Songs of Isis and Nephthys were meant to be sung only in Osiris Temples on special designated days, probably because they were part of a larger ceremony performed on those days. The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys were to be reenacted with chanting and dramatic readings only on the 26th day and were performed only in certain temples. The Hour Watches required special prayers at specified hours during the day. Mythology tells us that after Isis had gathered all the scattered pieces of her husband’s body and reassembled them, she buried Osiris on the island of Biga, near Philae. The faithful Isis visited her husband’s tomb each day, bringing milk to rejuvenate his body while she sang songs to soothe him. Because of Isis’s devotion to Osiris, shewas seen as the eternal mourner. The story of Isis’s grief was a favorite theme, told over and over, with temple singers playing the parts of Isis and Nephthys as they lamented the death of Osiris. The story of his life and death was reenacted in great detail and ended with the resurrection and worship of Osiris in the Netherworld. The directions for the ritual called for two women with beautiful bodies, attended by two priests, to kneel before the door of the Hall of Appearances. The names Isis and Nephthys are written on their arms. They hold faience jars filled with Nile water in their right hands and loaves of bread baked in Memphis in their left hands. The women chant the prayers for the deceased, in


deceased entered the Netherworld, life would continue much as it had on Earth, with a couple of exceptions. First, since the deceased had become one with Osiris, he or she would have some of the power of the gods. The deceased also was all knowing and, if favorably, inclined could help the living. Sometime before the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians instituted the practice of writing letters to the dead to enlist their help. Unlike most ancient letters, these were almost always written on bowls that held offerings. A bowl was placed at the tomb of the deceased to whom an appeal was made. Because the entire text had to fit on the bowl, the letters were often brief and lacked details, such as the reason for the request.It was assumed that since the deceased was all knowing, he or she would understand the plea. The following letter to the dead was written in hieratic script on a clay bowl (now in the Louvre Museum in Paris). The message starts at the rim and winds around and around until it reaches the bottom of the bowl. Like most letters to the dead, this letter from a mother to her son consists of five parts:
Address: O Mereri, born to Merti Greeting: The god Osiris-Khentamenti assures that you shall live for millions of years, by providing for the breath in your nose and by placing bread and beer by the side of Hathor, lady of the horizon. Your condition is like [one who] lives millions of times by


holding blue lotus blossoms to their noses to enjoy the fragrance. The Greek traveler Herodotus mentions that the Egyptians sometimes ate part of the lotus plant. The lotus served as the emblem for Upper Egypt, while the papyrus plant was the emblem for Lower

æ

Because the Nile flows from south to north, northern Egypt, or the Delta, is called Lower Egypt, and Upper Egypt is in the south. Lower Egypt’s crown is the red crown, the plant is the papyrus, and its protective goddess is Wadjet. During Egypt’s Predynastic period, Upper and Lower Egypt were two separate kingdoms. The Narmer Palette commemorates the southern King Narmer’s victory over Lower Egypt and subsequent uniting of the two lands. Many of the foreign gods worshipped in Egypt originated in Lower Egypt,having been imported from Syria. Modern name for the site of the ancient city called Waset by the Egyptians and Thebes by the Greeks.

the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.), Maahes is the son of Re the sun god and Bastet, the cat-headed goddess. Maahes has a lion’s head and a man’s body and sometimes wears the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt or the double feather atef crown. He may be seen devouring a captive or wielding a knife in keeping with his fierce nature. A bouquet of lotus flowers beside Maahes reminds us of his gentler side. The first hieroglyph in his name H (ma) appears in the word maat, meaning truth and justice, and Maahes has a reputation for devouring the guilty and protecting the innocent.


them daily . . . and the lions eat to the accompaniment of song in the Egyptian language.

maat A concept associated with the goddess Maat, who represented truth, justice, moral law, and divine order. Divine order included

LT –Ω a

natural phenomena, such as the Nile overflowing its banks each year, and political events, such as the Egyptian army conquering its enemies. To the Egyptians, maat was an unchanging, unquestioned force. This deep-seated belief in an unchanging, definite order of the universe led to the Egyptians’ extreme conservativeness. Change was to be avoided, and innovation was not desired. This is partly the reason for the unchanging nature of Egyptian art. Egypt’s art changed less over the centuries than that of any other culture. When a statue of a god wasa famine. This was not viewed as a natural occurrence but instead as a sign that the gods were displeased with Egyptian behavior: Perhaps the proper offerings had not been made at the temples, or the correct prayers had not been recited. The solution was to turn to the gods and beg them to return the order that Egypt had enjoyed. Maat also played a central role in determining whether the deceased was admitted to the Netherworld. In order to reach the Netherworld, the deceased was required to make a negative confession before an assembly of gods, listing all the evil deeds he or she had avoided in life, such as not killing anyone, or not diverting the irrigation ditch from its course. It was necessary to convince


symbol for Upper Egypt Plant symbolizing Lower Egypt (northern Egypt) Ring symbolizing eternity Symbol meaning to exist or life Musical instrument sacred to Hathor, Isis, and Bastet Symbol for Isis also called the Knot of Isis Symbol of the gods and scepter for the city of Thebes.

