exploitation." Punk rock emerged in the mid-1970s as a reaction against contemporary social conditions as well as what was perceived as the overindulgent, overproduced rock music of the time, including heavy metal. Sales of heavy metal records declined sharply in the late 1970s in the face of punk, disco and more mainstream rock. With the major labels fixated on punk, many newer British heavy metal bands were inspired by the movement's aggressive, high-energy sound and " lo-fi ", do it yourself ethos. Underground metal bands began putting out cheaply recorded releases independently to small, devoted audiences. Motörhead , founded in 1975, was the first important band to straddle the punk/metal divide. With the explosion of punk in 1977, others followed. British music magazines such as the NME and Sounds took notice, with Sounds writer Geoff Barton christening the movement the "New Wave of British Heavy Metal". NWOBHM bands including Iron Maiden , Saxon and Def Leppard re-energized the heavy metal genre. Following the lead set by Judas Priest and Motörhead, they toughened up the sound, reduced its blues elements and emphasized increasingly fast tempos. "This seemed to be the resurgence of heavy metal," noted Ronnie James Dio , who joined Black Sabbath in 1979. "I've never thought there was a desurgence of heavy metal – if that's a word! – but it was important to me that, yet again [after Rainbow ] , I could be involved in something that was paving the way for those who are going to come after me." By 1980, the NWOBHM had broken into the mainstream, as albums by Iron Maiden and Saxon, as well as Motörhead, reached the British top 10. Though less commercially successful, NWOBHM bands such as Venom and Diamond Head would have a significant influence on metal's development. In 1981, Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the U.K. charts with the live album No Sleep 'til Hammersmith . The first generation of metal bands was ceding the limelight. Deep Purple broke up soon after Blackmore's departure in 1975, and Led Zeppelin split following drummer John Bonham 's death in 1980. Black Sabbath were plagued with infighting and substance abuse, while facing fierce competition from their opening band , Van Halen . Eddie Van Halen established himself as one of the leading metal guitarists of the era. His solo on " Eruption ", from the band's self-titled 1978 album , is considered a milestone. Eddie Van Halen's sound even crossed over into pop music when his guitar solo was featured on the track " Beat It " by Michael Jackson , which reached No. 1 in the U.S. in February 1983. Inspired by Van Halen's success, a metal scene began to develop in Southern California during the late 1970s. Based on the clubs of L.A.'s Sunset Strip , bands such as Mötley Crüe , Quiet Riot , Ratt and W.A.S.P. were influenced by traditional heavy metal of the 1970s. These acts incorporated the theatrics (and sometimes makeup) of glam metal or "hair metal" bands such as Alice Cooper and Kiss. Glam metal bands were often visually distinguished by long, overworked hairstyles accompanied by wardrobes which were sometimes considered cross-gender. The lyrics of these glam metal bands characteristically emphasized hedonism and wild behavior, including lyrics that involved sexual expletives and the use of narcotics. In the wake of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal and Judas Priest's breakthrough with British Steel (1980), heavy metal became increasingly popular in the early 1980s. Many metal artists benefited from the exposure they received on MTV , which began airing in 1981; sales often soared if a band's videos screened on the channel. Def Leppard's videos for Pyromania (1983) made them superstars in America, and Quiet Riot became the first domestic heavy metal band to top the Billboard chart with Metal Health (1983). One of the seminal events in metal's growing popularity was the 1983 US Festival in California, where the "heavy metal day" featuring Ozzy Osbourne, Van Halen, Scorpions, Mötley Crüe, Judas Priest and others drew the largest audiences of the three-day event. Between 1983 and 1984, heavy metal's share of all recordings sold in the U.S. increased from 8% to 20%. Several major professional magazines devoted to the genre were launched, including Kerrang! in 1981 and Metal Hammer in 1984, as well as a host of fan journals. In 1985, Billboard declared: "Metal has broadened its audience base. Metal music is no longer the exclusive domain of male teenagers. The metal audience has become older (college-aged), younger (pre-teen), and more female." By the mid-1980s, glam metal was a dominant presence on the U.S. charts, music television and the arena concert circuit. New bands such as L.A.'s Warrant and acts from the East Coast like Poison and Cinderella became major draws, while Mötley Crüe and Ratt remained very popular. Bridging the stylistic gap between hard rock and glam metal, New Jersey 's Bon Jovi became enormously successful with its third album, Slippery When Wet (1986). The similarly styled Swedish band Europe became international stars with The Final Countdown (1986), whose title track hit No. 1 in 25 countries. In 1987, MTV launched Headbangers Ball , a show devoted exclusively to heavy metal videos. However, the metal audience had begun to factionalize, with those in many underground metal scenes favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular style as "light metal" or "hair metal". One band that reached diverse audiences was Guns N' Roses . In contrast to their glam metal contemporaries in L.A., they were seen as much more raw and dangerous. [ citation needed ] With the release of their chart-topping album Appetite for Destruction in 1987, they "recharged and almost single-handedly sustained the Sunset Strip sleaze system for several years". The following year, Jane's Addiction emerged from the same L.A. hard-rock club scene with their major-label debut, Nothing's Shocking . Reviewing the album, Steve Pond of Rolling Stone declared, "As much as any band in existence, Jane's Addiction is the true heir to Led Zeppelin." The group was one of the first to be identified with the " alternative metal " trend that would come to the fore in the next decade. Meanwhile, new bands like New York City's Winger and New Jersey's Skid Row sustained the popularity of the glam metal style. Many subgenres of heavy metal developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s, such as crossover thrash . Several attempts have been made to map the complex world of underground metal, most notably by the editors of AllMusic , as well as critic Garry Sharpe-Young . Sharpe-Young's multivolume metal encyclopedia separates the underground into five major categories: thrash metal , death metal , black metal , power metal and the related subgenres of doom and gothic metal . In 1990, a review in Rolling Stone suggested retiring the term "heavy metal" as the genre was "ridiculously vague". The article stated that the term only fueled "misperceptions of rock & roll bigots who still assume that five bands as different as Ratt , Extreme , Anthrax , Danzig and Mother Love Bone " sound the same. Thrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of hardcore punk and the New Wave of British Heavy Metal, particularly songs in the revved-up style known as speed metal . The movement began in the United States, with Bay Area thrash metal being the leading scene. The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors. Low-register guitar riffs are typically overlaid with shredding leads. Lyrics often express nihilistic views or deal with social issues using visceral, gory language. Thrash has been described as a form of "urban blight music" and "a palefaced cousin of rap". The subgenre was popularized by the "Big Four of Thrash": Metallica , Anthrax , Megadeth and Slayer . Three German bands, Kreator , Sodom and Destruction , played a central role in bringing the style to Europe. Others, including the San Francisco Bay Area's Testament and Exodus , New Jersey's Overkill , and Brazil's Sepultura and Sarcófago , also had a significant impact. Although thrash metal began as an underground movement, and remained largely that for almost a decade, the leading bands of the scene began to reach a wider audience. Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the Billboard album chart in 1986 with Master of Puppets , the genre's first Platinum record. Two years later, the band's album ... And Justice for All hit No. 6, while Megadeth and Anthrax also had top 40 records on the American charts. Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four, Slayer released one of the genre's definitive records: Reign in Blood (1986) was credited for incorporating heavier guitar timbres and including explicit depictions of death, suffering, violence and occult into thrash metal's lyricism. Slayer attracted a following among far-right skinheads , and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band. Even though Slayer did not receive substantial media exposure, their music played a key role in the development of extreme metal . In the early 1990s, bands that got their start in thrash metal achieved breakout success, challenging and redefining the metal mainstream. Metallica's self-titled 1991 album topped the Billboard chart, as the band established an international following. Megadeth's Countdown to Extinction (1992) debuted at No. 2, Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100. Thrash metal soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres. "Slayer's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal," according to MTV News. The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor. The death metal movement in both North America and Europe adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts. Florida's Death , San Francisco Bay Area's Possessed and Ohio's Necrophagia are recognized as seminal bands in the style. All three have been credited with inspiring the subgenre's name. Possessed in particular did so via their 1984 demo, Death Metal , and their song "Death Metal", which came from their 1985 debut album, Seven Churches . In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Swedish death metal became notable and melodic forms of death metal were created. Death metal utilizes the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore, fused with lyrics preoccupied with Z-grade slasher movie violence and Satanism . Death metal vocals are typically bleak, involving guttural " death growls ", high-pitched screaming , the "death rasp" and other uncommon techniques. Complementing the deep, aggressive vocal style are down-tuned, heavily distorted guitars and extremely fast percussion, often with rapid double bass drumming and "wall of sound"–style blast beats . Frequent tempo and time signature changes and syncopation are also typical. Death metal, like thrash metal, generally rejects the theatrics of earlier metal styles, opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets. One major exception to this rule was Deicide 's Glen Benton , who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage. Morbid Angel adopted neo-fascist imagery. These two bands, along with Death and Obituary , were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid-1980s. In the U.K., the related style of grindcore , led by bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror , emerged from the anarcho-punk movement. The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid-1980s, led by the United Kingdom's Venom , Denmark's Mercyful Fate , Switzerland's Hellhammer and Celtic Frost , and Sweden's Bathory . By the late 1980s, Norwegian bands such as Mayhem and Burzum were heading a second wave. Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality, although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals, highly distorted guitars frequently played with rapid tremolo picking , a dark atmosphere and intentionally lo-fi production, often with ambient noise and background hiss. Satanic themes are common in black metal, though many bands take inspiration from ancient paganism , promoting a return to supposed pre-Christian values. Numerous black metal bands also "experiment with sounds from all possible forms of metal, folk, classical music, electronica and avant-garde". Darkthrone drummer Fenriz explained: "It had something to do with production, lyrics, the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly, raw, grim stuff. There wasn't a generic sound." Although bands such as Sarcófago had been donning corpsepaint , by 1990, Mayhem was regularly wearing it; many other black metal acts also adopted the look. Bathory inspired the Viking metal and folk metal movements, and Immortal brought blast beats to the fore. Some bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s, with Mayhem and Burzum linked to church burnings. Growing commercial hype around death metal generated a backlash; beginning in Norway, much of the Scandinavian metal underground shifted to support a black metal scene that resisted being co-opted by the commercial metal industry. By 1992, black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia, including Germany, France and Poland. The 1993 murder of Mayhem's Euronymous by Burzum's Varg Vikernes provoked intensive media coverage. Around 1996, when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating, several key bands, including Burzum and Finland's Beherit , moved toward an ambient style, while symphonic black metal was explored by Sweden's Tiamat and Switzerland's Samael . In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Norway's Dimmu Borgir and England's Cradle of Filth brought black metal closer to the mainstream. During the late 1980s, the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal. Though a relatively underground style in North America, it enjoys wide popularity in Europe, Japan and South America. Power metal focuses on upbeat, epic melodies and themes that "appeal to the listener's sense of valor and loveliness". The prototype for the sound was established in the mid- to late 1980s by Germany's Helloween , who, in their 1987 and 1988 Keeper of the Seven Keys albums, combined the power riffs, melodic approach and a high-pitched, "clean" singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash's speed and energy, "crystalliz[ing] the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal". Traditional power metal bands like Sweden's HammerFall , England's DragonForce and the U.S.'s Iced Earth have a sound clearly indebted to the classic NWOBHM style. Many power metal bands such as the U.S.'s Kamelot , Finland's Nightwish , Stratovarius and Sonata Arctica , Italy's Rhapsody of Fire and Russia's Catharsis feature a keyboard-based "symphonic" sound , sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers. Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America, where bands like Brazil's Angra and Argentina's Rata Blanca are popular. Closely related to power metal is progressive metal , which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like Rush and King Crimson . This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid-1980s, with innovators such as Queensrÿche , Fates Warning and Dream Theater . The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey's Symphony X , whose guitarist Michael Romeo is among the most recognized of latter-day shredders. Emerging in the mid-1980s with such bands as California's Saint Vitus , Maryland's The Obsessed , Chicago's Trouble and Sweden's Candlemass , the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles' emphasis on speed, slowing its music to a crawl. Doom metal traces its roots to the lyrical themes and musical approach of early Black Sabbath. The Melvins have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres. Doom metal emphasizes melody, melancholy tempos and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal. The 1991 release of Forest of Equilibrium , the debut album by U.K. band Cathedral , helped spark a new wave of doom metal. During the same period, the doom-death fusion style of British bands Paradise Lost , My Dying Bride and Anathema gave rise to European gothic metal . with its signature dual-vocalist arrangements, exemplified by Norway's Theatre of Tragedy and Tristania . New York's Type O Negative introduced an American take on the style. In the United States, sludge metal , which mixes doom metal and hardcore punk, emerged in the late 1980s; Eyehategod and Crowbar were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene . Early in the next decade, California's Kyuss and Sleep , inspired by the earlier doom metal bands, spearheaded the rise of stoner metal , while Seattle's Earth helped develop the drone metal subgenre. The late 1990s saw new bands form such as the Los Angeles–based Goatsnake , with a classic stoner/doom sound, and Sunn O))) , which crosses lines between doom, drone and dark ambient metal; the New York Times has compared their sound to an " Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake". Thrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of hardcore punk and the New Wave of British Heavy Metal, particularly songs in the revved-up style known as speed metal . The movement began in the United States, with Bay Area thrash metal being the leading scene. The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors. Low-register guitar riffs are typically overlaid with shredding leads. Lyrics often express nihilistic views or deal with social issues using visceral, gory language. Thrash has been described as a form of "urban blight music" and "a palefaced cousin of rap". The subgenre was popularized by the "Big Four of Thrash": Metallica , Anthrax , Megadeth and Slayer . Three German bands, Kreator , Sodom and Destruction , played a central role in bringing the style to Europe. Others, including the San Francisco Bay Area's Testament and Exodus , New Jersey's Overkill , and Brazil's Sepultura and Sarcófago , also had a significant impact. Although thrash metal began as an underground movement, and remained largely that for almost a decade, the leading bands of the scene began to reach a wider audience. Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the Billboard album chart in 1986 with Master of Puppets , the genre's first Platinum record. Two years later, the band's album ... And Justice for All hit No. 6, while Megadeth and Anthrax also had top 40 records on the American charts. Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four, Slayer released one of the genre's definitive records: Reign in Blood (1986) was credited for incorporating heavier guitar timbres and including explicit depictions of death, suffering, violence and occult into thrash metal's lyricism. Slayer attracted a following among far-right skinheads , and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band. Even though Slayer did not receive substantial media exposure, their music played a key role in the development of extreme metal . In the early 1990s, bands that got their start in thrash metal achieved breakout success, challenging and redefining the metal mainstream. Metallica's self-titled 1991 album topped the Billboard chart, as the band established an international following. Megadeth's Countdown to Extinction (1992) debuted at No. 2, Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100. Thrash metal soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres. "Slayer's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal," according to MTV News. The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor. The death metal movement in both North America and Europe adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts. Florida's Death , San Francisco Bay Area's Possessed and Ohio's Necrophagia are recognized as seminal bands in the style. All three have been credited with inspiring the subgenre's name. Possessed in particular did so via their 1984 demo, Death Metal , and their song "Death Metal", which came from their 1985 debut album, Seven Churches . In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Swedish death metal became notable and melodic forms of death metal were created. Death metal utilizes the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore, fused with lyrics preoccupied with Z-grade slasher movie violence and Satanism . Death metal vocals are typically bleak, involving guttural " death growls ", high-pitched screaming , the "death rasp" and other uncommon techniques. Complementing the deep, aggressive vocal style are down-tuned, heavily distorted guitars and extremely fast percussion, often with rapid double bass drumming and "wall of sound"–style blast beats . Frequent tempo and time signature changes and syncopation are also typical. Death metal, like thrash metal, generally rejects the theatrics of earlier metal styles, opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets. One major exception to this rule was Deicide 's Glen Benton , who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage. Morbid Angel adopted neo-fascist imagery. These two bands, along with Death and Obituary , were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid-1980s. In the U.K., the related style of grindcore , led by bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror , emerged from the anarcho-punk movement. The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid-1980s, led by the United Kingdom's Venom , Denmark's Mercyful Fate , Switzerland's Hellhammer and Celtic Frost , and Sweden's Bathory . By the late 1980s, Norwegian bands such as Mayhem and Burzum were heading a second wave. Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality, although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals, highly distorted guitars frequently played with rapid tremolo picking , a dark atmosphere and intentionally lo-fi production, often with ambient noise and background hiss. Satanic themes are common in black metal, though many bands take inspiration from ancient paganism , promoting a return to supposed pre-Christian values. Numerous black metal bands also "experiment with sounds from all possible forms of metal, folk, classical music, electronica and avant-garde". Darkthrone drummer Fenriz explained: "It had something to do with production, lyrics, the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly, raw, grim stuff. There wasn't a generic sound." Although bands such as Sarcófago had been donning corpsepaint , by 1990, Mayhem was regularly wearing it; many other black metal acts also adopted the look. Bathory inspired the Viking metal and folk metal movements, and Immortal brought blast beats to the fore. Some bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s, with Mayhem and Burzum linked to church burnings. Growing commercial hype around death metal generated a backlash; beginning in Norway, much of the Scandinavian metal underground shifted to support a black metal scene that resisted being co-opted by the commercial metal industry. By 1992, black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia, including Germany, France and Poland. The 1993 murder of Mayhem's Euronymous by Burzum's Varg Vikernes provoked intensive media coverage. Around 1996, when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating, several key bands, including Burzum and Finland's Beherit , moved toward an ambient style, while symphonic black metal was explored by Sweden's Tiamat and Switzerland's Samael . In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Norway's Dimmu Borgir and England's Cradle of Filth brought black metal closer to the mainstream. During the late 1980s, the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal. Though a relatively underground style in North America, it enjoys wide popularity in Europe, Japan and South America. Power metal focuses on upbeat, epic melodies and themes that "appeal to the listener's sense of valor and loveliness". The prototype for the sound was established in the mid- to late 1980s by Germany's Helloween , who, in their 1987 and 1988 Keeper of the Seven Keys albums, combined the power riffs, melodic approach and a high-pitched, "clean" singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash's speed and energy, "crystalliz[ing] the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal". Traditional power metal bands like Sweden's HammerFall , England's DragonForce and the U.S.'s Iced Earth have a sound clearly indebted to the classic NWOBHM style. Many power metal bands such as the U.S.'s Kamelot , Finland's Nightwish , Stratovarius and Sonata Arctica , Italy's Rhapsody of Fire and Russia's Catharsis feature a keyboard-based "symphonic" sound , sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers. Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America, where bands like Brazil's Angra and Argentina's Rata Blanca are popular. Closely related to power metal is progressive metal , which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like Rush and King Crimson . This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid-1980s, with innovators such as Queensrÿche , Fates Warning and Dream Theater . The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey's Symphony X , whose guitarist Michael Romeo is among the most recognized of latter-day shredders. Emerging in the mid-1980s with such bands as California's Saint Vitus , Maryland's The Obsessed , Chicago's Trouble and Sweden's Candlemass , the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles' emphasis on speed, slowing its music to a crawl. Doom metal traces its roots to the lyrical themes and musical approach of early Black Sabbath. The Melvins have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres. Doom metal emphasizes melody, melancholy tempos and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal. The 1991 release of Forest of Equilibrium , the debut album by U.K. band Cathedral , helped spark a new wave of doom metal. During the same period, the doom-death fusion style of British bands Paradise Lost , My Dying Bride and Anathema gave rise to European gothic metal . with its signature dual-vocalist arrangements, exemplified by Norway's Theatre of Tragedy and Tristania . New York's Type O Negative introduced an American take on the style. In the United States, sludge metal , which mixes doom metal and hardcore punk, emerged in the late 1980s; Eyehategod and Crowbar were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene . Early in the next decade, California's Kyuss and Sleep , inspired by the earlier doom metal bands, spearheaded the rise of stoner metal , while Seattle's Earth helped develop the drone metal subgenre. The late 1990s saw new bands form such as the Los Angeles–based Goatsnake , with a classic stoner/doom sound, and Sunn O))) , which crosses lines between doom, drone and dark ambient metal; the New York Times has compared their sound to an " Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake". The era of heavy metal's mainstream dominance in North America came to an end in the early 1990s with the emergence of Nirvana and other grunge bands, signaling the popular breakthrough of alternative rock . Grunge acts were influenced by the heavy metal sound, but rejected the excesses of the more popular metal bands, such as their "flashy and virtuosic solos" and "appearance-driven" MTV orientation. Glam metal fell out of favor due not only to the success of grunge, but also because of the growing popularity of the more aggressive sound typified by Metallica and the post-thrash groove metal of Pantera and White Zombie . In 1991, Metallica released their album Metallica , also known as The Black Album , which moved the band's sound out of the thrash metal genre and into standard heavy metal. The album was certified 16× Platinum by the RIAA . A few new, unambiguously metal bands had commercial success during the first half of the decade – Pantera's Far Beyond Driven topped the Billboard chart in 1994 – but, "In the dull eyes of the mainstream, metal was dead." Some bands tried to adapt to the new musical landscape. Metallica revamped its image: the band members cut their hair and, in 1996, headlined the alternative music festival Lollapalooza , which was founded by Jane's Addiction singer Perry Farrell . While this prompted a backlash among some longtime fans, Metallica remained one of the most successful bands in the world into the new century. Like Jane's Addiction, many of the most popular early 1990s groups with roots in heavy metal fall under the umbrella term "alternative metal". Bands in Seattle's grunge scene such as Soundgarden are credited for making a "place for heavy metal in alternative rock", and Alice in Chains were at the center of the alternative metal movement. The label was applied to a wide spectrum of other acts that fused metal with different styles: Faith No More combined their alternative rock sound with punk, funk , metal and hip-hop ; Primus joined elements of funk, punk, thrash metal and experimental music ; Tool mixed metal and progressive rock ; bands such as Fear Factory , Ministry and Nine Inch Nails began incorporating metal into their industrial sound (and vice versa); and Marilyn Manson went down a similar route, while also employing shock effects of the sort popularized by Alice Cooper. Alternative metal artists, though they did not represent a cohesive scene, were united by their willingness to experiment with the metal genre and their rejection of glam metal aesthetics (with the stagecraft of Marilyn Manson and White Zombie – also identified with alt metal – significant, if partial, exceptions). Alternative metal's mix of styles and sounds represented "the colorful results of metal opening up to face the outside world". In the mid- and late 1990s came a new wave of U.S. metal groups inspired by the alternative metal bands and their mix of genres. Dubbed "nu metal", bands such as Slipknot , Linkin Park , Limp Bizkit , Papa Roach , P.O.D. , Korn and Disturbed incorporated elements ranging from death metal to hip-hop, often including DJs and rap -style vocals. The mix demonstrated that "pancultural metal could pay off". Nu metal gained mainstream success through heavy MTV rotation and Ozzy Osbourne's 1996 introduction of Ozzfest , which led the media to talk of a resurgence of heavy metal. In 1999, Billboard noted that there were more than 500 specialty metal radio shows in the U.S., nearly three times as many as 10 years before. While nu metal was widely popular, traditional metal fans did not fully embrace the style. By early 2003, the movement's popularity was on the wane, though several nu metal acts such as Korn or Limp Bizkit retained substantial followings. Metalcore , a hybrid of extreme metal and hardcore punk , emerged as a commercial force in the mid-2000s, having mostly been an underground phenomenon throughout the 1980s and 1990s; pioneering bands include Earth Crisis , Converge , Hatebreed and Shai Hulud . By 2004, melodic metalcore – influenced by melodic death metal as well – was popular enough that Killswitch Engage 's The End of Heartache and Shadows Fall 's The War Within debuted at No. 21 and No. 20, respectively, on the Billboard album chart. Evolving even further from metalcore came mathcore , a more rhythmically complicated and progressive style brought to light by bands such as The Dillinger Escape Plan , Converge and Protest the Hero . Mathcore's main defining quality is the use of odd time signatures, and has been described to possess rhythmic comparability to free jazz . Heavy metal remained popular in the 2000s, particularly in continental Europe. By the new millennium, Scandinavia had emerged as one of the areas producing innovative and successful bands, while Belgium, the Netherlands and especially Germany were the most significant markets. Metal music is more favorably embraced in Scandinavia and Northern Europe than other regions due to social and political openness in these regions; Finland in particular has been often called the "Promised Land of Heavy Metal", as there are more than 50 metal bands for every 100,000 inhabitants – more than any other nation in the world. Established continental metal bands that placed multiple albums in the top 20 of the German charts between 2003 and 2008 include Finland's Children of Bodom , Norway's Dimmu Borgir, Germany's Blind Guardian and Sweden's HammerFall. In the 2000s, an extreme metal fusion genre known as deathcore emerged. Deathcore incorporates elements of death metal , hardcore punk and metalcore . Deathcore features characteristics such as death metal riffs , hardcore punk breakdowns , death growling, "pig squeal"-sounding vocals and screaming. Deathcore bands include Whitechapel , Suicide Silence , Despised Icon and Carnifex . The term "retro-metal" has been used to describe bands such as Texas-based The Sword , California's High on Fire , Sweden's Witchcraft and Australia's Wolfmother . The Sword's Age of Winters (2006) drew heavily on the work of Black Sabbath and Pentagram , Witchcraft added elements of folk rock and psychedelic rock, and Wolfmother's self-titled 2005 debut album had " Deep Purple -ish organs" and " Jimmy Page -worthy chordal riffing ". Mastodon , which plays a progressive/sludge style of metal, has inspired claims of a metal revival in the United States, dubbed by some critics the " New Wave of American Heavy Metal ". By the early 2010s, metalcore was evolving to more frequently incorporate synthesizers and elements from genres beyond rock and metal. The album Reckless & Relentless by British band Asking Alexandria , which sold 31,000 copies in its first week, and The Devil Wears Prada's 2011 album Dead Throne , which sold 32,400 in its first week, reached No. 9 and No. 10, respectively, on the Billboard 200 chart. In 2013, British band Bring Me the Horizon released their fourth studio album, Sempiternal , to critical acclaim. The album debuted at No. 3 on the U.K. Album Chart and at No. 1 in Australia. The album sold 27,522 copies in the U.S. and charted at No. 11 on the Billboard Chart, making it their highest-charting release in America until their follow-up album, That's the Spirit , which debuted at No. 2 in 2015. Also in the 2010s, a metal style called " djent " developed as a spinoff of standard progressive metal . Djent music uses rhythmic and technical complexity, heavily distorted, palm-muted guitar chords, syncopated riffs and polyrhythms alongside virtuoso soloing. Another typical characteristic is the use of extended range seven -, eight - and nine-string guitars . Djent bands include Periphery , Tesseract and Textures . Fusion of nu metal with electropop by singer-songwriters Poppy , Grimes and Rina Sawayama saw a popular and critical revival of the former genre in the late 2010s and 2020s, particular on their respective albums I Disagree , Miss Anthropocene and Sawayama . Metal has been recognized as a global music genre, being listened to and performed around the world. Laina Dawes explored the multidimensional components of racism in her book What Are You Doing Here? , including the perspectives of black women musicians and fans, in the heavy metal scene in North America and the United Kingdom. She also grounded her doctorial thesis "'Freedom Ain't Free': Race and Representation(s) in Extreme Heavy Metal" on her own experiences, laying out some the nuances of a community that can be both a site of exclusionism and at the same time also a place for greater freedom of expression compared to mainstream genres. The band Alien Weaponry from the Māori people of New Zealand promotes heavy metal music as one way of combating racism. Women's involvement in heavy metal began in the 1960s since its very conception, given the role played by Esther "Jinx" Dawson, vocalist and leader of Coven . The next relevant milestone took place in the 1970s when Genesis, the forerunner of Vixen , formed in 1973. A hard rock band featuring all-female members, The Runaways , was founded in 1975; Joan Jett and Lita Ford later had successful solo careers. In 1978, during the rise of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal , the band Girlschool was founded and, in 1980, collaborated with Motörhead under the pseudonym Headgirl . Starting in 1982, Doro Pesch , dubbed "the Metal Queen", reached success across Europe (making other woman-fronted metal bands to spawn, such as Spain's Santa in 1983), leading the German band Warlock before starting her solo career. In 1983 another pioneering heavy metal singer, Mari Hamada , made her debut, achieving great success in Japan from the 1980s until well into the 21st century. In 1986, the German thrash band Holy Moses , fronted by pioneer growler Sabina Classen , issued their first album. In 1994, Liv Kristine joined Norwegian gothic metal band Theatre of Tragedy , providing "angelic" female clean vocals to contrast with male death growls . In 1996, Finnish band Nightwish was founded and featured Tarja Turunen 's vocals. This was followed by more women fronting heavy metal bands, such as Halestorm , In This Moment , Within Temptation , Arch Enemy and Epica among others. Liv Kristine was featured on the title track of Cradle of Filth 's 2004 album, Nymphetamine , which was nominated for the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance . In 2013, Halestorm won the Grammy in the combined category of Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance for " Love Bites (So Do I) ". In 2021, In This Moment , Code Orange and Poppy were all nominated in the Best Metal Performance category. The most notable of these 1990s/2000s female-fronted groups was the American band Evanescence , headed by vocalist Amy Lee and featuring a musical style usually described as gothic alternative metal and hard rock with classical elements. Their first album Fallen , released in 2003, broke into the popular music scene and was a worldwide phenomenon; it earned the band two Grammy Awards and briefly catapulted Lee to a level of fame similar to that of contemporary popstars such as Christina Aguilera , Avril Lavigne , and Beyoncé . Although their later albums have not had a similar impact, Evanescence are still one of the most commercially successful metal groups of the 21st century, having sold over 20 million records. In Japan, the 2010s saw a boom of all-female metal bands, including Destrose , Aldious , Mary's Blood , Cyntia and Lovebites , as well as the mainstream success of Babymetal . Women such as Gaby Hoffmann and Sharon Osbourne have held important managerial roles behind the scenes. In 1981, Hoffmann helped Don Dokken acquire his first record deal, as well as became the manager of Accept in 1981 and wrote songs under the pseudonym of "Deaffy" for many of band's studio albums. Vocalist Mark Tornillo stated that Hoffmann still had some influence in songwriting on their later albums. Osbourne, the wife and manager of Ozzy Osbourne , founded the Ozzfest music festival and managed several bands, including Motörhead, Coal Chamber , the Smashing Pumpkins , Electric Light Orchestra , Lita Ford and Queen . The popular media and academia have long charged heavy metal with sexism and misogyny . In the 1980s, American conservative groups like the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) and the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) co-opted feminist views on anti-woman violence to form attacks on metal's rhetoric and imagery. According to Robert Christgau in 2001, metal, along with hip-hop, have made "reflexive and violent sexism ... current in the music". In response to such claims, debates in the metal press have centered on defining and contextualizing sexism. Hill claims that "understanding what counts as sexism is complex and requires critical work by fans when sexism is normalised." Citing her own research, including interviews of British female fans, she found that metal offers them an opportunity to feel liberated and genderless, albeit if assimilated into a culture that is largely neglectful of women. In 2018, Metal Hammer editor Eleanor Goodman published an article titled "Does Metal Have a Sexism Problem?" interviewing veteran industry people and artists about the plight of women in metal. Some talked about a history of difficulty receiving professional respect from male counterparts. Among those interviewed was Wendy Dio, who had worked in label, booking and legal capacities in the music industry before her marriage to and management of metal artist Ronnie James Dio . She said that after marrying Dio, her professional reputation became reduced to her marital role as his wife, and her competency was questioned. Gloria Cavalera, former manager of Sepultura and wife of the band's former frontman Max Cavalera , said that since 1996, she had received misogynistic hate mail and death threats from fans and that "women take a lot of crap. This whole #MeToo thing, do they think it just started? That has gone on since the pictures of the cavemen pulling girls by their hair." The popular media and academia have long charged heavy metal with sexism and misogyny . In the 1980s, American conservative groups like the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) and the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) co-opted feminist views on anti-woman violence to form attacks on metal's rhetoric and imagery. According to Robert Christgau in 2001, metal, along with hip-hop, have made "reflexive and violent sexism ... current in the music". In response to such claims, debates in the metal press have centered on defining and contextualizing sexism. Hill claims that "understanding what counts as sexism is complex and requires critical work by fans when sexism is normalised." Citing her own research, including interviews of British female fans, she found that metal offers them an opportunity to feel liberated and genderless, albeit if assimilated into a culture that is largely neglectful of women. In 2018, Metal Hammer editor Eleanor Goodman published an article titled "Does Metal Have a Sexism Problem?" interviewing veteran industry people and artists about the plight of women in metal. Some talked about a history of difficulty receiving professional respect from male counterparts. Among those interviewed was Wendy Dio, who had worked in label, booking and legal capacities in the music industry before her marriage to and management of metal artist Ronnie James Dio . She said that after marrying Dio, her professional reputation became reduced to her marital role as his wife, and her competency was questioned. Gloria Cavalera, former manager of Sepultura and wife of the band's former frontman Max Cavalera , said that since 1996, she had received misogynistic hate mail and death threats from fans and that "women take a lot of crap. This whole #MeToo thing, do they think it just started? That has gone on since the pictures of the cavemen pulling girls by their hair."

