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Initially, Herzberg considered a career in astronomy, but his application to the Hamburg Observatory was returned advising him not to pursue a career in the field without private financial support. After completing high school at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums, Herzberg continued his education at Darmstadt University of Technology with the help of a private scholarship. Herzberg completed his Dr.-Ing. degree under in 1928. * 1928–30 Post-doctoral work at the University of Göttingen and Bristol University under James Franck, Max Born, John Lennard-Jones * 1930 Darmstadt University of Technology: Privatdozent (lecturer) and senior assistant in Physics * 1935 Guest professor, University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Canada) * 1936–45 Professor of Physics, University of Saskatchewan * 1939 Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada * 1945–8 Professor of spectroscopy, Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago (Chicago, United States) * 1948 Director of the Division of Pure Physics, National Research Council of Canada * 1951 Fellow of the Royal Society of London * 1957–63 Vice President of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics * 1956–7 President of the Canadian Association of Physicists * 1960 gives Bakerian Lecturer of the Royal Society of London * 1965 Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences * 1966–7 President of the Royal Society of Canada * 1968 Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences * 1968 Companion of the Order of Canada * 1968 George Fisher Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University (Ithaca, United States) * 1969 Willard Gibbs Award * 1969 Distinguished Research Scientist in the recombined Division of Physics, at the National Research Council of Canada * 1970 Lecturer of the Chemical Society of London, receives Faraday Medal * 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals" * 1971 Royal Medal from Royal Society of London * 1972 Member of the American Philosophical Society * 1973-1980 Chancellor of Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) * 1981 Founding member of the World Cultural Council. * 1992 Sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada * 1999 Died aged 94

Spectroscopists

*Ultraviolet Absorption and Emission Spectra of Carbon Monoxide *The Ultra-Violet Band Spectrum of Nitrogen *New Ultra-Violet Spectrum of Helium *Absorption and Emission Spectra in the Region λ 600-1100. *New Oxygen Spectra in the Ultraviolet and new Spectra in Nitrogen *Preparation of Schumann plates *The Ultraviolet Spectrum of the Sun from V-2 Rockets

Spectroscopists

In their early years Martin and his elder brother received lessons at home in carpentry (p 498 of ) and manual skills became important for him throughout his life. This was for relaxation – he built boats to his own designs (p 498 of ) – and professionally. In his wartime radar work (), his post-war radio-telescope building (p 510 of ) and his late researches into wind energy (p 517 of ) he was a hands-on practical engineer as well as a scientist. Ryle also had a lifelong interest in sailing (p 498 of) and this matched his choice when in the 1970s he turned his research subject from astronomy to wind energy (pp 420–422 of) Another practical skill acquired by Martin in youth that later served him well in his professional career was as a radio ham. While still at School (Bradfield College) he built his own transmitter and obtained a Post Office licence to operate it (pp 498–499 of), with the GB-Callsign G3CY. In 1936 the family moved to a house in Cambridge which became Martins home after the war. In 1947 he and Rowena Palmer married and they lived in this house for rest of Martins life. They had three children, born in 1949, 1951 and 1952. Ryle died on 14 October 1984, in Cambridge. He was celebrated on a first class stamp issued in 2009 as part of an Eminent Britons set. Lady Ryle died in 2013. Ryle was an amateur radio operator, and held the GB-Callsign G3CY.

Spectroscopists

In 1955 Hallam was appointed to the staff of the Department of Chemistry at University College of Swansea becoming Senior Lecturer in 1964 and Reader in 1970. In 1963, Hallam took a year's sabbatical and became an adviser in physical chemistry at the new University of Nigeria at Nsukka. He had active international collaborations and was presented with a medal by the University of Helsinki in 1973 for his outstanding service and was also a visiting professor at the University of Marburg in 1975. Hallam was known for his work in infrared spectroscopy of the hydrogen bond and as one of the founders of matrix isolation spectroscopy. He passed away unexpectedly on 14 May 1977.

Spectroscopists

Herschel married his cousin Margaret Brodie Stewart (1810–1884) on 3 March 1829 in Edinburgh, and was father of the following children: # Caroline Emilia Mary Herschel (31 March 1830 – 29 January 1909), who married the soldier and politician Alexander Hamilton-Gordon # Isabella Herschel (5 June 1831 – 1893) # Sir William James Herschel, 2nd Bt. (9 January 1833 – 1917), # Margaret Louisa Herschel (1834–1861), an accomplished artist # Alexander Stewart Herschel (1836–1907), FRS, FRAS # Col. John Herschel FRS, FRAS, (1837–1921) surveyor # Maria Sophia Herschel (1839–1929) # Amelia Herschel (1841–1926) married Sir Thomas Francis Wade, diplomat and sinologist # Julia Herschel (1842–1933) married on 4 June 1878 to Captain (later Admiral) John Fiot Lee Pearse Maclear # Matilda Rose Herschel (1844–1914), a gifted artist, married William Waterfield (Indian Civil Service) # Francisca Herschel (1846–1932) # Constance Anne Herschel (1855–20 June 1939), mathematician and scientist who became lecturer in natural sciences at Girton College, Cambridge

Spectroscopists

As an academic teacher, he offers semestral courses in general and quantum chemistry. Some of them are available online via the OpenCourseWare platform. In fall 2017, he taught "Perturbation theory for linear operator", using the book titled the same as the course by mathematician Tosio Kato.

Computational Chemists

Santiago Schnell FRSB FRSC is a scientist and academic leader, currently serving as the William K. Warren Foundation Dean of the College of Science at the University of Notre Dame, as well as a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences, and Department of Applied and Computational Mathematics and Statistics.

Computational Chemists

Tia Emmetine Keyes is a professor of physical chemistry at the School of Chemical Sciences, and a member of the National Centre for Sensor Research at Dublin City University.

Spectroscopists

Born in Elizabeth, New Jersey to a family of Ukrainian immigrants, Kasha studied chemical engineering at night at the Cooper Union in New York City for two years while working full-time during the days at the Merck & Co. research facility in New Jersey. He then received a full scholarship to the University of Michigan, where he completed a bachelor's degree in chemistry. He earned his Ph.D. in chemistry from University of California at Berkeley in 1945, working with renowned physical chemist G.N. Lewis. Following postdoctoral work with Robert Mulliken, he joined the chemistry department at Florida State University as a faculty member in 1951.

Spectroscopists

Debyes son, Peter P. Debye, interviewed in 2006 at age 89 recollects that his father was completely apolitical and that in the privacy of their home politics were never discussed. According to his son, Debye just wanted to do his job at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute and as long as the Nazis did not bother him was able to do so. He recalls that his mother urged him (the son) to stay in the US in the event of war. Debyes son had come to the US on a planned 2-month vacation during the summer of 1939 and never returned to Germany because war broke out. In an opinion article published on the Debye Institute website, Dr. Gijs van Ginkel, until April 2007 Senior Managing Director of the VM Debye Instituut in Utrecht deplored . In his article he cites scholars who point out that the DPG was able to retain their threatened staff as long as could be expected under increasing pressure from the Nazis. He also puts forward the important argument that when Debye in 1950 received the Max Planck medal of the DPG, nobody objected, not even the known opponent of the national socialists Max von Laue, who would have been in a position to object. Also Einstein, with his enormous prestige, was still alive, as were other Jewish scientists such as Lise Meitner and James Franck who both knew Debye intimately. None of them protested against Debye's receiving the highest German scientific distinction. In fact, Albert Einstein, after many years of not participating in the voting for the Max Planck Medal nominees, joined the process again to vote for Debye. Maastricht University also announced that it was reconsidering its position on the Peter Debye Prijs voor natuurwetenschappelijk onderzoek (Peter Debye Prize for scientific research). In a reply on the DPG website, Dieter Hoffmann and Mark Walker also conclude that Debye was not a Nazi activist. They remark that Max von Laue also was required and obliged (as a civil servant) to sign letters with Heil Hitler. They also state that the DPG was one of the last scientific societies to purge the Jewish members and only very reluctantly. They quote the response of the Reich University Teachers League (a National Socialist organization) to the Debye letter: Obviously the German Physical Society is still very backward and still clings tightly to their dear Jews. It is in fact remarkable that only "because of circumstances beyond our control" the membership of Jews can no longer be maintained In May 2006, the Dutch Nobel Prize winner Martinus Veltman who had written the foreword to the Rispen book, renounced the book's description of Peter Debye, withdrew his foreword, and asked the Board of Directors of Utrecht University to rescind their decision to rename the Debye Institute. Various historical investigations, both in The Netherlands and in the US, have been carried out subsequent to the actions of the University of Maastricht. The earliest of these investigations, carried out by the Cornell University's department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology released a report on 31 May 2006, which states that: Based on the information to-date, we have not found evidence supporting the accusations that Debye was a Nazi sympathizer or collaborator or that he held anti-Semitic views. It is important that this be stated clearly since these are the most serious allegations. It goes on to declare: Thus, based on the information, evidence and historical record known to date, we believe that any action that dissociates Debyes name from the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Cornell is unwarranted.' In June 2006, it was reported that the scientific director of the (formerly) Debye Institute had been reprimanded by the board of directors of the University of Utrecht for a new publication on Debyes war years on the grounds that it was too personally biased with respect to the Institutes naming dispute. According to the board, the book should have been published not as a Debye Institute publication, but as a personal one. The book was banned by the University of Utrecht and both Directors of the (former) Debye Institute were forbidden to have any further contact with the press. A dozen professors of the Physics Faculty, amongst whom Cees Andriesse, openly protested against the interventions of the Board and the censorship of their protest by the university. In May 2007, the universities of Utrecht and Maastricht announced that a new committee headed by Jan Terlouw would advise them regarding the name change. Also, in the beginning of 2007 an official report was announced, to be published by the NIOD and authorized by the Dutch Education Ministry (then scheduled for fall 2007).

Spectroscopists

As of 2019, Saykally's active research includes: *Terahertz laser spectroscopy of clusters *X-ray spectroscopy of liquids and interfaces *Nonlinear optical spectroscopy of liquids and interfaces *Chemical interactions on liquid surfaces *X-ray laser nonlinear optical spectroscopy

Spectroscopists

* Waller, John, "Einstein's Luck: The Truth Behind Some of the Greatest Scientific Discoveries". Oxford University Press, 2003. . * Physics paper [https://history.aip.org/history/exhibits/gap/Millikan/Millikan.html#millikan1 On the Elementary Electrical Charge and the Avogadro Constant (extract)] Robert Andrews Millikan at www.aip.org/history, 2003

Spectroscopists

He teaches classes on global warming, environmental chemistry, and global geochemical cycles. He is the author of Global Warming: Understanding the Forecast, an introductory textbook on the environmental sciences for non-science undergraduates.

Computational Chemists

August Herman Pfund (December 28, 1879 – January 4, 1949) was an American physicist, spectroscopist, and inventor.

Spectroscopists

In April 2023, Schwarz was one of the 22 personal guests at the ceremony in which former Chancellor Angela Merkel was decorated with the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit for special achievement by President Frank-Walter Steinmeier at Schloss Bellevue in Berlin.

Computational Chemists

Vladimir Konstantinovich Prokofiev (, 1898–1993) was a Soviet scientist, known for his work on atomic emission spectroscopy.

Spectroscopists

He was born in South Africa and took his B.Sc. in chemistry and mathematics from the University of Witwatersrand in 1948. De Maine emigrated to England in 1949. He later moved to Canada where he completed his Ph.D. in physical chemistry at the University of British Columbia. He finally moved to the United States in 1957 and served as professor at the University of Mississippi from 1960 to 1963. In 1982 he settled in Auburn.

