id
stringlengths 1
6
| url
stringlengths 35
214
| title
stringlengths 1
118
| text
stringlengths 1
237k
|
|---|---|---|---|
2039 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corset | Corset | A corset is a body covering undergarment (clothes worn under others).
It is made in many forms.
A tight-lacing corset is a common form used today.
"Stays" are an old form, which were used from about 1500 to after 1860
An orthopaedic corset supports the back of an injured person.
Other websites
Underwear |
2041 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop%20music | Pop music | Pop music is a type of popular music that many people like to listen to. The term "pop music" can be used for all kinds of music that was written to be popular. The word "pop music" was used from about 1880 onwards, when a type of music called music was popular. Styles of pop music in the 2020s (today) include rock music, electronic dance music and hip hop. Pop music tends to change quite a lot so the description is quite flexible.
History
Modern pop music grew out of 1950s rock and roll, (for example Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley and Little Richard) and rockabilly (for example Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly). In the 1960s, The Beatles became a famous pop music group. In the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as funk and soul music. Pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. Pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an amplifier and a loudspeaker.
How does the business of pop music work?
There are also many more people working on pop music who are not seen on the stage or in the video. These people include the studio staff (people who help the musicians to record CDs and music videos in music studios), production staff (people who help make the music recordings sound good), distribution staff (people who help sell the music to stores) and retail staff (people that sell the music to people at CD stores).
Tour staff help the band to travel around the country (or around the world) for their concert tours. Some tour staff help by carrying heavy musical instruments onto the stage. Other tour staff drive buses or cars, so that the band can get to the concert. Some tour staff operate sound equipment, such as the large amplifiers and loudspeakers that are used to amplify (make louder) the band's music for the audience.
Promotional staff help to market or promote the band's music, so that more people will know about the band, and buy the band's CDs. Some promotional staff travel to radio stations and give the band's CD to radio station managers or DJs (disk jockeys: the people who announce songs on the radio). Other promotional staff write press releases (short articles) about the band which are sent to the newspapers.
Types of music that became pop music
Pop music came from the Rock and Roll movement of the early 1950s, when record companies recorded songs that they thought that teenagers would like. Pop music usually uses musical from the other types of music that are popular at the time. Many different styles of music have become pop music during different time periods. Often, music companies create pop music styles by taking a style of music that only a small number of people were listening to, and then making that music more popular by marketing it to teenagers and young adults.
In the 1950s, recording companies took blues-influenced rock and roll (for example Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley) and rockabilly (for example Carl Perkins and Buddy Holly) and promoted them as pop music. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, record companies took folk music bands and musicians and helped them to create a new type of music called folk rock or acid rock. Folk rock and acid rock mixed folk music, blues and rock and roll (for example The Byrds and Janis Joplin). In the 1970s, record companies created several harder, louder type of blues called blues rock or heavy metal, which became a type of pop music (for example the bands Led Zeppelin and Judas Priest).
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a type of nightclub dance music called Disco turned into a popular type of pop music. Record companies took an experimental, strange-sounding type of music called New Wave music from the 1980s and turned it into pop music bands such as The Cars. In the 1990s record companies took an underground type of hard rock called Grunge (for example the band Nirvana). Michael Jackson was also a very influential artist for pop music. His album, Thriller, is the best-selling album of all time. He also wrote some other very influential songs, such as "Bad", "Give In to Me", "Will You Be There", "Heal the World", "We Are the World", "Black or White", and "Billie Jean", just to name a few. By the 21st century (after the demise of disco in the 1980s) Contemporary R&B became pop music. Examples of Contemporary R&B artists that have a wide pop appeal are Usher, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Chris Brown and more. Pop rappers Flo Rida and Kesha were mainstream in the late 2000s and the early 2010s. Modern pop singers include Ariana Grande, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga. Nicki Minaj blended pop and hip hop in the early 2010s.
Many bands and artists are looked as influential in music history, but the English band The Beatles are the most looked upon band in history because of many of their songs being different types of pop and rock music (even metal and punk). Michael Jackson, The Bee Gees, Nirvana (band) are many of the artists and bands that look at The Beatles as a massive influence on their music.
Sources
Other websites |
2044 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20semantics | General semantics | General semantics is a philosophy that deals with how people react to things that happen around them based on meaning. It was created by Alfred Korzybski during the 1920s and early 1930s.
The goal of general semantics is for people to know that when we simplify something, either mentally or in language, that simplification is not the same thing as the thing simplified. How people understand reality is not the same as what reality is because people do not know everything about reality. General semantics teaches that there is always more to something than what is seen, heard, felt, or believed.
Branches of philosophy
Reality |
2045 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics | Semiotics | Semiotics (or semiology) is a theoretical framework for the study of the meaning of language, signs and symbols. It was first developed in the early 20th century, separately, by the Swiss Ferdinand Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce of the U.S.A. It can be described as both a science and a technique: a science because it has its own theories and a technique because it is a way of studying systems of representation and meaning. The meaning can be intentional such as a word uttered with a specific meaning, or unintentional, such as a symptom being a sign of a particular medical condition. Signs can communicate through any of the senses, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or gustatory.
History and terminology
The importance of signs and signification has been recognized throughout much of the history of philosophy, and in psychology as well. The term derives from the Greek: σημειωτικός, romanized: sēmeiōtikos, "observant of signs" (from σημεῖον sēmeion, "a sign, a mark"). For the Greeks, "signs" occurred in the world of nature, and "symbols" in the world of culture. As such, Plato and Aristotle explored the relationship between signs and the world.
The general study of signs that began in Latin with Augustine culminated with the 1632 Tractatus de Signis of John Poinsot, and then began anew in late modernity with the attempt in 1867 by Charles Sanders Peirce to draw up a "new list of categories." More recently, Umberto Eco, in his Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language, has argued that semiotic theories are implicit in the work of most, perhaps all, major thinkers.
Semiotics is usually divided into three parts:
Semantics - what was the meaning of the words or signs used;
Pragmatics - who said it, to whom and in what circumstances and
Syntactics - the formal rules of the language used.
The major branches of semiotics include:
Biosemiotics
Zoosemiotics
Semiotics of culture
Other page
Philosophy of language
References
Language |
2061 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen | Nitrogen | Nitrogen is a nonmetal chemical element. The atmosphere contains more than 78 percent of nitrogen. It has the chemical symbol N and atomic number 7. Its stable inside typically contains 14 nucleons (7 protons and 7 neutrons). It has 5 electrons in its outer shell.
Properties
Nitrogen is a colorless odorless gas at normal temperature. It is normally attached to another nitrogen atom, making a nitrogen molecule (N2). This bond is very strong. That is why many explosives contain nitrogen. The bond is broken when the explosive is made. When it explodes the bond reforms, releasing a lot of energy.
It turns into a liquid at -195.8°C and turns into a solid at -210°C. If it is compressed, it can be turned into a liquid without making it cold.
It usually does not combine with other atoms because its strong bond prevents it from reacting. Lithium is one of the few chemical elements that react with nitrogen without being heated. Magnesium can burn in nitrogen. Nitrogen also makes blue electric sparks. The blue color is caused by the atoms being excited. When they get normal again, they release light. When nitrogen is excited, it reacts with many things that it does not normally react with.
Compounds
Many chemical compounds that are important for industrial purposes contain nitrogen ions. These include ammonia, nitric acid, nitrates and cyanides. Nitrogen comes in several oxidation states; -3, -2, -1/3, +1, +3, +4, and +5. Each of those oxidation states has its set of compounds.
Compounds in the -3 oxidation state are weak reducing agents. These include ammonia, ammonium, amide and nitrides. Amino acids and proteins contain nitrogen in this oxidation state. Hydrazine, a compound in the -2 oxidation state, is a strong reducing agent. Azides contain nitrogen in the -1/3 oxidation state. They are extremely powerful reducing agents, and most are very toxic.
Nitrous oxide contains nitrogen in the +1 oxidation state. It is used as an anesthetic. Compounds containing nitrogen in the +2 oxidation state, such as nitric oxide, are reducing agents. +3 oxidation state compounds are strong oxidizing agents and weak reducing agents. Nitrites are the most common +3 compounds. Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents. They include nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide.
Compounds containing nitrogen in the +5 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents. They are one of the more common groups of nitrogen compounds. They include nitric acid and dinitrogen pentoxide. They also include nitrates, which are used in explosives such as dynamite, nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene.
Occurrence and preparation
Air is made up of about 78% nitrogen and about 20.95% oxygen, < 1% argon, and traces of other gasses such as carbon dioxide, and water vapor, among others. It is also in a few nitrates in the ground. Ammonium minerals are rare. Nitrogen is in proteins.
Pure liquid nitrogen can be made by cooling air. The nitrogen turns into a liquid at a different temperature than the oxygen. It can also be made by heating certain chemical compounds, such as sodium azide.
Uses
Nitrogen as an element is used to prevent things from reacting with the oxygen in the air. It can be used to fill crisp bags and incandescent bulbs. It is also used to fill some tires. It can be used to make electric components like transistors. Liquid nitrogen can be used to freeze things.
Nitrogen compounds have many uses, such as anesthetics (nitrous oxide), explosives (dynamite), cleaners (ammonia), and meat (protein), and planes (fuel).
Oil companies use high pressure nitrogen to help force crude oil to the surface.
Nitrogen is also used as a way to relieve body aches. It contributes to the torn bones in your body and helps.
History
Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious gas or fixed gas. They discovered that part of air did not burn. It was found that animals died in it. It was known as "azote". Many nitrogen compounds also contain the "azide" or "azine" letters, such as hydrazine.
In 1910, Lord Rayleigh found out that when a spark was passed through nitrogen, it made a reactive form of nitrogen. This nitrogen reacted with many metals and compounds.
Related pages
List of common elements
References
Chemical elements
Nonmetals |
2062 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association%20football | Association football | For the American sport, see American football. For other sports known as football, see Football
Association football is a sport played between two teams. In the United States, Canada and Australia, it is called soccer. In most other countries it is called football. Association football is the most popular sport in the world.
Games like football have been played around the world since ancient times. The modern game came from England, where the Football Association wrote a standard set of rules for the game in 1863.
Each team has 11 players on the field. One of these players is the goalkeeper, the only player who is allowed to touch the ball with their hands. The other ten are known as "outfield players". The players try to kick the ball into their opponent's goal. The team that scores the most goals wins. A match has 90 minutes of play, with a break of 15 minutes during the match. The break in the middle is called half-time. Added time may be added after half time or after 90 minutes to make up for time lost during the game because of fouls, free kicks, corner kicks, injuries, bookings, substitutions or any other time the game is stopped. A match can end in a tie, except in some competition games where one team must win. In that case, extra-time with two halves of 15 minutes each may be played, and if there is still a tie, a penalty shootout decides the winner. Sometimes extra-time is skipped and the game goes right into the penalty shootout. Free kick or penalty for other team,Fouls include kicking the opponent, handling the ball and being offside Yellow and red cards.
Competitions
There are many competitions for football, for both football clubs and countries. Football clubs usually play other teams in their own country, with a few exceptions. Here are a list of some of those exceptions:
Welsh teams and play in the EFL Championship (the 2nd tier of English league system) and the FA Cup (the English cup competition)
Canadian teams , Toronto FC, and CF Montreal play in the MLS (the USA league system)
Monégasque team A.S. Monaco play in Ligue 1 (the French league system)
Football clubs also play other teams in their continent in competitions such as the CAF Champions League and the UEFA Champions League.
There are 6 associations (CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, CAF, UEFA, AFC, and OFC). Each association has their own continental competition between clubs and national teams. Some examples are the Copa América for CONMEBOL national teams and the Copa Libertadores for CONMEBOL clubs. FIFA organises international competitions between worldwide clubs and countries. Clubs play in the Club World Cup, and countries play for the FIFA World Cup.
The FIFA World Cup takes place every four years between national teams, and is the world's most popular sporting event, even more popular than the Olympic Games. In football, there are two main competition types. In a "league", all of the teams play the same number of games, but in a "cup", teams leave the competition when they lose, until the last two teams play each other to decide the winner.
Who plays football
Football is the world's most popular sport. It is played in more countries than any other game. In fact, FIFA (the Federation Internationale de Football Association) has more members than the United Nations. It was originally an all-male sport, but today it is played by both males and females (separately, except sometimes at primary school level).
In Europe, the main competitions to compete are the Champions League for the top teams from the top leagues in each country in Europe. Then there is the UEFA Europa League which is for the next best teams from each member country of the UEFA.
Most successful clubs are FC Barcelona and Real Madrid from Spain; Bayern Munich and Borussia Dortmund from Germany; Galatasaray S.K. from Turkey; Juventus, AC Milan and Inter Milan from Italy; Liverpool, Manchester United and Manchester City from England; Paris Saint-Germain from France and Al Ahly from Egypt.
The most successful club in the world, in terms of domestic league results, is Rangers F.C. from Scotland, who have won more domestic league titles than any other team in the world. They have won the country's league 54 times which is a world record. In May 2000, Rangers became the first team to win 100 trophies.
Rules
Fundamental rules
Note: this is a complete summary
The side which scores the most goals wins. If scores are equal, the result is a draw. In cup competitions, there may be extra time and penalties to determine a winner.
The officials in a football game are a referee and two linesmen.
Goals are scored by getting the ball into the opponen' goal, more than halfway across the line.
Referees have access to goal-line cameras to decide close cases.
The offside rule means that there have to be at least two defenders between the attacker and the defenders' goal when the attacker's teammate passes the ball to him/her. (This is not a complete summary: the rule is complex). Usually, one of the two defenders is the goalkeeper.
Players may not use their hands or arms (handball), except the goalkeeper, who may use them within his own penalty area (penalty areas are in front of both goals).
The ball is out of play if it crosses the field boundaries.
If a player hits the ball out of play at the side of the field, the other team gets to throw the ball back into play (a throw in).
If a player hits the ball out of play at their end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from the corner (a corner kick).
If a player kicks the ball out of play at the other end of the field, the other team kicks the ball back into play from directly in front of the goal (a goal kick).
Football is a game of two halves. Each half is 45 minutes. The referee may add time to the end of each half when play is delayed due to injuries or substitutions. There is an interval of ten minutes between halves.
Each team is allowed up to three substitutes from the bench during the course of a game. No player substituted can return during the game.
Behaviour rules
Players may not trip or push each other (a foul).
Players may not hold each other or stop other players from getting to the ball (obstruction).
When a player scores he/she is not allowed to jump into the crowd. If he/she does they will get a yellow card. The same applies to lifting or removing their shirt in celebration.
Players must not abuse referees in any way (verbally or physically).
Players who commit bad fouls get shown a yellow card. Players who commit really bad fouls, or get shown two yellow cards in the same game, get shown a red card. Players who get shown a red card get sent off the field and cannot finish playing the game. In some competitions (like the Premier League in England) you miss the next game (suspended) if you get a red card, or pick up 5 yellow cards during the season.
Related pages
List of football federations
List of national football teams
List of Argentine football teams
List of Austrian football teams
List of football teams in Armenia
List of football teams in Azerbaijan
List of Brazilian football teams
List of Colombian football teams
List of football teams in Chile
List of Dutch football teams
List of English football teams
List of French football teams
List of German football teams
List of Indian football teams
List of Italian football teams
List of Japanese football teams
List of Mexican football teams
List of Portuguese football teams
List of Russian football teams
List of Scottish football teams
List of Spanish football teams
List of football teams in Sweden
List of football teams in Turkey
List of United States soccer teams
References
Summer Olympic sports |
2064 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spamming | Spamming | Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person. Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted "junk mail" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures. Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender.
Names
The emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam. The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer. Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called "Spam", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word "Spam" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages.
Uses
Spam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service. The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it.
One of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once. Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program.
How spammers find email addresses
The hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to. Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers).
Method one
One part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use. One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this:
If you do not wish to get more of these messages
from us click here to stop getting them.
If the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address. Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages. Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers. The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called replying), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened.
Method two
Another trick that spammers use is to put a picture – even one that cannot be seen – into a spam message. The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email. When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image. If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam.
Other meanings
The word "spamming" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations. Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom. Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude. This kind of behavior is usually called flooding rather than spamming.
The word "spam" is often (mistakenly) applied to emails containing content that the receiver sees as silly or simply meaningless (e.g. yujhcykgfvylfuv,uyguvgy).
Problems with spam
Computer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages. In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites. Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams.
Spam prevention
Some user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder. Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers.
E-mail
Internet communication |
2081 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake | Earthquake | An earthquake is the sudden movement or trembling of the Earth's tectonic plates, that creates the shakes of the ground. This shaking can destroy buildings and break the Earth's surface. A sudden shake underwater is called a tsunami.
Earthquakes are caused by disturbances in the balance of the earth. Earthquakes are also caused by reactions that result from invisible events operating beneath the Earth's crust..An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
People who study earthquakes are called seismologists. There can be many earthquakes over a short period of time in a small area. The sudden release of tension in the tectonic plates sends waves of energy that travel through the Earth. Seismology studies the cause, repeats, type, and size of earthquakes.
Earthquakes are measured using watching from seismographs. The magnitude of an earthquake and the power of shaking is usually reported on the Richter scale. The Richter Scale was invented by Charles Francis Richter in 1935. On the scale, 2 is scarcely noticeable, and magnitude 5 (or more) creates damage over a wide area.
An earthquake under the ocean can destruction as the earthquake itself in mountainous areas. Earthquakes can also create landslides. Earthquakes are part of the Earth's natural rock cycle. The affect of an earthquake can be measured by a seismometer. It detects the shakes caused and it puts these movements on a seismograph. The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake, is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is numbered 0-10. The largest earthquake ever measured was a 9.5. An earthquake of 10 has never been recorded.
Scientists cannot predict an earthquake before it happens. But we do know where earthquakes might happen in the future, like close to fault lines. An earthquake under the ocean can create a tsunami, this can create just as much destruction as the earthquake itself.
Zones
Earthquakes zones are divided into some parts of the world. The first is the Pacific belt. This part is the biggest part of seismic belt which means the largest activities of earthquakes caused by the movement of the earth's lithosphere as well as the volcanoes. The zone shape the most volcanoes located on the nations around the pacific ocean.
The second part is the alpide. It is the seismic activities from Sumatra, Himalayan, europan to outer atlantic.
History
Earthquakes sometimes hit cities and kill hundreds or thousands of people. Most earthquakes happen along the Pacific Ring of Fire but the biggest ones mostly happen in other places. Tectonically active places are places where earthquakes or volcanic eruptions are quite repeated.
Causes of an earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by tectonic movements in the Earth's crust. The main cause is when tectonic plates ride one over the other, causing orogeny (mountain building), and severe earthquakes.
The boundaries between moving plates form the largest fault surfaces on Earth. When they stick, motion between the plates leads to increasing stress. This continues until the stress rises and breaks, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault. This releases the stored energy as shock waves. The San Andreas fault in San Francisco, and Rift valley fault in Africa are faults like this.
1. Volcanic Earthquakes: Earthquakes which are caused by volcanic eruptions are quite devastating. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
2. Collapse Earthquakes: In areas of intense mining activity, often the roofs of underground mines collapse and minor tremors take place. These are called collapse earthquakes.
Earthquake fault types
There are three main types of geological fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other.
Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.
A foreshock is an earthquake that happens before a larger earthquake, called the mainshock.
An aftershock is an earthquake that happens after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same place of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. Aftershocks are formed as the crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock.
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period oof time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notably higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.
Sometimes a series of earthquakes happen in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms happen over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern happened in the North Anatolian fault in Turkey in the 20th century.
Tsunami
Tsunami or a chain of fast moving waves in the ocean caused by powerful earthquakes is a very serious challenge for people's safety and for earthquake engineering. Those waves can inundate coastal areas, destroy houses and even swipe away whole towns. This is a danger for the whole mankind.
Unfortunately, tsunamis cannot be prevented. However, there are warning systems which may warn the population before the big waves reach the land to let them enough time to rush to safety.
Earthquake-proofing
Earthquake-proof buildings are constructed to withstand the destructive force of an earthquake. This depends upon its type of construction, shape, mass distribution, and rigidity. Different combinations are used. Square, rectangular, and shell-shaped buildings can withstand earthquakes better than skyscrapers. To reduce stress, a building's ground floor can be supported by extremely rigid, empty columns, while the rest of the building is supported by flexible columns inside the empty columns. Another method is to use rollers or rubber pads to separate the base columns from the ground, allowing the columns to shake parallel to each other during an earthquake.
To help prevent a roof from collapsing, builders make the roof out of light-weight materials. Outdoor walls are made with stronger and more reinforced materials such as steel or reinforced concrete. During an earthquake, flexible windows may help hold the windows together so they don’t break.
Sources
Other websites
PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes
USGS – Largest earthquakes in the world since 1900
The Destruction of Earthquakes - a list of the worst earthquakes ever recorded
Recent Quakes WorldWide
Earthquake Citizendium
Real Time Seismicity European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC)
Plate tectonics |
2083 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour | Colour | Colour or color is a property of light as seen by people. In Commonwealth English, it is spelled “colour” (notice the U), while in American English it is “color” (no U).
The most common colour names are:
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Cyan
Blue
Magenta
Purple
White
Black
Gray (American English)
Grey (Commonwealth English)
Silver
Pink
Maroon
Brown
Beige
Tan
Peach
Lime
Olive
Turquoise
Teal
Navy blue
Indigo
Violet
"Primary colours" can be mixed to make other colours. Red, yellow, and blue are the three traditional primary colours. The primary colours for television screens and computer monitors are red, green and blue. Printers and paints use magenta, yellow, and cyan as their primary colours; they may also use black. Sometimes this set of colours is simply called red, yellow, and blue.
People who can not see colours or have a distorted sense of colour are called colour blind. Most colour blind people are male.
Colours are sometimes added to food. Food colouring is used to colour food, but some foods have natural colourings, like beta carotene.
When something has no colour, it is transparent. An example is air.
The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science.
A translucent material is not the same as a colourless material because it can still have a colour, like stained glass.
Related pages
List of colours
References
Basic English 850 words
Color
Vision |
2091 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvy | Scurvy | Scurvy is a disease (sickness). It is caused by not eating enough vitamin C. But scurvy can be prevented. It has many symptoms. People who have scurvy get spots on their skin, especially on their legs. Their teeth may loosen and/or fall out. They may bleed from the mouth, nose, and gums (mucus membranes). A person with scurvy will look pale and feel sad (see depression). They will not be able to move easily, because their joints hurt.
Scurvy can be easily cured. Oranges and other fruits can restore normal vitamin levels. In the past, sailors more commonly got scurvy due to being unable to access these foods. Fresh fruit could not be kept for long. The main cause of scurvy is lack of fresh fruits and vegetables. It is now uncommon.
Signs of scurvy
At first, a person with scurvy may:
Not want to eat (loss of appetite)
Feel sad (slight depression)
Lose weight or not get heavier even though they eat a lot
Have loose feces (diarrhea)
Breathe fast (tachypnea)
Be hot (have a high body temperature or fever)
A bit later a person with scurvy may:
Feel angry (irritability)
Have pains in the legs (and tenderness)
Find it hard to move (pseudo paralysis)
Have swelling of the arms and legs
Bleed from the mouth, nose and gums
Causes
Not eating enough food that has vitamin C
Going on a long trip, often at sea, where there is no fresh food
Not having enough food (famine)
Breaking down the vitamin C by over-cooking (like boiling fruit juice)
Treatment
Eating vitamin C pills or giving it by needle (injection, also known as a shot). The injection almost always cures scurvy in babies.
Drinking orange juice is another treatment that works in babies. Before vitamin C was discovered this was the only treatment.
When a person gets help for scurvy, they usually get better very quickly. Babies start eating again after one or two days of help. The symptoms get better within seven days.
Food sources
Eating vitamin C prevents scurvy. How much vitamin C a person needs changes with his or her age and is different for pregnant and lactating women. The following is the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council's advice on how much vitamin C to eat every day:
Infants (babies): 30–40 mg
Children and adults: 45–60 mg
Pregnant women: 70 mg
Mothers breast feeding: 90–95 mg
Foods with a lot of vitamin C include the following:
Citrus fruits (for example: oranges, limes)
Berries
Cantaloupe
Broccoli
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Spinach
Potatoes
Tomatoes
Strawberries
References
Diseases
Vitamin deficiencies |
2099 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion | Ion | An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms.
It can be made from an atom, or from a group of atoms (molecule). It is "charged" so it will move near electricity. This is because atoms are made of three smaller parts:
neutrons (with no charge),
number of protons with positive charges and
equal number of negatively-charged electrons.
An ion has unequal numbers of protons and electrons. Making an ion from an atom or molecule is called ionization.
The charge on a proton is chosen as +1 (positively charged). The charge on an electron is opposite to the charge on the proton. The charge on the electron is -1 (negatively charged). An atom that is ionized makes two parts, one positive, and one negatively charged. For example, a neutral hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron. Ionizing the atom breaks it into two parts: (1) a positively charged hydrogen ion, H+ (2) a negatively charged electron.
A liquid with ions is called an electrolyte. A gas with lots of ions is called a plasma. When ions move, it is called electricity. For example, in a wire, the metal ions do not move, but the electrons move as electricity. A positive ion and a negative ion will move together. Two ions of the same charge will move apart. When ions move they also make magnetic fields.
Many ions are colourless. Elements in the main groups in the Periodic Table form colourless ions. Some ions are coloured. The transition metals usually form coloured ions.
Chemistry
In physics, atomic nuclei that have been completely ionized are called charged particles. These are ones in alpha radiation.
Ionization happens by giving atoms high energy. This is done using electrical voltage or by high-energy ionizing radiation or high temperature.
A simple ion is formed from a single atom.
Polyatomic ions are formed from a number of atoms. Polyatomic ions usually consist of all non-metal atoms. But sometimes the polyatomic ion can have a metallic atom too.
Positive ions are called cations. They are attracted to cathodes (negatively charged electrodes). (Cation is pronounced "cat eye on", not "kay shun".) All simple metal ions are cations.
Negative ions are called anions. They are attracted to anodes (positively charged electrodes). All simple non-metal ions (except H+, which is a proton) are anions.
Transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges.
Most ions have a charge of less than 4, but some can have higher charges.
Michael Faraday was the first person to write a theory about ions, in 1830. In his theory, he said what the portions of molecules were like that moved to anions or cations. Svante August Arrhenius showed how this happened. He wrote this in his doctoral dissertation in 1884 (University of Uppsala). The university did not accept his theory at first (he only just passed his degree). But in 1903, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the same idea.
In Greek ion is like the word "go". "Anion" and "cation" mean "up-goer" and "down-goer". "Anode" and "cathode" are "way up" and "way down".
Common ions
Related pages
List of ions
References
Chemistry |
2104 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive%20science | Cognitive science | Cognitive science studies how people make their ideas and what makes thoughts logical. It is often seen as the result of several different scientific fields working together. These fields are psychology (a study of the mind), neuroscience (biological study of the brain), computer science (the creation of programs and computers), and linguistics (the study of language). It does not refer to the sum of all these disciplines. It refers to their intersection on specific problems.
Other websites
Cognitive Science Society
Cognitive Science Movie Index: A broad list of movies showcasing themes in the Cognitive Sciences
List of leading thinkers in cognitive science
Dr. Carl Stahmer's history page at the University of Santa Barbara
Science |
2110 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | Anthropology | Anthropology [anth-row-pahl-O-gee] is the study of human beings in the past and present.
The word anthropology has two roots: [ anthrop- ] and [ -ology ]. Anthrop- means “about human beings,” and -ology means “a type of science." Anthropology is a type of science about human beings. A person who studies anthropology is called an anthropologist.
The main goal of anthropology is to answer the questions: What makes us human and why?
Anthropology is a biological and historical social science that helps us learn how groups of people are the same, and how they are different in all parts of the world. Anthropologists do research in many places and study how people live now and how they may have lived in the past. They research in modern cities, small villages, tribes, and in the countryside.
Four fields
Anthropology uses a "four-field approach" that divides anthropology into four big kinds:
Archaeology - The study of how people lived in the past.
Biological anthropology - The study of how people adapt to where they live and how bodies changed over time (evolution).
Linguistic anthropology - The study of how people speak and the words they use.
Sociocultural anthropology - The study of how people live their lives now and how they may have lived in the past. It combines social and cultural ideas about people.
Archaeology
Archaeology is the study of humans from the past. People who study archaeology are called archaeologists.
Archaeologists look at things that past people left behind to know how they lived. They look at tools, bones, and past houses to see how people in the past are not the same as people that live today.
Here are some other examples of what archaeologists like to study:
Historical_archaeology: the study of what people wrote down and talked about in the past
Ethnoarchaeology: the study of people's things
Experimental archaeology: tests different ways to study archaeology
Community archaeology: makes sure that other people can help study anthropology
Cultural resources management: studies the past cultures and arts of humans
Biological Anthropology
Biological or physical anthropology studies human bodies and how they change over time.
They look at how humans live in nature and how their bodies change because of where they live. They also study how human beings and apes and monkeys are alike. Sometimes biological anthropologists study human and animal bones to learn about how past humans lived. They are also called physical anthropologists.
Here are some other examples of what biological anthropologists like to study:
Paleoanthropology: the study of human bones from a very long time ago
Bioarchaeology: the study of human bones from the past (but not as long ago as paleoanthropology)
Primatology: the study of monkeys and apes
Paleopathology: the study of human diseases from the past
Human biology: the study of how human bodies work
Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistics is the study of how people talk.
Linguistic anthropologists study sounds and how they go together to make words. Then they study what the words mean and how people use them. Linguistic anthropology also studies how language changes what people think and how people change language. No two people talk the same way, so linguistic anthropologists want to know why that happens.
Here are some other examples of what linguistic anthropologists like to study:
Languages: how people talk in different places
Communication: how people tell each other things
Socialization: how people learn languages when they are little
Language ideology: how people feel about language
Code-switching: when someone uses more than one language
Socio-Cultural Anthropology
Socio-Cultural Anthropology is the study of human societies and cultures.
It looks at how human beings understand the world around them and how they act with the people around them. Socio-cultural anthropologists study living people by going to their homes and learning about who those people are and what they do. They write about people in places all over the world to see why people are different. Some socio-cultural anthropologists study medicine in these places and some look at how babies grow up in other places.
Here are some other examples of what socio-cultural anthropologists like to study:
Witchcraft: the practice of magic
Taboo: things that are not allowed
Gender identity: what gender someone thinks they are
Cultural materialism: how people and societies change
Rites of passage: how people celebrate change, especially as someone gets older
Other Kinds of Anthropology
Even though there are four main kinds of anthropology, there are a lot of different kinds of anthropology within the four main kinds. Here are some examples:
Feminist Anthropology
the study of women and anthropology. Feminist Anthropology is also used to study equal rights for women.
Forensic anthropology
the study of humans and the law.
Processual archaeology
uses science to study the history of humans and their things.
Applied anthropology
uses the different ways to study anthropology to answer questions.
Anthropology of media
the study of human dancing, music, and art.
Medical anthropology
the study of human health and how people use medicine around the world.
Evolutionary anthropology
the study of how human biology and culture has changed from the past to the present.
Rules of Anthropology
Like everything in life, anthropology has a set of rules that every anthropologist needs to follow. The rules try to make sure that no one gets hurt or mad when studying other people. Here are some of the rules:
To make sure no one gets hurt when studying anthropology
To respect and be nice to humans and animals
To make sure any items used to study people are well taken care of
To work as a team
Notable people
This is a list of important people who studied anthropology.
Franz Boas (1858-1942)
Boas is known as the "Father" of American anthropology because he helped spread anthropology throughout the United States.
He studied socio-cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, and archaeology.
Claude Levi Strauss (1908-2009)
Levi Strauss studied how humans think and act the same everywhere around the world.
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Durkheim studied how people in societies make new ideas and groups.
Bronisław Malinowski (1884-1942)
Malinowski studied how people in different places act and how they are different from people in other places.
Margaret Mead (1901-1978)
Mead studied how there are different ways people raise babies and how those babies grow up.
Marcel Mauss (1872-1950)
Mauss studied how different people use magic and how people give presents.
Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)
Radcliffe-Brown studied how people put their lives in order in different places all over the world.
Notes
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species, 1861
Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, 1871
Thomas Henry Huxley, Man's Place in Nature, 1863
Rudolf Virchow, Anthropological Papers, 1891
Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape, 1967
Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man, 1971
Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, 1976
E.O. Wilson, On Human Nature, 1979
E.O. Wilson, Consilience: the unity of knowledge, 1998
E.O. Wilson, The social Conquest of Earth, 2012
Jared Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee, 1991
Jared Diamond, Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed, 2005
Richard Wrangham, Catching Fire: how cooking made us human, 2009
Ulf Hannerz, Anthropology's World: life in a twenty-first century discipline, 2010
James D. Faubion, An Anthropology of Ethics, 2011
References |
2113 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education | Education | Education is about learning skills and knowledge. It also means helping people to learn how to do things and support them to think about what they learn. It's also important for educators to teach ways to find and use information. Education needs research to find out how to make it better.
Through education, the knowledge of society, country, and of the world is passed on from generation to generation. This may include education in morality, for example learning how to act as loyal, honest and effective citizen.
Education may help and guide individuals from one class to other. Educated individuals and groups can do things like, help less educated people and encourage them to get educated.
Types of education
There are different ways to categorize education, for example by age or subject. One way is to divide it into formal education, non-formal education, and informal education.
Formal education is usually in school, where a person may learn basic, academic, or trade skills. Small children often attend a nursery or kindergarten but often formal education begins in elementary school and continues with secondary school. Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at a college or university which may grant an academic degree. Or, students may go to a City college where they learn practical skills. This way learners can become qualified to be plumbers, electricians, builders and similar occupations. These course have arrangements for students to get practical experience. Apprenticeship was the older way to do this,
Non-formal education includes adult basic education, adult literacy education or school equivalency preparation. In nonformal education someone (who is not in school) can learn literacy, other basic skills or job skills. Home education, individualized instruction (such as programmed learning), distance learning and computer-assisted instruction are other possibilities.
Informal education is less organized. It may be a parent teaching a child how to prepare a meal or ride a bicycle. People can also get an informal education by reading many books from a library or educational websites. This may also be called self-education. Some quite famous men have been largely self-educated, like Alfred Russell Wallace.
Unschooling is when kids learn as they go and do not go to traditional school buildings. Instead, they go on websites, play games, or engage in normal hobbies and learn along the way. The experience of children with "unstructured" lives is that they get into trouble.
Deschooling is a more drastic approach. It advocates abolishing schools. It was put forward in the USA of the 1960s and 1970s. It is no longer an active movement.
Schooling
Many public schools (U.S. terminology) provide a free education through the government. Parents may send their own children to a private school, but they must pay for it. In some poorer places, some children cannot go to school, because their countries do not make education available, or because their families do not have enough money, or because the children have to work for money, or because the society has prejudice against education for girls.
There are primary schools and secondary schools. In many places they are government funded. Colleges and universities usually charge fees (tuition payments) which may be different in different countries.
Related pages
Curriculum
Distance education
Homeschooling – education at home
Pedagogy
Inclusive education
Special education – education of students who have a disability
Subject (school)
Right to education
References
Basic English 850 words |
2115 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army | Army | The army is the part of a country's military that fights on the ground. People in the army are called soldiers. Many modern armies have vehicles such as tanks, airplanes, and helicopters to help soldiers fight on the ground.
A soldier may be a volunteer (someone who joins something because they want to), or he may be forced by the government to join the army. Forcing men to join the army is called conscription or draft. Voluntary armies tend to be small by numbers, but high in confidence and quality. Drafted armies are large, but often lacking in confidence and in quality: it may be very difficult to force someone to risk his life against his will. Sometimes an army is made up from mercenaries, who fight just for pay and have little loyalty to the country which they serve.
Soldiers do many things, from shooting enemies, to digging defensive trenches. They are used to defend their country, or attack another country's army. It is difficult, and soldiers must be in good shape, both physically and mentally. They almost always move together, and that way the team can do more things, in a safer way. They may be assigned to certain places to guard, or they may be told to search a place, or even attack it. That is up to their commander. Every soldier answers to someone else, so that way, everything is organized.
Sometimes, when a country's army is busy in different places, and there are not enough soldiers to do more, a country can hire civilians to do some of the army's jobs, like protecting buildings and important people and convoys of trucks traveling from one place to another. Usually, they hire veterans who were members of the military before leaving and working elsewhere.
Working in the army and wearing the uniform is called service. A soldier will never say "I work as a Sergeant in the signal corps" but always "I serve as a Sergeant in the signal corps", or other rank, specialty and unit. Only civilian workers who do not wear uniform speak about "working" in the army.
Military strength
Despite the growing importance of military technology, military activity depends above all on people. For example, in 2000 the British Army declared: "Man is still the first weapon of war."
Discipline
The function of the army is based on discipline. That means that every soldier will unquestionably carry out the orders which he or she has received and will obey his or her superior officer or non-commissioned officer. There is only one exception: orders which violate the human rights or international law must not be obeyed as it is considered a war crime. The chain of command is expressed by the military rank system and hierarchy.
Gear
A soldier is supplied with weapons, such as guns, knives, and other simple gear for surviving in the battlefield, such as food, water, clothes, and tents. They must keep good care of the items. Some soldiers train to be a doctor for the army, or other civilian duties.
Qualifications
Before a soldier joins the army, he must qualify to be in it first. The person is put through tests, so that the army will know if the recruit can do it or not. This is sometimes called 'boot camp'. He must complete mental tests, and physical tests. It depends on where he is testing that will tell him how hard it will be. He will also take tests to determine what job he will do in the military. For instance, he may work with computers and be a member of the signal corps or be a cook for the soldiers, he may have been a construction worker in civilian life and be a military engineer, he may become a truck driver and serve in logistics, or he may be very good with a rifle and be a sniper in the infantry. There are a lot of jobs that a person can choose to do in the army.
Branches
There are traditionally six branches of service in the army:
Infantry, foot soldiers who fight with rifles and other light weapons
Cavalry, mounted soldiers. Today tank has replaced horses and cavalrymen are called tankers.
Artillery, soldiers who operate cannons, howitzers and mortars. They provide fire support for infantry.
Military engineers, soldiers who build things and demolish (blow up) things and handle explosives.
Signal corps, soldiers who operate communications, radios, radars, signaling and computers.
Logistics, which carry supplies (food, fuel, ammunition, medicines etc.) to other branches and replenish them.
Related pages
Air Force, the part of the military which operate airplanes to bomb or dogfight.
Navy, the part of the military which fights with warships on the sea.
Marines, the part of the military that fights in air, land, and sea.
References
Basic English 850 words |
2120 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology | Theology | Theology is the study of one or more religions
(‘Theo-’ means God in Greek and ’-logy’ is study, which makes it ’God study’ or ’study of God’). Somebody who studies theology is called a theologian. Books or ideas about theology are called theological.
Theology may be studied for many reasons. Some people study theology to better understand their own religion, while other people study theology so that they can compare religions.
The word ‘theology’ was first used to describe the study of God in Christianity but some now use it to describe the study of religion generally, but not everyone agrees that it is right to do so. Some people use the words 'comparative theology' in reference to approaching theology within more than one religion at once.
During the High Middle Ages, it was thought that theology was the highest subject learned in universities. Theology at that time was named "The Queen of the Sciences". There was a plan for young men to study easy subjects and then harder subjects. The easiest subjects were called the Trivium. The next harder subjects were called the Quadrivium. Finally, young men were expected to study theology. This meant that the other subjects existed primarily to help with theological thought.
Related pages
Christian theology
Other websites
What is theology? theology.edu |
2121 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work | Work | Work can mean different things depending on how the word is used.
Employment
Labour (economics)
Work (physics), something that happens when a force is applied to an object and a resulting movement takes place
Basic English 850 words |
2124 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania | Romania | Romania (old spelling: Rumania, Roumania; , ) is a country in southeastern Europe. It is north of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Lower Danube River. Part of Romania is circled by the Carpathian Mountains. It also has a border on the Black Sea. Most of the Danube Delta is found inside Romania. Romania shares borders with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine to the far northeast, the Republic of Moldova to the near northeast, and Bulgaria to the south.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. It was created when Moldavia and Wallachia joined together in 1859. It was given its independence in the Treaty of Berlin of 1878. At the end of World War II, some of its land (close by what is now known as Moldova) was occupied by the USSR. After the Iron Curtain fell in 1989 Romania was liberated from the communist regime. During the 2000s, Romania made changes to the country, such as reform the democratic system, human rights acts, freedom of speech acts, economy and law. That let Romania join the European Union on January 1, 2007.
