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2018 Measuring Entrepreneurship from a Gender Perspective: Lessons Learned from the EDGE Project United Nations This document is being reproduced without formal editing This report was prepared under the Evidence and Data for Gender Equality (EDGE) project by Ms. Yumiko Kamiya (EDGE) and Ms. Francesca Grum (UNSD) with ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 132 |
The conceptual framework described in the report is based on an initial research paper written for EDGE by Mr. Mario Piacentini (OECD) and Ms. Mariarosa Lunati (OECD).
Sincere appreciation goes to Ms. Joan Vanek (WIEGO); Ms. Elisa Benes (ILO); Mr. Kieran Walsh (ILO); and Mr. Kaushal Joshi (ADB) for their technical adv... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 137 |
Guatemala.
Photo: Maria Fleischmann / World Bank Photo Suggested citation: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division (2018).
Technical Report on Measuring Entrepreneurship: Lessons Learned from the EDGE Project.
New York: United Nations. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 73 |
New York: United Nations.
New York, December 2018 1 CONTENTS Preface .................................................................................................................................................................. 4 Introduction ........................................................................... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 57 |
Background ............................................................................................................................................... 6 B.
Why measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective? | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 28 |
.............................................................. 7 C. Organization of the Report ..................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter One: A Conceptual Framework for Measuring Entrepreneurship from a Gender Perspective .............. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 61 |
Literature review ................................................................................................................................ 13 Expert consultations to develop the EDGE conceptual framework for measuring entrepreneurship 1.2. from a gender perspective ................................................. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 64 |
EDGE Operational definition and classification of entrepreneurs-key variables of interest ............. 19 Conceptual framework and relevant indicators ................................................................................ 22 Key dimensions of entrepreneurship .................................................... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 98 |
Development of a MODEL Questionnaire on entrepreneurship and its adAptation in the EDGE pilot coUntries .................................................................................................................................................... 38 2.1.
2.2. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 51 |
Pilot Surveys ....................................................................................................................................... 38 Questionnaire design ......................................................................................................................... 43 Household Questionnai... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 106 |
2.4.
Revised entrepreneurship questionnaire .......................................................................................... 65 Data Analyses from the Pilot Studies ................................................................................................. 81 Chapter Three.
Lessons learnED and the way... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 79 |
Lessons learned from the EDGE pilot studies .................................................................................... 91 Conclusions and the way forward ...................................................................................................... 94 References .......................................... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 156 |
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) ........................................................................................ 13 2 3 PREFACE Entrepreneurship is recognized as a key element for women’s economic empowerment in the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action, the 1995 World Summit for Social Development, and the Un... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 126 |
With increased evidence on the fact that entrepreneurship is not a gender-neutral phenomenon, interest in women’s entrepreneurship and in gender gaps in entrepreneurship participation and performance has grown among both scholars and policymakers. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 45 |
While the rationale for women’s entrepreneurship has traditionally focused on enhancing women’s equality, empowerment and social inclusion, its development is now widely accepted to make good economic sense, as women entrepreneurs can be a powerful economic resource.
Studies show that women entrepreneurs make signific... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 85 |
Women entrepreneurs boost employment by creating new jobs for themselves and others.
Furthermore, women’s entrepreneurship supports the diversification of business, stimulating innovation and diversification in management, in production and in marketing practices as well as in products and services.
Women tend to pro... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 77 |
Despite the clear policy relevance of measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective, there is a lack of harmonized and regularly produced official data on the nexus between entrepreneurship and gender, in part due to the absence of standards and methods for collecting the required information. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 54 |
To address these data and methodological gaps, in 2013 the Evidence and Data for Gender Equality (EDGE)4 project initiated methodological work to develop and pilot methodologies to integrate a gender dimension into entrepreneurship data.
UNSD and UN Women worked closely with national 1 A/RES/67/202 2 World Bank (2014)... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 140 |
3 Kelly, L. (2014).
Entrepreneurial women: new management and leadership models.
Westport, CT: , Praeger.