Computational Chemists

Apeloig was born in Bukhara, Uzbekistan after his family fled from the Nazis after the invasion of Poland in September 1939. In 1947, when he was three years old, the family immigrated to Israel. He served in the Nahal Brigade and the paratroopers between 1962 and 1964. He studied chemistry and physics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and completed his undergraduate (receiving his BA in physics and chemistry in 1967, and his masters in 1969) and graduate education there, including a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1974. He conducted postdoctoral research at Princeton University with Paul v. R. Schleyer and collaborated with Nobel Laureate John A. Pople. Apeloig joined the faculty of the Technion in 1976 and in 1983 he was appointed professor. He became the dean of the Faculty of Chemistry in 1995 until 2001 when he became the president of the Technion, replacing Amos Lapidot. In 2009 he was followed as President by Peretz Lavie.

Computational Chemists

In 1928, Grigory Landsberg and Leonid Mandelstam at the Moscow State University independently discovered the Raman effect. They published their findings in July issue of Naturwissenschaften, and presented their findings at the Sixth Congress of the Russian Association of Physicists held at Saratov between 5 and 16 August. In 1930, they were nominated for the Nobel Prize alongside Raman. According to the Nobel Committee, however: (1) the Russians did not come to an independent interpretation of their discovery as they cited Raman's article; (2) they observed the effect only in crystals, whereas Raman and Krishnan observed it in solids, liquids and gases, and therefore proved the universal nature of the effect; (3) the problems concerning the intensity of Raman and infrared lines in the spectra had been explained during the previous year; (4) the Raman method had been applied with great success in different fields of molecular physics; and (5) the Raman effect had effectively helped to check the symmetry properties of molecules, and thus the problems concerning nuclear spin in atomic physics. The Nobel Committee proposed only Ramans name to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for the Nobel Prize. Evidence later appeared that the Russians had discovered the phenomenon earlier, a week before Raman and Krishnans discovery. According to Mandelstam's letter (to Orest Khvolson), the Russian had observed the spectral line on 21 February 1928.

Spectroscopists

In 1843, the Royal Scottish Society of the Arts awarded Swan a gold medal for his scientific achievements. He served as their President 1882–1885.

Spectroscopists

* Vibrational spectroscopy of trapped species; infrared and Raman studies of matrix-isolated molecules, radicals and ions. London; New York: J. Wiley (1973 ) * Modern Analytical Methods. London: Chemical Society (1972 )

Spectroscopists

*1927 – elected International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences *1930 – Rumford Medal for work relating to specific heats and X-ray spectroscopy *1936 – Nobel Prize in Chemistry ([http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/laureates/1936/index.html entry at nobelprize.org]) "for his contributions to the study of molecular structure," primarily referring to his work on dipole moments and X-ray diffraction *1936 – elected member of the American Philosophical Society *1937 – Franklin Medal from The Franklin Institute *1947 – elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences *1963 – Priestley Medal *1965 – National Medal of Science *1982 – Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame

Spectroscopists

Prokhorov became a member of the Communist Party in 1950. In 1983, together with three other academicians – Andrey Tychonoff, Anatoly Dorodnitsyn and Georgy Skryabin – he signed the famous open letter called "when they lose honor and conscience" (Когда теряют честь и совесть), denouncing Andrey Sakharovs article in the Foreign Affairs'.

Spectroscopists

Julia Elizabeth Rice (born 1960) is a British-American computational chemist who works for IBM Research at their Almaden Research Center in San Jose California. Her work their involves the study of nonlinear optics in the simulation of organic molecules, the development of the Mulliken software package for quantum chemistry, the management of scientific data, and connections to statistical mechanics.

Computational Chemists

Coote returned to Australia in 2001 and joined the Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University as a postdoctoral fellow with Leo Radom. It was during this time that she began to build a reputation in computational chemistry, and she established an independent research group on the computer-aided chemical design at ANU in 2004. Awarded an ARC Future Fellowship in 2010, Coote focused on a computer-guided experimental approach to understand and control the stereochemistry of free-radical polymerisation. Since then, Coote has received a number of grants from the Australian Research Council, including the Georgina Sweet Australian Laureate Fellowship in 2017. Today, her research interests span several broad areas of fundamental and applied chemistry: stereocontrol in free-radical polymerisation, polymer degradation and stabilisation, radical stability and, most recently, electric field effects on chemical reactivity. Coote became the first female Professor of Chemistry at ANU in 2011.

Computational Chemists

Manuel Cardona Castro (7 September 1934 – 2 July 2014) was a condensed matter physicist. According to the ISI Citations web database, Cardona was one of the eight most cited physicists since 1970. He specialized in solid state physics. Cardonas main interests were in the fields of: Raman scattering (and other optical spectroscopies) as applied to semiconductor microstructures, materials with tailor-made isotopic compositions, and high T' superconductors, particularly investigations of electronic and vibronic excitations in the normal and superconducting state.

Spectroscopists

* 1983: M. S. Garley * 1984: T. A. Sheppard * 1986: A. M. M. Doherty and P. Graham * 1988: Miss S. L. Giddings * 1989: G. Williams * 1990: Miss T. J. Lovelock * 1991: Ian A. Evetts * 1993: A. J. Parry * 1994: S. R. Andrews and Prof David A. Worsley * 1995 P. D. J. Anderson * 1996: Sara Shinton * 1997: P. Green and R. Phillips * 1999: M. Francis * 2000: D. K. Thomas * 2001 S. Ford * 2002: Rachel Fretwell and Kay Eaton * 2003: D. J. Mitchell * 2008: Rachel C. Evans

Spectroscopists

*2006 – Research Prize of the Chemistry Faculty of the University of Bochum *2006 – Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics (with Jan Peter Toennies) from the Franklin Institute. *2003 – Creativity Award from the NSF 2003-5 *2004 – Texas A&M University, Frontiers in Chemical Research Lecturer *2004 – Moscowitz Lecturer at the University of Minnesota, October 2004 *2003 – Distinguished Visiting Professor, University of Florida, Gainesville. *2003 – Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy from the American Physical Society (with Kevin K. Lehmann). *2002 – Peter Debye Award in Physical Chemistry from the American Chemical Society *2001 – H. E. Gunning Lecturer, Dept. of Chem., University of Alberta *2000 – Elected Foreign Member of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences *2000 – Honorary Science Doctorate from the University of Waterloo *1999 – Samuel M. McElvain Lecturer, University of Wisconsin–Madison *1997 – Elected Fellow of The Royal Society (United Kingdom) *1996 – Recipient of an Honorary Doctorate in Physics from the University of Genoa *1995 – Recipient of a Senior Fellowship of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation *1995 – Recipient of the 1995 Lippincott Award of the Optical Society of America, the [http://www.coblentz.org/ Coblentz Society], and the Society for Applied Spectroscopy *1986 – Senior Killam Fellowship.

Spectroscopists

James W. Brault (February 10, 1932 – November 1, 2008) was a 20th-century scientist and a pioneer of Fourier transform spectroscopy. He was a world-leading expert in physical instrument design, numerical methods as applied to spectroscopy, and in atomic and molecular spectroscopy. He graduated from Princeton University in 1962 as a student of Robert H. Dicke on the gravitational redshift of the sun and worked later at the Kitt Peak National Observatory, where he installed a high-resolution Fourier transform spectrometer used for astronomy, solar physics, and laboratory spectroscopy. In his early years, Brault was involved in the development of the lock-in amplifier, and of differential interference microscopy and phase modulation microscopy with Robert D. Allen.

Spectroscopists

After graduating, Gouterman was appointed to the faculty at Harvard University where he worked as a postdoctoral researcher with William Moffitt. Shortly after Gouterman arrived, Moffitt died of a heart attack during a squash game. Gouterman was quickly promoted to assistant professor, and spent his time using quantum chemical calculations to understand the photophysical properties of porphyrins. He primarily made use of the Hückel molecular orbital method to interrogate their optical spectra. Gouterman's molecular models, which included symmetry arguments and configuration interactions, were able to predict the intensity differences between the absorption bands of porphyrins. The so-called four-orbit model incorporates two, almost degenerate highest occupied molecular orbitals and two degenerate lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals. The Soret and Q-bands that are visible in porphyrin spectra are the result of transitions from between these four orbitals. Gouterman moved to the University of Washington in 1966, where he worked until his retirement. In Seattle, Gouterman continued to study the optical properties of porphyrins. He described how the chemical structures of porphyrins determine whether the spectral shape was normal, hyper- and hypso-. For example, the UV-Visible absorption spectra of hyper porphyrins contain red-shifted peaks and extra bands due to ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) transitions. Amongst the complicated structures analysed by Gouterman were cytochrome P450–carbon monoxide complexes, whose electronic spectra included a split Soret band due to LMCT transitions.

Computational Chemists

Richardson was born on January 25, 1941, and grew up in Teaneck, New Jersey. Her father was an electrical engineer and her mother was an English teacher. Her parents encouraged an interest in science and she was a member of local astronomy clubs as early as elementary school. She attended Teaneck High School and in 1958 won third place in the Westinghouse Science Talent Search, the most prestigious science fair in the United States, with calculations of the satellite Sputnik's orbit from her own observations. She continued her education intending to study mathematics, astronomy and physics at Swarthmore College. However, Richardson instead graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a bachelors degree in philosophy and a minor in physics in 1962 before she pursued graduate work in philosophy at Harvard University. Meanwhile, she was able to enroll in plant taxonomy and evolution courses at Harvard that would later contribute to her big-picture approach to studying protein structure. Since Harvards philosophy focused on modern philosophy instead of Richardsons interest, classical philosophy, Richardson left with her masters degree from Harvard in 1966. Post-graduation, Richardson tried teaching high school, but soon realized that this career path was not for her. She subsequently rejoined the scientific world, working as a technician at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the same laboratory as her husband, David Richardson, whom she met at Swarthmore College. At MIT, David Richardson was pursuing his doctorate in Al Cotton's lab using X-ray crystallography to study the structure of staphylococcal nuclease. Jane Richardson learned the necessary technical skills and scientific background in biochemistry and biophysics through work at the lab as she worked alongside her husband, whom she still works with today. Richardson later began drawing her eponymous diagrams as a method of interpreting the structures of protein molecules. Over the course of her career, Richardson has been recognized by many prestigious institutions of the scientific community. In July 1985 she was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in biochemistry. She was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991 and to the Institute of Medicine in 2006. As part of her role in the National Academy of Sciences, Richardson serves on panels that advise the White House and the Pentagon regarding nationally important scientific matters (e.g.,). For the 2012-2013 year, Richardson was elected president of the Biophysical Society for the 2012-2013 year, and she became a fellow of the American Crystallographic Association in 2012. Richardson is currently a James B. Duke Professor of Biochemistry at Duke University. The Richardsons continue to jointly head a research group at Duke University. Richardson is a contributor to Wikipedia, where she is a prominent member of WikiProject Biophysics.

Computational Chemists

Throughout his career, Wang has predominately studied nanoclusters and solution-phase chemistry in the gas phase, focusing on the fundamental behaviors of nanoclusters using photoelectron spectroscopy and computational techniques. With his group, Wang has discovered golden bucky-balls and the smallest golden pyramid, as well as aromatic clusters and planar boron clusters. In addition, his group has pioneered spectroscopic studies in the gas-phase of free multiply-charged anions and solution-phase molecules, such as metal complexes, redox species, and biologically-relevant molecules. His group has also developed ion-trap techniques to create ultracold anions that allow high resolution photoelectron spectroscopy to be performed on complex molecules. In 2014, Wang's a research team at Brown University showed that the structure of was not only possible but highly stable. Photoelectron spectroscopy revealed a relatively simple spectrum, suggesting a symmetric cluster. Neutral B36 is the smallest boron cluster to have sixfold symmetry and a perfect hexagonal vacancy, and it can be viewed as a potential basis for extended two-dimensional boron sheets. Wang has published over 530 articles, which have been featured in publications such as Nature Magazine, Science, Physical Review Letters, Angewandte Chemie, and the Journal of the American Chemical Society.