Romania has the 9th biggest area of land and the 7th biggest population (with 19 million people) of the European Union member states. The capital and biggest city in Romania is Bucharest ( ), with a population of 1.6 million. One of the cities in Transylvania, Sibiu, was named a European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004.
Origin
The word Romania (Rumania or România) comes from the Romanian word Român, which comes from the Latin word Romanus which means "Roman". English texts still used the word Rumania during World War II. This came from the French word Roumanie.
History
Prehistory and the Romans
Some of the oldest human remains found in Europe were discovered in Romania. They were about 42,000 years old. This may have been when the first Homo sapiens came to Europe.
The world's first and oldest writing comes from people who lived in today's Romania. Approximately 5300 years BC. According to archaeology it is not a matter of symbols, but the world's first writings. It belonged to the Vinča culture which inhabited all of today's Serbia with over 150 Vinča sites and minor parts of Western Romania, northwestern Bulgaria, eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina and Southeastern Hungary.
Herodotus in the fourth book of The Histories, written in about 440 . Herodotus wrote that the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great when he battled the Scythians. The Getae were called the Dacians by the Romans. They were Thracians who were living in Dacia, which is where Romania, Moldova and the northern part of Bulgaria are now. The Dacians attacked the Roman province, the border of which was formed by the Danube, in 87 . This was during Emperor Domitian's rule. The Dacians were defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two battles that lasted from 101 until 106 . The Roman Empire made Dacia into the province of Roman Dacia.
A lot of ore, such as gold and silver, were found in Roman Dacia. A lot of gold and silver were found in the Western Carpathians. Trajan went back to Rome with 165 tons (330,000 pounds) of gold and 330 tons (660,000 pounds) of silver after his conquest.
There were many Romans living in the province of Roman Dacia. They spoke Vulgar Latin. They began to write the local languages using the Latin alphabet. Writing languages with the Latin alphabet is called romanization. This became the first version of Romanian.
In the 3rd century, the province was attacked by groups of nomadic people like the Goths. They made the Roman Empire leave Dacia about 271 . This became the Roman Empire's first abandoned province.
The origin of modern Romanians is widely talked about by historians to this day. It is thought that the Romanians were formed from large ethnic groups that came from both the south and north parts of the Danube.
Dark Ages and Middle Ages
From 271 to 275, the Goths took over the abandoned Roman province. They lived in Dacia until the 4th century, when another group of wandering peoples, the Huns, came to Dacia. The Gepids, Avars, with the Slavic people, were in control of Transylvania through the 8th century. In the 8th century, however, the country was taken over by the Hungarian Empire. It was made part of the First Bulgarian Empire, which ended Romania's Dark Ages.
The Bulgarians held Transylvania until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans, and the Uzes were a few of the people later noted in the history of Romania.
In 1310, now called the High Middle Ages, Basarab I started the Romanian principality of Wallachia. Moldavia was begun by Dragoş around 1352. During the Middle Ages, Romanians were living in three different areas: Wallachia (Romanian: Ţara Românească—"Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova), and Transylvania.
Transylvania belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary from around the 10th century until the 16th century, when it turned into the Principality of Transylvania. This lasted until 1711. Wallachia had been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century. As the Ottoman Empire's influence grew, it gradually fell under the suzerainty (control) of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century.
The best known ruler of this period was Vlad III the Impaler, also known as Vlad Dracula, or , , Prince of Wallachia, during the years of 1448, 1456–62, and 1476. While he was the leader of his people, he had an agreement with the Ottoman Empire to stay independent. Many people in Romania during this time thought of him as a ruler with a great sense of justice and defense for his country.
Moldavia was at its greatest when Stephen the Great was ruling between 1457 and 1504. He was a great military leader, winning 47 battles and losing only 2. After every battle he won, Stephen would build a church. Because he won 47 of the battles that he fought, he ended up building 48 churches. After Stephen the Great's death, Moldavia came under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century.
Independence and monarchy
When Transylvania was the organic part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire was in control of Wallachia and Moldavia, almost all of the Romanians had limited rights as a citizen. They stayed this way even when they made up most of the people in those areas.
After Wallachian Revolution of 1821 as in the 1830s was addressed nationalists thoughts and feelings into Romania and became called "National awakening of Romania'"'. Even then adopted a 3-colored flag, blue-yellow-red, which was later to become a Flag of Romania.
After the even more violent Revolution of 1848 did not succeed, so explained the Great Powers did not like the idea of Romania becoming a free nation and it was not a real possibility.
The people who voted in 1859 in Moldavia and Wallachia picked the same person – Alexandru Ioan Cuza – to be the prince in those areas. He managed to unite the people and nationalism was seen as a useful method.
Alexandru Ioan Cuza walked with cautious steps he was not proclaiming a declaration of independence immediately because he knew it would bring a new war. Instead he let Moldavia and Wallachia merged in the United Principalities of the Ottoman Empire and increasing self-government to a greater degree.
The new union was at the front of today's Romania. With cautious steps we freed itself more and Bucharest was established as the capital. However, farmers had more land when serfdom was abolished, which led to a coup d'état against the Alexandru Ioan Cuza staged by peasants who overthrew the regime.
Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen became the new leader, and was later called Prince Carol I of Romania. While the Russo-Turkish War was happening, Romania battled on the Russian side. When the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 was signed, the Great Powers made Romania an independent state. In return, they had to give Russia three of their southern districts of Bessarabia. In 1881, the principality became a kingdom, with Prince Carol ruling as King Carol I.
The World Wars and the Great Leaders
World War I
When World War I started in August of 1914, Romania said it was a neutral country. In 1916, the Allies promised to give Romania parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire where many Romanians lived, if Romania started a war against Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster after Romania's forces were stopped in 1917. Many died. Moldova was one of the few parts of Romania that was not captured when it stopped its attackers in 1917. The Allies won the war, Austria-Hungary had been weakened, and an independent Hungarian republic was proclaimed. As promised, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. After the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, Hungary, as agreed, gave up the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. Romania and Bukovina were joined together in 1919 as a result of the Treaty of Saint Germain. Bessarabia joined with Romania in 1920 when the Treaty of Paris was signed.
Greater Romania
After World War I was much bigger and more nationalist. The small Kingdom received ("major Transylvania"). The principalities Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia (Moldova) together formed the "Greater Romania" 1918-1940. "Greater Romania" did not survive World War II.
Romanians called their country România Mare, meaning Great Romania or Greater Romania'', in the time between World War I and World War II. They called it so because it controlled of land.
The Great Depression meant social unrest, high unemployment, strikes and riots, especially a miners' strike in 1929 in Valea Jiului and a strike in Griviţas maintenance workshops. By the mid-1930s, with a recovering Romanian economy, industry grew, although about 80% of Romanians still were engaged in agriculture.
Iron Guard
In end of 1930s, Romania's liberal democracy was slowly being replaced by the fascist dictatorship. The Archangel Michael Legion, known as the Iron Guard organization, was led by Corneliu Codreanu Zelea. In 1937 elections the party supported Adolf Hitler and Nazism and got 15.5% of the votes and became the third biggest party. In 1938 king Carol II of Romania seized power over Romania. He dissolved all political parties and executed Corneliu Codreanu Zelea along with 12 other leaders.
World War II
Carol II of Romania declared the country as neutral when World War II broke out in 1939, but included since the Soviet Union occupied Bessarabia and northern Bukovina an alliance with Hitler's Germany. This occurred after field marshal Ion Antonescu forced the authoritarian Carol II of Romania to abdicate. Antonescu appointed himself "conducator", Romania's dictator, and signed at the November 23 of 1940 three-powers pact with Nazi Germany. Hitler's Germany was dependent on a continuous importation of fuel and crude oil from the Romanian oil fields of Ploesti. In 1940, yjr Kingdom of Hungary took over the legitimate domination in Northern Transylvania to the end of the World War II.
The country's troops fought together with the German Wehrmacht against the Soviet Union.
In summer of 1941, Romania join Hitler's war against the Soviet Union in combination also Finland, Slovakia and Hungary join Hitlers war. Romania built concentration camps and began conducting a massive persecution of Jews, of which became very extreme in the city of Iasi.
Holocaust in Romania
Romania participated in the Holocaust. The author of the book "The Destruction of the European Jews" Raul Hilberg writes follow: "There was / ... / moment when the Germans actually had to intervene and slow the speed with which the Romanian measures were taken." The hunt for Jews in eastern Romania (including Bessarabia, Bukovina, Transnistria and the city of Iasi) had more the character of pogroms than the German, well-organized camps and transport.
There were pogroms in the city of Iasi. The homes for the Jewish minority in Iasi were marked with crosses. On June 27, 1941, Ion Antonescu make a phone call with the city's mayor and Antonescu said into the phone: "clean the city Iasi from the Jews." And the Holocaust in Romania has began. Police officers and many civilians went to every Jewish home marked with a cross in the town and murdered thousands of Jews on the same day.
In June 1941, the Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu gave an "illegal secret order" to the special police force. He ordered the police in cooperation with the Romanian Army and the German SS troops to kill all Jews in east Romania within the next coming years. The Jews living on the countryside was being killed right on the spot. The Jews in the cities were first collected in the ghettos and later deported away.
On October 22, 1941 the Soviet union with bombs blow up the Romanian military headquarters in Odessa, and killed 66 Romanian soldiers. As revenge Ion Antonescu decided that for every dead Romanian officer, 200 Soviet communists must be killed and for each dead soldier, 100 communists must be killed. All other Communists were imprisoned and Jewish families were taken hostage in the hope that the partisan movement would cease its operations.
The day after in Bucharest, on October 23, 1941, around 5 000 people and the majority were Jews was arrested who later executed by hanging. In the Soviet village Dalnik, almost 20,000 Jews were incarcerated in to several locked buildings and burned alive.
After the massacre, many of the Jews who remained in Odessa were sent to various concentration camps. Nearby Odessa on October 25, 1941, approximately 40,000 Jews, was gathering together on a special closed military secured area, and the Jews had to stay outdoors for more than ten days without food or supply. Many died of cold and starvation. The survivors were murdered one month later.
Totally approximately 469,000 Jews had been murdered by the military and police in Romania between 1941-1944, including the 325,000 murdered Jews in Bessarabia and Bukovina.
End of war
At the end of 1943, the Red Army liberated most of Soviet territory and started advancing westward from its borders to defeat Nazi Germany and its allies. It was in this context that the Soviet forces crossed Romania. If the Soviet Union could hit Romania, Nazi Germany's last hope is gone, said the military leadership of the Red Army. Russians deposited the entire 1.5 million soldiers in the attack against Romania and Romania last reserves consisting only of 138 000 soldiers. During the summer of 1944 it began the attack on Bessarabia (Moldova) and the Romanian army fled the area. On 2 August, the whole Bessarabia (Moldova) is captured by the Red Army. The Russians then went a long way in Romania and on 23 August they reached into the Romanian capital Bucharest. The public opinion turned in the country against Antonescu and of summer 1944 he was deposed and imprisoned. The new government signed a ceasefire and extradited itself to the Soviet Union. The Red Army killed the members from the old fascist regime (including Ion Antonescu) on June 1, 1946.
At the end of the war, Romania was allowed to keep the whole of Transylvania in west and Dobruja from south, but lost Bessarabia/Transnistria and Odessa Oblast in the east (with rich oil reserves) which became parts of the Soviet Union. Bukovina was split in half because in the north part the majority ethnic group was Ukrainian and in the south part Romanian.
The Soviet Union replaced the royal monarchy with a communist regime in 1947. The Soviet Union took the country's resources, which led to increased poverty in Romania.
Romania and communism
Michael I abdicated the throne and had to leave Romania in 1947 because of the Communists. Romania changed from a monarchy into a republic. The USSR occupied Romania until the late 1950s, when Soviet troops left Romania. During this time, resources in Romania were taken by the Soviet Union due to agreements made by Communist leaders.
After the Soviet troops left Romania, Nicolae Ceauşescu wanted Romania to become more independent from Moscow. Romania started following slightly different foreign policies than Moscow. After the Six-Day War in 1967, Romania began talks with Israel and started relations with the Federal Republic of Germany. Romania started to have their own relations with Arab countries. Romania officials were allowed to participate in peace talks between Israel and Egypt and between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
The national debt Romania owed to other countries went from $3 billion to almost $10 billion between 1977 and 1981. The amount of money that Romania owed other countries caused them to rely on banks and other lenders from around the world. President Nicolae Ceauşescu's autarchic ways meant he did not want to rely on other countries and Romania paid back money borrowed from other countries. This affected the Romanian economy. To try to stay in power, Ceauşescu had anyone who disagreed with him arrested and put in prison. Many people were killed or hurt. Almost 60,000 people were put in psychiatric hospitals. Ceauşescu eventually lost power and was killed in the Romanian Revolution of 1989.
1989 to 2007
In 1989, the National Salvation Front came into power. It was led by Ion Iliescu. When they came into power, several other parties from before World War II were remade. These included the Christian-Democratic National Peasants' Party, the National Liberal Party and the Romanian Social Democrat Party. In April 1990, as a result of several , protests started. The people who protested did not recognize the results of the election. This was because they thought that members of the National Salvation Front were communists. More and more people protested, and it became a demonstration – a very big protest. This was called the Golaniad, and it became very violent.
When the National Salvation Front lost power, several other parties were made. These were the Social Democratic Party, the Democratic Party, and a couple of other parties from before the war. The Social Democratic Party ruled Romania from 1990 until 1996. Ion Iliescu was the head of state, or person in charge. After 1996, several other parties came into power and lost it. In 2004, Traian Băsescu became the president.
After the Cold War, Romania became closer friends with Western Europe. In 2004, Romania joined NATO and hosted the 2008 summit. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union and became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Geography
Romania is a part of southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea and the Danube River. The Carpathian Mountains lie in the center.
Romania is the biggest country in southeast Europe by population. It has an area of . It is the twelfth-largest country in Europe. Most of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is made by the Danube. The Danube joins the Prut River. The Prut River makes the Moldovan–Romanian border. The Danube then flows into the area of the Black Sea inside Romania. This makes the Danube Delta. The delta is a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Some of the other major rivers in Romania are the Siret, the Olt, and the Mureş. The Siret River runs from the north to the south of Moldavia. The Olt River runs from the Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia. The Mureş runs through Transylvania from the east to the west.
Landscape
The land in Romania is made up of equal parts of mountains, hills, and low-lying areas. The Carpathian Mountains make up a big part of the center of Romania. Fourteen of its mountain ranges are taller than . The tallest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak, with a peak altitude of .
Rivers
The Danube is the longest river in Romania. Its length inside Romania is about . That is almost half of the length of the entire Danube. Almost all of the rivers in Romania are either direct or tributaries of the Danube.
Weather
Romania has a climate that changes between temperate and continental climates. The reason for the climate changes is because Romania is near the coast. Romania has four different seasons. The average temperature during the year is in southern Romania and in the northern part.
Lots of rain and snow falls on the highest western mountains. Most of this falls as snow. In the southern parts of the country, the amount of rain and snow that falls is around .
The lowest temperature ever taken in Romania was , at Braşov in 1944. The highest temperature ever recorded in Romania was , near Calafat in the 1950s.
Society
These are the development regions of Romania:
Northeast
West
Northwest
Center
Southeast
South
Bucharest-Ilfov
Southwest
Language and culture
The official language of Romania is Romanian. The Romanian language is an Eastern Romance language.
Romania has its own culture because of where it is found. It is the point where 3 different areas meet: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans. Romanian culture is a mix of all these areas. The culture of Romania was influenced by the Greeks, Romans, and Slavs.
Religion
Romania is a secular state. This means Romania has no national religion. The biggest religious group in Romania is the Romanian Orthodox Church. It is an autocephalous church inside of the Eastern Orthodox communion. In 2002, this religion made up 86.7% of the population. Other religions in Romania include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostalism (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholicism (0.9%).
Cities
Bucharest is the capital of Romania. It also is the biggest city in Romania, with a population of over 2 millions peoples.
There are 5 other cities in Romania that have a population of more than 300,000 people. These are Iaşi, Cluj-Napoca, Timişoara, Constanţa, and Craiova. Romania also has 5 cities that have more than 200,000 people living in them: Galaţi, Braşov, Ploieşti, Brăila, and Oradea.
Thirteen other cities in Romania have a population of more than 100,000 people.
Economy
Romania joined the European Union on January 1, 2007. Romania's economy is healthy. Currently, Romania makes around $350 billion in Gross domestic product and a GDP per capita of $16,540.
Long into the 1900s, Romania was still a largely agricultural country. During Communism 1947-1989, the country had planned economy. The transition from planned economy to a market economy after the communist regime led to economic collapse in the 1990s, the reasons was that more money was printed, expensive prices and substantial privatization of the companies, which initially leads to skyrocketing unemployment. The reforms in the 1990s allowed foreign investors for the first time to buy land in Romania. When it was going explosively good for the industry in the Latin countries such as France, Italy and Spain, these countries began to trade with Romania because it is favorite voice country for them to grow in. Foreign companies expanding in Romania since then, and spurs the market.
Education
The Romanian school is obligatory for 10 years. Children also have the opportunity to be part of a voluntary pre-school at an early age 3–6 years. After school, students can voluntarily take the entrance exam to high school, which has a range of practical and theoretical lines. There are over 40 higher educational institutions, including five universities and five technical colleges. Tuition is free and is a hot political commitment even at the university. The country's minorities have the opportunity to receive instruction in their native language. Since 1989, education has been reformed. But it has been slow and the standard of education varies greatly in different parts of the country, education has improved the standard of urban compared to rural areas where quality can be very low. Romania participates fully in the EU's education program.
Social welfare
The unemployment rate in Romania is five per-cent and has been low for many years.
The living standards were very low at the end of the Communist era, but the situation was just only improved a little bit during the 1990s. On the contrary, the living significantly due caused by the large privatization of jobs that resulted in high unemployment and rising prices. In later years lived yet 2010 nearly 10 percent of the population in absolute poverty and of these, 90% live in rural areas. The State social insurance system have relatively broad coverage but resources are extremely small.
Reforms have been initiated and in 1999 the health insurance became privatized and paid by the employers and the employees. Several thousand local trade unions were founded after the revolution, which were later amalgamated (combined) into federations. These unions and federations have helped organise students, pensioners and the unemployed; because these groups of people all have similar needs, concerns and goals.
By the first quarter of 2011 the average monthly household income is 2,318 Romanian leu (equivalent to approximately £862 USD).
The different between countryside and urban area may vary the income is 36 per-cent higher in the urban area than in the countryside.
The pension system is reformed.
The most worrying thing is the fact that there are more pensioners than the number of working people. because many who dismissed during the privatizations had per-retirement. Romanian Pensioners average pension at the month is at about 190 euros (equivalent to approximately £250-300 USD). The current low average retirement age (55 years for men and 57 years for women) will be gradually increased until 2014, when it gets 60 years for women and 65 years for men.
Many of the country's Gypsies have no identity cards and are therefore excluded from the social benefit systems, schools and health care. The State-run health care is free, but the care system is neglected and has deteriorated in recent years due to lack of resources and underpaid staff. In many cases,the patients paying "under the table" to get treatment. here is evidence to suggest that a patient's wealth plays an important role in how they receive medical treatment.
Science and technology
Historically, Romanian researches and inventors have made notable contributions to several fields, such as: aeronautics, medicine, mathematics, computer science/engineering, physics, biophysics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology. In the history of flight, Traian Vuia and Aurel Vlaicu built and flew some of the earliest successful aircraft, while Henri Coandă discovered the Coandă effect of fluidics. Preceding him, Elie Carafoli was a pioneering contributor to the field of aerodynamics in the world.
Victor Babeş discovered more than 50 germs and a cure for a disease named after him, babesiosis; biologist Nicolae Paulescu discovered insulin. Another biologist, Emil Palade, received the Nobel Prize for his contributions to cell biology. George Constantinescu created the theory of sonics, while Lazăr Edeleanu was the first chemist to synthesize amphetamine and also invented the modern method of refining crude oil. Costin Neniţescu found new methods for the synthesis of pirilium salts, of carbenes, tryptamine, serotonin, two new syntheses for the indole nucleus, and a new method of polymerisation of ethylene.
Several mathematicians distinguished themselves as well, among them: Gheorghe Ţiţeica, Spiru Haret, Grigore Moisil, Miron Nicolescu, Nicolae Popescu and Ştefan Odobleja; the latter is also regarded as the ideological father behind cybernetics.
Notable physicists and inventors also include: Horia Hulubei in atomic physics, Șerban Țițeica in theoretical physics, Mihai Gavrilă specialized in quantum theory and discoverer of the atomic dichotomy phenomenon, Alexandru Proca (known for the first meson theory of nuclear forces and Proca's equations of the vectorial mesonic field), Ştefan Procopiu known for the first theory of the magnetic moment of the electron in 1911 (now known as the Bohr-Procopiu magneton), Theodor V. Ionescu, the inventor of a multiple-cavity magnetron (1935), a hydrogen maser in 1947, 3D imaging for cinema/television in 1924 and hot deuterium plasma studies for controlled nuclear fusion, Ionel Solomon known for the nuclear magnetic resonance theory in solids, Solomon equations and photovoltaic devices, Petrache Poenaru, Nicolae Teclu and Victor Toma, with the latter known for the invention and construction of the first Romanian computer, the CIFA-1 in 1955.
The nuclear physics facility of the European Union's proposed Extreme Light Infrastructure (ELI) laser will be built in Romania. Romania currently has 1,400 MW of nuclear power capacity by means of one active nuclear power plant (Cernavodă) with 2 reactors, which constitutes around 18% of the national power generation capacity of the country. This makes Romania the 23rd largest user of nuclear power in the world.
Government
Politics
The Constitution of Romania is found to be based from the Constitution of France's Fifth Republic. It was passed into law on December 8, 1991. after a referendum was held. 73 amendments were added to the constitution in October of 2003 to bring the constitution of Romania up to code with the constitution of the European Union.
The legislative branch of the Romanian government is known as the Parliament. It contains two chambers – the Senate, containing 140 members, and the Chamber of Deputies, which has 346 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years through party-list proportional representation.
The judicial branch of the Romanian government is separate from the other branches. It is made up of a system of courts. The court with the most authority is the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. Other courts, including appeal, county, and local courts also make up the judicial branch of the Romanian Government. The way the system of courts works in Romania is modelled off of the French model of law. It is based on civil law.
Divisions
Romania is divided into 41 counties, including the municipality of Bucharest, which is also its own county.
Romania is divided further into 319 cities and 2,686 communes. Each of the communes has its own council that is led by a mayor.
Army
The Romanian Army is made up of Land, Air, and Naval Forces, which are all led by a Commander-in-chief. The commander-in-chief is given orders by the Ministry of Defense. During war, the President leads the Army. 90,000 people were in the Romanian Army in 2003: 15,000 civilians and 75,000 military people. Of the 75,000 military people in the Romanian Army, 45,800 are in the land forces, 13,250 are in the air forces, 6,800 are in the naval forces, and 8,800 in other areas of the military.
Related pages
Communes of Romania
Counties of Romania
List of cities in Romania
List of lakes of Romania
List of Romanian writers
Municipalities of Romania
Romania at the Olympics
Romania national football team
References
Other websites
BBC News Country Profile - Romania
CIA World Factbook - Romania
US Department of State - Romania
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
Treasures of the national library of Romania
European Union member states
1859 establishments in Europe |
2126 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon | Argon | Argon is a chemical element. Its symbol is argon is Ar and its atomic number is 18. It is part of the noble gas group. It is an odorless and tasteless gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere.
The name "argon" is gotten from the Greek word ἀργός meaning "lazy" or "inactive" because it doesn't react a lot.
Chemistry
Argon atoms are found in air. About 1% of the Earth's atmosphere (the air around us) is argon. It is not toxic and it does not burn easily. Not many compounds can be made from Argon. However, some compounds have been formed, like argon fluorohydride (HArF). Argon is a heavier gas than helium, so if a balloon is filled with argon, it would sink.
History
Argon was first removed from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen from a sample of clean air.
Isotopes
The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are 40Ar (99.6%), 36Ar (0.34%), and 38Ar (0.06%). The most abundant isotope of argon is 40Ar. But other planets have different isotopes of argon.
Production
Argon is gotten industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air. About 700,000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year.
40Ar is made by the decay of 40K with a half-life of 1.25 billion years by electron capture or positron emission. Because of this, it is used in knowing how old rocks are.
Uses
Argon is often used when welding steel and similar work, to push away the air around the weld, so the oxygen in the air can't join with the metal being welded. It can also be used in neon lights for a purple color. Argon is used in the poultry industry to asphyxiate birds. Argon is sometimes used for putting off fires.
Liquid argon is used in neutrino experiments and looking for dark matter. Argon is used to preserve food. Argon is sometimes used as the propellant in aerosol cans. Argon is also used as a preservative for such products as varnish, polyurethane, and paint. Argon has been used by athletes as a doping agent and has been banned as use. It is used to know how old rocks are.
Related pages
List of common elements
Periodic table
Sources
Noble gases |
2127 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade | Trade | To trade is to willingly give things or services and get other things or services in return. For example, a person giving a thing must find another person who wants to get that thing. The giver gets something back in return. A trade is also called an exchange or a swap
We also have what we call exports and imports
Different types of trade Trade barriers,subsides,free trade and fair trade
An early type of trade is barter. Barter was the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services. Barter involves trading things without using of money. Modern traders commonly buy and sell by the use of money. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade. Trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade.
Terms
The things that are given from one person to the other are called goods.
Services can also be part of a trade. One person can do a job or work for another, and get something in return in a trade.
Money can be given in return for a service or for a thing. If money is part of the trade, then the person who gives the money is buying, and the person who gets the money is selling.
A place where trading takes place is called a market.
When there is no money involved in the trade, the trade is called barter. If there is money involved in the trade, the trade is called a purchase. In the past people would barter to get what they wanted, instead of buying goods and services.
Economics includes the study of trade.
Trade occurs not just between people, but also between large companies and even countries. Governments sometimes take some of the money or goods involved trade between countries. This is a type of tax called a tariff. Smugglers try to trade without paying tariffs.
Free trade between two countries is when there are small or no tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions on trade.
Forms
There are two forms of trade. They are
Domestic trade
Domestic trade is the exchange of goods within a country. Domestic trade is very important because it allows different types of goods to reach to all parts of the country. It makes the standard of living of the people of the country better. It helps an industry to grow by making sure that there are raw materials. Domestic trade may be divided into two. They are:
Wholesale
Wholeselling is the sale of goods to industrial, commercial, institutional or other professional businesses. They can also be sold to other wholesalers. It is the sale of goods to anyone that is not a consumer. Wholesalers usually buy and sort goods in large numbers.
Retail
Retail is the process of selling goods or services to consumers through many means of distribution to earn a profit. The term "retailer" usually means where a person sells a small amount of good to many individuals, who are consumers.
International trade
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries. International trade has existed throughout history. For example Uttarapatha, Silk Road, Amber Road, scramble for Africa, Atlantic slave trade, salt roads. When there is trade between two or more countries factors like currency, government policies, economy, judicial system, laws, and markets affect trade.
International trade may be divided into three. They are:
Import
An import is a good or service that was bought in one country but was produced in another country.
Export
An export is a good or service that was produced in one country but was sold to another country.
Entrepôt
An entrepôt is a port, city, or trading post where goods may be imported, stored or sold. These cities grew because of the growth of long-distance trade.
References |
2132 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Union | European Union | The European Union (abbreviation: EU) is a confederation of 27 member countries in Europe established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992-1993. The EU grew out of the European Economic Community (EEC) which was established by the Treaties of Rome in 1957. It has created a common economic area with Europe-wide laws allowing the citizens of EU countries to move and trade in other EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Nineteen of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
The name of Europe comes from the Latin Europa, which in turn derives from the Greek Εὐρώπη, from εὐρύς eurys "wide" and ὤψ ops "face".
The Treaty of Lisbon is the most recent treaty that says how the Union is run. Every member state signed to say that they each agreed with what it says. Most importantly, it says which jobs (’powers’) the Union should do for the members and which jobs they should do themselves. The members decide how the Union should act by voting for or against proposals.
The objective of the EU is to bring its member states closer together with respect of human rights and democracy. It does this with a common style of passport, common rules about fair trading with each other, common agreements about law enforcement, and other agreements. Most members share a common currency (the euro) and most allow people to travel from one country to another without having to show a passport.
History
After World War II, the countries in Europe wanted to live peacefully together and help one another's economies. Instead of fighting each other for coal and steel, the first member countries (West) Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg created one European Coal and Steel Community in 1952.
In 1957 in the Italian city of Rome, the member countries signed another treaty and made the European Economic Community. Now it was a community for coal, steel and for trade. Later it changed the name to the European Community.
In 1993, with the Treaty of Maastricht it changed its name to the European Union. Now the member countries work together not only in politics and economy (coal, steel and trade), but also in money, justice (laws), and foreign affairs. With the Schengen Agreement, 22 member countries of the EU opened their borders to each other, so people can now travel from one country to the other without a passport or identity card. Many of the countries of the EU also share a currency, which is called the euro. 10 new countries became members of the EU in 2004, 2 more became members in 2007, and 1 more in 2013. In 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU. Today there are 27 member countries altogether.
Free movement
A person who is a citizen of the European Union can live and work in any of the 27 member states without needing a work permit or visa. For example, a French person can move to Greece to work there, or just to live there, and he or she does not need permission from an authority in Greece.
In the same way, products made in one member country can be sold in any other member country without any special permissions or extra taxes. For this reason, the members agree rules on product safety - they want to know that a product made in another country will be as safe as it would be if it had been made in their own.
Main institutions
Institutions of the European Union
Council of the European Union
The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making group. The cabinet ministers of the member countries meet (Ministers for Foreign affairs, for Agriculture, for Justice, etc...) and discuss issues that are important to them.
Before the Treaty of Lisbon (written in 2007, implemented in 2008) each member state takes a turn at being President of the Council for six months. For example, from January 2007 until July 2007, Germany held the presidency. The six months before that, Finland held the presidency. Now the President of the European Union chairs the council summits. The President of the Council is the organiser and manager and is voted into office for a duration of two and a half years. He or she does not have the power to make decisions about the European Union like the President of the United States does for that country.
Member countries with a large population (Germany, France, United Kingdom, etc.) have more votes than countries with small populations (Luxembourg, Malta, etc.) but a decision cannot be made if enough countries vote against the decision.
Twice a year, the heads of government (Prime Ministers) and/or the heads of state (Presidents) meet to talk about the main issues and make decisions on different issues. This meeting is different and not as formal. It is known as a European Council.
Note: This is not the same thing as the Council of Europe, which is not part of the European Union.
European Commission
The European Commission runs the day-to-day running of the EU and writes laws, like a government. Laws written by the Commission are discussed and changed by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union.
The Commission has one President and 27 Commissioners, selected by the European Council. The Commission President is appointed by the European Council with the approval of the European Parliament.
The Commission operates like a cabinet government. There is one Commissioner per member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.
European Parliament
The Parliament has a total of 705 members (called Members of the European Parliament, or MEP). They are elected in their countries every five years by the citizens of the European Union member countries. The Parliament can approve, reject or change proposed laws. It can also sack the European Commission. In that case, the entire commission would have to give up their jobs.
Politics
There are many discussions in the EU about how it should develop and change in the future.
The main reasons why European countries came together are political and economic:
The need to prevent another European war after World War I and World War II.
The need to respect human rights, rule of law and democracy more affirmed by Council of Europe.
The need to have a common economic area.
Member States
In 1951, six countries made the European Coal and Steel Community, a basic version of what the EU is now. These six then went further and in 1957 they made the European Economic Community and the European Coal and Steel Community. The UK and others decided not to join, and then when the UK changed its mind it was stopped from joining by French President Charles de Gaulle. When he was no longer President, the UK and others started to join. Today there are 27 members but the idea that more should join is not seen as a good one by everyone.
Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Turkey and Iceland are "candidate countries"; they are being considered for membership. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are expected to follow.
However, since there have been many political problems happening in Turkey recently, especially with President Edrogan's arresting of tens of thousands of political rivals since the failed coup attempt on July 15, 2016, it is unlikely that it would be allowed to part of the EU anytime soon because EU members believe that the current Turkish government is not respecting human rights, rule of law, or democracy.
Motto
United in diversity (or together with many types of people in Simple English), is the motto of the European Union.
The motto in other languages:
Brexit
On June 23, 2016, the UK held a referendum on whether it should stay in the EU or leave it. The majority [52% to 48%] favored leaving. Britain leaving the EU is commonly known as Brexit.
The government of the UK invoked "Article 50" of the Treaty of European Union (the Treaty of Lisbon) on 29 March 2017. This began negotiations with fellow members of the EU on the terms of exit. The timetable for these negotiations is two years, which meant that the UK would remain a member of the EU until at least March 2019. However this deadline was later extended to October 31st 2019 at the request of the British Government. The United Kingdom left the European Union on the 31 of January 2020 at 23:00 (Greenwich Mean Time). Following the UK left from the European Union on January 31, the transition period expired on December 31, 2020 and ended on January 1, 2021.
Related pages
Citizenship of the European Union
Multilingualism
Brexit
References
References
Other websites
European Union online portal
Lithuania's EU Council Presidency
'Your Europe' information website
Europe of cultures 50 years of artistic creation and cultural life from the 27 countries of the European Union
1952 establishments in Europe
G7 nations
G8 nations |
2133 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece | Greece | Greece ( or ), officially the Hellenic Republic ( ), (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital city is Athens.
It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West. Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands. 80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games. This is why other languages use many Greek words.
Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister. The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial. He is the head of state, not the head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people. Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis. The country was under the Ottoman Empire until 1821.
Greece is known for its rich history. The Macedonia region in Greece was the ancient kingdom of Macedonia (sometimes called Macedon) the empire of Alexander the Great. Ancient Greece was made up of a number of city-states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth are examples of city-states.
The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population as well as the Republic of Cyprus. It identifies as Christian Orthodox. Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools. Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981, and adopted the Euro in 2001. Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector, and its geostrategic importance, it is sometimes classified as a middle power.
History
Greece's history is one of the richest in the world. The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations. Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas. Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings. During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Greek Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India. Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period). During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture. The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization. When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years. Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828. In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies. During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south. Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies. The country was reunited in 1917 when the King abdicated. In 1920 Greece expanded again and briefly reached its maximum size. The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace. The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
Greece’s Macedonia region is known for its rich history, The ancient kingdom of Macedonia (sometimes called Macedon) was Alexander the Great's empire.
In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion. This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power. After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned. Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April. Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete. Greece suffered major damages in the war.
Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war. The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States. The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy. Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974. Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981. Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States. In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time. Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
Politics
It is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom. It is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members. It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers. The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation. It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or The Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975. Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973 but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests. The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament. Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative). The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR, AND ND. Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others. SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
Divisions
The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'. As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece. Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011. The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is. All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
Demographics
People
Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom. The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million. Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country. There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population. Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.
The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace. The dispute between Greece and the Republic of North Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority. The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia in Greece. The Republic of North Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of North Macedonia. This is also supported by international organizations.
Greek flag
The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies. A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978. In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag. One says that blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breaking away from tyranny, and blue for Greece. There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’ The cross stands for Christianity.
Economy
Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France. Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world. Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece. In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries. Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them. The pension system is especially expensive.
This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion or debt by 170 percent of the country's total GDP. Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells. The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
Tourism
About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year. That is more than the country’s entire population. To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports. Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.
Related pages
Greece at the Olympics
Greece national football team
List of Greek islands
List of rivers of Greece
References
European Union member states |
2136 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden | Sweden | Sweden () is a Nordic country in the part of Europe called Scandinavia. Its neighbors are Finland and Norway. Sweden is also connected to Denmark in the south by a bridge. It is a developed country. It is famous for its welfare state. People who live in Sweden are called Swedes.
The population of Sweden is about 10 million people. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also Sweden's largest city, with almost one million people. Other large cities are Gothenburg and Malmö. These cities are all in the southern half of the country, where it is not as cold as in the north. Swedes drink filmjölk, it is a traditional fermented milk product from Sweden. It is made by fermenting cow's milk. Glögg, is spiced mulled wine which people drink around Christmas. It normally contains red wine, sugar, orange peel, and spices. Swedes eat yellow pea soup with pork (or pork sausages) along with mustard.
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy because it has a king, Carl XVI Gustaf, but he does not have any real power. Sweden is a parliamentary state meaning that the government is elected by the parliament which is appointed by the people. The country is democratically ruled by a government headed by an elected prime minister. Stefan Löfven was elected Prime Minister in September 2014. He took office in October 2014.
Sweden has an official majority language, Swedish (the Swedish word for the language is svenska). Sweden has five official minority languages: Finnish, Yiddish, Sami, Meänkieli, and Romani.
Sweden became a member of the European Union (EU) on 1 January 1995. Unlike most countries in the European Union, Sweden is not a member of the Eurozone and has not begun to use the euro as currency. This is because the people have voted against using the euro. The currency remains the Swedish krona (Swedish crown).
History
Sweden has been a kingdom for a thousand years. In the Middle Ages, Sweden had the same king as Denmark and Norway. In the early 16th century Sweden got its own king, Gustav Vasa. During the 17th century Sweden was a great power. Sweden had taken Estonia, Latvia, and Finland and parts of Norway, Germany, and Russia. In the 18th century Sweden became weaker and lost these places. In the early 19th century, Sweden's king died without an heir and the Swedish parliament voted for Jean Baptiste Bernadotte as the new king. Bernadotte fought Denmark and made them allow Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden.
This was Sweden's last war, and Sweden has not been at war for 200 years. In 1905, the Swedish-Norwegian personal union was dissolved. In many wars, including World War I and the Cold War, the country was neutral, meaning it did not take sides. During World War II, it traded with both the British and the Germans in order to protect its neutrality.
Region
Sweden has 25 historical provinces (landskap). They are found in three different regions: Norrland in the North, Svealand in the central region, and Götaland in the South.
Counties
Sweden is divided into 21 counties. They are Stockholm, Uppsala, Södermanland, Östergötland, Jönköping, Kronoberg, Kalmar, Gotland, Blekinge, Skåne, Halland, Västra Götaland, Värmland, Örebro, Västmanland, Dalarna, Gävleborg, Västernorrland, Jämtland, Västerbotten, and Norrbotten.
County governments largely regulate regional public transportation and healthcare.
Municipalities
Sweden is further divided into 290 municipalities. The municipalities are responsible for many social issues, like schools, daycare centers, the care for older and disabled people and fire departments.
Religion
Sweden has been Christian for a thousand years. Sweden is traditionally a Protestant country, but it is now one of the least religious countries in the world. Statistical surveys say 46-85% of all people in Sweden are agnostics or atheists. This means that they doubt or they do not believe in the existence of a god. About 6.4 million people in Sweden, which is 67% of all the people, are members of the Church of Sweden, but only 2% of members go to church often.
Music
In popular music, ABBA, Roxette, The Cardigans, Europe, Entombed, At the Gates, In Flames, Dark Tranquillity, Hypocrisy, Grave, Dissection, Avicii, Tove Lo, Laleh, Watain, and Ace of Base have had several hits throughout the years.
Sports
Sweden is a country with many talented athletes, such as soccer player Zlatan Ibrahimović. Sweden (men and women's teams combined) has five bronze medals and two silver medals from the World Cup in football (soccer). The soccer league in Sweden is called Allsvenskan (men's) and Damallsvenskan (women's). Sweden has also performed well in ice hockey. The men's ice hockey top division in Sweden is called SHL and the women's SDHL. Sweden has also had several successful table tennis players, including Stellan Bengtsson and Jan-Ove Waldner, as well as alpine skiers including Ingemar Stenmark, Pernilla Wiberg, and Anja Pärson. Other champions include biathlete Magdalena Forsberg and tennis players Björn Borg, Mats Wilander, Stefan Edberg, and Jonas Björkman. Swimmer Sara Sjöström has several gold, silver and bronze medals from the Olympic Games and holds several world records.
Sweden also succeeds in cross-country skiing, having won several medals in the Olympic Games.
Gallery
References
Other websites
European Union member states
Nordic countries
Current monarchies |
2137 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital | Capital | Capital can mean:
Capital city (also called capital city or political capital), a city or town that contains the government of a country, state, or other area
Capital (economics), how much real money a company or person has that they can use
Capital (architecture), the top part of a pillar or column
Capitalization, another word for "upper case" or majuscule
Capital punishment, being put to death for doing a crime
Related pages
Capitol (disambiguation) |
2138 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | Albert Einstein | Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born American scientist. He worked on theoretical physics. He developed the theory of relativity. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics.
His famous equation is (E = energy, m = mass, c = speed of light (energy = mass X speed of light²).