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Blain_(animal_disease)/html

Blain (animal disease)

Blain was an animal disease of unknown etiology that was well known in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is unclear whether it is still extant, or what modern disease it corresponds to. According to Ephraim Chambers ' 18th-century Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences , blain was "a distemper " (in the archaic eighteenth-century sense of the word, meaning "disease") occurring in animals, consisting of a "Bladder growing on the Root of the Tongue against the Wind-Pipe ", which "at length swelling, stops the Wind". It was thought to occur "by great chafing, and heating of the Stomach". Blain is also mentioned in Cattle: Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases , published in 1836, where it is also identified as " gloss-anthrax ". W. C. Spooner's 1888 book The History, Structure, Economy and Diseases of the Sheep also identifies blain as being the same as gloss-anthrax. A description of blain is provided in the Horticulture column of the Monday Morning edition of the Belfast News-Letter, September 13, 1852. Headline: The Prevailing Epidemic Disease in Horned Cattle - The Mouth and Food Disease. "There are two diseases of the mouth - one of a very serious character, which is called blain (gloss anthrax) or inflammation of the tongue. This is a very virulent disease, and sometimes of a very rapid action, and which should be at once attended to, and not trifled with; but though it always exhibits itself in inflammation of the membranes of the mouth, beneath or above the tongue, and the sides of the tongue itself, it soon extends through the whole system, and, according to the best veterinarians, involves inflammation and gangrene of the oesophagus and intestines . The symptoms are many, the eyes are inflamed, and constantly weeping; swellings appear round the eyes and some other parts of the body; the pulse quick, heaving of the flanks, and the bowels sometimes constipated. Such are the general symptoms of this formidable disease, more or less aggravated by neglect of inattention in mitigation." It continues to describe treatment including deep lancing of blisters, blood letting, Epsom salt doses, chloride of lime rinses, tincture of diluted myrrh , fever treatments supplied in the animals feed, etc. Modern scholarship suggests that "gloss-anthrax" was not the same disease as modern-day anthrax , but instead could have been foot-and-mouth disease , or a viral infection with a secondary Fusobacterium necrophorum infection. It has also been suggested that it may have been due to an extinct variant strain of true anthrax. Other sources also report epizootics known as "blain" or "black-blain" in the 13th and 14th centuries, but it is not clear if the disease involved was the same as "gloss-anthrax".

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Milesia_anthrax/html

Milesia anthrax

Milesia anthrax is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae . Borneo .

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Anthrax

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Kantubek/html

Kantubek

Kantubek ( Russian: Кантубек ; Karakalpak: Qantubek ) is a ghost town on Vozrozhdeniya Island in the Aral Sea . The town is still found on maps but was abandoned in 1992 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union . It has since been demolished, and there are plans to make the area a national park. Kantubek used to have a population of approximately 1,500 and housed scientists and employees of the Soviet Union 's top-secret Aralsk-7 biological weapons research and test site. Brian Hayes, a biochemical engineer with the United States Defense Threat Reduction Agency , led an expedition in the spring and summer of 2002 to neutralize what was believed to be the world's largest anthrax dumping grounds. His team of 113 people neutralized between 100 and 200 tonnes of anthrax over a three-month period. The cost of the cleanup operation was approximately US$5 million.

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Anthrax

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Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash

Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash ( Arabic : هدى صالح ٠هدي ع٠اش ) (born 29 October 1953) is an Iraqi scientist and academic. Ammash was often referred to as "Mrs. Anthrax" due to her alleged association with an Iraqi biological weapons program . Ammash was number 53 on the Pentagon 's list of the 55 most wanted, the "five of hearts" , in the U.S. deck of most-wanted Iraqi playing cards , and the only woman to be featured. She was captured by coalition forces but later released without being charged. She received her undergraduate degree from the University of Baghdad , followed by a master's in microbiology from Texas Woman's University in Denton, Texas . She spent four years at the University of Missouri pursuing a doctorate in microbiology, which she received in December 1983. Her thesis focused on the effects of radiation , paraquat and the chemotherapy drug Adriamycin , on bacteria and mammals. She was appointed to the Revolutionary Command Council in May 2001. In one of several videos that Saddam released during the war, Ammash was the only woman among about a half-dozen men seated around a table. The videos were broadcast on Iraqi TV as invading forces drew closer to Baghdad: it is not known when the meeting took place or what the significance was of her appearance on camera. She served as president of Iraq's microbiology society and as dean at the University of Baghdad . U.S. officials said she was trained by Nassir al-Hindawi , described by United Nations inspectors as the "father of Iraq's biological weapons program". She conducted research into illnesses that may have been caused by depleted uranium from shells used in the 1991 Gulf War, and had published several papers on the health effects of the war and the subsequent sanctions. [ citation needed ] Ammash surrendered to coalition forces on 9 May 2003 and was one of two Iraqi women known to be in U.S. custody as of April 2005. The other was the British-educated Rihab Taha , who led Iraq's biological weapons program until 1995. [ citation needed ] In August 2005, the American Association for the Advancement of Science called for Ammash to be either sent to trial or released: Although she has neither been charged with a crime nor brought to trial, the Iraqi scientist remains in prison today, accused by the US Government of being the head of Saddam Hussein's biowarfare programme - a programme of which no evidence has been found. According to Times Higher Education , "The organisation [AAAS] has not issued the statement lightly. Senior figures including Alan Leshner , chief executive officer of the AAAS, were involved in drawing it up." Both women were released in December 2005 after they were among those an American-Iraqi board process found were no longer a security threat and would have no charges filed against them. Ammash was also said to be suffering from breast cancer. Ammash surrendered to coalition forces on 9 May 2003 and was one of two Iraqi women known to be in U.S. custody as of April 2005. The other was the British-educated Rihab Taha , who led Iraq's biological weapons program until 1995. [ citation needed ] In August 2005, the American Association for the Advancement of Science called for Ammash to be either sent to trial or released: Although she has neither been charged with a crime nor brought to trial, the Iraqi scientist remains in prison today, accused by the US Government of being the head of Saddam Hussein's biowarfare programme - a programme of which no evidence has been found. According to Times Higher Education , "The organisation [AAAS] has not issued the statement lightly. Senior figures including Alan Leshner , chief executive officer of the AAAS, were involved in drawing it up." Both women were released in December 2005 after they were among those an American-Iraqi board process found were no longer a security threat and would have no charges filed against them. Ammash was also said to be suffering from breast cancer. Ammash's father, Salih Mahdi Ammash , was a high-level Baath Party member in Iraq, who became defense minister in 1963, deputy prime minister in 1968, and an ambassador in 1977.

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Anthrax

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Anthrax seriepunctatus

Anthrax seriepunctatus is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . Mexica , United States.

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Anthrax

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List of laboratory biosecurity incidents

This list of laboratory biosecurity incidents includes accidental laboratory-acquired infections and laboratory releases of lethal pathogens, containment failures in or during transport of lethal pathogens, and incidents of exposure of lethal pathogens to laboratory personnel, improper disposal of contaminated waste, and/or the escape of laboratory animals. The list is grouped by the year in which the accident or incident occurred and does not include every reported laboratory-acquired infection. virus

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Anthrax

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Dugway Proving Ground

Dugway Proving Ground ( DPG ) is a U.S. Army facility established in 1942 to test biological and chemical weapons , located about 85 mi (137 km) southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah , United States, and 13 mi (21 km) south of the 2,624 sq mi (6,800 km 2 ) Utah Test and Training Range .Dugway Proving Ground is located about 85 mi (137 km) southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah , in southern Tooele County and just north of Juab County . It encompasses 801,505 acres (1,252.352 sq mi; 3,243.58 km 2 ) of the Great Salt Lake Desert , an area the size of the state of Rhode Island , and is surrounded on three sides by mountain ranges. It had a resident population of 795 as of the 2010 United States Census , all of whom lived in the community of Dugway, Utah , at its extreme eastern end. It is 13 mi (21 km) south of the 2,624 sq mi (6,796 km 2 ) Utah Test and Training Range and together they form the largest block of overland contiguous special use airspace measured from surface or near surface within the continental U.S.( 207 by 122 mi (333 by 196 km) ). The transcontinental Lincoln Highway passed through the present site of the Dugway Proving Ground, and is the only section of the old highway closed to the public. At least one old wooden bridge over a creek still stands. The name Dugway comes from a technique of digging a trench into a hillside to create a flat surface along which a wagon can travel. Dugway's mission is to test United States and Allied biological and chemical weapon defense systems in a secure and isolated environment. DPG also serves as a facility for US Army Reserve and US National Guard maneuver training, and US Air Force flight tests, mostly from nearby Hill Air Force Base in Clearfield. DPG is controlled by the United States Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC). The area has also been used by Army special forces for training in preparation for deployments to the War in Afghanistan . In 1941, the US Army Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) determined it needed a testing facility more remote than the US Army's Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland . The CWS surveyed the Western U.S. for a new location to conduct its tests, and in the spring of 1942, construction of Dugway Proving Ground began, including the establishment of Michael Army Airfield . Since its founding, much of Dugway Proving Ground activity has been a closely guarded secret. [ citation needed ] Testing commenced in the summer of 1942. During World War II , DPG tested toxic agents, flamethrowers , chemical spray systems, biological warfare weapons, fire bombing tactics, antidotes for chemical agents, and protective clothing. [ citation needed ] During 1943 the " German Village " and " Japanese Village " set-piece domestic "hamlets" were built at Dugway, for practice in the fire-bombing of homes of the types in urbanized areas of Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire 's Home Islands . In October 1943, DPG established biological warfare facilities at UTTR's range telemetry and tracking radar installation, which is an isolated area within DPG known as the Granite Peak Installation . DPG was slowly phased out after World War II, becoming inactive in August 1946. The base was reactivated during the Korean War , under Commanding Officer Lieutenant Colonel Speers Ponder, and in 1954 was confirmed as a permanent Department of the Army installation. In October 1958, the United States Army Chemical Center, Maryland, moved the U.S. Army Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Weapons School to Dugway Proving Ground. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Project Bellwether —a study of weaponized, mosquito-spread infections—was based at DPG. From 1985 to 1991, Dugway Proving Ground was home to the Ranger School 's short-lived Desert Training Phase. It was first known as the Desert Ranger Division (DRD) until redesignated the Ranger Training Brigade 's 7th Ranger Training Battalion in 1987, and taught students basic desert survival skills and small unit tactics. The program was later moved back to its original site at Fort Bliss, Texas , in 1991, where it was deactivated in 1995. [ citation needed ] On September 8, 2004, the Genesis , a NASA spacecraft, was directed to impact into the desert floor of the Dugway Proving Ground because the topsoil there is like talcum powder, or moondust, and would likely cushion the troubled spacecraft's impact. The Genesis spacecraft's accelerometer had been installed backwards, which caused the spacecraft to malfunction upon re-entry to Earth's atmosphere preventing the originally planned air retrieval. On January 26, 2011, Dugway Proving Ground was placed on lockdown. Al Vogel, a public affairs specialist for the installation, would only say that the lockdown began at 5:24 p.m. Employees were not allowed to leave, and those coming to work were not allowed in. Vogel said there were no injuries, no damage and no threats reported at the proving ground. There were about 1,200 to 1,400 people at Dugway when the lockdown occurred. It was later announced that the lockdown was in response to the temporary loss of a vial containing VX nerve agent . The lockdown was lifted on January 27 following recovery of the material. The incident was described simply as a mislabeling problem. Dugway Proving Ground was also home to the High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector , which discovered the first ultra-high-energy cosmic ray . Dugway is home to several radio telemetry and tracking radar (i.e. RIR-777, TPQ-39 (Ver. V) and MPQ-39) sites which track national flight assets during flight tests at UTTR . Activities included aerial nerve agent testing. According to reports from New Scientist , Dugway was still producing quantities of anthrax spores as late as 2015 to be used to develop anthrax testing detection and countermeasures, more than four decades after the United States renounced biological weapons, and shipping material intended to be inert to military bases and military contractors around the globe. There were at least 1,100 other chemical tests at Dugway during the time period of the Dugway sheep incident (see below). In total, almost 500,000 lb (230,000 kg) of nerve agent were dispersed during open-air tests. There were also tests at Dugway involving other weapons of mass destruction, including 328 open-air tests of biological weapons, 74 dirty bomb tests, and eight furnace heatings of nuclear material under open-air conditions to simulate the dispersal of fallout in the case of meltdown of aeronautic nuclear reactors. On December 13, 2019, the U.S. Air Force said it had kept the Ultra Long Endurance Aircraft Platform (Ultra LEAP) at the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah airborne for two days during testing of the surveillance drone at the site. In March 1968, 6,249 sheep died in Skull Valley , an area nearly thirty miles from Dugway's testing sites. When examined, the sheep were found to have been poisoned by an organophosphate chemical. The sickening of the sheep, known as the Dugway sheep incident , coincided with several open-air tests of the nerve agent VX at Dugway. Local attention focused on the Army, which initially denied that VX had caused the deaths, instead blaming the local use of organophosphate pesticides on crops. Necropsies conducted on the dead sheep later definitively identified the presence of VX. The Army never admitted liability, but did pay the ranchers for their losses. On the official record, the claim was for 4,372 "disabled" sheep, of which about 2,150 were either killed outright by the VX exposure or were so critically injured that they needed to be euthanized on-site by veterinarians. Another 1,877 sheep were "temporarily" injured, or showed no signs of injury but ultimately were not marketable due to their potential exposure. All of the exposed sheep that survived the initial exposure were eventually euthanized by the ranchers, since even the potential for exposure had rendered the sheep permanently unsalable for either meat or wool. The incident, coinciding with the birth of the environmental movement and anti- Vietnam War protests, created an uproar in Utah and the international community. The U.S. General Accounting Office issued a report on September 28, 1994, which stated that between 1940 and 1974, DOD and other national security agencies performed "hundreds, perhaps thousands" of weapons tests and experiments involving hazardous substances. The quote from the study: ... Dugway Proving Ground is a military testing facility located approximately 80 miles southwest of Salt Lake City. For several decades, Dugway has been the site of testing for various chemical and biological agents. From 1951 through 1969, hundreds, perhaps thousands of open-air tests using bacteria and viruses that cause disease in human, animals, and plants were conducted at Dugway ... It is unknown how many people in the surrounding vicinity were also exposed to potentially harmful agents used in open-air tests at Dugway. More specifically, there are reports that certain nerve agents such as tetrodotoxin and Datura stramonium have been tested at this military base. [ citation needed ] The complete [ clarification needed ] nerve agent was code-named "VX"—one of a series of "V" nerve agents tested at the base. [ citation needed ] In May 2015 it was revealed that Dugway lab had inadvertently shipped live anthrax bacillus to locations around the country. Shipped samples, it was said, were supposed to be inert. Labs receiving the live samples were in Texas, Maryland, Wisconsin, Delaware, New Jersey, Tennessee, New York, California and Virginia, the Associated Press reported. Days after the first report, the military divulged that the mis-shipments had been broader than initially reported and launched an investigation. Dugway was involved in developing a test to identify biological threats in the field. In September 2018, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) released findings of an investigation into the anthrax shipping lapses made at Dugway. The investigation looked into whether "systemic oversight changes regarding biosecurity have since been implemented across DOD facilities. The findings are mixed." The U.S. Army had sought 35 specific changes, but only 18 of those 35 changes have been made, as of the GAO report. According to the report, the DOD "had not fully identified the infrastructure capabilities required to address threats, had not planned to identify potential duplication without considering information from existing federal studies, and had not updated its guidance and planning process to include specific responsibilities and time frames for risk assessments." In March 1968, 6,249 sheep died in Skull Valley , an area nearly thirty miles from Dugway's testing sites. When examined, the sheep were found to have been poisoned by an organophosphate chemical. The sickening of the sheep, known as the Dugway sheep incident , coincided with several open-air tests of the nerve agent VX at Dugway. Local attention focused on the Army, which initially denied that VX had caused the deaths, instead blaming the local use of organophosphate pesticides on crops. Necropsies conducted on the dead sheep later definitively identified the presence of VX. The Army never admitted liability, but did pay the ranchers for their losses. On the official record, the claim was for 4,372 "disabled" sheep, of which about 2,150 were either killed outright by the VX exposure or were so critically injured that they needed to be euthanized on-site by veterinarians. Another 1,877 sheep were "temporarily" injured, or showed no signs of injury but ultimately were not marketable due to their potential exposure. All of the exposed sheep that survived the initial exposure were eventually euthanized by the ranchers, since even the potential for exposure had rendered the sheep permanently unsalable for either meat or wool. The incident, coinciding with the birth of the environmental movement and anti- Vietnam War protests, created an uproar in Utah and the international community. The U.S. General Accounting Office issued a report on September 28, 1994, which stated that between 1940 and 1974, DOD and other national security agencies performed "hundreds, perhaps thousands" of weapons tests and experiments involving hazardous substances. The quote from the study: ... Dugway Proving Ground is a military testing facility located approximately 80 miles southwest of Salt Lake City. For several decades, Dugway has been the site of testing for various chemical and biological agents. From 1951 through 1969, hundreds, perhaps thousands of open-air tests using bacteria and viruses that cause disease in human, animals, and plants were conducted at Dugway ... It is unknown how many people in the surrounding vicinity were also exposed to potentially harmful agents used in open-air tests at Dugway. More specifically, there are reports that certain nerve agents such as tetrodotoxin and Datura stramonium have been tested at this military base. [ citation needed ] The complete [ clarification needed ] nerve agent was code-named "VX"—one of a series of "V" nerve agents tested at the base. [ citation needed ]In May 2015 it was revealed that Dugway lab had inadvertently shipped live anthrax bacillus to locations around the country. Shipped samples, it was said, were supposed to be inert. Labs receiving the live samples were in Texas, Maryland, Wisconsin, Delaware, New Jersey, Tennessee, New York, California and Virginia, the Associated Press reported. Days after the first report, the military divulged that the mis-shipments had been broader than initially reported and launched an investigation. Dugway was involved in developing a test to identify biological threats in the field. In September 2018, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) released findings of an investigation into the anthrax shipping lapses made at Dugway. The investigation looked into whether "systemic oversight changes regarding biosecurity have since been implemented across DOD facilities. The findings are mixed." The U.S. Army had sought 35 specific changes, but only 18 of those 35 changes have been made, as of the GAO report. According to the report, the DOD "had not fully identified the infrastructure capabilities required to address threats, had not planned to identify potential duplication without considering information from existing federal studies, and had not updated its guidance and planning process to include specific responsibilities and time frames for risk assessments." Following the public attention drawn to Area 51 in the early 1990s, UFOlogists and concerned citizens have suggested that whatever covert operations may have been underway at that location, if any, were subsequently transferred to DPG. The Deseret News reported that Dave Rosenfeld, president of Utah UFO Hunters, claimed but provided no proof for "Numerous UFOs have been stored and reported in the area in and around Dugway ... [military aircraft can't account for] all the unknowns seen in the area. It might be that our star visitors are keeping an eye on Dugway too. ... [Dugway is] the new Area 51. And probably the new military spaceport." Dugway Proving Ground has often made light of the rumors, satirizing the conspiracy on their official social media posts. A 2021 community event at the base had shooting targets with alien profiles set up by the base's police department for children to target with an airsoft gun . A 2023 5K run & 10K run Halloween costume race announced at the base was dubbed the "Alien Invasion" with the tag-line "come see the history of Area 52".