Computational Chemists

Rydberg was born 8 November 1854 in Halmstad in southern Sweden, the only child of Sven Rydberg and Maria Anderson Rydberg. When he was 4 years old his father died, and the family was forced to live on a small income. In 1873 he graduated from Halmstads elementärläroverk, where he received high grades in maths and physics. Later that year he enrolled in Lund University, and two years later he was awarded his bachelor's degree. In 1879 he was awarded his Doctor of Philosophy with his dissertation "Konstruktioner af kägelsnitt i 3- och 4-punktskontakt". Rydberg began his career as an amanuensis in the institution. He became a docent in maths in 1880, and in 1882 became a docent in physics. At this time he began studying the standard atomic weight, because he wondered what was the reason for the seemingly random increase in weight for the atoms in Mendeleev's periodic system. He searched for a formula for several years to no avail. His next work was about investigating the atomic spectra, explaining why these occurred. Rydbergs research was preceded by Johann Jakob Balmers, who presented an empirical formula for the visible spectral lines of the hydrogen atom in 1885. However, Rydberg's research led him to publish a formula in 1888 which could be used to describe the spectral lines not only for hydrogen but other elements as well. After his publication in 1890 on the subject, Rydberg returned to his fruitless research on the periodic table. Rydberg applied for a professorship in 1897, but despite the recommendations of experts in the subject he was rejected. However, he became an extraordinary professor instead. It was not until 1909 that he was upgraded into a full professorship. To earn extra money he worked part-time as a numerical examiner at Sparbanken in Lund from 1891 and as an actuary in Malmö from 1905. In 1913, Rydberg became very ill and was forced to slow down his pace of research, and in 1915 he was granted leave on account of his illness. He died on 28 December 1919 at Lund Hospital and was succeeded by his student Manne Siegbahn. Rydberg is buried at the northern cemetery in Lund and left his wife Lydia Carlsson (1856–1925), son Helge Rydberg (1887–1968) and daughter Gerda Rydberg (1891–1983).

Spectroscopists

Compton died in Berkeley, California, from a cerebral hemorrhage on March 15, 1962. He was outlived by his wife (who died in 1980) and sons. Compton is buried in the Wooster Cemetery in Wooster, Ohio. Before his death, he was professor-at-large at the University of California, Berkeley for spring 1962. Compton received many awards in his lifetime, including the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927, the Matteucci Gold Medal in 1930, the Royal Societys Hughes Medal and the Franklin Institutes Franklin Medal in 1940. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1925, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1927, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1928. He is commemorated in various ways. Compton crater on the Moon is co-named for Compton and his brother Karl. The physics research building at Washington University in St Louis is named in his honor, as is the universitys top fellowship for undergraduate students studying math, physics, or planetary science. Compton invented a more gentle, elongated, and ramped version of the speed bump called the "Holly hump", many of which are on the roads of the Washington University campus. The University of Chicago remembered Compton and his achievements by dedicating the Arthur H. Compton House in his honor. It is now listed as a National Historic Landmark. Compton also has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. NASAs Compton Gamma Ray Observatory was named in honor of Compton. The Compton effect is central to the gamma ray detection instruments aboard the observatory.

Spectroscopists

John Nelson Howard (February 27, 1921 – April 15, 2015) was president of the Optical Society of America in 1991. He was the founding editor of the scientific journal Applied Optics. Howard was also a chief scientist of the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory. He was a Fellow of the Optical Society and received the OSA Distinguished Service Award in 1987. In his later years he was a contributing editor to Optics and Photonics News (OPN).

Spectroscopists

* Calculation of electronic states and transitions using many-particle methods (computational chemistry) * Spectroscopy and radiationless relaxation of polyatomic molecules * Electron-molecule scattering, photoionization and Auger decay * Wave packet dynamics (the multi-configuration time-dependent Hartree method). * Chaos and statistics * Structure and dynamics of quasi-one-dimensional systems * Stable multiply charged anions of isolated small molecules and clusters * Fundamental aspects, electronic structure and dynamics of atoms and molecules in strong magnetic fields * Bose-Einstein Condensation * Interatomic/Intermolecular Coulombic Decay (ICD)

Computational Chemists

The push for a synchrotron lightsource in Canada gained impetus in the early 1990s with the formation of the Canadian Institute for Synchrotron Radiation (CISR) with Bancroft as president. In 1994 NSERC recommended building a Canadian synchrotron, and set up a committee to decide between two rival bids to host the facility, led by Dennis Skopik of the University of Saskatchewan and Bancroft of UWO. In 1996 the committee recommend that the Canadian Light Source (CLS) be built in Saskatoon. With the formation of the Canada Foundation for Innovation a funding mechanism for the lightsource became available, and after what Bancroft has described as a "Herculean" effort by the Saskatchewan team the funding was finalised in 1999. At this point Skopik departed to the US, and Bancroft was appointed as the first director of the CLS. Bancrofts appointment ended in 2001, although he remained as research director until 2004, and he returned to UWO. Bancrofts association with the CLS continues, and he currently serves on their board of directors.

Spectroscopists

After receiving his doctorate in 1965 Williams was employed at the University of Arizona until 1983. From 1985 to 1993 he served as director of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, and from 1993 to 1998 he was director of STSci. As the director of STScI, he decided to devote a substantial fraction of his director's discretionary time on the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995 to the study of distant galaxies. This historic project resulted in the Hubble Deep Field, a landmark image showing in remarkable detail the structure of galaxies in the early universe. For his leadership of this project, he was awarded the 1998 Beatrice M. Tinsley Prize, the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal in 1999, and the 2016 Karl Schwarzschild Medal. A member of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Williams research specialties cover nebulae, novae, and emission-line spectroscopy and analysis. He is an advocate for science education and has lectured internationally on the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope. In 1996, Williams made the controversial decision to offer the directors discretionary time on the Hubble Space Telescope to two competing teams using distant supernovae to determine the universes expansion rate accurately. The two teams independently found that the universes expansion was accelerating due to a previously unknown energy source. The leaders of the two teams were awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery. In 2015 Williams retired and was appointed emeritus professor of STScI.

Spectroscopists

Raman's second important discovery on the scattering of light was a new type of radiation, an eponymous phenomenon called the Raman effect. After discovering the nature of light scattering that caused blue colour of water, he focused on the principle behind the phenomenon. His experiments in 1923 showed the possibility of other light rays formed in addition to incident ray when sunlight was filtered through a violet glass in certain liquids and solids. Ramanathan believed that this was a case of a "trace of fluorescence." In 1925, K. S. Krishnan, a new Research Associate, noted the theoretical background for the existence of an additional scattering line beside the usual polarised elastic scattering when light scatters through liquid. He referred to the phenomenon as "feeble fluorescence." But the theoretical attempts to justify the phenomenon were quite futile for the next two years. The major impetus was the discovery of Compton effect. Arthur Compton at Washington University in St. Louis had found evidence in 1923 that electromagnetic waves can also be described as particles. By 1927, the phenomenon was widely accepted by scientists, including Raman. As the news of Comptons Nobel Prize in Physics was announced in December 1927, Raman ecstatically told Krishnan, saying:But the origin of the inspiration went further. As Compton later recollected "that it was probably the Toronto debate that led him to discover the Raman effect two years later." The Toronto debate was about the discussion on the existence of light quantum at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting held at Toronto in 1924. There Compton presented his experimental findings, which William Duane of Harvard University argued with his own with evidence that light was a wave. Raman took Duanes side and said, "Compton, youre a very good debater, but the truth isnt in you."

Spectroscopists

Smalley, who had taken classes in religion as well as science at Hope College, rediscovered his religious foundation in later life, particularly during his final years while battling cancer. During the final year of his life, Smalley wrote: "Although I suspect I will never fully understand, I now think the answer is very simple: it's true. God did create the universe about 13.7 billion years ago, and of necessity has involved Himself with His creation ever since." At the Tuskegee Universitys 79th Annual Scholarship Convocation/Parents Recognition Program he was quoted making the following statement regarding the subject of evolution while urging his audience to take seriously their role as the higher species on this planet. Genesis was right, and there was a creation, and that Creator is still involved ... We are the only species that can destroy the Earth or take care of it and nurture all that live on this very special planet. Im urging you to look on these things. For whatever reason, this planet was built specifically for us. Working on this planet is an absolute moral code. ... Lets go out and do what we were put on Earth to do." Old Earth creationist and astronomer Hugh Ross spoke at Smalleys funeral, November 2, 2005.

Spectroscopists

He is a laureate of several prestigious awards, including an ETH Latsis Prize, Research Excellence Model of the European Mineralogical Union. In 2012, Oganov won a "1000 talents professor" title in China and in the same year became a Professor Honoris Causa of Yanshan University (China), in 2013 elected Fellow of the Mineralogical Association of America, In 2016 and 2017 he was named as one of the most cited Russian scientists in Chemistry and Physics, respectively. In 2022 he was included in the list of Highly Cited Researchers (Clarivate). In 2017 he was awarded the Gamow prize and Concord prize, In 2019, he received the Friendship Award, the highest award given by Chinese government to foreign experts. In 2015 Oganov was elected Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences., and in 2017 he became a member of the Academy of Europe Academia Europaea, and in 2020 elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry and Fellow of the American Physical Society. In 2011 he founded the Commission on Crystallography of Materials at the International Union of Crystallography, which he chaired until 2017. In 2017-2020 he served as a member of the Presidential council for science and education. In 2021 he became a chairman of the Department of Semiconductors and Dielectrics of MISIS and head of Laboratory of Crystal Chemistry of the Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of Russian Academy of Sciences. Oganov has held over 10 invited professorships (Universita degli Studi di Milano, LillePolytech, University of Paris, University of Poitiers, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, etc.). In 2011, Forbes magazine listed Oganov among "50 Russians who conquered the world". In 2012, highly acclaimed cinema director, Laureate of State Prize Vladimir Gerchikov made a film "The color of a crystal" about Oganov, in 2015 the celebrated TV journalist Leonid Parfenov made a film "Made by Russians" about him. and two other films about him appeared in 2018 on Kultura-TV channel and on NTV channel In 2019, as part of the 150th commemoration of Mendeleevs Periodic Table, yet another film came out, where Oganov is one of the central characters. In 2013, magazines "Russian reporter" and "Expert" have listed Oganov among 100 most influential Russians today.

Computational Chemists

Townes had German, Scottish, English, Welsh, Huguenot French, and Scotch Irish ancestry, Townes was born in Greenville, South Carolina, the son of Henry Keith Townes (1876–1958), an attorney, and Ellen Sumter Townes (; 1881–1980). His brother, Henry Keith Townes Jr., (January 20, 1913May 2, 1990), was a renowned entomologist who was a world authority on Ichneumon wasps. Charles earned his B.S. in Physics and B.A. in Modern Languages at Furman University, where he graduated in 1935. Townes completed work for the Master of Arts degree in physics at Duke University in 1937, and then began graduate school at the California Institute of Technology, from which he received a Ph.D. degree in 1939. During World War II, he worked on radar bombing systems at Bell Labs.