mAfDet Originally a goddess of justice, Mafdet was also an executioner, and her curious symbol is a pole with a rounded top, a sharp blade, and a coil of rope. Mafdet is usually shown with a feline head—either a cat, lion, or panther—and the body of a woman, although some depictions show Mafdet with the head of a woman and the body of a feline. Like Egypt’s other feline goddesses, Mafdet protected the king. She was the guardian of the palace andthe king’s private chambers and was given the title “Slayer of Serpents.” It was said that Mafdet ripped out the hearts of evildoers and dropped them at the pharaoh’s feet. Her cult center was at Bubastis, in the Delta, where she was worshipped with another local feline goddess, Bastet. Because of her ferocious nature, Mafdet is also linked with Anhur, Menhit, and Tefnut. In the Book of the Dead Mafdet is a feline predator that repels serpents. Each night when Re’s solar boat enters the Underworld, Mafdet defeats the evil serpent Apep. But she has a kinder side as well, and one of Mafdet’s duties is to help the souls of the deceased on their journey to the Netherworld.
mAgic The Egyptians were famous for their magic throughout the


in the Predynastic period (5500–3100 b.c.). They protected the wearer from danger in this life and the next. Magical Pyramid Texts appear on the walls of King Unas’s Fifth Dynasty pyramid at Saqqara to keep the king safe and help him resurrect in the next world. In the Middle Kingdom, magical spells were carved on the sides and top of wooden coffins (Coffin Texts) to protect the mummy and help the deceased enter the next world. Books of the Dead were popular in the New Kingdom because they were written on long papyrus scrolls. New magical spells were created to help the deceased resurrect in the next world. One of the versions of the Book of the Dead, called the Book of the Divine Cow, gives specific instructionsas to when and how a spell should be uttered.

MAgIc, goDs AnD goDDEssEs of
If a man pronounces this spell over himself he should be anointed with oil and unguent, the censer being in his hand with incense. Natron must be behind his ears, Bed—natron must be in his mouth, dressed in two new garments, having washed himself in inundation water, shod in white sandals, and the figure of the Truth goddess being painted on his tongue in green painter’s color.

The book also says who should recite the spells.
A magician his head being purified, should make a female figure standing by his south side. He should make her a goddess and in the middle of her a snake standing erect on its tail, her head being placed on its


body while its tail is on the ground Thoth should adore him [the magician], all the dignitaries of heaven being on him while Shu stretches his arm toward it. [He should recite:] I am safe from the great and mighty gods who sit in the eastern part of heaven, who guard the sky, who guard the earth . . .

mAgicAl brickS One of the many rituals observed in the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.) was to place magical bricks inside the tomb to help safeguard the mummy from the enemies of Osiris. Four bricks were inscribed with texts from Chapter 151 of the Book of the Dead, describing how they protected the mummy. Each magical brick had its own amulet and was placed against one of the four tombwalls to guard against evil approaching from any direction. The brick placed against the west wall had a djed pillar, the symbol of stability; the east wall had an Anubis statue; the south wall had a torch; and the north wall had a statuette similar to ushabti, a servant statue. Magical bricks have been found in the Valley of the Kings in the tombs of Thutmose III, Tutankhamen, and Ramses II. mAgicAl objectS in tutAnkhAmen’S tomb When Howard Carter opened Tutankhamen’s tomb in November 1922, he found a number of magical objects buried with the boy king. One item reported found was a clay tablet with a curse carved on it: “Death will slay with his wings whoever disturbs the peace of the pharaoh” (see curse of Tutankhamen).


It is doubtful that the tablet ever existed, but magic played a big part in sending the boy king to the next world. In the first room, the antechamber, two lifesize statues of Tutankhamen with black skin and gold kilt (skirt) represented the royal ka—they served as the home or dwelling place of the royal soul during mummification. Magical objects were found on the floor of Tutankhamen’s burial chamber. Next to the shrines that enclosed the coffin were 10 magical oars intended to row the pharaoh’s solar boat to the next world. A double wooden chest painted black held two faience cups—one filled with natron and the other with resin, essential ingredients for mummification. Between the cups was a stone amulet shaped like ^ —perhaps used in theperson’s bed with a magic wand.

mAmmiSi Special chapels called mammisi were constructed next to the most important Egyptian temples to celebrate the birth of the “divine son the first son of the ruling pharaoh.” The rituals of the marriages of Isis and Hathor were also celebrated in the mammisi, but the main function was to illustrate the “divine birth.” The walls of the temple were decorated with scenes of the king and queen making offering to the gods in the name of their newborn son, the gods preparing to crown the “new ruler” with the crowns of Egypt while various goddesses are suckling the infant. The name mammisi, Coptic for “birthplace,” was given to these small temples by Jean-François Champollion, the 19th-century Egyptologist who broke the code for


or died on the spot.

(c. 305–285 b.c.) An Egyptian priest who lived during the Ptolemaic period in Egypt, Manetho may have been instrumental in establishing the cult of Serapis, a composite Egyptian and Greek god. Manetho is most well known for his history of Egypt, called Aegyptiaca. Although he could read and write Egyptian scripts, Manetho wrote his history in Greek so King Ptolemy I could read of Egypt’s past. No copies of his writing have survived intact, but later writers, including the Jewish historian Josephus (first century a.d.) and the Christian historians Africanus (c. a.d. 220) and Eusebius (c. a.d. 320), all recorded fragments of Manetho’s writing. Aegyptiaca chronicled the history of Egyptian kingship, dividing the rulers into 31 dynasties. Modern scholars continue to refer to Manetho’schronology of kings as they study the succession of kings in ancient Egypt. Although no copies exist, Manetho is said to have written the following other works: The Sacred Book, An Epitome of Physical Doctrines, On Festivals, On Ancient Ritual and Religion, On the Making of Kyphi (a kind of incense), Criticisms of Herodotus, and The Book of Sothis.