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Anthrax

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Camponotus anthrax

Camponotus anthrax is a species of ant in the subgenus Camponotus ( Myrmentoma ). It is endemic to western North America.

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Anthrax

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Unit 731

Biological weapons Chemical weapons Explosives 400,000 or higher from biological warfare Over 3,000 from inside experiments from each unit (not including branches, 1940–1945 only) : 20 At least 10,000 prisoners died No documented survivors Unit 731 ( Japanese : 731部隊 , Hepburn : Nana-san-ichi Butai ) , [note 1] short for Manshu Detachment 731 and also known as the Kamo Detachment : 198 and the Ishii Unit , was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that engaged in lethal human experimentation and biological weapons manufacturing during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II . It killed an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 people. It was based in the Pingfang district of Harbin , the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (now Northeast China ) and had active branch offices throughout China and Southeast Asia . Unit 731 was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes committed by the Japanese armed forces . It routinely conducted tests on people who were dehumanized and internally referred to as "logs". Experiments included disease injections, controlled dehydration, biological weapons testing, hypobaric pressure chamber testing, vivisection , organ harvesting , amputation , and standard weapons testing. Victims included not only kidnapped men, women (including pregnant women) and children but also babies born from the systemic rape perpetrated by the staff inside the compound. The victims also came from different nationalities, with the majority being Chinese and a significant minority being Russian . Additionally, Unit 731 produced biological weapons that were used in areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces, which included Chinese cities and towns, water sources, and fields. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people, and none of the inmates survived. In the final moments of the Second World War, all prisoners were killed to conceal evidence. Originally set up by the military police of the Empire of Japan , Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the end of the war by General Shirō Ishii , a combat medic officer. The facility itself was built in 1935 as a replacement for the Zhongma Fortress , a prison and experimentation camp. Ishii and his team used it to expand their capabilities. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. While Unit 731 researchers arrested by Soviet forces were tried at the December 1949 Khabarovsk war crimes trials , those captured by the United States were secretly given immunity in exchange for the data gathered during their human experiments. The United States helped cover up the human experimentations and handed stipends to the perpetrators. The Americans co-opted the researchers' bioweapons information and experience for use in their own biological warfare program , much like what had been done with Nazi German researchers in Operation Paperclip . On 28 August 2002, Tokyo District Court ruled that Japan had committed biological warfare in China and consequently had slaughtered many residents. Japan initiated its biological weapons program during the 1930s, in part due to the prohibition of biological weapons in interstate conflicts by the Geneva Protocol of 1925. They reasoned that the ban verified its effectiveness as a weapon. Japan's occupation of Manchuria began in 1931 after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria . Japan decided to build Unit 731 in Manchuria because the occupation not only gave the Japanese an advantage of separating the research station from their island, but also gave them access to as many Chinese individuals as they wanted for use as test subjects. They viewed the Chinese as no-cost assets, and hoped this would give them a competitive advantage in biological warfare. Most of the victims were Chinese, but many victims were also from different nationalities. In 1932, Surgeon General Shirō Ishii , chief medical officer of the Imperial Japanese Army and protégé of Army Minister Sadao Araki , was placed in command of the Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory ( AEPRL ). Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit," for chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs. One of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel Chikahiko Koizumi , who later served as Japan's Health Minister from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret poison gas research committee in 1915, during World War I , when he and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were impressed by the successful German use of chlorine gas at the Second Battle of Ypres , in which the Allies suffered 6,000 deaths and 15,000 wounded as a result of the chemical attack. Unit Tōgō was set into motion in the Zhongma Fortress , a prison and experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village 100 kilometers (62 mi) south of Harbin on the South Manchuria Railway . The prisoners brought to Zhongma included common criminals , captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, as well as political prisoners and people rounded up on trumped up charges by the Kempeitai . Prisoners were generally well fed on a diet of rice or wheat , meat , fish , and occasionally even alcohol in order to be in normal health at the beginning of experiments. Then, over several days, prisoners were eventually drained of blood and deprived of nutrients and water. Their deteriorating health was recorded. Some were also vivisected . Others were deliberately infected with plague bacteria and other microbes . A prison break in the autumn of 1934, which jeopardized the facility's secrecy, and an explosion in 1935 (believed to be sabotage) led Ishii to shut down Zhongma Fortress. He then received authorization to move to Pingfang, approximately 24 kilometers (15 mi) south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility. In 1936, Emperor Hirohito issued a decree authorizing the expansion of the unit and its integration into the Kwantung Army as the Epidemic Prevention Department. It was divided at that time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit", with a base in Xinjing . From August 1940 on, the units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" or "Unit 731" short. His younger brother, Prince Mikasa , toured the Unit 731 headquarters in China, and wrote in his memoir that he watched films showing how Chinese prisoners were "made to march on the plains of Manchuria for poison gas experiments on humans." Hideki Tojo , who later became Prime Minister in 1941, was also shown films of the experiments, which he described as "unpleasant." In addition to the establishment of Unit 731, the decree also called for the creation of an additional biological warfare development unit, called the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later referred to as Manchuria Unit 100 ), and a chemical warfare development unit called the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department (later referred to as Manchuria Unit 516 ). After the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, sister chemical and biological warfare units were founded in major Chinese cities and were referred to as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units. Detachments included Unit 1855 in Beijing , Unit Ei 1644 in Nanjing , Unit 8604 in Guangzhou , and later Unit 9420 in Singapore . All of these units comprised Ishii's network, which, at its height in 1939, oversaw over 10,000 personnel. Medical doctors and professors from Japan were attracted to join Unit 731 both by the rare opportunity to conduct human experimentation and the Army's strong financial backing. Unit Tōgō was set into motion in the Zhongma Fortress , a prison and experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village 100 kilometers (62 mi) south of Harbin on the South Manchuria Railway . The prisoners brought to Zhongma included common criminals , captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, as well as political prisoners and people rounded up on trumped up charges by the Kempeitai . Prisoners were generally well fed on a diet of rice or wheat , meat , fish , and occasionally even alcohol in order to be in normal health at the beginning of experiments. Then, over several days, prisoners were eventually drained of blood and deprived of nutrients and water. Their deteriorating health was recorded. Some were also vivisected . Others were deliberately infected with plague bacteria and other microbes . A prison break in the autumn of 1934, which jeopardized the facility's secrecy, and an explosion in 1935 (believed to be sabotage) led Ishii to shut down Zhongma Fortress. He then received authorization to move to Pingfang, approximately 24 kilometers (15 mi) south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility. In 1936, Emperor Hirohito issued a decree authorizing the expansion of the unit and its integration into the Kwantung Army as the Epidemic Prevention Department. It was divided at that time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit", with a base in Xinjing . From August 1940 on, the units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" or "Unit 731" short. His younger brother, Prince Mikasa , toured the Unit 731 headquarters in China, and wrote in his memoir that he watched films showing how Chinese prisoners were "made to march on the plains of Manchuria for poison gas experiments on humans." Hideki Tojo , who later became Prime Minister in 1941, was also shown films of the experiments, which he described as "unpleasant." In addition to the establishment of Unit 731, the decree also called for the creation of an additional biological warfare development unit, called the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later referred to as Manchuria Unit 100 ), and a chemical warfare development unit called the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department (later referred to as Manchuria Unit 516 ). After the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, sister chemical and biological warfare units were founded in major Chinese cities and were referred to as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units. Detachments included Unit 1855 in Beijing , Unit Ei 1644 in Nanjing , Unit 8604 in Guangzhou , and later Unit 9420 in Singapore . All of these units comprised Ishii's network, which, at its height in 1939, oversaw over 10,000 personnel. Medical doctors and professors from Japan were attracted to join Unit 731 both by the rare opportunity to conduct human experimentation and the Army's strong financial backing. A special project, codenamed Maruta , used human beings for experiments. Test subjects were gathered from the surrounding population and sometimes euphemistically referred to as "logs" ( 丸太 , maruta ) , used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?" This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official cover story for the facility given to local authorities was that it was a lumber mill . According to a junior uniformed civilian employee of the Imperial Japanese Army working in Unit 731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz", German for log. In a further parallel, the corpses of "sacrificed" subjects were disposed of by incineration . Researchers in Unit 731 also published some of their results in peer-reviewed journals , writing as though the research had been conducted on nonhuman primates called "Manchurian monkeys" or "long-tailed monkeys." According to American historian Sheldon H. Harris : The Togo Unit employed gruesome tactics to secure specimens of select body organs. If Ishii or one of his co-workers wished to do research on the human brain, then they would order the guards to find them a useful sample. A prisoner would be taken from his cell. Guards would hold him while another guard would smash the victim's head open with an ax. His brain would be extracted off to the pathologist, and then to the crematorium for the usual disposal. Nakagawa Yonezo [ ja ] , professor emeritus at Osaka University , studied at Kyoto University during the war. While he was there, he watched footage of human experiments and executions from Unit 731. He later testified about the playfulness of the experimenters: Some of the experiments had nothing to do with advancing the capability of germ warfare , or of medicine. There is such a thing as professional curiosity: 'What would happen if we did such and such?' What medical purpose was served by performing and studying beheadings? None at all. That was just playing around. Professional people, too, like to play." Prisoners were injected with diseases, disguised as vaccinations , to study their effects. To study the effects of untreated venereal diseases , male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with syphilis and gonorrhea , then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subjected to rape by guards. Thousands of men, women, children, and infants interned at prisoner of war camps were subjected to vivisection , often performed without anesthesia and usually lethal. In a video interview, former Unit 731 member Okawa Fukumatsu admitted to having vivisected a pregnant woman. Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases. Researchers performed invasive surgery on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects of disease on the human body. Prisoners had limbs amputated in order to study blood loss . Limbs removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite side of victims' bodies. Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and their esophagus reattached to the intestines . Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from others. Imperial Japanese Army surgeon Ken Yuasa suggests that practising vivisection on human subjects was widespread even outside Unit 731, estimating that at least 1,000 Japanese personnel were involved in the practice in mainland China. Yuasa said that when he performed vivisections on captives, they were "all for practice rather than for research," and that such practises were "routine" among Japanese doctors stationed in China during the war. The New York Times interviewed a former member of Unit 731. Insisting on anonymity, the former Japanese medical assistant recounted his first experience in vivisecting a live human being, who had been deliberately infected with the plague , for the purpose of developing "plague bombs" for war. "The fellow knew that it was over for him, and so he didn't struggle when they led him into the room and tied him down, but when I picked up the scalpel, that's when he began screaming. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time." Other sources suggest that it was the usual practice in the Unit for surgeons to stuff a rag (or medical gauze) into the mouth of prisoners before commencing vivisection in order to stifle any screaming. Unit 731 and its affiliated units ( Unit 1644 and Unit 100 , among others) were involved in research, development and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating biological weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both military and civilian) throughout World War II. Plague -infected fleas , bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were spread by low-flying airplanes over Chinese cities, including coastal Ningbo and Changde , Hunan Province , in 1940 and 1941. These operations killed tens of thousands with bubonic plague epidemics. An expedition to Nanjing involved spreading typhoid and paratyphoid germs into the wells , marshes , and houses of the city, as well as infusing them in snacks distributed to locals. Epidemics broke out shortly after, to the elation of many researchers, who concluded that paratyphoid fever was "the most effective" of the pathogens. : xii, 173 At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field trials were carried out, and at least 11 Chinese cities attacked with biological agents. An attack on Changde in 1941 reportedly led to approximately 10,000 biological casualties and 1,700 deaths among ill-prepared Japanese troops, in most cases due to cholera . Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with bubonic plague , cholera , smallpox , botulism , and other diseases. This research led to the development of the defoliation bacilli bomb and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague. Some of these bombs were designed with porcelain shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938. These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, reservoirs , wells, as well as other areas, with anthrax - and plague -carrier fleas, typhoid , cholera , or other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candy were given to unsuspecting victims. Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting cholera , anthrax , and plague were estimated to have killed at least 400,000 Chinese civilians. Tularemia was also tested on Chinese civilians. Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the biowarfare attacks, Chiang Kai-shek sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infected fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until Franklin D. Roosevelt issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks. In December 1944, the Japanese Navy explored the possibility of attacking cities in California with biological weapons, known as Operation PX or Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plan for the attack involved Seiran aircraft launched by submarine aircraft carriers upon the West Coast of the United States—specifically, the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The planes would spread weaponized bubonic plague , cholera , typhus , dengue fever , and other pathogens in a biological terror attack upon the population. The submarine crews would infect themselves and run ashore in a suicide mission. Planning for Operation PX was finalized on March 26, 1945, but shelved shortly thereafter due to the strong opposition of Chief of General Staff Yoshijirō Umezu . Umezu later explained his decision as such: "If bacteriological warfare is conducted, it will grow from the dimension of war between Japan and America to an endless battle of humanity against bacteria. Japan will earn the derision of the world." Human targets were used to test grenades positioned at various distances and in various positions. Flamethrowers were tested on people. Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test pathogen-releasing bombs , chemical weapons , shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, and explosive bombs as well as bayonets and knives. To determine the best course of treatment for varying degrees of shrapnel wounds sustained on the field by Japanese Soldiers, Chinese prisoners were exposed to direct bomb blasts. They were strapped, unprotected, to wooden planks that were staked into the ground at increasing distances around a bomb that was then detonated. It was surgery for most, autopsies for the rest. In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the amount of time until death; placed into low-pressure chambers until their eyes popped from the sockets ; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; hung upside down until death; crushed with heavy objects ; electrocuted ; dehydrated with hot fans; placed into centrifuges and spun until death; injected with animal blood, notably with horse blood; exposed to lethal doses of X-rays ; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or buried alive . In addition to chemical agents, the properties of many different toxins were also investigated by the Unit. To name a few, prisoners were exposed to tetrodotoxin ( pufferfish or fugu poison), heroin , Korean bindweed , bactal , and castor-oil seeds ( ricin ). Massive amounts of blood were drained from some prisoners in order to study the effects of blood loss according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu. In one case, at least half a liter of blood was drawn at two-to-three-day intervals. As stated above, dehydration experiments were performed on the victims. The purpose of these tests was to determine the amount of water in an individual's body and to see how long one could survive with a very low to no water intake. It is known that victims were also starved before these tests began. The deteriorating physical states of these victims were documented by staff at a periodic interval. "It was said that a small number of these poor men, women, and children who became marutas were also mummified alive in total dehydration experiments. They sweated themselves to death under the heat of several hot dry fans. At death, the corpses would only weigh ≈1/5 normal bodyweight." Unit 731 also performed transfusion experiments with different blood types . Unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote: In my experience, when A type blood 100 cc was transfused to an O type subject, whose pulse was 87 per minute and temperature was 35.4 degrees C, 30 minutes later the temperature rose to 38.6 degrees with slight trepidation. Sixty minutes later the pulse was 106 per minute and the temperature was 39.4 degrees. Two hours later the temperature was 37.7 degrees, and three hours later the subject recovered. When AB type blood 120 cc was transfused to an O type subject, an hour later the subject described malaise and psychroesthesia in both legs. When AB type blood 100 cc was transfused to a B type subject, there seemed to be no side effect. Unit 731 tested many different chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were mustard gas , lewisite , cyanic acid gas , white phosphorus , adamsite , and phosgene gas . A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a professor emeritus at a national university): In 1943, I attended a poison gas test held at the Unit 731 test facilities. A glass-walled chamber about three meters square [97 sq ft] and two meters [6.6 ft] high was used. Inside of it, a Chinese man was blindfolded, with his hands tied around a post behind him. The gas was adamsite (sneezing gas), and as the gas filled the chamber the man went into violent coughing convulsions and began to suffer excruciating pain. More than ten doctors and technicians were present. After I had watched for about ten minutes, I could not stand it any more, and left the area. I understand that other types of gasses were also tested there. Takeo Wano, a former medical worker in Unit 731, said that he saw a Western man, who was vertically cut into two pieces, pickled in a jar of formaldehyde . Wano guessed that the man was Russian because there were many Russians living in the area at that time. Unit 100 also experimented with toxic gas. Phone booth-like tanks were used as portable gas chambers for the prisoners. Some were forced to wear various types of gas masks ; others wore military uniforms, and some wore no clothes at all. Some of the tests have been described as "psychopathically sadistic, with no conceivable military application". For example, one experiment documented the time it took for three-day-old babies to freeze to death. Unit 731 also tested chemical weapons on prisoners in field conditions. A report authored by unknown researcher in the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) describes a large human experiment of yperite gas ( mustard gas ) on 7–10 September 1940. Twenty subjects were divided into three groups and placed in combat emplacements, trenches , gazebos, and observatories. One group was clothed with Chinese underwear, no hat, and no mask and was subjected to as much as 1,800 field gun rounds of yperite gas over 25 minutes. Another group was clothed in summer military uniform and shoes; three had masks and another three had no mask. They also were exposed to as much as 1,800 rounds of yperite gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as much as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to skin, eye, respiratory organs , and digestive organs were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots. Injecting the blister fluid from one subject into another subject and analyses of blood and soil were also performed. Five subjects were forced to drink a solution of yperite and lewisite gas in water, with or without decontamination . The report describes conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run. The following is an excerpt of one of these reports: Number 376, dugout of the first area: September 7, 1940, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Looks with hollow eyes. Weeping redness of the skin of the upper part of the body. Eyelids edematous, swollen. Epiphora. Hyperemic conjunctivae. September 8, 6 am: Neck, breast, upper abdomen and scrotum weeping, reddened, swollen. Covered with millet-seed-size to bean-size blisters. Eyelids and conjunctivae hyperemic and edematous. Had difficulties opening the eyes. September 8, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Feels sick. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Mucous and bloody erosions across the shoulder girdle. Abundant mucous nose secretions. Abdominal pain. Mucous and bloody diarrhea. Proteinuria. September 9, 7 am: Tired and exhausted. Weakness of all four extremities. Low morale. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Skin of the face still weeping. Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the limb to freeze . Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck." Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc. Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness. Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh." Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the Japanese Journal of Physiology in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a three-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-Celsius ice and salt water. Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the Mainichi Shimbun . [ user-generated source? ] Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt). This original data is seen in the attached figure. Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and non-infected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of syphilis between patients shows: Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot. After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam-filled buns" by guards. Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven." The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments. Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of vertical transmission (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity," there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or aborted . While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of sex crimes . The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality: One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with gangrene set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with pus oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work. Thousands of men, women, children, and infants interned at prisoner of war camps were subjected to vivisection , often performed without anesthesia and usually lethal. In a video interview, former Unit 731 member Okawa Fukumatsu admitted to having vivisected a pregnant woman. Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases. Researchers performed invasive surgery on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects of disease on the human body. Prisoners had limbs amputated in order to study blood loss . Limbs removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite side of victims' bodies. Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and their esophagus reattached to the intestines . Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from others. Imperial Japanese Army surgeon Ken Yuasa suggests that practising vivisection on human subjects was widespread even outside Unit 731, estimating that at least 1,000 Japanese personnel were involved in the practice in mainland China. Yuasa said that when he performed vivisections on captives, they were "all for practice rather than for research," and that such practises were "routine" among Japanese doctors stationed in China during the war. The New York Times interviewed a former member of Unit 731. Insisting on anonymity, the former Japanese medical assistant recounted his first experience in vivisecting a live human being, who had been deliberately infected with the plague , for the purpose of developing "plague bombs" for war. "The fellow knew that it was over for him, and so he didn't struggle when they led him into the room and tied him down, but when I picked up the scalpel, that's when he began screaming. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time." Other sources suggest that it was the usual practice in the Unit for surgeons to stuff a rag (or medical gauze) into the mouth of prisoners before commencing vivisection in order to stifle any screaming. Unit 731 and its affiliated units ( Unit 1644 and Unit 100 , among others) were involved in research, development and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating biological weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both military and civilian) throughout World War II. Plague -infected fleas , bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were spread by low-flying airplanes over Chinese cities, including coastal Ningbo and Changde , Hunan Province , in 1940 and 1941. These operations killed tens of thousands with bubonic plague epidemics. An expedition to Nanjing involved spreading typhoid and paratyphoid germs into the wells , marshes , and houses of the city, as well as infusing them in snacks distributed to locals. Epidemics broke out shortly after, to the elation of many researchers, who concluded that paratyphoid fever was "the most effective" of the pathogens. : xii, 173 At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field trials were carried out, and at least 11 Chinese cities attacked with biological agents. An attack on Changde in 1941 reportedly led to approximately 10,000 biological casualties and 1,700 deaths among ill-prepared Japanese troops, in most cases due to cholera . Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with bubonic plague , cholera , smallpox , botulism , and other diseases. This research led to the development of the defoliation bacilli bomb and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague. Some of these bombs were designed with porcelain shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938. These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, reservoirs , wells, as well as other areas, with anthrax - and plague -carrier fleas, typhoid , cholera , or other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candy were given to unsuspecting victims. Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting cholera , anthrax , and plague were estimated to have killed at least 400,000 Chinese civilians. Tularemia was also tested on Chinese civilians. Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the biowarfare attacks, Chiang Kai-shek sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infected fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until Franklin D. Roosevelt issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks. In December 1944, the Japanese Navy explored the possibility of attacking cities in California with biological weapons, known as Operation PX or Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plan for the attack involved Seiran aircraft launched by submarine aircraft carriers upon the West Coast of the United States—specifically, the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The planes would spread weaponized bubonic plague , cholera , typhus , dengue fever , and other pathogens in a biological terror attack upon the population. The submarine crews would infect themselves and run ashore in a suicide mission. Planning for Operation PX was finalized on March 26, 1945, but shelved shortly thereafter due to the strong opposition of Chief of General Staff Yoshijirō Umezu . Umezu later explained his decision as such: "If bacteriological warfare is conducted, it will grow from the dimension of war between Japan and America to an endless battle of humanity against bacteria. Japan will earn the derision of the world." Human targets were used to test grenades positioned at various distances and in various positions. Flamethrowers were tested on people. Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test pathogen-releasing bombs , chemical weapons , shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, and explosive bombs as well as bayonets and knives. To determine the best course of treatment for varying degrees of shrapnel wounds sustained on the field by Japanese Soldiers, Chinese prisoners were exposed to direct bomb blasts. They were strapped, unprotected, to wooden planks that were staked into the ground at increasing distances around a bomb that was then detonated. It was surgery for most, autopsies for the rest.In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the amount of time until death; placed into low-pressure chambers until their eyes popped from the sockets ; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; hung upside down until death; crushed with heavy objects ; electrocuted ; dehydrated with hot fans; placed into centrifuges and spun until death; injected with animal blood, notably with horse blood; exposed to lethal doses of X-rays ; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or buried alive . In addition to chemical agents, the properties of many different toxins were also investigated by the Unit. To name a few, prisoners were exposed to tetrodotoxin ( pufferfish or fugu poison), heroin , Korean bindweed , bactal , and castor-oil seeds ( ricin ). Massive amounts of blood were drained from some prisoners in order to study the effects of blood loss according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu. In one case, at least half a liter of blood was drawn at two-to-three-day intervals. As stated above, dehydration experiments were performed on the victims. The purpose of these tests was to determine the amount of water in an individual's body and to see how long one could survive with a very low to no water intake. It is known that victims were also starved before these tests began. The deteriorating physical states of these victims were documented by staff at a periodic interval. "It was said that a small number of these poor men, women, and children who became marutas were also mummified alive in total dehydration experiments. They sweated themselves to death under the heat of several hot dry fans. At death, the corpses would only weigh ≈1/5 normal bodyweight." Unit 731 also performed transfusion experiments with different blood types . Unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote: In my experience, when A type blood 100 cc was transfused to an O type subject, whose pulse was 87 per minute and temperature was 35.4 degrees C, 30 minutes later the temperature rose to 38.6 degrees with slight trepidation. Sixty minutes later the pulse was 106 per minute and the temperature was 39.4 degrees. Two hours later the temperature was 37.7 degrees, and three hours later the subject recovered. When AB type blood 120 cc was transfused to an O type subject, an hour later the subject described malaise and psychroesthesia in both legs. When AB type blood 100 cc was transfused to a B type subject, there seemed to be no side effect. Unit 731 tested many different chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were mustard gas , lewisite , cyanic acid gas , white phosphorus , adamsite , and phosgene gas . A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a professor emeritus at a national university): In 1943, I attended a poison gas test held at the Unit 731 test facilities. A glass-walled chamber about three meters square [97 sq ft] and two meters [6.6 ft] high was used. Inside of it, a Chinese man was blindfolded, with his hands tied around a post behind him. The gas was adamsite (sneezing gas), and as the gas filled the chamber the man went into violent coughing convulsions and began to suffer excruciating pain. More than ten doctors and technicians were present. After I had watched for about ten minutes, I could not stand it any more, and left the area. I understand that other types of gasses were also tested there. Takeo Wano, a former medical worker in Unit 731, said that he saw a Western man, who was vertically cut into two pieces, pickled in a jar of formaldehyde . Wano guessed that the man was Russian because there were many Russians living in the area at that time. Unit 100 also experimented with toxic gas. Phone booth-like tanks were used as portable gas chambers for the prisoners. Some were forced to wear various types of gas masks ; others wore military uniforms, and some wore no clothes at all. Some of the tests have been described as "psychopathically sadistic, with no conceivable military application". For example, one experiment documented the time it took for three-day-old babies to freeze to death. Unit 731 also tested chemical weapons on prisoners in field conditions. A report authored by unknown researcher in the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) describes a large human experiment of yperite gas ( mustard gas ) on 7–10 September 1940. Twenty subjects were divided into three groups and placed in combat emplacements, trenches , gazebos, and observatories. One group was clothed with Chinese underwear, no hat, and no mask and was subjected to as much as 1,800 field gun rounds of yperite gas over 25 minutes. Another group was clothed in summer military uniform and shoes; three had masks and another three had no mask. They also were exposed to as much as 1,800 rounds of yperite gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as much as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to skin, eye, respiratory organs , and digestive organs were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots. Injecting the blister fluid from one subject into another subject and analyses of blood and soil were also performed. Five subjects were forced to drink a solution of yperite and lewisite gas in water, with or without decontamination . The report describes conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run. The following is an excerpt of one of these reports: Number 376, dugout of the first area: September 7, 1940, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Looks with hollow eyes. Weeping redness of the skin of the upper part of the body. Eyelids edematous, swollen. Epiphora. Hyperemic conjunctivae. September 8, 6 am: Neck, breast, upper abdomen and scrotum weeping, reddened, swollen. Covered with millet-seed-size to bean-size blisters. Eyelids and conjunctivae hyperemic and edematous. Had difficulties opening the eyes. September 8, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Feels sick. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Mucous and bloody erosions across the shoulder girdle. Abundant mucous nose secretions. Abdominal pain. Mucous and bloody diarrhea. Proteinuria. September 9, 7 am: Tired and exhausted. Weakness of all four extremities. Low morale. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Skin of the face still weeping. Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the limb to freeze . Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck." Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc. Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness. Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh." Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the Japanese Journal of Physiology in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a three-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-Celsius ice and salt water. Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the Mainichi Shimbun . [ user-generated source? ] Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt). This original data is seen in the attached figure. Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and non-infected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of syphilis between patients shows: Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot. After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam-filled buns" by guards. Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven." The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments. Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of vertical transmission (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity," there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or aborted . While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of sex crimes . The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality: One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with gangrene set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with pus oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work. Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the limb to freeze . Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck." Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc. Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness. Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh." Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the Japanese Journal of Physiology in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a three-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-Celsius ice and salt water. Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the Mainichi Shimbun . [ user-generated source? ] Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt). This original data is seen in the attached figure.Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and non-infected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of syphilis between patients shows: Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot. After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam-filled buns" by guards. Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven." The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments.Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of vertical transmission (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity," there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or aborted . While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of sex crimes . The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality: One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with gangrene set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with pus oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work. In 2002, Changde , China, site of the plague flea bombing, held an "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare," which estimated that the number of people slaughtered by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and other human experiments was around 580,000. : xii, 173 The American historian Sheldon H. Harris states that over 200,000 died. In addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese troops in Zhejiang during Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign were killed by their own biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, indicating serious issues with distribution. Harris also said plague-infected animals were released near the end of the war, and caused plague outbreaks that killed at least 30,000 people in the Harbin area from 1946 to 1948. Some test subjects were selected to gather a wide cross-section of the population and included common criminals, captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans , political prisoners , homeless and mentally disabled people, which included infants, men, the elderly and pregnant women, as well as those rounded up by the Kenpeitai military police for alleged "suspicious activities." Unit 731 staff included approximately 300 researchers, including doctors and bacteriologists . At least 3,000 men, women, and children : 117 —of which at least 600 every year were provided by the Kenpeitai —were subjected to Unit 731 experimentation conducted at the Pingfang camp alone, not including victims from other medical experimentation sites such as Unit 100 . Although 3,000 internal victims is the widely accepted figure in the literature, former Unit member Okawa Fukumatsu claims that there were at least 10,000 victims of internal experiments at the Unit, he himself vivisecting thousands. According to A. S. Wells, the majority of victims were Chinese , with a lesser percentage being Russian , Mongolian , and Korean . They may also have included a small number of European, American, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander prisoners of war . A member of the Yokusan Sonendan paramilitary political youth branch, who worked for Unit 731, stated that not only were Chinese, Russians, and Koreans present, but also Americans, British, and French people. Sheldon H. Harris documented that the victims were generally political dissidents , communist sympathizers, ordinary criminals, impoverished civilians, and the mentally disabled. Author Seiichi Morimura estimates that almost 70 percent of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese (both military and civilian), while close to 30 percent of the victims were Russian. No one who entered Unit 731 came out alive. Prisoners were usually received into Unit 731 at night in motor vehicles painted black with a ventilation hole but no windows. The vehicle would pull up at the main gates and one of the drivers would go to the guardroom and report to the guard. That guard would then telephone to the "Special Team" in the inner-prison ( Shiro Ishii's brother was head of this Special Team). Then, the prisoners would be transported through a secret tunnel dug under the facade of the central building to the inner-prisons. One of the prisons housed women and children (Building 8), while the other prison housed men (Building 7). Once at the inner-prison, technicians would take samples of the prisoners' blood and stool, test their kidney function , and collect other physical data. Once deemed healthy and fit for experimentation, prisoners lost their names and were given a three-digit number, which they retained until their death. Whenever prisoners died after the experiments they had been subjected to, a clerk of the 1st Division struck their numbers off an index card and took the deceased prisoner's manacles to be put on new arrivals to the prison. There is at least one recorded instance of "friendly" social interaction between prisoners and Unit 731 staff. Technician Naokata Ishibashi interacted with two female prisoners, a 21-year-old Chinese woman and a 19-year-old Ukrainian woman. The two prisoners told Ishibashi that they had not seen their faces in a mirror since being captured and begged him to get one. Ishibashi snuck a mirror to them through a hole in the cell door. The prison cells had wooden floors and a squat toilet in each. There was space between the outer walls of the cells and the outer walls of the prison, enabling the guards to walk behind the cells. Each cell door had a small window in it. Chief of the Personnel Division of the Kwantung Army Headquarters Tamura Tadashi testified that, when he was shown the inner-prison, he looked into the cells and saw living people in chains, some moved around, others were lying on the bare floor and were in a very sick and helpless condition. Former Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that the windows in these prison doors were so small that it was difficult to see in. The inner-prison was a highly secured building complete with cast iron doors. No one could enter without special permits and an ID pass with a photograph, and the entry/exit times were recorded. The "special team" worked in these two inner-prison buildings. This team wore white overall suits, army hats, rubber boots, and pistols strapped to their sides. Despite the prison's status as a highly secure building, at least one unsuccessful escape attempt did occur. Corporal Kikuchi Norimitsu testified that he was told by another unit member that a prisoner "had shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle" and then "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, seized the keys and opened the iron doors and some of the cells. Some of the prisoners managed to jump out but these were only the bold ones. These bold ones were shot." Seiichi Morimura in his book The Devil's Feast went into some greater detail regarding this escape attempt. Two Russian male prisoners were in a cell with handcuffs on, one of them lay flat on the floor pretending to be sick. This got the attention of a staff member who saw it as an unusual condition. That staff member decided to enter the cell. The Russian lying on the floor suddenly sprang up and knocked the guard down. The two Russians opened their handcuffs, took the keys, and opened some other cells while yelling. Some prisoners, including Russian and Chinese, were frantically roaming the corridors and kept yelling and shouting. One Russian shouted to the members of Unit 731, demanding to be shot rather than used as an experimental object. This Russian was shot to death. One staff member, who was an eyewitness at this escape attempt, recalled: "spiritually we were all lost in front of the 'marutas' who had no freedom and no weapons. At that time we understood in our hearts that justice was not on our side." Unfortunately for the prisoners of Unit 731, escape was an impossibility. Even if they had managed to escape the quadrangle (itself a heavily fortified building full of staff), they would have had to get over a three-meter-high (9.8 ft) brick wall surrounding the complex, and then across a dry moat filled with electrified wire running around the perimeter of the complex. Members of Unit 731 were not immune from being subjects of experiments. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first division at Unit 731, became infected with bubonic plague as a result of the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. Tamura recalled: Sudō had, a few days previously, been interested in talking about women, but now he was thin as a rake, with many purple spots over his body. A large area of scratches on his chest were bleeding. He painfully cried and breathed with difficulty. I sanitised his whole body with disinfectant. Whenever he moved, a rope around his neck tightened. After Sudō's body was carefully checked [by the surgeon], I handed a scalpel to [the surgeon] who, reversely gripping the scalpel, touched Sudō's stomach skin and sliced downward. Sudō shouted "brute!" and died with this last word. Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa was vivisected as a result of being accidentally infected with plague. Despite the prison's status as a highly secure building, at least one unsuccessful escape attempt did occur. Corporal Kikuchi Norimitsu testified that he was told by another unit member that a prisoner "had shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle" and then "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, seized the keys and opened the iron doors and some of the cells. Some of the prisoners managed to jump out but these were only the bold ones. These bold ones were shot." Seiichi Morimura in his book The Devil's Feast went into some greater detail regarding this escape attempt. Two Russian male prisoners were in a cell with handcuffs on, one of them lay flat on the floor pretending to be sick. This got the attention of a staff member who saw it as an unusual condition. That staff member decided to enter the cell. The Russian lying on the floor suddenly sprang up and knocked the guard down. The two Russians opened their handcuffs, took the keys, and opened some other cells while yelling. Some prisoners, including Russian and Chinese, were frantically roaming the corridors and kept yelling and shouting. One Russian shouted to the members of Unit 731, demanding to be shot rather than used as an experimental object. This Russian was shot to death. One staff member, who was an eyewitness at this escape attempt, recalled: "spiritually we were all lost in front of the 'marutas' who had no freedom and no weapons. At that time we understood in our hearts that justice was not on our side." Unfortunately for the prisoners of Unit 731, escape was an impossibility. Even if they had managed to escape the quadrangle (itself a heavily fortified building full of staff), they would have had to get over a three-meter-high (9.8 ft) brick wall surrounding the complex, and then across a dry moat filled with electrified wire running around the perimeter of the complex. Members of Unit 731 were not immune from being subjects of experiments. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first division at Unit 731, became infected with bubonic plague as a result of the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. Tamura recalled: Sudō had, a few days previously, been interested in talking about women, but now he was thin as a rake, with many purple spots over his body. A large area of scratches on his chest were bleeding. He painfully cried and breathed with difficulty. I sanitised his whole body with disinfectant. Whenever he moved, a rope around his neck tightened. After Sudō's body was carefully checked [by the surgeon], I handed a scalpel to [the surgeon] who, reversely gripping the scalpel, touched Sudō's stomach skin and sliced downward. Sudō shouted "brute!" and died with this last word. Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa was vivisected as a result of being accidentally infected with plague. There are unit members who were known to be interned at the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre and Taiyuan War Criminals Management Centre after the war, who then went on to be repatriated to Japan and founded the Association of Returnees from China and testified about Unit 731 and the crimes perpetrated there. Some members included: In April 2018, the National Archives of Japan disclosed a nearly complete list of 3,607 members of Unit 731 to Katsuo Nishiyama , a professor at Shiga University of Medical Science . Nishiyama reportedly intended to publish the list online to encourage further study into the unit. Previously disclosed members included: Twelve members were formally tried and sentenced in the Khabarovsk war crimes trials :Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:Unit 731 had other units underneath it in the chain of command ; there were several other units under the auspice of Japan's biological weapons programs . Most or all Units had branch offices, which were also often referred to as "Units." The term Unit 731 can refer to the Harbin complex, or it can refer to the organization and its branches, sub-Units and their branches. The Unit 731 complex covered six square kilometers (2.3 sq mi) and consisted of more than 150 buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise fleas , six cauldrons to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological agents. Approximately 30 kilograms (66 lb) of bubonic plague bacteria could be produced in a few days. Some of Unit 731's satellite (branch) facilities are still in use by various Chinese industrial companies. A portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a museum . Unit 731 had branches in Linkou (Branch 162), Mudanjiang , Hailin (Branch 643), Sunwu (Branch 673), Toan , and Hailar (Branch 543). : 60, 84, 124, 310 A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the Shinjuku District of Tokyo during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the Ministry of Health began to excavate the site. While Tokyo courts acknowledged in 2002 that Unit 731 has been involved in biological warfare research, as of 2011 [ update ] the Japanese government had made no official acknowledgment of the atrocities committed against test subjects and rejected the Chinese government's requests for DNA samples to identify human remains (including skulls and bones) found near an army medical school. At Tokyo's Kyushu Imperial University in 1945, US POWs from a shot down B-29 were subjected to fatal medical experimentation . Unit 731 had branches in Linkou (Branch 162), Mudanjiang , Hailin (Branch 643), Sunwu (Branch 673), Toan , and Hailar (Branch 543). : 60, 84, 124, 310A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the Shinjuku District of Tokyo during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the Ministry of Health began to excavate the site. While Tokyo courts acknowledged in 2002 that Unit 731 has been involved in biological warfare research, as of 2011 [ update ] the Japanese government had made no official acknowledgment of the atrocities committed against test subjects and rejected the Chinese government's requests for DNA samples to identify human remains (including skulls and bones) found near an army medical school. At Tokyo's Kyushu Imperial University in 1945, US POWs from a shot down B-29 were subjected to fatal medical experimentation . Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in the Pacific War since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly snubbed. As the Second World War started to come to an end, all prisoners within the compound were killed to conceal evidence, and there were no documented survivors. With the coming of the Red Army in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in haste. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in Pingfang . Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were shot. Ishii ordered every member of the group to disappear and "take the secret to the grave." Potassium cyanide vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel were captured. Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact. Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray Sanders , who arrived in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders' duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in Japan, he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was. Until Sanders finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the Soviet legal system , so, the morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare. Sanders took this information to General Douglas MacArthur , who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers and responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese informants : he secretly granted immunity to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing exclusive American access to their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation. American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including reading and censoring their mail. The Americans believed that the research data was valuable and did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological weapons. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir William Webb , for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental. Later in 1981, one of the last surviving members of the Tokyo Tribunal, Judge Röling, had expressed bitterness in not being made aware of the suppression of evidence of Unit 731 and wrote, "It is a bitter experience for me to be informed now that centrally ordered Japanese war criminality of the most disgusting kind was kept secret from the court by the U.S. government." While German physicians were brought to trial and had their crimes publicized, the U.S. concealed information about Japanese biological warfare experiments and secured immunity for the perpetrators. Critics argue that racism led to the double standard in the American postwar responses to the experiments conducted on different nationalities. Whereas the perpetrators of Unit 731 were exempt from prosecution, the U.S. held a tribunal in Yokohama in 1948 that indicted nine Japanese physician professors and medical students for conducting vivisection upon captured American pilots; two professors were sentenced to death and others to 15–20 years' imprisonment. Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanjing and Unit 100 in Changchun in the Khabarovsk war crimes trials . Among those accused of war crimes , including germ warfare, was General Otozō Yamada , commander-in-chief of the million-man Kwantung Army occupying Manchuria. The trial of the Japanese perpetrators was held in Khabarovsk in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the Moscow foreign languages press, including an English-language edition. The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was Lev Smirnov , who had been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials . The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a Siberian labor camp . The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda. The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards, and all but two of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with one prisoner dying in prison and the other committing suicide inside his cell). In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the US also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the US had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information about their human experimentation. However, former Unit 731 members had also passed information about their biological experimentation to the Soviet government in exchange for judicial leniency. This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria. As above, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were allowed to go free. On 6 May 1947, Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces , wrote to Washington in order to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence". According to an investigation by The Guardian , after the end of the war, under the pretense of vaccine development, former members of Unit 731 conducted human experiments on Japanese prisoners, babies and mental patients, with secret funding from the U.S. Government. One graduate of Unit 1644 , Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956. He performed his experiments while he was working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and infected mentally-ill patients with typhus . As the chief of the unit, Shiro Ishii was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities, because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. From 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the US National Archives before they were shipped back to Japan. Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the American occupation of Japan . In 1952, an infant girl at Nagoya City Pediatric Hospital died after being infected with E coli bacteria; the incident was publicly tied to former Unit 731 scientists. Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to Sadamichi Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author Shūsaku Endō published the book The Sea and Poison about human experimentation in Fukuoka , which is thought to have been based on a real incident. In 1950, former members of Unit 731 including Masaji Kitano founded the blood bank and pharmaceutical company Green Cross , for which Murray Sanders also served as a consultant. The company became the target of a scandal in the 1980s after up to 3,000 Japanese contracted HIV through the distribution and use of its blood products, which were deemed unsafe. The author Seiichi Morimura published The Devil's Gluttony [ ja ] (悪魔の飽食) in 1981, followed by The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731, but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy. Also in 1981, the first direct testimony of human vivisection in China was given by Ken Yuasa . Since then, much more in depth testimony has been given in Japan. The 2001 documentary Japanese Devils largely consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released. Japanese biological warfare operations were by far the largest during WWII, and "possibly with more people and resources than the BW producing nations of France , Hungary , Italy , Poland , and the Soviet Union combined, between the world wars. Despite the apparent success, Unit 731 lacked adequate scientific and engineering foundations to further maximize its effectiveness. Harris speculated that US scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of forbidden fruit , believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research. During the COVID-19 pandemic , some scientists called for experimental data from Unit 731 to be publicly released to the international medical community because the data available on human-pathogen interactions could have helped epidemiologists with pandemic control. The information has been withheld by both the US and Japanese government. In 1983, the Japanese Ministry of Education asked Japanese historian Saburō Ienaga to remove a reference from one of his textbooks that stated Unit 731 conducted experiments on thousands of Chinese. The ministry alleged that no academic research supported the claim. In 1984, Japanese historian Tsuneishi Keiichi translated and published over 4,000 pages of U.S. documents on Japanese biological warfare. The ministry backed down after new studies were published in Japan and important evidence surfaced in the United States. Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle. Saburō Ienaga's New History of Japan included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The Supreme Court of Japan ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of freedom of speech . In 1997, international lawyer Kōnen Tsuchiya filed a class action suit against the Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University . All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the courts' ruling was that reparations are determined by international treaties , not national courts. [ citation needed ] In August 2002, the Tokyo district court ruled for the first time that Japan had engaged in biological warfare. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including plague and typhoid , in the cities of Quzhou , Ningbo , and Changde . He rejected victims' compensation claims on the grounds that they had already been settled by international peace treaties. In October 2003, a member of Japan's House of Representatives filed an inquiry. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731, but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future. In April 2018, the National Archives of Japan released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731, in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the Shiga University of Medical Science . After World War II, the Office of Special Investigations created a watchlist of suspected Axis collaborators and persecutors who are banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the DOJ and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of OSI, stated that this was due to two factors:As the Second World War started to come to an end, all prisoners within the compound were killed to conceal evidence, and there were no documented survivors. With the coming of the Red Army in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in haste. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in Pingfang . Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were shot. Ishii ordered every member of the group to disappear and "take the secret to the grave." Potassium cyanide vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel were captured. Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact.Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray Sanders , who arrived in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders' duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in Japan, he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was. Until Sanders finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the Soviet legal system , so, the morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare. Sanders took this information to General Douglas MacArthur , who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers and responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese informants : he secretly granted immunity to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing exclusive American access to their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation. American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including reading and censoring their mail. The Americans believed that the research data was valuable and did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological weapons. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir William Webb , for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental. Later in 1981, one of the last surviving members of the Tokyo Tribunal, Judge Röling, had expressed bitterness in not being made aware of the suppression of evidence of Unit 731 and wrote, "It is a bitter experience for me to be informed now that centrally ordered Japanese war criminality of the most disgusting kind was kept secret from the court by the U.S. government." While German physicians were brought to trial and had their crimes publicized, the U.S. concealed information about Japanese biological warfare experiments and secured immunity for the perpetrators. Critics argue that racism led to the double standard in the American postwar responses to the experiments conducted on different nationalities. Whereas the perpetrators of Unit 731 were exempt from prosecution, the U.S. held a tribunal in Yokohama in 1948 that indicted nine Japanese physician professors and medical students for conducting vivisection upon captured American pilots; two professors were sentenced to death and others to 15–20 years' imprisonment. Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanjing and Unit 100 in Changchun in the Khabarovsk war crimes trials . Among those accused of war crimes , including germ warfare, was General Otozō Yamada , commander-in-chief of the million-man Kwantung Army occupying Manchuria. The trial of the Japanese perpetrators was held in Khabarovsk in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the Moscow foreign languages press, including an English-language edition. The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was Lev Smirnov , who had been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials . The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a Siberian labor camp . The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda. The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards, and all but two of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with one prisoner dying in prison and the other committing suicide inside his cell). In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the US also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the US had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information about their human experimentation. However, former Unit 731 members had also passed information about their biological experimentation to the Soviet government in exchange for judicial leniency. This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria. As above, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were allowed to go free. On 6 May 1947, Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces , wrote to Washington in order to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence". According to an investigation by The Guardian , after the end of the war, under the pretense of vaccine development, former members of Unit 731 conducted human experiments on Japanese prisoners, babies and mental patients, with secret funding from the U.S. Government. One graduate of Unit 1644 , Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956. He performed his experiments while he was working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and infected mentally-ill patients with typhus . As the chief of the unit, Shiro Ishii was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities, because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. From 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the US National Archives before they were shipped back to Japan. Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the American occupation of Japan . In 1952, an infant girl at Nagoya City Pediatric Hospital died after being infected with E coli bacteria; the incident was publicly tied to former Unit 731 scientists. Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to Sadamichi Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author Shūsaku Endō published the book The Sea and Poison about human experimentation in Fukuoka , which is thought to have been based on a real incident. In 1950, former members of Unit 731 including Masaji Kitano founded the blood bank and pharmaceutical company Green Cross , for which Murray Sanders also served as a consultant. The company became the target of a scandal in the 1980s after up to 3,000 Japanese contracted HIV through the distribution and use of its blood products, which were deemed unsafe. The author Seiichi Morimura published The Devil's Gluttony [ ja ] (悪魔の飽食) in 1981, followed by The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731, but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy. Also in 1981, the first direct testimony of human vivisection in China was given by Ken Yuasa . Since then, much more in depth testimony has been given in Japan. The 2001 documentary Japanese Devils largely consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released. Japanese biological warfare operations were by far the largest during WWII, and "possibly with more people and resources than the BW producing nations of France , Hungary , Italy , Poland , and the Soviet Union combined, between the world wars. Despite the apparent success, Unit 731 lacked adequate scientific and engineering foundations to further maximize its effectiveness. Harris speculated that US scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of forbidden fruit , believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research. During the COVID-19 pandemic , some scientists called for experimental data from Unit 731 to be publicly released to the international medical community because the data available on human-pathogen interactions could have helped epidemiologists with pandemic control. The information has been withheld by both the US and Japanese government.In 1983, the Japanese Ministry of Education asked Japanese historian Saburō Ienaga to remove a reference from one of his textbooks that stated Unit 731 conducted experiments on thousands of Chinese. The ministry alleged that no academic research supported the claim. In 1984, Japanese historian Tsuneishi Keiichi translated and published over 4,000 pages of U.S. documents on Japanese biological warfare. The ministry backed down after new studies were published in Japan and important evidence surfaced in the United States. Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle. Saburō Ienaga's New History of Japan included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The Supreme Court of Japan ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of freedom of speech . In 1997, international lawyer Kōnen Tsuchiya filed a class action suit against the Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University . All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the courts' ruling was that reparations are determined by international treaties , not national courts. [ citation needed ] In August 2002, the Tokyo district court ruled for the first time that Japan had engaged in biological warfare. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including plague and typhoid , in the cities of Quzhou , Ningbo , and Changde . He rejected victims' compensation claims on the grounds that they had already been settled by international peace treaties. In October 2003, a member of Japan's House of Representatives filed an inquiry. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731, but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future. In April 2018, the National Archives of Japan released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731, in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the Shiga University of Medical Science . After World War II, the Office of Special Investigations created a watchlist of suspected Axis collaborators and persecutors who are banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the DOJ and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of OSI, stated that this was due to two factors:There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731. In Call of Duty: Black Ops III , the Zombies map included in the second DLC pack, "Zetsubou no Shima", is loosely inspired by Unit 731's divisions, with the story playing on the idea of a ninth hidden one aptly named 'Division 9'. In the indie horror game Spooky's Jumpscare Mansion , the Unit 731 experiments are explicitly referenced multiple times in terms of Specimen 9 (specifically stated to be a survivor of the Unit 731 experiments), as well as the labeling of human bodies as "logs": "I'm taking all those 'logs' they keep throwing out, and I'm nailing them together."There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.In Call of Duty: Black Ops III , the Zombies map included in the second DLC pack, "Zetsubou no Shima", is loosely inspired by Unit 731's divisions, with the story playing on the idea of a ninth hidden one aptly named 'Division 9'. In the indie horror game Spooky's Jumpscare Mansion , the Unit 731 experiments are explicitly referenced multiple times in terms of Specimen 9 (specifically stated to be a survivor of the Unit 731 experiments), as well as the labeling of human bodies as "logs": "I'm taking all those 'logs' they keep throwing out, and I'm nailing them together."