Spectroscopists

In 1981 he received Bourke Medal from Faraday Society and a year later became Christianson Fellow at St. Catherines College, a division of Oxford University. The same year he became a fellow at American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Another two years went by and in 1984 he was awarded an Honorary degree from Scottish Heriot-Watt University. From 1985 to his death he was a chair of the John Scott Advisory Panel for the City of Philadelphia. In 1986 he got Special Presidents Award from SPIE. Next year, he became associate professor at University of Paris and two years later became Grenoble Professor at the University of Grenoble. The same year he became a fellow at Optical Society of America.

Spectroscopists

In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigate fluorescence. They designed a vacuum tube for studying energetic electrons that flew through a thin vapour of mercury atoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9 electron volts) of its kinetic energy before flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation of Albert Einsteins photoelectric effect and Plancks relation (E = fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with Plancks constant (h). But they also provided evidence supporting the model of the atom that had been proposed the previous year by Niels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atoms "quantum energy levels". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 electron volts (eV) more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that the wavelength of this ultraviolet light corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr. Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohrs theory, which they now acknowledged. In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was "completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohrs theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once". On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.".

Spectroscopists

Siegbahn was born in Lund, Sweden, son of Manne Siegbahn the 1924 physics Nobel Prize winner. Siegbahn earned his doctorate at the University of Stockholm in 1944. He was professor at the Royal Institute of Technology 1951–1954, and then professor of experimental physics at Uppsala University 1954–1984, which was the same chair his father had held. He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Schawlow. Siegbahn received half the prize "for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy" while Bloembergen and Schawlow received one quarter each "for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy". Siegbahn referred to his technique as Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA); it is now usually known as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). In 1967 he published a book, ESCA; atomic, molecular and solid state structure studied by means of electron spectroscopy. He was a member of several academies and societies, including the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and was president of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics from 1981 to 1984. Siegbahn married Anna Brita Rhedin in 1944. The couple had three sons (two physicists and a biochemist). Siegbahn died on 20 July 2007 at the age of 89. At the time of his death he was still active as a scientist at the Ångström Laboratory at Uppsala University.

Spectroscopists

After graduating, Schulten joined the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen, where he remained till 1980. At the institute, he worked with Albert Weller on electron transfer reactions. One of his first projects was to explain a chemical reaction product called a "fast triplet", an excited molecule with a pair of electrons with parallel spins. What Schulten discovered was that a magnetic field could provably influence a chemical reaction, a physical effect that had not previously been demonstrated. It was possible to show the effect by causing the reaction to occur with and without a magnetic field. Schulten was particularly interested in implications of the magnetic field effect for biological systems such as electron transfer in photosynthesis. Schulten also began to explore the possibility that fast triplets could explain compass sensors in biological species such as migrating birds. That the European robin used some form of magnetoreception was demonstrated by Wolfgang Wiltschko and Fritz Merkel in 1965, and further studied by Wolfgang and Roswitha Wiltschko. Schulten proposed that quantum entanglement of a radical-pair system could underlie a biochemical compass. Schulten and others have since extended this early work, developing a model of the possible excitation of cryptochrome proteins in photoreceptors within the retina of the eye.

Computational Chemists

Jerelle A. Joseph is a computational chemist and academic from Dominica, who is also an advocate for representation and diversity in science. She is the founder of CariScholar, a network connecting students and academics from Caribbean countries.

Computational Chemists

Richardson's first forays into science were in the field of astronomy. By observing the position of Sputnik – at the time, the only artificial satellite – on two successive nights, she managed to calculate its predicted orbit. She submitted her results to the Westinghouse Science Talent Search, winning third place in 1958. Richardson joined her husband David C. Richardson, then completing his PhD work at MIT, in studying the 3-dimensional structure of the staphylococcal nuclease protein (1SNS) by X-ray crystallography for his doctoral thesis. Staphylococcal nuclease was among the first dozen protein structures solved. Classes in botany and evolution that she had taken while pursuing her degree shaped her thinking about the work she was doing in the chemistry laboratory. During her crystallographic studies, Jane Richardson had come to realize that a general classification scheme can be developed from the recurring structural motifs of the proteins. In the meantime, Jane and David Richardson had moved to Duke University in 1970, where they solved the first crystal structure of superoxide dismutase (2SOD). By 1977 she published her findings on protein relatedness in Nature, with a paper entitled "β-sheet topology and the relatedness of proteins". As Richardson developed the ribbon diagram to illustrate her findings over the course of her taxonomic research, her iconic images first appeared in the review journal Advances in Protein Chemistry in an article titled "The anatomy and taxonomy of protein structure" 1981, an early hallmark publication in structural bioinformatics. The diagrams have since become a standard way of visualizing protein structure, specifically depicting beta-sheet topology and connections between amino acid sequences, or peptides, that make up proteins. The protein folding process involves four levels: primary structures, secondary structures, tertiary structures, and quaternary structures. Secondary structures result from hydrogen bond interactions between adjacent amino acids sequences to form alpha helices or beta-sheets. Tertiary structures are a higher order of protein folding that depict the conformation of and connectivity between alpha-helices and beta-sheets in 3D. Richardsons ribbon diagrams illustrate beta-sheet topology and connectivity in higher-order protein structures. She formalized general rules about beta-sheets linkage via "hairpin" connections or "crossover" connections. In a hairpin connection a peptide backbone stems out of and loops around to return to the same beta-sheet end from which it left. A crossover connection involves the peptide backbone extending out of one beta-sheet and looping around to enter another beta-sheet on the opposite end of the protein. Her initial drawings and continual discoveries contribute to a broader understanding of protein energetics and evolution. Peter Agre, Nobel laureate and fellow Duke professor, said of the Richardsons work: "Jane and David’s work allowed us to reveal the form of proteins, and from there it was easier to understand their function". The Richardsons more recent work has diversified beyond classification and crystallography. In the 1980s they stretched into the fields of synthetic biochemistry and computational biology as pioneers in the de novo design of proteins, a reverse engineering approach to make and test theoretical predictions about protein folding. In the 1990s the Richardsons developed the kinemage system of molecular graphics and David Richardson wrote the Mage program to display them on small computers, for the then-new journal Protein Science. Additionally, they developed all-atom contact analysis (see image) to measure "goodness of fit" inside proteins and in interactions with surrounding molecules. The Kinemage website offers interactive exploration of various 3D protein structures through computer displays using their Mage or KiNG graphics programs. Funded by a National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant, the website is often used as a teaching tool. Textbooks and internet sites that have sourced images from Kinemages include Introduction to Protein Structure by Branden & Tooze, Fundamentals of Biochemistry by Viet, Voet & Pratt, Principles of Biochemistry by Horton et al., and the University of Mississippis Kinemage Authorship Project. The Richardson Laboratory currently studies structural motifs in RNA as well as proteins, as part of the RNA Ontology Consortium (ROC) to better communicate RNA structure and function research findings. The laboratory has acted as assessors in the CASP8 structure-prediction experiment (CASP), is one of the four developer teams on the PHENIX software system for x-ray crystallography of macromolecules, and hosts the MolProbity web service for validation and accuracy improvement of protein and RNA crystal structures. MolProbity uses the KiNG program (successor to Mage) for showing 3D kinemage graphics on-line. Jane Richardson serves on the worldwide Protein Data Bank (wwPDB) X-ray Validation Task Force and NMR Validation Task Force. As she continues to run the Richardson laboratory alongside her husband at Duke, where they use MolProbity to validate RNA, protein, crystal structures, she also adds science-related images, images of nature, and pictures for the WikiProject Biophysics to Wikimedia Commons.

Computational Chemists

Keyes is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry and a Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Ireland.

Spectroscopists

He graduated from Rice University, with a B.A. in 1956 and PhD in 1959. He studied the University of Upsala, and the University of California, Berkeley. He taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1962 to 1988.

Spectroscopists

His main research interest was in the field of computational chemistry. Basch was a pioneer in computational quantum chemistry, in developing methods and innovative applications of theoretical concepts and equations to solving problems in chemistry. Already in 1962, as a beginning graduate student at Columbia University, he recognized the potential use of the computer (which then filled a whole building), in chemical research. The methods and paradigms he developed are used today in modern software packages for the calculation of molecular properties. The list of applications he has been involved in include electron, electronic and photoelectronic spectroscopies, energetics, geometric and electronic structures, chemical reaction paths, intermediates, and transition states, metal-ligand, metal-metal, metal cluster bonding, and active site reactions in metalloenzymes. The theoretical methods include single and multi-configuration molecular orbital theory, valence bond theory, and effective core and effective fragment potentials. His latest research efforts were directed towards finding appropriate molecular bridges that can serve as nano-conducting and switching elements in molecular electronics. During his career, Basch published more than 180 papers and book chapters.

Computational Chemists

Bhide was an elected fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences (1974), National Academy of Sciences, India, Indian National Science Academy, Maharashtra Academy of Sciences, Indian Cryogenics Council and the Royal Astronomical Society. He delivered several award lectures such as INSA K. Rangadhama Rao Memorial Lecture, Parulekar Memorial Lecture, M. B. Kinkhede Memorial Lecture and Professor V. N. Thatte Memorial Lecture. The Government of India awarded him the civilian honour of the Padma Shri in 1992. He was also a recipient of Sir C. V. Raman Award and Meghnad Saha Memorial Award.

Spectroscopists

He joined the University of Texas Astronomy Department in 1973 where he received his Ph.D. in 1978, studying the 1975 explosion of V1500 Cygni at McDonald Observatory. From 1978 to 1980 he was at the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge where he worked with Martin Rees on International Ultraviolet Explorer observations of radio galaxies. He joined the faculty of the University of Kentucky in 1980. The American Astronomical Society's Astronomy Genealogy Project lists the 17 PhDs he has supervised. Ferland is a Fellow of the American Astronomical Society, and has served on their Governing Council in addition to their Publications Board. He was named Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2023 and is a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. He is a long-time member of the International Astronomical Union where he was on the Organizing Committee of Division VI (2003-2009) and Commission 34 (2006-2012) Interstellar Matter. His research involves the interactions between light and matter, especially how the photons we receive can tell us about events at the edges of the Universe. He has also studied such diverse environments as the interstellar medium, planetary nebulae, H II region, photodissociation regions, and Active Galactic Nuclei. His discovery of a tidal disruption event in the Seyfert galaxy NGC 5548 was listed by Science News as one of the top ten discoveries in astronomy in 1986. He is best known as a developer of the Open Source spectral simulation code [https://gitlab.nublado.org/cloudy/cloudy/-/wikis/home Cloudy], a project he started at Cambridge in 1978. The code uses large databases of atomic, molecular and interstellar grain cross sections and rate coefficients to determine the physical state of a non-equilibrium plasma, the emission or absorption properties of Interstellar clouds, and predict the observed spectrum. Cloudy helps to understand the emission and absorption spectra of plasmas and to interpret observational data from various astrophysical sources. Nature Astronomy named Cloudy their first Code of honour in their Access Code series. He has edited two books in addition to more than 700 articles on astronomy and astrophysics. He is a co-author on the influential 2006 textbook Astrophysics of Gaseous Nebulae and Active Galactic Nuclei, written with Donald E. Osterbrock of Lick Observatory and the University of California at Santa Cruz. As a science communicator, Ferland has given popular-level talks at the Smithsonian Institution, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and numerous clubs, organizations, and classes across the Bluegrass region.

Spectroscopists

Douglas Rayner Hartree (27 March 1897 – 12 February 1958) was an English mathematician and physicist most famous for the development of numerical analysis and its application to the Hartree–Fock equations of atomic physics and the construction of a differential analyser using Meccano.