In addition, the Egyptians considered mandrake an aphrodisiac and believed it could promote fertility, because some of the species seemed to resemble male genitals. An Arabic name for the mandrake plant is “devil’s testicles.”

mAnDuliS (merwel)

A Ptolemaic god worshipped in Nubia, Mandulis originated in southern Egypt. He is prominently featured on the walls of Kalabsha Temple with the Ptolemies and the Roman emperor Augustus. Kalabsha is one of the monuments

mAnSion of


the ka One of the five aspects of human existence, the ka, or “soul,” of the deceased continued to exist after his or her death. In order to maintain its existence, the ka had to be nourished. The tomb was the house or mansion of the ka where, if it received the proper rituals and offerings, it would remain healthy and active. The tomb and the mummified body were essential to the continued existence of the ka as well as the deceased. The tomb was part of a funerary complex that included an underground burial chamber and aboveground funerary temple and offering chapels. Usually the family of the deceased replenished the offerings, but in some cases a priest was employed to attend to the needs of the ka.He and his family were supported by crops from a plot of land designated by the deceased for this purpose. mAnSionS of the goDS See temples. mAStAbA A bench-like structure built over Old Kingdom tombs, the mastaba was the earliest funer-

MEhurt

ary temple, where the family of the deceased could make food offerings for the ka. (Mastaba is a modern Arabic word for the mud brick benches outside many Egyptian homes.) The first mastabas were simple shaft tombs cut into the bedrock with a small “benchlike” building over the shaft. As they became more elaborate, mastabas acquired enclosure walls and funerary chapels at ground level so the family and priests could make offerings for the deceased. The chapels were decorated with scenes of the deceased presenting offerings to various


Thoth, Horus, Imhotep, and Isis, and one or all could be consulted, depending on the ailment. Egyptian medicine was a combination of magical spells, religious rituals, and the skills of the ancient physician. There was no clear distinction between magic and the remedy prescribed. The physician had a range of medicines to choose from—opium, myrrh, honey, and hundreds of plants and herbs—and he enhanced their healing power with magical spells. Sometimes, in the case of snake and scorpion bites, the physician turned to the gods. The following from the papyrus of Ani was to be recited while applying a remedy to the body of a person:
I have come from Heliopolis with the great ones of the great house, the lords of protection the rulers of eternity . .she became associated with Hathor, whose crown is a sun disk between her horns. Later this became the crown of Isis. Mehurt is almost always shown as a cow, and her name means “the great flood.” Her representations are easily confused with Hathor, because each is often shown as a recumbent cow resting on a reed mat, a sun disk between the horns. In the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 b.c.), Mehurt appears in the Pyramid Texts of Unas: “Unas has come to his pools which are on the banks of the canal of Mehurt, at the place where offerings flourish, and fields on the horizon, and he has made his garden flourish on the banks of the horizon.” By the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.), Mehurt had become a goddess


of rebirth, especially for those souls hoping to resurrect in the Netherworld. The Book of the Dead (Chapter 27) tells us, “I behold Re who was born yesterday from the goddess Mehurt . . . it is the watery abyss of heaven . . . it is the image of the eye of Re in the morning at his daily birth. Mehurt is the eye of Re.” In another myth Re claims to have created Mehurt with the help of Isis and her magical spells. When Tutankhamen’s tomb was opened in 1922, a funerary couch was found in his tomb in the shape of the celestial cow. Mehurt was there to assist him when he entered the Netherworld. As a goddess of rebirth and resurrection, Mehurt evolved intoa patron or guardian of the necropolis on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes.

The menat necklace was not worn but was carried by Egyptian women as a sign of their devotion to Hathor. (Photo by Russell Rudzwick)

and her son Ihy, who were often shown holding the menat and a sistrum. As a divine symbol of Hathor the menat was believed to have healing powers, and Hathor, is often shown on tomb walls presenting a menat to the king. One of Hathor’s many titles was the “Divine Menat.” During the Nineteenth Dynasty (1295–1186 b.c.), amulets were made in the shape of the menat and placed in the tomb with the deceased.

meneS menhit

See Narmer.

memphiS (men-nefer) Ancient capital city of Egypt, called “white walls” in the Old Kingdom (2686–2181


b.c.) and home of the Memphite Triad: Ptah, Sekmet, and their son Nefertum. Memphis was established shortly after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer and remained the administrative center for most of Egypt’s long history, during which time temples, chapels, and shrines were dedicated to most of the major gods at Memphis. memphite triAD
See families of the gods.

A foreign war goddess, Menhit is the wife of Onouris (Anhur), both of whom may have originated in Nubia. Her name identifies her as a goddess of violence; it means “she who massacres.” Associated with Sekhmet, Menhit was seen as a feline goddess and often represented as a lioness. The Egyptian army believed that Menhit rode in front of them to vanquish Egypt’s enemies with fiery arrows. Shewas worshipped in Upper Egypt as the wife of Khnum and the mother of Heka.

menyu

An ancient god of the desert, Menyu was said to be the son of Isis. Worshipped at Coptos, Menyu is mentioned on the Palermo Stone.

meret-Seger (mert-sekert)

menAt A necklace or broad collar with several rows of beads joined in the back by a counterpoise, which helped to hold the necklace in place. Originally the menat was a symbolic necklace sacred to Hathor

Ω

The snakeheaded goddess of solitude, Meret-Seger’s name means “she who loves silence.” She was associated with Osiris, god of the dead. Meret-Seger, the serpent whose domain was the Theban desert, was said to be the incarnation and guardian of the peaks above the village of the workers who built the royal tombs

MEttErnIch stElE

in the


Valley of the Kings. The workers in the village of Deir el Medina were devoted to Meret-Seger and took her as their patron deity. Where she appears on the walls of the tombs of Ramses VI and Ramses IX, she wears the Amentet headdress, signifying the “west”—a feather resting on a standard. A votive stele dedicated to Meret-Seger, now in the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy, calls her Lady of Heaven and Mistress of the Two Lands and portrays her as being both sweet and ferocious. All on earth are warned to “Beware of the Peak of the West,” the name by which she was known.