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Euploea eyndhovii

Euploea anthrax Moore, 1857 Euploea (Penoa) menetriesii var. distincta Staudinger, 1889 Penoa uniformis Moore, pahakela Doherty, 1891 Euploea (Crastia) alcathoe simplex Fruhstorfer, 1904 vonara Fruhstorfer, 1910 martinus Fruhstorfer, 1910 salistra Fruhstorfer, 1910 lucania Fruhstorfer, 1911 distinctissima Fruhstorfer, 1911 Euploea alcathoe floresiana van Eecke, 1933 strix Bryk, 1937 Penoa alcothoe gardineri Fruhstorfer, 1898 Euploea alcathoe aesatia Fruhstorfer, 1910 Euploea eyndhovii , the striped black crow , is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae . It was described by Cajetan and Rudolf Felder in 1865. It is found in the Indomalayan realm . E. e. eyndhovii (Java, Palawan, Engano, Nias, Wai Sano, Flores) E. e. gardineri (Fruhstorfer, 1898) (southern Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Langkawi, western Malaysia, Singapore) E. e. arasa Fruhstorfer, 1910 (Vietnam)

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Anthrax

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Rihab Taha

Rihab Rashid Taha al-Azawi ( Arabic : رحاب رشيد طه ; born 12 November 1957) is an Iraqi microbiologist , dubbed Dr Germ by United Nations weapons inspectors, who worked in Saddam Hussein 's biological weapons program . A 1999 report commissioned by the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) named her as one of the world's most dangerous women. Dr Taha admitted producing germ warfare agents but said they had been destroyed. Rihab Rashida Taha ranks among the most important of a new breed of Third World weapons designers who were highly nationalistic, western-educated and willing to violate any international norms or scientific ethics. Taha worked hard to contribute to Iraqi weapons program. As a result of Taha's hard work she became known as the mother of all third world biological weapons programs. It was Taha who sold the idea of an Iraqi biological weapons program to Saddam Hussein and was given an award for her work in biological weapons, specifically the development of anthrax and botulinum weapons by Saddam Hussein. Moreover, she has been held up as an example to Iraqi women interested in science. Taha first rose to prominence in the Western media after being named in a 2003 British intelligence dossier, released to the public by the Prime Minister Tony Blair , on Iraq's biological, chemical and nuclear capability. The dossier alleged that Taha had played a leading role in the manufacture of anthrax and other biological agents. It was this dossier that triggered the chain of events that led to the suicide of British UN weapons inspector David Kelly , who was accused of telling a BBC reporter that some of the intelligence had been manipulated. Kelly, as an UNSCOM weapons inspector visiting Iraq on the occasions described below, had interrogated Taha so pitilessly that she was "reduced to tears". Born in 1957, and a graduate of the University of Baghdad , Taha received her Ph.D in plant toxins from the University of East Anglia 's School of Biological Sciences in Norwich , which she attended from 1980 to 1984. She published two articles on her research, co-authored by her supervisor John Turner, once the head of the School of Biological Sciences. In 1984, "Contribution of tabtoxin to the pathogenicity of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabac " was published in Physiological Plant Pathology (25, 55-69) and "Effect of tabtoxin on nitrogen metabolism" by J.G. Turner, R.R. Taha & J.M. Debbage was published in Physiologia Plantarum in 1986 (67, 649-653). Taha is married to the British-educated General Amir Mohammad Rashid al-Ubaidi , the former Iraqi oil minister and director of Iraq's Military Industrial Corporation, which was responsible for Saddam's advanced weapons programs. Taha met General Rashid, who has a Ph.D in engineering from the University of Birmingham , when they were both invited to New York City for a meeting with the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) in 1993. In 1997, Saddam Hussein awarded Taha a medal of scientific achievement and, prior to the 2003 war on Iraq , broadcasts were aired showing Taha and Saddam sitting next to each other. On 12 May 2003, the U.S. government announced that Taha had surrendered to coalition forces.Although Taha told her fellow students at Norwich that she wanted to return to Iraq to teach biology, she went instead to work for Iraq's germ warfare program. In 1985, she worked in the al-Muthanna chemical plant near Baghdad , and later became chief production officer in al-Hakam (also spelled al-Hakum ), Iraq's top-secret biological-warfare facility at the time. During several visits to Iraq by United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), set up after the 1990 invasion of Kuwait to inspect Iraqi weapons facilities, weapons inspectors were told by Taha that al-Hakam was a chicken-feed plant. "There were a few things that were peculiar about this animal-feed production plant," Charles Duelfer, UNSCOM's deputy executive chairman, later told reporters, "beginning with the extensive air defenses surrounding it." According to the 1999 DIA report, the normally mild-mannered Taha exploded into violent rages when questioned about al-Hakam, shouting, screaming and, storming out of the room, before returning and smashing a chair. However, in 1995, UNSCOM's principal weapons inspector Rod Barton from Australia showed Taha documents obtained by UNSCOM from the Israeli government that showed the Iraqi regime had just purchased 10 tons of growth media from a British company called Oxoid. Growth media is a mixture of sugar, proteins and minerals that allows microscopic life to grow; it is used in hospitals, where swabs from patients are placed in dishes containing growth media for diagnostic purposes. Iraq's hospital consumption of growth media was just 200 kg a year, yet in 1988, Iraq imported 39 tons of it. Shown this evidence by UNSCOM, Taha admitted to the inspectors that her biological weapons agency had grown 19,000 litres of botulism toxin; 8,000 litres of anthrax ; 2,000 litres of aflatoxins , which can cause liver cancer; Clostridium perfringens , a bacterium that can cause gas gangrene ; and ricin , a castor bean derivative which can kill by inhibiting protein synthesis. She also admitted conducting research into cholera , salmonella , foot and mouth disease , and camel pox, a disease that uses the same growth techniques as smallpox , but is safer for researchers to work with. It was because of the discovery of Taha's work with camel pox that the U.S. and British intelligence services feared Saddam Hussein may have been planning to weaponize the smallpox virus. Iraq had a smallpox outbreak in the 1970s and UNSCOM scientists believe the government would have retained contaminated material. UNSCOM learned that, In August 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, Taha's team was ordered to set up a program to weaponize the biological agents. By January 1991, a team of 100 scientists and support staff had filled 157 bombs and 16 missile warheads with botulin toxin , and 50 bombs and five missile warheads with anthrax. In an interview with the BBC, Taha denied the Iraqi government had weaponized the bacteria. "We never intended to use it," she told journalist Jane Corbin of the BBC's Panorama program. "We never wanted to cause harm or damage to anybody." However, UNSCOM found the munitions dumped in a river near the facility at al-Hakam . UNSCOM also discovered that Taha's team had conducted inhalation experiments on donkeys from England and on beagles from Germany. The inspectors seized photographs showing beagles having convulsions inside sealed containers. On 18 March 2005, the Associated Press reported that Taha had provided an explanation for the 1,800 gallon discrepancy between the amount of anthrax the UN knew she had manufactured, and the amount she admitted to destroying. The missing anthrax was one of the stated reasons for the Iraq war and was emphasized by then-U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell during his February 2003 speech to the Security Council . However, according to an Iraq Survey Group report published on 6 October 2004, Taha told American investigators that she and her colleagues dumped the missing anthrax near the gates of one of Saddam's palaces in April 1991, but were afraid to admit to this for fear of incurring Saddam's wrath. The Iraqi biologists therefore told the UN weapons inspectors that the missing anthrax had never existed. The inspectors feared that Taha's team had experimented on human beings. During one inspection, they discovered two primate-sized inhalation chambers, one measuring 5 cubic metres, though there was no evidence the Iraqis had used large primates in their experiments. According to former weapons inspector Scott Ritter in his 1999 book Endgame: Solving the Iraq Crisis , UNSCOM learned that, between 1 July and 15 August 1995, 50 prisoners from the Abu Ghraib prison were transferred to a military post in al-Haditha, in the northwest of Iraq, (Ritter, 1999). Iraqi opposition groups say that scientists sprayed the prisoners with anthrax, though no evidence was produced to support these allegations. During one experiment, the inspectors were told, 12 prisoners were tied to posts while shells loaded with anthrax were blown up nearby. Ritter's team demanded to see documents from Abu Ghraib prison showing a prisoner count. Ritter writes that they discovered the records for July and August 1995 were missing. Asked to explain the missing documents, the Iraqi government charged that Ritter was working for the CIA and refused to co-operate further with UNSCOM. In an interview broadcast in February 2003, Taha said Iraq was justified in producing germ weapons in the 1980s and 1990s to defend itself. She told the British Broadcasting Corp. she was involved in producing Iraq's final weapons declaration to the United Nations. She said Saddam's regime was telling the truth when it said it no longer had any chemical or biological weapons. Taha told the BBC her country never planned to use the biological agents it produced in the 1980s and early 1990s. "We never wanted to cause harm or damage to anybody," she said. "Iraq has been threatened by different enemies and we are in an area that suffers from regional conflict. I think it is our right to have something to defend ourselves and to have something as a deterrent." Although Taha told her fellow students at Norwich that she wanted to return to Iraq to teach biology, she went instead to work for Iraq's germ warfare program. In 1985, she worked in the al-Muthanna chemical plant near Baghdad , and later became chief production officer in al-Hakam (also spelled al-Hakum ), Iraq's top-secret biological-warfare facility at the time. During several visits to Iraq by United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), set up after the 1990 invasion of Kuwait to inspect Iraqi weapons facilities, weapons inspectors were told by Taha that al-Hakam was a chicken-feed plant. "There were a few things that were peculiar about this animal-feed production plant," Charles Duelfer, UNSCOM's deputy executive chairman, later told reporters, "beginning with the extensive air defenses surrounding it." According to the 1999 DIA report, the normally mild-mannered Taha exploded into violent rages when questioned about al-Hakam, shouting, screaming and, storming out of the room, before returning and smashing a chair. However, in 1995, UNSCOM's principal weapons inspector Rod Barton from Australia showed Taha documents obtained by UNSCOM from the Israeli government that showed the Iraqi regime had just purchased 10 tons of growth media from a British company called Oxoid. Growth media is a mixture of sugar, proteins and minerals that allows microscopic life to grow; it is used in hospitals, where swabs from patients are placed in dishes containing growth media for diagnostic purposes. Iraq's hospital consumption of growth media was just 200 kg a year, yet in 1988, Iraq imported 39 tons of it. Shown this evidence by UNSCOM, Taha admitted to the inspectors that her biological weapons agency had grown 19,000 litres of botulism toxin; 8,000 litres of anthrax ; 2,000 litres of aflatoxins , which can cause liver cancer; Clostridium perfringens , a bacterium that can cause gas gangrene ; and ricin , a castor bean derivative which can kill by inhibiting protein synthesis. She also admitted conducting research into cholera , salmonella , foot and mouth disease , and camel pox, a disease that uses the same growth techniques as smallpox , but is safer for researchers to work with. It was because of the discovery of Taha's work with camel pox that the U.S. and British intelligence services feared Saddam Hussein may have been planning to weaponize the smallpox virus. Iraq had a smallpox outbreak in the 1970s and UNSCOM scientists believe the government would have retained contaminated material.UNSCOM learned that, In August 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, Taha's team was ordered to set up a program to weaponize the biological agents. By January 1991, a team of 100 scientists and support staff had filled 157 bombs and 16 missile warheads with botulin toxin , and 50 bombs and five missile warheads with anthrax. In an interview with the BBC, Taha denied the Iraqi government had weaponized the bacteria. "We never intended to use it," she told journalist Jane Corbin of the BBC's Panorama program. "We never wanted to cause harm or damage to anybody." However, UNSCOM found the munitions dumped in a river near the facility at al-Hakam . UNSCOM also discovered that Taha's team had conducted inhalation experiments on donkeys from England and on beagles from Germany. The inspectors seized photographs showing beagles having convulsions inside sealed containers.On 18 March 2005, the Associated Press reported that Taha had provided an explanation for the 1,800 gallon discrepancy between the amount of anthrax the UN knew she had manufactured, and the amount she admitted to destroying. The missing anthrax was one of the stated reasons for the Iraq war and was emphasized by then-U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell during his February 2003 speech to the Security Council . However, according to an Iraq Survey Group report published on 6 October 2004, Taha told American investigators that she and her colleagues dumped the missing anthrax near the gates of one of Saddam's palaces in April 1991, but were afraid to admit to this for fear of incurring Saddam's wrath. The Iraqi biologists therefore told the UN weapons inspectors that the missing anthrax had never existed. The inspectors feared that Taha's team had experimented on human beings. During one inspection, they discovered two primate-sized inhalation chambers, one measuring 5 cubic metres, though there was no evidence the Iraqis had used large primates in their experiments. According to former weapons inspector Scott Ritter in his 1999 book Endgame: Solving the Iraq Crisis , UNSCOM learned that, between 1 July and 15 August 1995, 50 prisoners from the Abu Ghraib prison were transferred to a military post in al-Haditha, in the northwest of Iraq, (Ritter, 1999). Iraqi opposition groups say that scientists sprayed the prisoners with anthrax, though no evidence was produced to support these allegations. During one experiment, the inspectors were told, 12 prisoners were tied to posts while shells loaded with anthrax were blown up nearby. Ritter's team demanded to see documents from Abu Ghraib prison showing a prisoner count. Ritter writes that they discovered the records for July and August 1995 were missing. Asked to explain the missing documents, the Iraqi government charged that Ritter was working for the CIA and refused to co-operate further with UNSCOM.In an interview broadcast in February 2003, Taha said Iraq was justified in producing germ weapons in the 1980s and 1990s to defend itself. She told the British Broadcasting Corp. she was involved in producing Iraq's final weapons declaration to the United Nations. She said Saddam's regime was telling the truth when it said it no longer had any chemical or biological weapons. Taha told the BBC her country never planned to use the biological agents it produced in the 1980s and early 1990s. "We never wanted to cause harm or damage to anybody," she said. "Iraq has been threatened by different enemies and we are in an area that suffers from regional conflict. I think it is our right to have something to defend ourselves and to have something as a deterrent." On 18 September 2004, the Tawhid and Jihad ("Oneness of God and Holy War") Islamist group, led by Jordanian Abu Musab al-Zarqawi , kidnapped Americans Eugene Armstrong and Jack Hensley , and British engineer Kenneth Bigley , threatening to kill them if Iraqi women prisoners were not released. Armstrong and Hensley were killed within the first 72 hours, but Bigley was kept alive for three weeks. The only Iraqi women prisoners being held at that time, according to the British government, were Taha and another woman scientist, Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash , a bio-tech researcher who was on the U.S. list of the 55 most wanted members of Saddam's regime. It was hoped that the release of these women, who had not been charged with any offence, would trigger the release of Bigley. On 22 September 2004, Noori Abdul-Rahim Ibrahim, a spokesman for the Iraqi Justice Ministry, said that Taha would be released on bail. He said the decision was not related to Zarqawi's demands, but that the government regularly reviews the cases of prominent detainees, and it was decided to release Taha because she had cooperated with the authorities. However, after a statement from U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell that there would be no negotiations with terrorists, Iraqi Prime Minister Iyad Allawi announced that neither Taha nor Ammash would be released in the near future. Bigley was beheaded on 7 October 2004.In December 2005, 22 so-called "high-value" prisoners, including Rihab Taha, were released without charge two days after Iraq's national elections, following over 30 months in confinement. Another female scientist, Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash , nicknamed "Mrs. Anthrax" by the U.S., was also among those released after what the U.S. said was a standardized process of review and an agreement with the interim Iraqi government.

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Anthrax

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Anthrax pauper

Anthrax pauper is a species of bee flies (insects in the family Bombyliidae ). United States .

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Anthrax

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Anthrax mite

The Anthrax mite ( Sarcoptes anthracis ) is a pathogenic mite and an intermediate host of anthrax . Sarcoptes anthracis was classified by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1901 after first occurrences of infection on Asian Tufted Deers . The parasitic itch mite burrows into skin and causes sarcoptic mange , mostly seen on even-toed ungulates . Pregnant female mites tunnel into the stratum corneum of a host's skin and deposit eggs in the burrows. Young mites move about on the skin and molt into a "nymphal" stage, hosting Bacillus anthracis in their digestive tract. They act as a vector that carries and transmits anthrax to their hosts causing an infection, which often results in death because the immune system was weakened by scabies before. The high host specificity of the mites is held responsible for the fact that mostly even-toed ungulates struggled with these consequences. In late 1950s the last foci of infection were reported in semi-domesticated reindeers after which no greater incidences [ spelling? ] were observed.

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Chrysanthrax scitulus

Chrysanthrax scitulus is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . United States.

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Chrysanthrax vanus

Chrysanthrax vanus is a species of bee fly in the family Bombyliidae . Canada , United States .

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Building 470

39°26′03″N 77°25′51″W / 39.434039°N 77.430954°W / 39.434039; -77.430954 Building 470 — also called the Pilot Plant , or sometimes "the Tower" , or "Anthrax Tower" — was a seven-story steel and brick building at Fort Detrick in Frederick, Maryland , United States , used in the small-scale production of biological warfare (BW) agents. The building, a Cold War era structure, was transferred from the Department of Defense to the National Cancer Institute -Frederick (a unit of the National Institutes of Health ) in 1988, to which it belonged until 2003 when it was demolished.Building 470 was the tallest structure on the Fort Detrick grounds and for many years was the tallest in Frederick County . The structure of the building was unique: a seven-story tower, the configuration of which was dictated by the two 2,500-gallon, three-story high fermentors housed within. Although the building was hermetically sealed and negatively pressurized, false windows and window-sills were added to the exterior during construction in an effort to pass the unusually large structure off as a barracks or office building. Several of the floors of the building were catwalks ( steel grating ), such that someone, for example, on the fifth floor looked down upon other workers three floors below. (These tanks were used to perfect methods of bacteriological agent production and to provide a source of small amounts of these agents for the development and testing work done elsewhere on the facility. Production of anthrax in bulk for use in actual munitions was done at larger facilities in Arkansas and Indiana .) The bottom two floors were, in the 1950s and '60s, where scientists showered and changed into street clothes after working with lethal agents. (After work, they returned home to their families where they were prohibited from talking about their livelihood.) A network of pipes fed into two large "kill tanks" in the basement, where unused biological agents were flushed and subjected to a treatment that rendered them harmless. The top floor contained a powerful ventilation system that kept the building at "negative pressure" (air pressure outside was always greater than inside), a redundant safety feature. If a door to the outside was opened unintentionally, or if a crack appeared in a wall, air would rush in, not out. If any contaminants escaped into the building's hallways, they would not escape to the outside world.The U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories constructed Building 470 in 1953, at a cost of $1.3 million, as a pilot plant for the production of biological agents as part of the United States' offensive BW program. The program was a part of the nation's Cold War defense against the generally understood threat of biological warfare. From 1954 to 1965, the building was used for production of the bacteria Bacillus anthracis (the cause of anthrax ), Francisella tularensis (the cause of tularemia ), and Brucella suis (a cause of brucellosis ). Production of biological agents in Building 470 ceased in 1965 and all production and processing equipment were subsequently sterilized. In 1969 President Richard Nixon declared that the U.S. would unilaterally withdraw from the biological arms race, and turned over many Fort Detrick buildings to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for cancer research. Many buildings (although Building 470 was not yet among them) that had been dedicated to BW research were then deeded to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), decontaminated and renovated for use. In all, approximately 70 acres (280,000 m 2 ) on Fort Detrick were designated as a campus for the NCI. Laboratory work continued in Building 470 until 1970, but no infectious agents were again produced there. In 1970, Building 470 was vacated and a thorough decontamination began. The final decontamination process was completed in June 1971. Electric frying pans with a solid form of paraformaldehyde were placed throughout the building, then heated, releasing clouds of gas inside the sealed structure. Simulant bacteria, similar to anthrax, were left inside to serve as markers indicating whether or not the gas had worked. Thereafter, the Army carried out extensive testing and found no evidence of any of the biological agents previously produced there. Samples from approximately 1,500 locations throughout the building tested negative for B. anthracis . The Army declared the building safe for occupancy – although not for renovation – including by workers who had not been immunized against anthrax. In 1988, the NCI acquired Building 470 as well with the expectation that it, too, might be remodeled and converted to cancer research laboratories. It had been vacant for 17 years, serving only as storage space where employees stashed files or excess lab supplies. Because of the unique (and anachronistic) design structure of the building, however, this was deemed to be prohibitively expensive. In September 2000, safety experts from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Duke University , and Science Applications International Corporation reviewed the post-decontamination quality assurance test data and concluded that there was no evidence of any residual contamination in the building. The success of the decontamination was tested the following month, when examination of an additional 790 samples revealed no trace of living or dead B. anthracis . These samples were analyzed by either conventional culture methods or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a more sensitive DNA-based test. Ultimately, Building 470 fell into alarmingly poor structural condition. The exterior mortar and brick of the building buckled and the roof leaked. Corroded beams and columns, cracked and peeling plaster, and blistering paint contributed to the disrepair of the building, which was in close proximity to several other buildings. It was determined that this deterioration could lead to significant structural failure and risk to adjacent buildings and the employees occupying them. Due to the significant structural deterioration, the demolition of Building 470 was recommended in 1999 by NCI engineers. Carol Shearer, the 470 Project Engineer and an expert in dismantling former bioweapons facilities in the former Soviet Union, stated the main concern was not anthrax, but noise and vibration—and most importantly, the disruption of science in the adjoining and adjacent buildings. After an EIS and period for public comment, the state of Maryland approved removal of the building. The NIH dismantled the building between February and December 2003. Officials did not concern themselves much with possible anthrax contamination, but concentrated rather on asbestos and lead paint .The U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories constructed Building 470 in 1953, at a cost of $1.3 million, as a pilot plant for the production of biological agents as part of the United States' offensive BW program. The program was a part of the nation's Cold War defense against the generally understood threat of biological warfare. From 1954 to 1965, the building was used for production of the bacteria Bacillus anthracis (the cause of anthrax ), Francisella tularensis (the cause of tularemia ), and Brucella suis (a cause of brucellosis ). Production of biological agents in Building 470 ceased in 1965 and all production and processing equipment were subsequently sterilized. In 1969 President Richard Nixon declared that the U.S. would unilaterally withdraw from the biological arms race, and turned over many Fort Detrick buildings to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for cancer research. Many buildings (although Building 470 was not yet among them) that had been dedicated to BW research were then deeded to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), decontaminated and renovated for use. In all, approximately 70 acres (280,000 m 2 ) on Fort Detrick were designated as a campus for the NCI. Laboratory work continued in Building 470 until 1970, but no infectious agents were again produced there.In 1970, Building 470 was vacated and a thorough decontamination began. The final decontamination process was completed in June 1971. Electric frying pans with a solid form of paraformaldehyde were placed throughout the building, then heated, releasing clouds of gas inside the sealed structure. Simulant bacteria, similar to anthrax, were left inside to serve as markers indicating whether or not the gas had worked. Thereafter, the Army carried out extensive testing and found no evidence of any of the biological agents previously produced there. Samples from approximately 1,500 locations throughout the building tested negative for B. anthracis . The Army declared the building safe for occupancy – although not for renovation – including by workers who had not been immunized against anthrax. In 1988, the NCI acquired Building 470 as well with the expectation that it, too, might be remodeled and converted to cancer research laboratories. It had been vacant for 17 years, serving only as storage space where employees stashed files or excess lab supplies. Because of the unique (and anachronistic) design structure of the building, however, this was deemed to be prohibitively expensive. In September 2000, safety experts from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Duke University , and Science Applications International Corporation reviewed the post-decontamination quality assurance test data and concluded that there was no evidence of any residual contamination in the building. The success of the decontamination was tested the following month, when examination of an additional 790 samples revealed no trace of living or dead B. anthracis . These samples were analyzed by either conventional culture methods or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a more sensitive DNA-based test. Ultimately, Building 470 fell into alarmingly poor structural condition. The exterior mortar and brick of the building buckled and the roof leaked. Corroded beams and columns, cracked and peeling plaster, and blistering paint contributed to the disrepair of the building, which was in close proximity to several other buildings. It was determined that this deterioration could lead to significant structural failure and risk to adjacent buildings and the employees occupying them.Due to the significant structural deterioration, the demolition of Building 470 was recommended in 1999 by NCI engineers. Carol Shearer, the 470 Project Engineer and an expert in dismantling former bioweapons facilities in the former Soviet Union, stated the main concern was not anthrax, but noise and vibration—and most importantly, the disruption of science in the adjoining and adjacent buildings. After an EIS and period for public comment, the state of Maryland approved removal of the building. The NIH dismantled the building between February and December 2003. Officials did not concern themselves much with possible anthrax contamination, but concentrated rather on asbestos and lead paint .Residents of Frederick County are familiar with many stories about deaths occurring in Building 470 or as a result of working there. One of the more lurid stories had it that a dead man was sealed within its walls. According to Robert H. Wiltrout , associate director of the NCI-Frederick, the building, although "an anachronism and a throwback," was "a lightning rod for all of the things that happened at Fort Detrick". One perennial tale held that because of a massive accident involving deadly biological agents, the government could never be entirely sure that the building was safe to occupy and therefore it was closed and sealed up. It had to be left standing because officials couldn't be sure the bacteria were truly gone. In fact, a large spill did occur in Building 470 in 1958. A technician, trying to pry open a stuck valve at the bottom of a fermentor, unintentionally released approximately 2,000 gallons of liquid B. anthracis culture. Because of the design of the building and the safety measures in place, it was possible to isolate the spill to one room. There was no contamination of Fort Detrick or the local community, and no one (including the technician) became ill. The outcome of the incident was taken to indicate the effectiveness of the biological safety practices pioneered during the early days of "bioweaponeering" at Fort Detrick. In the lead up to its demolition, Dr. George Anderson of Southern Research Institute , an internationally recognized expert on B. anthracis , exhaustively reviewed documents on Building 470 and interviewed many of the men, some still residing in Frederick, who had worked in the building. He learned that no one working in Building 470 had died of anthrax, although three workers elsewhere on Fort Detrick had died of infection with agents that were being researched as biological weapons: one, a microbiologist in 1951, and another, an electrician in 1958, died of inhalational anthrax. The third worker died of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever .

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Anthrax

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Chamaesphecia maurusia

Chamaesphecia anthrax Le Cerf, 1916 Chamaesphecia maurusia is a moth of the family Sesiidae . It is found in Spain and Portugal and in Sicily , as well as in Algeria and Morocco . The larvae feed on Marrubium species.