At the start of his career, Einstein didn't think that Newtonian mechanics was enough to bring together the laws of classical mechanics and the laws of the electromagnetic field. Between 1902–1909 he made the theory of special relativity to fix it. Einstein also thought that Isaac Newton's idea of gravity was not completely correct. So, he extended his ideas on special relativity to include gravity. In 1916, he published a paper on general relativity with his theory of gravitation.
In 1933, Einstein was visiting the United States but in Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power (this is before World War II). Einstein, being of Jewish ethnicity, did not return to Germany due to Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies. He lived in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the beginning of World War II, he sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining to him that Germany was in the process of making a nuclear weapon; so Einstein recommended that the U.S. should also make one. This led to the Manhattan Project, and the U.S. became the first nation in history to create and use the atomic bomb (not on Germany but on Japan). Einstein and other physicists like Richard Feynman who worked on the Manhattan Project later regretted that the bomb was used on Japan.
Einstein lived in Princeton and was one of the first members invited to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he worked for the remainder of his life.
He is now thought to be one of the greatest scientists of all time.
His contributions helped lay the foundations for all modern branches of physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity.
Life
Early life
Einstein was born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany, on 14 March 1879. His family was Jewish, but was not very religious. However, later in life Einstein became very interested in his Judaism. Einstein did not begin speaking until he was 2 years old. According to his younger sister, Maja, "He had such difficulty with language that those around him feared he would never learn". When Einstein was around 4 years old, his father gave him a magnetic compass. He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always pointed north. The needle was in a closed case, so clearly nothing like wind could be pushing the needle around, and yet it moved. So in this way Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics. His compass gave him ideas to explore the world of science.
When he became older, he went to school in Switzerland. After he graduated, he got a job in the patent office there. While he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist.
Einstein married with a 20-year-old Serbian woman Mileva Marić in January 1903.
In 1917, Einstein became very sick with an illness that almost killed him, fortunately he survived. His cousin Elsa Löwenthal nursed him back to health. After this happened, Einstein divorced Mileva in 14 February 1919, and married Elsa on 2 June 1919.
Children
Einstein's first daughter was Lieserl Einstein. She was born in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Austria-Hungary on January 27, 1902. She spent her first years in the care of Serbian grandparents because her father Albert did not want her to be brought to Switzerland, where he had a job offer at the patent office. Some historians believe she died from scarlet fever.
Einstein's two sons were Hans Albert Einstein and Eduard Tete Einstein. Hans Albert was born in Bern, Switzerland in May 1904. He became a professor in Berkeley (California). Eduard was born in Zürich, Switzerland in July 1910. He died at 55 years old of a stroke in the Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich "Burghölzli" . He had spent his life in and out of hospitals due to his schizophrenia.
Later life
In spring of 1914, he moved back to Germany, and became ordinary member of the Prussian Academy and director of a newly established institute for physics of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft. He lived in Berlin and finished the General Theory of Relativity in November 1915. In the Weimar Republic, he was politically active for socialism and Zionism. In 1922, he received the Nobel prize for Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905. He then tried to formulate a general field theory uniting gravitation and electromagnetism, without success. He had reservations about the quantum mechanics invented by Heisenberg (1925) and Schrödinger (1926). In spring of 1933, Einstein and Elsa were traveling in the USA when the Nazi party came to power. The Nazis were violently antisemitic. They called Einstein's relativity theory "Jewish physics," and some German physicists started polemics against his theories. Others, like Planck and Heisenberg, defended Einstein.
After their return to Belgium, considering the threats from the Nazis, Einstein resigned from his position in the Prussian Academy in a letter from Oostende. Einstein and Elsa decided not to go back to Berlin and moved to Princeton, New Jersey in the United States, and in 1940 he became a United States citizen.
Before World War II, in August 1939, Einstein at the suggestion of Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to say that the United States should invent an atomic bomb so that the Nazi government could not beat them to the punch. He signed the letter. However, he was not part of the Manhattan Project, which was the project that created the atomic bomb.
Einstein, a Jew but not an Israeli citizen, was offered the presidency in 1952 but turned it down, stating "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it." Ehud Olmert was reported to be considering offering the presidency to another non-Israeli, Elie Wiesel, but he was said to be "very not interested".
He did his research on gravitation at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey until his death on 18 April 1955 of a burst aortic aneurysm. He was still writing about quantum physics hours before he died.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Theory of Relativity
The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905, in the paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. It says that both distance measurements and time measurements change near the speed of light. This means that as one get closer to the speed of light (nearly 300,000 kilometres per second), lengths appear to get shorter, and clocks tick more slowly. Einstein said that special relativity is based on two ideas. The first is that the laws of physics are the same for all observers that are not moving in relation to each other.
Things going in the same direction at the same speed are said to be in an "inertial frame".
People in the same "frame" measure how long something takes to happen. Their clocks keep the same time. But in another "frame" their clocks move at a different rate. The reason this happens is as follows. No matter how an observer is moving, if he measures the speed of the light coming from that star it will always be the same number.
Imagine an astronaut were all alone in a different universe. It just has an astronaut and a spaceship. Is he moving? Is he standing still? Those questions do not mean anything. Why? Because when we say we are moving we mean that we can measure our distance from something else at various times. If the numbers get bigger we are moving away. If the numbers get smaller we are moving closer. To have movement you must have at least two things. An airplane can be moving at several hundred kilometers per hour, but passengers say, "I am just sitting here."
Suppose some people are on a spaceship and they want to make an accurate clock. At one end they put a mirror, and at the other end they put a simple machine. It shoots one short burst of light toward the mirror and then waits. The light hits the mirror and bounces back. When it hits a light detector on the machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another short burst of light toward the mirror, and when that light comes back the machine says, "Count = 2." They decide that a certain number of bounces will be defined as a second, and they make the machine change the seconds counter every time it has detected that number of bounces. Every time it changes the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a porthole under the machine. So somebody outside can see the light flashing every second.
Every grade school child learns the formula d=rt (distance equals rate multiplied by time). We know the speed of light, and we can easily measure the distance between the machine and the mirror and multiple that to give the distance the light travels. So we have both d and r, and we can easily calculate t. The people on the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they are satisfied that they can measure time well using their new light clock.
Now this spaceship happens to be going very fast. They see a flash from the clock on the space ship, and then they see another flash. Only the flashes do not come a second apart. They come at a slower rate. Light always goes at the same speed, d = rt. That is why the clock on the spaceship is not flashing once a second for the outside observer.
Special relativity also relates energy with mass, in Albert Einstein's E=mc2 formula.
Mass-energy equivalence
E=mc2, also called the mass-energy equivalence, is one of the things that Einstein is most famous for. It is a famous equation in physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to energy or energy changes to mass. The "E" in the equation stands for energy. Energy is a number which you give to objects depending on how much they can change other things. For instance, a brick hanging over an egg can put enough energy onto the egg to break it. A feather hanging over an egg does not have enough energy to hurt the egg.
There are three basic forms of energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, and rest energy. Two of these forms of energy can be seen in the examples given above, and in the example of a pendulum.
A cannonball hangs on a rope from an iron ring. A horse pulls the cannonball to the right side. When the cannonball is released it will move back and forth as diagrammed. It would do that forever except that the movement of the rope in the ring and rubbing in other places causes friction, and the friction takes away a little energy all the time. If we ignore the losses due to friction, then the energy provided by the horse is given to the cannonball as potential energy. (It has energy because it is up high and can fall down.) As the cannonball swings down it gains more and more speed, so the nearer the bottom it gets the faster it is going and the harder it would hit you if you stood in front of it. Then it slows down as its kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy. "Kinetic energy" just means the energy something has because it is moving. "Potential energy" just means the energy something has because it is in some higher position than something else.
When energy moves from one form to another, the amount of energy always remains the same. It cannot be made or destroyed. This rule is called the "conservation law of energy". For example, when you throw a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the ball as you release it. But the energy that was in your hand, and now the energy that is in the ball, is the same number. For a long time, people thought that the conservation of energy was all there was to talk about.
When energy transforms into mass, the amount of energy does not remain the same. When mass transforms into energy, the amount of energy also does not remain the same. However, the amount of matter and energy remains the same. Energy turns into mass and mass turns into energy in a way that is defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc2.
The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass. Mass is the amount of matter there is in some body. If you knew the number of protons and neutrons in a piece of matter such as a brick, then you could calculate its total mass as the sum of the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (Electrons are so small that they are almost negligible.) Masses pull on each other, and a very large mass such as that of the Earth pulls very hard on things nearby. You would weigh much more on Jupiter than on Earth because Jupiter is so huge. You would weigh much less on the Moon because it is only about one-sixth the mass of Earth. Weight is related to the mass of the brick (or the person) and the mass of whatever is pulling it down on a spring scale – which may be smaller than the smallest moon in the solar system or larger than the Sun.
Mass, not weight, can be transformed into energy. Another way of expressing this idea is to say that matter can be transformed into energy. Units of mass are used to measure the amount of matter in something. The mass or the amount of matter in something determines how much energy that thing could be changed into.
Energy can also be transformed into mass. If you were pushing a baby buggy at a slow walk and found it easy to push, but pushed it at a fast walk and found it harder to move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby buggy. Then if you tried to run and found that moving the buggy at any faster speed was like pushing against a brick wall, you would be very surprised. The truth is that when something is moved then its mass is increased. Human beings ordinarily do not notice this increase in mass because at the speed humans ordinarily move the increase in mass in almost nothing.
As speeds get closer to the speed of light, then the changes in mass become impossible not to notice. The basic experience we all share in daily life is that the harder we push something like a car the faster we can get it going. But when something we are pushing is already going at some large part of the speed of light we find that it keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get it going faster. It is impossible to make any mass go at the speed of light because to do so would take infinite energy.
Sometimes a mass will change to energy. Common examples of elements that make these changes we call radioactivity are radium and uranium. An atom of uranium can lose an alpha particle (the atomic nucleus of helium) and become a new element with a lighter nucleus. Then that atom will emit two electrons, but it will not be stable yet. It will emit a series of alpha particles and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what we call lead. By throwing out all these particles that have mass it has made its own mass smaller. It has also produced energy.
In most radioactivity, the entire mass of something does not get changed to energy. In an atomic bomb, uranium is transformed into krypton and barium. There is a slight difference in the mass of the resulting krypton and barium, and the mass of the original uranium, but the energy that is released by the change is huge. One way to express this idea is to write Einstein's equation as:
E = (muranium – mkrypton and barium) c2
The c2 in the equation stands for the speed of light squared. To square something means to multiply it by itself, so if you were to square the speed of light, it would be 299,792,458 meters per second, times 299,792,458 meters per second, which is approximately
(3•108)2 =
(9•1016 meters2)/seconds2=
90,000,000,000,000,000 meters2/seconds2
So the energy produced by one kilogram would be:
E = 1 kg • 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters2/seconds2
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 kg meters2/seconds2
or
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 joules
or
E = 90,000 terajoule
About 60 terajoules were released by the atomic bomb that exploded over Hiroshima. So about two-thirds of a gram of the radioactive mass in that atomic bomb must have been lost (changed into energy), when the uranium changed into krypton and barium.
BEC
The idea of a Bose-Einstein condensate came out of a collaboration between S. N. Bose and Prof. Einstein. Einstein himself did not invent it but, instead, refined the idea and helped it become popular.
Zero-point energy
The concept of zero-point energy was developed in Germany by Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in 1913.
Momentum, mass, and energy
In classical physics, momentum is explained by the equation:
p = mv
where
p represents momentum
m represents mass
v represents velocity (speed)
When Einstein generalized classical physics to include the increase of mass due to the velocity of the moving matter, he arrived at an equation that predicted energy to be made of two components. One component involves "rest mass" and the other component involves momentum, but momentum is not defined in the classical way. The equation typically has values greater than zero for both components:
E2 = (m0c2)2 + (pc)2
where
E represents the energy of a particle
m0 represents the mass of the particle when it is not moving
p represents the momentum of the particle when it is moving
c represents the speed of light.
There are two special cases of this equation.
A photon has no rest mass, but it has momentum. (Light reflecting from a mirror pushes the mirror with a force that can be measured.) In the case of a photon, because its m0 = 0, then:
E2 = 0 + (pc)2
E = pc
p = E/c
The energy of a photon can be computed from its frequency ν or wavelength λ. These are related to each other by Planck's relation, E = hν = hc/λ, where h is the Planck constant (6.626×10−34 joule-seconds). Knowing either frequency or wavelength, you can compute the photon's momentum.
In the case of motionless particles with mass, since p = 0, then:
E02 = (m0c2)2 + 0
which is just
E0 = m0c2
Therefore, the quantity "m0" used in Einstein's equation is sometimes called the "rest mass." (The "0" reminds us that we are talking about the energy and mass when the speed is 0.) This famous "mass-energy relation" formula (usually written without the "0"s) suggests that mass has a large amount of energy, so maybe we could convert some mass to a more useful form of energy. The nuclear power industry is based on that idea.
Einstein said that it was not a good idea to use the classical formula relating momentum to velocity, p = mv, but that if someone wanted to do that, he would have to use a particle mass m that changes with speed:
mv2 = m02 / (1 – v2/c2)
In this case, we can say that E = mc2 is also true for moving particles.
The General Theory of Relativity
The General Theory of Relativity was published in 1915, ten years after the special theory of relativity was created. Einstein's general theory of relativity uses the idea of spacetime. Spacetime is the fact that we have a four-dimensional universe, having three spatial (space) dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension. Any physical event happens at some place inside these three space dimensions, and at some moment in time. According to the general theory of relativity, any mass causes spacetime to curve, and any other mass follows these curves. Bigger mass causes more curving. This was a new way to explain gravitation (gravity).
General relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is light bending when it comes near a massive object. This explanation was proven correct during a solar eclipse, when the sun's bending of starlight from distant stars could be measured because of the darkness of the eclipse.
General relativity also set the stage for cosmology (theories of the structure of our universe at large distances and over long times). Einstein thought that the universe may curve a little bit in both space and time, so that the universe always had existed and always will exist, and so that if an object moved through the universe without bumping into anything, it would return to its starting place, from the other direction, after a very long time. He even changed his equations to include a "cosmological constant," in order to allow a mathematical model of an unchanging universe. The general theory of relativity also allows the universe to spread out (grow larger and less dense) forever, and most scientists think that astronomy has proved that this is what happens. When Einstein realized that good models of the universe were possible even without the cosmological constant, he called his use of the cosmological constant his "biggest blunder," and that constant is often left out of the theory. However, many scientists now believe that the cosmological constant is needed to fit in all that we now know about the universe.
A popular theory of cosmology is called the Big Bang. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe was formed 15 billion years ago, in what is called a "gravitational singularity". This singularity was small, dense, and very hot. According to this theory, all of the matter that we know today came out of this point.
Einstein himself did not have the idea of a "black hole", but later scientists used this name for an object in the universe that bends spacetime so much that not even light can escape it. They think that these ultra-dense objects are formed when giant stars, at least three times the size of our sun, die. This event can follow what is called a supernova. The formation of black holes may be a major source of gravitational waves, so the search for proof of gravitational waves has become an important scientific pursuit.
Beliefs
Many scientists only care about their work, but Einstein also spoke and wrote often about politics and world peace. He liked the ideas of socialism and of having only one government for the whole world. He also worked for Zionism, the effort to try to create the new country of Israel.
Prompted by his colleague L. E. J. Brouwer, Einstein read the philosopher Eric Gutkind's book Choose Life, a discussion of the relationship between Jewish revelation and the modern world. On January 3, 1954, Einstein sent the following reply to Gutkind: "The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honourable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. .... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions." In 2018 his letter to Gutkind was sold for $2.9 million.
Even though Einstein thought of many ideas that helped scientists understand the world much better, he disagreed with some scientific theories that other scientists liked. The theory of quantum mechanics discusses things that can happen only with certain probabilities, which cannot be predicted with more precision no matter how much information we might have. This theoretical pursuit is different from statistical mechanics, in which Einstein did important work. Einstein did not like the part of quantum theory that denied anything more than the probability that something would be found to be true of something when it was actually measured; he thought that it should be possible to predict anything, if we had the correct theory and enough information. He once said, "I do not believe that God plays dice with the Universe."
Because Einstein helped science so much, his name is now used for several different things. A unit used in photochemistry was named for him. It is equal to Avogadro's number multiplied by the energy of one photon of light. The chemical element Einsteinium is named after the scientist as well. In slang, we sometimes call a very smart person an "Einstein."
Criticism
Most scientists think that Einstein's theories of special and general relativity work very well, and they use those ideas and formulas in their own work. Einstein disagreed that phenomena in quantum mechanics can happen out of pure chance. He believed that all natural phenomena have explanations that do not include pure chance. He spent much of his later life trying to find a "unified field theory" that would include his general relativity theory, Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, and perhaps a better quantum theory. Most scientists do not think that he succeeded in that attempt.
References
Einstein, Albert and Infeld, Leopold 1938. The evolution of physics: from early concept to relativity and quanta. Cambridge University Press. A non-mathematical account.
Other websites
What Did Albert Einstein Invent?
1879 births
1955 deaths
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from aortic aneurysm
German Nobel Prize winners
German physicists
Jewish academics
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish German academics
Jewish German scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Jewish scientists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Nobel Prize in Physics winners
People from Ulm
Refugees from Nazism
Swiss Jews
Swiss scientists
American theoretical physicists
Educators from New Jersey |
2139 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro | Euro | Euro is the currency (money) of the countries in the eurozone. One euro is divided into 100 cent (officially) (singular) or "cents" (unofficially).
Because of the number of different languages in the European Union, there are different, unofficial, names for this unit (the French call them "centimes" and the Spanish "céntimos", for example).
It was created in 1999, but until 1 January 2002 it was used only for electronic payments. In 2002, 12 countries of the European Union (EU) took their state currencies out of circulation and adopted euro notes and coins as their only money. There was a change-over period, called the "transition period", when both the old national money and the euro were accepted, but by 28 February 2002, all 12 countries were using just euros.
In 2006, Slovenia became the 13th country to use the euro. In 2008 Cyprus and Malta became the 14th and 15th countries to use the euro. In 2009, Slovakia became the 16th country to use the euro. In 2011, Estonia became the 17th country to use the euro. In 2014, Latvia became the 18th country and in 2015, Lithuania became the 19th country to use the euro.
There are seven different banknotes, each one with a different colour, size and face value: €5 (grey), €10 (red), €20 (blue), €50 (orange), €100 (green), €200 (yellow), €500 (purple).
Coins are of eight different amounts: €0.01, €0.02, €0.05, €0.1, €0.2, €0.5, €1, €2.
On every banknote, there is a picture of a different European building style. All banknotes are the same throughout the entire eurozone; there are no different designs for different countries, unlike the euro coins. One side of each coin is the same in all euro countries. The other side is different since each country who mints the coins inserts a symbol relating to that country. Today there are many different sets of coins. Any of the coins can be used everywhere throughout the eurozone despite the country-specific symbol on the back.
The ten new European countries that entered the European Union in May 2004 are planning to adopt the Euro also. First they must meet some conditions to show that they have stable economies.
Symbol
The symbol for the euro is the Greek letter epsilon (E) with two horizontal lines: €.
Some people see it as the Latin capital letter C with an equal sign (=).
It is also legal to simply write euro. This is especially useful when the symbol cannot be produced, or the result is not satisfactory.
Members of the eurozone are:
Austria
Belgium
Cyprus
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
The Netherlands
Portugal
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
These countries form the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).
Even though they are not part of the EU, the euro is also the currency used in:
Andorra 1)
Monaco 1)
San Marino 1)
Vatican City 1)
Kosovo 2)
Montenegro 2)
1) this countries print own mints
2) this countries use the euro unofficial
Many other countries' currencies are "pegged" (tied) to, although not exactly equal to, the euro:
Cape Verdean escudo
Comoros franc
Central African CFA franc
West African CFA franc
France's Pacific territories CFP Franc
Bosnia-Herzegovinan convertible mark
Bulgarian lev
Hungary forint
Denmark krone
Other websites
Euro Coins and Notes
The EURO banknotes - pictures and history
References
Currency of Europe
European Union |
2140 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency | Currency | Currency is the unit of money used by the people of a country or Union for buying and selling goods and services.
Certain currencies are said to be "pegged" or "fixed" to something, usually another currency. A fixed or pegged currency is one that has a constant value compared to what it is pegged to. For example, the Cape Verdian escudo is pegged to the Euro. If the value of the Euro goes up 1% compared to another form of currency, the value of the escudo also goes up 1% compared to that same currency.
Many countries have used systems where their currency was pegged to a commodity rather than to another currency. Most used either gold or silver. When they did this, as the value of gold increased, so did the value of their money. This was called the "gold standard" or "silver standard". Most countries stopped using silver and gold standards in the 20th century.
Some well-known currencies are:
the United States dollar
the Euro
the British pound
Names of different currencies around the world
This list appears in alphabetical order:
Afghani - Afghanistan
Baht - Thailand
Balboa - Panama (U.S. dollar used for paper money)
Birr - Ethiopia
Bolívar - Venezuela
Boliviano - Bolivia
Cedi - Ghana
Colón - Costa Rica
Cordoba - Nicaragua
Crown - Czech Republic (koruna), Denmark (krone), Estonia (kroon), Iceland (króna), Norway (krone), Sweden (krona). See also: British Crown (coin)
Dalasi - The Gambia
Dinar - Algeria, Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Serbia, Tunisia
Denar - North Macedonia
Dirham - Morocco, United Arab Emirates, Libya, Qatar, Jordan
Dollar - Many countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, and others
Dong - Vietnam
Drachma - (Greece--now uses euro)
Dram - Armenia
Escudo - Cape Verde, (Portugal--now uses euro)
Euro
European Union (as an organisation; the euro is not legal tender in every EU country.)
EU members: Austria, Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France (except Pacific territories using CFP Franc), Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain.
Countries that have made legal agreements with the EU to use the euro: Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican City.
Countries that unilaterally use the euro: Montenegro and Kosovo.
Currencies pegged to the euro: Cape Verdian escudo, CFA franc, CFP Franc, Comoran francs, Bulgarian lev, Danish krone, the convertible marka of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Forint - Hungary
Franc
Swiss franc - Switzerland, Liechtenstein.
CFA franc - Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Republic of the Congo,
CFP Franc - France's Pacific territories of New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna.
Comoran francs - Comoros (pegged to the French franc, then the euro).
Djiboutian franc - Djibouti (pegged to the US dollar since 1973).
Formerly using Begian-luxembourgish franc - Belgium, Luxembourg.
Formerly using French franc: Andorra, Monaco, France (including: French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique and La Réunion, Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Mayotte).
Gourde - Haiti
Guilder - Aruba, Netherlands Antilles (Netherlands--now uses euro)
Iranian real - Iran
Kina - Papua New Guinea
Koruna - Czech Republic (Slovakia now uses euro)
Kroon - Estonia
Krona - Iceland, Sweden
Krone - Denmark, Faroe Islands, Greenland, Norway
Kuna - Croatia
Kwacha - Zambia and Malawi
Kwanza - Angola
Kyat - Burma
Lari - Georgia
Lats - Latvia
Lek - Albania
Lempira - Honduras
Leone - Sierra Leone
Leu - Romania, Moldova
Lev - Bulgaria
Lira - (Cyprus, Italy, San Marino, Vatican City--now use euro)
Turkish lira - Turkey
Litas - Lithuania
Manat
Azerbaijani manat - Azerbaijan
Turkmen manat - Turkmenistan
Mark - (Germany-- now uses euro)
Marka - Bosnia and Herzegovina
Markka - (Finland now uses euro)
Nakfa - Eritrea
Namibian dollars - Namibia
Ngultrum - Bhutan
Pataca - Macau
Peseta - (Andorra, Spain--now use euro)
Peso - Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Dominican peso, Mexico, Philippines, Uruguay
Pound - Cyprus, Egypt, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Guernsey, Jersey, United Kingdom (Ireland--now uses euro)
Pula - Botswana
Quetzal - Guatemala
Rand - South Africa
Real - Brazil
Renminbi - People's Republic of China
Riel - Cambodia
Ringgit - Malaysia
Riyal - Saudi Arabia
Rouble - Belarus, Russia
Rufiyah - Maldives
Rupee - Republic of India, Mauritius, Nepal, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka
Rupiah - Indonesia
Schilling - (Austria--now uses euro)
Shekel - Israel, Gaza Strip, West Bank
Shilling - Kenya
Sol - Peru
Som - Kyrgyzstan
Sucre - Ecuador
Taka - Bangladesh
Tenge - Kazakhstan
Tolar - Slovenia
Toman - Iran
Vietnam ~ Dong (DVN)
Won - North Korea, South Korea
Yen - Japan
Yuan - People's Republic of China
Zloty - Poland |
2141 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercure | Mercure | Mercure may refer to:
MERCURE, an atmospheric dispersion modeling CFD code developed by Électricité de France
Mercure Hotels, a chain of hotels run by Accor
French ship Mercure (1783)
Dassault Mercure, a French airliner built in the 1970s |
2142 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20telescope | Radio telescope | A radio telescope is a type of antenna used for radio astronomy. The majority look like a huge satellite television dish. Stars shine, and the light can be seen with an ordinary telescope, but they also give off radio waves. Scientists with radio telescopes receive these radio waves and use computers to learn about the stars. Other things like black holes also give off radio waves, and radio telescopes are useful for learning about them too.
The dish is sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than a wavelength. The information received by several radio telescopes in different places can be combined. This gives similar results to having a single dish as big as the distance between the telescopes. It can receive very faint signals, and see more details. The biggest telescope is a virtual radio telescope almost as big as the Earth, called the Event Horizon Telescope.
The radio telescope at the Parkes Observatory, Parkes, New South Wales was used by NASA to receive messages from the Apollo 11 moon landings.
Related pages
Atacama Large Millimeter Array
Telescopes |
2143 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20year | Light year | A light year (symbol: ly) is the distance that light travels in empty space in one year. Since the speed of light is about 300,000 km per second (about 186,000 miles per second), then a light year is about 10 trillion kilometers (about 6 trillion miles). A light year is not a length of time.
The light year is used in astronomy because the universe is huge. Space objects such as stars and galaxies may be hundreds, thousands or millions of light years away.
Example
Think of a star at a distance of 100 light years from us on Earth. Light leaves the star and takes 100 years to get to us. When we see the star's light, we are seeing that star as it was 100 years ago.
Similar distance measurements
Light minute - The distance that light travels in one minute (about 18,000,000 km per minute, or 11,160,000 miles per minute).
For example, our Sun is about 8 light minutes from Earth
Light second - The distance that light travels in one second (about 300,000 km per second, or 186,000 miles per second)
For example, our Moon is about 1¼ light seconds from Earth
References
Units of length
Astronomical distances |
2159 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea | Korea | Korea is a peninsula in northeast Asia. It covers a peninsula called the Korean Peninsula. Korea became a country (or state) in 918. In 1948, it split into two countries: North Korea and South Korea. North and South Korea and their allies fought against each other in the Korean War.
People have lived in Korea for about 15,000 years. In the past, some of modern Manchuria and Siberia was governed by Korea. Korea is known for its fine silk. In the 7th century, the people of China sought after gold-workers from Korea. Europeans had little knowledge about Korea until the modern era.
Korea is famous for its traditional food kimchi. The Korean people usually eat sticky white rice. Traditionally, Koreans eat seaweed soup on their birthdays. People believe the soup is also good for pregnant women.
South Korea has over 50 million people, and North Korea has more than 23 million. South Korea's biggest city is Seoul, the capital of South Korea. The city has more than 10 million people and the region of Seoul has more than 15 million people. North Korea's biggest city is Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. It has fewer than 4 million people.
Korean people speak the Korean language. Many people in South Korea study English and other languages such as Chinese, Japanese, ... in school.
In the Korean language Korea is known as 조선 in North Korea and 한국 in South Korea
South Korea is an advanced country with large cities, high-speed rail trains, high-speed internet, and many television and radio networks. Many Korean television dramas are popular around the world. But there are still poor areas, even in South Korea. The Korean farmers are not rich and struggle to compete with cheap food from other countries.
History
Gojoseon is the first state in Korean history. It was established in 2333 BCE. Its real name is Joseon, but it is called Gochosun to make it different from other Joseon in Korean history. Go is a Korean prefix meaning 'old'. The founder of Gojoseon is said to be Dangun. The Korean people believe that Dangun established the country on October 3rd, and still celebrate that day. In Korea, October 3rd is a national holiday, which is named Gaecheonjeol (The day heaven opened). It is said to be the day that Dangun's father whose name is Hwan-ung came from the sky on October 3rd 2457 BCE. Gochosun was destroyed by the Chinese Han Dynasty in 108 BCE.
After Gojoseon had been destroyed, there were many confederations in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria: Mahan, Byeonhan, Jinhan, Buyeo, Dongye, Okjeo, Goguryeo, and so on. The ancient confederation countries later merged into three more powerful kingdoms and an advanced confederation country.
Three Kingdoms
Between 57 BC and the year 668 there were three kingdoms in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria. The names of the kingdoms were: Silla, Goguryeo and Baekje. In the year 372, the religion Buddhism came from China to Korea. Buddhism was very important in Korea.
In the year 660, the kingdom of Silla invaded the kingdom of Baekje. In the year 668 the kingdom of Silla invaded the kingdom of Goguryeo. The people of Goguryeo ran away and made a new kingdom with the name Barhae. After a little time, the kingdom of Balhae was invaded by Liao Dynasty.
When Silla was the only country, it had the name Unified Silla. In the Silla kingdom Buddhism was very important.
The northern and southern kingdoms
In the year 698, Balhae was founded by allies of Goguryeo. We call the time when united Silla and Balhae were existing together (698∼926) The northern and southern kingdoms period.
Goryeo (Korea)
In the year 918 the kingdom of Goryeo began. The name Korea comes from Goryeo. The kingdom of Goryeo had power until the year 1392.
The kingdom of Goryeo wrote the law in books, and had a big government. Buddhism was very important in the kingdom of Goryeo. Bronze-type printing technology was invented in Goryeo Dynasty. This is known as the world's oldest bronze-type printing technology.
The Mongol empire conquered Goryeo and forced Korea to pay a tribute in Korean girls and eunuchs to the Mongol court with about 500,000 Korean girls and eunuchs taken to Yuan China. Mongol and Central Asian Semu Hui Tammachi army officials in Korea itself also took Korean women as concubines and Korea officials complained about it, begging the Mongol court to withdraw them from Korea. Koreans wrote erotic songs about how Korean women were seduced by Central Asian Muslims in their bakeries. An amusing incident is reported as having occurred about this time. A courtier named Pa-gyu observed to the king, “The male population of the country has been decimated but there are still plenty of women. For this reason it is that the Mongols take so many of them. There is danger that the pure Koryŭ stock will become vitiated by the intermixture of wild blood. The king should let each man take several wives and should remove the restrictions under which the sons of concubines labor." When the news of this came to the ears of the women they were up in arms, as least the married portion ; and each one read to her spouse such a lecture that the subject was soon dropped as being too warm to handle. When the king passed through the streets with Pa-gyu in his retinue the women would point to the latter and say “There goes the man who would make concubines of us all." A courtier named Pa Gyu observed to the king: “The male population of the peninsula has been decimated but there are still plenty of women. This is why the Mongols take so many of them. There is danger that the pure Koryo stock will become vitiated by the admixture of the wilt stock. The king should let each man take several wives and should remove the disabilities under which the sons of concubines at present labor.” When this came to the ears of the women they were up in arms and each one read her lord such a lecture that the matter was dropped as being too hot to handle. When the king passel through the streets with Pa Gyu in his retinue, the women would point to him and say, “There goes the man who would wake concubines of us all."
A Korean woman was married off to the Arab (Omani or Yemeni HAdrami) Sayyid bin Abu Ali by Kublai Khan in 1292 when he came to the Yuan Mongol court in Beijing. His grave was in Quanzhou after he died in Beijing in 1299. The Tibetan Sangha was the Korean woman's previous husband and her father was Ch'ai In'gyu Korean wives were taken in Korea itself by Yuan officials and diplomats there and Korean women were sent to Yuan officials and ministers and the emperor in China and Korean noble women were sent as wives to Mongol aristocrats and elite as well as Mongol soldiers and Southern Song Han Chinese soldiers who defected to the Mongol Yuan. The Hui historian Ma Juan wrote about Korean women marrying Indian, Uyghur and Turkic Semuren men during the Yuan dynasty.
Joseon
In the year 1392 a man from the military of Korea went to China. His name was Sejo(Yi Seonggye). Sejo's job was to attack China. But Sejo returned without doing it. When Sejo came back to Korea, he changed the kingdom. Sejo became king.
The name of the kingdom was Joseon. In the year 1394, the people of Joseon moved the capital to Seoul. The religion of Buddhism was not important. A new religion, Confucianism was important. Confucianism came from China.
In the year 1443 the king Sejong ruled. He invented the Korean alphabet Hangeul.
In the year 1592 and the year 1598 the people from Japan fought Korea. A man from the military made very strong ships, including the famous turtle ship. The name of the man was Yi Sun-sin. With the strong ships, the people of Korea won.
The people of Joseon were friends with the people of China.
Today, North Koreans use the name Joseon (officially Chosŏn) to mean Korea.
19th century
In the 19th century the people of Korea did not want to trade with other people. People called Korea Hermit Kingdom.
The people of the United States and Japan wanted to trade with Korea. Before 1876, people failed when they tried to use force to trade with Korea. In the year 1876 the military of Japan fought Korea. Korea and Japan made a contract to trade.
In 1895 Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War in the Korean peninsula. This ended Chinese influence in Korea. Empress Myeongseong, also called Queen Min, wanted the Russian Empire as a friend, to help Korea against Japan. Agents of the Ambassador of Japan killed her in October 1895.
In 1905 Japan won the Russo-Japanese War. In the year 1910, the emperor of Japan made Korea a colony of Japan.
Colony of Japan to today
Korea was occupied by Japan from 1910 to 1945.
When World War II started, the policy of the Japanese government changed. The government made the religion of Japan (Shinto) the religion of Korea.
In 1945 Japan lost World War II. The United States and Soviet Union made a contract. United States occupied the south of Korea and Soviet Union occupied the north of Korea.
The people of Korea wanted to be independent. The United States and the Soviet Union agreed the people of Korea would be free and independent. But soon the United States and Soviet Union were not friends and the Cold War started. United States and Soviet Union refused to settle a deal. In 1948 the people in the south made an independent country called South Korea (also called the Republic of Korea). The United States helped them. In 1948 the people in the north also made a country North Korea (also called the DPRK or Democratic People's Republic of Korea). The Soviet Union helped North Korea.
In 1950 a war started in Korea. The name of the war was the Korean War. The war ended in 1953, but no peace treaty was signed. The border line between North and South was almost the same in the end as it was before the war.
Related pages
North Korea
South Korea
Korean
References
Other websites
Divided regions
918 establishments
1948 disestablishments in Asia
10th-century establishments in Asia |
2160 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20as%20a%20second%20language | English as a second language | English as a second language is a common phrase which has related acronyms, including
ESL, which means "English as a Second Language". This is most often used in a country where English is the primary language
EFL, which means "English as a Foreign Language". This is most often used in a country where English is not the primary language
EAL, which means "English as an Additional Language". This is rarely used.
ESOL, which means "English for Speakers of Other Languages". This is rare.
ELF, which means "English as a Lingua Franca", a term relating to Globalization.
Each of these acronyms means roughly the same thing. In each, the learners already have another native or "mother" language, and they want to learn English as well.
History
The teaching of English as a second language has a long history. For example, the official introduction of English into India's education system began in 1835.
Use
English as a second language is the single most popular subject in the world, after mathematics. English is a very important language in business. Many people study English as a foreign language, because they want a better job. English is also very important in education. Many pages on the internet are in English.
Many people who can not go to English language classes study on the internet, using websites like BBC Learning English.
Many people study English in a country where the people speak English. This way, many students learn to listen and speak English better.
Testing
There are many English exams. These English exams are important for learners. They may show how well a person can use English. It is very difficult to compare different English exams. Every exam is a little different. Read Testing English as a foreign language for more information.
Global Scale of English
Global Scale of English (GSE) is a test for learners of English as a second or foreign language. The GSE is a list of can-do statements based on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for English. Learners' abilities are rated on a 10-to-90 point scale for each of the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing). A learner reaches a level on the scale when she or he can correctly perform 50% of the can-do tasks at that level. The education company Pearson PLC developed the scale.
Teaching
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) is referred to the practice of teaching the English language to the students with different first languages. It is taught in the state school system or privately with a language school or with a tutor. TEFL can also take place in an English-speaking country for people who have immigrated there.
TEFL teachers may be native or non-native speakers of English. Other forms of TEFL are TESL (Teaching English as a second language), TESOL (Teaching English to speakers of other languages), and ESL (English as a second language).
Additional types of TEFL certification include: CTBE (Certificate in Teaching Business English), CTYL (Certificate in Teaching Young Learners), CTO (Certificate in Teaching Online).
Related pages
ELTon Award
References
Other websites
TESOL
English language |
2161 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland | Switzerland | Switzerland (; ; ; ; Swiss German: Schwiz) is a comparatively small country in Western Europe. The official name of Switzerland is Confoederatio Helvetica. This is Latin and is not often used except for state documents. Switzerland is a confederation of even smaller states, which are the 26 cantons.
Switzerland is known for its neutrality. A country is neutral when it does not take sides among the countries who are at war. Switzerland has been neutral since 1815. Many international organizations are in Switzerland. The United Nations has a main office (but not its headquarters) in Geneva. Its predecessor organization, the League of Nations, was headquartered in Geneva.
There are four official languages in Switzerland: German, French, Italian, and Romansh. Some cantons and even towns have two languages spoken in them, and the largest canton by area, Graubünden, has three. About 2/3 of the population speak German; French is spoken in the west of the country, while Italian is spoken in the canton of Ticino and Romansh in parts of Graubünden. Romansh language is spoken less than by 1% of the population.
The defacto capital of Switzerland is Bern. The largest city of Switzerland is Zürich.
To the north of Switzerland is Germany. East of Switzerland are Austria and Liechtenstein. To the south of Switzerland is Italy. To the west of Switzerland is France.
Geography
The area of Switzerland is 41,285 km². The confederation is divided into 23 full states called cantons. All 26 cantons are: Aargau, Appenzell Innerrhoden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Land, Berne, Fribourg, Geneva, Glarus, Graubünden, Jura, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, St. Gallen, Thurgau, Ticino, Uri, Valais, Vaud, Zug, and Zürich.
The mountains are very tall in the center and south of Switzerland. About 60% of Switzerland is in the Alps area. Only few people live here. The highest mountain is the Dufour Peak at 4,634 m.
Many of the mountains have ice all year. This ice is called glaciers. The rivers Rhine, Rhône, and many other rivers start in the mountains of Switzerland.
There are many lakes in Switzerland. The biggest lakes are all in the north and west: Lake Geneva (Lac Léman), Lake Zürich, Lake Neuchâtel and Lake Constance (Bodensee).
Mountains in the north of Switzerland are fewer and smaller. That is why most Swiss people live in cities and towns in the north. The Jura mountains are in the northwest of Switzerland.
Cities
Switzerland has 2,485 villages, towns and cities.
The largest cities are:
People
There are about 8.4 million people in Switzerland. About 64% of the people speak Swiss German (German Alemannic) as their first language, in northern and central Switzerland. 19% of the people speak French as their first language, mainly in the west of Switzerland. 8% of the people speak Italian, in the south of Switzerland. Only 1% of the people speak Romansh, in the southeastern part of Switzerland. Romansh is an old language that is similar to Latin.
The German-speaking people of Switzerland do not actually speak "German" as their native language. Swiss people speak something called Alemannic which has its own writing language and grammar but still is normally considered a German dialect. Alemannic may be difficult for Germans to understand. Swiss people do write like the people from Germany and also speak standard German very well, especially in the larger cities.
About 23% of the people in Switzerland do not come from Switzerland. They come from other places to usually work in Switzerland.
The religion of most people in Switzerland is Christianity. 43% of the population follow Catholicism. 35% of the population follow Protestantism. 2% follow Eastern Orthodoxy. The religion of 4% of the population is Islam. The rest follow other religions, or they have no religion.
Switzerland is famous for its chocolate, cheese, banking system, watches and mountains.
History
In 1291, people from Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden wanted to be free. They signed a contract to work together called the Eternal Alliance. Together, they could be free from the people of Habsburg, who were very strong. In 1315 the people from the Eternal Alliance fought the Habsburgs in battles at Morgarten, Sempach and Näfels. The people of the Eternal Alliance won all the battles.