Another Kushite mystery was the location of the burial chamber in the Nubian pyramids. Smaller and closer together than Egyptian pyramids, Nubian pyramidswere found to be solid, filled with rubble, and without rooms that could serve as a burial chamber. Eventually burial chambers were discovered in shafts dug in front of the pyramids. Three groups of pyramids were constructed as the burial site for Kushite royalty. The last and fourth pyramid site in Africa was built at Meroe sometime around a.d. 350. Shortly after that, the army of Axum, a rival city (located in what is present-day Ethiopia), invaded and destroyed the city.

meroe

(Meroitic period 270 b.c.–a.d. 350) The last city in Africa (in modern Sudan) where ancient Egyptian religion was practiced. As Egypt grew weak in Dynasty XXV (747–568 b.c.), Nubia grew strong and took control of Egypt. Its rulers were called the Kushite kings in the ancient world, and


the “pious kings of Kush” are mentioned in the Bible. When the Kushite kings were defeated some 60 years later, their army retreated south to Gebel Barkal. Eventually the Kushite royal court moved even farther south to Meroe, near the sixth cataract (130 miles north of modern Khartoum). Isolated from Egypt, which was successively invaded by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, the Kushite royal court at Meroe continued to practice the religion of ancient Egypt, adding a few gods of its own (see Apedemak and Dedun). Meroe grew into a vast trading center for exotic goods from central Africa, and Meroitic society became a blend of ancient Egyptian and African culture. Kushite queens were powerful figures in the court and played an important role in determining who thenext king or queen would be. They could rule the kingdom and have their own pyramids. As the city of Meroe grew and prospered, Kushite royalty built palaces, temples, and pyramids and worshipped Egyptian gods for the next 500 years. Over time, the Kushite kingdom replaced Egyptian hieroglyphs with a Meroitic script that has never been fully translated. Meroitic script had 23 symbols, and, like Egyptians hieroglyphs, Meroitic is written in both hieroglyphs and a cursive script. Some of the Meroitic alphabet is similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs, but the spoken language was quite different. Meroitic inscriptions have puzzled Egyptologists for more than 100 years, for although they know the sound of each letter, the grammar and vocabulary remain a mystery.

meSenty

Meaning “Lord of all Creation,” Mesenty was one of


the titles of the god Ptah. The overseer of childbirth, the goddess Meskhenet determined the destiny of a child when it was born. She had the unusual distinction of being portrayed with her head emerging from two bricks. Women in ancient Egypt gave birth sitting on a birthing stool or squatting on birthing bricks, so the bricks represented the goddess of childbirth. Meskhenet, mentioned in the Westcar Papyrus, a magical papyrus with tales about the Old Kingdom, is one of five deities who assist the expectant mother Rudjedet when she is about to deliver triplets. The goddesses Meskhenet, Isis, Nephthys, and Heket carried a sistrum and menat and attended the mother. The fifth god was Khnum, the ram-headed god. Magical spells link the four goddesses with the fourbirthing bricks. Isis stands in front of the mother, while her sister Nephthys stands behind. Heket hastens the birth, and Meskhenet transforms herself into the birthing stool or bricks when the child is born. During some periods of history, Meskhenet was identified with Hathor.

meSkhenet

meSti (imsety, imesty)

One of the Four Sons of Horus and protector of the internal organs of the mummy, Mesti was guardian of the liver and was portrayed with a human head.

A magical carved stone tablet (stele) commissioned during the reign of Nectanebo II (360–343 b.c.), the last native Egyptian king of Egypt, the Metternich stele is inscribed with myriad gods, mythological beings, and spells to prevent or cure poisonous bites and stings. The Metternich Stele tells the story of Isis after the death of Osiris


the bite of a snake created by Isis, and the infant Horus was stung by a scorpion when he was hidden in a papyrus thicket. Thoth provided Isis with a magical formula to restore her son. The Egyptians inscribed magical formulas on stone stelae called cippus or “Cippus of Horus,” which were placed in front of tombs and temples to protect the deceased and their families from evil spirits manifested as snakes, scorpions, and venomous reptiles. Water poured over the cippus ran into a basin and was drunk for its magical properties. The largest “Cippus of Horus” is the Metternich Stele, named for Prince Metternich, who received it as a gift from the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, in the early 1800s. The stele, a hard blackstone with a rounded top, is inscribed on both sides. On the front (obverse) is a sculpted figure of Harpocrates, Horus the child, who stands on a crocodile and grasps serpents, scorpions, and hippopotami in his hands. The stele was made for Ankh-Psamtek, the son of lady Tent-Het-Nub, prophet of Nebun, overseer of Temt and scribe of Het. Inscriptions on the stele tell us that it was commissioned to protect the people who worked in a particular building, perhaps a temple, from scorpion stings. The front, back and sides of the stele are covered with the images of more than 300 different gods. The five separate spells carved on the stele are to be recited to counteract a venomous bite. The spells call upon Apep the giant serpent


to vomit venom so the victim will also vomit the venom from his bite. Spells call upon Isis, in her many guises, for she was reputed to know the antidote for every poison. The Metternich Stele is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

and Ptolemaic), the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 b.c.) was a time of recovery and transformation. After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, the pyramids were opened and robbed, and the Pyramid Texts were no longer a secret. This caused a change in the funerary practices of the Middle Kingdom. Based on the Pyramid Texts, a series of magical spells and prayers called Coffin Texts were inscribed on Middle Kingdom wooden coffins. A coffin from elBersha (c. 2000 b.c.) prepared for the steward Seniis decorated with a text called the Book of Two Ways. It describes the realm of the dead and the sun god’s journey as he travels in his solar boat by water and by land. Middle Kingdom royalty and nobility inscribed texts on their coffins to help them in their journey to the next world. The god Amun was worshipped prominently during the Middle Kingdom (and would continue to be the primary god throughout the New Kingdom) and inspired the construction of the Karnak Temples. The temples for Ptah in Memphis, Min in Koptos, and Osiris in Abydos were also built or expanded. Several successful military campaigns were launched to occupy Nubia and Libya. These conquered populations further enriched Egyptian mythology, as their own gods, goddesses, and beliefs


were blended into Egypt’s religious culture. Invasion by the Hyksos brought the prosperous Middle Kingdom–era to an end, with years of civil unrest and strife before the “golden age” of the New Kingdom began.