4 EDGE is a joint initiative of the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women). | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 79 |
4 statistical offices, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Bank (WB) and other experts to identify sound statistical concepts, definitions and methods to fill the information gap on women and men entre... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 79 |
The proposed EDGE methodology was tested and revised based on the results of data collected in six pilot countries- Georgia, the Maldives, Mongolia, the Philippines, South Africa and Uganda, over the period 2014–2016 and multiyear experts’ consultations.
This technical report presents the different steps followed unde... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 98 |
It also includes a brief review of existing research on gender gaps in entrepreneurship; the EDGE survey instrument; and results of pilot studies as well as feedback received from countries.
The report concludes with lessons learned from the implementation of the EDGE project and highlights topics for future research. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 59 |
Given the adoption in October 2018 of the revised International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE-18), and its implications on the definition of “entrepreneurs”5, this report should be used as a starting point for further development of practical guidance on how to measure entrepreneurship, from a gender per... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 79 |
Throughout this technical report, the terms “business”, “enterprise”, “company” and “firm” are used interchangeably, in line with the OECD’s definition6 of an enterprise. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 43 |
5 ICSE-18 was adopted in Resolution I of the 20th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) in October 2018. International Labour Organization, document ICLS/20/2018/Resolution I, avalable at https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/- --dgreports/---stat/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_648693.pdf According... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 148 |
In doing so, they create employment for themselves and potentially for others.” The Resolution also noted that “independent workers” in the revised classification of status in employment (ICSE-18) provided the best starting point for the statistical identification of entrepreneurs.
6 OECD (1993).
Glossary of Industri... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 116 |
According to the adopted definition, an enterprise is “a term in the commercial world used to describe a project or venture undertaken for gain.
It is often used with the word "business" as in "business enterprise".
Usually, by extension, it refers to the business entity carrying out the enterprise and is thus synony... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 98 |
Background 1.
The role of entrepreneurs in creating jobs, innovation and in stimulating economic growth has received new attention as the development of information and communications technology and other advanced technologies has fostered new breeds of start-ups, and new attitudes toward entrepreneurial activity.
En... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 95 |
As such, there is increased appreciation for and acknowledgement of the importance of new and small businesses in an economy.
Fostering entrepreneurship is a key policy goal for governments that expect that high rates of entrepreneurial activity will create sustainable jobs.
2. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 56 |
2.
It is also recognized that, while entrepreneurship is considered as a key element for women’s economic empowerment, women are still under-represented among entrepreneurs in many countries7: women are less likely than men to become entrepreneurs, and when they do, their enterprises are smaller and concentrated in fe... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 72 |
Measuring entrepreneurship with a gender perspective will provide an understanding of how women and men contribute to the economy and of how women’s entrepreneurial activity can be fostered in order to promote job creation, to reduce poverty and promote gender equality and women’s empowerment.
3.
Despite the clear po... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 96 |
The absence of data is partly due to the difficulty of defining “entrepreneurs”.
As a matter of fact, the word entrepreneur is commonly used to describe very different economic agents, including, for example, the founder of a business, a member of the directing board of a company, a self-employed person in an inherite... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 78 |
Furthermore, even when data exist, they are often not comparable across countries because the methodologies used to collect them differ with respect to the concepts and definitions used to measure 7 OECD (2013).
OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook and Scoreboard.
8 Coleman S. and A. Robb.
(2009).
A compar... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 129 |
9 Ibid.
6 entrepreneurship.
Finally, only few of the existing data are collected directly by National Statistical Systems10.
B.
Why measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective?
4.
An increased policy interest in women’s entrepreneurship has stimulated a deeper analysis of the gender gap in entrepreneursh... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 112 |
Some research has questioned the existence of performance gaps between women- and men-owned businesses and explored different explanations for the lower propensity of women to engage in business ventures 11,12,13.
5.
However, a growing body of research finds that gender is relevant to the determinants of entrepreneur... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 81 |
On average, in both developing and developed countries, women are less likely than men to become entrepreneurs and more likely to be motivated by necessity-based “push factors” such as poverty, divorce, unemployment, or perception of limited opportunities for entering into the labor market, rather than market opportuni... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 110 |
For example, women-owned firms in Australia and the United States are significantly more likely than men-owned firms to close, especially during the first years after their start-up17.