People from other areas signed the contract and joined the Eternal Alliance. More and more people worked together to be free. In 1648, other countries from Europe made an agreement that Switzerland was free. The name of this agreement was the Peace of Westphalia. More areas came to be part of Switzerland.
Switzerland was important to the slave trade that forced black Africans to be sold as slaves. Swiss companies made indiennes, which are a kind of cloth. These cloths were sent to Africa and exchanged for captured slaves. Some Swiss also joined French companies already making indiennes or owned plantations with slaves in French colonies.
In 1798, France invaded Switzerland. The ruler of France was Napoleon. He changed many laws. In 1815 Switzerland again became independent from France. Other countries agreed at the Congress of Vienna that Switzerland was free and neutral.
The constitution of Switzerland that was made after a short civil war in 1848 was replaced in 1999. Switzerland did not fight in World War I or World War II. Since 2002, Switzerland is part of the United Nations. It did not join the United Nations for 57 years because of its neutrality.
Government
Switzerland is a republic. Switzerland does not have the same kind of president as the United States or France. Seven people (called ministers) do the job of president. They are called the Federal Council in English, Bundesrat in German, Conseil Fédéral in French, Consiglio Federale in Italian and Cussegl Federal in Romansh. Every year one of these people is made president. The president is not more important than the other six people. At present 3 of the 7 people are women.
The seven people are:
Simonetta Sommaruga (President 2020)
Guy Parmelin (Vicepresident 2020)
Ueli Maurer
Alain Berset
Ignazio Cassis
Viola Amherd
Karin Keller-Sutter
There are two parts of parliament in Switzerland. The Council of States and the National Council. Only both together can make laws. There are 46 people in the Council of States. Every full canton of Switzerland can send 2 people. There are 200 people in the National Council. The biggest canton sends most people to the National Council. The smallest 6 cantons can only send one person to the National Council.
The people of Switzerland can collect signatures if they do not like a new law or a law change. This is called a referendum. If enough people sign a referendum, the people vote. The people can also collect signatures to change the constitution. This is called an initiative. The constitution is the basic law of a country.
Economy
Switzerland is not a member of the European Union, but it is member of the European Free Trade Agreement (EFTA). The EFTA makes trade with other countries in Europe easier. In 1999 Switzerland and the European Union made a contract. This contract makes trade even easier. They recently made two other contracts.
The banks of Switzerland and the insurance companies in Switzerland together produce eleven per cent of the gross domestic product. Tourism is important in Switzerland. There are many places for tourists. Davos, St. Moritz, Pontresina and Flims are in Switzerland. These towns are important both in winter (for skiing) and in summer. Tourists also like the cities of Lucerne, Geneva, and Zürich.
In 2011 the pharmaceutical industry in Switzerland directly and indirectly employed about 135,000 people. The companies Novartis and Roche are the second and third largest pharma companies in the world. They both have invented many life saving drugs because of well developed research and development facilities.
Literature
The literature of Switzerland is divided according to the language used. Most Swiss literature was written in German from 1291 until 1798. French became popular in Bern and elsewhere in the 18th century and many words also in the German speaking parts of Switzerland come from the French and are not known to Germans. Italian language and Romansch-Latin literature are less common in Switzerland.
Heidi, a book for children by Johanna Spyri, is the most famous book of Switzerland. It is in the mountains in Graubünden.
Sports
Skiing, snowboarding and mountaineering are among the most popular sports in Switzerland. Because of the large mountain range the nature of the country is well suited for such activities. Bobsleigh was invented in St. Moritz. The first world ski championships were held in Mürren (1931) and St. Moritz (1934). St. Moritz hosted the second Winter Olympic Games in 1928 and in 1948. Among the most successful skiers and world champions are Pirmin Zurbriggen and Didier Cuche.
Many Swiss are fans of football. The national team or 'Nati' is widely supported. Switzerland was the joint host, with Austria, of the Euro 2008 tournament. Many Swiss also follow ice hockey. In April 2009, Switzerland hosted the 2009 IIHF World Championship for the 10th time. The National League A is the most attended league in Europe.
The many lakes in the country make Switzerland a good place for sailing. The largest, Lake Geneva, is the home of the sailing team Alinghi. They were the first European team to win the America's Cup in 2003. They also won in 2007. Tennis has become more popular. Swiss players such as Martina Hingis and Roger Federer have won multiple Grand Slams.
Motorsport racecourses and events were banned in Switzerland after the 1955 Le Mans disaster. There were exceptions for events such as Hillclimbing. This ban was overturned in June 2007. During this period, the country still had successful racing drivers such as Clay Regazzoni, Sebastian Buemi, Jo Siffert and successful World Touring Car Championship driver Alain Menu. Switzerland also won the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport in 2007–08 with driver Neel Jani. Swiss motorcycle racer Thomas Lüthi won the 2005 MotoGP World Championship in the 125cc category.
Traditional sports include Swiss wrestling or "Schwingen". It is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport by some. Hornussen is another native Swiss sport. It is like a cross between baseball and golf. Steinstossen is the Swiss version of stone put, a competition in throwing a heavy stone. It is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century. It is also central to the Unspunnenfest, first held in 1805.
Related pages
List of rivers of Switzerland
Switzerland at the Olympics
Switzerland national football team
Notes
References
Other websites
English homepage of the Federal Authorities of the Swiss Confederation
The Swiss Confederation: A Brief Guide
Pictures from Switzerland
German-speaking countries
French-speaking countries
Italian-speaking countries
Federations |
2172 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOL | LOL | LOL, or lol, is an internet slang term that means "laugh(ing) out loud". It is commonly mistaken for "lots of love." LOL is often used in messages meaning "That is really funny."
It also means mute in Persian and is a native Dutch word (not an acronym) which means "fun" ("lollig" means "funny"). In Welsh, lol means nonsense - e.g., if a person wanted to say "utter nonsense" in Welsh, they would say "rwtsh lol". LOL is usually used on the internet or when text messaging.
Words similar to "LOL"
lolz, lulz, lul, lawls, or lawl/lawlzies: Sometimes used instead of LOL, but can have other meanings.
LOOOOOL: For more emphasis. Any amount of "OL"s can be added to the end of LOL.
LMAO: Stands for "Laugh my ass off". Another way to say it is LMFAO ("Laugh my fucking ass off").
ROFL: For "rolling on the floor laughing". It is often combined with LMAO to make ROFLMAO ("Rolling on the floor laughing my ass off"). Another way to write this is ROTFL.
ROTFLOL: Rolling on the floor laughing out loud; used by Weird Al in the song "White and Nerdy".
LEL: Basically lol; except used by those wanting to be different from the millions of internet users.
kek: The Japanese version of saying Lol.
LEL: Basically lol; except used by those wanting to be different from the millions of internet users
Related page
Lolcat
References
Internet slang |
2210 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto | Toronto | Toronto is the capital city of the province of Ontario in Canada. It is also the largest city in both Ontario and Canada. It is found on the north-west side of Lake Ontario.
The City of Toronto itself has a population of almost 3 million people. Even more people live in the regions around it. All together, the Greater Toronto Area is home to over 6 million people. This makes it the biggest metropolitan area in Canada.
History
Toronto was created in 1793 by John Graves Simcoe as the capital of what was then called "Upper Canada". At the time it was called the "Town of York" after the Duke of York. The name was changed to Toronto in 1834. With the Canadian Confederation in 1867, it became the capital of the newly created province of Ontario. Toronto was one of two cities (along with Montreal in Quebec) that wanted to be the capital of Canada. Queen Victoria decided that Ottawa should be the national capital because it was located between the two.
As the 19th century moved on, the city began to grow. This was mainly because of immigration, where people from all over the world left their home and moved to Canada. Many of the immigrants were Irish people. They brought their Catholic faith with them when they left Ireland because of the Irish Potato Famine.
During World War I and World War II, Toronto was used to train members of the Canadian Army. After the wars, even more immigrants came to the city. The population was becoming so big that the Government of Ontario decided to create Metropolitan Toronto in 1954, combining a number of local municipalities. These were Old Toronto, York, East York, North York, Etobicoke, and Scarborough.
By 1981, Toronto had more people than Montreal even though it was created after Montreal. Because of that, the Ontario government decided to make Toronto a "megacity" in 1998. The first mayor of Toronto was Mel Lastman. As Toronto moved into the 21st century, it became host to a number of worldwide events. These included World Youth Day in 2002, WorldPride in 2014, and the 2015 Pan American Games.
On April 23, 2018 a white van collided with numerous pedestrians killing nine and injuring sixteen others at Yonge Street.
Climate
Toronto has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfa).
Things to see and do
Toronto has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification). This is because although the city is next to Lake Ontario, the lake is not big enough to keep its temperature mild.
As the biggest city in Canada and one of the biggest in all of North America, Toronto is a popular destination for tourists. It is where you can find the CN Tower, which is the tallest free-standing (not supported) structure in the Americas and one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. There are some other buildings, including the City Hall and the Rogers Centre, that are well known for their design style. There are many skyscrapers, because many large banks of Canada and other companies have their main offices in Toronto, and the Toronto Stock Exchange which is the biggest stock market in Canada.
Because Toronto is the capital of Ontario, it is where the provincial government meets. Visitors can see how the province is run by visiting the legislature in Queen's Park. There are museums, including the Royal Ontario Museum, the Art Gallery of Ontario, the Ontario Science Centre, the Hockey Hall of Fame, and the headquarters of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. In the suburbs of the city is the Toronto Zoo and Canada's Wonderland. Many visitors also like to go to Niagara Falls, just an hour's drive away from Toronto.
Toronto is full of places to visit, eat, shop, and enjoy. In the downtown area are shopping centres, including the Eaton Centre, St. Lawrence Market, and the Distillery District. There are several theatres, many which are run by the Mirvish family. The Four Seasons Centre for the Performing Arts, opened in June 2006, is home to the Canadian Opera Company and the National Ballet of Canada. Across the harbor are the Toronto Islands, the best known of which is Centre Island.
Toronto has many sports teams. Some of them belong to the most commonly-followed leagues in North America. They include the Toronto Maple Leafs in ice hockey (NHL) and the Toronto Raptors in basketball (NBA), both of which play in the Air Canada Centre. The nearby Rogers Centre is where the Toronto Blue Jays baseball team plays. BMO Field in Exhibition Place is home to the Toronto Argonauts in Canadian football and Toronto F.C., a soccer club.
Toronto is a very multicultural city. Different people from around the world have moved to Toronto to live since the 20th century. There is a Chinatown, Little Italy, Little Tokyo, Greektown, Little Portugal, and other places where different cultures are kept alive. These people hold festivals where they share their culture with others. Among the most popular is the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE), which happens every year in August.
Transport
Like many cities around the world, Toronto has an airport, Toronto Pearson International Airport. There are flights to many places in Canada and the rest of the world. The airport is just northwest of the city centre. Since 2015, there has been a train service, the Union Pearson Express. It goes from the airport to Downtown in less than half an hour.
Toronto's main public transportation system is operated by the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). The main part of its public transport network is the Toronto subway system. That system includes three heavy-rail rapid transit lines spanning the city, including the U-shaped Line 1 and east–west Line 2. A light metro line also exists, exclusively serving the eastern district of Scarborough. A discussion is underway to replace it with a heavy-rail line. The TTC also operates an extensive network of buses and streetcars. The streetcars serve the downtown core. The buses provide service to many parts of the city not served by the sparse subway network.
The Government of Ontario also operates a commuter rail and bus transit system called GO Transit in the Greater Toronto Area. GO Transit carries over 250,000 passengers every weekday (2013) and 57 million annually. Most of them travel to or from Union Station. GO Transit is implementing RER (Regional Express Rail) into its system.
Housing
Housing in Toronto was ranked as 10th-least affordable in the world. The study compared Toronto with ninety other metropolitan areas in different countries. Hong Kong came in as the least affordable place to live in.
Gallery
Media
Toronto Stations
CBLT CBC
CJCL 590
CHKT 1430
CFMT Omni
References
Other websites
City of Toronto - Official city website.
Tourism Toronto - Visitor's bureau website. |
2682 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names%20of%20numbers%20in%20English | Names of numbers in English | Here are some words for small numbers. Words in bold are irregular.
When writing other numbers between 21 and 99, you must use a hyphen (-).
21: twenty-one
29: twenty-nine
64: sixty-four
99: ninety-nine
The number 100 is written as "one hundred", but sometimes people say "a hundred".
The way numbers are written and spoken differs between American English and other forms of English, such as British English and Australian English, as follows.
American English
To write a whole number from 100 to 999 in American English:
First write how many hundreds.
Then write the word "hundred".
Then write the name of the two-digit number after the digit in the hundreds place.
In standard, written, American English, the word "and" is not in the word-name of any whole number even though many speakers insert it.
Examples:
101: one hundred one
102: one hundred two
175: one hundred seventy-five
200: two hundred
300: three hundred
512: five hundred twelve
987: nine hundred eighty-seven
British and Commonwealth English
To write a whole number from 100 to 999 in British and Commonwealth English:
First write how many hundreds.
Then write the words "hundred and".
Then write the name of the two-digit number after the digit in the hundreds place.
In standard, written, British English (and the English spoken in many other places), the word "and" is in the word-name of many whole numbers.
Examples:
101: one hundred and one (NOT: one hundred one)
102: one hundred and two (NOT: one hundred two)
175: one hundred and seventy-five (NOT: one hundred seventy-five)
200: two hundred
300: three hundred
512: five hundred and twelve (NOT: five hundred twelve)
987: nine hundred and eighty-seven (NOT: nine hundred eighty-seven)
Related pages
Names of ordinal numbers in English
Names for large numbers
Names for small numbers
Numbers |
2684 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20dollar | United States dollar | The United States dollar (or American dollar) is the official currency (money) of the United States of America. It is also used in some other countries outside the US. It is the standard currency for international markets selling goods such as gold and oil (petrol). When writing, the symbol for the American dollar is the dollar sign ($). Dollars can also be known as USD (standing for 'U.S. dollar').
Denominations and value
The American one dollar bill has a picture of George Washington. There are currently paper bills (currency) of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 dollars.
All U.S. dollar currency has been the same size, shape and general design since 1928. This is unlike some countries where bank notes with different values have different sizes.
The U.S. also has dollar coins. Some are silver colored and some are gold colored. Vending machines often give dollar coins as change, since it is easier for the machines to give out coins than paper money. Some of the more advanced vending machines give out paper money as change. Paper dollars are much more common than dollar coins.
The US dollar in subdivided into cents, and 100 cents equals 1 US dollar. One cent can be written as either $0.01 or 1¢. The cent or "penny" (not to be confused with the English penny sterling) is the least worth coin used in the U.S.. There are several different coins with different cent values of different materials and sizes. There is the penny (1¢ or $0.01), nickel (5¢ or $0.05), dime (10¢ or $0.10), quarter (25¢ or $0.25), and the much rarer half-dollar (50¢ or $0.50). All coins and paper bills have the faces of famous Americans on the front side.
Federal Reserve
The paper "dollar bill" is actually called a "Federal Reserve Note". Federal Reserve notes are legal tender currency notes. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks issue them into circulation pursuant to the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. A commercial bank belonging to the Federal Reserve System can obtain Federal Reserve notes from the Federal Reserve Bank in its district whenever it wishes by paying for them in full, dollar for dollar, from its account with Federal Reserve Bank.
Federal Reserve Banks get the notes from the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP). It pays the BEP for the cost of producing the notes.
Congress has specified that a Federal Reserve Bank must hold collateral equal in value to the Federal Reserve notes that the Bank receives. This collateral is chiefly gold certificates and United States securities. This provides backing for the note issue.
Federal Reserve notes are not redeemable in gold, silver or any other commodity, and receive no backing by anything. This has been the case since 1933. The notes have no value for themselves, but for what they will buy.
The Coinage Act of 1965 titled "Legal tender" states: "United States coins and currency (including Federal reserve notes and circulating notes of Federal reserve banks and national banks) are legal tender for all debts, public charges, taxes, and dues".
This statute means that all United States money as identified above are a valid and legal offer of payment for debts when tendered to a creditor. There is no Federal statute saying a person or organization must accept currency or coins as payment for goods and/or services. Private businesses are free to develop their own policies on whether or not to accept cash. But there might be a State law which says otherwise. For example, a bus line may prohibit payment of fares in pennies or dollar bills. In addition, movie theaters, convenience stores and gas stations may refuse to accept large denomination currency (usually notes above $20) as a matter of policy.
Meeting the variable demand for cash
The public typically obtains its cash from banks by withdrawing cash from automated teller machines (ATMs) or by cashing checks. The amount of cash that the public holds varies seasonally, by the day of the month, and even by the day of the week. For example, people demand a large amount of cash for shopping and vacations during the year-end holiday season. Also, people typically withdraw cash at ATMs over the weekend, so there is more cash in circulation on Monday than on Friday.
To meet the demands of their customers, banks get cash from Federal Reserve Banks. Most medium- and large-sized banks maintain reserve accounts at one of the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks, and they pay for the cash they get from the Fed by having those accounts debited. Some smaller banks maintain their required reserves at larger, "correspondent," banks. The smaller banks get cash through the correspondent banks, which charge a fee for the service. The larger banks get currency from the Fed and pass it on to the smaller banks.
When the public's demand for cash declines—after the holiday season, for example—banks find they have more cash than they need and they deposit the excess at the Fed. Because banks pay the Fed for cash by having their reserve accounts debited, the level of reserves in the nation's banking system drops when the public's demand for cash rises; similarly, the level rises again when the public's demand for cash subsides and banks ship cash back to the Fed. The Fed offsets variations in the public's demand for cash that could introduce volatility into credit markets by implementing open market operations.
The popularization of the ATM in recent years has increased the public's demand for currency and, in turn, the amount of currency that banks order from the Fed. Interestingly, the advent of the ATM has led some banks to request used, fit bills, rather than new bills, because the used bills often work better in the ATMs.
Maintaining a cash inventory
Each of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks keeps an inventory of cash on hand to meet the needs of the depository institutions in its District. Extended custodial inventory sites in several continents promote the use of U.S. currency internationally, improve the collection of information on currency flows, and help local banks meet the public's demand for U.S. currency. Additions to that supply come directly from the two divisions of the Treasury Department that produce the cash: the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, which prints currency, and the United States Mint, which makes coins. Most of the inventory consists of deposits by banks that had more cash than they needed to serve their customers and deposited the excess at the Fed to help meet their reserve requirements.
When a Federal Reserve Bank receives a cash deposit from a bank, it checks the individual notes to determine whether they are fit for future circulation. About one-third of the notes that the Fed receives are not fit, and the Fed destroys them. As shown in the table below, the life of a note varies according to its denomination. For example, a $1 bill, which gets the greatest use, remains in circulation an average of 5.9 years; a $100 bill lasts about 15 years. Federal Reserve Bank of New York on Sunday night Cole
Gallery
Other websites
References
Currency of the United States |
2809 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid%20ounce | Fluid ounce | A fluid ounce is a unit of volume in both the imperial system of units and the U.S. customary units system. However, the two measures are not quite the same:
The Imperial fluid ounce is (1/160) of an imperial gallon or 8 fluid drams, about 1.734 cubic inches or exactly 28.413 07425 ml (as specified legally in The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995). This volume of water weighs very nearly 1 avoirdupois ounce.
The U.S. fluid ounce is (1/128) of a U.S. fluid gallon, about 1.805 cubic inches or exactly 29.573 529 562 5 ml. This volume of water weighs about 1.04 avoirdupois ounces.
U.S. law 21CFR101.9(b)(5)(viii) also defines a fluid ounce of exactly 30 ml, for use in nutrition labeling.
Other websites
Volume Conversion Calculator
Imperial units
Units of volume |
2810 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape%20of%20the%20universe | Shape of the universe | The shape of the Universe cannot be discussed with everyday terms, because all the terms need to be those of Einsteinian relativity. The geometry of the universe is therefore not the ordinary Euclidean geometry of our everyday lives.
According to the special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say whether two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. To speak of "the shape of the universe (at a point in time)" is naive from the point of view of special relativity. Due to the relativity of simultaneity we cannot speak of different points in space as being "at the same point in time" nor, therefore, of "the shape of the universe at a point in time".
What astrophysicists do is ask whether a particular model of the universe is consistent with what is known through observations and measurements of the universe. If the observable universe is smaller than the entire universe (in some models it is many orders of magnitude smaller or even infinitesimal), observation is limited to a part of the whole.
Consideration of the shape of the universe can be split into two:
local geometry, which relates especially to the curvature of the universe, especially in the observable universe, and
global geometry, which relates to the topology of the universe as a whole, measurement of which may not be possible.
The observable universe is the basis for testing any model of the universe. It is a spherical volume (a ball) centered on the observer, regardless of the shape of the universe as a whole. Every location in the universe has its own observable universe, which may or may not overlap with the one centered on Earth.
Recent measurements have led NASA to state, "We now know that the universe is flat with only a 0.4% margin of error". Within one model, the FLRW model, the present most popular shape of the Universe found to fit observational data is the infinite flat model. There are other models that also fit the data.
References
Geometry
Cosmology
zh:宇宙#宇宙的形状 |
2812 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor%20shower | Meteor shower | A meteor shower is an event when many meteors seem to come from one point in the night sky. These meteors are caused by meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere at extremely high speeds on parallel paths. Most meteors are smaller than a grain of sand, so almost all of them burn up and never hit the Earth's surface.
A meteor shower is the result of an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet. Comets are dirty snowballs, made up of rock embedded in ice, orbiting the Sun. Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail".
Most of our short-period meteor showers are the product of rare disintegrations, when large chunks break off a mostly dormant comet. Examples are the Quadrantids and Geminids. They originated from a breakup of asteroid-like objects, 2003 EH1 and 3200 Phaethon, respectively, about 500 and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and pebbles, and spread out along the orbit of the comet to form a dense meteoroid stream, which later moves into Earth's path.
The most visible meteor shower in most years are the Perseids, which peak on 12 August each year at over one meteor per minute. NASA has a useful tool to calculate how many meteors per hour are visible from your observing location.
The Leonid meteor shower peaks around 17 November of each year. About every 33 years, the Leonid shower produces a big meteor storm, peaking at thousands of meteors per hour. Leonid storms gave birth to the term "meteor shower" when it was first realised, during the November 1833 storm, that the meteors radiated from near the star Gamma Leonis. The last Leonid storms were in 1999, 2001 (two), and 2002 (two). Before that, there were storms in 1767, 1799, 1833, 1866, 1867, and 1966. When the Leonid shower is not storming it is less active than the Perseids.
References |
2815 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat | Cat | Cats, also called domestic cats (Felis catus), are small, carnivorous mammals, of the family Felidae.
Domestic cats are often called 'house cats' when kept as indoor pets. Cats have been domesticated (tamed) for nearly 10,000 years.
They are one of the most popular pets in the world. They are kept by humans for hunting rodents and as companions.
There are also farm cats, which are kept on farms to keep rodents away; and feral cats, which are domestic cats that live away from humans.
A cat is sometimes called a kitty. A young cat is called a kitten. A female cat that has not had its sex organs removed is called a queen. A male cat that has not had its sex organs removed is called a tom.
There are about 60 breeds of cat. Domestic cats are found in shorthair, longhair, and hairless breeds. Cats which are not specific breeds can be referred to as 'domestic shorthair' (DSH) or 'domestic longhair' (DLH).
The word 'cat' is also used for other felines. Felines are usually called either big cats or small cats. The big, wild cats are well known: lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars, pumas, and cheetahs. There are small, wild cats in most parts of the world, such as the lynx in northern Europe. The big cats and wild cats are not tame, and can be very dangerous.
History
In the past, most notably in Egypt, people kept domestic cats because they hunted and ate mice and rats. Today, people often keep cats as pets. There are also domestic cats which live without being cared for by people. These kinds of cats are called "feral cats".
The oldest evidence of cats kept as pets is from the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, around 7500 BC. Ancient Egyptians worshipped cats as gods, and often mummified them so they could be with their owners "for all of eternity".
Today, special food for cats is widely available in the developed countries. Proper feeding will help a cat live longer compared to hunting or being fed table scraps. Not correctly feeding a cat can lead to problems (see below for health concerns).
Cats cannot taste sweet foods (with sugar) because of a mutation (change) in their ancestors which removed the ability to taste sweet things.
Cat anatomy
Cats have anatomy similar to the other members of the genus Felis. The genus has extra lumbar (lower back) and thoracic (chest) vertebrae. This helps to explain the cat's spinal mobility and flexibility. Unlike human arms, cat forelimbs are attached to the shoulder by free-floating clavicle bones. These allow cats to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their heads.
The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having very large eye sockets and a powerful and specialized jaw. Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth: this is an adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents. Cats, like dogs, walk directly on their toes, with the bones of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg.
Cats walk very precisely. Unlike most mammals, when cats walk, they use a "pacing" gait (walking style); that is, they move the two legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side. This trait is shared with camels and giraffes. As a walk speeds up into a trot, a cat's gait will change to be a "diagonal" gait, similar to that of most other mammals: the diagonally opposite hind and forelegs will move at the same time. Most cats have five claws on their front paws, and four on their rear paws. On the inside of the front paws there is something which looks like a sixth "finger". This special feature on the inside of the wrists is the carpal pad. The carpal pad is also found on other cats and on dogs.
Behaviour
Cats are active carnivores, meaning that in the wild they hunt live prey. Their main prey is small mammals (like mice). They will also stalk, and sometimes kill and eat, birds. Cats eat a wide variety of prey, including insects such as flies and grasshoppers. Their main method of hunting is stalk and pounce. While dogs have great stamina and will chase prey over long distances, cats are extremely fast, but only over short distances. The basic cat coat colouring, tabby (see top photo), gives it good camouflage in grass and woodland. The cat creeps towards a chosen victim, keeping its body flat and near to the ground so that it cannot be seen easily, until it is close enough for a rapid dash or pounce. Cats, especially kittens, practice these instinctive behaviours in play with each other or on small toys. Cats can fish. They use a flip-up movement of a front paw which, when successful, flips the fish out of water and over the cat's shoulders onto the grass. Dutch research showed this to be an innate (inherited) behaviour pattern which developed early and without maternal teaching.
Cats are quiet and well-behaved animals, making them popular pets. Young kittens are playful. They can easily entertain themselves with a variety of store-bought or homemade toys. House cats have also been known to teach themselves to use lever-type doorknobs and toilet handles.
Cats are fairly independent animals. They can look after themselves and do not need as much attention as dogs do.
Cats use many different sounds for communication, including meowing, purring, trilling, hissing, growling, squeaking, chirping, clicking and grunting.
Body posture is also important. The whole shape of the body changes when a cat is relaxed, or when it is alert. Also, the position of their ears and tail are used for communication, as well as their usual functions.
These ways of communication are very important. They are used between a mother cat and her kittens. They are also used between male and female cats; and between cats and other species, such as dogs. A mother cat protecting her kittens will fight off the largest dog. She gives good warning with a frightening display, hissing furiously, showing her claws, arching her back, and making her hair stand on end. If that fails, she attacks the dog's face with her claws. It has been said that no dog ever tries such an attack a second time.
Mating
Cats only mate when the queen is "in heat". Heat periods occur about every two weeks and last 4 to 6 days. Mating in cats is a spectacular event. Several toms may be attracted to a [queen] in heat. The males will fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female will reject the male, but eventually the female will allow the male to mate. The female will utter a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her. This is because a male cat's penis has a band of about 120-150 backwards-pointing spines, which are about one millimeter long. When the penis is withdrawn, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which is a trigger for ovulation. After mating, the female will wash her vulva thoroughly. If a male attempts to breed with her at this point, the female will attack him. After about 20 to 30 minutes. once the female is finished grooming, the cycle will repeat.
Because ovulation is not always triggered, females may not get pregnant by the first tom which mates with them. A queen may mate with more than one tom when she is in heat, and different kittens in a litter may have different fathers. The cycle ceases when the queen is pregnant.
The gestation period for cats is about two months, with an average length of 66 days. The size of a litter is usually three to five kittens. Kittens are weaned at between six and seven weeks, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at 5–10 months (females) and to 5–7 months (males). Females can have two to three litters per year, so might produce up to 150 kittens in their breeding life of about ten years.
Birth and after
Pregnant queens deliver their litters by themselves, guided by instinct. The queen finds the safest place she can. Then she will clean it thoroughly, with her tongue, if necessary. Here she will quietly give birth. She licks the newborn kits clean. In the wild, leaving a scent is risking a dangerous encounter with other animals. The kits are born blind and with closed eyes. They suckle on her teats, and sleep a good deal. After two weeks or so, their eyes open. At that stage they have blue eyes, but not the best sight. A bit later, the best developed kit will totter out of the nest. The others follow. They will soon recognise you as a living thing: that is a great moment. At first, they go back to the nest to feed and sleep. After some more days they leave the nest for good, but still they may sleep together in a 'kitten heap'.
The queen, meanwhile, has left the nest from time to time, to hunt, feed, and also to urinate and defecate. Unlike the tom, she covers up her business to hide her scent. Very soon, the kits will urinate anywhere they please unless one trains them. This is done after they are weaned, when they are ready for some kitten food. Here is how to do it:
1. Prepare clean cat tray filled with absorbent grit.
2. Give kittens their special kitten food.
3. Take the lead kitten right after it has eaten, place it in your cat tray.
4. Gently stroke its tummy with one finger.
5. Watch as kitten sits down promptly and urinates. Do same for other kits.
6. Repeat next time if they need it. They will not need a third time.
What you have done is exactly what the queen would do in the wild. You have triggered a reflex which all kittens have. The thing is, the tray is artificial, and your queen may do her business outside. But at least when young, kittens need a tray. Your next job is to call the vet, who will tell you when to bring the kits for their vaccination.
Kittens play endlessly. It is how they do their learning. They will play their favourite games, such as 'hide and pounce', with almost anyone or anything. Soft balls on strings are a standard toy; so is a scratching post.
With cats there is a limit to how far you can train them. They are at least as intelligent as dogs, but they are not pack animals. They like to do their own thing, and owners do best by fitting in. Never hit a cat: if you do, the relationship will never be the same again. If you really want to dissuade them, try hissing. It has been said that no one really owns a cat; many cats collect extra owners, and may change house if they do not like the treatment...
If your kitten was born in your home do not let it out of the house until it is two to three months old. If you have the mother, she will look after the kit. But if you have got the kit from a vet or dealer, keep it in for several weeks. When it does go out, you need to watch over it. The main problem is that it may easily get lost. In time, the kit will learn every inch of the house and garden. Then, you can happily let it roam.
Grooming
Cats are very clean animals. They groom themselves by licking their fur. The cat's tongue can act as a hairbrush and can clean and untangle a cat's fur. Still, owners may buy grooming products to help the cat take care of itself. After licking their fur, cats sometimes get hairballs. A hairball is a small amount of fur that is vomited up by animals when it becomes too big. This is quite normal. Owners brush their cats to try to prevent a lot of hairballs.
Food
Many house cats eat food which their owners give them. This food is manufactured, and designed to contain the right nutrients for cats. There are many different types of cat food. These come in many different flavors and costs are often very small.
There is moist canned food and also dry cat food which comes in different sized cans or bags and formulas. There are kitten formulas, cat formulas, health formulas, formulas for reducing a cat's weight, and many others. It seems obvious that the food should be mostly meat, as that is most of a cat's natural diet. But remember, when they catch mice, they also eat the bones. So there is need for formulas to have more than just meat.
Cats should not be fed a daily diet of dog food. It could make the cat blind, as it has no taurine, which is a nutrient for the eyes.
Health concerns
Cats do get diseases, and prevention is better than cure. It is most important to get a young cat vaccinated against some of the most deadly diseases. If a cat gets a disease, a veterinarian (animal doctor) can offer help. Some cats, depending on breed, gender, age, and general health, may be more susceptible to disease than others. Regular visits to a vet can keep a cat alive many extra years by catching sickness and disease early.
Cats that roam outside will get fleas at some time. Cat fleas will not live on people, but fleas will not hesitate to bite anyone nearby. Owners may choose to buy anti-flea collars, but any areas where the cat normally sleeps need to be cleaned up. A vet or local pet-shop may offer advice about fleas. It is recommended that people quickly take action when a cat gets fleas because fleas can make cats uncomfortable.
House cats can become overweight through lack of exercise and over-feeding. When they get spayed or neutered ("fixed"), they tend to exercise less. Spaying is done for queens, and neutering is done for toms. It is important to fix cats, and here are some reasons. First of all, if a female cat has kittens, they will need homes. Finding homes for kittens is often quite difficult. If a tom is not fixed, it develops a disgusting smell. Breeders who have entire toms keep them in a special hut outside the house, for that reason. Fixing also helps to avoid over-population. Over-population means that there are too many cats, and some will be put to sleep (put down) in animal pounds (animal shelters).
It is a good idea to adopt a cat from a vet or an animal shelter. The vet, shelter or RSPCA will make sure they are healthy and spayed.
Kittens are sometimes born with defects. People who receive cats as gifts are recommended to get it examined for its health. Some birth defects, like heart problems, require urgent vet attention. Others are harmless, like polydactyly. Polydactyly means many digits, or many "fingers" from poly (many) and dactyl (digit). Sometimes, there is a mutation (change) in cat families. Most cats have only four to five toes per paw, depending on whether it is the front or back paw. These mutated cats have six, seven, and in rare cases even more. All of these cats are called polydactyl cats. They can also be called Hemingway cats because author Ernest Hemingway owned some of these cats.
References |
2816 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering | Engineering | Engineering is the use of science and math to design or make things. People who do engineering are called engineers. They learn engineering at a college or university. Engineers usually design or build things. Some engineers also use their skills to solve technical problems. There are different types of engineers that design everything from computers and buildings to watches and websites. People have been creating engineering things for thousands of years.
What is it?
Engineering is a big subject. Here are a few of the many types of engineers:
Aerospace engineers design space vehicles or airplanes.
Biomedical engineers design and work with medical equipment.
Chemical engineers use chemicals to make products like drugs and medicines or fertilizers for crops.
Civil engineers work on roads, bridges, buildings and other public structures.
Computer engineers design or improve computers (including embedded systems and their parts).
Electrical engineers work with electricity and design electrical equipment, from small things like radios and computers to large things like electric power transmission systems.
Electronic engineers work with electronics, which are used to build computer parts and electrical equipment.
Environmental engineers design and implement ways to remediate and restore the environment.
Manufacturing engineers design and improve the machines and assembly lines that make things. They work with robots and automation and ways to help companies work faster and better with fewer mistakes.
Mechanical engineers design machines or things that move, like cars and trains. A mechanical engineer also might help design electricity generating stations, oil refineries, and factories.
Mechatronics engineers work in multiple fields of engineering that include mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, telecommunications engineering, control engineering and computer engineering.
Marine Engineers design, build, test and repair boats, ships, underwater craft, focusing primarily on their internal systems.
Nanotechnology engineers study very small things, like strings of atoms and how they are put together.
Nuclear engineers design and build nuclear plants. They also study the characteristic behaviors of certain radioactive or unstable elements.
Structural engineers are dealing with design and analysis of buildings and large non-building structures to withstand both the gravity and wind loads as well as natural disasters.
Software engineers design and write programs for computers.
Systems engineers look at how complicated things work and try to make them faster and smarter.
Ceramic engineering is the science and technology of creating objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials
Engineers do not only work with machines. They also work a lot with other people. Many engineering projects are large and very complicated. Often different kinds of engineers work together and help each other. As an example, computer engineers need help from electrical engineers to build a computer. The computer needs programs written by software engineers. The computer could be used by aerospace engineers to control an airplane. An airplane is a big mechanical system with many parts, so a mechanical engineer and a systems engineer are also needed.
Study
Most (but not all) engineers have had years of training. Much of their training involves working within a limited budget and materials.
American courses
In the United States, most engineers go to a college or university to get an engineering degree. Most people go to school for four years to get a bachelor's degree in engineering. A Master's Degree is an advanced degree, usually requiring two more years of study after the Bachelors. A person with a master's degree is eligible to enter a Doctoral program in engineering. A graduate of a Doctoral program is awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree, which is commonly called a PhD. A PhD in engineering requires three or four years of study after a master's degree, and includes the completion of a long research report called a dissertation. After having gained enough work experience, one can sit for their Professional Engineer's (PE) License, reinforcing their demonstrated proficiency in their specialty.
British courses
In the United Kingdom, engineering degrees at universities are either three year BEng (Bachelor of Engineering) or four year MEng (Master of Engineering). In many universities it is common to take only one engineering discipline (e.g. aeronautical or civil engineering) although some universities have a general engineering degree. British universities may also offer Doctoral programs as a doctor of philosophy (PhD) or a doctor of engineering (EngD). Engineers of all disciplines have common approaches to solving problems including teamwork, communication, and an Iterative design process.
Engineers can also get additional recognition in the form of becoming Chartered. A chartered engineer is one who has his degree or doctorate has been recognised by a group of professionals such as the IET (Institute of Engineering and Technology), IMechE (Institution of Mechanical Engineers), IChemE (Institution of Chemical Engineers) or ICE (Institution of Civil Engineers). Experience and responsibility enables a further step of recognition by becoming a Fellow of these institutions.
French courses
The best way to become an engineer in France is to take the CPGE (Classe Préparatoire pour les Grandes Écoles is the French class for engineer's school) for two years and then study for three years in an "École d'Ingénieur" (Engineer's school).
You can also study in an IUT (Institut universitaire technologique) for two years, and then study three years in an "École d'Ingénieur".
Notes
Other websites
Engineering Citizendium
Technology |
2817 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication | Communication | Communication is when information is passed from a sender to a recipient using a medium. There are different media that can be used:
Visual communication (using body language or gestures)
Communicating with sounds (like human language, but may also be the barking of a dog)
Communication using touch
Using smell
Using writing
Communication can be spoken (a word) or non-spoken (a smile). Communication has many ways, and happens all the time. Not only humans communicate, most other animals do too. Some communication is done without thinking, such as by changing in posture.
Communication that tries to change somebody's mind may be called persuasion or propaganda.
How communication works
Communication works by exchanging information or messages. In very basic terms
The sender makes a message, from an idea. This is usually called encoding
The sender transmits the message through the medium.
The recipient receives the message and decodes it.
Besides the content of the message, there are other things that are important. These are not part of the message itself, but rather of its context
Who is communicating, and what status does the communicator have?
Communication messages usually do not come alone, but are accompanied by other messages. These are also interpreted.
For a message exchange to be successful, the sender and the recipient must have agreed on a vocabulary. The word hedge can mean completely different things based on the context. In biology a hedge is a row of shrubs or trees that make a barrier or form a border. In finance, a hedge is an investment made to reduce the risk of another investment. In linguistics a hedge is a word or set of words that make other words less important. Without any information it is therefore very difficult to know which hedge is really meant by the speaker.
Related pages
References
Communication protocol
Language
Sign language |
2819 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle | Miracle | A Miracle is an amazing, beneficial event that goes (or at least seems to go) against natural laws. Some people say that a miracle is always an act brought about by God or other supernatural force (such as an angel). Others say that there can always be another explanation for it. And thirdly, some say the event is myth and never actually even happened in the first place.
According to the Bible
In the Bible a miracle is an act by God, where God's presence is shown. They can be an act that affects one person, or a gigantic disturbance of nature that changes the world.
Examples in the Bible
Here are seven types that can be found. These are just some of the many miracles in the Bible.
God’s authority
Moses parts the Red Sea so that the people of Israel could escape from Egypt
Jesus commands the storm winds to stop blowing
Healing
A man crippled since birth gets up and walks after Jesus heals him
Jesus makes a man who was born blind to see
Judgment for evil
People became so evil that God destroys them with a flood; Noah and his family are saved
Two members of the Jerusalem church are struck dead for lying
Provision
God gives manna to the Israelites as they traveled through the desert
Jesus feeds thousands of people with only five loaves of bread and two fish
Raising the dead
By the power of God, Elijah raises a widow’s dead son back to life
Jesus raises his friend, Lazarus, to life
Safety
King Nebuchadnezzar tries to burn Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego to death in a fiery furnace, but God keeps them from burning
Visions
The prophet Isaiah has a vision of God seated on his throne surrounded by angels
Saul has a vision of Jesus that changed his life
In other books
Other religious books, like the Quran, Mahabharata and the Avesta, contains many references to this definition of miracle. An example of a miracle in the Quran is when Muhammad splits the moon into halves.
References
Theology |
2832 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kami | Kami | Kami (神) is a Japanese word for the spirits that are worshipped in the Shinto religion. Not all of Kami are gods of the personified type. Instead, they have to do with phenomena and events like the growth of trees, or rain, or wind, or other aspects of Nature; it is believed that these kami live in those natural things.