min

miDDle kingDom

The third major historic period of six in Egyptian history (Predynastic, Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, Late,

An early fertility god, Min was responsible for the fecundity of the fields and animals in ancient Egypt. The earliest sign for Min was a fetish, an object believed to have magical properties and that resembled a door bolt. But later Min was represented as a partially mummiform figure who holds his erect phallus, a symbol of fertility, with his left hand while his right hand holds a raised flail to smite his enemies. Min wears aflat crown with two tall plumes and streamers hanging down. From the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 b.c.) on, he was associated with long-leafed lettuce, which usually was found on his offering table. The Pyramid Texts refer to Min as “he Whose Arm is Raised in the East.” Min’s cult center was at Koptos, and excavations at the temple site have produced three colossal statues carved in limestone that may be the earliest sculptures of the god. They are now in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England.

® ùi

MnEvIs bull
In the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 b.c.), the attributes of Min and Horus, the falcon god, were linked. Horus was seen as the god of the eastern Delta, Min was the god of the eastern desert, and the new god was called Min-Horus,


the protector of mining expeditions into the Sinai. During the pharaoh’s coronation celebration in the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.), an elaborate procession and feast honored Min so that his virility would be passed to the new pharaoh. The festival is recorded on the second pylon of the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramses II (1279–1213 b.c.), and also in Ramses III’s temple at Medinet Habu in Thebes, which shows Ramses III in a palanquin (carrying chair) leaving the royal palace in a grand procession to the temple. The statue of Min sits in his shrine and is carried by priests with long poles over their shoulders that support the shrine. When they reach the public area, two priests holding a linen curtain hide the statue of Min fromview while other priests chant hymns. Then the queen appears with the “White Bull,” an animal sacred to Min, and they worship the king’s ancestors before the coronation. Toward the end of the celebration, four sparrows are set free to fly to the four corners of the land and announce the new sovereign. In Thebes, the great god Amun was at various times associated with Min as well. one of the boundary stele he erected for his new city in the desert, Akhenaten states that he will prepare a tomb for the sacred bull in the cliffs east of the city. During Egypt’s Late period (747–332 b.c.), when the interpretation of oracles became an important part of the religion, the role of the Mnevis shifted to become an


intermediary in interpreting messages from the gods.

mneviS bull One of the most important animal cults in the ancient world, the Mnevis bull, identified by its black hide, was one of three bulls worshipped in Egypt (see Apis and Buchis). Its cult center was at Heliopolis, the city called “On” in the Bible, where the Mnevis bull was venerated, mummified, and buried. The Mnevis was associated with the cult of ReAtum and, as such, it wore a gold sun disk and uraeus (cobra head) mounted between its horns. There was only one Mnevis Bull alive at any one time. Hesat was the mythological mother of the Mnevis who, among other honors, was considered the earthly incarnation of the sun god. Although Heliopolis has been extensively excavated, the great necropolisof the Mnevis bulls has never been found. When a bull died, it was given full funerary rites, mummification, and burial with jewelry and ushabtis (servant statues). Of the many Mnevis bulls that must have lived, only two burials have been discovered. Unfortunately, both tombs, which were simple pits dug in the ground and lined with polished stones, had been flooded and the bodies of the mummified bulls destroyed. The Mnevis bull was one of the few traditional gods recognized by the heretic king, Akhenaten. On

montu The falcon-headed god of war, Montu was originally worshipped in Hermonthis, a cult center near Thebes. During the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 b.c.), Montu grew in prominence as the warrior kings, battling for supremacy, gained victory after victory. Montu was much favored by


the military, and several Eleventh Dynasty kings took the name Montu-hotep, meaning “Montu is pleased.” Montu is shown as a man with a falcon’s head wearing a solar disk and two tall feather plumes as his crown. His consorts were two local Theban goddesses, Rattawy and Tjenenyet. His sacred animal, a white bull with a black face, was later called the Buchis bull. Temples were dedicated to Montu at Karnak, Armant, Medamud, and Tod. The sanctuary at Medamud, northeast of Thebes, was dedicated by Senwosret III (1874–1855 b.c.) and continued to be active during the Greco-Roman period. Tod, located south of Thebes, was dedicated by Senwosret I (1972–1926 b.c.) and also continued as an active temple through the Greco-Roman period, but Montu was no longer as important whenAmum became the leading deity in Thebes.
moon goDS Khonsu.
See Aah, Aah-Djhuty, and

mummificAtion The rituals surrounding mummification are closely tied to mythology and religion. The procedure arose from the need to preserve the body so the deceased could resurrect and become one with Osiris. Osiris, god of the dead, and Anubis, the patron of embalming, were the two most important gods associated with mummification. Because the ancient Egyptians believed in resurrection, the physical body as well as the ba and the ka, parts of the soul, were essential for life in the next world. This was the reason for mummification—so the body would be intact when it resurrected. In the earliest periods of Egyptian history, the deceased were simply placed in pits dug in the sand, then covered. Because


the body was in contact with hot, dry sand, it dehydrated quickly, creating a natural mummy. Bacteria acting on soft tissue cause bodies