10 Availability of official entrepreneurship statistics for countries on a compar able basis is limited to only OECD/Eurostat Entrepre... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 97 |
Two other data sources on entrepreneurship data in the private sector include the Kauffman Firm Survey and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)- annex 3 for additional information.
11 Robert Fairlie and Alicia Robb (2009).
Gender differences in business performance: Evidence from the Characteristics of Business ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 144 |
Journal of Economic Issues, vol.36(2): 313-321 13 Gottschalk, S. and M. Niefert.
(2011).
Gender Differences in Business Success of German Start -up Firms, ZEW Discussion Paper, No.
11-019.
14 Alstete, W. (2002).
On becoming an entrepreneur: an evolving topology, International Journal of Entrepreneurship Behaviour ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 191 |
16 Kirkwood, J.
(2009).
Motivational factors in a push–pull theory of entrepreneurship, Gender in Management: An International Journal, 24 (5), 346-35.
17 Robb, A. and J. Watson (2010).
Comparing the Performance of Female- and Male-Controlled SMEs: Evidence from 7 6. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 102 |
In addition to the push and pull factors, research has shown that women are more likely than men to start their ventures for non-pecuniary reasons, such as satisfaction with their work, possibility of making a difference in their community, or search for better work-family life balance18,19,20. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 66 |
For example, married women are more likely to be entrepreneurs than single women, and women with children are more likely to start their own business than those without because self-employment gives the former groups more time flexibility21.
In contrast, men are more motivated by financial success, opportunities in th... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 79 |
7.
There is a wide literature assessing the existence of significant differences in financial structure between women- and men- owned enterprises.
In particular, women-owned enterprises tend to start their business with less external funding than male-owned enterprises23,24; they are less likely to raise capital even... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 104 |
Moreover, some sources of finance, such as venture capital, are used only to a very limited extent by women-owned enterprises29.
Australia and the US, Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, Vol.
30, No.
8, pp.
1-12.
18 Piacentini, M. (2013).
Women Entrepreneurs in the OECD: Key Evidence and Policy Challenges ,OE... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 180 |
“Motivational Factors of Female Entrepreneurs”.
In: Ramadani V., Gërguri-Rashiti S., Fayolle A.
(eds) Female Entrepreneurship in Transition Economies.
Palgrave, Macmillan, London 20 Carter, S., Anderson, S., & Shaw, E. (2001).
Women's Business Ownership: A Review of the Academic, Popular and Internet Literature.
L... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 163 |
Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264095830-en 22 Ibid.
23 Carter C. and E. Shaw.
(2006).
Women’s business ownership: recent research and policy developments”, Report to the Small Business Service, UK Minister of State for Industry and the Regions.
24 Coleman S. and A. Robb (2009).
A comparison of new fir... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 176 |
26 Ibid.
27 Robb, A., and Walken, J. D.(2002).
Firm, owner, and financing characteristics: Differences between female- and male-owned small businesses.
Federal Reserve Working Paper, No.
2002-186 28 Constantinidis, C., Cornet, A., & Asandei, S. (2006).
Financing of women-owned ventures: The impact of gender and ot... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 169 |
29 Aspray W. and J. McGrath Cohoon (2007).
Access to Finance Capital: A Review of Research Literature on Women’s Entrepreneurship in the Information Technology Field, Entrepreneurial Report Series, National Centre for 8 8.
The available evidence demonstrates that there are structural differences between women- and me... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 112 |
Women-owned businesses are on average younger and smaller than men-owned businesses, less growth-oriented and in less capital-intensive sectors (more concentrated in the commerce and service sectors) and more likely to be organized as sole proprietors rather than corporations.
Women-owned businesses thereby may be con... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 82 |
Besides these structural differences, women-owned businesses, independent of their credit riskiness, may suffer from a gender-based bias exercised by loan officers due to gender-related favoritism and thus have limited access to finance35.
Furthermore, gender inequality in the law and regulations may put women-owned b... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 90 |
Evidence on gaps in sales and profits between women- and men-owned firms suggests that many women entrepreneurs are not yet able to fulfil their productive and innovative potential36.
9.
However, designing support policies is not straightforward.