It is usually said that there are . In Japanese the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean infinity.
Though the word kami can be translated multiple ways into English, no English word expresses its full meaning.
Some important kami
Amaterasu, the sun goddess
Inari, god of foxes
Kotoamatsukami, the primary kami trinity
Izanagi, the first man
Izanami, the first woman
Shinigami, kami of death
Ryūjin, god of the sea
Susanoo, god of storms
Sarutahiko, kami of Earth
Related pages
Shinto
Shinto shrine
Inugami
Other websites
Kami at Onmark database
Japanese deities
Shinto |
2837 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardboard | Cardboard | Cardboard is a heavy type of paper, notable for its stiffness and durability. It was first invented in China some time in the 15th century, and is used for a wide variety of purposes. One of its more common uses is as a packaging material.
Cardboard boxes were first produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated (also called pleated) paper was patented in England in 1856, used as a liner for tall hats, but corrugated cardboard would not be patented and used as a shipping material until 20 December 1871. The patent was issued to Albert Jones of New York City, New York for single-sided corrugated cardboard. Jones used the corrugated cardboard for wrapping bottles and glass lantern chimneys. The first machine for producing large quantities of corrugated cardboard was built in 1874 by G. Smyth, and in the same year Oliver Long improved upon Jones' design by inventing corrugated cardboard with liner sheets on both sides. This was now cardboard as we know it today.
American Robert Gair was a Brooklyn printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, and while he was printing an order of seed bags a metal ruler normally used to crease bags shifted in position and cut the bag. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing cardboard in one operation he could make prefabricated cartons. Extending this to corrugated cardboard was a straightforward development when the material became available. By the start of the 20th century, corrugated cardboard boxes began replacing the custom-made wooden crates and boxes previously used for trade.
The Kellogg brothers first used cardboard cartons to hold their flaked corn cereal, and later when they began marketing it to the general public a heat-sealed waxed bag of Waxtite was wrapped around the outside of the box and printed with their brand name. This marked the origin of the cereal box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic and is kept inside the box rather than outside.
Cardboard packaging has undergone minor changes in recent times due to the trend towards environmentalism. It is now common for cardboard to be manufactured with a large percentage of recycled fibers.
Paper |
2843 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20language | English language | English is a language that started in Anglo-Saxon England. It is originally from Anglo-Frisian and Old Saxon dialects. English is now used as a global language. There are about 375 million native speakers (people who use it as their first language) in the world.
Frisian is the language closest to English. The vocabulary of English was influenced by other Germanic languages in the early Middle Ages and later by Romance languages, especially French.
English is the only official language or one of the official languages of nearly 60 countries. It is also the main language of more countries in the world than any other. It is the primary language in the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It is one of the official languages in Singapore, India, Hong Kong, and South Africa. It is widely spoken in parts of the Caribbean, Africa, and South Asia.
In 2005, it was estimated that there were over 2 billion speakers of English. English is the first foreign language for most learners who have another main language. It is an official language of the United Nations, European Union, and many other international organizations. It is the most widely-spoken Germanic language, with at least 70% of Germanic speakers speaking English. About 220 million others use it as their second language. It is, together with German, the most important language of science and technology. It is often used in work and travel and trade, and there are at least a billion people who are learning it. That makes English the largest language by number of speakers.
English has changed and developed over time, like all other languages. The most obvious changes are the many words taken from Latin and Old French, which then came to Old English and then Modern English, which is used today.
English grammar has also become very different from other Germanic languages, but it stayed different from Romance languages. Because nearly 60% of the vocabulary comes from Latin, English is sometimes called the Germanic language that is the most Latin, and it is often mistaken for being a Romance language.
History
Germanic tribes (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes) came to Britain from around 449 AD. They made their home in the south and east of the island, pushing out the Celtic Britons who were there before them, or making them speak the English language instead of the old Celtic languages. Some people still speak Celtic languages today, in Wales (Welsh) and elsewhere. Gaelic is the Scottish Celtic language, still spoken by some in the Scottish Highlands and Islands. "Scots" is a dialect of English, taken from the English spoken in Northumbria. Irish Gaelic is spoken by very few people today.
The Germanic dialects of the different tribes became what is now called Old English. The word "English" comes from the name of the Angles: Englas. Old English did not sound or look much like the English spoken today. If English speakers today were to hear or read a passage in Old English, they would understand just a few words.
The closest language to English that is still used today is Frisian, spoken by about 500,000 people living in the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark. It is much like English, and many words are the same. The two languages were even closer before Old English changed to Middle English). Today, speakers of the two languages would not be able to understand each other. Dutch is spoken by over 20 million people, and is more distant from English. German is even bigger, and even more distant. All these languages belong to the same West Germanic family as English.
Many other people came to England later at different times, speaking different languages, and these languages added more words to make today's English. For example, around 800 AD, many Danish and Norse pirates, also called Vikings, came to the country, established Danelaw. So, English got many Norse loanwords. Their languages were Germanic languages, like Old English, but are a little different. They are called the North Germanic languages.
When William the Conqueror took over England in 1066 AD, he brought his nobles, who spoke Norman, a language closely related to French. English changed a lot because it was mostly being spoken instead of written for about 300 years, because all official documents were written in Norman French. English borrowed many words from Norman at that time, and also began to drop the old word endings. English of this time is called Middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer is a well known writer of Middle English. After more sound changes, Middle English became Modern English.
English continued to take new words from other languages, for example mainly from French (around 30% to 40% of its words), but also Chinese, Hindi, Urdu, Japanese, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, etc. Because scientists from different countries needed to talk to one another, they chose names for scientific things in the languages they all knew: Greek and Latin. Those words came to English also, for example, photography ("photo-" means "light" and "-graph" means "picture" or "writing", in Greek. A photograph is a picture made using light), or telephone. So, English is made of Old English, Danish, Norse, and French, and has been changed by Latin, Greek, Chinese, Hindi, Japanese, Dutch and Spanish, along with some words from other languages.
English grammar has also changed, becoming simpler and less Germanic. The classic example is the loss of case in grammar. Grammatical case shows the role of a noun, adjective or pronoun in a sentence. In Latin (and other Indo-European languages), this is done by adding suffixes, but English usually does not. The style of English is that meaning is made clear more by context and syntax.
The history of the British Empire has added to the spread of English. English is an important language in many places today. In Australia, Canada, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and the United States, among others (like those in the Commonwealth of Nations), English is the main language. Because the United Kingdom (the country where England is) and the United States have historically been powerful in commerce and government, many people find it helpful to learn English to communicate in science, business, and diplomacy. This is called learning English as an additional language, English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
English literature has many famous stories and plays. William Shakespeare was a famous English writer of poems and plays. His English is Early Modern English, and not quite like what people speak or write today. Early Modern English sounded different, partly because the language was beginning a "great vowel shift". Later, many short stories and novels also used English. The novel as we know it is first seen in 18th century English. Therefore today, many famous songs and movies (cinema films) use the English language.
Grammar
English grammar started out based on Old English, which is considered to be a Germanic language. After the Norman French conquered England in 1066, parts of the Latin language were brought to the English language by the Norman French.
Nouns
There are different types of nouns in English, like proper nouns and common noun. To show if a noun is plural, which means there is more than one of the noun, usually "-s" is added at the end of a word.
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of a noun to avoid repetition. There are different types of pronouns in the English language. The most important ones are:
Personal pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Relative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns
Indefinite pronouns
Dummy pronouns
Verbs
Verbs in English show the action or the state of a sentence. Verbs can come in different shapes in a sentence based on the time or condition we are talking about. For example the verb "eat" changes to "ate" in past.
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe a noun. In English they always come before a noun to give you more information about that noun. You can see this in the sentence "the red apples are juicy."
Spelling
Written English uses a range of historical spelling patterns that changed over time due to political and cultural changes. As a result, different words can use the same letters and combinations for very different sounds. For example, "-ough" was once a guttural but has become different in "through" (threw), "rough" (ruff), "dough" (doe) or "cough" (coff).
Many English-speaking countries spell words differently. Some words that are spelled one way in the United Kingdom and many other countries in the British Commonwealth are spelled differently in the United States.
Alphabets
There are 26 letters in the English alphabet:
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Vocabulary
Nearly 60% of the vocabulary in the English language comes from Latin and its descendants, mainly French:
Langue d'oïl (French): 29.3%
Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin and Frankish (Germanic language): 28.7%
Germanic languages: 24% (inherited from Old English/Anglo-Saxon, Proto-Germanic, Old Norse, etc. without including Germanic words borrowed from a Romance languages)
Greek: 5.32%
Italian, Spanish and Portuguese: 4.03%
Derived from proper names: 3.28%
All other languages: less than 1%
However, the most common words are more often those of Germanic origin. Also, expressions and typical short phrases are often of Germanic origin.
Related pages
Indian English
American English
Australian English
British English
Canadian English
Jamaican English
South African English
New Zealand English
Pakistani English
Scottish English
References
Other websites
BBC resources for English language students
Resources for English language students
The main points of English grammar, clearly presented with examples
Activities for English language students
Tools For English Language |
2846 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trier | Trier | Trier is a city at the Moselle River in Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. The population is about 100,000.
Trier is famous for some Roman buildings like the Porta Nigra and others. It is famous as the birthplace of Karl Marx. Trier is also famous for the wine of the wine-growing-region Mosel-Saar-Ruwer.
Districts
The districts of Trier with area and inhabitants (July 2007):
References
Other websites
www.trier.de
History of Trier (German and English)
Another Trier Daily Photo
Trier |
2860 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey | Turkey | Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country in both Europe and Asia. The area of Turkey is about .
Turkey is a republic. There are 81 provinces in Turkey. The money of Turkey is called Turkish Lira. The capital city is Ankara, a city in the central region, called Anatolia. The cultural and economic center is in the European side of Istanbul. In the past Istanbul was called Constantinople. The republic was founded in 1923, after World War I and a war of independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı). Before that, Turkey was the core of the Ottoman Empire.
Many civilizations were in the area that is now Turkey, like the Hittites, the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Many important events in the history of Christianity happened in places that are now in Turkey. Because it lies in both Europe and Asia, some people see Turkey as the "door" between them.
Modern Turkey's warm and varied climate lets many kinds of food crops grow, and livestock and forestry are important industries. Turkey makes enough food to feed itself. Turkish manufactures include airplanes, electronics, cars, clothing and textiles for home and for other countries.
Turkey is a popular place for tourists to visit. It has hundreds of kilometers of beautiful beaches on its Aegean and Mediterranean coasts, and many important historical places.
History
Ancient Anatolia
The first major empire in the area was the Hittites (from the 18th century to the 13th century BCE). The Hittites, who spoke one of the Indo-European languages, developed a high culture in Central Anatolia. Their kingdom was destroyed by the Sea People in the 11th century BCE and the successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.
From 1950 BCE, Armenians and Assyrians inhabited parts of southeastern Turkey. The Assyrian capital was named Tushhan (900-600 BCE). The Assyrians ruled over southeastern Turkey until their empire was conquered by Babylonia in 612 BCE. Then Anatolia became home for various kingdoms including the Achaemenid Empire, Hellenistic kingdoms, Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), Seljuk Empire, and Mongol Empire.
The Ottoman Empire
During the 14th century, after the fall of the Mongol Empire, Lord Osman built a new empire named after himself: the Ottoman Empire. It became one of the longest existing empires of all time. The Empire also stretched across the Balkans, (Yugoslavia and Bulgaria) in Europe. The Kingdom was ruled by Muslim law, but other religions had certain minority rights.
In World War I the Ottoman Empire was one of the Central Powers. During the war, 500,000 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were massacred in the so-called Armenian Genocide. Turkey denies that the event was genocide. The Central Powers lost the war and the Ottoman Empire was destroyed, but after that Atatürk led the army to get rid of foreign enemies, like the Greeks.
Republic of Turkey
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the first President of Turkey. He made many changes that made Turkey more modern. But some people did not like some of the changes that made life in Turkey more secular. Religious secondary schools were gotten rid of, for example. The opponents to Atatürk felt that he weakened Islam in the country. Later political disputes led to Coup d'état in 1960, 1971, and 1980, and several failed attempts.
For many years the Kurdistan Workers Party known as the PKK; abbreviation for Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan have been fighting the Turkish government. The PKK is a militant organisation a nationalist and separatist movement led by Abdullah Öcalan. Their aim is for the Kurds in the southeast of Turkey to have an independent Kurdistan or to have greater autonomy, with a government of their own. Because they use armed conflict, the Turkish government calls them terrorists. The European Union and United States also call them terrorists.
On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted.
In 2022, the government of Turkey started to use the Turkish spelling of Türkiye in both Turkish and English. However, Turkey remains the more common name.
People
About 80 million people live in Turkey. Most of them are ethnic Turks. About 15% are ethnic Kurds. Many refugees from Syria (over 3 million) live in Turkey because they have run away from the Syrian civil war. Many Romanlar live in Istanbul and Edirne (European part of Turkey).
The biggest city in Turkey is Istanbul which has the biggest population of any city in Europe. Much of the population in Turkey is made up of young adults and adults.
According to religiosity poll conducted in Turkey in 2019 by OPTİMAR, 89.5% of the population identifies as Muslim, 4.5% believed in God but did not belong to an organized religion, 2.7% were agnostic, 1.7% were atheist, and 1.7% did not answer. Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in 2020 interviewed 1,062 people in 12 provinces and found that 28.5% of the Generation Z in Turkey identify as irreligious.
Turkish people have many ethnic and famous foods, such as mantı (Turkish ravioli), döner, kebap, Turkish delight (lokum), baklava, lahmacun, börek, köfte, and other foods.
According to a study, Anatolia is genetically more closely related to the Balkan populations than to the Central Asian populations. The Turks of Anatolia (Asian part of Turkey) have only 13% of genes from populations from Central Asia.
Majority and minorities
The majority of Turkey is made up of Turks. The largest minority is Kurds. Kurds live mostly in Southeastern and Eastern Turkey. The second largest minority are Arabs. Mostly Romanlar live in East Thrace, the European side of Turkey.
Economy
Turkey is in the OECD and the G-20 and is one of the 20 largest economies. The Turkish currency is called the Lira. The first coins were made in Turkey.
In the 1970s, many Turks moved to other countries, like Germany, to escape the bad economy at the time and to get better jobs. They often come back to Turkey for summer holidays. Today, many of the people who left in the 1970s want to move back to Turkey.
Until the 1980s the government owned most companies, but then Prime Minister Turgut Özal sold them. Before, foreigners were usually not allowed to buy companies, land or property. Turkey's international trade is mostly with the EU, the United States, the Russian Federation, and Japan. Turkey and the EU agreed not to put a lot of tax on what they buy and sell to each other. After that it was easier for Turkish factories to sell products to the EU and for business people in the EU to buy companies in Turkey.
Turkey's exports in 2010 were worth 117 billion United States dollars.
Earthquakes in 1994, 1999, and 2001 slowed economic growth a bit. Turkey has no petroleum or natural gas so it buys them from other countries, like Russia. In 2010, oil was found in the Turkish City of Diyarbakir, but there was not enough oil to extract. Turkey is searching for natural gas in Turkish Northern Cyprus.
Rich cities in Turkey include Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Edirne, Konya, Mersin (also known as İçel), and Antalya.
Culture
Language
Most people in Turkey speak Turkish. It is written in Latin script and it belongs to the Turkic language group, which also includes many other languages spoken across Asia, such as Azerbaijani and Tatar. The Turkish language came from Central Asia, but now it is a bit different from the languages spoken in Central Asia. Turks living by the Mediterranean have southern, much thicker, and more masculine accents than western Turkey. Northerners, by the Black Sea have softer accents.
In Turkey there are also minorities who speak languages such as Arabic, Kurdish, Armenian, Greek or Ladino, Romani and many others.
Many of the young adults can also speak English, which is taught throughout Primary, Middle and High school.
Lifestyle
Turkish culture is a diverse culture, with some European influence.
Different parts of Turkey have similar but not exactly the same lifestyles. Central Turkey and Northern Turkey are somewhat more conservative and religious. Western Turkey and Southern Turkey, especially coastal cities are more liberal and secular. Eastern Turkey and Southeastern Turkey are made up of mostly Kurds–most of them are conservative and religious. Cosmopolitan neighbourhoods in major cities of Turkey are overwhelmingly liberal and secular. Cities like Hatay and Mardin, where different religions coexist, and Eskişehir, which is the prominent college town of the country, also have cosmopolitan characteristics.
Collectivism is dominant in society rather than individualism. This is seen in everything from a civilian's worldview to the socio-political and socio-economic order of the country. People care a lot about what others think of them or their related ones. Sociologist Şerif Mardin, who argues that there is neighborhood watch in Turkish society, states that "There is no tolerance for deviations from norms in the Turkish tradition, a watching oppression is applied against individuals in this situation and this is not new."
Provinces
The capital and second-largest city of Turkey is Ankara. The largest and the most crowded city is Istanbul which is the only city in the world that has land on two different continents. The third largest city is the coastal city of İzmir which is the main port of the country. Turkey is divided into 81 provinces. Each province has its own little government but they can only make decisions about small things: the government in Ankara decides important issues. The provinces are in 7 regions. Each province is divided into districts. There are 973 districts altogether. The biggest Main City at the European Side of Turkey is Edirne in East Thrace.
Education
Turkey's literacy rate is currently 98.3%. People in Turkey have to go to school for 12 years.
Istanbul University was the first university in Turkey. It was established in 1453. Ankara University was the first university that was started after Turkey became a republic. It was established in 1946.
There were 6065 high schools in Turkey in 2002 according to Ministry of National Education.<ref></sup> </ref> In 2011, there were 166 universities in Turkey.
European Union
Some people have wanted Turkey to join the European Union (EU) since the 1990s. Negotiations to join began in 2005.
Earthquakes
The 1999 İzmit earthquake was an approximately 7.4 magnitude earthquake that struck northwestern Turkey on 17 August 1999, at about 3:02 am local time. 18.000 people died in the earthquake.
Many people have been killed by earthquakes in Turkey.
The New York Times estimated that over 570 people died in the Erzincan earthquake of 13 March 1992. The earthquake was a 6.8 on the Richter Scale.
Related pages
Turkish Cyprus
References
Other websites
CIA World Factbook - Turkey
Turkey - Citizendium
European Union candidate states |
2861 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomm | Thomm | Thomm is a village near Trier (at the Moselle River) in Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany.
Thomm is famous for an old Celtic stone, called Hinkelstein near the village and a big Celtic grave.
In further times there was a slate minor industry near Thomm.
Thomm is also famous for its cider, an apple-wine.
The FIA European Hill Climb Championship came to Thomm until 2011 and the FIA World Rally Championship until 2015.
Other websites
Gemeinde Thomm bei Trier an der Mosel - Willkommen - Welcome - Bienvenue - Welkom
Villages in Rhineland-Palatinate
Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate
Trier-Saarburg |
2862 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moselle | Moselle | The Moselle River (German: Mosel) is a river which flows through France and Luxembourg, then becomes part of the Rhine River after it flows into Germany. It is long.
Important cities at the Moselle river are Metz, Thionville, Trier, Bernkastel-Kues and Koblenz.
The valley of the Moselle river is famous for the wine of Elbling, Riesling, and Müller-Thurgau - grapes in the wine growing region Moselle-Saar-Ruwer.
Tributaries
From the left:
Madon,
Terrouin,
Esch,
Rupt de Mad,
Orne,
Fensch,
Gander,
Syre,
Sauer,
Kyll,
Salm,
Lieser,
Alf,
Endert,
Brohlbach,
Elz.
From the right:
Moselotte,
Vologne,
Meurthe,
Seille,
Saar,
Olewiger Bach,
Avelsbach,
Ruwer,
Feller Bach,
Dhron,
Ahringsbach,
Kautenbach,
Lützbach,
Flaumbach,
Altlayer Bach,
Baybach,
Ehrbach.
Other websites
German page
Geography of Rhineland-Palatinate
Geography of Saarland
Rivers of France
Rivers of Germany
Rivers of Luxembourg
Grand Est |
2866 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible | Bible | The Bible, also known as the Holy Bible, is a group of religious texts of Judaism and Christianity, it contains the both Old Testament and The New Testament. The word Bible comes from the Greek word τὰ (biblía) which means "books" in English, because it is many books in one book. It includes laws, stories, prayers, songs, and wise words. A number of texts are both in the Hebrew Bible, used by Jews, and this Christian one.
In considering the source and inspiration for the Bible one must see what the Bible says of itself. Several verses of scripture define the source, intent, and Author. 2 Peter 1:21 says this - "No prophecy was ever made by the act of human will, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God." Isaiah 55:11 tells us that His is a word of power - "So shall My sword be that goes forth from My mouth; It shall not return to Me void, But it shall accomplish what I please, And it shall prosper in the thing for which I sent it." Hebrews 4:12 says this - "For the word of God is alive and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart."
When talking about the Bible, a book is used to speak about a number of texts. All the texts that make a book are believed to belong together. Most of the time, people believe they were written or collected by the same person. The Bible contains different kinds of such books. Some are history, telling the stories of the Jews, Jesus, or Jesus' followers. Some are collections of wise sayings. Some are God's commands to his people, which he expects them to obey. Some are songs of praise to God. Some are books of prophecy, messages from God that he gave through chosen people called prophets.
Different groups of Christians do not agree which texts should be included in the Bible. Christian Bibles range from the 66 books of the Protestant canon to 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The oldest surviving Christian Bible is the Codex Sinaiticus, a Greek manuscript from the fourth century AD. The oldest complete Hebrew manuscripts date from the Middle Ages.
How it was written
For a long time the texts were passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation. The Bible was written long ago in Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek. Translations were made later into Latin and some other languages. Now there are translations in English and many other languages. The books of the Hebrew Bible—what Christians call the Old Testament—were not all written at the same time. It took hundreds of years (about 1200 years). The process of putting it all together began around 400 B.C. The books of the New Testament, which was originally written in Greek, began to be collected together in about 100 A.D. It tells about events that happened between 4 B.C. and 70 A.D. These events included the birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus. It also tells how his followers went around spreading his message. It ends with a description of how the world will end when Jesus returns to earth. Most of the writers of the New Testament were apostles of Jesus. These were people who said they had seen Jesus alive after his crucifixion.
Translations and versions
A translation is when a scribe takes the source in one language and writes it in another language. Most texts of the Bible were written in Ancient Greek or in Aramaic or Hebrew.
The first to provide a translation into Latin was Jerome, in the 5th century. He started what is known as the Vulgate today. Wufila translated the Bible into the Gothic language. In the early Middle Ages, people such as Petrus Valdes, and Jan Hus provided translations.
The New Testament was first translated into English in 1382 by John Wycliffe, and his associates translated the Old Testament. The translation was made from the Vulgate Latin bible. Wycliffe did this so that people could see for themselves what the Bible said. The translation was completed in 1382. There were some later editions by other people to the Wycliffe bible, as it is called. It was translated into Middle English, the language of his day. Wycliffe did not have Church permission to do this, but he was protected by John of Gaunt, one of the most powerful men in the kingdom. After both Wycliffe and his protector were dead, the Church declared Wycliffe a heretic in 1415, and banned his writings. The Council of Constance decreed Wycliffe's works should be burned and his remains exhumed (dug up). Why was the Church so opposed? The translations challenged the Church's authority over the people. In church, explaining the Bible was the priest's work. Whatever he said could not be challenged. Once the ordinary people could read the Bible, they might have other opinions.
The next step in translation was done in 1525 by William Tyndale. His translation was into Early Modern English, which we can just about understand today. Tyndale also did it without Church permission. His was the first translation to be printed, and several thousand copies were made. He had no protector, and his fate was terrible. He fled to Europe, but the agents of Thomas More (Chancellor of England at the time) eventually found him. Both Tyndale and his printer were executed by burning at the stake.
Another well known translation is the 1611 King James translation (commonly known as the Authorized King James Version of the Bible).
Some texts were written by historians who tried to show what Ancient Israel was like. Other texts are poems about God and his work. And others were used to make laws. Followers of Judaism and Christianity consider the Bible sacred but they do not all agree about what belongs in the Bible. What is considered part of the Bible changed with history. Different denominations include certain parts or leave out other parts. There is not one single version of the Bible; both the content of the books and their order may change.
Languages do not match. When a translation is done, the translator has to decide between translation word for word, or capturing the sense of the text. When he decides to capture the sense, he will choose other words in the target language. This is called paraphrasing.
Today there are dozens of versions of the Bible. Some are translations and some are paraphrases. A paraphrased version is where people take a translation and put it in their own words. As the Bible has been translated into modern languages, it is also possible that there are different translations of the same texts. The Bible is the best selling book of all time. 2.5 billion to more than 6 billion copies of the Bible have been sold to date. A complete version of the Bible exists in 471 languages. Parts have been translated in 2225 languages. Most Bibles can be found in the British Museum in London.
Old Testament
The Christian Bible is a collection of 66 books. The first 39 books are the Old Testament. It is the first part of the God's story of salvation. "Salvation" is God's long work of saving us from our sins. "Sin" is what happened when people decided to live their own way instead of God's way in the world that God created. That was when God began His great work of saving us from our sins.
To prepare the way, God had to destroy the whole world by a great flood, except for the family of Noah. Then God raised up a new people for Himself. They were the ancient Hebrews. God promised the Hebrews they would bring His salvation to the whole world.
The first five books of the Old Testament are mostly the story of how God chose the ancient Hebrews and taught them his laws. Following these are the twelve books that tell the history of the Hebrews. The next five are books of poetry and wisdom. One of these five books, the "Psalms", is a book of songs showing mainly how God wants to be worshiped.
The last seventeen books of the Old Testament were written by Hebrew prophets. These books tell about God's disappointment with the ancient Hebrews and His promise to bring them back to friendship with Him. The prophets also foretell a great surprise God was planning for the world-He was going to send His very own Son, the Messiah (the "Anointed One"), the Saviour, to save us from our sins.
You can read about this Messiah in the New Testament.
In the Old Testament, Tanakh was mostly written in Hebrew; a few parts were written in Aramaic. This part of the Bible is considered to be holy by Jews as well as Christians.
There are also a few books of the Old Testament's time called Deuterocanonical by those Churches that accept them as part of the Bible, and Apocrypha by those that do not.
New Testament
The second part is called the New Testament. The main part of this book is the story of the life of Jesus Christ. The four different versions of this story in the New Testament are called the Gospels. After the Gospels, there is also the story of what happened to the Church after Jesus's death and resurrection. Part of this is told through letters by early Christian leaders, especially Saint Paul. The final book of the Bible tells about a vision that St. John, one of the disciples of Jesus, had. In the vision John saw what would happen at the end of the world. This included judgement for evil and happiness for the people who had followed Jesus. One of the most quoted verses in the Bible is John 3:16: "For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish [die] but have eternal life." NIV
Views about the Bible
People have different ideas about the Bible. Christians believe it is God's Word to people. The Jews believe that only the Old Testament is from God. Protestants and Catholics believe that the Old and New Testaments are God's Word. Catholics also believe that the books called Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical are part of the Bible. Sometimes different denominations disagree over exactly what the Bible means.
According to Islam, the Injil itself is to be followed but it is believed to have been corrupted with time. The Qur'an is believed to be the successor.
Atheists do not believe that gods exist, so the Bible is only an ancient book.
Deists believe in God, but they believe that the Bible was written by people, so they don't see it as important.
Some people in the Bible
Abraham
King David
Isaac
Jacob
James (son of Zebedee)
Jesus Christ
John the Apostle
Joseph
Luke the Evangelist
Mark the Evangelist
The Virgin Mary
Matthew the Evangelist
Moses
Joshua
Noah
Saint Peter
Saint Paul
Timothy
Adam
Eve
References
Entre Galilée et l'Église : la Bible., Une mise au point. Étude. Joël COL. , AutoEdition Méguila, 2003.
Other websites
The Bible Gateway: the complete Bible online
The Bible in Simple English |
2871 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavaria | Bavaria | Bavaria (; , ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (, ; ), is a State (Bundesland) of Germany. The territory of this state is the largest of the 16 German states. The state capital is Munich with 1.3 million people. About 12.5 million people live in Bavaria.
Like many German states, Bavaria was once independent. Ludwig II of Bavaria was its last independent king. Bavaria joined the German Empire in 1871.
Structure
Bavaria has seven parts: Oberbayern (Upper Bavaria), Niederbayern (Lower Bavaria), Schwaben (Swabia), Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia), Unterfranken (Lower Franconia), Oberfranken (Upper Franconia) and Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate). Bavaria has 71 districts and 25 free cities.
The highest point is the Zugspitze, which is also the highest mountain in Germany. Munich is the largest city, the second biggest city is Nuremberg (Nürnberg), which is famous for its gingerbread, a kind of Christmas bread that is often shaped like a Christmas tree, a snowman or Santa Claus.
Pope Benedict XVI was born in Bavaria.
Administrative divisions
Administrative regions
Bavaria is divided into seven administrative regions called (singular ). For every Administrative regions exist a state agency called (district government).
Altbayern:
Upper Palatinate
Upper Bavaria
Lower Bavaria
Franconia:
Upper Franconia
Middle Franconia
Lower Franconia
Swabia:
Swabia
Districts (Bezirke)
Bavaria has "Bezirke" or districts; the others are the and the or . The in Bavaria are identical with the . In the other larger states of Germany, there are only as administrative divisions and no self-governing entities at the level of the as the in Bavaria.
Population and area
Districts
Bavaria is made up of 71 rural districts that are comparable to counties, as well as the 25 independent cities, both of which share the same administrative responsibilities and duties.
Rural districts:
Independent cities:
Municipalities
The 71 rural districts are on the lowest level divided into 2,031 regular municipalities. Together with the 25 independent cities, there are a total of 2,056 municipalities in Bavaria.
In 44 of the 71 rural districts, there are a total of 215 unincorporated areas (as of 1 January 2005), not belonging to any municipality, all unsettled and unpopulated, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes (-without islands, -without island , , which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and ).
Major cities and towns
Source: Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung
Notes
References
Sources
Other websites
Official government website
Official website of Bayern Tourismus Marketing GmbH
Bavarian Studies in History and Culture
Außenwirtschaftsportal Bayern
Statistics
States of Germany |
2875 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome | Rome | Rome (Latin: Roma) is the capital city of Italy. It is also the capital and largest city in the region of Lazio, and the geographical region of Latium. It is on the Tiber River and has 2.8 million people. An estimate by the OECD put the number of people of the city area of Rome at 3.47 million. When the Roman Empire was new, Rome was called the Eternal City because it was already very old.
Rome is well known for being the home of the Catholic Church, including its leader, the Pope. He lives in the Vatican City, which is an enclave in the north-west part of Rome.
History
Nothing is known for sure about the founding of ancient Rome; it is prehistoric. The myth of Romulus and Remus is often told. They were supposedly raised by a she-wolf. Romulus killed Remus, and became the first king of Rome, for some time Romulus ruled alongside a Sabine King a neighboring tribe. There is no historical evidence of this, but the story is popular. Numa Pompilius was the next king.
With the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom began the Republican era. The new Roman Republic fought and conquered the people around it. In 390 BC, the town was invaded by Gauls. Between the third and second century BC, Rome fought against the rival Carthage. The Roman army captured and destroyed Carthage.
Only with Julius Caesar in the first century BC, did the city began to grow significantly, especially toward the Campo Marzio, at the north of Capitoline Hill, and its domain was extended to Britannia. Caesar was never crowned emperor, a title which, however, fell to his adopted son Octavian who took the throne under the name of Augustus.
Augustus "found a city of bricks and left it marble". With him, Rome reached one million inhabitants and this was the first time in history that has happened in the world. Later emperors also added new monuments, temples, and triumphal arches to ancient Rome.
With the decline of the Roman Empire, the city declined in importance and fell into ruin. Pope Gregory I created major reforms for the people. The city was ruled by the pope, and soon also became the capital of a state, the Papal States, which remained active until the nineteenth century. Popes, like the emperors, became richer over the centuries and the same happened with the counties ruled by them.
Rome experienced a second "rebirth" in importance during the Italian Renaissance. The city of monuments and churches was called the "capital of Christendom", as the home of the Basilica di San Giovanni Lateran, the most important church of the world. The masterpieces of the Renaissance geniuses, like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, embellished the city.
The power of the Pope lessened along with its state.
But with the Italian Risorgimento Rome experienced a third "rebirth". On September 20 1870, Garibaldi's army, which had the task of uniting all of Italy under the crown of Savoy, entered the city through a breach opened in the walls at Porta Pia and, the same year, Rome became the capital of the new Italian state. In a few decades Rome grew to be one of the most important capitals of Europe and of the world: in 1936 it was the capital of the Italian Empire, even if for a few years because of the second world war.
Today, Rome is a major European political and cultural center, containing the headquarters of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. There are also numerous museums, basilicas and palaces, such as the Colosseum, and, in the Vatican City, St. Peter's Basilica, a brilliant example of the architecture of the Renaissance which can be found all over Rome.
Geography
Rome stands on seven hills, with an area of . The city is crossed by two rivers: the Tiber, which runs from east to west, and l'Aniene, which runs from north-east to north – within the city, it flows into the Tiber. Rome was built on Sun Hill, later named Palatine. It grew and covered seven principal hills, which are now the inner city of Rome:
Palatine
Aventine
Capitoline
Quirinal
Viminal
Esquiline
Caelian
Climate
Rome has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), with cool, humid winters and warm, dry summers. Its average annual temperature is above 20°C (68°F) during the day and 10°C (50°F) at night.
Education
The children in Rome have to go to school from the age of six until 16. This takes them to the middle of high school (Scuola secondaria di secondo grado). Rome has the biggest university in Italy and it is named University of Rome. It was created in 1303. About 200,000 students go to study at this university.
Transport
Rome has an airport, which is named Leonardo da Vinci International Airport (IATA: FCO). There is a fast train that goes between the airport and the city center, the Leonardo Express, and many commuter railway lines to the nearby suburbs, along with long-distance trains to other cities in Italy. In the city itself, public transport consists of three metro lines (A, B, and C), six tram lines, and many bus routes.
Buildings
Rome has many old, famous buildings. In recent centuries, the city has become an important tourist attraction.
The Vatican
Cinecittà Studios
Roman Forum
Colosseum
The Temple of Antonius and Faustina (141 )
The Temple of Julius Caesar (29 )
The Temple of Vesta (7th century )
The Temple of Castor and Pollux (484 )
The Arch of Augustus (29-19 )
The Forum of Caesar (54 )
The Forum of Augustus (2 )
The Temple of Venus and Rome (135 )
Circus Maximus
The Baths of Caracalla (212–216 )
Pantheon
Related pages
Ancient Rome
Notes
References
Other websites
Rome -Citizendium
Ancient Rome first days
Olympic cities
Regional capitals in Italy |
2876 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivore | Carnivore | For animals of the mammal order, see Carnivora.
A carnivore is an animal which eats only meat. Predators commonly hunt and kill their own prey. Scavengers are carnivores which eat animals they did not kill themselves. Carnivores which eat mainly or only insects are called insectivores. Carnivores which eat mainly or only fish are called piscivores.
The word "carnivore" describes more than just the scientific order Carnivora. However, almost all animals in the Carnivora do eat meat, though a few do not.
List of living carnivores
Mammals
All feliforms, such as domestic cats, big cats, hyenas, mongooses, civets
Almost all caniforms, such as the dogs, wolves, foxes, ferrets, seals and walruses
All cetaceans, such as dolphins, whales and porpoises
All bats except fruitbats
The carnivorous marsupials, such as the Tasmanian devil
Birds
All birds of prey, such as hawks, eagles, falcons and owls
All vultures, both old world and new
Most waterfowl, such as gulls, penguins, pelicans, storks, and herons
Reptiles
All crocodilians, such as alligators, crocodiles, gharials and caimans
All snakes, such as cobras, vipers, pythons and boas
Some lizards, such as most skinks and all monitor lizards
Some turtles, including the snapping turtle and most sea turtles
Fish and amphibians
All frogs and toads
Almost all sharks, such as tiger, great white, nurse and reef sharks
Most teleosts, such as tuna, marlin, salmon, and bass
Invertebrates
Most crustaceans, such as the coconut crab are mainly omnivorous, but eat some prey and carrion
Many molluscs, such as octopus and squid, and some gastropods
All arachnids, such as spiders and scorpions
Many insects, such as mantises, dragonflies and most wasps
All jellyfish and sea stars
Related pages
Theropod
Insectivore
Herbivore
Omnivore
References |
2878 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne | Cologne | Cologne (, Kölsch: Kölle) is a city on the Rhine River in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. About 1,060,000 people live there, making Cologne the biggest city in North Rhine-Westphalia. It is in the southern part of the 'Rhine-Ruhr agglomeration' of cities with a combined total population of about 10 million people. This is one of the most densely populated areas of the world.
Cologne has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
History
The city was founded by the Romans in the year 50 AD. Before that, it was a Roman castle ("castellum") and a town inhabited by a local German tribe named Ubier at least for 100 years. Archaeologists have found out that the surrounding area was populated already during the Stone Age.
Traditionally, the city was always Roman Catholic. That changed only recently after the Second World War,as a result of massive immigration of Protestants from the East of Germany. Still the largest number of people, 41.6%, are Roman Catholic, compared to 17% Protestant. 10% of the people are Muslim.
Sights
The most interesting thing to see there is Cologne Cathedral. This church was built from about 1248 to about 1550, but completed only in 1880. The United Nations list it as 'World Cultural Heritage'. Cologne's archbishop Rainald von Dassel brought the relics of the biblical Three Wise Men there in 1164. They are kept in a very beautiful golden shrine in the cathedral. Three golden crowns in the coat of arms of the city symbolize them. They made Cologne a major place of pilgrimage.
The University of Cologne alone has more than 50,000 students. It was founded 1919 and is one of the biggest universities in Germany. There are several specialized Schools in addition to the university. The Hochschule für Musik is the biggest Academy of Music in Europe. Cologne has two Colleges of Arts and the Sports College again is one of the biggest institutions of its kind worldwide.
Cologne has 31 museums and has one of the busiest train stations in Europe. It is the only train station located next to a big cathedral.
Culture
People in Cologne and nearby have their own dialect. They call it Kölsch. During carnival time it even appears on nationwide broadcasts.
Cologne has a handful of broadcasting stations. The Westdeutscher Rundfunk, part of the network ARD, is the biggest producer of television and radio programs in Germany.
Cologne is also famous for Eau de Cologne (Kölnisch Wasser).
Related pages
Berlin
Bonn (nearby city)
Düsseldorf (nearby city)
Frankfurt/Main
Hamburg
Leverkusen (nearby city)
Munich
References
Other websites
German page on the city
German page of the University
German page of the cathedral
German page of the broadcasting station Westdeutscher Rundfunk
Cities with more than a million inhabitants
Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
1st-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Germany
50 establishments |
2888 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal | Senegal | The Republic of Senegal (French République da Sénégal) is a country in West Africa. The capital is Dakar.
Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres. It has population of about 13 million. The climate is tropical with two seasons: the dry season and the rainy cold season. Senegal was given independence by France in 1960.
Major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, ship construction and repair. Peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, industrial tomato, cherry tomato, melon, and mango are important cash crops.
French is the official language. Since April 2012, Senegal's president has been Macky Sall.
History
In the 15th century, Portuguese people came to Gorée Island off the coast of Dakar. In the 17th century, French people and Dutch people came there, too. These European countries used the island as a trading post in slaves from the mainland, controlled by the Muslim Wolof Empires. Slavery was later made illegal by France, but soon after, around 1850, the French started to conquer the Wolof. By 1902 Senegal was a part of the French colony French West Africa.
In January 1959, Senegal and the French Sudan became one to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent on June 20, 1960, as a result of the independence and transfer of power agreement signed with France on April 4, 1960. This did not last long and Senegal and Mali broke apart into separate nations. Between 1982 and 1989, Senegal and The Gambia joined together to make Senegambia.
Geography
In the north of Senegal is the Senegal River. To the north of the river is Mauritania. The nation borders Mali in the east, Guinea-Bissau in the south, and Guinea in the south-east. The Gambia is another country inside of Senegal, along the Gambia River. It is about 300 km long.
The north of Senegal is part of the Sahel. The highest mountain is 581 m high. The rainy season is between June and October. The average temperature on the coast is about 24° C, and inland about 27° C.
Regions
Dakar
Diourbel
Fatick
Kaffrine
Kaolack
Kédougou
Kolda
Louga
Matam
Saint-Louis
Sédhiou
Tambacounda
Thiès
Ziguinchor
References
French-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation |
2889 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental%20biology | Developmental biology | Developmental biology is the study of how organisms grow and develop.
Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and morphogenesis. These are the processes which turn a zygote into an adult animal.
Cell differentiation
Differentiation is the formation of cell types, from what is originally one cell – the zygote or spore. The formation of cell types like nerve cells occurs with a number of intermediary, less differentiated cell types. A cell stays a certain cell type by maintaining a particular pattern of gene expression.293-5 This depends on regulatory genes.
Embryonic development
Embryogenesis is the step in the life cycle after fertilisation – the development of the embryo, starting from the zygote (fertilised egg). Organisms can differ drastically in the how embryo develops, especially when they belong to different phyla.
Growth
Growth is the enlargement of a tissue or organism. Growth continues after the embryonic stage, and occurs through cell division, enlargement of cells or accumulation of extracellular material. In plants, growth results in an adult organism that is strikingly different from the embryo. The dividing cells tend to be distinct from differentiated cells (see stem cell).
In some tissues dividing cells are restricted to special areas, such as the growth plates of bones.467-482 But some stem cells move to where they are needed, from the bone marrow to form muscle, bone or adipose (fat) tissue.
Metamorphosis
Many animals have a larval stage, with a body plan different from that of the adult organism. The larva abrubtly develops into an adult in a process called metamorphosis. For example, caterpillars (butterfly larvae) are specialized for feeding whereas adult butterflies (imagos) are specialised for flight and reproduction. When the caterpillar has grown enough, it turns into an immobile pupa. Here, the imago develops from imaginal discs found inside the larva.575-585
Regeneration
Regeneration is the reactivation of development so that a missing body part grows back. This phenomenon has been studied particularly in salamanders, where the adults can reconstruct a whole limb after it has been amputated. Researchers hope to one day be able to induce regeneration in humans. There is little spontaneous regeneration in adult humans, although the liver is a notable exception. Like for salamanders, the regeneration of the liver involves reversing some cells to an earlier state.592-601
Related pages
Evolutionary developmental biology
References |
2891 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity | Solidarity | Solidarity can refer to:
Solidarity (Polish trade union), a Polish trade union originally led by Lech Wałęsa;
Solidarity, a United States political party from the fusion of the International Socialists, Socialist Unity, and Workers' Power;
Solidarity, a newspaper published by the Alliance for Workers Liberty in the UK.
Solidarity = feeling of unity based on respect, support, equality, common values, welcoming actions, diversity, community, etc. |
2896 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924 | 1924 | 1924 was a leap year starting on Tuesday.
Events
January 22 – Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister.
February 8 – The first execution with gas was in Carson City, Nevada.
February 14 – IBM founded.
March 25 – Greece proclaims it is a republic.
May 4 – The 1924 Summer Olympics begins.
May 10 – J. Edgar Hoover appointed head of FBI
December 24 – Albania becomes a republic.
Births
January 8 – Ron Moody, actor
January 30 – Lloyd Alexander, writer (d. 2007)
April 3 – Marlon Brando, actor (d. 2004)
April 24 – Clement Freud, writer and politician (d. 2009)
May 1 – Terry Southern, writer (d. 1995)
May 22 – Charles Aznavour, singer, actor and composer
June 12 – George H. W. Bush, American politician, 41st President of the United States (d. 2018)
June 20 – Audie Murphy, World War II hero (d. 1971)
July 19 – Pat Hingle, American actor (d. 2009)
September 16 – Lauren Bacall, actress (d. 2014)
September 30 – Truman Capote, writer (d. 1984)
October 1 – Jimmy Carter, American politician, 39th President of the United States
November 20 – Benoit Mandelbrot, French-American mathematician (d. 2010)
December 2 – Alexander Haig, politician (d. 2010)
December 29 – Eve Poole, New Zealand politician (d. 1992)
Deaths
January 21 – Vladimir Lenin, first communist leader of the USSR
February 3 – Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States (b. 1856)
April 21 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress
June 3 – Franz Kafka, writer
June 10 – Giacomo Matteotti, Italian politician
3 August – Joseph Conrad, novelist
November 29 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian grand opera composer
Nobel Prize
Physics – Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn
Medicine – Willem Einthoven, (Dutch) invented the ECK
Literature – Wladyslaw Stanislaw Reymont, polish writer
Hit songs
"Alabamy Bound" w. B. G. De Sylva & Bud Green m. Ray Henderson
"All Alone" w.m. Irving Berlin
"Amapola" w. Joseph M. Lacalle (Sp) Albert Gamse (Eng) m. Joseph M. Lacalle
"At The End of The Road" w. Ballard MacDonald m. James F. Hanley
"Bagdad" w. Jack Yellen m. Milton Ager
"Big Bad Bill Is Sweet William Now" Ager, Yellen
"Big Boy" m. Milton Ager
"The Blues Have Got Me" Silver, Turk
"California, Here I Come" w.m. Al Jolson, Buddy de Sylva and Joseph Meyer
"Call Of The South" Berlin
"Charley, My Boy" w.m. Gus Kahn & Ted Fio Rito
"Copenhagen" w. Walter Melrose m. Charlie Davis
"Cover Me Up With The Sunshine Of Virginia" w. Sam M. Lewis & Joe Young m. George W. Meyer
"Deep In My Heart, Dear" w. Dorothy Donnelly m. Sigmund Romberg
"Does The Spearmint Lose Its Flavour On The Bedpost Over Night" w. Billy Rose & Marty Bloom m. Ernest Breuer
"Doo Wacka Doo" w. Clarence Gaskill & Will Donaldson m. George Horther
"Doodle Doo Doo" w.m. Art Kassel & Mel Stitzel
"Drinking Song (Drink! Drink! Drink!)" w. Dorothy Donnelly m. Sigmund Romberg
"The End Of The Road" w.m. Harry Lauder & William Dillon
"Everybody Loves My Baby" w.m. Jack Palmer & Spencer Williams
"Fascinating Rhythm" w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
"Follow The Swallow" w. Billy Rose & Mort Dixon m. Ray Henderson
"Golden Days" w. Dorothy Donnelly m. Sigmund Romberg
"The Half Of It Dearie Blues" w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
"Hard Hearted Hannah (The Vamp Of Savannah)" w.m. Milton Ager, Charles Bates, Bob Bigelow & Jack Yellen
"He's The Hottest Man In Town" Owen Murphy, Jay Gorney
"Honest And Truly" w. Leo Wood m. Fred Rose
"How Come You Do Me Like You Do?" w.m. Gene Austin & Roy Bergere
"I Want To Be Happy" w. Irving Caesar m. Vincent Youmans
"I Wonder What's Become Of Sally" w. Jack Yellen m. Milton Ager
"I'll See You In My Dreams" w. Gus Kahn m. Isham Jones
"I'm A Little Blackbird Looking For A Bluebird" w. Grant Clarke & Roy Turk m. George W. Meyers & Arthur Johnson
"I'm Coming At Your Call" w. Dorothy Donnelly m. Sigmund Romberg
"In Shadowland" w. Sam W. Lewis & Joe Young m. Ruth Brooks & Fred E. Ahlert
"Indian Love Call" (first published as "The Call") w. Otto Harbach & Oscar Hammerstein II m. Rudolf Friml
"It Had To Be You" w. Gus Kahn m. Isham Jones
"Jealous" w. Tommy Malie & Dick Finch m. Jack Little
"Jimtown Blues" w.m. Fred Rose
"June Brought The Roses" w. Ralph Stanley m. John Openshaw
"June Night" w. Cliff Friend m. Abel Baer
"Just We Two" w. Dorothy Donnelly m. Sigmund Romberg
"Keep Smiling At Trouble" w. Al Jolson & B. G. De Sylva m. Lewis E. Gensler
"Lazy" w.m. Irving Berlin
"Let Me Linger Longer In Your Arms" w. Cliff Friend m. Abel Baer
"Little Jazz Bird" w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
"Mama's Gone, Goodbye" w.m. A. J. Piron & Peter Bocage
"The Man I Love" w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
"Mandalay" w.m. Earl Burtnett, Abe Lyman & Gus Arnheim
"Mandy Make Up Your Mind" w. Grant Clarke & Roy Turk m. George W. Meyer
"Memory Lane" w. B. G. De Sylva m. Larry Spier & Con Conrad
"The Mounties" w. Otto Harbach & Oscar Hammerstein II m. Rudolf Friml
"My Best Girl" w.m. Walter Donaldson
"My Dream Girl, I Loved You Long Ago" w. Rida Johnson Young m. Victor Herbert
"My Time Is Your Time" w. Eric Little m. Leo Dance
"A New Kind Of Man With A New Kind Of Love For Me" w.m. Sidney Clare & Flatow
"Nobody's Sweetheart Now" w.m. Elmer Schoebel, Ernie Erdman, Gus Kahn & Billy Meyers
"O, Katharina" w. L. Wolfe Gilbert m. Richard Fall
"Oh Lady Be Good" w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
"Oh! Mabel" Gus Kahn, Ted Fio Rito
"Oh! Miss Hannah" w. Thekla Hollingsworth m. Jessie L. Deppen
"The One I Love Belongs To Somebody Else" w. Gus Kahn m. Isham Jones
"Parisian Pierrot" w.m. Noël Coward
"Prince Of Wails" m. Elmer Schoebel
"The Prisoner's Song" w.m. Guy Massey
"Red Hot Mama" w.m. Gilbert Wells, Bud Cooper & Fred Rose
"Rhapsody In Blue" m. George Gershwin
"Riverboat Shuffle" m. Hoagy Carmichael & Irving Mills
"Rose Marie" w. Otto Harbach & Oscar Hammerstein II m. Rudolf Friml
"See See Rider" w.m. Ma Rainey
"Serenade from The Student Prince In Heidelberg" w. Dorothy Donnelly m. Sigmund Romberg
"Shanghai Shuffle" w.m. Larry Conley & Gene Rodemich
"Shine" w. Cecil Mack & Lew Brown m. Ford T. Dabney
"So Am I" w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
"Somebody Loves Me" w. Ballard MacDonald & B. G. De Sylva m. George Gershwin
"South" m. Bennie Moten & Thamon Hayes
"Spain" w. Gus Kahn m. Isham Jones
"Stack O'Lee Blues" w.m. by Ray Lopez & Lew Colwell
"Sweet Little You" w.m. Irving Bibo
"Tea For Two" w. Irving Caesar m. Vincent Youmans
"Tell Her In The Springtime" w.m. Irving Berlin
"There's Life In The Old Girl Yet" w.m. Noël Coward
"Totem Tom-Tom" w. Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach m. Rudolf Friml
"Two Little Babes In The Wood" w.m. Cole Porter
"Wait'll You See My Gal" Sullivan, Wilber
"What'll I Do?" w.m. Irving Berlin |
2897 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929 | 1929 | Year 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar. By January 1 of this year, every state in the entire world had adopted the Gregorian calendar, having abandoned the Julian calendar.
Events
February 20 – American Samoa becomes organized as a territory of the United States
July 16 – The first Oscar-event
August 8 to August 29 – The German airship Graf Zeppelin makes a round-the-world flight. It was 49.000 km.
October 24 – The Black Friday
October 29 – The Black Tuesday
Births
January 15 – Martin Luther King Jr., civil rights leader
January 31 - Jean Simmons, actress
February 21 - Roberto Gómez Bolaños, actor, screenwriter, director, producer and comedian
April 1 – Milan Kundera, writer
April 6 – André Previn, composer, conductor
May 4 – Audrey Hepburn, actress
May 25 - Beverly Sills, American soprano
June 12 – Anne Frank, Dutch diarist of Jewish descent
June 18 - Carlo Airoldi, Italian marathon runner
June 20 - Edgar Bronfman, Sr., Canadian-American businessman
July 25 - Manuel Olivencia, Spanish lawyer and economist
July 28 – Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, First Lady of the United States, 1961-63
August 2 – K.M. Peyton, English writer
August 24 – Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestinian Authority
November 12 - Grace Kelly, actress and later Princess of Monaco
November 14 – McLean Stevenson, actor
December 13 - Christopher Plummer, Canadian-American actor
Deaths
February 8 – Maria Christina, Queen Regent of Spain
March 20 – Marshall Ferdinand Foch, (French)
April 4 – Karl Benz, German automobile pioneer
October 1 – Antoine Bourdelle, sculptor
Nobel Prize winners
Physics – Louis-Victor de Broglie, French physicist
Chemistry – Arthur Harden and Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin
Medicine – Christiaan Eijkman (Dutch physicist) and Frederick Gowland Hopkins
Literature – Thomas Mann, German writer
Peace – Frank Billings Kellogg
Hit songs
"Am I Blue?" by Ethel Waters
"Button Up Your Overcoat" by Helen Kane
"Heigh-Ho, Everybody, Heigh-Ho" by Rudy Vallee
"I Want To Be Bad" by Annette Hanshaw
"I'll Get By, As Long As I Have You" by Aileen Stanley
"I'm The Medicine Man For The Blues" by Ted Lewis & His Jazz Band
"If I Had A Talking Picture of You" by Johnny Hamp's Kentucky Serenaders
"Louise" by Maurice Chevalier
"Louise/So The Bluebirds And The Blackbirds Got Together" by Paul Whiteman's Rhythm Boys, featuring Bing Crosby
"Makin' Whoopie" by Eddie Cantor
"Maybe, Who Knows?" by Kate Smith
"Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out" by Bessie Smith
"Piccolo Pete" by Ted Weems & His Orchestra
"Singin' In The Rain" by Cliff Edwards
"Stardust" by Isham Jones & His Orchestra
"What Did I Do To Be So Black and Blue?" by Louis Armstrong & His Orchestra
"You'll Do It Someday, So Why Not Now?" by Rudy Vallee |
2898 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920s | 1920s | The 1920s was the decade that started on January 1, 1920 and ended on December 31, 1929. This decade was known as the Roaring Twenties or the Jazz Age.
The most important events
Golden Twenty
1920 – Prohibition began in the United States.
1922 – March on Rome
1922 – Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the Egyptian King Tutankhamun.
1922 – Southern Ireland gained independence from the United Kingdom.
1922 – The Soviet Union was founded.
1929 – The Black Tuesday, which leads to Great Depression.
Important people
World leaders
Prime Minister Stanley Bruce (Australia)
Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (Canada)
President Sun Yat-sen (Republic of China)
President Chiang Kai-shek (Republic of China)
President Friedrich Ebert (Germany)
President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany)
Ahmad Shah Qajar of Qajar dynasty (Persia/Iran)
Reza Shah Pahlavi of Pahlavi Dynasty (Iran)
King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
President W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
President Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) (Turkey)
Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
Pope Pius XI
Józef Piłsudski (Poland)
Vladimir Lenin (Soviet Union)
Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
King Alfonso XIII (Spain)
King George V (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister David Lloyd George (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Andrew Bonar Law (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
President Woodrow Wilson (United States)
President Warren G. Harding (United States)
President Calvin Coolidge (United States)
President Herbert Hoover (United States)
Charlie Chaplin (entertainer)
Albert Einstein (German physicist)
Paul von Hindenburg (president of Germany)
King George V (King of the United Kingdom)
Vladimir Lenin (leader of the USSR)
Pope Pius XI (Pope in the 1920s)
Joseph Stalin (leader of the USSR)
King Victor Emmanuel III (king of Italy) |
2899 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer%20space | Outer space | Space, also known as outer space, is the near-vacuum between celestial bodies. It is where everything (all of the planets, stars, galaxies and other objects) is found.
On Earth, space begins at the Kármán line (100 km above sea level). This is where Earth's atmosphere is said to stop and outer space begins. This is not a natural boundary but is a convention used by scientists and diplomats.
However, the space near Earth is quite crowded by astronomical standards. A list of spaces goes like this:
Geospace is the region of outer space near Earth; Geospace includes the upper region of the atmosphere and the magnetosphere. The Van Allen radiation belt lies within the geospace. The space inside the magnetosphere is protected from radiation from the Sun. It has a low level of electrically charged particles.
Interplanetary space is the space around the Sun and planets of the Solar System. It has the solar wind, a continuous stream of charged particles from the Sun. This stream creates a very thin atmosphere (the heliosphere) for billions of miles or kilometers into space. Interplanetary space has the magnetic field generated by the Sun. Planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and the Earth also have magnetospheres. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of magnetic particles such as the Van Allen radiation belt. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually stripped off by the solar wind.
Interstellar space is the physical space within a galaxy not occupied by stars or their planetary systems. It continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void. Most of the mass in this space is made up of single hydrogen atoms, fewer helium atoms and a few heavier atoms formed in stars. Supernovae blow some of their atoms huge distances. A number of molecules and tiny 0.1 μm dust particles do exist in interstellar space. About four new types of molecule are discovered each year. Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds allow chemical reactions to occur. This includes organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions.
Intergalactic space does have 'cosmic voids' between the large-scale structures of the universe.
Exploration
Exploring space is very difficult because it contains no air and is so large that even the fastest ships can only explore a tiny part of it. It takes 3 days of traveling to reach the Moon and, depending on speed, it would take a long time to reach the closest star Proxima Centauri.
Manned spacecraft are designed to keep good air inside them and to protect astronauts from extreme temperatures.
We gain most of our information about the items in space from different kinds of telescopes. Some of them are space telescopes, put in outer space for a better view. Space probes also explore planets, comets and other space objects that are not too far.
Related pages
Space-time
Black hole
Galaxy
Universe
Astronomy
References
Astrophysics
Space |
2900 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20satellite | Natural satellite | A natural satellite in astronomy is a smaller body which moves around a larger body. The smaller body is held in orbit by gravitation. The term is used for moons which go around planets, and it is also used for small galaxies which orbit larger galaxies.
Bodies which orbit planets are called moons. They vary in size. The Earth has only one moon. Some other planets have many moons, and some have none. When people write just "the moon", they are usually talking about the moon of the Earth. Earth's moon is written with a capital letter, Moon. The Latin word for the moon is luna, which is why the adjective used to talk about the moon is "lunar". For example, lunar eclipse.
Anything that goes around a planet is called a satellite. Moons are natural satellites. People also use rockets to send machines into orbit around the Earth. These machines are called artificial (man-made) satellites.
Earth's moon
Moons do not make their own light. We can see the Earth's moon because it acts like a mirror, and reflects the light of the Sun. The same half of the moon faces toward Earth at all times, no matter where it moves. But different parts of the moon are lit up by the Sun, so it looks different at different times of the month. This change as seen from Earth is called the phases of the moon, or lunar phases.
A moon's cycle is the time the moon takes to change from looking very bright and round to looking very small and thin, and then back to bright and round again. In the case of the Earth's moon, this is about four weeks. It does this about 13 times in one year. The moon's cycle is about 28 days, a bit shorter than a calendar month.
The Apollo 11 mission helped Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first people to walk on the Moon. They did this on July 20, 1969.
Orbits
The orbit of a moon or other satellite is affected by two forces: gravity, and the centripetal force.
For example, the Earth's moon is kept in orbit by the gravitational pull from the Earth. This is also the way the Earth is attracted to the Sun, and stays in its orbit. The orbit of the Earth's moon actually causes the tides and waves on Earth.
Moons of moons
No moons that belong to moons have been found. In most cases, the tidal effects of the main body would make such as unstable.
However, math completed after the recent finding of a possible ring system around Saturn's moon Rhea show that Rhean orbits would be stable. Also, the rings are thought to be narrow, something that is known with shepherd moons.
Asteroid moons
The finding of 243 Ida's moon Dactyl in the early 1990s was the proof that some asteroids have moons; indeed, 87 Sylvia has two. Some, such as 90 Antiope, are double asteroids with two same-sized parts.
Moons of the Solar System
The biggest moons in the Solar System (those bigger than about 3000 km across) are Earth's moon, Jupiter's Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), Saturn's moon Titan, and Neptune's captured moon Triton.
The following is a table grouping the moons of the solar system by diameter. The column on the right has some notable planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and Trans-Neptunian Objects for comparing. It is normal for moons to be named after people from mythology.
Planets that have moons
Planets in our Solar System that have moon(s):
Earth, 1 moon
Mars, 2 moons
Jupiter, 67 moons
Saturn, 62 moons
Uranus, 27 moons
Neptune, 14 moons
Dwarf planets that have moons
Eris, 1 moon
Pluto, 5 moons
Haumea, 2 moons
Planets not known to have moons
Planets in our Solar System that do not have moons:
Mercury
Venus
Makemake (dwarf planet)
Ceres (dwarf planet)
Galaxies
Galaxies are found in groups called galaxy clusters which are also held together by gravitation. Our own Milky Way is the second largest galaxy in our Local Group (the largest is Andromeda). Many smaller galaxies and star clusters are also held in the Local Group, outside the two main galaxies. They are all in orbits round one of the centres of gravity. That means most of them move round either Andromeda or the Milky Way. so it seems natural for astronomers to use the term 'satellite' for these as well.
Our Local Group is itself part of an even larger group, the Virgo Supercluster. There are other, even larger, groups of galaxies: see the Great Wall for an example.
References |
2901 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity | Gravity | Gravity, or gravitation is one of the fundamental forces of the universe. In this article, we discuss it in three parts:
Everyday sense: the force which causes objects to fall to the ground
Newton's laws: how gravity keeps the Solar System and most major astronomical objects together
Einstein's theory of general relativity: the role of gravity in the universe
Some physicists think gravity is caused by gravitons, but they are still unsure.
Everyday gravity
Weight vs mass
In everyday talk, we say things fall because the Earth's gravity pulls on them. We talk as if our weight was a "given". Actually, weight changes when the pull of gravity changes. The Moon is much smaller and the pull of gravity on the Moon is about 1/6th that of Earth. So any object on the Moon weighs 1/6th of its weight on Earth. What does not change is the amount of matter in an object. That is called conservation of mass. On Earth, mass and weight are the same for most purposes, though a sensitive gravimeter can detect the difference. The difference can be very different on another world such as the Moon.
From this we learn two things.
The <u/l>weight</u/l> of an object is variable; its <u/l>mass</u/l> is constant.
The pull of gravity varies according to the mass of an object. The Earth pulls more strongly than the Moon. A person also exerts a gravitational pull, but it is so tiny it can be ignored for all practical purposes.
The Earth has mass. Every particle of matter has mass. So the Earth pulls on every object and person, and they pull on the Earth. This pulling force is called "gravity" and it gives weight.
Gravity vs gravitation
These words mean almost the same thing in everyday use. Sometimes scientists use "gravity" for the force that pulls objects towards each other, and "gravitation" for the theory about the attraction.
History of gravitational theory
Galileo
According to one of his students, Galileo did a famous experiment about gravity where he dropped balls from the Tower of Pisa. He later rolled balls down inclines. With these experiments, Galileo showed that gravitation accelerates all objects at the same rate regardless of weight.
Kepler
Johannes Kepler studied the motion of planets. In 1609 and 1616 he published his three laws governing the shape of their orbits and their speed along those orbits, but did not discover why they moved that way.
Newton
In 1687, English mathematician Isaac Newton wrote the Principia. In this book, he wrote about the inverse-square law of gravitation. Newton, following an idea that had long been discussed by others, said that the closer two objects are to each other, the more gravity will affect them.
Newton's laws were used later to predict the existence of the planet Neptune based on changes in the orbit of Uranus, and again to predict the existence of another planet closer to the Sun than Mercury. When this was done, it was learned that his theory was not entirely correct. These mistakes in his theory were corrected by Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity. Newton's theory is still commonly used for many things because it is simpler and is accurate enough for many uses.
Dynamic equilibrium
Why does the Earth not fall into the Sun? The answer is simple but very important. It is because the Earth moving round the Sun is in a dynamic equilibrium. The speed of the Earth's movement creates a centrifugal force which balances the gravitational force between the Sun and the Earth. Why does the Earth continue spinning? Because there is no force to stop it.
Newton's first law: "If a body is at rest it remains at rest or if it is in motion it moves at the same speed until it is acted on by an external force".
There is a kind of analogy between centrifugal force and gravitational force, which led to the "equivalence principle" of general relativity.
Weightlessness
In free fall an object's motion balances out the pull of gravity on it. This includes being in orbit.
General relativity
The special theory of relativity describes systems where gravity is not an issue; by contrast, gravity is the central issue of the general theory of relativity.
In general relativity there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity is seen as changes in the properties of space and time. In turn, this changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow. The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy–momentum of matter. Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.
For weak gravitational fields and slow speeds relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation. Newton's equations are used to plan journeys in our Solar System.
General relativity has a number of physical consequences.
Time dilation and frequency shift
Gravity influences the passage of time. Light sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the opposite direction (i.e., climbing out of the gravity well) is redshifted; collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational frequency shift.
More generally, processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away; this effect is known as gravitational time dilation.
Light deflection and gravitational time delay
General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.
Closely related to light deflection is the gravitational time delay (or Shapiro delay), the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than they would in the absence of that field. There have been numerous successful tests of this prediction.
A parameter called γ encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of space.
Gravitational waves
Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime. They move as a wave, travelling outward from the source. Einstein predicted them in 1915 on the basis of his theory of general relativity. In theory, gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation. Sources of detectable gravitational waves might include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. In general relativity, gravitational waves cannot travel faster than the speed of light.
The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for measurements of the Hulse-Taylor binary star system. These measurements suggested gravitational waves are more than mathematical peculiarities.
On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On June 15, 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) are under construction.
Related pages
Escape velocity
General relativity
Newton's laws of motion
References
Other websites
Gravity Probe B experiment The Einstein website from Stanford University
Gravity for kids (useful Q & A)
How stuff works: How does gravity work?
NOVA - PBS NOVA. Galileo's experiments
Gravity - Kepler and Newton: excellent summary
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation on Project PHYSNET
PhysOrg.com. Alternative theory of gravity may explain large structure formation—without dark matter
Force
Basic physics ideas |
2902 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal%20force | Centripetal force | Centripetal force is an accelerating force that acts on any body that revolves around a centre. This force contributes to keeping the body in rotation. This force is always directed towards the centre.
The opposite force (by Isaac Newton's third law of motion) is called centrifugal force. This is the force that acts on the body in a direction away from the centre, which contributes to making the body try to fly away. When you hold a rope with a heavy object attached to it, and rotate it around, the rope becomes tight and keeps the body from flying away. This is caused by centripetal force.
An example is a roller coaster which uses centripetal force to accelerate the carts so they will keep going in a circular motion. Even if an object changes direction but maintains at a constant speed it still counts as acceleration.
Geometric proof for uniform circular motion
In the figure to the right we define the displacement vector to represent motion in a circle. The magnitude of is denoted as and represents the radius of the particle's orbit.
Force
Mechanics |
2904 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty | Treaty | A treaty is a written agreement between two or more parties. International treaties are covered by international law. The parties may be countries or other important groups. A treaty may be about any subject.
Two countries might agree to stop a war, or declare war on a common enemy. Very common are treaties where a country promises to come to the aid of another country if the other country is attacked. Treaties about trade are also common. They may allow allow each other's citizens or merchandise to cross borders freely. For example, the European Union is set up by treaties between most of the European nations. It arranges that trade of products and services is free between the member states of the European Union.
In general, treaties are usually used to settle disputes, or to avoid disputes.
Famous treaties
1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas
1783 - Treaty of Paris (1783)
1814 - Congress of Vienna
1840 - Treaty of Waitangi
1919 - Treaty of Versailles
1928 - Kellogg-Briand Pact
1935 - Roerich Pact
1938 - Munich Agreement
1944 - Bretton Woods Agreement
1945 - United Nations Charter (not strictly a treaty)
1947 - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
1949 - North Atlantic Treaty
1955 - Warsaw Pact
1957 - Treaty of Rome
1968 - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
1992 - Treaty of Maastricht
1993 - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
1998 - Good Friday Agreement
Related pages
Peace treaty |
2906 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg | Luxembourg | Luxembourg is a country in Western Europe; its official name is the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (, , ). It is a small country in land area. It was one of the first countries in the European Union. It is also a member of the Benelux. The countries next to Luxembourg are Belgium, Germany, and France. In 2015, its population was 569,700, making it one of Europe's most densely populated countries.
Timeline
963 - Luxembourg was founded. Sigefroid, Count of Ardennes, came to own the ruins of an old Roman fort called "Castellum Lucilinburhuc" ("Little Castle") from the monks of the Abbey of St. Maximin in Trier.
1354 - The emperor Charles IV made Luxembourg a duchy.
1437 - There were no people in the ruling family alive. The castle was given to the Habsburgs.
1443 - Luxembourg was captured by Philip of Burgundy.
1482 - Mary of Burgundy died. Luxembourg was ruled by the Habsburgs again.
1795 - After the French revolution Luxembourg was taken over by France. It became a département of France.
1815 - Luxembourg became a grand duchy. It was ruled by the king of the Netherlands.
1815-1866 - Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation.
1890 - After the death of William III, Luxembourg passed to the House of Nassau-Weilburg.
1914-1918 - Luxembourg was conquered by Germany during World War I.
1940 - The Germans returned during World War II, and in 1942 Luxembourg became part of the Third Reich.
1944 - Luxembourg became independent in September because the United States Army arrived.
1945 - Luxembourg joined the United Nations
1957 - Luxembourg became one of the first six members of the European Economic Community. That is now called the European Union.
2020 - Luxembourg became the first country in the world to make all public transport free to use.
Government
Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy lead by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is in the hands of the Governor and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers.
Districts, cantons, and communes
Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest.
Districts
The districts are
Diekirch
Grevenmacher
Luxembourg
Related pages
List of rivers of Luxembourg
Luxembourg at the Olympics
Luxembourg national football team
References
European Union member states
Benelux
Current monarchies
French-speaking countries
German-speaking countries |
2907 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg | Baden-Württemberg | Baden-Württemberg (, ; Alemannic German: Baade-Wiirdebäärg) is a federal state (Bundesland) in the southwestern region of Germany. It is the third largest German state by total area (after Bavaria and Lower Saxony) with a size of nearly 35,752 km² and population (after North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria) with over 11 million people as of 2017. It shares borders to the east with the state of Bavaria, to the north with the states of Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate, to the west with the country of France (along the river Rhine), and to the south with the countries of Switzerland and Austria. Its biggest cities are Stuttgart, the capital, Mannheim, and Karlsruhe. The Minister President is Winfried Kretschmann of the party Alliance '90/The Greens.
In 2017, Baden-Württemberg ranked 2 on the Human Development Index (HDI) among all states in Germany.
History
In 1952, the three states of Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern joined together to found Baden-Württemberg.
Politics
The Minister President is the chief of the government of Baden-Württemberg. The government is made up of ministers and state secretaries.
The CDU was the main political party in the state between 1953-2011, the Ministers President have all been members of the CDU. Between the years 1972 and 1992, the members of the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg were mostly members of the CDU. But the state is also a stronghold of the "Grünen" which were founded in the early 1980s in Karlsruhe. The election results of the Grünen in Baden-Württemberg have always been above the election average for the party in Germany.
Since 2016 there have been 5 parties represented in the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg:
Greens
Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
Alternative for Germany (AfD)
Social Democratic Party (SPD)
Free Democratic Party (FDP/DVP)
List of Ministers President since 1952:
Tourism
The Black forest, the Swabian Alb and the Lake Constance are world famous holiday regions. The highest mountain is the Feldberg (1492m).
Other important cities for tourism in Baden-Württemberg besides the capital city of Stuttgart are: Freiburg, Heidelberg, Rastatt, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Ulm, Ravensburg and Heilbronn.
The Danube, the Neckar and the Rhine are important rivers which are in the state.
Economy
Baden-Württemberg has the third largest economy in Germany after the economies of North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria. It had a gross regional product (GRP) of €524.33 billion in 2019.
Religion
In the northern part of Württemberg and the Kurpfalz the majority are Protestants. But the other parts of the state, especially the south, the majority are Roman Catholics.
Statistics for Baden-Württemberg:
Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Baden-Württemberg. The best clubs are the VfB Stuttgart and the Karlsruher SC (Karlsruher SC or KSC). Another popular sport is handball.
References
Other websites
www.baden-württemberg.de
www.baden-württemberg.de/en/home
Webportal Baden-Württemberg
1952 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in Germany |
2908 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna | Vienna | Vienna (; ; Central Austro-Bavarian: Wean ; Viennese German and Austrian German: Wian []) is the capital and largest city of Austria.
It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.
Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
History
The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona. The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.
In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).
In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.
During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.
In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.
During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.
At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.
After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.
Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)
After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).
After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.
Districts
There are 23 districts in Vienna. They are:
Sightseeing
Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.
St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:
Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna. The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by the architect Hans Hollein.
Ringstraße:
The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it. Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also, the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.
Hofburg:
From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.
Schönbrunn Palace:
Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.
Schloss Belvedere:
Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fought successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).
Culture
There are many old buildings, churches and museums in the city centre. Classical music and opera are popular in Vienna. The composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Brahms all worked in Vienna. Vivaldi also died in Vienna. The city has two world-famous orchestras: the Vienna Philharmonic and the Vienna Symphony.
Vienna is also the name of a song about the city, by the British group Ultravox.
Vienna is the home of the nationally successful soccer clubs SK Rapid Wien and FK Austria Wien.
References
Other websites
Official Website of the city of Vienna (English)
WorldFlicks in Vienna: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps
World Heritage Sites in Austria |
2909 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925 | 1925 |
Art, music, theatre, literature
Charlie Chaplin's The Gold Rush is released.
Events
January 21 – Albania becomes a republic.
July 18 – Adolf Hitler publishes his book Mein Kampf.
October 30 – The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird creates the first television transmitter in London.
November 9 – The NSDAP builts the SS (Schutzstaffel).
Births
January 7 - Gerald Durrell, British naturalist (d. 1995)
January 15 - Ernst Benda, German politician (d. 2009)
January 17 - Robert Cormier, American writer (d. 2000)
January 26 – Paul Newman, American actor (d. 2008)
February 8 – Sir Anthony Berry, British politician
February 8 - Jack Lemmon, American actor (d. 2001)
February 17 - Hal Holbrook, American actor (d. 2021)
February 20 – Robert Altman, American director and movie maker (d. 2006)
February 20 - Girija Prasad Koirala, Nepalese politician (d. 2010)
February 21 - Tom Gehrels, Dutch-born American astronomer (d. 2011)
February 21 - Sam Peckinpah, American movie director (d. 1984)
March 20 - David Warren, Australian inventor (d. 2010)
March 25 – Flannery O'Connor, Irish writer
April 10 - Marshall Warren Nirenberg, American scientist (d. 2010)
April 14 - Rod Steiger, American actor (d. 2002)
April 14 - Abel Muzorewa, Zimbabwean politician (d. 2010)
April 29 - Iwao Takamoto, Japanese-American animator (d. 2007)
May 1 - Scott Carpenter, American astronaut (d. 2013)
May 11 - Max Morlock, German footballer (d. 1994)
May 16 - Robert Pierpoint, American journalist (d. 2011)
May 19 - Malcolm X, American Civil rights leader (d. 1965)
May 23 - Joshua Lederberg, American biologist (d. 2008)
May 27 - Tony Hillerman, American writer (d. 2008)
May 28 - Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German operatic baritone (d. 2012)
June 3 – Tony Curtis, American actor (d. 2010)
June 8 - Barbara Bush, former First Lady of the United States (d. 2018)
June 21 - Maureen Stapleton, American actress (d. 2006)
June 29 - Giorgio Napolitano, President of Italy
July 1 - Farley Granger, American actor (d. 2011)
July 2 - Patrice Lumumba, Congolese politician (d. 1961)
July 23 - Tajuddin Ahmed, Bangladeshi politician (d. 1975)
July 23 - Quett Masire, former President of Botswana
July 29 - Mikis Theodorakis, Greek singer and politician
August 1 - Ernst Jandl, Austrian writer (d. 2000)
August 2 - Alan Whicker, British journalist and writer (d. 2013)
August 2 - Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentine military leader (d. 2013)
August 12 - Thor Vilhjalmsson, Icelandic writer (d. 2011)
August 15 - Oscar Peterson, Canadian musician (d. 2007)
August 27 - Nat Lofthouse, English footballer (d. 2011)
September 1 - Roy J. Glauber, American scientist
September 12 - Syed Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi politician (d. 1975)
September 15 - Carlo Rambaldi, Italian special effects artist (d. 2012)
September 16 - B. B. King, American musician
September 27 - Robert Edwards, British Nobel Prize-winning physiologist (d. 2013)
September 29 - Steve Forrest, American actor (d. 2013)
October 3 – Gore Vidal, American writer (d. 2012)
October 11 - Elmore Leonard, American novelist (d. 2013)
October 12 - Essie Mae Washington-Williams, American educator (d. 2013)
October 13 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian (d. 1967)
October 13 - Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2013)
October 16 - Angela Lansbury, British-born actress
October 17 - Harry Carpenter, German sports commentator (d. 2010)
October 18 - Ramiz Alia, last Communist leader of Albania (d. 2011)
October 21 - Celia Cruz, Cuban salsa singer (d. 2003)
October 29 - Robert Hardy, English actor
November 1 - Fritz Laband, German footballer (d. 1982)
November 10 - Richard Burton, Welsh actor (d. 1984)
November 11 - Jonathan Winters, American actor and comedian (d. 2013)
November 20 - Robert F. Kennedy, American politician (d. 1968)
November 24 - Simon van der Meer, Dutch scientist (d. 2011)
November 29 - Ernst Happel, Austrian footballer and coach (d. 1992)
December 2 - Julie Harris, American actress (d. 2013)
December 13 - Dick Van Dyke, American actor
December 23 - Mohammed Mzali, former Prime Minister of Tunisia (d. 2010)
December 28 – Hildegard Knef, German actress, singer and writer (d. 2002)
Deaths
February 28 - Friedrich Ebert, President of Germany
March 12 – Sun Yat Sen, Chinese revolutionary
March 20 – George Nathaniel Curzon, British statesman
November 20 – Queen Alexandra of Denmark
December 28 - Sergei Yesenin, Russian poet
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize in Physics – James Franck, Gustav Ludwig Hertz
Chemistry – Richard Adolf Zsigmondy
Literature – George Bernard Shaw, Irish playwright
Peace – Austin Chamberlain and Charles Gate Dawes |
2911 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope | Telescope | A telescope (from the Ancient Greek τῆλε, tele "far" and σκοπεῖν, skopein "to look or see"; τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos) makes astronomical objects appear closer to the naked eye. It is an important tool for astronomy that gathers light and directs it to a single point. Some do this with curved mirrors, some with curved lenses, and some with both. Telescopes make distant things look bigger, brighter and closer. Galileo was the first person to use a telescope for astronomy, but he did not invent them. The first telescope was invented in the Netherlands in 1608. Some telescopes, not mainly used for astronomy, are binoculars, camera lenses, or spyglasses.
When telescopes are used with just your eye, an eyepiece has to be used. These use two or more smaller lenses to magnify an image. Without an eyepiece, an eye can not focus the image. When a telescope is used with a camera or other special scientific tools, eyepiece lenses are not needed.
Most big telescopes for astronomy are made for looking very carefully at things that are already known. A few are made to search for things, such as unknown asteroids. A telescope made to be used with a CCD (Charge-Coupled Devices) camera instead of just your eye are sometimes called "Astrophotography". A Go-to telescope is needed to track Deep Sky objects and must be placed on a Alt-Azimuth Mount for the axis to point towards Polaris, this is called polar alignment.
The bigger the aperture (mirror) the more light the telescope collects. It makes faint objects appear clearer.
Telescopes can be used by normal people too, not just scientists. These are amateur telescopes, and they are usually smaller, and they don't cost too much for a normal person to buy. Some of the most popular amateur telescopes are Dobsonians, a type of Newtonian telescope.
The word telescope is usually used for light human eyes can see, but there are telescopes for wavelengths we cannot see. Infrared telescopes look like normal telescopes, but have to be kept cold since all warm things give off infrared light. Radio telescopes are like radio antennas, usually shaped like large dishes.
X-ray and Gamma ray telescopes have a problem because the rays go through most metals and glasses. To solve this problem, the mirrors are shaped like a bunch of rings inside each other so the rays strike them at a shallow angle and are reflected. These telescopes are space telescopes because little of this radiation reaches the Earth. Other space telescopes are put in orbit so the Earth's atmosphere does not interfere.
Telescopes are mostly used for looking at celestial objects such as, the stars, planets, etc.
Related pages
List of telescope types
Other websites
European Southern Observatory - OWL
The Resolution of a Telescope
Image of a Telescope
Telescope -Citizendium |
2913 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonym | Homonym | A homonym is a word that has more than one meaning. For example, right means moral, the opposite of left, and a personal freedom.
Definition: one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings.
The point is that homonyms are both homophones (they sound the same) and homographs (they look the same).