Z

MuMMIfIcAtIon

Anubis, the god of embalming, prepares a mummy. (Photo by Pat Remler) to decompose, but if there is no moisture, bacteria do not attack. Because the sand quickly absorbed the moisture in the body, mummification took place naturally. Later burials were more elaborate, and bodies were placed in tombs. No longer in contact with the dehydrating hot sand, they quickly began to decay. To ensure that the body remained intact, the Egyptians developed the art of mummification. The status of the deceased person determined what kind of mummification was performed. The most elaborate form of mummification, reserved for the king and the royal family, involved complicatedsurgical procedures. Because the brain is mostly water, it had to be removed with special tools. The brain was one of the few parts of the body that the embalmers discarded, as the Egyptians believed that a person thought with the heart, not the brain. Once the brain was removed, a small incision on the left side of the abdomen was made to remove stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, and other internal organs. The heart was left in place, however, so the deceased would be able to think when he resurrected in the next world and say the magical spells necessary to bring his body back to life. The internal organs were placed in four canopic jars with lids carved in the shape of one of the Four Sons


of Horus: Mesti, the human-headed son; Duamutef, the jackal; Hapi, the baboon; Qebesenef, the hawk. After the wrapped internal organs were placed inside the canopic jars with a fluid called the “liquid of the children of Horus” (a solution of water and natron), the jars were sealed and the priests recited prayers to invoke the protection of the four sons. The oldest example of canopic jars was a chest with four compartments found in the tomb of Queen Hetepheres, mother of Cheops, the builder of the Great Pyramid (2580–2566 b.c.). When the organs had been removed, the body was placed on an embalming table and covered with natron, a naturally occurring compound of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium chloride—basically baking soda and table salt. Because a bodyis approximately 75 percent water, it took more than 400 pounds of natron and 35 days to dehydrate the body. When dehydration was complete, the abdominal and chest cavities were washed with palm wine and aromatic spices and often packed with linen soaked in resin so the body would retain its original shape. Sometimes sawdust or onions placed in small linen bags were used as packing material. The face was padded with linen in the cheeks and under the eyelids. Just before bandages were applied, the body was anointed twice from head to toe with oils mixed

MusIc, goDs of
with frankincense and myrrh. A priest wearing a jackal mask recited prayers as the oils were poured on the body:
. . . thou hast received the perfume, which shall make


thy members perfect. Thou receivest the source (of life) and thou takest the form of the great Disk, which uniteth itself unto thee to give enduring form to thy members; thou shalt unite with Osiris in the Great hall. The unguent cometh unto thee to fashion thy members and to gladden thy heart, and thou shalt appear in the form of Ra; it shall spread abroad the smell of thee in the nomes of Aqert . . . Thou receivest the oil of the cedar in Amentet, and the cedar which came forth from Osiris cometh unto thee . . . (E. A. Wallis Budge, Egyptian Magic)

As a vulture goddess she is shown with the vulture headdress with the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. Her brightlycolored red or blue garment is a linen sheath dress, sometimes with a feather pattern, and she carries a papyrus scepter. In her role as a lioness, Mut is associated with Sekhmet, who acted as the “vengeful eye of Re.” The lioness-headed goddess Mut replaced Amunet, the first wife of Amun, and became his chief wife when he rose to prominence in Thebes. She is the mother of Khonsu, and together Amun, Mut, and Khonsu make up the Theban triad. Mut appears prominently in all the major temples next to her husband, and her sacred precinct was joined to the Amun sanctuary by a sacred road.

Once the mummy had been anointed, the bandaging followed a precise ritual. In royal burials, when the fingers and toes were wrapped, individual


gold covers were placed on each finger and toe for added protection. When the arms, torso, and legs were wrapped, the priests placed magical amulets in the bandages to protect the mummy until it resurrected in the Netherworld.

muSic, goDS of See Bes, Hathor, and Ihy.

mut

The goddess whose name means “mother” in ancient Egyptian. Like Hathor and Isis, Mut was the symbolic mother of the pharaoh. Mut is associated with both the vulture and the lioness.

myStery plAyS From the Twelfth Dynasty on, mystery plays were held at Abydos each year to celebrate the resurrection of Osiris. Temple priests reenacted the events in the life and death of Osiris. The opening scenes were performed outside the temple, in the open air, and groups of pilgrims, called “Followers of Thoth,” joinedwished to join the gods in the heavens. His secret name was unknown to both mortals and gods, but Isis was determined to learn it and gain power for herself and her son Horus. When a drop of saliva from Re’s mouth fell to Earth, Isis mixed it with soil and formed it into the shape of a poisonous serpent. One day as Re walked along the path, the serpent struck and bit the great god, and its venom surged through his body. Re cried out to all the gods of heaven to come to his aid, and Isis appeared with them. None of the gods could save Re. Isis bargained with the dying god, “Tell me your name, Divine Father, for the man shall live who is


over him or her. In the Book of the Dead, Osiris is said to have more than a hundred names. nAoS A shrine carved of wood or stone to hold the statue of a god or goddess, the naos was an important part of temple furnishings. Each naos in the temple was housed in a special chapel when it was not being
carried in procession. During festivals and processions, a lightweight wooden naos that held the statue of the god was placed in the divine barque (boat) of the gods. The boat rested on long carrying poles and was carried about by the priests. Most shrines were made of wood, but one stone naos remains in the chapel at the Temple of Edfu.

nApAtA

Ancient trade route city in Nubia 600miles south of Aswan and home of Gebel Barkal, the pure mountain where the great god Amun was believed to have lived. Probably the first king of the First Dynasty (3100 b.c.), Narmer, or Menes as he is also known, founded Memphis, the ancient administrative capital of Egypt. He is the first known king to equate himself with the gods, raising himself from a mortal to demigod. Manetho, an Egyptian priest in the third century b.c., wrote in Aegyptiaca, his history of Egypt, that a man the Greeks called Menes ascended the throne of southern Egypt in primordial times. Looking north, Menes saw another kingdom with people and language like his own. A war that had separated the adjacent lands for centuries presented Menes with a great opportunity.