Various national and local programmes offer loans at preferential rate... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 91 |
The economy-wide returns of these targeted policies are difficult to quantify given the scarcity of monitoring and Women and Information Technology.
30 Cole R A, Mehran H. (2009).
Gender and the Availability of Credit to Privately Held Firms Evidence from the Surveys of Small Business Finances, Federal Reserve Bank o... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 142 |
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(4), 41 -65.
32 Shaw, E., Carter, S. & Brierton, J.
(2001).
Unequal Entrepreneurship: Why Female Entrepreneurship is an Uphill Business.
London: Industrial Society 33 Marlow, S, Patton, D. (2005).
All Credit to Men?
Entrepreneurship, Finance and Gender, Entrepreneurship The... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 156 |
A study on the major problems of US women -owned small businesses, Journal of Small Business Strategy, 15 (2) 35 The World Bank (2018).
Project Appraisal Document for Inclusive Access to Finance Project in Turkey.
Report No: PAD2768.
Available at http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/510621527219081674/pdf/Turke... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 182 |
147, OECD Publishing, Paris.
9 evaluation efforts37, evident by the lack of national and international data on gender gaps in both entrepreneurship participation and performance.
10.
To respond to these data needs, the Evidence and Data for Gender Equality (EDGE) project (see box 1) initiated the development of a co... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 122 |
This technical report describes the development of the EDGE conceptual framework and indicators for measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective, the questionnaire design, the results and the lessons learned from pilot surveys, and it provides some recommendations for future research.
Box 1. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 55 |
Box 1.
The EDGE project 39 The Evidence and Data for Gender Equality (EDGE) initiative aimed at improving the integration of gender issues into the regular production of official statistics, with a view to better inform evidence-based polices. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 56 |
Building on the work of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Gender Statistics, the multi-year initiative was jointly executed by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) and UN Women in collaboration with national statistical offices, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 95 |
The project was guided by a steering committee composed of members of the donor community, members of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Gender Statistics, regional commissions and regional development banks.
EDGE received funding from the Governments of Australia, Canada, Germany, Ireland, the Republic of Korea, an... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 104 |
Policy Brief on Women’s Entrepreneurship.
Available at https://www.oecd.org/cfe/smes/Policy-Brief-on-Women-s-Entrepreneurship.pdf 38 The module on entrepreneurship was not included in the pilot study in Mexico.
39 https://unstats.un.org/edge/ for additional information on the EDGE project and to access/download the G... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 109 |
10 From 2013 to 2018, EDGE aimed, specifically, to accelerate existing efforts to generate internationally comparable gender indicators on health, education, employment, entrepreneurship and asset ownership by: (a) contributing to the development of the Minimum Set of Gender Indicators (available online at genderstats.... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 140 |
To develop methods on measuring asset ownership and entrepreneurship from a gender perspective, the EDGE project consolidated technical inputs over a multi-year process from a wide range of stakeholders, including national statistics offices, regional and international agencies, and researchers with expertise in gender... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 58 |
The project then tested the proposed methodology in seven pilot countries – Georgia, the Maldives, Mexico (only assets), Mongolia, the Philippines, Uganda, and South Africa – and refined the methodology based on the lessons learned from the pilots. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 54 |
Consistent with a clear imperative for evidence-based policymaking, the ultimate aim of the EDGE initiative was to build a cost-effective and sustainable model for integrating gender issues into regular statistical production while strengthening countries’ capacities to produce gender data in all policy areas.
C. Orga... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 70 |
C. Organization of the Report 11.
This report is organized into three chapters: • Chapter one presents a summary of the literature on entrepreneurship to identify potential dimensions that should be included in a definition of entrepreneurs that is gender sensitive. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 51 |
This is followed by a description of the EDGE conceptual framework for measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective, including proposed indicators of entrepreneurship that resulted from extensive consultations with experts from national and international organizations and academia.
11 • Chapter two presents ho... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 78 |
It also provides feedback received on the questionnaire by pilot countries.
Finally, for illustrative purposes, this chapter presents key findings on gender gaps in entrepreneurship from the pilot surveys.
• Chapter three summarizes the lessons learned from implementing the EDGE survey module in pilot countries and i... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 70 |
The final EDGE model questionnaire on entrepreneurship, reflecting feedback received from pilot countries and other experts, is available as annex 1.