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Anthrax

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Testament (band)

Testament is an American thrash metal band from Berkeley, California . Formed in 1983 under the name Legacy , the band's current lineup comprises rhythm guitarist Eric Peterson , lead vocalist Chuck Billy , lead guitarist Alex Skolnick , bassist Steve Di Giorgio and drummer Chris Dovas. Testament has experienced many lineup changes over the years, with Peterson being the only remaining original member, though they have since reunited with Skolnick, who had been out of the band from 1992 to 2005. Billy has been a member of Testament since 1986, when he replaced original singer Steve "Zetro" Souza , who had left to replace Paul Baloff in Exodus . He and Peterson are the only members to appear on all of Testament's studio albums, with the latter being the only constant member overall. The band has released thirteen studio albums (including a collection of re-recorded songs ), four live albums, five compilation albums, thirteen singles and three DVDs. They are estimated to have sold over 1.4 million albums in the United States since the beginning of the SoundScan era and over 14 million copies worldwide as of 2016. Testament is often credited as one of the most popular and influential bands of the thrash metal scene, as well as one of the leaders of the second wave of the genre of the late 1980s, and they are considered a significant member of the so-called "Big Six of Bay Area thrash metal ", alongside Exodus , Death Angel , Lȧȧz Rockit , Forbidden and Vio-lence . By the time they changed their name from Legacy to Testament in 1986, the band had assumed a stable lineup which included Billy, Peterson, Skolnick, and two other founding members, bassist Greg Christian and drummer Louie Clemente . They were one of the early thrash metal bands to sign to a major label, Atlantic Records , through which they released the band's first six studio albums. Their first three studio albums, The Legacy (1987), The New Order (1988) and Practice What You Preach (1989), cemented Testament's reputation as one of the most successful thrash metal bands, with the latter becoming their first to enter the Top 100 on the Billboard 200 chart. Though the next three albums – Souls of Black (1990), The Ritual (1992) and Low (1994) – failed to match the critical or popular acclaim of the band's first three studio albums, the first two managed to chart highly on the Billboard 200, while The Ritual was supported by Testament's only charting US hit "Return to Serenity". Clemente and Skolnick had both left Testament by the end of 1992, and within the next decade, the band endured many personnel changes that included guitarists Glen Alvelais , James Murphy , Steve Smyth and "Metal" Mike Chlasciak , bassists Derrick Ramirez (who was previously in Legacy as a guitar player) and Steve Di Giorgio , and drummers Paul Bostaph , John Tempesta , Jon Dette , Chris Kontos , Gene Hoglan , Dave Lombardo , Steve Jacobs and Jon Allen. In 2001, at around the same time Billy was diagnosed with germ cell seminoma , Testament reunited with Souza, Skolnick and Tempesta for the album of re-recorded material First Strike Still Deadly . Following Billy's recovery from cancer in 2002, Testament had resumed activity, and in 2005, they briefly reunited with The Legacy lineup, resulting in the live album Live in London ; however, Skolnick and Christian would rejoin the band permanently, the latter remaining until 2014. Testament's popularity was revived with the albums The Formation of Damnation (2008), Dark Roots of Earth (2012), Brotherhood of the Snake (2016) and Titans of Creation (2020), all entering the Top 100 on the Billboard 200, and they have continued to tour consistently. The band is currently working on new material for their fourteenth studio album, which is tentatively due for release in late 2024 or 2025. The band was formed in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1983 under the name Legacy by guitarist Eric Peterson and his cousin, guitarist Derrick Ramirez, who would shortly be replaced by Alex Skolnick . They eventually added drummer Louie Clemente , vocalist Steve Souza and bassist Greg Christian and began playing club shows with bands such as Exodus , Slayer , Anthrax , Lȧȧz Rockit and Death Angel , among others. Clemente left the band in 1985 and was replaced by drummer Mike Ronchette. Derrick Ramirez departed soon after and young guitarist Alex Skolnick , who had studied under Bay Area guitarist Joe Satriani , was brought into the band. Legacy had been writing original material since forming and released a self-titled, four-song demo in 1985. Souza left the band in 1986 to join Exodus and was replaced by Chuck Billy at Souza's suggestion. Mike Ronchette also left the band, and Clemente returned. The band was signed to Megaforce Records in 1986 on the strength of the demo tape. While recording their first album, the band was forced to change their name to Testament (which, according to Maria Ferrero in the May 2007 issue of Revolver , was suggested by Billy Milano of S.O.D. and M.O.D. ), as the "Legacy" name was already trademarked by a hotel R&B cover band. Legacy played their last show prior to this name change at The Stone in San Francisco on March 4, 1987. Testament's debut album, The Legacy , was released in April 1987 on Megaforce Records, and also distributed by Atlantic . They received instant fame within thrash circles and were often compared with fellow Bay Area thrash metal pioneers Metallica . Thanks to this, and the regular rotation of their first-ever music video "Over the Wall" on MTV 's Headbangers Ball , the band quickly managed to increase their exposure by heading out on successful North American and European tours with Anthrax, who were supporting their Among the Living album. On this tour, the Live at Eindhoven EP was recorded. Testament also opened for Slayer as well as their labelmates Overkill , and Megadeth on their Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? tour. Testament's second album, The New Order , was released in May 1988, and found the band continuing in a similar vein. The album was a minor success, peaking at number 136 on the Billboard 200 , but managed to sell over 250,000 copies on the strength of the airplay of "Trial by Fire" and the cover version of Aerosmith 's " Nobody's Fault " (through radio and television), as well as relentless touring schedules. In support of The New Order , Testament opened for Megadeth on their So Far, So Good... So What! tour in Europe, and toured North America with the likes of Overkill , Voivod , Death Angel , Vio-lence , Nuclear Assault , Sanctuary , Raven , Forbidden and Heathen . They also made a number of festival appearances in the summer of 1988, such as Metalfest in Milwaukee , Aardschokdag in The Netherlands, and replaced Megadeth on some dates of the European Monsters of Rock tour, also featuring Iron Maiden , Kiss , David Lee Roth , Great White and Anthrax. By the time The New Order tour ended in early 1989, Testament had not only cemented their reputation as one of the most acclaimed thrash metal acts, but had also graduated to headlining their own shows. Testament released their third studio album, Practice What You Preach , in August 1989. The album minimized the occult and gothic themes found in the lyrical content of their first two albums, instead focusing on real-life issues such as politics and corruption, and while staying true to its thrash metal roots, it saw the band drawing influences from traditional heavy metal , jazz fusion and progressive/technical metal . Practice What You Preach was a commercial breakthrough for Testament, reaching at number 77 on the Billboard 200, and it was accompanied by three singles ( the title track , "The Ballad" and "Greenhouse Effect") that received significant airplay from AOR radio stations and MTV 's Headbangers Ball , further helping raise the band's profile. Testament toured for almost a year behind Practice What You Preach with numerous bands, including Overkill , Annihilator , Wrathchild America , Mortal Sin , Xentrix , Nuclear Assault , Savatage , Flotsam and Jetsam , Mordred , Dark Angel and a then-lesser known Primus . Despite selling over 450,000 copies, the album has never been certified gold by the RIAA . In October 1990, Testament released their fourth studio album Souls of Black . Although reviews were mixed, the album managed to sell respectably, in no doubt largely off the strength of the single title track, and saw the band perform on arena tours, including the European Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth, Slayer and Suicidal Tendencies . Testament supported Souls of Black with two North American tours, opening for Judas Priest on their Painkiller tour from October to December 1990, and Slayer on their Seasons in the Abyss tour from January to March 1991. They also toured Japan, and played shows with Anthrax and Sepultura . Shortly after completing the Souls of Black tour, the band released their first VHS documentary Seen Between the Lines , containing live clips recorded during the Souls of Black world tour, four promotional music videos and video interview segments. Attempting to reconnect with an audience distracted by the then-growing grunge movement, Testament released The Ritual in May 1992. Recorded at One on One Recording in Los Angeles under producer Tony Platt , it saw a stylistic move away from thrash to a slower, slightly more traditional heavy metal sound, and a somewhat more progressive atmosphere, with the title track being the longest song Testament had recorded up to this point. Drummer Louie Clemente acknowledged this musical change in a 1992 interview with Deseret News , explaining, " The Ritual is slower and geared toward the old style of metal while The Legacy was pure thrash. In fact, every release has been different. We've progressed naturally." Clemente said in the same interview that Platt's involvement within the album helped Testament "get more of a vibe." The Ritual peaked at number 55 on the Billboard 200, the band's highest chart position at the time, and the power ballad "Return to Serenity" managed to receive radio airplay, peaking at number 22 on the Mainstream Rock chart, and it is their only single to peak at any Billboard charts. Despite selling more than 485,000 copies in the United States, the album has never received a gold certification. In support of The Ritual , Testament toured Europe and North America, headlining their own tours, as well as opening for Iron Maiden on their Fear of the Dark tour , and Black Sabbath on their Dehumanizer tour. However, the success of the album did not put an end to the tensions within the band. For the remainder of the 1990s, Testament had undergone a series of changes in its lineup, as well as a change of pace in its musical style. The first member of the "classic" lineup to leave the band was lead guitarist Alex Skolnick , who performed his last show with them on Halloween 1992. Skolnick has stated that one of the reasons he left Testament was because he wanted to expand his musical horizons rather than continuing to play thrash metal music. A few months later, drummer Louie Clemente left the band. Skolnick and Clemente were temporarily replaced by former Forbidden members Glen Alvelais and Paul Bostaph , respectively. This lineup released the live EP, Return to the Apocalyptic City , in 1993. Soon after, Alvelais quit the band and Bostaph departed to join Slayer. Their next album, Low (1994), featured John Tempesta on drums and death metal guitarist James Murphy , formerly of Death , Cancer and Obituary . Low was a diverse album, featuring various influences such as alternative , hard rock , death metal , groove metal and progressive , as well as a ballad, "Trail of Tears". The band's remaining fans reacted favorably to the album, although it did little to expand Testament's fanbase. Some fans, however, viewed Testament's move away from the mainstream as a liberation that allowed them to expand artistically, not being pressured by sales and success as they once were. Despite the fact that the album charted lower than the band's previous three albums on the Billboard 200 at number 122, its title track "Low" received decent airplay from Headbangers Ball on MTV and the Los Angeles -based radio station KNAC , just before both outlets went off the air in early 1995. Testament toured for over a year in support of Low , playing with numerous acts such as Machine Head , Downset. , Korn , Forbidden , Kreator , At the Gates , Moonspell , Crowbar , Suffocation and Gorefest . Their first full-length live album Live at the Fillmore , released in the summer of 1995, was recorded during this tour and marked their first release since they ended their eight-and-a-half-year tenure with Atlantic Records . Tempesta left Testament after the recording of Low to join White Zombie , being replaced by Jon Dette for the following tour, though the latter would leave the band in 1995. Dette's replacement was former Machine Head drummer Chris Kontos . This lineup is featured on the band's cover version of Judas Priest 's "Rapid Fire". After the 1996 club tour, Christian, Murphy, and Kontos all departed the band. During the time Kontos was in Testament, he suggested the band drop the name altogether and call the band "Dog Faced Gods". This idea was turned down by Billy and Peterson who wanted to continue with the Testament name. The two later temporarily disbanded Testament. The band's sixth studio album, Demonic (1997), took a new approach, and found Testament experimenting with death metal more. The album featured Eric Peterson on both lead and rhythm guitar (although Glen Alvelais made a guest appearance, and played on the subsequent tour), early member Derrick Ramirez on bass guitar, and Dark Angel drummer Gene Hoglan . Hoglan left before the Demonic tour to join Strapping Young Lad , with Steve Jacobs doing the South American leg of the tour and Jon Dette returning later. Hoglan's loyalty to Strapping Young Lad and his desire to not remain a member of Testament actually came to realization during a published interview the band conducted with Metal Maniacs magazine. By 1998, Ramirez, Alvelais and Dette had departed and James Murphy had returned for the June 1999 release of The Gathering . The rhythm section on The Gathering was highly respected, consisting of metal fretless bassist Steve Di Giorgio (formerly of Death and Sadus ) and original Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo . The sound of the album was largely a combination of death metal and thrash metal, with a minor black metal influence from Eric Peterson's side project , Dragonlord . Soon after the release of The Gathering , lead guitarist James Murphy was diagnosed with a brain tumor . Through various fundraisers, Murphy was able to afford surgery and eventually made a full recovery, but was unable to recall anything from the recording of The Gathering . In 2001, Chuck Billy was also diagnosed with germ cell seminoma , a rare form of testicular cancer, but it only affected Billy's lungs and heart. His cancer was also treated successfully. In August 2001, friends of Billy organized the Thrash of the Titans benefit concert, featuring seminal Bay Area thrash metal bands Vio-lence , Death Angel , Exodus , Forbidden , Sadus and Heathen , as well as Anthrax , S.O.D. and Flotsam and Jetsam . The show was headlined by a Legacy reunion, featuring Steve Souza on vocals, and former guitarist Alex Skolnick , who had not played with the band since 1992, and bassist Greg Christian . Also in 2001, Testament released First Strike Still Deadly , a collection of re-recordings (with modern studio technology) of songs from their first two albums. The album featured the lineup of Billy, Peterson, Di Giorgio, the return of Alex Skolnick on guitar, and John Tempesta on drums. By 2002, Billy had made a full recovery, and the band began performing live again with a new drummer, Jon Allen of Sadus . In 2004, the band changed their lineup once again for their summer festival appearances. Allen was replaced by Paul Bostaph, returning to the band for a second stint after a decade's absence. Lead guitarist Steve Smyth departed to join Nevermore and was replaced by former Halford guitarist "Metal" Mike Chlasciak . Shortly after Smyth's departure, Peterson fell down a flight of stairs, breaking his leg, and was unavailable for some dates. He was temporarily replaced by Smyth. In May 2005, it was announced that Testament would be doing a brief European reunion tour – known as the "10 Days in May Tour" – featuring the classic lineup of Billy, Peterson, Skolnick and Christian, with drum duties shared between John Tempesta and Louie Clemente . After the success of the initial tour dates, Testament announced more dates in the U.S., Europe , and Japan with the classic lineup. Later that year, Skolnick also toured the East Coast with Trans-Siberian Orchestra . The band went on to release a live DVD and CD from the tour entitled Live in London . In interviews on the DVD, Eric Peterson expressed his desire to record the follow-up to The Gathering with the classic Testament lineup. He also stated that Alex Skolnick had begun writing songs for the new album. Chuck Billy was very vocal about how happy he was to have Skolnick, Christian, Clemente, and Tempesta in the band once again, and hoped to maintain a stable lineup going forward. Also in 2005, Testament's long-out of print documentary Seen Between the Lines was released on DVD for the first time. Testament played for the first time in the Middle East at the Dubai Desert Rock festival in March 2006. Other notable bands that performed for the Desert Rock Festival were Iron Maiden , Megadeth , Reel Big Fish and 3 Doors Down . In July 2007, the band played a show at Jaxx Nightclub in Springfield, Virginia , with Paul Bostaph filling in on drum duties. It was later confirmed that Bostaph would be officially returning to the band to record the new album. The band debuted a new song at that show titled "The Afterlife", which they also played at Earthshaker Fest. In February 2008, Testament released the song "More Than Meets the Eye" from the new album on their Myspace page. Their first studio album in seven years, and first with all-new material in nine years, The Formation of Damnation , was released two months later through Nuclear Blast Records . It was the first Testament album to feature Alex Skolnick on guitar since 1992's The Ritual , and the first to feature bassist Greg Christian since 1994's Low . Testament toured for more than two years in support of The Formation of Damnation . The band peerformed the main event on the first day of the "Gillmanfest," a rock festival to be held on May 24, 2008, in Valencia , Venezuela , visiting Colombia for the second time in the band's extensive career. In June 2008, Testament headlined the 3rd stage at Download Festival , held at Donington Park, UK, and a month later, they played at Ozzy Osbourne 's Monsters of Rock festival in Calgary , Alberta , Canada. The band also toured North America as a supporting act for Judas Priest , Heaven & Hell , and Motörhead on the " Metal Masters Tour ". The band announced that they had recruited guitarist Glen Drover (ex-Megadeth and King Diamond ) to fill in on their upcoming Mexican tour dates with Judas Priest, due to Alex Skolnick's prior commitment to the Trans-Siberian Orchestra . Testament would embark on the "Priest Feast" European tour with headliners Judas Priest and Megadeth in February and March 2009. On March 25, 2009, Testament played a special one-off show at the O2 Islington Academy in London, where they performed their first two albums ( The Legacy and The New Order ) back-to-back, with British thrash band Sylosis in support. Also in 2009, Testament set out on a 6-week tour across the US to promote The Formation of Damnation , touring with Unearth and Lazarus A.D. In early 2010, Testament toured the United States with Megadeth and Exodus . Alex Skolnick did not participate in the tour due to previous obligations and Glen Drover again filled in for him. In the summer of 2010, the band toured Australia , and supported Megadeth and Slayer on the American Carnage Tour . Testament also headlined for the first time in the Philippines for the annual Pulp Summer Slam on April 17, 2010 with Lamb of God . As early as 2009, Testament began writing new material for their eleventh album. In an interview with Metalheadz, Peterson stated that there were about four songs written and that "there's other guys in the band who like to play the more rock melodic style but the next one is gonna be a bit heavier." In a January 2011 interview during the 70000 Tons of Metal cruise, Billy revealed that Testament had been working on six new songs, with four or five "maybe left to write," and would begin recording their new album by early March. On May 18, 2011, Skolnick posted an update on his Twitter, saying, "Another tune done! My riffs from last week [plus] some of [fellow Testament guitarist Eric Peterson's] plus new ones we wrote today. Planning one more, then we've got more than we need." Testament began recording their eleventh studio album on June 20, 2011. Paul Bostaph was unable to take part in the recording due to a "serious injury", although he was expected to rejoin when the band began touring to support the album. Bostaph was replaced by Gene Hoglan , who had played drums with Testament on their 1997 album Demonic . Testament appeared at the California dates of the summer 2011 Rockstar Energy Drink Mayhem Festival as the replacement of In Flames . The band toured in the fall of 2011 with Anthrax and Death Angel . Overkill was invited to the tour, but due to the pre-production of their sixteenth studio album The Electric Age , they did not participate. John Tempesta filled in for Bostaph on the tour. It was announced on December 1, 2011 that Bostaph had left Testament. Gene Hoglan , who had recorded the drum tracks for the new album, was brought back after the band had expressed pleasure in his playing, hoping that he would continue with the band for the foreseeable future. After many delays, the band's eleventh studio album Dark Roots of Earth was released on July 27, 2012. The album debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200, their highest chart position to date. Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler made a guest appearance on the bonus track "A Day in the Death". In August 2012, Peterson stated that Testament would record a twelfth studio album if Dark Roots of Earth did well. A week prior to the release of Dark Roots of Earth , Billy promised that Testament would not take "huge gaps" between albums anymore, and would "work hard and tour for two years or so," and try to release another album when they could. Hoglan had also said that he would "absolutely dig" to be a part of the writing of the next Testament album. On September 13, 2013, Billy told Rock Overdose that from January to April 2014, Testament would be writing and recording their eleventh studio album for a 2014 release. Testament released a live DVD/double album Dark Roots of Thrash on October 15, 2013. The release documents the band's sold-out headlining performance at the Paramount in Huntington, New York, in February 2013. In January 2014, bassist Greg Christian left Testament again, and was replaced by a returning Steve Di Giorgio . Christian has claimed that the reasons behind his departure were because of money disputes and differences with the band. When asked in an April 2015 interview about Testament's plans to begin recording their twelfth album, Peterson said that his "main goal" was to "get home [from tour] in June, finish it up and get in the studio by September." Billy also said that the band's goal was to have the album finished by Thanksgiving. Slovenian bassist Tilen Hudrap ( Pestilence , Vicious Rumors , Paradox and Thraw) and Bay Area drummer Alex Bent (Arkaik, Dragonlord , Decrepit Birth and Battlecross ) filled in for Di Giorgio and Hoglan respectively at the prestigious Canadian open-air festival Heavy Montréal in August 2015, which was attended by more than 70,000 spectators. In May 2016, Billy confirmed their twelfth album would be entitled Brotherhood of the Snake . Of the album's lyrical content, he commented, "The Brotherhood of the Snake was actually a society about 6,000 years ago that debarred all religions. It was just a fascinating topic that caught our eye and attention and spawned a lot of songs. We're going with that vibe. There will be some songs that deviate, but the majority will be around that and aliens and religion. Then I'll probably tap into my native heritage and write some songs about that. It's not just going to be one concept, but there is some interesting stuff that we're finding to write about." Brotherhood of the Snake was released on October 28, 2016, and received generally positive reviews from critics, and scored Testament their second-highest chart position on the Billboard 200 , peaking at number twenty. Shortly after its release, Testament embarked on an international tour with Amon Amarth , and toured North America in April–May 2017 with Sepultura , Prong , Infernal Tenebra and Dying Gorgeous Lies. The band also toured Europe with Annihilator and Death Angel in November and December 2017, and again in March and April 2018, with Annihilator and Vader supporting. Along with Anthrax, Lamb of God , Behemoth and Napalm Death , Testament opened for Slayer on their final North American tour , which took place throughout the spring and summer of 2018. Testament also performed at Megadeth's first-ever cruise called Megacruise in October 2019. By March 2017, Testament had begun writing the follow-up to Brotherhood of the Snake , with plans to release it in 2018. Billy stated in March 2018 that Testament would start working on their thirteenth studio album after they finish touring in support of Brotherhood of the Snake in August, hoping not to repeat the four-year gaps between their last three albums. He later stated that opening for Slayer on their farewell tour would be "the final lap for [them] touring" in support of Brotherhood of the Snake . Work on the follow-up album began in February 2019, and pre-production began in May with Andy Sneap as the mixer. Drummer Gene Hoglan revealed in a June 2019 interview on the "Talk Toomey" podcast that the band had finished recording the album for a 2019 or early 2020 release. Peterson later stated that it would be released in January 2020. The band, along with Exodus and Death Angel , took part in The Bay Strikes Back tour of Europe in February and March 2020. Following the tour, Chuck Billy and his wife Tiffany tested positive for COVID-19 , making him the third person to have contracted the virus during the tour following Will Carroll of Death Angel and Gary Holt of Exodus . Bassist Steve Di Giorgio was later diagnosed with COVID-19, becoming the second member of Testament to have tested positive for the condition. Testament released their thirteenth studio album Titans of Creation on April 3, 2020. They were due to headline a US tour to promote the album, with support provided by The Black Dahlia Murder , Municipal Waste and Meshiaak, but it was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic . For this reason, Testament did not tour in support of Titans of Creation for over a-year-and-a-half; touring for the album was scheduled to start in the fall of 2021, with the band resuming their Bay Strikes Back tour in the US with Exodus and Death Angel, but the COVID pandemic led to its postponement to the spring of 2022. Following this was a summer European tour, which included festival appearances, as well as headlining dates with Exodus, Death Angel and Heathen , and one with Sepultura , and then the second North American leg of the Bay Strikes Back tour in the fall. The band also co-headlined the Klash of the Titans tour in Latin America with Kreator in the spring of 2023, followed by a European tour with Voivod , and dates in Asia with Exodus and Death Angel. On some dates of the latter tour, Phil Demmel (formerly of Vio-lence and Machine Head ) stepped in for guitarist Alex Skolnick , as the latter had sat out in order to tend to a family emergency. In a May 2020 interview with Exodus and former Legacy frontman Steve "Zetro" Souza on his "Toxic Vault" video channel, Billy was asked if he was going to write another Testament album during the COVID-19 pandemic. His response was, "We're not writing a record yet. I won't release what we're doing, but we are gonna write some stuff. Just to do something, not a record but maybe something just to have some singles." In a July 2020 interview with Australia's Riff Crew, Billy commented on his take on the possibility of writing another Testament album during the pandemic, saying, "Well, if it is truly, as someone says, a two-year period, of course, we're gonna go write another record, and when it all settles, we'll have two records… And if it had to be that long, then, yeah, we would probably consider just writing another record." Peterson reiterated Billy's comments in September 2020 that the band could work on new material before they tour to support Titans of Creation . In a March 2021 interview on Alive & Streaming, an internet podcast hosted by Death Angel guitarist Ted Aguilar, Billy confirmed that Peterson has been writing new material for what could result in the next Testament album. On January 21, 2022, the band and longtime drummer Gene Hoglan announced on their respective social media accounts that he had once again left Testament to pursue "an exciting new chapter of [his] career and free agency, with all that it will entail." On March 1, it was announced that drummer Dave Lombardo had rejoined the band in time for the North American leg of The Bay Strikes Back tour, which became Testament's first major outing with Lombardo, who had left the band before the 1999-2000 tour for The Gathering . The band later discussed the possibility of recording a new album with Lombardo, and Billy stated in September 2022 that the band would likely begin work on it after the conclusion of The Bay Strikes Back tour. He later stated that he hoped they would begin recording their new album towards the end of 2023 for a 2024 release. When asked in a June 2023 during their appearance at Hellfest when the album would be recorded, Peterson said, "Hopefully maybe October, November. If not, probably January, February. But we're shooting for this year — at the end of the year. I think I'll be done writing in September. So we just have to wait for vocals. Which can take a while. But we'll see what happens." It was announced the same month that Testament had renewed their deal with Nuclear Blast for three more albums, and the label had acquired the rights to the band's first six studio albums for future reissues. Work on the new album resumed in July 2023, with