He fought his way along the Nile, through the swampy Delta, until he conquered the north, and he married princess Neith-Hotep. Menes was then crowned ruler of both the north and the south, the first pharaoh of Egypt. Almost no artifacts of Menes have been found except the Narmer Palette and a mace head. The principal figure on the Narmer Palette is shown wearing the crown of Lower Egypt on one side and the crown of Upper Egypt on the other side. The hieroglyphs written on the palette call him “Narmer.” The Narmer Palette, which shows the king and his accomplishments, is thought to commemorate the

nArmer (menes)

nArMEr pAlEttE
unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. King Narmer’s name is one of the first to be written in hieroglyphs. The sceneson the palette narrate Narmer’s leadership of a southern confederation, with processional banners representing various communities, to its successful conquest of the north. This conquest made Narmer the first ruler of unified Egypt. Except for relatively short periods of instability, the country remained a single entity throughout its long history. The Egyptians always called their country “The Two Lands,” and their ruler was called “King of Upper and Lower Egypt.”

nArmer pAlette One of the most important discoveries in Egypt, the Narmer Palette is the earliest historical text commemorating the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. It also has several mythological references, including the Predynastic cow goddess, Bat, and it links the king with Horus, the falcon god, and with an early form of a bull god. A ceremonial


slate palette (c. 3100 b.c.), it is believed to commemorate the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Narmer/Menes. The vignettes on both sides seem to detail the events of this conquest. On the first side (recto or front), on the top register, two cows’ heads represent the early cow goddess Bat, and between them is the first example of a king’s name written in hieroglyphs inside a serekh, or palace facade. In the center, Narmer appears larger than life wearing the tall conical white crown of his homeland in the south (Upper Egypt) and menacing an enemy with his mace. An attendant carries Narmer’s ceremonial sandals, which may indicate that he is on “holy ground” or in the presence of the gods. In front of Narmerto be of foreign origin and do not appear in other Egyptian art.) The intertwined necks of the beasts form a circle and depression in the palette, and this is where pigment would have been ground to prepare the eye

The Narmer Palette depicts King Narmer’s unification of the northern and southern kingdoms of Egypt. (Courtesy of Bob Brier) paint worn by the ancient Egyptians. On the bottom of the palette is the earliest representation of the king as a bull trampling his enemies. The Narmer Palette

nEgAtIvE confEssIon

shows us the beginning of a tradition of art, religion, and mythology that was to last for ancient Egypt’s 3,000-year history.

nAtron Essential to the art of mummification, natron is a naturally occurring compound of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium chloride, or


sandals, eyes painted with eye paint, and body anointed with the oil of myrrh, before he or she proclaims the purity of

nAunet

A principal goddess in the Hermopolis creation myth, Naunet represents water. She is part of the Ogdoad, or eight deities: four males, usually with frogs’ heads, and four females with serpents’ heads. The first god was Nun, the primordial ocean, and Naunet was his wife. In the Memphis creation myth, Naunet is the daughter of Nun (also Ptah), who took her as his wife, and their child is Atum, the principal creator god of the Heliopolis creation myth. Nefertum was the god of the lotus blossom, one of the most important plants in ancient Egypt. The lotus is a water lily that closes its petals at theend of each day and forms a bud; when the Sun rises and warms the air, the lotus opens to greet the new day. Nefertum was called “the Blue Lotus Blossom from Which the Sun Rises” and “a Child of the Sun.” Nefertum was also associated with the fragrance of flowers and with perfume. Nefertum is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts as the lotus blossom held before the sun god. When he appears as a child, Nefertum is sitting inside a lotus blossom; when he appears as a man, he wears the lotus blossom on his head. In the Delta (north), his mother was believed to be Wadjet, a cobra goddess. In Memphis, he was believed to be the son of the lioness-headed goddess Sekhmet and her union


followers of the Great God!

If the 42 gods in the Hall of Double Truth accepted the negative plea, the deceased proceeded to the second part of the judgment, the Weighing of the Heart Ceremony.

neheb-kAu A goddess associated with the Elysian Fields, Neheb-Kau provided nourishment for the souls of the dead. She was often shown as a winged serpent with the body of a woman and carrying pots of food. nehem-AwAy When the cow-headed goddess Hathor was worshipped as the benefactress of the poor or deprived, she appeared as Nehem-away. Like Hathor, the sistrum was her symbol, and when Nehem-away shook the sistrum the sound was said to drive evil spirits away. neith An ancient creator goddess whose cult center was in the Delta city of Sais (modern Sanel-Hager in the western Delta). Like many of the goddesses of ancient Egypt, Neith had a dual nature, both fierce and gentle. She is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts as a mortuary goddess, accompanying Isis, Nephthys, and Selket when they guarded the mummy of Osiris. Neith’s warlike nature was proclaimed by her symbols, two crossed arrows over a shield. Neith was the patron goddess of hunters and warriors, who asked for her blessing on their weapons. She was called “Mistress of the Bow” and “Ruler of Arrows.” Neith is shown as a woman wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. Her symbol, the crossed arrows and shield, have been linked with the early dynastic king Hor-Aha (3100 b.c.), possibly in connection with his dedicating a temple to Neith.

nEphthys

In


her gentle nature, Neith was a patroness of weaving, and imparted her powers to Osiris through the mummy wrappings. In the New Kingdom (1550– 1069 b.c.), Neith was known as “God’s Mother who Bore Re Before Anything Existed,” meaning that she was the first deity to give birth. On her temple wall was inscribed, “I am all that has been, that is, and that will be.” She was said to be the wife of Set and the mother of Sobek. Neith rose to prominence in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty when Sais became the capital of Egypt. Herodotus, the Greek traveler, in Book II of his History, describes a great festival honoring Neith called the “feast of lamps,” in which hundreds of oil lamps were lit and burned all nightin her honor. Neith’s importance as a creator goddess rose during the Roman period when an account of her part in the creation of the world was carved at Esna temple in Upper Egypt. The story goes that Neith emerged from the primordial waters, created Earth, and followed the flow of the Nile northward where she created Sais, her cult city. There are earlier references in the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.) to Neith’s activities as a creator goddess when she “molds the pharaoh” (Amenhotep II). A Twentieth Dynasty papyrus that relates the tale of the contendings of Horus and Set mentions Neith as one who gives good advice:
Ba-neb-djed urged Re to seek the advice of Neith in solving the eighty-year dispute between Set and Horus. Neith’s advice is


to award the throne to Horus, and to compensate Set by giving him the foreign goddesses Astarte and Anat as his wives. She threatens that if her advice is not heeded, her anger will be so great that she will cause the sky to fall to earth.