Computational Chemists

James L. Kinsey (October 15, 1934, in Paris, Texas – December 20, 2014, in Houston, Texas) was an American chemist, and D. R. Bullard-Welch Foundation Professor at Rice University. He won the 1995 Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy. He was a 1969 Guggenheim Fellow. He was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Spectroscopists

Zeeman received the following awards for his contributions. * Nobel Prize for Physics (1902) * Matteucci Medal (1912) * Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921 * Henry Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences (1921) * Rumford Medal (1922) * Franklin Medal (1925) The crater Zeeman on the Moon is named in his honour.

Spectroscopists

Ramans elder brother Chandrasekhara Subrahmanya Ayyar had joined the Indian Finance Service (now Indian Audit and Accounts Service), the most prestigious government service in India. In no condition to study abroad, Raman followed suit and qualified for the Indian Finance Service achieving first position in the entrance examination in February 1907. He was posted in Calcutta (now Kolkata) as Assistant Accountant General in June 1907. It was there that he became highly impressed with the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), the first research institute founded in India in 1876. He immediately befriended Asutosh Dey, who would eventually become his lifelong collaborator, Amrita Lal Sircar, founder and secretary of IACS, and Ashutosh Mukherjee, executive member of the institute and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Calcutta. With their support, he obtained permission to conduct research at IACS in his own time even "at very unusual hours," as Raman later reminisced. Up to that time the institute had not yet recruited regular researchers, or produced any research paper. Ramans article "Newtons rings in polarised light" published in Nature in 1907 became the first from the institute. The work inspired IACS to publish a journal, Bulletin of Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science,' in 1909 in which Raman was the major contributor. In 1909, Raman was transferred to Rangoon, British Burma (now Myanmar), to take up the position of currency officer. After only a few months, he had to return to Madras as his father died from an illness. The subsequent death of his father and funeral rituals compelled him to remain there for the rest of the year. Soon after he resumed office at Rangoon, he was transferred back to India at Nagpur, Maharashtra, in 1910. Even before he served a year in Nagpur, he was promoted to Accountant General in 1911 and again posted to Calcutta. From 1915, the University of Calcutta started assigning research scholars under Raman at IACS. Sudhangsu Kumar Banerji (who later become Director General of Observatories of India Meteorological Department), a PhD scholar under Ganesh Prasad, was his first student. From the next year, other universities followed suit including University of Allahabad, Rangoon University, Queens College Indore, Institute of Science, Nagpur, Krisnath College, and University of Madras. By 1919, Raman had guided more than a dozen students. Following Sircars death in 1919, Raman received two honorary positions at IACS, Honorary Professor and Honorary Secretary. He referred to this period as the "golden era" of his life. Raman was chosen by the University of Calcutta to become the Palit Professor of Physics, a position established after the benefactor Sir Taraknath Palit, in 1913. The university senate made the appointment on 30 January 1914, as recorded in the meeting minutes:Prior to 1914, Ashutosh Mukherjee had invited Jagadish Chandra Bose to take up the position, but Bose declined. As a second choice, Raman became the first Palit Professor of Physics but was delayed for taking up the position as World War I broke out. It was only in 1917 when he joined Rajabazar Science College, a campus created by the University of Calcutta in 1914, that he became a full-fledged professor. He reluctantly resigned as a civil servant after a decade of service, which was described as "supreme sacrifice" since his salary as a professor would be roughly half of his salary at the time. But to his advantage, the terms and conditions as a professor were explicitly indicated in the report of his joining the university, which stated:Ramans appointment as the Palit Professor was strongly objected to by some members of the Senate of the University of Calcutta, especially foreign members, as he had no PhD and had never studied abroad. As a kind of rebuttal, Mukherjee arranged for an honorary DSc which the University of Calcutta conferred Raman in 1921. The same year he visited Oxford to deliver a lecture at the Congress of Universities of the British Empire. He had earned quite a reputation by then, and his hosts were Nobel laureates J. J. Thomson and Lord Rutherford. Upon his election as Fellow of the Royal Society in 1924, Mukherjee asked him of his future plans, which he replied, saying, "The Nobel Prize of course." In 1926, he established the Indian Journal of Physics' and acted as the first editor. The second volume of the journal published his famous article "A new radiation", reporting the discovery of the Raman effect. Raman was succeeded by Debendra Mohan Bose as the Palit Professor in 1932. Following his appointment as Director of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in Bangalore, he left Calcutta in 1933. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV, the King of Mysore, Jamsetji Tata and Nawab Sir Mir Osman Ali Khan, the Nizam of Hyderabad, had contributed the lands and funds for the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore. The Viceroy of India, Lord Minto approved the establishment in 1909, and the British government appointed its first director, Morris Travers. Raman became the fourth director and the first Indian director. During his tenure at IISc, he recruited G. N. Ramachandran, who later went on to become a distinguished X-ray crystallographer. He founded the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1934 and started publishing the academys journal Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (later split up into Proceedings - Mathematical Sciences, Journal of Chemical Sciences, and Journal of Earth System Science'). Around that time the Calcutta Physical Society was established, the concept of which he had initiated early in 1917. With his former student Panchapakesa Krishnamurti, Raman started a company called Travancore Chemical and Manufacturing Co. Ltd. in 1943. The company, renamed as TCM Limited in 1996, was one of the first organic and inorganic chemical manufacturers in India. In 1947, Raman was appointed the first National Professor by the new government of independent India. Raman retired from IISC in 1948 and established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore a year later. He served as its director and remained active there until his death in 1970.

Spectroscopists

After completing her DPhil at Oxford, Martin returned to Australia to take up a post-doctoral position at Bond University in 1990. However, the unexpected closure of the School of Science and Technology resulted in her leaving Australia in 1991 for a post-doctoral position with Professor John Kuriyan, a structural biologist, at Rockefeller University in New York to work on the disulfide bond forming family of proteins (DSBs) in Escherichia coli. She solved the structure of the DsbA protein which was published in 1993 in the high impact journal Nature. In 1993 Martin received an ARC Queen Elizabeth II Fellowship. This enabled her to return to Australia and establish the first protein crystallography lab in Queensland. This now operates as the UQ Remote Operation Crystallisation and X-ray Diffraction (UQ ROCX) Facility, of which Martin was the Foundation Director. She remained at the University of Queensland until 2015, supported by several other fellowships: an Australian Research Council (ARC) Senior Research Fellowship in 1999, and a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Research Fellowship in 2007. In 2009, Martin was one of just 15 researchers, and only two women, to receive an inaugural ARC Australian Laureate Fellowship. In 2016, Martin was appointed Director of the Eskitis Drug Discovery Institute at Griffith University, which hosts unique drug discovery resources including Compounds Australia and NatureBank Martin has continued working on DSB proteins and with collaborators developed the first inhibitors of these bacterial proteins as a potential means of combatting antibiotic resistance. She also initiated work on other proteins including phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase (PNMT), an enzyme that catalyses adrenaline synthesis. Martin published the structure of this enzyme and later, as part of her ongoing research into different PNMT substrate-bound complexes, she and her team became the first remote access user of the Australian Synchrotron. Martin and her team have also contributed significantly to the structural biology of membrane fusion, a fundamentally important process that underpins systems as diverse as neurotransmission and blood glucose control. She wrote an invited commentary for The Conversation in 2013 on this topic, and was invited to present a keynote lecture on her membrane fusion research at the 23rd triennial International Union of Crystallography Congress held in Montreal in 2014. From 2019 to 2022 Martin was Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) of the University of Wollongong.

Computational Chemists

In addition to his crucial and famous contribution to quantum electrodynamics via the Lamb shift, in the latter part of his career he paid increasing attention to the field of quantum measurements. In one of his writings Lamb stated that "most people who use quantum mechanics have little need to know much about the interpretation of the subject." Lamb was also openly critical of many of the interpretational trends on quantum mechanics. and of the use of the term photon.

Spectroscopists

Mark A. Johnson is an American physical chemist and a professor of chemistry at Yale University. He received his Ph.D. at Stanford University in 1983. Johnson is a co-editor of Annual Review of Physical Chemistry beginning with its 2012 issue. He became a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 1999, a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2005, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2009, and a Fellow of the American Chemical Society in 2010. He received the Alexander von Humboldt Senior Research Award in 2012. He is the 2014 recipient of the Irving Langmuir Award. He is also a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences.

Spectroscopists

Shortly after his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam, where he started to work in autumn of 1896. In 1900, this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam. In 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam. In 1918 he published "Some experiments on gravitation: The ratio of mass to weight for crystals and radioactive substances" in the Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, experimentally confirming the equivalence principle with regard to gravitational and inertial mass. A new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940. This new facility allowed Zeeman to pursue refined investigation of the Zeeman effect. For the remainder of his career he remained interested in research in magneto-optic effects. He also investigated the propagation of light in moving media. This subject became the focus of a renewed interest because of special relativity, and enjoyed a keen interest from Lorentz and Albert Einstein. Later in his career he became interested in mass spectrometry.

Spectroscopists

Klaus Schulten (January 12, 1947 – October 31, 2016) was a German-American computational biophysicist and the Swanlund Professor of Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Schulten used supercomputing techniques to apply theoretical physics to the fields of biomedicine and bioengineering and dynamically model living systems. His mathematical, theoretical, and technological innovations led to key discoveries about the motion of biological cells, sensory processes in vision, animal navigation, light energy harvesting in photosynthesis, and learning in neural networks. Schulten identified the goal of the life sciences as being to characterize biological systems from the atomic to the cellular level. He used petascale computers, and planned to use exa-scale computers, to model atomic-scale bio-chemical processes. His work made possible the dynamic simulation of the activities of thousands of proteins working together at the macromolecular level. His research group developed and distributed software for computational structural biology, which Schulten used to make a number of significant discoveries. The molecular dynamics package NAMD and the visualization software VMD are estimated to be used by at least 300,000 researchers worldwide. Schulten died in 2016 following an illness.

Computational Chemists

John Stewart Waugh (April 25, 1929 – August 22, 2014) was an American chemist and Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is known for developing average hamiltonian theory and using it to extend NMR spectroscopy, previously limited to liquids, to the solid state. He is the author of ANTIOPE, a freeware general purpose Windows-based simulator of the spectra and dynamics of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). He has also used systems of a few coupled spins to illustrate the general requirements for equilibrium and ergodicity in isolated systems. In 1974 Waugh was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), in the Chemistry section. Waugh was awarded the Wolf Prize in Chemistry for 1983/84 with Herbert S. Gutowsky and Harden M. McConnell for their independent work on NMR spectroscopy. Waugh was cited for his "fundamental theoretical and experimental contributions to high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in solids." In 2011, Waugh received the [https://news.mit.edu/2011/waugh-award-0512 Welch Award in Chemistry] for revolutionizing NMR spectroscopy. In the words of Ernest H. Cockrell, chair of the [https://www.welch1.org/ Welch Foundation], Waugh "discovered how to use NMR to study solids, creating a collection of tools that allows researchers to view the structures and properties of proteins, membranes, viruses, and many other critical components of life." His work continues to be used extensively in chemistry, physics, biology, materials science, and medicine. He died on August 22, 2014.