12 CHAPTER ONE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEASURING ENTREPRENEURSHIP FROM A GENDER PERSPECTIVE 12. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 71 |
This chapter reviews several definitions of entrepreneurs used in the literature over time that were considered under the EDGE project to identify common dimensions and/or “traits” of entrepreneurs and guide the development of the EDGE statistical definition of entrepreneurs and their identification in measurement. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 55 |
This is followed by a summary of key deliberations and conclusions of meetings of experts who convened under the EDGE project to discuss concepts, definitions and methods to produce entrepreneurship statistics that are relevant for gender analysis.
Finally, this chapter presents the conceptual/theoretical framework an... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 100 |
1.1.
Literature review 13.
French economist Richard Cantillon (1697-1734) is often credited with being the first to coin the term entrepreneur.
He defined the entrepreneurs as risk takers in the sense that they purchased goods at certain prices in the present to sell at uncertain prices in the future.
The term came... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 119 |
14.
Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832) regarded the entrepreneur as a manager of a firm, an input in the production process, and viewed the entrepreneur as the main agent of production in the economy.
Rather than emphasizing the risk-bearing role of the entrepreneur, he stressed the entrepreneur’s principle quality as an ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 109 |
15.
Many eminent economists and scholars including Adam Smith, Alfred Marshall and Frank Knight elaborated on Cantillon’s contribution, adding leadership to the functions of entrepreneurs, but the key tenets of risk-taking and profit were nearly always retained as important features of entrepreneurship.
13 16. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 71 |
13 16.
Schumpeter (1934) defined entrepreneurship from the economics perspective by focusing on the perception of new economic opportunities (invention) and the subsequent introduction of new ideas in the market (innovation).
Schumpeter’s entrepreneur is an agent of change.
S/he introduces a new good or a new method... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 107 |
Schumpeter’s definition therefore equates entrepreneurship with innovation in the business sense, i.e.
identifying market opportunities and using innovative approaches to exploit them.
17.
Some researchers including Drucker (1985) argued that entrepreneurship reflects merely the creation of a new organization and th... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 95 |
18.
In summary, there is no single definition of an entrepreneur in the economic literature.
Although, among the various definitions available, there seems to be an agreement on the key entrepreneurial traits, such as: willingness to take risk, innovation, problem solving, value addition etc.
These elements in the d... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 99 |
19.
The OECD-Eurostat Entrepreneurship Indicator Programme (EIP), which developed internationally-comparable and policy-relevant indicators of entrepreneurship and its determinants, elaborated on a “conceptual definition” of entrepreneurs, defining them as ‘those persons (business owners) who seek to generate value, t... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 103 |
This definition emphasizes “value creation” and “innovation” as the two distinguishing features of entrepreneurial activity.
It also makes a clear connection between entrepreneurship and business ownership as entrepreneurs are business owners who bear the risks and face the uncertainties associated with their market a... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 62 |
The OECD’s “operational definition” of entrepreneurs is as follows: “Entrepreneurs are persons that have a direct control over the activities of an enterprise, 40 Ahmad, Nadim and Anders N. Hoffmann (2008).
A Framework for Addressing and Measuring Entrepreneurship.
OECD Statistics Working Paper.
14 by owning the tot... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 126 |
In October 2018, the 20th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) adopted a new resolution concerning statistics on work relationships and updated the International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE-93) (see box 2). | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 57 |
Particularly relevant to this report is the fact that ICSE-18 identifies entrepreneurs defined as “persons who own and control an enterprise and seek to generate value through the creation of economic activity by identifying and exploiting new products, processes or markets”42.
Furthermore, “independent workers” in th... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 100 |
21.
Further work, however, will be needed to operationalize the ICSE-18 definition of an entrepreneur and to identify optimal methods to collect entrepreneurship data.
By providing an overview of the lessons learned under the EDGE project, this report will help with integrating a gender perspective into future initia... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 81 |
Box 2: Revision of the International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE-18)43 The International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE-18) classifies jobs in employment for pay or profit into ten detailed categories based on the concepts of type of authority (ICSE-18-A) and type of economic risk (ICSE-1... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 85 |
The detailed categories in employment aggregate according to alternative hierarchies, one based on the type of authority and the other on the nature of the economic risk to which the worker is exposed.