Related pages
Synonym
References
Words |
2914 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal | Principal | Not to be confused with principle.
A principal is a person who is in charge of something. The person is usually in charge of a school, or a research project, or a business.
see also headmaster
Occupations |
2915 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru | Peru | Peru is a country in South America. The capital is Lima. The ruins of Machu Picchu, the Andes mountains, and the source of the Amazon River are all found in Peru.
Peru is bordered to the north by Ecuador and Colombia, to the east by Brazil, to the south by Chile, and to the southeast by Bolivia. Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions and over 33 million people live in it.
Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821.
Peru suffered a terrible guerrilla war in the 1980s. The communist (Maoist) Shining Path tried to take over the country. But after the leader of the group was captured in 1992, Shining Path was not a threat anymore. During the 1990s, it was ruled by President Alberto Fujimori. During this time, the economy of Peru got better, and it became easier to start a company or operate a business. After Fujimori, Alejandro Toledo was elected President, and then Alan Garcia, who was President from 1985 to 1990, was elected again in 2006. Ollanta Humala was elected President in 2011 and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected President in 2016. In March 2018, Kuczynski resigned following political scandals and Vice President Martín Vizcarra was sworn-in as the next president.
Peru's most important exports, products that it sells to other countries, are fish, gold and other metals, oil, coffee, sugar, and cotton. Also, the food in Peru is very diverse, including typical dishes like Ceviche and Broiled Chicken.
Tourists from other countries like to come to Peru because of the history and also to enjoy nature. Many people come to climb mountains in the Cordillera Blanca in the Ancash Region, and many people visit Peru's long Pacific coast or the Amazon jungle. Cuzco and Machu Picchu are just two of the places where many buildings built by the Incas are still standing after hundreds of years, and these are some of the most visited places. The Incas were not the only tribe in Peru who left buildings and artifacts, but they were the most powerful.
Peru is divided into 25 regions of Peru regions. Lima is the capital and other main regions are Cuzco, Arequipa and Lambayeque. In the Amazon jungle region, we can find many important rivers and different animals, plants and people of many indigenous cultures.
Peru includes 29.5 million people.
The currency of Peru is the Nuevo Sol.
Demographics
The population of Peru is approx. 30 million. The ethnic composition of Peru is like the following:
44.0%: Mestizo.
31.0%: Native American.
15.0%: European.
7.0%: Mulatto.
2.0%: Black.
1.0%: Asians.
Economy
As of 2018, about 22.3% of the population lives below the national poverty line
History
Peru was the home of the Inca Empire. The Incas were a well-organized Indian civilization that began the city of Cuzco (now called Cusco). Beginning in the 1400s, they defeated many nearby tribes and built an empire in the Andes. The Inca forced the people to work for the king for a certain number of days every year. They used this "work tax" to build roads and terraces on the sides of the mountains to grow crops, and huge cities with rich palaces for the rulers and their queens. Records were kept on quipa, knotted ropes, since the Incas never invented writing. These could be quickly sent anywhere in the empire by a series of relay runners set up along the roads. Heavier loads were sent by llamas, the pack animals of the Andes.
The Incas were rich in gold and silver which could be found in the mountains. The Spanish wanted that treasure when they discovered the nation in the 1500s. Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish man, kidnapped and killed the Inca ruler in 1532, even after his people paid a huge amount of treasure for his release. The Incas fought the Spanish for many years, but the last Inca king was killed in 1572.
Peru was a Spanish colony until 1821. Spanish is still the main language of the people, although many also speak Quechua, the Inca language.
Related pages
List of rivers of Peru
Machu Picchu
Manú National Park
National University of San Marcos
Peru at the Olympics
Peru national football team
Lord of Miracles
References
Notes
Other websites
Peruvians in Germany
Peruvian Directory of websites
Spanish-speaking countries |
2916 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%20of%20Germany | States of Germany | The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) has 16 states (). The biggest is Bavaria and the smallest is Bremen. Most of them were created after the Second World War, although their historical roots can be traced back to the early Middle Ages in some cases.
State creation since 1949:
1952: Three small states (Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern, part of Germany since 1949) joined together to form Baden-Württemberg.
1957: The Saar, which was put under French administration after World War II, joined the Federal Republic of Germany as the Saarland.
1990: On German reunification, the reunited city of Berlin and the territory of the former German Democratic Republic joined the Federal Republic as six new states.
Population and area in km² as of November 2014. |
2917 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich | Munich | Munich ( ; ; ) is the third biggest city of Germany (after Berlin and Hamburg), and the capital of Bavaria. It has a population of 1,407,000. The metropolitan area of Munich includes the city itself, and all the suburbs around it, and has about 2.6 million people in it. It is one of the most important centres of the economy in Germany. It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
People of Munich
The official population of Munich city proper at 310.43 km2 is 1,368,840 inhabitants only with principal residence as of 31st January 2009. Around 176,000 inhabitants with secondary residence also live in administrative city limits but they are not calculated in this official census. According to some estimates that population counts around 200,000 people. The fast growing Munich urban area has 2,667,000 inhabitants (2008 estimate). Munich city with all suburbs at 12,000 km2 has 4,700,000 inhabitants and Munich metropolitan region that covers 27,700 km2 and includes Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Landshut, Rosenheim and Landsberg has around 6,000,000 inhabitants. Munich is the 12th largest city in EU by population within city limits and the 14th largest urban area in Europe. Its metropolitan area ranks among largest metro areas in Europe. As of December 2008, 47.3% of Munich's residents belong to no religious group, 38.3% are Roman Catholic, 14.0% are Lutheran Protestants and 0.3% are Jewish. There is also a small Old Catholic parish and an Episcopal Church.
History
1158 - The settlement was founded as Munichen by Henry the Lion
1255 - Residence of Upper Bavaria.
1806 - Munich became the capital of the Bavarian monarchy
1923 - Beer Hall Putsch of the Nazis
1939-45 - 45% was destroyed in World War II
1972 - 1972 Summer Olympics
1980 - Oktoberfest bombing
2016 - 2016 Munich shooting
Economy
Munich has the strongest economy of any German city. They have the lowest unemployment rate (5.6%) of any German city with more than a million people.
Munich is the largest publishing city in Europe. It is home to the Süddeutsche Zeitung, one of Germany's largest daily newspapers. Munich is also home to Germany's largest public broadcasting network, ARD, and its largest commercial network, Pro7-Sat1 Media AG. The headquarters of the German branch of Random House, the world's largest publishing house, is in Munich.
The Bavaria Film Studios are in the suburb of Grünwald. They are one of Europe's biggest and most famous movie production studios.
Lufthansa has opened a second hub at Munich's Franz Josef Strauss International Airport. It is the second-largest airport in Germany, after Frankfurt International Airport.
Sights and attractions
English Garden (Englischer Garten)
Deutsches Museum (Science Museum)
Oktoberfest
Frauenkirche (Cathedral of Our Lady)
Olympiaturm (Olympic Tower, a radio and TV broadcasting station)
Bavaria statue
Transportations
Airport
Munich Airport - Franz Joseph Strauss (IATA: MUC, ICAO: EDDM)
Public transportation
Munich has one of the most comprehensive systems in the world. There are subways, suburban trains, trams and buses.
Sports
Munich is the most successful city in Bundesliga history. FC Bayern Munich have won 20 national championship along with 13 DFB Cups, 5 UEFA Champions League/European Championship, 1 UEFA Cup and 1 UEFA Cup Winners Cup for 39 trophies.
Munich hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics. They were one of the host cities for the 2006 Football World Cup. Munich bid to host the 2018 Winter Olympic Games but lost to Pyeongchang. In September 2011 the DOSB President Thomas Bach said that Munich would bid again for the Winter Olympics in the future.
Sports clubs
Bayern Munich
TSV 1860 Munich
SpVgg Unterhaching (not really a club from Munich as Unterhaching is a rural town of its own)
Munich Irish Rovers FC
EHC Munich - Local professional hockey club.
Colleges and universities
Munich's universities are known for their high ranking in Germany.
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Technical University of Munich
Munich University of Applied Sciences
Sister cities
Bordeaux (France), since 1964
Cincinnati (US), since 1989
Edinburgh (Scotland), since 1954
Harare (Zimbabwe), since 1996
Kyiv (Ukraine), since 1989
Sapporo (Japan), since 1972
Verona (Italy), since 1960
Beers
Augustiner Bräu
Hacker-Pschorr
Hofbräu
Löwenbräu
Paulaner
Spaten-Franziskaner-Bräu
References
Other websites
http://www.muenchen.de - German page
Munich travel guide
Olympic cities
1158 establishments
12th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Germany |
2922 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin | Berlin | Berlin (; ) is the capital city of Germany. It is the largest city in the European Union by population, with around 3.7 million people in 2020. Berlin residents come from about 190 different countries.
The city is in the eastern part of Germany in Central Europe and is surrounded by many forests and lakes. Berlin has an area of . The rivers Havel, Dahme and Spree run through Berlin. It has a temperate climate.
Berlin is home to many famous buildings and monuments, like the Siegessäule, the Brandenburger Tor, the Reichstag and the boulevard Unter den Linden. On the boulevard is the Humboldt University. The city has many nightlife options.
Berlin is an important city for the history of Germany. The King of Prussia and the Emperor of Germany lived in Berlin. The government of Germany was in Berlin for many years. Bombs destroyed many buildings in the city in World War Two. The city was split into West Berlin and East Berlin after World War Two. After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 very few people were allowed to cross from East Berlin into West Berlin. The wall divided the city until 1989 when the East German government decided to allow anyone to cross, and people decided to tear down the wall.
Berlin is a world city of culture, start ups, politics, media and science. There are a lot of technology companies in the city. They are important for the city's economy. Many planes and trains travel to and from Berlin because the city is an important place for tourism and business.
History
1244 The first writings about a place called Berlin.
1451 The Hohenzollern family moved to Berlin as the place to rule their country
1618 – 48 After the Thirty Years' War in Germany, the number of people that lived in Berlin dropped to only 6000.
1701 Berlin became capital of Prussia.
1709 Berlin and its neighbor city Cölln (not Köln/Cologne) are combined to form the new Berlin.
1806 The army of Napoleon Bonaparte moved into Berlin.
1871 Berlin became capital of the German Empire.
1920 The Old Berlin and some neighbour towns are combined into "Greater Berlin" (Groß-Berlin).
1945 The town is divided into four sectors, used by the allies of World War II. There is a Soviet Sector, an American Sector, a British Sector and a French Sector.
1949 After foundation of the two Germanies, the town is still divided. There is now West Berlin and East Berlin.
1961 The Berlin Wall was built by the communist government of East Germany between the two halves of Berlin.
1990 After German reunification, the Berlin Wall is torn down, and there is only one Berlin again. The new Berlin becomes the capital of one Germany.
2001 23 boroughs of Berlin were changed into 12
2006 FIFA World Cup Final held at Olympiastadion
People
In 2018, Berlin had 3.75 million registered inhabitants in an area of . The city's population density was 4,206 inhabitants per km2. Berlin is the most populous city in Germany an the European Union. The entire Berlin-Brandenburg capital region has a population of more than 6 million in an area of . More than 2.0 million households were counted in the city. Around 60 percent of them were single-person households.
There are more than 20 communities with a population of at least 10,000 people in 2019, including German, Turkish, Polish, Syrian, Italian, Bulgarian, Russian, Lebanese, Palestinian, Serbian, Bosnian, Vietnamese, American, Romanian, Croatian, Chinese, Austrian, Ukrainian, French, British, Spanish, Israeli, Indian and Iranian communities.
In 2019, there were 777,345 registered residents of foreign nationality and another 542,975 German citizens with a "migration background", meaning they or one of their parents immigrated to Germany after 1955. Berlin residents originate from about 190 different countries.
Geography
Berlin is in northeastern Germany, in an area of low-lying marshy woodlands with a mainly flat terrain. It is part of the Northern European Plain. The river Spree and Havel are the two main rivers in the city. In Spandau, a borough in the west of Berlin, the Spree empties into the river Havel, which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The largest lakes being the Tegeler See, the Großer Wannsee and the Großer Müggelsee.
The Arkenberge hills in Pankow at elevation are the highest point in Berlin. The Müggelberge (mountains) at elevation is the highest natural point and the lowest is the Spektesee in Spandau, at elevation.
Boroughs
Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg
Lichtenberg-Hohenschönhausen
Marzahn-Hellersdorf
Mitte (Central)
Neukölln
Pankow
Reinickendorf
Spandau
Steglitz-Zehlendorf
Tempelhof-Schöneberg
Treptow-Köpenick
Education
Berlin is one of the most renowned centers of higher education and research in Germany and the world. Historically, 57 Nobel Prize winners are affiliated with the Berlin-based universities.
The city has four universities and more than 40 private, professional, and technical colleges in 2020. Around 200.000 students were enrolled in 2019. Among them around 20% have an international background.
The three largest universities combined have approximately 110,000 students. There are the Free University of Berlin (Free University of Berlin, FU Berlin) with about 35,000 students, the Humboldt University of Berlin (HU Berlin) with 40,000 students, and the Technical University of Berlin (TU Berlin) with 35,000 students. The Charité Medical School has around 9,000 students. The Berlin University of the Arts (UdK) has about 4,000 students and the ESMT Berlin is a leading business schools in Germany. The Berlin School of Economics and Law (HWR) has an enrollment of about 11,000 students, the Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology (BHT) of about 12,000 students, and the Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft (University of Applied Sciences for Engineering and Economics, HTW) of about 14,000 students.
Culture
Berlin is famous for its numerous cultural institutions, many of which enjoy international reputation. It is a trendsetting city. Young people, creatives and entrepreneurs continue to settle in the city and make Berlin a popular entertainment center in the world.
Landmarks
Alexanderplatz
Berliner Dom (Berlin's cathedral)
Berlin Hauptbahnhof (Main Railway station)
Brandenburg Gate
East Side Gallery (Former Berlin Wall)
Fernsehturm (TV tower - the highest building in Germany)
Potsdamer Platz
Reichstag building (home of the Bundestag)
Rotes Rathaus (office of the Governing Mayor)
Siegessäule (Statue of Victory)
Tiergarten (Central Park)
Unter den Linden (Main boulevard)
Cuisine
The Berlin cuisine and culinary offerings vary greatly. 23 restaurants in Berlin have been awarded one or more Michelin stars in 2021, which ranks the city at the top for the number of restaurants in Germany.
Many local foods originated from north German culinary traditions and include rustic and hearty dishes with pork, goose, fish, peas, beans, cucumbers, or potatoes. Typical Berliner fare include popular street food like the Currywurst Buletten (meat balls) and the Berliner doughnut, known in Berlin as . German bakeries offering a variety of breads and pastries are widespread. One of Europe's largest delicatessen market is found at the department store KaDeWe. Among the world's largest chocolate stores is Fassbender & Rausch.
Berlin is also home to a diverse gastronomy scene reflecting the immigrant history of the city. Immigrants brought their culinary traditions to the city, such as the modern fast-food version of the doner kebab. Asian cuisine like Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Indian, Korean, and Japanese restaurants, as well as Spanish tapas bars, Italian, and Greek cuisine, can be found in many parts of the city.
Economy
In 2018, the GDP of Berlin totaled €147 billion. The city is the largest metropolitan economy in Germany and the third largest in the European Union. Berlin's economy is dominated by the service sector, with around 85% of all companies doing business in services. In 2019, the total labor force in Berlin was about 2.0 million.
Important economic sectors in Berlin include life sciences, transportation, information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology, environmental services, construction, e-commerce, retail, hotel business, and medical engineering.
Research and development are important for the city. Berlin is part of the Eurozone.
Sister cities
Berlin has partnerships with 17 cities. Each of the 12 boroughs also has their sister cities, sometimes called twin cities.
References
Other websites
- Official page www.berlin.de
Berlin Sightseeing Tours
EXBERLINER - English City Magazine
Berlin City Panoramas - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours of Berlin
Olympic cities |
2923 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930s | 1930s | The 1930s was the decade that started on January 1, 1930 and ended on December 31, 1939.
Events
1933 – Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
1933 – Prohibition ends in the United States
1939 – The start of World War II
Nancy Drew books debut
The 1930s was a bad time because of the depression, where people were sad.
Important people
World leaders
King Faisal I (Iraq)
King Ghazi (Iraq)
King Faisal II (Iraq)
President of the Executive Council W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
President of the Executive Council Éamon de Valera (Irish Free State)
Taoiseach Éamon de Valera (Éire)
King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
Emir Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (Kuwait)
Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar (Portugal)
Sultan Mohammed V (Morocco)
Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage (New Zealand)
President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany)
Prime Minister James Barry Munnik Hertzog (South Africa)
General Secretary Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
President Alcalá Zamora (Spain)
Prime Minister Manuel Azaña (Spain)
Prime Minister Alejandro Lerroux (Spain
President Bahij al-Khatib (Syria)
Bey (Crown Prince) Ahmad II (Tunisia)
President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Turkey)
King George V (United Kingdom)
King Edward VIII (United Kingdom)
King George VI (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (United Kingdom)
President Herbert Hoover (United States)
President Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States)
Holy Father Pope Pius XI (Vatican)
Adolf Hitler, German politician
Pope Pius XI, Pope in the 1930s
George V, British king
Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR
Benito Mussolini, Italian politician
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
Louis Armstrong, Jazz musician
Dionne Quintuplets, Canadian siblings, first quintuplets to survive infancy |
2924 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940s | 1940s | The 1940s was the decade that started on January 1, 1940, and ended on December 31, 1949.
Events
1940 – Retreat at Dunkirk
1941; Attack on Pearl Harbor, which followed by U.S join the war then.
1944 – Normandy invasion
1945 (August 6 and 9) – first use of the atomic bomb in warfare.
1945 – World War II ends
1945 – Start of the Cold War
1945-1946 – Nuremberg Trials
1946 – baby boom begins in the United States.
1947 – Independence for India and other colonies.
1947-1949 – Indo-Pakistani War
1948-1949 – Arab-Israeli War
1949 – Communists take power in China.
People
World leaders
Adolf Hitler, German politician
Pope Pius XII, Pope in the 1930s
George VI, British king
Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR
Mahatma Gandhi, leader of India
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States (until 1945)
Harry S Truman, President of the United States |
2925 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950s | 1950s | The 1950s was the decade that started on January 1, 1950, and ended on December 31, 1959.
Events
1950–1953 Korean War.
1953 – Structure of DNA published by James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins.
1953 – Edmund Hillary is the first man on Mount Everest.
1954 – Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends France's colonization of Vietnam and leads to division of Vietnam into North and South.
1956 – Hungarian Revolution of 1956
1956 – Suez Crisis
1958 – Treaty of Rome
1959 – Fidel Castro becomes the Prime Minister of Cuba.
1957 – Sputnik launched.
Important people
Konrad Adenauer, German chancellor
Chuck Berry, American rock & roll musician
Fidel Castro, president of Cuba
René Coty, president of France
Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
James Dean, American actor
Paul Newman, American actor
Bo Diddley, American rock & roll musician
Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the US 1953–1961
Ludwig Erhard, German chancellor
Francisco Franco, Caudillo of Spain
Charles de Gaulle, president of France
George VI, British king until 1952
David Ben-Gurion, prime minister of Israel
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
Alfred Hitchcock, writer
Pope John XXIII, Pope from 1958
Nikita Khrushchev, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
Marilyn Monroe, American actress
Gamal Abdel Nasser, president of Egypt
Jawaharlal Nehru, prime minister of India
Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia
Juan Perón, President of Argentina
Pope Pius XII, Pope until 1958
Elvis Presley, American singer
Buddy Holly, American singer
Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
Harry S. Truman, President of the US until 1953
Kim Il-Sung, Supreme Leader of North Korea
Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China |
2947 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg | Hamburg | Hamburg, or in full Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (, Low German: Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg), is a city in the north of Germany on the banks of the River Elbe, 18 km away from the North Sea. It is also one of the States of Germany.
With a population of about 1.85 million (1850000), it is the biggest German city after Berlin and the sixth largest city of the European Union. The religion is about 37% Protestant, 10% Catholic, 8% Muslim, 38% agnostic, 2% Pagan.
Since it was an important member of the Hanseatic League, the city's official name still includes Hansestadt (Hanseatic city). Other German cities that do the same today are: Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, Bremen, Greifswald and Demmin. The membership in this trade alliance has influenced the architecture of the city to a great extent. It has also left some marks in the region around the city. Strategic bombing in World War II devastated the city.
In 2017 a consulting company ranked it 17th for best place to live in the world.
The area of Hamburg is . It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
Economy
Hamburg's harbour is, by shipments, the second largest harbour in Europe (after Rotterdam) and among the ten largest in the world. It is a very important gate to the countries along the Baltic Sea and Eastern Europe.
There are about 120,000 businesses in Hamburg. The company Airbus has an assembly plant for large civil aircraft in Hamburg. 30,000 people are employed in Hamburg's aircraft industries. There are only two other locations worldwide in this scale, Seattle in the United States and Toulouse in France.
About half of Germany's nationwide newspapers and magazines are made in Hamburg. Germany's most-viewed television news Tagesschau is broadcast from Hamburg.
Hamburg's red-light district (in Sankt Pauli) is the largest in Europe.
Sister cities
, Saint Petersburg, since 1957
, Marseille, since 1958
, Shanghai, since 1986
, Dresden, since 1987
, León, since 1989
, Ōsaka, since 1989
, Prague, since 1990
, Chicago, since 1994
Related pages
Berlin
Munich
Cologne
Frankfurt/Main
Düsseldorf
References
Imperial free cities |
2948 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emphysema | Emphysema | Emphysema is a disease of the lungs.
It is one of the diseases that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This is a set of diseases where the flow of air in the lungs is obstructed. Emphysema is most often caused by smoking but can be caused by other diseases or have no known cause at all.
It occurs when the very small air sacs (called the alveoli) at the ends of the airways in the lungs start to break down from many sacs to form much bigger sacs. The alveoli are the areas of the lung where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged into and out of the blood. Emphysema makes it hard for people to blow air out of the lungs because air gets trapped inside the broken alveoli due to the collapse of the walls. The trapped air in the lungs creates the characteristic "barrel chest" of emphysema.
There is no cure for emphysema. Treatment includes stopping smoking and taking medicines ('broncho-dilators' and sometimes corticosteroids). Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest. It decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day, and may improve people's ability to exercise. In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels, oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath. There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke.
Associations
Emphysema is commonly associated with chronic bronchitis. As it is rather difficult to delineate "pure" cases of emphysema or chronic bronchitis they are classed together into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Other websites
Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease
Diseases
Pulmonology |
2949 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen | Oxygen | Oxygen is a chemical element. It has the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. Oxygen is more than a fifth of the Earth's atmosphere by volume. In the air, two oxygen atoms usually join to make dioxygen (), a colourless gas. This gas is often just called oxygen. It has no taste or smell. It is pale blue when it is liquid or solid.
Oxygen is part of the chalcogen group on the periodic table. It is a very reactive nonmetal. It makes oxides and other compounds with many elements. The oxygen in these oxides and in other compounds (mostly silicate minerals, and calcium carbonate in limestone) makes up nearly half of the Earth's crust, by mass.
Most living things use oxygen in respiration. Many molecules in living things have oxygen in them, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats. Oxygen is a part of water, which all known life needs to live. Algae, cyanobacteria and plants make the Earth's oxygen gas by photosynthesis. They use the Sun's light to get hydrogen from water, giving off oxygen.
Oxygen gas () was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604. It is often thought that the gas was discovered in 1773 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Sweden, or in 1774 by Joseph Priestley, in England. Priestley is usually thought to be the main discoverer because his work was published first (although he called it "dephlogisticated air", and did not think it was a chemical element). Antoine Lavoisier gave the name oxygène to the gas in 1777. He was the first person to say it was a chemical element. He was also right about how it helps combustion work.
At the top of the Earth's atmosphere is ozone (), in the ozone layer. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which means less radiation reaches ground level.
Oxygen gas is used for making steel, plastics and textiles. It also has medical uses and is used for breathing when there is no good air (by divers and firefighters, for example), and for welding. Liquid oxygen and oxygen-rich compounds can be used as a rocket propellant.
History
Early experiments
One of the first known experiments on how combustion needs air was carried out by Greek Philo of Byzantium in the 2nd century BC. He wrote in his work Pneumatica that turning a vessel upside down over a burning candle and putting water around this vessel meant that some water went into the vessel. Philo thought this was because the air was turned into the classical element fire. This is wrong. A long time after, Leonardo da Vinci worked out that some air was used up during combustion, and this forced water into the vessel.
In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle found that air is needed for combustion. English chemist John Mayow added to this by showing that fire only needed a part of air. We now call this oxygen (O2). He found that a candle burning in a closed container made the water rise to replace a fourteenth of the air's volume before it went out. The same thing happened when a live mouse was put into the box. From this, he worked out that oxygen is used for both respiration and combustion.
Phlogiston theory
Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov and Pierre Bayen all made oxygen in experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. None of them thought it was a chemical element. This was probably because of the idea of the phlogiston theory. This was what most people believed caused combustion and corrosion.
J. J. Becher came up with the theory in 1667, and Georg Ernst Stahl added to it in 1731. The phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned.
Materials that leave very little residue when they burn, like wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston. Things that corrode, like iron, were thought to contain very little. Air was not part of this theory.
Discovery
Polish alchemist, philosopher and physician Michael Sendivogius wrote about something in air that he called the "food of life", and this meant what we now call oxygen. Sendivogius found, between 1598 and 1604, that the substance in air is the same as he got by heating potassium nitrate. Some people believe this was the discovery of oxygen while others disagree. Some say that oxygen was discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He got oxygen in 1771 by heating mercuric oxide and some nitrates. Scheele called the gas "fire air", because it was the only gas known to allow combustion (gases were called "airs" at this time). He published his discovery in 1777.
On 1 August 1774, British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide in a glass tube. From this experiment he got a gas that he called "dephlogisticated air". He found that candles burned more brightly in the gas and a mouse lived longer while breathing it. After breathing the gas, Priestley said that it felt like normal air, but his lungs felt lighter and easy afterwards. His findings were published in 1775. It is because his findings were published first that he is often said to have discovered oxygen.
French chemist Antoine Lavoisier later said he had discovered the substance as well. Priestley visited him in 1774 and told him about his experiment. Scheele also sent a letter to Lavoisier in that year that spoke of his discovery.
Lavoisier's research
Lavoisier did the first main experiments on oxidation. He was the first person to explain how combustion works. He used these and other experiments to prove the phlogiston theory wrong. He also tried to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element.
In one experiment, Lavoisier found that there was no increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He also found that air rushed in when the container was opened. After this, he found that the weight of the tin had increased by the same amount as the weight of the air that rushed in. He published his findings in 1777. He wrote that air was made up of two gases. One he called "vital air" (oxygen), which is needed for combustion and respiration. The other (nitrogen) he called "azote", which means "lifeless" in Greek. (This is still the name of nitrogen in some languages, including French.)
Lavoisier renamed "vital air" to "oxygène", from Greek words meaning "sour making" or "producer of acid". He called it this because he thought oxygen was in all acids, which is wrong. Later chemists realised that Lavoiser's name for the gas was wrong, but the name was too common by then to change.
"Oxygen" became the name in the English language, even though English scientists were against it.
Later history
John Dalton's theory of atoms said that all elements had one atom and atoms in compounds were usually alone. For example, he wrongly thought that water (H2O) had the formula of just HO. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. By 1811, Amedeo Avogadro correctly worked out what water was made of based on Avogadro's law.
By the late 19th century, scientists found that air could be turned into a liquid and the compounds in it could be isolated by compressing and cooling it. Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pictet discovered liquid oxygen by evaporating sulfur dioxide to turn carbon dioxide into a liquid. This was then also evaporated to cool oxygen gas in order to turn it into a liquid. He sent a telegram to the French Academy of Sciences on 22 December 1877 telling them of his discovery.
Characteristics
Properties and molecular structure
At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen has no colour, odour or taste. It is a gas with the chemical formula called dioxygen.
As dioxygen (or just oxygen gas), two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other. This bond can be called many things, but simply called a covalent double bond. Oxygen gas is very reactive and can react with many other elements. Oxides are made when metal elements react with oxygen, such as iron oxide, which is known as rust. There are a lot of oxide compounds on Earth.
Allotropes
The common allotrope (type) of oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen (O2). This is the second biggest part of the Earth's atmosphere, after dinitrogen (N2). O2 has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol Because of its energy, O2 is used by complex life like animals.
Ozone (O3) is very reactive and damages the lungs when breathed in. Ozone is made in the upper atmosphere when O2 combines with pure oxygen made when O2 is split by ultraviolet radiation. Ozone absorbs a lot of radiation in the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum and so the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere protects Earth from radiation.
Above the ozone layer, (in low Earth orbits), atomic oxygen becomes the most common form.
Tetraoxygen (O4) was discovered in 2001. It only exists in extreme conditions when a lot of pressure is put onto O2.
Physical properties
Oxygen dissolves more easily from air into water than nitrogen does. When there is the same amount of air and water, there is one molecule of O2 for every 2 molecules of N2 (a ratio of 1:2). This is different to air, where there is a 1:4 ratio of oxygen to nitrogen. It is also easier for O2 to dissolve in freshwater than in seawater. Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (-182.95°C, -297.31 °F) and freezes at 54.36 K (-218.79 °C, -361.82 °F). Both liquid and solid O2 are see-through with a light-blue colour.
Oxygen is very reactive and must be kept away from anything that can burn.
Isotopes
There are three stable isotopes of oxygen in nature. They are 16O, 17O, and 18O. About 99.7% of oxygen is the 16O isotope.
Occurrence
Oxygen is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.
Apart from iron, oxygen is the most common element on Earth (by mass). It makes up nearly half (46%
to 49.2% of the Earth's crust as part of oxide compounds like silicon dioxide and other compounds like carbonates. It is also the main part of the Earth's oceans, making up 88.8% by mass. Oxygen gas is the second most common part of the atmosphere, making up 20.95% of its volume and 23.1% of its volume. Earth is strange compared to other planets, as a large amount of its atmosphere is oxygen gas. Mars has only 0.1% by volume, with the other planets having less than that.
The much higher amount of oxygen gas around Earth is because of the oxygen cycle. Photosynthesis takes hydrogen from water using energy from sunlight, which gives off oxygen gas. The hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates. Respiration then takes oxygen gas out of the atmosphere and turns it into carbon dioxide and water. This happens at the nearly same rate, so the amount of oxygen gas and carbon dioxide doesn't change much because of it.
Uses
Medical
O2 is a very important part of respiration. Because of this, it is used in medicine. It is used to increase the amount of oxygen in a persons blood so more respiration can take place. This can make them become healthy quicker if they are ill. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart problems, and any disease that makes it harder for a person to take in oxygen.
Life support
Low-pressure O2 is used in space suits, surrounding the body with the gas. Pure oxygen is used but at a much lower pressure. If the pressure were higher, it would be poisonous.
Industrial
Smelting of iron ore into steel uses about 55% of oxygen made by humans. To do this, O2 gas is injected into the ore through a lance at high pressure. This removes any sulfur or carbon from the ore that would not be wanted. They are given off as sulfur oxide and carbon dioxide. The temperature can go as high as 1,700 °C because it is an exothermic reaction.
Around 25% of oxygen made by humans is used by chemists. Ethylene is reacted with O2 to make ethylene oxide. This is then changed to ethylene glycol, which is used to make many products such as antifreeze and polyester (these can then be turned into plastics and fabrics).
The other 20% of oxygen made by humans is used in medicine, metal cutting and welding, rocket fuel, and water treatment.
Compounds
The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in nearly every compound it is in. In a few compounds, the oxidation state is −1, such as peroxides. Compounds of oxygen with other oxygen states are very uncommon.
Oxides and other inorganic compounds
Water () is an oxide of hydrogen. It is the most common oxide on Earth. All known life needs water to live. Water is made of two hydrogen atoms covalent bonded to an oxygen atom (oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen). (this is the basic principle of covalent bonding)
There are also electrostatic forces (Van de'r Waals forces) between the hydrogen atoms and adjacent molecules' oxygen atoms. These pseudo-bonds bring the atoms around 15% closer to each other than most other simple liquids. This is because Water is a polar molecule (Net asymmetrical distribution of electrons) due to its bent shape, giving it an overall net field direction, mainly due to oxygens 2 non bonding pairs of electrons, pushing the bonding H's further together than the linear arrangement with lower enthalpy (see CO2). This property is exploited by microwaves to oscillate polar molecules, especially water. And its responsible for the extra energy needed to disassociate H20.
Because of oxygen's high electronegativity, it makes chemical bonds with almost all other chemical elements. These bonds give oxides (for example iron reacts with oxygen to give iron oxide). Most metal's surfaces are turned into oxides when in air. Iron's surface will turn to rust (iron oxide) when in air for a long time. There are small amounts of carbon dioxide () in the air, and it is turned into carbohydrates during photosynthesis. Living things give it off during respiration.
Organic compounds
Many organic compounds have oxygen in them. Some of the classes of organic compounds that have oxygen are alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters, and amides. Many organic solvents also have oxygen, such as acetone, methanol, and isopropanol. Oxygen is also found in nearly all biomolecules that are made by living things.
Oxygen also reacts quickly with many organic compounds at, or below, room temperature when autoxidation happens.
Industrial production
One hundred million tonnes of O2 are gotten from air for industrial uses every year. Industries use two main methods to make oxygen. The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air. N2 evaporates while O2 is left as a liquid. O2 is the second most important industrial gas.Because it is more economical , oxygen is usually stored and transported as a liquid. A small steel tank of 16 liters water capacity with a working pressure of 139 bar (2015 psi) holds about 2150 liters of gas and weighs 28 kilograms (62 lb) empty. 2150 liters of oxygen weighs about 3 kilograms (6.6 lb).
The other main method of making oxygen is by passing a stream of clean, dry air through a pair of zeolite molecular sieves. The zeolite molecular sieves soaks up the nitrogen. It gives a stream of gas that is 90% to 93% oxygen.
Oxygen gas can also be made through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen.
Safety
Oxygen's NFPA 704 says that compressed oxygen gas is not dangerous to health and is not flammable.
Toxicity
At high pressures, oxygen gas (O2) can be dangerous to animals, including humans. It can cause convulsions and other health problems. Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen in the air at standard pressure (air on Earth has around 20% oxygen).
Premature babies used to be placed in boxes with air with a high amount of O2. This was stopped when some babies went blind from the oxygen.
Breathing pure O2 in space suits causes no damage because there is a lower pressure used.
Combustion and other hazards
Concentrated amounts of pure O2 can cause a quick fire. When concentrated oxygen and fuels are brought close together, a slight ignition can cause a huge fire. The Apollo 1 crew were all killed by a fire because the air of the capsule had a very high amount of oxygen.
If liquid oxygen is spilled onto organic compounds, like wood, it can explode.
Related pages
Carbon dioxide
Atmosphere
Great Oxygenation Event
References
General references
Nonmetals
Gases |
2950 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood | Blood | Blood is a liquid in humans and many animals. Blood is pushed through the organism by the heart, and brings nutrients and oxygen to our tissues. It also takes away waste and carbon dioxide from tissues.
Blood is made up of blood plasma and various cells — red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Platelets help blood to clot. Hemoglobin is in red blood cells. White blood cells help fight infections and heal wounds.
Plasma
Blood plasma is the yellow liquid in which blood cells float. Plasma is made up of nutrients, electrolytes (salts), gases, non-protein hormones, waste, lipids, and proteins.
These proteins are albumin, antibodies (also called immunoglobulins), clotting factors, and protein hormones. Plasma that does not have the protein fibrinogen is called serum and cannot clot. Adults have about 3 liters of plasma. Plasma is a liquid, mostly water (90%). Plasma takes up 55% of blood volume.
Red blood cells
Another name for red blood cell is erythrocyte. 'Erythro' means red; 'cyte' means cell. RBC is an acronym for red blood cell.
RBCs carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around our body. Cells in our body need oxygen to live. Cells also make carbon dioxide as a waste. RBCs bring more oxygen around the body. They also take away the carbon dioxide.
RBCs are filled with haemoglobin. This is a protein. It is made to carry a large amount of oxygen. Haemoglobin has iron in it. The iron and oxygen gives haemoglobin its red color. This is why blood is red. Erythropoietin promotes the creation of RBCs. Blood type antigens are carried on the surface of red cells.
RBCs also help the blood stay normal pH. The blood needs a to be at a pH of 7.4. If it is much more or less than 7.4 a person can get very sick or die. RBCs are a buffer for the blood pH. Buffer means that it stops changes in pH. The proteins and the carbon dioxide in the RBC are buffers for the blood.
If you do not have enough RBCs, you will die.
White blood cells
White blood cells are a big part of the immune system. They attack things that do not belong in the body. They kill germs such as bacteria and viruses. They kill cancer cells. White blood cells also help to fight other toxic substances.
White blood cells find where the germs are, and start to destroy them. WBCs arrive in the blood. They also go out of the blood in places where there is infection. WBCs do this to fight the germs that make the infection. If they go out of the blood to fight an infection, they may return in the lymphatic system. So WBCs are in lymph nodes.
Another name for white blood cell is leukocyte. Leuko means white. -cyte means cell. WBC is an acronym for white blood cell. There are three main kinds of WBCs. They are lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes. Some of the WBCs mature into cells which do similar work in the tissues.
The different WBCs work in different ways. Some WBCs kill and eat germs and cancer cells. Some WBCs make antibodies. These are proteins that stick to a cell and tell other WBCs to kill it. Some WBCs make chemicals. They release these chemicals to fight things that do not belong in the body. These chemicals cause inflammation in a part of the body. When a germ makes someone sick, the body shows it. If a bacteria gets under someone's skin and causes an infection, the skin gets red, hot, and painful. This redness, heat, and pain are signs of inflammation. This shows that WBCs are fighting the infection and killing the bacteria.
Platelets
Platelets help make blood clot. A clot is when the liquid blood becomes solid. The body makes blood clot when the skin is cut. This stops blood from going out of the skin too much.
For blood to be able to clot is essential. But, rarely, some blood clots are bad. If a blood clot happens in a blood vessel going to the brain, it can cause a stroke. If it happens in a blood vessel going to the heart, it can cause a heart attack. This does not usually happen to young, healthy people.
Platelets are not the only things that make clots. There are proteins in the blood that help make clots. Both platelets and clotting proteins are needed to make good clots.
Where blood comes from
Blood cells are made in the bone marrow and in the spleen. The bone marrow is the soft material in the middle of bones. Special cells in the bone marrow make most of the blood cells in your body.
Plasma proteins are made mostly by the liver. The water and electrolytes in plasma come from the food and water that you eat.
Although blood is a fluid, in some respects it is a kind of connective tissue. Its cells originate in bone marrow and the spleen, and in the blood there are potential molecular fibres in the form of fibrinogen. These are activated when a blood clot forms.
References
Basic English 850 words
Biochemistry
Cardiovascular system |
2951 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s | 1960s | The 1960s was the decade that started on January 1, 1960 and ended on December 31, 1969. Many things happened in the sixties, including the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War.
The 1960s term also refers to an era more often called the Sixties. This was a set of cultural and political trends around the globe. This "cultural decade" is loosely defined as beginning around 1963 and ending around 1974.
The social revolution of the 1960s was part of a wider counterculture. Old ways were changed, new ways taken up. Typical was the introduction of the birth control pill, and its effect on sexual activity, widespread use of certain drugs and a general disrespect for traditional ways.
Pop art also started in the 1960s.
Events
Decolonization of much of Africa
1961 - Yuri Gagarin is first human in the space during Soviet Vostok 1 mission.
1961 – Berlin Wall built.
1961 – Bay of Pigs invasion.
1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis.
1963 – Assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22.
1965 – Indiainvades Pakistan on September 6.
1967 - Six-Day War.
1968 – Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
1969 – Under the Apollo 11 program Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans on the Moon.
Unix created.
Significant people
Stanley Kubrick, director
Orson Welles, director
The Rolling Stones, English rock band
Muhammad Ali, boxer
The Beatles, British rock band
Fidel Castro, president of Cuba
Che Guevara, Argentine marxist, revolutionary
Sean Connery, actor
Bob Dylan, singer, songwriter, artist
Joan Baez, American Folk Singer
Jimi Hendrix, rock singer
Yuri Gagarin, astronaut
Alfred Hitchcock, filmmaker
Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
Pope John XXIII, Pope until 1963
John F. Kennedy, President of the United States from 1961-1963
Lyndon Johnson, President of the United States from 1963-1969
Richard Nixon, President of the United States from 1969-1974
Martin Luther King Jr., a leader in the American Civil Rights Movement
Nikita Khruschev, Soviet leader
Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader
Pope Paul VI since 1963
Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China
Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India
Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam
Charles de Gaulle, President of France
Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor Germany
Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor Germany
Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Chancellor Germany
Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel
Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt
Elvis Presley, American singer
Mary Quant, fashion designer
Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of John F. Kennedy
James Earl Ray, assassin of Martin Luther King Jr.