Peterson describing its direction as a combination of thrash, NWOBHM , " thrash black [and] heavy hard rock blues ", and it was announced nearly two weeks later that the songwriting process of the album had begun. By December 2023, Testament had begun tracking their new album with mastering engineer Justin Shturtz at Sterling Sound in Nashville . In April 2023, Lombardo announced that he would not be joining Testament throughout their 2023 tour dates, giving scheduling conflicts as the reason and expressing uncertainty that he would return to the band afterwards. He was later replaced by Chris Dovas, who had previously filled in for Lombardo for a few US dates the previous fall. In support of their upcoming fourteenth studio album, Testament will open for Anthrax and Kreator on their co-headlining November–December 2024 tour of Europe. They will also support Behemoth on their summer 2024 European "O Father, O Satan, O Svmmer" tour. The band was formed in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1983 under the name Legacy by guitarist Eric Peterson and his cousin, guitarist Derrick Ramirez, who would shortly be replaced by Alex Skolnick . They eventually added drummer Louie Clemente , vocalist Steve Souza and bassist Greg Christian and began playing club shows with bands such as Exodus , Slayer , Anthrax , Lȧȧz Rockit and Death Angel , among others. Clemente left the band in 1985 and was replaced by drummer Mike Ronchette. Derrick Ramirez departed soon after and young guitarist Alex Skolnick , who had studied under Bay Area guitarist Joe Satriani , was brought into the band. Legacy had been writing original material since forming and released a self-titled, four-song demo in 1985. Souza left the band in 1986 to join Exodus and was replaced by Chuck Billy at Souza's suggestion. Mike Ronchette also left the band, and Clemente returned. The band was signed to Megaforce Records in 1986 on the strength of the demo tape. While recording their first album, the band was forced to change their name to Testament (which, according to Maria Ferrero in the May 2007 issue of Revolver , was suggested by Billy Milano of S.O.D. and M.O.D. ), as the "Legacy" name was already trademarked by a hotel R&B cover band. Legacy played their last show prior to this name change at The Stone in San Francisco on March 4, 1987. Testament's debut album, The Legacy , was released in April 1987 on Megaforce Records, and also distributed by Atlantic . They received instant fame within thrash circles and were often compared with fellow Bay Area thrash metal pioneers Metallica . Thanks to this, and the regular rotation of their first-ever music video "Over the Wall" on MTV 's Headbangers Ball , the band quickly managed to increase their exposure by heading out on successful North American and European tours with Anthrax, who were supporting their Among the Living album. On this tour, the Live at Eindhoven EP was recorded. Testament also opened for Slayer as well as their labelmates Overkill , and Megadeth on their Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? tour. Testament's second album, The New Order , was released in May 1988, and found the band continuing in a similar vein. The album was a minor success, peaking at number 136 on the Billboard 200 , but managed to sell over 250,000 copies on the strength of the airplay of "Trial by Fire" and the cover version of Aerosmith 's " Nobody's Fault " (through radio and television), as well as relentless touring schedules. In support of The New Order , Testament opened for Megadeth on their So Far, So Good... So What! tour in Europe, and toured North America with the likes of Overkill , Voivod , Death Angel , Vio-lence , Nuclear Assault , Sanctuary , Raven , Forbidden and Heathen . They also made a number of festival appearances in the summer of 1988, such as Metalfest in Milwaukee , Aardschokdag in The Netherlands, and replaced Megadeth on some dates of the European Monsters of Rock tour, also featuring Iron Maiden , Kiss , David Lee Roth , Great White and Anthrax. By the time The New Order tour ended in early 1989, Testament had not only cemented their reputation as one of the most acclaimed thrash metal acts, but had also graduated to headlining their own shows. Testament released their third studio album, Practice What You Preach , in August 1989. The album minimized the occult and gothic themes found in the lyrical content of their first two albums, instead focusing on real-life issues such as politics and corruption, and while staying true to its thrash metal roots, it saw the band drawing influences from traditional heavy metal , jazz fusion and progressive/technical metal . Practice What You Preach was a commercial breakthrough for Testament, reaching at number 77 on the Billboard 200, and it was accompanied by three singles ( the title track , "The Ballad" and "Greenhouse Effect") that received significant airplay from AOR radio stations and MTV 's Headbangers Ball , further helping raise the band's profile. Testament toured for almost a year behind Practice What You Preach with numerous bands, including Overkill , Annihilator , Wrathchild America , Mortal Sin , Xentrix , Nuclear Assault , Savatage , Flotsam and Jetsam , Mordred , Dark Angel and a then-lesser known Primus . Despite selling over 450,000 copies, the album has never been certified gold by the RIAA . In October 1990, Testament released their fourth studio album Souls of Black . Although reviews were mixed, the album managed to sell respectably, in no doubt largely off the strength of the single title track, and saw the band perform on arena tours, including the European Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth, Slayer and Suicidal Tendencies . Testament supported Souls of Black with two North American tours, opening for Judas Priest on their Painkiller tour from October to December 1990, and Slayer on their Seasons in the Abyss tour from January to March 1991. They also toured Japan, and played shows with Anthrax and Sepultura . Shortly after completing the Souls of Black tour, the band released their first VHS documentary Seen Between the Lines , containing live clips recorded during the Souls of Black world tour, four promotional music videos and video interview segments. Attempting to reconnect with an audience distracted by the then-growing grunge movement, Testament released The Ritual in May 1992. Recorded at One on One Recording in Los Angeles under producer Tony Platt , it saw a stylistic move away from thrash to a slower, slightly more traditional heavy metal sound, and a somewhat more progressive atmosphere, with the title track being the longest song Testament had recorded up to this point. Drummer Louie Clemente acknowledged this musical change in a 1992 interview with Deseret News , explaining, " The Ritual is slower and geared toward the old style of metal while The Legacy was pure thrash. In fact, every release has been different. We've progressed naturally." Clemente said in the same interview that Platt's involvement within the album helped Testament "get more of a vibe." The Ritual peaked at number 55 on the Billboard 200, the band's highest chart position at the time, and the power ballad "Return to Serenity" managed to receive radio airplay, peaking at number 22 on the Mainstream Rock chart, and it is their only single to peak at any Billboard charts. Despite selling more than 485,000 copies in the United States, the album has never received a gold certification. In support of The Ritual , Testament toured Europe and North America, headlining their own tours, as well as opening for Iron Maiden on their Fear of the Dark tour , and Black Sabbath on their Dehumanizer tour. However, the success of the album did not put an end to the tensions within the band.For the remainder of the 1990s, Testament had undergone a series of changes in its lineup, as well as a change of pace in its musical style. The first member of the "classic" lineup to leave the band was lead guitarist Alex Skolnick , who performed his last show with them on Halloween 1992. Skolnick has stated that one of the reasons he left Testament was because he wanted to expand his musical horizons rather than continuing to play thrash metal music. A few months later, drummer Louie Clemente left the band. Skolnick and Clemente were temporarily replaced by former Forbidden members Glen Alvelais and Paul Bostaph , respectively. This lineup released the live EP, Return to the Apocalyptic City , in 1993. Soon after, Alvelais quit the band and Bostaph departed to join Slayer. Their next album, Low (1994), featured John Tempesta on drums and death metal guitarist James Murphy , formerly of Death , Cancer and Obituary . Low was a diverse album, featuring various influences such as alternative , hard rock , death metal , groove metal and progressive , as well as a ballad, "Trail of Tears". The band's remaining fans reacted favorably to the album, although it did little to expand Testament's fanbase. Some fans, however, viewed Testament's move away from the mainstream as a liberation that allowed them to expand artistically, not being pressured by sales and success as they once were. Despite the fact that the album charted lower than the band's previous three albums on the Billboard 200 at number 122, its title track "Low" received decent airplay from Headbangers Ball on MTV and the Los Angeles -based radio station KNAC , just before both outlets went off the air in early 1995. Testament toured for over a year in support of Low , playing with numerous acts such as Machine Head , Downset. , Korn , Forbidden , Kreator , At the Gates , Moonspell , Crowbar , Suffocation and Gorefest . Their first full-length live album Live at the Fillmore , released in the summer of 1995, was recorded during this tour and marked their first release since they ended their eight-and-a-half-year tenure with Atlantic Records . Tempesta left Testament after the recording of Low to join White Zombie , being replaced by Jon Dette for the following tour, though the latter would leave the band in 1995. Dette's replacement was former Machine Head drummer Chris Kontos . This lineup is featured on the band's cover version of Judas Priest 's "Rapid Fire". After the 1996 club tour, Christian, Murphy, and Kontos all departed the band. During the time Kontos was in Testament, he suggested the band drop the name altogether and call the band "Dog Faced Gods". This idea was turned down by Billy and Peterson who wanted to continue with the Testament name. The two later temporarily disbanded Testament. The band's sixth studio album, Demonic (1997), took a new approach, and found Testament experimenting with death metal more. The album featured Eric Peterson on both lead and rhythm guitar (although Glen Alvelais made a guest appearance, and played on the subsequent tour), early member Derrick Ramirez on bass guitar, and Dark Angel drummer Gene Hoglan . Hoglan left before the Demonic tour to join Strapping Young Lad , with Steve Jacobs doing the South American leg of the tour and Jon Dette returning later. Hoglan's loyalty to Strapping Young Lad and his desire to not remain a member of Testament actually came to realization during a published interview the band conducted with Metal Maniacs magazine. By 1998, Ramirez, Alvelais and Dette had departed and James Murphy had returned for the June 1999 release of The Gathering . The rhythm section on The Gathering was highly respected, consisting of metal fretless bassist Steve Di Giorgio (formerly of Death and Sadus ) and original Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo . The sound of the album was largely a combination of death metal and thrash metal, with a minor black metal influence from Eric Peterson's side project , Dragonlord . Soon after the release of The Gathering , lead guitarist James Murphy was diagnosed with a brain tumor . Through various fundraisers, Murphy was able to afford surgery and eventually made a full recovery, but was unable to recall anything from the recording of The Gathering . In 2001, Chuck Billy was also diagnosed with germ cell seminoma , a rare form of testicular cancer, but it only affected Billy's lungs and heart. His cancer was also treated successfully. In August 2001, friends of Billy organized the Thrash of the Titans benefit concert, featuring seminal Bay Area thrash metal bands Vio-lence , Death Angel , Exodus , Forbidden , Sadus and Heathen , as well as Anthrax , S.O.D. and Flotsam and Jetsam . The show was headlined by a Legacy reunion, featuring Steve Souza on vocals, and former guitarist Alex Skolnick , who had not played with the band since 1992, and bassist Greg Christian . Also in 2001, Testament released First Strike Still Deadly , a collection of re-recordings (with modern studio technology) of songs from their first two albums. The album featured the lineup of Billy, Peterson, Di Giorgio, the return of Alex Skolnick on guitar, and John Tempesta on drums. By 2002, Billy had made a full recovery, and the band began performing live again with a new drummer, Jon Allen of Sadus . In 2004, the band changed their lineup once again for their summer festival appearances. Allen was replaced by Paul Bostaph, returning to the band for a second stint after a decade's absence. Lead guitarist Steve Smyth departed to join Nevermore and was replaced by former Halford guitarist "Metal" Mike Chlasciak . Shortly after Smyth's departure, Peterson fell down a flight of stairs, breaking his leg, and was unavailable for some dates. He was temporarily replaced by Smyth.In May 2005, it was announced that Testament would be doing a brief European reunion tour – known as the "10 Days in May Tour" – featuring the classic lineup of Billy, Peterson, Skolnick and Christian, with drum duties shared between John Tempesta and Louie Clemente . After the success of the initial tour dates, Testament announced more dates in the U.S., Europe , and Japan with the classic lineup. Later that year, Skolnick also toured the East Coast with Trans-Siberian Orchestra . The band went on to release a live DVD and CD from the tour entitled Live in London . In interviews on the DVD, Eric Peterson expressed his desire to record the follow-up to The Gathering with the classic Testament lineup. He also stated that Alex Skolnick had begun writing songs for the new album. Chuck Billy was very vocal about how happy he was to have Skolnick, Christian, Clemente, and Tempesta in the band once again, and hoped to maintain a stable lineup going forward. Also in 2005, Testament's long-out of print documentary Seen Between the Lines was released on DVD for the first time. Testament played for the first time in the Middle East at the Dubai Desert Rock festival in March 2006. Other notable bands that performed for the Desert Rock Festival were Iron Maiden , Megadeth , Reel Big Fish and 3 Doors Down . In July 2007, the band played a show at Jaxx Nightclub in Springfield, Virginia , with Paul Bostaph filling in on drum duties. It was later confirmed that Bostaph would be officially returning to the band to record the new album. The band debuted a new song at that show titled "The Afterlife", which they also played at Earthshaker Fest. In February 2008, Testament released the song "More Than Meets the Eye" from the new album on their Myspace page. Their first studio album in seven years, and first with all-new material in nine years, The Formation of Damnation , was released two months later through Nuclear Blast Records . It was the first Testament album to feature Alex Skolnick on guitar since 1992's The Ritual , and the first to feature bassist Greg Christian since 1994's Low . Testament toured for more than two years in support of The Formation of Damnation . The band peerformed the main event on the first day of the "Gillmanfest," a rock festival to be held on May 24, 2008, in Valencia , Venezuela , visiting Colombia for the second time in the band's extensive career. In June 2008, Testament headlined the 3rd stage at Download Festival , held at Donington Park, UK, and a month later, they played at Ozzy Osbourne 's Monsters of Rock festival in Calgary , Alberta , Canada. The band also toured North America as a supporting act for Judas Priest , Heaven & Hell , and Motörhead on the " Metal Masters Tour ". The band announced that they had recruited guitarist Glen Drover (ex-Megadeth and King Diamond ) to fill in on their upcoming Mexican tour dates with Judas Priest, due to Alex Skolnick's prior commitment to the Trans-Siberian Orchestra . Testament would embark on the "Priest Feast" European tour with headliners Judas Priest and Megadeth in February and March 2009. On March 25, 2009, Testament played a special one-off show at the O2 Islington Academy in London, where they performed their first two albums ( The Legacy and The New Order ) back-to-back, with British thrash band Sylosis in support. Also in 2009, Testament set out on a 6-week tour across the US to promote The Formation of Damnation , touring with Unearth and Lazarus A.D. In early 2010, Testament toured the United States with Megadeth and Exodus . Alex Skolnick did not participate in the tour due to previous obligations and Glen Drover again filled in for him. In the summer of 2010, the band toured Australia , and supported Megadeth and Slayer on the American Carnage Tour . Testament also headlined for the first time in the Philippines for the annual Pulp Summer Slam on April 17, 2010 with Lamb of God .As early as 2009, Testament began writing new material for their eleventh album. In an interview with Metalheadz, Peterson stated that there were about four songs written and that "there's other guys in the band who like to play the more rock melodic style but the next one is gonna be a bit heavier." In a January 2011 interview during the 70000 Tons of Metal cruise, Billy revealed that Testament had been working on six new songs, with four or five "maybe left to write," and would begin recording their new album by early March. On May 18, 2011, Skolnick posted an update on his Twitter, saying, "Another tune done! My riffs from last week [plus] some of [fellow Testament guitarist Eric Peterson's] plus new ones we wrote today. Planning one more, then we've got more than we need." Testament began recording their eleventh studio album on June 20, 2011. Paul Bostaph was unable to take part in the recording due to a "serious injury", although he was expected to rejoin when the band began touring to support the album. Bostaph was replaced by Gene Hoglan , who had played drums with Testament on their 1997 album Demonic . Testament appeared at the California dates of the summer 2011 Rockstar Energy Drink Mayhem Festival as the replacement of In Flames . The band toured in the fall of 2011 with Anthrax and Death Angel . Overkill was invited to the tour, but due to the pre-production of their sixteenth studio album The Electric Age , they did not participate. John Tempesta filled in for Bostaph on the tour. It was announced on December 1, 2011 that Bostaph had left Testament. Gene Hoglan , who had recorded the drum tracks for the new album, was brought back after the band had expressed pleasure in his playing, hoping that he would continue with the band for the foreseeable future. After many delays, the band's eleventh studio album Dark Roots of Earth was released on July 27, 2012. The album debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200, their highest chart position to date. Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler made a guest appearance on the bonus track "A Day in the Death". In August 2012, Peterson stated that Testament would record a twelfth studio album if Dark Roots of Earth did well. A week prior to the release of Dark Roots of Earth , Billy promised that Testament would not take "huge gaps" between albums anymore, and would "work hard and tour for two years or so," and try to release another album when they could. Hoglan had also said that he would "absolutely dig" to be a part of the writing of the next Testament album. On September 13, 2013, Billy told Rock Overdose that from January to April 2014, Testament would be writing and recording their eleventh studio album for a 2014 release. Testament released a live DVD/double album Dark Roots of Thrash on October 15, 2013. The release documents the band's sold-out headlining performance at the Paramount in Huntington, New York, in February 2013. In January 2014, bassist Greg Christian left Testament again, and was replaced by a returning Steve Di Giorgio . Christian has claimed that the reasons behind his departure were because of money disputes and differences with the band. When asked in an April 2015 interview about Testament's plans to begin recording their twelfth album, Peterson said that his "main goal" was to "get home [from tour] in June, finish it up and get in the studio by September." Billy also said that the band's goal was to have the album finished by Thanksgiving. Slovenian bassist Tilen Hudrap ( Pestilence , Vicious Rumors , Paradox and Thraw) and Bay Area drummer Alex Bent (Arkaik, Dragonlord , Decrepit Birth and Battlecross ) filled in for Di Giorgio and Hoglan respectively at the prestigious Canadian open-air festival Heavy Montréal in August 2015, which was attended by more than 70,000 spectators. In May 2016, Billy confirmed their twelfth album would be entitled Brotherhood of the Snake . Of the album's lyrical content, he commented, "The Brotherhood of the Snake was actually a society about 6,000 years ago that debarred all religions. It was just a fascinating topic that caught our eye and attention and spawned a lot of songs. We're going with that vibe. There will be some songs that deviate, but the majority will be around that and aliens and religion. Then I'll probably tap into my native heritage and write some songs about that. It's not just going to be one concept, but there is some interesting stuff that we're finding to write about." Brotherhood of the Snake was released on October 28, 2016, and received generally positive reviews from critics, and scored Testament their second-highest chart position on the Billboard 200 , peaking at number twenty. Shortly after its release, Testament embarked on an international tour with Amon Amarth , and toured North America in April–May 2017 with Sepultura , Prong , Infernal Tenebra and Dying Gorgeous Lies. The band also toured Europe with Annihilator and Death Angel in November and December 2017, and again in March and April 2018, with Annihilator and Vader supporting. Along with Anthrax, Lamb of God , Behemoth and Napalm Death , Testament opened for Slayer on their final North American tour , which took place throughout the spring and summer of 2018. Testament also performed at Megadeth's first-ever cruise called Megacruise in October 2019. By March 2017, Testament had begun writing the follow-up to Brotherhood of the Snake , with plans to release it in 2018. Billy stated in March 2018 that Testament would start working on their thirteenth studio album after they finish touring in support of Brotherhood of the Snake in August, hoping not to repeat the four-year gaps between their last three albums. He later stated that opening for Slayer on their farewell tour would be "the final lap for [them] touring" in support of Brotherhood of the Snake . Work on the follow-up album began in February 2019, and pre-production began in May with Andy Sneap as the mixer. Drummer Gene Hoglan revealed in a June 2019 interview on the "Talk Toomey" podcast that the band had finished recording the album for a 2019 or early 2020 release. Peterson later stated that it would be released in January 2020. The band, along with Exodus and Death Angel , took part in The Bay Strikes Back tour of Europe in February and March 2020. Following the tour, Chuck Billy and his wife Tiffany tested positive for COVID-19 , making him the third person to have contracted the virus during the tour following Will Carroll of Death Angel and Gary Holt of Exodus . Bassist Steve Di Giorgio was later diagnosed with COVID-19, becoming the second member of Testament to have tested positive for the condition. Testament released their thirteenth studio album Titans of Creation on April 3, 2020. They were due to headline a US tour to promote the album, with support provided by The Black Dahlia Murder , Municipal Waste and Meshiaak, but it was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic . For this reason, Testament did not tour in support of Titans of Creation for over a-year-and-a-half; touring for the album was scheduled to start in the fall of 2021, with the band resuming their Bay Strikes Back tour in the US with Exodus and Death Angel, but the COVID pandemic led to its postponement to the spring of 2022. Following this was a summer European tour, which included festival appearances, as well as headlining dates with Exodus, Death Angel and Heathen , and one with Sepultura , and then the second North American leg of the Bay Strikes Back tour in the fall. The band also co-headlined the Klash of the Titans tour in Latin America with Kreator in the spring of 2023, followed by a European tour with Voivod , and dates in Asia with Exodus and Death Angel. On some dates of the latter tour, Phil Demmel (formerly of Vio-lence and Machine Head ) stepped in for guitarist Alex Skolnick , as the latter had sat out in order to tend to a family emergency. In a May 2020 interview with Exodus and former Legacy frontman Steve "Zetro" Souza on his "Toxic Vault" video channel, Billy was asked if he was going to write another Testament album during the COVID-19 pandemic. His response was, "We're not writing a record yet. I won't release what we're doing, but we are gonna write some stuff. Just to do something, not a record but maybe something just to have some singles." In a July 2020 interview with Australia's Riff Crew, Billy commented on his take on the possibility of writing another Testament album during the pandemic, saying, "Well, if it is truly, as someone says, a two-year period, of course, we're gonna go write another record, and when it all settles, we'll have two records… And if it had to be that long, then, yeah, we would probably consider just writing another record." Peterson reiterated Billy's comments in September 2020 that the band could work on new material before they tour to support Titans of Creation . In a March 2021 interview on Alive & Streaming, an internet podcast hosted by Death Angel guitarist Ted Aguilar, Billy confirmed that Peterson has been writing new material for what could result in the next Testament album. On January 21, 2022, the band and longtime drummer Gene Hoglan announced on their respective social media accounts that he had once again left Testament to pursue "an exciting new chapter of [his] career and free agency, with all that it will entail." On March 1, it was announced that drummer Dave Lombardo had rejoined the band in time for the North American leg of The Bay Strikes Back tour, which became Testament's first major outing with Lombardo, who had left the band before the 1999-2000 tour for The Gathering . The band later discussed the possibility of recording a new album with Lombardo, and Billy stated in September 2022 that the band would likely begin work on it after the conclusion of The Bay Strikes Back tour. He later stated that he hoped they would begin recording their new album towards the end of 2023 for a 2024 release. When asked in a June 2023 during their appearance at Hellfest when the album would be recorded, Peterson said, "Hopefully maybe October, November. If not, probably January, February. But we're shooting for this year — at the end of the year. I think I'll be done writing in September. So we just have to wait for vocals. Which can take a while. But we'll see what happens." It was announced the same month that Testament had renewed their deal with Nuclear Blast for three more albums, and the label had acquired the rights to the band's first six studio albums for future reissues. Work on the new album resumed in July 2023, with Peterson describing its direction as a combination of thrash, NWOBHM , " thrash black [and] heavy hard rock blues ", and it was announced nearly two weeks later that the songwriting process of the album had begun. By December 2023, Testament had begun tracking their new album with mastering engineer Justin Shturtz at Sterling Sound in Nashville . In April 2023, Lombardo announced that he would not be joining Testament throughout their 2023 tour dates, giving scheduling conflicts as the reason and expressing uncertainty that he would return to the band afterwards. He was later replaced by Chris Dovas, who had previously filled in for Lombardo for a few US dates the previous fall. In support of their upcoming fourteenth studio album, Testament will open for Anthrax and Kreator on their co-headlining November–December 2024 tour of Europe. They will also support Behemoth on their summer 2024 European "O Father, O Satan, O Svmmer" tour. Inspired by the new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) and local Bay Area music scenes, Testament has been credited as one of the leaders of the second wave of thrash metal in the late 1980s, as well as one of the most influential Bay Area thrash metal acts. In a 2021 Revolver magazine fan poll, Testament was voted number one as best non-"Big Four" thrash band. AllMusic described them as "one of the first thrash acts to emerge from the Bay Area in Metallica 's wake during the '80s." Testament is considered to be a member of the "big eight" of thrash metal, along with Metallica, Megadeth , Slayer , Anthrax , Exodus , Overkill and Death Angel . Numerous hard rock and heavy metal acts such as Aerosmith , AC/DC , Angel Witch , Black Sabbath , Boston , Deep Purple , Def Leppard , Dio , Exodus , Iron Maiden , Judas Priest , Kiss , Led Zeppelin , Mercyful Fate , Metallica , the Michael Schenker Group , Montrose , Ozzy Osbourne (particularly the Randy Rhoads -era), Raven , Samson , Saxon , Scorpions , Slayer , The Sweet , Thin Lizzy , UFO (particularly the Michael Schenker -era), Van Halen , Venom and Watchtower have been cited as an influence or inspiration behind Testament's music. The band's other musical influences include The Beatles , as well as guitarists Jeff Beck , Chuck Berry , Jimi Hendrix , Yngwie Malmsteen , Frank Marino , Mahogany Rush , Pat Travers and Johnny Winter . Testament has influenced multiple bands, including Pantera , Sepultura , Death Angel , Annihilator , White Zombie , Korn , Machine Head , Drowning Pool , Kataklysm , Lamb of God , Morbid Angel , Cannibal Corpse , Entombed , Gojira , Killswitch Engage , Exhorder , Havok , Evile , Blind Guardian , Sevendust , Suicidal Angels , Trivium , Nightwish , Shadows Fall , Terror , Unearth , Skeletonwitch , Warbringer , Primal Fear , Fight , Sons of Texas , Incite , Demolition Hammer , and Forced Entry . In the video for Bowling for Soup 's " Punk Rock 101 ", guitarist and vocalist Jaret Reddick can be seen wearing a Testament t-shirt.Current members