This allows the production of separate statistics on dependent and independent workers and on those employed for pay ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 104 |
OECD Publishing, Paris 42 International Labour Organisation (2018), document ICLS/20/2018/Resolution https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/--- dgreports/---stat/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_647343.pdf 43 Ibid. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 82 |
15 The type of authority (ICSE-A) refers to the nature of the control that the worker has over the organization of his or her work, the nature of authority that he or she exercises over the economic unit for which the work is performed (including its activities and transactions), and the extent to which the worker is d... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 88 |
The type of authority is used to classify workers as independent or dependent as follows: Independent workers own the economic unit in which they work and control its activities.
They are classified into the following groups: A.
Employers 11- Employers in corporations 12- Employers in household market enterprises B. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 72 |
Independent workers without employees 21 - Owner-operators of corporations without employees 22 - Own-account workers in household market enterprises without employees Dependent workers are workers who do not have complete authority or control over the economic unit for which they work. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 54 |
They classified into the following group: C. Dependent contractors 30 - Dependent contractors D. Employees 41 - Permanent employees 42 - Fixed-term employees 43 - Short-term and casual employees 44 - Paid apprentices, trainees and interns E. Contributing family workers 51- Contributing family workers The type of econom... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 113 |
Workers in employment for profit are classified into the following groups: F. Independent workers in household market enterprises 16 12 – Employers in household market enterprises 22 – Own-account workers in household market enterprises without employees C. Dependent contractors 30 – Dependent contractors E. Contributi... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 184 |
The category ‘independent workers’ is the best starting point for the identification of entrepreneurs since it excludes helpers in family businesses and dependent contractors, while including independent workers without employees and employers in both incorporated and unincorporated enterprises.
However, additional in... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 89 |
1.2.
Expert consultations to develop the EDGE conceptual framework for measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective 22.
As part of the process to develop a conceptual framework and indicators for measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective, the EDGE project in collaboration with key partners includin... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 103 |
The outcomes of these meetings, along with advice and guidance received regularly from the Inter-agency and Expert Group on Gender 17 Statistics and other experts, informed the development of a conceptual framework to collect entrepreneurship data from a gender perspective.
23. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 57 |
The two Technical Meetings on Measuring Entrepreneurship from a Gender Perspective were attended by representatives of national statistical offices of China, Fiji, Georgia, Ghana, India, Japan, Republic of Korea, the Maldives, Mexico, Mongolia, the Philippines, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda, and the United States; re... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 181 |
The objectives of the meetings were: to take stock of existing data and research on gender and entrepreneurship; to review and agree on the proposed EDGE methodology on measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective, including a draft conceptual framework developed initially with the OECD; and to discuss (in the ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 118 |
24.
Key deliberations and conclusions that emerged from the technical meetings highlighted the need to agree on a measurable/operational definition of entrepreneurship that is relevant to both developing and developed countries and that also reflects key policy questions about gender and entrepreneurship.
In particul... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 70 |
Experts acknowledged the difficulty of identifying and agreeing on a single definition of entrepreneurs given the multidimensionality of entrepreneurship (such as ownership and controlling of business, risk taking, innovation and generation of value etc.). | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 46 |
However, for operational purposes and pilot testing activities under the project, the following EDGE statistical definition of entrepreneurs was first agreed in the meeting in 2013 and then confirmed in 2014: entrepreneurs are persons who have direct control over the activities of an enterprise they own alone or with o... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 90 |
18 26.
It was agreed that the definition of entrepreneurs should exclude the “dependent” self- employed as they usually not take risks, innovate or have other entrepreneurial characteristics.
There was also an agreement about having a definition not restricted to the main job only and as such it was recommended that ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 92 |
Most experts felt that imposing an upper bound on the ownership share of enterprises, while theoretically relevant, would be challenging to operationalize.
However, for large corporations, it was suggested to also look at the sex of the enterprise’s founder(s), rather than just the owner(s).
27. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756528145.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf | 68 |
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