Computational Chemists

Lettsom was a competent scientist in an age when this was still possible for an amateur. He was best known as the joint author of Greg and Lettsoms Manual of the Mineralogy of Great Britain and Ireland', which was the most complete and accurate work that had appeared on the mineralogy of the British Isles. First published in 1858, a century later it was still the standard work on the subject, when a reprint was issued.. The mineral lettsomite is named after him. But his scientific interests were wider, and he corresponded with the most eminent workers in spectroscopy. He was a member of the London Electrical Society and the author of several papers on geological, electrical and spectroscopic subjects. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1849. In that year he communicated an experiment in bioelectricity: by making a wound in a finger and inserting the electrode of a galvanometer, while placing the other electrode in contact with an unwounded finger, a current was observed to flow. Lettsom observed that the experiment was repeatable for he had tried it himself. In 1857 while on diplomatic service in Mexico he sent to the Royal Entomological Society of London some seeds which, when put in a warm place, became "very lively". The grub responsible had not been investigated scientifically before, wrote Lettsom, and he asked the Society to do so. These were the celebrated Mexican jumping beans. While on diplomatic service in Uruguay he brought a 9 inch Henry Fitz telescope for astronomical observations in the southern hemisphere. Owing to unknown problems he sent the telescope back to New York to be checked and adjusted by the telescope maker. The telescope was received by Lewis Rutherford, pioneer astrophotographer and spectroscopist and associate of the Royal Astronomical Society, who helped Henry Fitz on this task. The telescope was left in Uruguay and is in use to this day by the [https://www.aaa.org.uy Uruguayan Amateur Astronomers' Association].

Spectroscopists

Wheatstone was involved in various disputes with other scientists throughout his life regarding his role in different technologies and appeared at times to take more credit than he was due. As well as William Fothergill Cooke, Alexander Bain and David Brewster, mentioned above, these also included Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory. Wheatstone was erroneously believed by many to have created the atmospheric electricity observing apparatus that Ronalds invented and developed at the observatory in the 1840s and also to have installed the first automatic recording meteorological instruments there (see for example, Howarth, p158).

Spectroscopists

Harold Basch (; 29 November 1940 – 8 November 2018) was a professor of chemistry who specialized in computational chemistry.

Computational Chemists

* Henryk A. Witek, Takahito Nakijima, Kimihiko Hirao, "Relativistic and correlated all-electron calculations on the ground and excited states of AgH and AuH", J. Chem. Phys. 113, 8015 (2000). * Henryk A. Witek, Stephan Irle, Keiji Morokuma, "Analytical second-order geometrical derivatives of energy for the self-consistent-charge density-functional tight-binding method", J. Chem. Phys. 121, 5163 (2004). * Su YT, Huang YH, Witek HA, Lee YP, "Infrared absorption spectrum of the simplest Criegee intermediate CH2OO", Science 340, 174 (2013).

Computational Chemists

In 1978, Still and coworkers published a highly influential paper reporting a purification technique known as flash column chromatography. Prior to this report, column chromatography using silica gel as a stationary phase had already been established as a valuable method for the separation and purification of organic compounds. However, elution of the solvent by gravity alone was often a tedious process, requiring several hours and leading to poor separations due to band broadening via diffusion. Stills innovation was to apply pressure to the top of the column to increase the speed of solvent elution. Not only did this drastically reduce the time required to run the column, but it also allowed for the routine separation of compounds having an R difference of 0.10 or greater. After optimizing this procedure, Still compiled a table correlating column diameter, volume of eluant, amount of sample, and typical fraction size, providing a useful guide for application of this technique in the laboratory. Today, flash column chromatography is one of the most important methods for the purification of organic compounds, especially when working on a small scale (< 50 mg) where the techniques of recrystallization and distillation are impractical. Stills paper describing flash column chromatography remains his most highly cited publication and holds the distinction of being one of the most frequently downloaded papers from the Journal of Organic Chemistry, despite being published over 35 years ago.

Computational Chemists

David Herr Rank (January 2, 1907 – January 17, 1981) was an American spectroscopist. Rank was born in Annville, Pennsylvania and attended Lebanon Valley College in his hometown. He pursued graduate study at Pennsylvania State University beginning in 1930 and joined the faculty in 1935. Rank was appointed the Evan Pugh Professor in Physics in 1961. He retired in 1972 and died at Centre County Community Hospital in State College, Pennsylvania, on January 17, 1981, aged 74.

Spectroscopists

Dirks and Ueda married in 2007. She initially also worked at D. E. Shaw Research, but stopped in 2010 to raise the first of two children. The couple settled in the Westchester County suburb of Chappaqua, New York. He rose early to commute to his job via Metro-North Railroad's Harlem Line, and returned late but devoted as much time as possible on evenings and weekends to his children. On February 3, 2015, Dirks died in the Valhalla train crash. He was riding home in the front car of his train, which his brother says he likely did to take advantage of the quieter atmosphere, when it struck an SUV at a grade crossing north of Valhalla, south of the Chappaqua station. The train dragged the SUV while it came to a stop, loosening segments of the third rail that accumulated in the front car. Dirks, the SUV driver, and four other passengers were killed, making it the deadliest accident in Metro-North's history. Reactions to his death came from many quarters, many paying tribute to his scientific prowess. His father recalled that "he always got everything the first time. He always excelled." Greg Sampson, Dirks' math teacher at Lewis and Clark, remembered when his student had finished an advanced class in trigonometry in just two weeks, something no other student of his has ever done, saying "he was just an amazing, amazing student." Niles Pierce recalled how Dirks was willing to take a chance on working with a younger professor. His former postdoc was, he said, "an unusual student, even for Caltech... He did remarkable things." D. E. Shaw Research, his employer, called him "a brilliant scientist who made tremendous contributions to our own research, and to the broader scientific community." In April 2015, the International Society for Nanoscale Science, Computation, and Engineering (ISNCSE), the main scientific society for DNA nanotechnology and DNA computing, established the Robert Dirks Molecular Programming Prize to recognize early-career scientists for molecular programming research. The first prize was awarded in 2016. As of June 2016, fundraising to establish a $100,000 endowment was ongoing.

Computational Chemists

* John Simmon Guggenheim Foundation Fellow, 1970–71 * Standard Oil Foundation Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching, 1970 * Kenan Research Leave, University of North Carolina, 1970–71 * Outstanding Alumnus Award, department of chemistry, Kansas State University, 1973 * Distinguished Alumnus Award, Wayne State University, 1978 * Distinguished Alumnus Award, Emporia State University, 1979 * Co-chairman, 1982 Gordon Res. Conf. on Chem/Biol. of Peptides * Japan Society for Promotion of Science Fellow, 1983 * Elected Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1983 * Tanner Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching, 1986. * Merit Award, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institute of Health, 1986. * National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Merit Award recipient, 1986- * Society of the Golden Fleece, University of North Carolina, 1989. * Faculty Service Award, Alumni Association, 1992. * Vincent du Vigneaud Award of the American Peptide Society, 1996.

Computational Chemists

Richard Errett Smalley (June 6, 1943 – October 28, 2005) was an American chemist who was the Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy at Rice University. In 1996, along with Robert Curl, also a professor of chemistry at Rice, and Harold Kroto, a professor at the University of Sussex, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of a new form of carbon, buckminsterfullerene, also known as buckyballs. He was an advocate of nanotechnology and its applications.

Spectroscopists

*Knight of the Legion of Honour *Officier of the National Order of Merit *Grand Cordon of the National Order of the Cedar *Grand Officer of the Order of the Two Niles *Commander of the Order of the Republic *Grand Officer of Order of Zayed

Spectroscopists

Although Prof. Rode's initial research activities were in field of inorganic chemistry, he soon extended his expertise into the rapidly developing field of theoretical and computational chemistry. Whereas in the beginning most studies focused on quantum chemical computations of a broad range of chemical systems, later application focused on the application of chemical simulation techniques such as Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics, mostly in the context of solution chemistry. A particular notable contribution of Prof. Rodes research is the development and application of hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical simulation techniques, focusing on a broad range of problems in solution chemistry. In 2004 an improved technique known as quantum mechanical charge field molecular dynamics explicitly aimed at the treatment of solvated systems has been developed in Prof. Rodes research group. During the last years the application of this technique enabled accurate simulations of ionic compounds and organic species as well as coordination complexes in aqueous solution. His most recent research is focussed on the lanthanoid ions in aqueous solution.

Computational Chemists

He remained at this university for his entire career apart from spending 1931 on sabbatical as Visiting Professor at Ohio State University in the USA. From 1924 until 1944 he was a special lecturer in spectroscopy in the Chemistry Department. He was then appointed to the Johnston Chair of Biochemistry in the Department of Biochemistry in 1944 until he retired in 1966. He continued to be active in science after his retirement. His research focused initially on the application of spectroscopy to determining the structure of chemical compounds. From 1926 his work developed the use of absorption spectroscopy with biological molecules that absorbed light, allowing their concentration to be estimated in solutions. This technology, in collaboration with Ian Heilbrons interest in a therapy for rickets, led him to discover the vitamin A and several related compounds. His research group became focused on fat-soluble vitamins and was also among the first to identify ubiquinone and the polyprenol family of compounds. From 1955 until 1965 the focus of his groups research was isoprenoids. During the Second World War he was involved in studies to understand the requirements of vitamin A by people that gave him a new interest in nutrition. After the war he organised meetings for industrial scientists around Merseyside about the use of spectroscopy He was the chair of the government's Committee on Food Additives from 1963 to 1968.

Spectroscopists

Robert Andrews Millikan (March 22, 1868 – December 19, 1953) was an American experimental physicist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923 for the measurement of the elementary electric charge and for his work on the photoelectric effect. Millikan graduated from Oberlin College in 1891 and obtained his doctorate at Columbia University in 1895. In 1896 he became an assistant at the University of Chicago, where he became a full professor in 1910. In 1909 Millikan began a series of experiments to determine the electric charge carried by a single electron. He began by measuring the course of charged water droplets in an electric field. The results suggested that the charge on the droplets is a multiple of the elementary electric charge, but the experiment was not accurate enough to be convincing. He obtained more precise results in 1910 with his oil-drop experiment in which he replaced water (which tended to evaporate too quickly) with oil. In 1914 Millikan took up with similar skill the experimental verification of the equation introduced by Albert Einstein in 1905 to describe the photoelectric effect. He used this same research to obtain an accurate value of Planck’s constant. In 1921 Millikan left the University of Chicago to become director of the Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California. There he undertook a major study of the radiation that the physicist Victor Hess had detected coming from outer space. Millikan proved that this radiation is indeed of extraterrestrial origin, and he named it "cosmic rays." As chairman of the Executive Council of Caltech (the school's governing body at the time) from 1921 until his retirement in 1945, Millikan helped to turn the school into one of the leading research institutions in the United States. He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1921 to 1953. Millikan was an elected member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the United States National Academy of Sciences.

Spectroscopists

He was born in Nayland, Suffolk, the eldest son of Dr. Edward Liveing (1795–1843) and Catherine Mary Downing (1798-1872).

Spectroscopists

As an undergraduate at Harvard College, Bidelman received an Honorary Harvard College Scholarship for academic excellence in 1939. He graduated in 1940. Bidelman entered the graduate program at the University of Chicago affiliated with Yerkes Observatory. His doctoral advisor was William W.Morgan, who discovered the first definite evidence that the Milky Way Galaxy is a spiral galaxy, and, with Philip Keenan, the Morgan-Keener (MK) system of stellar classification. As a graduate student, Bidelman assisted Morgan and Keenan by taking some of the spectrograms for their book, An Atlas of Stellar Spectra. For his 1943 dissertation, Bidelman reported the Double Cluster in the I Persei association is physically associated with neighborhood supergiant stars, and is part of an association of O- and B-type stars, and designated 47 stars as its members. Bidelman received his Ph.D. in 1943. The Yerkes astronomy graduate program directed by Otto Struve began issuing degrees in 1940, and he was among their first ten graduates.