Thomas Hagan, assassin of Malcolm X
References |
2952 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s | 1970s | The 1970s was the decade that started on January 1, 1970, and ended on December 31, 1979.
Events
Throughout the decade: decolonization continued: Angola, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Oman, the Bahamas, and many other countries gained independence.
1970, December 15 – spaceship Venera 7 lands on Venus.
1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
December 16 – Partition of Pakistan of East and West Pakistans into Bangladesh and Pakistan.
1972, March 2 – Pioneer 10 is launched (sent into space). It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Jupiter and the asteroid belt.
1972 – Munich massacre
1973, April 6 – Pioneer 11 is launched. It becomes the first the first spaceship to fly near Saturn.
1974 – August 9 Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States due to the Watergate scandal.
1973 – 1973 Arab-Israeli War
1975 – end of the Vietnam War
1975 – communists take power in Cambodia.
1976, July 20 – spaceship Viking 1 lands on Mars.
1977, August 20 – Voyager 2 is launched. It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Uranus and Neptune.
1977, September 5 – Voyager 1 is launched. It is now the farthest spaceship from the Earth.
1977: The last cases of smallpox of the world.
1978 – year with three popes
1978, October 1 – Vietnam invades Cambodia.
1979 – the World Health Organization says it has eliminated smallpox.
People
ABBA, Swedish band
Queen, British band
Sex Pistols, British punk band
The Clash, British punk band
The Ramones, American punk band
Boney M, disco group
John Travolta, American actor
Edward Heath, Prime Minister of United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974
Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom from 1974 to 1976
James Callaghan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979
Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of United Kingdom beginning 1979
Fidel Castro, Cuban leader
Augusto Pinochet, dictator of Chile
Willy Brandt, German chancellor until 1974
Leonid Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union beginning in 1964
Richard Nixon, President of the United States until 1974
Gerald Ford, President of the United States until 1977
Jimmy Carter, President of the United States beginning in 1977
Cher, American singer
Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel until 1977
Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India until 1977
Golda Meir, prime minister of Israel until 1974
Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
Germaine Greer, Australian feminist
Hirohito, emperor of Japan
Pope John Paul I, pope only in the year 1978
Pope John Paul II, pope 1978–2005
Norman Lear, American TV producer
Pete Maravich, United States basketball player
Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain until 1975
Deng Xiaoping, leader in China beginning in 1978
Mao Zedong, leader in China until 1976
Pope Paul VI, pope until 1978
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran until 1979
Ayatollah Khomeini
Juan Perón, President of Argentina until 1974
Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina beginning 1976
Muammar al-Gaddafi, dictator Libyan
Pelé, Brazilian football player
Pol Pot, prime minister of Cambodia from 1976 to 1979
Anwar Sadat, president of Egypt beginning in 1970
Helmut Schmidt, German chancellor beginning in 1974
Georges Pompidou, president of France from 1969 to 1974
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, President of France beginning in 1974
Gloria Steinem, American feminist
Pierre Trudeau, Canadian prime minister until 1979
Elvis Presley, American singer |
2953 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s | 1980s | The 1980s was the decade that started on January 1, 1980 and ended on December 31, 1989.
This decade (group of ten years) is sometimes called the "Greed decade" in English speaking countries. Unlike the 1960s and 1970s, this is when the word yuppie was used to describe "young urban professionals" – young adults who lived in cities and started to get good jobs. This was also the rise of a more conservative period in these countries – Ronald Reagan was president for most of this time in the United States, Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and Brian Mulroney was Prime Minister of Canada.
This decade also saw the Soviet Union fight a war that seemed endless in Afghanistan, civil war in Ethiopia, and the fall of the Berlin Wall which started the end of the Cold War and of Communism in Eastern Europe.
The "eighties" are also well known for their extreme fashions, such as "big hair", New Wave, punk rock, funk, or preppies. Rap music first started to get big in the 80s, and often went with breakdancing in what is now called the "old school" days. Many developments were also made in computer technology during these years, and video games became popular.
In sports, Italy and Argentina won the FIFA World Cup. The Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals, Baltimore Orioles, Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Royals, New York Mets, Minnesota Twins and Oakland Athletics won the World Series. The Pittsburgh Steelers, Oakland Raiders, San Francisco 49ers, Washington Redskins, Los Angeles Raiders, Chicago Bears and New York Giants won the Super Bowl. Finally, the Los Angeles Lakers dominated the NBA, with only the Houston Rockets winning a title.
Important events
1980 - 1988 – Iran-Iraq War
Solidarity movement in Poland.
Glasnost and Perestroika reforms in the Soviet Union.
1981 – AIDS is discovered for the first time.
1981 – Assassination attempts are made on Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II.
1982 – Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom.
1979 - 1989 – Soviet-Afghan War
1984 - Sikh Genocide
1986 – Prime Minister Olof Palme is assassinated
1986 – The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes.
1986 – End of Marcos regime in the Philippines
1986 – The Chernobyl accident happens in Ukraine because of a test that went wrong. It is the second-largest known nuclear accident, after the Mayak accident in 1957. It is also one of the biggest disasters for the environment. Many people died.
1987 – President Ronald Reagan travels to Berlin to deliver his "Tear down this wall!" speech.
1989 – Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies.
1989 – Tiananmen Square massacre
1989 – The Berlin Wall is torn down.
Important people
Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1980s
Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan from 1926 to 1989
Akihito, Emperor of Japan since 1989
Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea
Deng Xiaoping, leader in China from 1978 to 1990
Jimmy Carter, President of the United States from 1977 to 1981
Ronald Reagan, President of the United States from 1981 to 1989
George H.W. Bush, President of the United States from 1989 to 1993, Vice-President of the United States from 1981 to 1989
Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990
Helmut Schmidt, German chancellor until 1982
Helmut Kohl, German chancellor from 1982 to 1998
François Mitterrand, French President from 1981 to 1995
Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq
Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator
Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt
Yitzhak Shamir, Prime minister of Israel
Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Austrian actor
Sylvester Stallone, American actor
Michael Jordan, American basketball-player
Tom Cruise, American actor
Eddie Murphy, American actor
Duran Duran, English band
Eurythmics, music band
Prince, American singer
Madonna, American singer
Michael Jackson, American singer
Bob Geldof, musician and fundraiser
Iron Maiden, British heavy metal band
N.W.A, hip hop group
Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines
Corazon Aquino, President of the Philippines
Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India until 1984
Rajiv Gandhi, prime minister of India from 1984 until 1989
Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba
Augusto Pinochet, Chilean dictator
Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina until 1981
Leopoldo Galtieri, dictator of Argentina from 1981 to 1982
Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian dictator until 1989
Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish communist leader
Lech Walesa, leader of Polish Solidarity movement
Ayatollah Khomeini, leader of Iran
Mikhail Gorbachev, the last chairman of the communist party of the Soviet Union.
Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman on the Supreme Court, from Arizona.
Terry Fox, running across most of Canada in his Marathon of Hope.
Hulk Hogan, American pro-wrestler and actor
Steve Jobs, Founder of Apple Inc. |
2954 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s | 1990s | The 1990s was the decade that started on January 1, 1990, and ended on December 31, 1999.
Events
1990 - 1991 – Gulf War
1990 – German reunification
1991 – The end of the Cold War.
1991 – Breakup of Yugoslavia.
Yugoslav Wars
1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union
1992 – The European Union is founded.
1993 – Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
1994 – Genocide in Rwanda
1994 – End of Apartheid in South Africa.
1997 – Handover of Hong Kong
People
Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1990s (the last full decade he would serve as Pope until his death in 2005)
Andre Agassi, American tennis player
Pete Sampras, American tennis player
Michael Schumacher, German formula 1 driver
Backstreet Boys, American boy band
Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia from 1989 to 2000
Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990
John Major, British Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997
Tony Blair, British Prime Minister from 1997 to 2007
George H. W. Bush, President of the United States until 1993
Bill Clinton President of the United States from 1993–2001
François Mitterrand, President of France from 1981 to 1995
Jacques Chirac, President of France from 1995 to 2007
Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002
Alberto Fujimori President of Peru 1990–2000
Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008
Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
Madonna, singer-songwriter
The Prodigy, electronic dance group
Britney Spears, American singer
Spice Girls, music group
Mariah Carey, singer
Celine Dion, singer
Whitney Houston, singer
Mel Gibson, actor
Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the USSR 1985–1991
Boris Yeltsin, President of Russia from 1991 to 1999
Michael Jordan, American basketball player
Tom Hanks, American actor
Nicole Kidman, actress
Sandra Bullock, American actress
Tom Cruise, American actor
Robin Williams, American actor and comedian
Jim Carrey, Canadian-American actor and comedian
George Clooney, American actor
Brad Pitt, American actor
Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
Arnold Schwarzenegger, American actor
Oprah Winfrey, American talk show host
Ellen DeGeneres, American talk show host
Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq 1979–2003
Helmut Kohl, German chancellor until 1998
Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa 1994–1999
Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa 1999–2008
Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Prime Minister
Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011
Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator from 1969 to 2011
Nirvana, rock band
Steven Seagal, American actor
Julia Roberts, American actor/actress
Gerhard Schröder, German Chancellor from 1998 to 2005
Lech Wałęsa, President of Poland from 1990 to 1995
Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea from 1948 to 1994
Kim Jong-il, dictator of North Korea from 1994 to 2011
Tupac Shakur, American rapper
Diana, Princess of Wales
Gianni Versace, fashion designer
Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft
Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple
Other websites
Source for some items:
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
http://m-w.com/ |
2955 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Rhine-Westphalia | North Rhine-Westphalia | North Rhine-Westphalia (, Low Franconian: Noordrien-Wesfale, Low German: Noordrhien-Westfalen, Kölsch: Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale) is the federal state (Bundesland) with the highest population in Germany. It is in the western part of Germany and has 18,033,000 inhabitants. The capital is Düsseldorf, while the city with the most inhabitants is Cologne.
Districts
North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five government regions:
Arnsberg
Cologne
Detmold
Düsseldorf
Münster
History
1807-1813 — Westphalia is a kingdom.
1817 — Westphalia became a province of Prussia.
1824 — Jülich, Kleve, Berg and Niederrhein united to Rhine Province.
1919 — Belgium took Eupen and Malmedy.
1946 — Rhine Province, Westphalia and Lippe-Detmold united to North Rhine-Westphalia.
Cities
Aachen
Bergisch Gladbach
Bielefeld
Bocholt
Bochum
Bonn
Bottrop
Castrop-Rauxel
Cologne
Dinslaken
Dortmund
Düren
Düsseldorf
Duisburg
Essen
Geldern
Gelsenkirchen
Gütersloh
Hagen
Hamm
Hattingen
Heinsberg
Herne
Iserlohn
Köln
Krefeld
Leverkusen
Lippstadt
Lünen
Marl
Moers
Mönchengladbach
Mülheim an der Ruhr
Münster
Neuss
Oberhausen
Paderborn
Ratingen
Recklinghausen
Remscheid
Siegen
Solingen
Unna
Velbert
Wesel
Wuppertal
Witten
Xanten |
2957 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20program | Computer program | A computer program is a list of instructions that tell a computer what to do. Everything a computer does is done by using a computer program. Programs stored in the memory of a computer ("internal programming") let the computer do one thing after another, even with breaks in between. John von Neumann, a mathematician born in Hungary, came up with this idea in the late 1940s. The first digital computer designed with internal programming capacity was the EDVAC (which means Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), built in 1949.
Some examples of computer programs:
Operating system.
A web browser like Mozilla Firefox and Chrome can be used to view web pages on the Internet.
An office suite can be used to write documents or spreadsheets.
Video games are computer programs.
A computer program is stored as a file on the computer's hard drive. When the user runs the program, the file is read by the computer, and the processor reads the data in the file as a list of instructions. Then the computer does what the computer program tells it to do.
A computer program is written by a programmer. It is very difficult to write in the ones and zeroes of machine code, which is what the computer can read, so computer programmers write in a programming language, such as BASIC, C, or Java. Once it is written, the programmer uses a compiler to turn it into a language that the computer can understand.
There are also bad programs, called malware, written by people who want to do bad things to a computer. Some are spyware, trying to steal information from the computer. Some try to damage the data stored on the hard drive. Some others send users to web sites that offer to sell them things. Some are computer viruses or ransomware.
Related pages
Software
Operating system
Programming language
Utility software
Other websites
Computer program Citizendium |
2958 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data | Data | The word data means "known facts". Data especially refers to numbers, but can mean words, sounds, and images. Metadata is data about data. It is used to find data.
Originally, data is the plural of the Latin word datum, from dare, meaning "give". Datum is rarely used in English. So data often gets used as if it were a singular word. Some people like to say "data are", not "data is".
References
Knowledge |
2960 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s%20%28decade%29 | 2000s (decade) | The 2000s, also known as the noughties was the decade that began on January 1, 2000 and ended on December 31, 2009.
Events
November 7, 2000 – George W. Bush is elected President of the United States. The results were not known until December 12, 2000 due to the state of Florida being too close to the results.
January 13, 2001 – A 6.6 magnitude earthquake strikes El Salvador killing at least 400 people.
February 20, 2001 – An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease occurs in the United Kingdom and over 10 million sheep and cattle were killed.
July 2, 2001 – The first artificial heart is implanted in a human being.
September 11, 2001 – Terrorist attacks are carried out on the World Trade Center in New York City and The Pentagon in Washington, D.C. by members of the Islamic extremist group Al Qaeda. The attacks involve the hijacking of four American passenger planes. Almost 3,000 people die. Two of these planes fly directly into the two towers of the World Trade Center, causing both towers to collapse. A third plane flies into a section of the Pentagon. A fourth plane crashes in a field in Pennsylvania after the terrorists are overpowered by passengers.
September 18, 2001 – Letters containing anthrax spores are mailed to several American media offices and two American senators. Twenty-two people are exposed and 5 people die.
September 21, 2001 – A chemical factory explodes in Toulouse, France, killing 29 people and seriously wounding over 2,500.
2001 – War in Afghanistan (2001–present) begins as the United States, with help from other countries, invades Afghanistan.
2002 – May 20: East Timor gains independence from Indonesia
2002–2003 – SARS outbreak
2003 – Invasion of Iraq
2003 – December 26: earthquake in Bam, Iran
2004 – March 11: Bomb attacks on Madrid's train network
2004 – June 5: President Ronald Reagan dies at 93
2004 – September 1: Beslan School hostage crisis in Russia
2004 – Orange Revolution in Ukraine
2004 – December 26: tsunami in the Indian Ocean
2005 – April 2: Death of Pope John Paul II
2005 – July 7: Bomb attacks on the London Underground
2005 – October 8: earthquake in Kashmir
2005 – November 22: Angela Merkel becomes Chancellor of Germany
2005 – 2005 Atlantic hurricane season is the worst on record.
2006 – January 16: Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, in Liberia becomes the first female president on the African continent.
2006 – July – August: war between Israel and Lebanon
2006 – December 30: Saddam Hussein is executed in Iraq.
2007 – May 16: Nicolas Sarkozy becomes President of France.
2007 – June 27: Gordon Brown becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
2008 – February 24: Cuban President Fidel Castro retires. He is succeeded by his brother Raul Castro.
2008 – May 3: Burma is hit by Cyclone Nargis.
2008 – May 12: China's Sichuan province is hit by a major earthquake.
2008 – November: Mumbai terrorist attacks
2008–2009 – war in the Gaza Strip
2009 – January 20: Barack Obama becomes the 44th President of the United States and the first African-American President.
2009-2010 – The flu pandemic turn out to be a global pandemic.
2009 – June 12:The end of analog television broadcast all across United States switch off analog transmitter and translation to Digital Television.
2009 – June 25: Death of Michael Jackson
People
Pope John Paul II, Pope from 1978 to 2005
Pope Benedict XVI, Pope from 2005 to 2013
Elizabeth II, Monarch of the United Kingdom and other commonwealth countries since 1952
Vladimir Putin, President of Russia from 2000 to 2008
Dmitry Medvedev, President of Russia from 2008 to 2012
Bill Clinton, President of the United States from 1993 to 2001
George W. Bush, President of the United States from 2001 to 2009
Barack Obama, President of the United States from 2009 to 2017
Joseph Estrada, President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010
Fidel Castro, President of Cuba from 1959 to 2008
Raul Castro, President of Cuba from 2008
Johannes Rau, President of Germany from 1999 to 2004
Horst Koehler, President of Germany from 2004 to 2010
Gerhard Schröder, Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005
Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany from 2005
Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007
Gordon Brown, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2007 to 2010
Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003
Jalal Talabani, President of Iraq from 2006 to 2014
Jacques Chirac, President of France from 1995 to 2007
Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France from 2007 to 2012
Hu Jintao, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 2002 to 2012
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, President of Indonesia from 2004
John Howard, Prime Minister of Australia from 1996 to 2007
Kevin Rudd, Prime Minister of Australia from 2007 to 2010
Akihito, Emperor of Japan since 1989
Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela from 1999 to 2013
Robert Mugabe, President of Zimbabwe since 1987 to 2017
Yoweri Museveni, President of Uganda since 1986
Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, President of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011
Muammar Gaddafi, Leader of Libya from 1969 to 2011
Ali Abdullah Saleh, President of Yemen from 1990 to 2012
Bhumibol Adulyadej, Monarch of Thailand from 1946 to 2016
Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002
Michel Suleiman, President of Lebanon from 2008 to 2014
Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa from 1999 to 2008
Klagema Motlanthe, President of South Africa from 2008 to 2009
Jacob Zuma, President of South Africa from 2009
Omar al-Bashir, President of Sudan from 1989
Hafez al-Assad, President of Syria from 1971 to 2000
Bashar al-Assad, President of Syria from 2000
Ezer Weizman, President of Israel from 1993 to 2000
Moshe Katsav, President of Israel from 2000 to 2007
Shimon Peres, President of Israel from 2007 to 2014
Benjamin Netanyehu, Prime Minister of Israel from 2009
Ehud Barak, Prime Minister of Israel from 1999 to 2001
Ariel Sharon, Prime Minister of Israel from 2001 to 2006
Ehud Omert, Prime Minister of Israel from 2006 to 2009
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of Liberia from 2006
Queen Beatrix, Monarch of Netherlands from 1980 to 2013
King Albert II, Monarch of Belgium from 1993 to 2013
King Abdullah II, Monarch of Jordan from 1999
Juan Carlos I, Monarch of Spain from 1975 to 2014
References |
2961 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart | Stuttgart | Stuttgart (; Swabian: ) is a city in Germany. It is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg and of the Administrative District of Stuttgart (Regierungsbezirk). Stuttgart is on the river Neckar. In December 2011, 613,392 people lived there. This makes it the most populous city in Baden-Württemberg.
Stuttgart is the sixth largest German city and Stuttgart Region is the nation's third largest region. The city is divided into 23 city districts.
Stuttgart is the home of two car manufacturers: Mercedes Benz and Porsche. Porsche is in Zuffenhausen (North) and Mercedes in Untertürkheim (Southeast).
Stuttgart has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
Population
Stuttgart has 613,392 people within city limits. It is the 6th largest city in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne and Frankfurt am Main. According to a 2005 estimate, the Stuttgart urban area had between 1,238,000 and 1,250,000 people. Its metropolitan area has a population of 5.3 million (2008).
Education
The University of Stuttgart is one of the city's higher education institutions.
References
Other websites
stuttgart.de
pictures of metropolitan area stuttgart |
2962 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwerin | Schwerin | Schwerin (, , ; Mecklenburgian Low German: Swerin; Latin: Suerina, Suerinum) is the capital city of the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. It has a population of 97,000. It is the second biggest city (behind Rostock) in the state. It is the smallest capital of a German state.
History
Gallery
References
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Urban districts of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
German state capitals |
2963 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Schwyz | Canton of Schwyz | Schwyz was one of the first cantons of Swiss canton (Urkanton).
The capital is Schwyz and the main language is German (91%). It has an area of 908 km² and 130200 inhabitants. Schwyz is near to Lucerne.
Districts and Municipalities
The Canton of Schwyz is divided into six districts and 30 municipalities, although the districts Einsiedeln, Küssnacht and Gersau simply contain the municipality of the same name.
District Schwyz
with municipalities Schwyz, Arth, Ingenbohl, Muotathal, Steinen, Sattel, Rothenthurm, Oberiberg, Unteriberg, Lauerz, Steinerberg, Morschach, Alpthal, Illgau, Riemenstalden
District Einsiedeln with municipality Einsiedeln
District Gersau with municipality Gersau
District Höfe
with municipalities Wollerau, Freienbach, Feusisberg
District Küssnacht with municipality Küssnacht am Rigi
District March
with municipalities Lachen, Altendorf, Galgenen, Vorderthal, Innerthal, Schübelbach, Tuggen, Wangen, Reichenburg
References
Other websites
Company formation in Schwyz (English)
1291 establishments
Establishments in Switzerland
1290s establishments in Europe |
2964 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia | Russia | Russia (), officially called the Russian Federation () is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with a population of about 146.7 million people. It is the most populous country in Europe, and Moscow is its capital city, which is also Yekaterinburg is its the largest city in Europe. Russia's official language is Russian, the most spoken language in Europe, as well as the most widely spoken Slavic language. This is the largest country in the world, covering most of its inhabitable landmass, followed by Canada, the United States, and China.
Russia shares land borders with 16 countries, in both Europe and Asia: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It has links with 16 seas, and 3 oceans; and is the country the most land borders in the world.
The Eastern Orthodox Church is the largest religion in Russia.
Russia is a very large and diverse country. From 1922 to 1991, it used to be the main part of the Soviet Union. It was a country based on Communism, but today its government is a federal semi-presidential republic. It has elements of democracy. The President is chosen by direct election, but challenging candidates do not have access to the mass media, although they have full access to social media, internet news websites, and international media, and election results match domestic, international, and exit polling. Its current President is Vladimir Putin. The President rules the country, and the Russian Parliament plays a secondary role.
Size and resources
At , Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the world's eighth most populous nation with 140 million people as of 2022. Russia produces a lot of energy made from oil and natural gas.
Extending from eastern Europe across the whole of northern Asia, Russia spans eleven time zones and has a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas in the world. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves, and its lakes contain about one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
Constitution
Russia is a federal semi-presidential republic. It has a president and a parliament. Russia consists of 85 federal subjects (territorial units). All subjects of the federation shall be equal. All entities are subject to uniform federal law. Subjects of the federation have two representatives in the parliament. Subjects of the Russian Federation do not have a right to secession from it. Important issues are decided by the Federation President; lesser powers are given to the member republics.
At the end of the twentieth century, Russia experienced many political changes. Some people fought to leave the federation.
Elections are held at all levels. According Steve White, the present government made it clear that they had no plans of making a "second edition" of the American or British political system, but rather a system that was closer to Russia's own traditions. Richard Sakwa wrote that the Russian government is considered legitimate by the majority of the Russian people. It seeks to deliver a set of public goods without trying to fit to extra-democratic logic to achieve them. Whether the system is becoming less autocratic (dictatorial) is debatable.
Politics
There are four big political parties in Russia. United Russia (Единая Россия) is the biggest party.
The United Russia is the ruling party, which supports the government. The other parties in the Duma (Russian parliament) do not criticize the government strongly, for fear of losing their places in the Duma. Many opposition parties, such as the People's Freedom Party and the Other Russia, have been unable to register due to the strict rules. In the 2000s the government led a war in Chechnya, and in the process, civil liberties and independent media were restricted. Corruption is widespread and human rights, especially in the North Caucasus, are frequently violated. In 2008 Putin's government was in a war with Georgia in a dispute over a region with many ethnic Russians.
History
The roots of Russia's history began when the East Slavs formed a group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. The Vikings and their descendants founded the first East Slavic state of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century. They adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988. This form of Christianity influenced Russian culture greatly. Kievan Rus' eventually broke up and the lands were divided into many small feudal states. The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow. This area served as the main force in later Russian unification and the fight against the Golden Horde from Asia. Moscow slowly gained control of the regions around it and took over the cultural and political life of Kievan Rus'.
In the 18th century, the nation had expanded through conquest, annexation and exploration to become the Russian Empire, the third-largest empire in history. It stretched from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth eastward to the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. The empire was ruled by an emperor called the Tsar.
Peter the Great ruled Russia from 1689 until 1725. Peter moved the capital from Moscow to a new city named Saint Petersburg. He made Russian society more modern in many ways. The government began building ships for the Russian navy.
The Russo-Japanese War started in 1904 and ended in 1905 with Japan winning the war. The Russian defeat was one of the reasons for later revolutions.
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks (later called "Communists"), influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, took over the country and murdered the Tsar and other people who stood against them. Once they took power, the Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, created the first Marxist Communist State.
From the 1920s to the 1950s, Josef Stalin ruled as an absolute dictator of Soviet Russia, and destroyed anything and anyone that was against his rule, including taking the property of farmers and shopkeepers. Many millions of people starved and died in the resulting famines. Stalin also removed, or "purged", all military personnel who were not loyal to him, and many were killed or sent to prison camps, or gulags, for many years. Even in the gulags, many prisoners died.
Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany agreed not to attack each other in 1939. In June 1941, Germany broke the agreement and attacked in Operation Barbarossa. The attack was part of World War II. The war lasted in Europe until May 1945, and Russia lost more than 20 million people during that time. In spite of this large loss, Russia was one of the winners of the war and became a world superpower.
From 1922 to 1991, Russia was the largest part of the Soviet Union, or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). People sometimes used the name "Russia" for the whole Soviet Union, or sometimes "Soviet Russia". Russia was only one of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. The republic was in fact named the "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic" (RSFSR).
The Soviet Union fell apart in the early 1990s. Russia took over the place of the USSR in the United Nations (UN).
History of present Russian Federation
Boris Yeltsin was made the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. Wide-ranging reforms took place, including privatization and free trade laws. Radical changes "(shock therapy) were recommended by the United States and International Monetary Fund. A major economic crisis followed. There was 50% decline in GDP and industrial output between 1990–95.
The privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government system. Many of the newly rich businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country . The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of social services. Millions went into poverty, from 1.5% level of poverty in the late Soviet era to 39–49% by mid-1993. The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.
The 1990s had many armed conflicts in the North Caucasus. There were both local ethnic battles and separatist Islamist insurrections. Since the Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, a Chechen War was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians caused hundreds of deaths. The most notable of these were the Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school siege.
Russia took responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution. High budget deficits caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis and resulted in further GDP decline.
On 31 December 1999 President Yeltsin resigned, or quit being the president. The job of president was given to the recently appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin. Putin then won the 2000 presidential election. Putin stopped the Chechen rebellion quickly, but violence still occurs in the Northern Caucasus at times.
High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years. This improved the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage. While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been criticized by Western nations as un-democratic, Putin's leadership led to stability, and progress. This won him widespread popularity in Russia.
On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia, whilst Putin became Prime Minister. Putin returned to the presidency following the 2012 presidential elections, and Medvedev was appointed Prime Minister.
Geography
Russia's capital and biggest city is Moscow. The second biggest city is Saint Petersburg, which was the capital of Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Cities in Russia with more than one million people are, in order:
Moscow
Saint Petersburg
Novosibirsk
Yekaterinburg
Nizhniy Novgorod
Samara
Omsk
Kazan
Ufa
Chelyabinsk
Rostov on Don
Krasnoyarsk
Volgograd
The most western point of Russia is near Kaliningrad, formerly named Königsberg. The most eastern point of Russia is Diomid island, 35 km from Chukotka (Russia) and from Alaska (USA). The most southern point is in Caucasus, on the border with Azerbaijan. The most northern point is on Franz Josef Land archipelago in Arctic Ocean, from the North Pole.
Demographics
Russia has a population of 142 million citizens. Most people (73.7%) live in cities. The population decreased by 5 million people since the fall of the Soviet Union. The current population growth is close to zero, and the population went down by 0.085% in 2008.
Russia's area is about 17 million square kilometers (6.5 million sq. mi.). It is the largest country in the world. Its population density is about 8.3 people per square kilometer (21.5 per sq. mi.). This is among the lowest country densities in the world. The population is most dense in the European part of the country, centering around Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Siberia has a very low density.
Religion
The main religion in Russia is the Russian Orthodox Church. It is one of the Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Culture
Music and ballet
World-renowned composers of the 20th century included Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, and Dmitri Shostakovich. Russia has produced some of the greatest pianists: Anton Rubinstein, Vladimir Horowitz and Vladimir Ashkenazy are among the all-time greats.
Russian composer Tchaikovsky created famous ballets such as The Nutcracker. The impressario Sergei Diaghilev was responsible for the development of ballet in the early 20th century with the Ballets Russes. Dance companies at the Mariinsky Theatre and the Bolshoi Ballet produced many famous dancers.
Literature
Russians have contributed many famous works of literature. Alexander Pushkin is considered a founder of modern Russian literature. He was a poet from the 19th century.
Other famous poets and writers of the 19th century were Anton Chekhov, Mikhail Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy, Nikolai Gogol (he was born in what is now Ukraine, but during his lifetime Ukraine was a part of Russia), Ivan Turgenev and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky are considered by many people to be two of the greatest novelists ever. Three Russians won the Nobel Prize for Literature in the 20th century: Boris Pasternak (1958), Mikhail Sholokhov (1965) and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1980). Mikhail Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita was also a novel of the highest quality.
Sports
Soccer, ice hockey and basketball are among the most popular sports. Boxing, gymnastics, weightlifting, and tennis are also popular sports. Track suits are popular clothing items for many Russians. Sports people to gain world fame include former tennis world number one Maria Sharapova, who has won three Grand Slam titles, and was the world's highest paid female athlete in 2008.
Since the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes are in the three in gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014 Winter Olympics were hosted in Sochi.
For the 2018 Winter Olympics which were held in Pyeongchang, South Korea, a lot of athletes could not compete because the International Olympic Committee found out they had been doping. Those who were not caught doping were able to play in the 2018 Olympics under the title of "Olympic Athletes from Russia", and they took home two gold medals, including one in ice hockey.
Chess
Chess is the main intellectual sport in Russia. In the 20th century there were nine Russian World Chess Champions, more than all other nations combined.
Related pages
Crime in Russia
List of rivers of Russia
Russia at the Olympics
Russia national football team
Soviet Union
References
Notes
G8 nations
Federations
1991 establishments
1990s establishments in Asia
1990s establishments in Europe |
2965 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow | Moscow | Moscow (, in US mainly ; ) is the capital city of Russia. 11.5 million people live there (1 October 2010), so it is Europe's biggest city, if Istanbul, which has parts of its population in Asia, is discluded. It is also the seventh biggest city in the world. It sits on the Moskva River. Moscow is an important political, cultural, economic, religious, financial and transportation center. It is a global city, important in the economic infrastructure of the region. Moscow was founded by Prince Yuri Dolgoruki in 1147.
The middle of the city is an ancient walled city called the Kremlin. There are important government buildings, museums and churches in the Kremlin. Many of the buildings in Moscow, like St. Basil's Cathedral and Spasskaya Tower, are very beautiful and famous. There are also modern buildings. The many art galleries have big collections.
Moscow has many scientific and educational buildings, as well as some sports complexes built for the 1980 Summer Olympics. Transport includes four international airports, nine railroad stations and the second busiest (after Tokyo) metro system in the world, which is famous for its artwork.
Over time, the city has earned a variety of nicknames, most referring to its pre-eminent status in the nation: The Third Rome (Третий Рим), Whitestone (Белокаменная), The First Throne (Первопрестольная), The Forty Forties (Сорок Сороков), The Port of five seas (Порт пяти морей).
A person from Moscow is called a Muscovite in English, or a Moskvich in Russian.
Geography
It is by the Moskva River in the Moscow Oblast, in the European part of Russia. Moscow sits on the center of three parts of Earth's crust. It was once the capital of the Soviet Union (1918-1991), Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Moscow (1480-1703). It is the place of the Moscow Kremlin, one of the World Heritage Sites in the city, which is the home of the President of Russia. The Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council of Russia (Federation Council) and the Government of Russia also are in Moscow.
The city has a humid continental climate. The winter (usually cold) is lasting from mid-November to the end of March. The average temperature in winter is about −10 °C (−14 °F). The summer is usually warm or even hot with temperature ranging from 15 to 35 °C (50 to 95 °F) .
Economy
Moscow has a large economic infrastructure. It is home to the most billionaires in the world. In 2008 Moscow was named the world's most expensive city for non-Russian workers for the third year in a row. In 2009, however, Moscow went down to third after Tokyo and Osaka came in first and second.
History
The city is named after the river (old , which means "the city next to the Moskva River"). The beginning of the name is not known, but some people have a few ideas. One is that the name might be from a very old Finnic language, in which it means "dark" and "cloudy". In 12th century tribes of Vyatichi and Krivichs lived on that land. The first Russian reference to Moscow is from 1147 when Yuri Dolgoruki called upon the prince of Novgorod-Severski to "come to me, brother, to Moscow."
Nine years later, in 1156, Prince Yuri Dolgoruki ordered the building of a wooden wall, which had to be redone many times, to go around the growing city. After the attack of 1237–1238, when the Mongols burned the city to the ground and killed its people living there, Moscow grew back and became the capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (an amount of land ruled by a prince) in 1327. Its good place on the start of the Volga River helped the city to grow slowly bigger and bigger. Moscow turned into a peaceful and rich principality, known as the Grand Duchy of Moscow, for many years and a large number of people from across Russia moved to live there.
Under Ivan I the city replaced Tver as a political center of Vladimir-Suzdal and became the only collector of taxes for the Mongol-Tatar rulers. By paying high taxes, Ivan worked out an important deal with the Khan. Unlike other principalities, Moscow was not divided among his sons but was passed whole to his oldest. However, Moscow did not like the Mongol rule. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a Russian army to an important victory over the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo. Only two years later Moscow was raided by the Khan Tokhtamysh. In 1480, Ivan III finally broke the Russians free from Tatar control, allowing Moscow to become the center of power in Russia. Under Ivan III the city became the capital of an empire that would eventually include all of Russia and other countries.
In 1571, the Crimean Tatars raided Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin.
In 1609 the Swedish army, led by Count Jacob De la Gardie and Evert Horn, marched from Veliky Novgorod toward Moscow to help Tsar Vasili Shuiski. They entered Moscow in 1610 and stopped the revolution against the Tsar, but left early in 1611. After that the Polish invaded. During the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618) hetman (army commander) Stanisław Żółkiewski entered Moscow after he defeated the Russians in the Battle of Klushino. The 17th century had lots of revolutions, such as the Salt Riot (1648), the Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising of 1682.
The plague of 1654–1656 killed half the population of Moscow. The city stopped being Russia’s capital in 1712, after the building of Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great near the Baltic coast in 1703. The Plague of 1771 was the last big plague in central Russia, killing 100,000 people in Moscow alone. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Muscovites burned the city and ran away, as Napoleon’s army was coming near to the city on 14 September. Napoleon’s army, which was very hungry and cold, had to leave and was nearly destroyed by the freezing Russian winter and some attacks by the army.
In January 1905, Alexander Adrianov became Moscow’s first mayor. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, on 12 March 1918 Moscow became the capital of the Soviet Union. During World War II (known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War), after the German invasion of the USSR, the Soviet State Defense Group and commanders of the Red Army were placed in Moscow.
In 1941, 16 groups of national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), twenty-five battalions (18,500 people) and four engineering regiments were created among the Muscovites. That November, the German Army was stopped at the edge of the city and then driven off in the Battle of Moscow. Many factories were moved away, and much of the government was too, and from 20 October the city was declared to be under siege. Its people who stayed built and used anti-tank defences, and the city was bombed from the air. Joseph Stalin (the leader of Russia) did not leave the city, so the general staff remained in the city as well. Even with a siege going on, the construction of the Moscow Metro system continued through the war, and by the end of the war a few new metro lines were open.
On 1 May 1944, a medal For the defence of Moscow and in 1947 another medal In memory of the 800th year of Moscow were given to Moscow. In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany, on 8 May 1965, Moscow became one of twelve Soviet cities awarded the title of Hero City.
In 1980, Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which the United States and several other countries did not go to because of the Soviet Union's war in Afghanistan in the end of 1979. In 1991, Moscow was the scene of a failed overthrow attempt by government members opposed to Mikhail Gorbachev. When the USSR ended in the same year, Moscow continued to be the capital of Russia.
Since then, the beginning of a market economy in Moscow has caused an explosion of Western-style stores, services, architecture, and lifestyles. In 1998, it hosted the first World Youth Games.
Transportation
Metro
Moscow metro is one of the largest and the beautiful ones in the World. It was opened for passengers in 1935.
Trams
The first electric tram began operating in 1899.
Buses
Trolleys
The Moscow trolley system was the largest in the World before ending of 2010s. In 2020 it was closed.
Sister cities
Moscow has many sister cities:
Algiers, Algeria
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Amman, Jordan
Ankara, Turkey
Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
Athens, Greece
Baku, Azerbaijan
Bangkok, Thailand
Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Beijing, China
Beirut, Lebanon
Belgrade, Serbia
Berlin, Germany
Brussels, Belgium
Bucharest, Romania
Cairo, Egypt
Chicago, Illinois, United States
Cusco, Peru
Delhi, India
Donetsk, Ukraine
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Dushanbe, Tajikistan
Düsseldorf, Germany
Ganja, Azerbaijan
Hanoi, Vietnam
Havana, Cuba
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Ingolstadt, Germany
Jelgava, Latvia
Kharkiv, Ukraine
Kolomna, Russia
Kraków, Poland
Limoges, France
Ljubljana, Slovenia
London, England, United Kingdom
Madrid, Spain
Manila, Philippines
Naryan-Mar, Russia
Nicosia, Cyprus
Paris, France
Podgorica, Montenegro
Prague, Czech Republic
Pyongyang, North Korea
Rasht, Iran
Reykjavík, Iceland
Riga, Latvia
Seoul, South Korea
Tallinn, Estonia
Tel Aviv, Israel
Tehran, Iran
Tirana, Albania
Tokyo, Japan
Tunis, Tunisia
Ulan Bator, Mongolia
Valenciennes, France
Vienna, Austria
Warsaw, Poland
Yerevan, Armenia
Related pages
List of cities and other settlements in Russia
References
Capital cities in Russia
Olympic cities
1140s establishments
Round cities |
2966 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20St.%20Gallen | Canton of St. Gallen | St. Gallen is a canton in Switzerland. St. Gallen is in the north-east corner of Switzerland. North of St. Gallen is the canton Thurgau. West of St. Gallen is Zürich. South of St. Gallen is Schwyz, Glarus, and Graubünden. East of St. Gallen are the countries Austria and Liechtenstein. The cantons Appenzell Innerrhoden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden are inside the canton St. Gallen (the canton St.Gallen sourrounds them).
St. Gallen has been a Swiss canton since 1803.
St. Gallen is near Lake Constance. At the south of St. Gallen there are big mountains over 3000m high. The best known mountain in St. Gallen is the Säntis, which is 2503m high. At the east of St. Gallen there is the river Rhine. The people in St. Gallen speak German.
There are about 455,000 people (2002) in the canton St. Gallen. It has an area of 2,026 km².
The biggest town in St. Gallen is the town with the same name St. Gallen. There are 70,000 people in the town St. Gallen.
Other websites
Official website of the government of St. Gallen
1803 establishments
19th-century establishments in Switzerland
1800s establishments in Europe |
2967 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton | Canton | Canton can mean many different things.
A canton is a way to divide the land of a country. It is like dividing the country into different regions or states.
Cantons of Costa Rica
Cantons of France
Cantons of Luxembourg
Cantons of Switzerland
canton (liqueur), a ginger-flavored liqueur that is made in the Guangdong province in China
the upper left part of a flag
Places:
Canton, an old English name for the city of Guangzhou, China
Canton, an old English name for the province of Guangdong, China
Canton, Connecticut, USA
Canton, Georgia, USA
Canton, Illinois, USA
Canton, Baltimore neighborhood and park in Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Canton, Massachusetts, USA
Canton Township, Michigan, United States
Canton, Mississippi, USA
Canton, Missouri, USA
Canton, New York
Canton (village), New York , USA
Canton (town), New York , USA
Canton, North Carolina, USA
Canton, Ohio, USA
Canton, Oklahoma, USA
Canton, Pennsylvania, USA
Canton, South Dakota, USA
Canton Township, Michigan, USA
Canton Township, Pennsylvania, USA
Canton, Texas, USA
Canton, Cardiff, a district of the Welsh capital
Kanton Island (used to be "Canton Island"), part of Kiribati |