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Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever

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Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever

Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever ( CCHF ) is a viral disease . Symptoms of CCHF may include fever , muscle pains , headache , vomiting, diarrhea , and bleeding into the skin . Onset of symptoms is less than two weeks following exposure. Complications may include liver failure . Survivors generally recover around two weeks after onset. The CCHF virus is typically spread by tick bites or close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected persons or animals. Groups that are at high risk of infection are farmers and those who work in slaughterhouses . The virus can also spread between people via body fluids . Diagnosis can be made by detecting antibodies , the virus's RNA , or viral proteins (antigens). It is a type of viral hemorrhagic fever . There are no FDA - or WHO -approved therapeutics for CCHF, and a vaccine is not commercially available. Prevention involves avoiding tick bites, following safe practices in meat processing plants, and observing universal healthcare precautions. Treatment is typically with supportive care , and the medication ribavirin may also help. CCHF cases are observed in a wide geographic range including Africa , Russia , the Balkans , the Middle East , and Asia . Typically small outbreaks are seen in areas where the virus is endemic. In 2013 Iran , Russia, Turkey , and Uzbekistan documented more than 50 cases. The fatality rate is typically between 10 and 40%, though fatalities as high as 80% have been observed in some outbreaks. The virus was first observed in Crimea in the 1940s and was later identified as the same agent of what had been called Congo Hemorrhagic Fever. In the past 20 years, CCHF outbreaks have been reported in eastern Europe, particularly in the former Soviet Union , throughout the Mediterranean, in northwestern China , central Asia, southern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent . CCHF is on WHO's priority list for Research and Development and the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH/NIAID) priority A list, as a disease posing the highest level of risk to national security and public health.The clinical illness associated with CCHFV (the CCHF virus) is a severe form of hemorrhagic fever . Following infection by a tick bite, the incubation period is typically two to three days but can last as long as nine days, while the incubation period following contact with infected blood or tissues is usually five to six days with a documented maximum of 13 days. The onset of symptoms ushering in the pre-hemorrhagic phase is sudden, with fever, myalgia (muscle ache), dizziness, neck pain and stiffness, backache, headache, sore eyes and photophobia (sensitivity to light). Typical symptoms include nausea, vomiting (which may progress to severe bleeding and can be fatal if not treated), diarrhea, abdominal pain and sore throat early in the acute infection phase, followed by sharp mood swings, agitations and confusion. After several days, agitation may be replaced by sleepiness, depression and lassitude, and the abdominal pain may localize to the upper right quadrant, with detectable liver enlargement. As the illness progresses into the hemorrhagic phase, large areas of severe bruising, severe nosebleeds, and uncontrolled bleeding at injection sites can be seen, beginning on about the fourth day of illness and lasting for about two weeks. Other clinical signs include tachycardia (fast heart rate), lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes), and a petechiae (a rash caused by bleeding into the skin) on internal mucosal surfaces, such as in the mouth and throat, and on the skin. The petechiae may give way to larger rashes called ecchymoses, and other haemorrhagic phenomena. There is usually evidence of hepatitis, and severely ill patients may experience rapid kidney deterioration, liver failure or pulmonary failure after the fifth day of illness. In documented outbreaks of CCHF, fatality rates in hospitalized patients have ranged from 9% to as high as 70%, though the WHO notes a typical range of 10–40%, with death often occurring in the second week of illness. In patients who recover, improvement generally begins on the ninth or tenth day after the onset of illness. The long-term effects of CCHF infection have not been studied well enough in survivors to determine whether or not specific complications exist. However, recovery is slow.The Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus (CCHFV) is a member of the genus Orthonairovirus , family Nairoviridae of RNA viruses . The virions are 80–120 nanometers (nm) in diameter and are pleomorphic . There are no host ribosomes within the virion. Each virion contains three distinct RNA sequences, which together make up the viral genome. The envelope is single layered and is formed from a lipid bilayer 5 nm thick. It has no external protrusions. The envelope proteins form small projections ~5–10 nm long. The nucleocapsids are filamentous and circular with a length of 200–3000 nm. Viral entry is thought to be clathrin-mediated with the cell surface protein nucleolin playing a role. The genome is circular, negative-sense RNA in three parts – Small (S), Medium (M) and Large (L). The L segment is 11–14.4 kilobases in length while the M and S segments are 4.4–6.3 and 1.7–2.1 kilobases long respectively. The L segment encodes the RNA polymerase , the M segment encodes the envelope glycoproteins (Gc and Gn), and the S segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein. The mutation rates for the three parts of the genome were estimated to be: 1.09 × 10 −4 , 1.52 × 10 −4 and 0.58 × 10 −4 substitutions/site/year for the S, M, and L segments respectively. CCHFV is the most genetically diverse of the arboviruses : its nucleotide sequences frequently differ between different strains, ranging from a 20% variability for the viral S segment to 31% for the M segment. Viruses with diverse sequences can be found within the same geographic area; closely related viruses have been isolated from widely separated regions, suggesting that viral dispersion has occurred possibly by ticks carried on migratory birds or through international livestock trade. Reassortment among genome segments during coinfection of ticks or vertebrates seems likely to have played a role in generating diversity in this virus. [ citation needed ] Based on the sequence data, seven genotypes of CCHFV have been recognised: Africa 1 ( Senegal ), Africa 2 ( Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Africa), Africa 3 (southern and western Africa), Europe 1 ( Albania , Bulgaria , Kosovo , Russia and Turkey ), Europe 2 ( Greece ), Asia 1 ( the Middle East , Iran and Pakistan ) and Asia 2 ( China , Kazakhstan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan ). [ citation needed ] Ticks are both "environmental reservoir" and vector for the virus, carrying it from wild animals to domestic animals and humans. Tick species identified as infected with the virus include Argas reflexus , Hyalomma anatolicum , Hyalomma detritum , Hyalomma marginatum marginatum and Rhipicephalus sanguineus . [ citation needed ] At least 31 different species of ticks from the genera Haemaphysalis and Hyalomma in southeastern Iran have been found to carry the virus. Wild animals and small mammals, particularly European hare , Middle-African hedgehogs and multimammate rats are the "amplifying hosts" of the virus. Birds are generally resistant to CCHF, with the exception of ostriches . Domestic animals like sheep, goats and cattle can develop high titers of virus in their blood, but tend not to fall ill. The "sporadic infection" of humans is usually caused by a Hyalomma tick bite. Animals can transmit the virus to humans, but this would usually be as part of a disease cluster . When clusters of illness occur, it is typically after people treat, butcher or eat infected livestock, particularly ruminants and ostriches . Outbreaks have occurred in abattoirs and other places where workers have been exposed to infected human or animal blood and fomites [ citation needed ] Humans can infect humans and outbreaks also occur in clinical facilities through infected blood and unclean medical instruments. The Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus (CCHFV) is a member of the genus Orthonairovirus , family Nairoviridae of RNA viruses . The virions are 80–120 nanometers (nm) in diameter and are pleomorphic . There are no host ribosomes within the virion. Each virion contains three distinct RNA sequences, which together make up the viral genome. The envelope is single layered and is formed from a lipid bilayer 5 nm thick. It has no external protrusions. The envelope proteins form small projections ~5–10 nm long. The nucleocapsids are filamentous and circular with a length of 200–3000 nm. Viral entry is thought to be clathrin-mediated with the cell surface protein nucleolin playing a role. The genome is circular, negative-sense RNA in three parts – Small (S), Medium (M) and Large (L). The L segment is 11–14.4 kilobases in length while the M and S segments are 4.4–6.3 and 1.7–2.1 kilobases long respectively. The L segment encodes the RNA polymerase , the M segment encodes the envelope glycoproteins (Gc and Gn), and the S segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein. The mutation rates for the three parts of the genome were estimated to be: 1.09 × 10 −4 , 1.52 × 10 −4 and 0.58 × 10 −4 substitutions/site/year for the S, M, and L segments respectively. CCHFV is the most genetically diverse of the arboviruses : its nucleotide sequences frequently differ between different strains, ranging from a 20% variability for the viral S segment to 31% for the M segment. Viruses with diverse sequences can be found within the same geographic area; closely related viruses have been isolated from widely separated regions, suggesting that viral dispersion has occurred possibly by ticks carried on migratory birds or through international livestock trade. Reassortment among genome segments during coinfection of ticks or vertebrates seems likely to have played a role in generating diversity in this virus. [ citation needed ] Based on the sequence data, seven genotypes of CCHFV have been recognised: Africa 1 ( Senegal ), Africa 2 ( Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Africa), Africa 3 (southern and western Africa), Europe 1 ( Albania , Bulgaria , Kosovo , Russia and Turkey ), Europe 2 ( Greece ), Asia 1 ( the Middle East , Iran and Pakistan ) and Asia 2 ( China , Kazakhstan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan ). [ citation needed ]The genome is circular, negative-sense RNA in three parts – Small (S), Medium (M) and Large (L). The L segment is 11–14.4 kilobases in length while the M and S segments are 4.4–6.3 and 1.7–2.1 kilobases long respectively. The L segment encodes the RNA polymerase , the M segment encodes the envelope glycoproteins (Gc and Gn), and the S segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein. The mutation rates for the three parts of the genome were estimated to be: 1.09 × 10 −4 , 1.52 × 10 −4 and 0.58 × 10 −4 substitutions/site/year for the S, M, and L segments respectively. CCHFV is the most genetically diverse of the arboviruses : its nucleotide sequences frequently differ between different strains, ranging from a 20% variability for the viral S segment to 31% for the M segment. Viruses with diverse sequences can be found within the same geographic area; closely related viruses have been isolated from widely separated regions, suggesting that viral dispersion has occurred possibly by ticks carried on migratory birds or through international livestock trade. Reassortment among genome segments during coinfection of ticks or vertebrates seems likely to have played a role in generating diversity in this virus. [ citation needed ] Based on the sequence data, seven genotypes of CCHFV have been recognised: Africa 1 ( Senegal ), Africa 2 ( Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Africa), Africa 3 (southern and western Africa), Europe 1 ( Albania , Bulgaria , Kosovo , Russia and Turkey ), Europe 2 ( Greece ), Asia 1 ( the Middle East , Iran and Pakistan ) and Asia 2 ( China , Kazakhstan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan ). [ citation needed ]Ticks are both "environmental reservoir" and vector for the virus, carrying it from wild animals to domestic animals and humans. Tick species identified as infected with the virus include Argas reflexus , Hyalomma anatolicum , Hyalomma detritum , Hyalomma marginatum marginatum and Rhipicephalus sanguineus . [ citation needed ] At least 31 different species of ticks from the genera Haemaphysalis and Hyalomma in southeastern Iran have been found to carry the virus. Wild animals and small mammals, particularly European hare , Middle-African hedgehogs and multimammate rats are the "amplifying hosts" of the virus. Birds are generally resistant to CCHF, with the exception of ostriches . Domestic animals like sheep, goats and cattle can develop high titers of virus in their blood, but tend not to fall ill. The "sporadic infection" of humans is usually caused by a Hyalomma tick bite. Animals can transmit the virus to humans, but this would usually be as part of a disease cluster . When clusters of illness occur, it is typically after people treat, butcher or eat infected livestock, particularly ruminants and ostriches . Outbreaks have occurred in abattoirs and other places where workers have been exposed to infected human or animal blood and fomites [ citation needed ] Humans can infect humans and outbreaks also occur in clinical facilities through infected blood and unclean medical instruments. Where mammalian tick infection is common, agricultural regulations require de-ticking farm animals before transportation or delivery for slaughter. Personal tick avoidance measures are recommended, such as use of insect repellents, adequate clothing, and body inspection for adherent ticks. [ citation needed ] When feverish patients with evidence of bleeding require resuscitation or intensive care , body substance isolation precautions should be taken. [ citation needed ] Since the 1970s, several vaccine trials around the world against CCHF have been terminated due to high toxicity. As of March 2011 [ update ] , the only available and probably somewhat efficacious CCHF vaccine has been an inactivated antigen preparation then used in Bulgaria. No publication in the scientific literature related to this vaccine exists, which a Turkish virologist called suspicious both because antiquated technology and mouse brain were used to manufacture it. More vaccines are under development, but the sporadic nature of the disease, even in endemic countries, suggests that large trials of vaccine efficacy will be difficult to perform. Finding volunteers may prove challenging, given growing anti-vaccination sentiment and resistance of populations to vaccination against contagious diseases. The number of people to be vaccinated, and the length of time they would have to be followed to confirm protection would have to be carefully defined. Alternatively, many scientists appear to believe that treatment of CCHF with ribavirin is more practical than prevention, but some recently conducted clinical trials appear to counter assumptions of drug efficacy. In 2011, a Turkish research team led by Erciyes University successfully developed the first non-toxic preventive vaccine, which passed clinical trials. As of 2012, the vaccine was pending approval by the US FDA. Since the Ebola epidemic, the WHO jumpstarted a "Blueprint for Research and Development preparedness" on emerging pathogens with epidemic potential, against which there are no medical treatments. CCHF was the top priority on the initial list from December 2015, and is second as of January 2017. Since the 1970s, several vaccine trials around the world against CCHF have been terminated due to high toxicity. As of March 2011 [ update ] , the only available and probably somewhat efficacious CCHF vaccine has been an inactivated antigen preparation then used in Bulgaria. No publication in the scientific literature related to this vaccine exists, which a Turkish virologist called suspicious both because antiquated technology and mouse brain were used to manufacture it. More vaccines are under development, but the sporadic nature of the disease, even in endemic countries, suggests that large trials of vaccine efficacy will be difficult to perform. Finding volunteers may prove challenging, given growing anti-vaccination sentiment and resistance of populations to vaccination against contagious diseases. The number of people to be vaccinated, and the length of time they would have to be followed to confirm protection would have to be carefully defined. Alternatively, many scientists appear to believe that treatment of CCHF with ribavirin is more practical than prevention, but some recently conducted clinical trials appear to counter assumptions of drug efficacy. In 2011, a Turkish research team led by Erciyes University successfully developed the first non-toxic preventive vaccine, which passed clinical trials. As of 2012, the vaccine was pending approval by the US FDA. Since the Ebola epidemic, the WHO jumpstarted a "Blueprint for Research and Development preparedness" on emerging pathogens with epidemic potential, against which there are no medical treatments. CCHF was the top priority on the initial list from December 2015, and is second as of January 2017. Treatment is mostly supportive . Ribavirin has shown some efficacy in vitro and has been used by mouth during outbreaks, [ citation needed ] but there is uncertain evidence to support its use, and this medication can cause serious side effects including hemolytic anemia and liver damage. As of 2011 [ update ] the use of Immunoglobulin preparations has remained unproven and antibody engineering, which raised hopes for monoclonal antibody therapy, has remained in its infancy. CCHF occurs most frequently among agricultural workers, following the bite of an infected tick, and to a lesser extent among slaughterhouse workers exposed to the blood and tissues of infected livestock, and medical personnel through contact with the body fluids of infected persons. As of 2013 [ update ] the northern limit of CCHF has been 50 degrees northern latitude, north of which the Hyalomma ticks have not been found. Per a WHO map from 2008, Hyalomma ticks occurred south of this latitude across all of the Eurasian continent and Africa, sparing only the islands of Sri Lanka , Indonesia and Japan . Serological or virological evidence of CCHF was widespread in Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East (except Israel, Lebanon and Jordan), central Africa, Western Africa, South Africa and Madagascar. In 2008, more than 50 cases/year were reported from only 4 countries: Turkey, Iran, Russia and Uzbekistan. 5-49 cases/year were present in South Africa, Central Asia including Pakistan and Afghanistan (but sparing Turkmenistan), in the Middle East only the UAE and the Balkan countries limited to Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. In Russia, the disease is limited to Southern and North Caucasian Federal Districts , but climate change may cause it to spread into more northerly areas. A 2014 map by the CDC shows endemic areas (in red) largely unchanged in Africa and the Middle East, but different for the Balkan, including all countries of the former Yugoslavia, and also Greece, but no longer Romania. India 's Northwestern regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat saw their first cases. From 1995 to 2013, 228 cases of CCHF were reported in the Republic of Kosovo, with a case-fatality rate of 25.5%. Between 2002–2008 the Ministry of Health of Turkey reported 3,128 CCHF cases, with a 5% death rate. [ citation needed ] In July 2005, authorities reported 41 cases of CCHF in central Turkey's Yozgat Province , with one death. [ clarification needed ] As of August 2008, a total of 50 deaths were reported for the year thus far in various cities in Turkey due to CCHF. [ clarification needed ] In 2003, 38 people were infected with CCHF in Mauritania , including 35 residents of Nouakchott. In September 2010, an outbreak was reported in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Poor diagnosis and record keeping caused the extent of the outbreak to be uncertain, though some reports indicated over 100 cases, with a case-fatality rate above 10%. [ citation needed ] In January 2011, the first human cases of CCHF in India was reported in Sanand , Gujarat, India, with 4 reported deaths, which included the index patient , treating physician and nurse. As of May 2012 [ update ] , 71 people were reported to have contracted the disease in Iran, resulting in 8 fatalities. [ citation needed ] In October 2012, a British man died from the disease at the Royal Free Hospital in London. He had earlier been admitted to Gartnavel General Hospital in Glasgow , after returning on a flight from Kabul in Afghanistan . In July 2013, seven people died of CCHF in the Karyana village of Babra , Gujarat, India. In August 2013, a farmer from Agago , Uganda was treated at Kalongo Hospital for a confirmed CCHF infection. The deaths of three other individuals in the northern region were suspected to have been caused by the virus. Another unrelated CCHF patient was admitted to Mulago Hospital on the same day. The Ministry of Health announced on the 19th that the outbreak was under control, but the second patient, a 27-year-old woman from Nansana , died on the 21st. She is believed to have contracted the virus from her husband, who returned to Kampala after being treated for CCHF in Juba , South Sudan. In June 2014, cases were diagnosed in Kazakhstan. Ten people, including an ambulance crew, were admitted on to hospital in southern Kazakhstan with suspected CCHF. [ citation needed ] In July 2014 an 8th person was found to be infected with CCHF at Hayatabad Medical Complex (HMC), Pakistan. The eight patients, including a nurse and 6 Afghan nationals, died between April and July 2014. As of 2015 [ update ] , sporadic confirmed cases have been reported from Bhuj , Amreli , Sanand , Idar and Vadnagar in Gujarat, India. In November 2014, a doctor and a labourer in north Gujarat tested positive for the disease. In the following weeks, three more people died from CCHF. In March 2015, one more person died of CCHF in Gujarat. As of 2015, among livestock, CCHF was recognized as "widespread" in India, only 4 years after the first human case had been diagnosed. In August 2016, the first local case of CCHF in Western Europe occurred in Western Spain. A 62-year-old man, who had been bitten by a tick in Spain died on August 25, having infected a nurse. The tick bite occurred in the province of Ávila , 300 km away from the province of Cáceres , where CCHF viral RNA from ticks was amplified in 2010. As of July 2017 [ update ] it was unclear what specific ecology led to the Spanish cases. In August 2016, a number of Pakistani news sources raised concerns regarding the disease. Between January and October 2016, CCHF outbreaks in Pakistan were reported with highest numbers of cases and deaths during August 2016, just before the festival of Eid-al-Adha (held on September 13–15 in 2016). It was hypothesized that the festival could play an important part as people could come into contact with domestic or imported animals potentially infected with CCHF virus. The Pakistani NIH showed there was no correlation, and that CCHF cases have coincided with the peak tick proliferation during the preceding 8–10 years. In 2017, the General Directorate of Public Health in Turkey published official records of infections and casualties involving CCHF between 2008 and 2017. Cases declined form 1,318 in 2009 to 343 in 2017 alongside a lowered mortality rate. Cases are concentrated in rural areas of the Southern Black Sea Region , Central Anatolia Region , and Eastern Anatolia Region during early summer months. On February 2, 2020, an outbreak was reported in Mali involving fourteen cases and seven deaths, days before the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa . In May 2020, a single case was reported in Mauritania. In 2022, an outbreak occurred in Iraq . Between 1 January and 22 May, 212 cases of CCHF were reported to the WHO. Of the 212 cases, 115 were suspected and 97 laboratory confirmed. Twenty seven deaths were recorded, of which 13 were in laboratory confirmed cases. In July 2023, there was a single confirmed fatality of tick-borne CCHF in North Macedonia . As of 2013 [ update ] the northern limit of CCHF has been 50 degrees northern latitude, north of which the Hyalomma ticks have not been found. Per a WHO map from 2008, Hyalomma ticks occurred south of this latitude across all of the Eurasian continent and Africa, sparing only the islands of Sri Lanka , Indonesia and Japan . Serological or virological evidence of CCHF was widespread in Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East (except Israel, Lebanon and Jordan), central Africa, Western Africa, South Africa and Madagascar. In 2008, more than 50 cases/year were reported from only 4 countries: Turkey, Iran, Russia and Uzbekistan. 5-49 cases/year were present in South Africa, Central Asia including Pakistan and Afghanistan (but sparing Turkmenistan), in the Middle East only the UAE and the Balkan countries limited to Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. In Russia, the disease is limited to Southern and North Caucasian Federal Districts , but climate change may cause it to spread into more northerly areas. A 2014 map by the CDC shows endemic areas (in red) largely unchanged in Africa and the Middle East, but different for the Balkan, including all countries of the former Yugoslavia, and also Greece, but no longer Romania. India 's Northwestern regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat saw their first cases. From 1995 to 2013, 228 cases of CCHF were reported in the Republic of Kosovo, with a case-fatality rate of 25.5%. Between 2002–2008 the Ministry of Health of Turkey reported 3,128 CCHF cases, with a 5% death rate. [ citation needed ] In July 2005, authorities reported 41 cases of CCHF in central Turkey's Yozgat Province , with one death. [ clarification needed ] As of August 2008, a total of 50 deaths were reported for the year thus far in various cities in Turkey due to CCHF. [ clarification needed ] In 2003, 38 people were infected with CCHF in Mauritania , including 35 residents of Nouakchott. In September 2010, an outbreak was reported in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Poor diagnosis and record keeping caused the extent of the outbreak to be uncertain, though some reports indicated over 100 cases, with a case-fatality rate above 10%. [ citation needed ] In January 2011, the first human cases of CCHF in India was reported in Sanand , Gujarat, India, with 4 reported deaths, which included the index patient , treating physician and nurse. As of May 2012 [ update ] , 71 people were reported to have contracted the disease in Iran, resulting in 8 fatalities. [ citation needed ] In October 2012, a British man died from the disease at the Royal Free Hospital in London. He had earlier been admitted to Gartnavel General Hospital in Glasgow , after returning on a flight from Kabul in Afghanistan . In July 2013, seven people died of CCHF in the Karyana village of Babra , Gujarat, India. In August 2013, a farmer from Agago , Uganda was treated at Kalongo Hospital for a confirmed CCHF infection. The deaths of three other individuals in the northern region were suspected to have been caused by the virus. Another unrelated CCHF patient was admitted to Mulago Hospital on the same day. The Ministry of Health announced on the 19th that the outbreak was under control, but the second patient, a 27-year-old woman from Nansana , died on the 21st. She is believed to have contracted the virus from her husband, who returned to Kampala after being treated for CCHF in Juba , South Sudan. In June 2014, cases were diagnosed in Kazakhstan. Ten people, including an ambulance crew, were admitted on to hospital in southern Kazakhstan with suspected CCHF. [ citation needed ] In July 2014 an 8th person was found to be infected with CCHF at Hayatabad Medical Complex (HMC), Pakistan. The eight patients, including a nurse and 6 Afghan nationals, died between April and July 2014. As of 2015 [ update ] , sporadic confirmed cases have been reported from Bhuj , Amreli , Sanand , Idar and Vadnagar in Gujarat, India. In November 2014, a doctor and a labourer in north Gujarat tested positive for the disease. In the following weeks, three more people died from CCHF. In March 2015, one more person died of CCHF in Gujarat. As of 2015, among livestock, CCHF was recognized as "widespread" in India, only 4 years after the first human case had been diagnosed. In August 2016, the first local case of CCHF in Western Europe occurred in Western Spain. A 62-year-old man, who had been bitten by a tick in Spain died on August 25, having infected a nurse. The tick bite occurred in the province of Ávila , 300 km away from the province of Cáceres , where CCHF viral RNA from ticks was amplified in 2010. As of July 2017 [ update ] it was unclear what specific ecology led to the Spanish cases. In August 2016, a number of Pakistani news sources raised concerns regarding the disease. Between January and October 2016, CCHF outbreaks in Pakistan were reported with highest numbers of cases and deaths during August 2016, just before the festival of Eid-al-Adha (held on September 13–15 in 2016). It was hypothesized that the festival could play an important part as people could come into contact with domestic or imported animals potentially infected with CCHF virus. The Pakistani NIH showed there was no correlation, and that CCHF cases have coincided with the peak tick proliferation during the preceding 8–10 years. In 2017, the General Directorate of Public Health in Turkey published official records of infections and casualties involving CCHF between 2008 and 2017. Cases declined form 1,318 in 2009 to 343 in 2017 alongside a lowered mortality rate. Cases are concentrated in rural areas of the Southern Black Sea Region , Central Anatolia Region , and Eastern Anatolia Region during early summer months. On February 2, 2020, an outbreak was reported in Mali involving fourteen cases and seven deaths, days before the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa . In May 2020, a single case was reported in Mauritania. In 2022, an outbreak occurred in Iraq . Between 1 January and 22 May, 212 cases of CCHF were reported to the WHO. Of the 212 cases, 115 were suspected and 97 laboratory confirmed. Twenty seven deaths were recorded, of which 13 were in laboratory confirmed cases. In July 2023, there was a single confirmed fatality of tick-borne CCHF in North Macedonia . In ancient Celtic settlements in the Upper Danube area in Germany, the CCHF virus was detected in archaeological blood samples, indicating that it was endemic at the time. The virus may have evolved around 1500–1100 BC. It is thought that changing climate and agricultural practices around this time could be behind its evolution. In the 12th century a case of a hemorrhagic disease reported from what is now Tajikistan may have been the first known case of Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever. [ citation needed ] In 1944, roughly 200 Soviet military agricultural workers were infected by Crimean hemorrhagic fever (CHF), leading to experiments showing a tick-borne viral etiology. In February 1967, virologists John P. Woodall , David Simpson, Ghislaine Courtois and others published initial reports on a virus they called the Congo virus. In 1956, the Congo virus had first been isolated by physician Ghislaine Courtois, head of the Provincial Medical Laboratory, Stanleyville , in the Belgian Congo . Strain V3010, isolated by Courtois, was sent to the Rockefeller Foundation Virus Laboratory (RFVL) in New York City and found to be identical to another strain from Uganda , but to no other named virus at that time. [ citation needed ] In June 1967, Soviet virologist Mikhail Chumakov registered an isolate from a fatal case that occurred in Samarkand in the Catalogue of Arthropod-borne Viruses. In 1969, the Russian strain, which Chumakov had sent to the RFVL, was found to be antigenically indistinguishable from the Congo virus. In 1973, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses adopted Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus as the official name. These reports include records of the occurrence of the virus or antibodies to the virus from Greece, Portugal, South Africa, Madagascar (the first isolation from there), the Maghreb , Dubai , Saudi Arabia , Kuwait and Iraq.

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