Spectroscopists

Towness opinions concerning science and religion were expounded in his essays "The Convergence of Science and Religion", "Logic and Uncertainties in Science and Religion", and his book Making Waves. Townes felt that the beauty of nature is "obviously God-made" and that God created the universe for humans to emerge and flourish. He prayed every day and ultimately felt that religion is more important than science because it addresses the most important long-range question: the meaning and purpose of our lives. Towness belief in the convergence of science and religion is based on claimed similarities: # Faith. Townes argued that the scientist has faith much like a religious person does, allowing him/her to work for years for an uncertain result. # Revelation. Townes claimed that many important scientific discoveries, like his invention of the maser/laser, occurred as a "flash" much more akin to religious revelation than interpreting data. # Proof. During this century the mathematician Godel discovered there can be no absolute proof in a scientific sense. Every proof requires a set of assumptions, and there is no way to check if those assumptions are self-consistent because other assumptions would be required. # Uncertainty. Townes believed that we should be open-minded to a better understanding of science and religion in the future. This will require us to modify our theories, but not abandon them. For example, at the start of the 20th century physics was largely deterministic. But when scientists began studying the quantum mechanics they realized that indeterminism and chance play a role in our universe. Both classical physics and quantum mechanics are correct and work well within their own bailiwick, and continue to be taught to students. Similarly, Townes believes growth of religious understanding will modify, but not make us abandon, our classic religious beliefs.

Spectroscopists

Ecker received his doctorate in natural sciences from the University of Vienna in 1991, became appointed Associate Professor for Medicinal Chemistry in 1998 and Full Professor for Pharmacoinformatics in 2009. Ecker is Editor of Molecular Informatics and coordinates the EUROPIN PhD programme in Pharmacoinformatics. Currently he is also President of the European Federation for Medicinal Chemistry.

Computational Chemists

Bloembergen met Huberta Deliana Brink (Deli) in 1948 while on vacation with his university's Physics Club. She was able to travel with him to the United States in 1949 on a student hospitality exchange program; he proposed to her when they arrived in the States, and were married by 1950 on return to Amsterdam. They were both naturalized as citizens of the United States in 1958. They had three children. Bloembergen died on September 5, 2017, at an assisted living facility in his hometown Tucson, Arizona, of cardiorespiratory failure, at the age of 97.

Spectroscopists

Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a small town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, the son of Rev Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, and his wife, Willemina Worst. Pieter became interested in physics at an early age. In 1883, the aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the high school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature, where it was published. The editor praised "the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire". After finishing high school in 1883, Zeeman went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J.W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, who was responsible for the concept and realization of the Zuiderzee Works. While in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser.

Spectroscopists

Baldridge is originally from Minot, North Dakota, and graduated from Minot State University in 1982. She earned her Ph.D. from North Dakota State University and was a postdoctoral researcher at Wesleyan University. After becoming a scientist at the San Diego Supercomputer Center, she became a visiting professor at the University of California, San Diego in 1995, and continued to work at the San Diego Supercomputer Center and hold an adjunct professorship at the university before becoming a professor of theoretical chemistry at the University of Zurich in Switzerland. She moved to Tianjin University in 2014, following her husband Jay S. Siegel, who became dean of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology at Tianjin in 2013.

Computational Chemists

Graham R. Fleming is a professor of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley and member of the Kavli Energy NanoScience Institute based at UCB. Fleming's team is known for developing and using techniques in advanced multidimensional, ultrafast spectroscopy to study complex condensed phase dynamics in systems including natural photosynthetic complexes and nanoscale systems including single-walled carbon nanotubes and organic photovoltaic systems. These investigations and the findings of Fleming's team have indicated the key role of quantum electronic coherence in disordered biological environments. These findings have pointed towards the importance of examining the role of quantum dynamical processes in biological energy harvesting systems.

Spectroscopists

Siahrostami grew up in Iran, where she completed her undergraduate and graduate degree in physical chemistry. She moved to the Technical University of Denmark for a postdoctoral position at the Center for Atomic-scale Material Design. After two years in Denmark, she joined Stanford University, where she worked with Jens Nørskov and started working on computational catalysis.

Computational Chemists

His research focused on following topics in the field of microwave spectroscopy: * Large amplitude motions in molecules * Theory of rotational spectra * Quantum mechanical and group theoretical calculation * Nuclear quadrupole coupling

Spectroscopists

The ACS Award in Chemical Education was renamed the George C. Pimentel Award in Chemical Education in his honor in 1989. *Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy (1979) *Wolf Prize in Chemistry (1982) *Peter Debye Award (1983) *National Medal of Science (1985) *Franklin Medal (1985) *Welch Award (1986) *American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal (1988) *Priestley Medal (1989) *George C. Pimentel Award in Chemical Education (1990) In 1966, Pimentel was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and in 1968 to the American Academy of Arts and Science. In 1985, 1987 and 1989 he was elected an honorary member to the American Philosophical Society, the Royal Chemical Society (Great Britain), and the Royal Institute of Great Britain. In 1987, he served as the President of the American Chemical Society.

Spectroscopists

He is a physical chemist, specializing in spectroscopy of small molecules in the gas phase. He performed the first microwave-optical and optical-optical double resonance experiments on small molecules, and invented the Stimulated Emission Pumping (SEP, or "PUMP and DUMP") spectroscopic method. He is also particularly known for studies of the molecules acetylene (CH) and calcium fluoride (CaF) in the gas phase. His active research group at MIT includes about eight graduate students and postdocs working on experimental, theoretical and computational physical chemistry of small molecules in the gas phase.

Spectroscopists

Gruebele is married to Nancy Makri, who is also a professor of chemistry and physics at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. They have two children, Alexander and Valerie. He has a strong interest in cycling, running, swimming and triathlon and has competed in many long-distance events, such as the 2013 Boston Marathon, the 2016 solo Race Across America, the 2019 Badwater Ultramarathon, the 1406 mile DECA 2022 World Championship ultratriathlon, and the Ironman World Championship. He has written two how-to books on ultra-distance cycling and ultratriathlon.

Computational Chemists

He was born in Stuttgart, Germany, son of Helmut Grübele and E. A. Victoria Grübele with two younger siblings Andrea and Philip. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna, Austria, the Colegio ECOS in Marbella, Spain, and Drew School in San Francisco, US. He completed his B.S in chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley in 1984, with the University Certificate of Distinction and Department Citation for Highest Honors. He was advised by Ken Sauer (biophysics), Wilhelm Maier (organic synthesis), and Richard J. Saykally (laser spectroscopy). He did his graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley in the laboratory of Richard J. Saykally, where he was a University Fellow (1984–1986), IBM Predoctoral Fellow, (1986–1987), and a Dow Chemical Graduate Fellow (1987–1988). Subsequently he held a postdoctoral position with Ahmed Zewail at California Institute of Technology, after which he joined the faculty of the University of Illinois in 1992.

Computational Chemists

Richard Neil Zare (born November 19, 1939, in Cleveland, Ohio) is the Marguerite Blake Wilbur Professor in Natural Science and a Professor of Chemistry at Stanford University. Throughout his career, Zare has made a considerable impact in physical chemistry and analytical chemistry, particularly through the development of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) and the study of chemical reactions at the molecular and nanoscale level. LIF is an extremely sensitive technique with applications ranging from analytical chemistry and molecular biology to astrophysics. One of its applications was the sequencing of the human genome. Zare is known for his enthusiasm for science and his exploration of new areas of research. He has mentored over 150 PhD students and postdoctoral researchers, of whom more than 49 are women or members of minorities. Zare is a strong advocate for women in science, and a fellow of the Association for Women in Science (AWIS) as of 2008.

Spectroscopists

Anders Hallberg (born 29 April 1945 in Vetlanda, Jönköping county (Småland)) is a Swedish pharmaceutical researcher, professor in medicinal chemistry and 2006-2011 Rector Magnificus and Vice Chancellor at Uppsala University.[https://archive.today/20130418172521/http://uadm.uu.se/ViewPage!renderDecoratedPage.action?siteNodeId=43345&languageId=3&contentId=-1]

Computational Chemists

*M. Trömel: Die Frankfurter Gelehrtenrepublik. Neue Folge (Hrsg. G. Böhme), Schulz-Kirchner Verlag, Idstein S. 199–214 (2002) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090811082100/http://www.anorg.chemie.uni-frankfurt.de/AK_Troemel/geschch.htm Hermann Hartmann and the Theoretical Chemistry in the 20th century (in German)] *[http://www.quantum-chemistry-history.com/Jug1.htm Interview with Karl Jug (in German)] *[http://www.quantum-chemistry-history.com/Pey_ff_Dat/CompGerm/Pey_ff_CompGerm.htm The Development of Computational Chemistry in Germany by Sigrid D. Peyerimhoff] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719083830/http://personen-wiki.slub-dresden.de/index.php/Hartmann,_Hermann_(Chemiker) Biographical data] *http://www.iaqms.org/deceased/hartmann.php The thinking of Hermann Hartmann is illustrated through the following selected publications from H. Hartmann and his research groups. Symmetry considerations, exactly solvable model potentials and perturbation theory are the three tools applied to typical chemical aspects of molecular behaviour resulting in the discovery of a self-interacting classical field of chemical bonding. *A. Sommerfeld, H. Hartmann: Künstliche Grenzbedingungen in der Wellenmechanik. Der beschränkte Rotator. Annalen der Physik 37, 333–343 (1940) *F. E. Ilse: Quantenmechanische Rechnungen über Absorptionsspektren polar aufgebauter anorganischer Komplexe. Universität Frankfurt (1946) Dissertation *H. Hartmann. Ein einfaches Näherungsverfahren zur quantenmechanischen Behandlung der π-Elektonensysteme aromatischer Kohlenwasserstoffe I & II. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A, 2a(5) 259- 263 (1947) http://www.znaturforsch.com/aa/c02a.htm *H. Hartmann: Zur Theorie der Additions- und Umlagerungsreaktionen aromatischer Systeme. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 3a(1) 29 (1948) *H. Hartmann, H.L. Schläfer: Über die Absorptionspektren elektrostatischer Komplexionen dreiwertiger Übergangselemente mit oktaedrischer Symmetrie. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 6a, 760 (1951) *H. Hartmann: Über ein mechanisches Modell zur Analyse und Darstellung typisch quantentheoretischer Erscheinungen. Verl. d. Bayer. Akademie d. Wissenschaften (1957) Sonderdruck aus den Sitzungsberichten der Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse (1957) *H. Hartmann, H.L. Schläfer: Zur Frage der Bindungsverhältnisse in Komplexverbindungen. Angewandte Chemie 70, 155 (1958) *H. Hartmann. Zur Theorie der π-Elektronensysteme. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 15a, 993–1003(1960) *H. Hartmann, E. König: Matrixelemente des Ligandenfeldpotentials in Komplexverbindungen der Übergangsmetalle. Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie (neue Folge) 28, 425 (1961) *H. Hartmann: New concepts in the theory of π-electron spectra. Pure and Applied Chemistry 4(1) 15–22 (1962) http://media.iupac.org/publications/pac/1962/pdf/0401x0015.pdf *H. Hartmann, W. Ilse und G. Gliemann: Das eingeschränkte Fermigas. Theoretica Chimica Acta 1(2) 155–158 (1963) *H. Sillescu, H. Hartmann: Kernquadrupolkopplung in einigen Kobalt (III)-Komplexen. Theoretica chimica Acta. 2, 371–385 (1964) Dissertation *H. Hartmann: Die Benzolformel Eine kurze Problemgeschichte. Angewandte Chemie 77 (17–18) 750 – 752 (1965) *K. Jug: Anwendung einer Einzentrenmethode auf die π-Elektronensysteme von Fünferheterozyklen. Universität Frankfurt (1965) Dissertation *H. Hartmann, E. Zeeck und A. Ludi: Berechnung von Zuständen komplexer Ionen mit Zentralfeldfunktionen. Theoretica Chimica Acta) 3(2), 182–193 (1965) https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00527350 *H.L. Schläfer, G. Gliemann: Einführung in die Ligandenfeldtheorie, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt (1968) Book *H. Hartmann, K. Helfrich: Quantenmechanische Zweizentren-Coulomb-Modelle für Acetylen, Äthylen und Äthan Quantum mechanical two center models for acetylene, ethylene and ethane; Theoretical Chemistry Accounts: Theory, Computation, and Modeling 10(5), 189–198 (1968) *H. Hartmann, W. Jost. H.G. Wagner: Elementarreaktionen. Zur Problematik reaktionskinetischer Forschung. Berichte der Bunsengesellschaft 72, 905 – 908 (1968) *E.-A. Reinsch. Theoretische Überlegungen zur Cyclotetraensynthese nach Reppe. Theoretica Chimica Acta. 11, 296 – 306 (1968) *H. Hartmann, J. Heidberg, H. Heydtmann, G.H. Kohlmaier (Ed.). Chemische Elementarprozesse. Springer, Berlin (1968) Book *H. W. Spiess, H. Haas, H. Hartmann: Anisotropic Chemical Shifts in Cobalt (III) Complexes. Journal of Chemical Physics 50(7), 3057 (1969) https://archive.today/20130223081200/http://link.aip.org/link/?JCPSA6/50/3057/1 *H. Hartmann: Chemische Bindung in Festkörpern: Angewandte Chemie 83(14) 521 – 523 (1971) *H. Hartmann: Eine klassische Störungstheorie. Theoretica Chimica Acta 21, 185 –190 (1971) *H. Hartmann: Über die Hartreesche Methode. Theoretica Chimica Acta 27 (2) 147–149 (1972) https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00528157 *H. Hartmann: Die Bewegung eines Korpers in einem ringformigen Potentialfeld, Theoretica Chimica Acta 24, 201–206 (1972). *M.W. Morsy, A. Rabie, A Hilal and H Hartmann: Consequences of resonance tunnelling in chemical kinetics. Theoretica Chimica Acta 35(1) 1–15 (1974) *B. Zeiger: Klassische Störungstheorie nicht-reaktiver molekularer Wechselwirkungen. Universität Frankfurt (1975) Dissertation *H. Hartmann, R. Schuck, J. Radtke: Die diamagnetische Suszeptibilität eines nicht kugelsymmetrischen Systems. Theoretica Chimica Acta 42(1) 1–3 (1976) *H. Hartmann, K.-M. Chung: Quantum-Theoretical Treatment of Motions of Ions in Ion Cyclotron Resonance Cells. Theoretica Chimica Acta 45, 137 – 145 (1977) *H. Kelm (Ed.): High Pressure Chemistry: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute Held in Corfu, Greece, September 24 – October 8, 1977. D. Reidel Pub Co (1978) Book *H. Hartmann: 25 years of Ligand-field-theory. Pure and Applied Chemistry (6) 827–837 (1977) http://media.iupac.org/publications/pac/1977/pdf/4906x0827.pdf *H. Hartmann, K.-M. Chung: On the Application of a Classical Perturbation Theory to the Theory of Coupled Fields. Theoretica Chimica Acta 47 ( 2) 147–156 (1978) *G. Baykut: Untersuchungen der Ionen-Molekül-Reaktionen von einfachen schwefelorganischen Verbindungen mit Hilfe der Ion-Cyclotron-Resonanzspectroskopie, Frankfurt (1980) Dissertation *W. Ulmer: On the Representation of Atoms and Molecules as Self-Interacting Field with Internal Structure. Theoretica Chimica Acta 55, 179 – 205 (1980) *H. Hartmann, K.-M. Chung: Classical nonlinear field theory of chemical bonding. International Journal of Quantum Chemistry 18 (6) 1491–1503 (1980) *H. Hartmann, H. C. Longuet-Higgins: Erich Hückel. 9 August 1896 – 1816 February 1980, Biog. Memoirs Fellows Roy. Soc. 28, 153 (1982) *D. Schuch, K.M. Chung, and H. Hartmann: Nonlinear Schrödinger-type field equation for the description of dissipative systems. I. Derivation of the nonlinear field equation and one-dimensional example, Journal of Mathematical. Physics. 24, 1652–1660 (1983)

Computational Chemists

Lu Jeu Sham (Chinese: 沈呂九) (born April 28, 1938) is an American physicist. He is best known for his work with Walter Kohn on the Kohn–Sham equations.

Computational Chemists

Herzbergs most significant award was the 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which he was awarded "for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals". During the presentation speech, it was noted that at the time of the award, Herzberg was "generally considered to be the worlds foremost molecular spectroscopist." Herzberg was honoured with memberships or fellowships by a very large number of scientific societies, received many awards and honorary degrees in different countries. The NSERC Gerhard Herzberg Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering, Canada's highest research award, was named in his honour in 2000. The Canadian Association of Physicists also has an annual award named in his honour. The Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics is named for him. He was made a member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science. Asteroid 3316 Herzberg is named after him. In 1964 he was awarded the [http://www.osa.org/aboutosa/awards/osaawards/awardsdesc/ivesquinn/ Frederic Ives Medal] by the OSA. At Carleton University, there is a building named after him that belongs to the Physics and Mathematics/Statistics Departments, Herzberg Laboratories. Herzberg was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1951. The main building of John Abbott College in Montreal is named after him. Carleton University named the Herzberg Laboratories building after him. A public park in the College Park neighbourhood of Saskatoon also bears his name.

Spectroscopists

Robert J. Le Roy (September 30, 1943 – August 10, 2018) was a Canadian chemist. He held the distinguished title of University Professor at the University of Waterloo.

Computational Chemists

After the discovery of Raman scattering by organic liquids, Rasetti decided to study the same phenomenon in gases at high pressure during his stay at Caltech in 1928–29. The spectra showed vibrational transitions with rotational fine structure. In the homonuclear diatomic molecules H, N and O, Rasetti found an alternation of strong and weak lines. This alternation was explained by Gerhard Herzberg and Walter Heitler as a consequence of nuclear spin isomerism. For dihydrogen, each nucleus is a proton of spin 1/2, so that it can be shown using quantum mechanics and the Pauli exclusion principle that the odd rotational levels are more populated than the even levels. The transitions originating from odd levels are therefore more intense as observed by Rasetti. In dinitrogen, however, Rasetti observed that the lines originating from even levels are more intense. This implies by a similar analysis that the nuclear spin of nitrogen is an integer. This result was difficult to understand at the time, however, because the neutron had not yet been discovered, and it was thought that the N nucleus contains 14 protons and 7 electrons, or an odd number (21) of particles in total which would correspond to a half-integral spin. The Raman spectrum observed by Rasetti provided the first experimental evidence that this proton-electron model of the nucleus is inadequate, because the predicted half-integral spin has as a consequence that transitions from odd rotational levels would be more intense than those from even levels, due to nuclear spin isomerism as shown by Herzberg and Heitler for dihydrogen. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, Werner Heisenberg proposed that the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and the N nucleus contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons. The even total number (14) of particles corresponds to an integral spin in agreement with Rasetti's spectrum. He is also credited with the first example of electronic (as opposed to vibronic) Raman scattering in nitric oxide.

Spectroscopists

Joseph Fraunhofer was the 11th child, born into a Roman Catholic family in Straubing, in the Electorate of Bavaria, to Franz Xaver Fraunhofer and Maria Anna Fröhlich. His father and paternal grandfather Johann Michael had been master glassmakers in Straubing. Fröhlichs family also came from a lineage of glassmakers going back to the 16th century. He was orphaned at the age of 11 and started working as an apprentice to a harsh glassmaker named Philipp Anton Weichelsberger. In 1801, the workshop in which he was working collapsed, and he was buried in the rubble. The rescue operation was led by Prince-Elector Maximilian Joseph. The prince entered Fraunhofers life, providing him with books and forcing his employer to allow the young Fraunhofer time to study. Joseph Utzschneider, a privy councilor, was also at the site of the disaster, and would also become a benefactor to Fraunhofer. With the money given to him by the prince upon his rescue and the support he received from Utzschneider, Fraunhofer was able to continue his education alongside his practical training. In 1806, Utzschneider and Georg von Reichenbach brought Fraunhofer into their Institute at Benediktbeuern, a secularised Benedictine monastery devoted to glassmaking. There he discovered how to make fine optical glass and invented precise methods for measuring optical dispersion. It was at the Institute that Fraunhofer met Pierre-Louis Guinand (de), a Swiss glass technician, who instructed Fraunhofer in glassmaking at Utzschneiders behest. By 1809, the mechanical part of the Optical Institute was chiefly under Fraunhofers direction, and Fraunhofer became one of the members of the firm that same year. In 1814, Guinand left the firm, as did Reichenbach. Guinand would later become a partner with Fraunhofer in the firm, and the name was changed to Utzschneider-und-Fraunhofer. During 1818, Fraunhofer became the director of the Optical Institute. Due to the fine optical instruments developed by Fraunhofer, Bavaria overtook England as the center of the optics industry. Even the likes of Michael Faraday were unable to produce glass that could rival Fraunhofer. His illustrious career eventually earned him an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen in 1822. In 1824, Fraunhofer was appointed a Knight of the Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown by King Maximilian I, through which he was raised into personal nobility (with the title "Ritter von", i.e. knight). The same year, he was also made an honorary citizen of Munich. Like many glassmakers of his era, he was poisoned by heavy metal vapors, resulting in his premature death. Fraunhofer died in 1826 at the age of 39. His most valuable glassmaking recipes are thought to have gone to the grave with him.

Spectroscopists

During the mid to late 20th century, several colleges named buildings, physical features, awards, and professorships after Millikan. In 1958, Pomona College named a science building Millikan Laboratory in honor of Millikan. After reviewing Millikan's association with the eugenics movement, the college administration voted in October 2020 to rename the building as the Ms. Mary Estella Seaver and Mr. Carlton Seaver Laboratory. On the Caltech campus, several physical features, rooms, awards, and a professorship were named in honor of Millikan, including the Millikan Library, which was completed in 1966. In January 2021, the board of trustees voted to immediately strip Millikan's name from the Caltech campus because of his association with eugenics. The Robert A. Millikan Library has been renamed Caltech Hall. In November 2021, the Robert A. Millikan Professorship was renamed the Judge Shirley Hufstedler Professorship.

Spectroscopists

Ocean Optics' portable spectrometers have been also been used to examine the phosphorescence spectrum of the Hope Diamond, the Blue Heart Diamond and other natural type IIb blue diamonds. The Smithsonian, the United States Naval Research Laboratory, Ocean Optics Co. and Pennsylvania State University collaborated on a study to examine hundreds of blue diamonds. Researchers examined the spectral and temporal properties of the diamonds using a USB2000-FL spectrometer for UV/Vis light studies and an IR512 spectrometer for Raman spectroscopy. The Hope Diamond, in the collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, shows a distinctive red phosphorescent glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. Visible to the human eye, it had never been explained. The researchers discovered that all blue diamonds show red and green peaks in their phosphorescence spectrum, due to the presence of nitrogen and boron in the stones. The intensity and rate of decay of the spectrum varies from diamond to diamond. This technique may enable individual blue diamonds to be "fingerprinted" for identification purposes.

Spectroscopists