Nekhen was the ancient southern capital city called Hierakonpolis by the Greeks. (Ptolemaic period 332–32 b.c.). Rich in mythology, Neheken in the south (Upper Egypt) and its sister city Pi in the north (Lower Egypt) represented the souls or bas of the mythological kings who ruled in “the time before time began” (prerecorded history). The souls of Nekhen appear as a group of three jackal gods kneeling on one knee and with one arm raised in salute. The souls of Pe (thewater, Hapi the Nile god held the title “Lord of Neper.” In the Coffin Texts, Neper is associated with Osiris in the inscription “[He is] living after he has died.” Neper is mentioned in the second hour of the Amduat as piloting one of four boats that accompany the sun god Re on his journey through the second hour of the duat. nephthyS Best known as a funerary goddess and sister of Isis, Nephthys’s name means lady of the mansion. She appears in a slender sheath dress with the hieroglyphs for her name as her crown. Nephthys plays an important role in two early developments in Egyptian religion: She is part of the Heliopolitan creation myth, the Ennead, and she appears in the Isis and Osiris myth. She


is the daughter of Geb and Nut and the sister of Isis, Osiris, and Set, who is also her husband. None of the evil that surrounded Set seemed to be associated with Nephthys, perhaps because all of her loyalties are with Osiris. As the wife of Set, she bore no children, and mythology tells us that she either made Osiris drunk with wine or disguised herself as Isis in order to conceive a child with him. Their son was the jackal-headed god, Anubis. Nephthys, fearful of the wrath of Set, hid her child, Anubis, in the marshes. After the death of Osiris, Nephthys fled from her evil husband and joined Isis in the search for the body of Osiris. She

The Greeks identified Neith with their goddess Athena.

nekhbet

The vulturegoddess of Upper Egypt, Nekhbet was portrayed with wings spread and holding the shen sign of protection in her talons. Nekhbet is first mentioned in the Pyramid Texts as a traditional mother goddess. Later, Nekhbet became the vulture goddess favored by the early southern kings. Nekhbet, along with Wadjet, the cobra goddess of the north, was one of the “two mighty ones,” representing the unification of Egypt. The vulture and cobra heads sometimes appear side by side on the kings’ crown as symbols for the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Nekhbet’s large cult center at El Kab (modern Kom el Ahmer) today is almost completely destroyed.

e

nEtchEr
Some myths say she adopted Anubis. From then on, Nephthys accompanied Isis in all of her trials, and Isis protected Nephthys from


the wrath of Set. Upon finding the body of Osiris, the two sisters embalmed it, changed themselves into birds and hovered over the coffin, protecting the mummified Osiris. Funerary motifs often show the sisters guarding and protecting the mummy. They became the guardians of coffins and canopic jars and are often shown with Nephthys at the head and Isis at the foot of the coffin with wings outstretched, symbolizing protection of the deceased. They kneel on the symbol for gold ∂, a decoration on the canopic shrine that holds the mummified organs. Nephthys is associated with the linen mummy wrappings sometimes called the “tresses of Nephthys.” She appears in the Pyramid Texts and in the Book of the Dead, but perhaps because she played a subordinate role toIsis, there was no cult or temple dedicated to Nephthys.

netcher The hieroglyphic sign for god, pronounced netcher, represents a piece of cloth attached to a pole and is the emblem for divinity. The sign was often used to indicate the presence of an invisible deity, such as Amun.

netherworlD (next

Nephthys, the sister and companion of Isis, helped Isis prepare the body of Osiris, the first mummy. (Drawing by Mary Jordan) told her sister about Anubis, and the news of the child seems not to have caused a rift between the sisters, for Isis rushed to the Delta and found the baby.

Believed to exist beyond the confines of Earth, the Netherworld was the realm of the dead, a place not clearly defined, where the deceased would resurrect and live for


eternity. For the Egyptians, the Netherworld seemed to have two parts: One part of the Netherworld was where the deceased would resurrect and spend a pleasant eternity, something like the Christian idea of heaven. The mythical Field of Reeds seems to have been part of this Netherworld. The other aspect of the Netherworld was the realm of the duat, the dark Underworld where the sun god and the souls of the dead journeyed for the 12 hours of the night. The amduat, the guidebook for the souls of the deceased, tells us that as the sun approaches the gates of the Netherworld, they swing open and glorious light floods the entrance to the first hour. When the gates of the Netherworld swing closed, darkness prevails. A Middle Kingdomcoffin text describes the Netherworld as unknown, concealed, and mysterious.

world,

underworld)

new kingDom

One of Egypt’s six historic periods (Predynastic, Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, Late, and Ptolemaic), the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.) is called Egypt’s “golden

north wInD, goD of

age.” During this period Egypt was prosperous, and the arts, architecture, mythology, literature and religion all flourished. During the New Kingdom, a large group of religious texts were compiled and copied on papyrus scrolls. They were called the Book of the Dead, a series of instructions, sort of a travel guide, for how to get to the next world. Different versions of the Book of the Dead were available, and anyone who could afford one could have one in his or her tomb. During the New Kingdom, it was essential for


anyone seeking resurrection in the next world to have a copy of the Book of the Dead. Many of Egypt’s most famous rulers reigned during the New Kingdom, including Akhenaten, Ramses the Great (Ramses II), and Hatshepsut. The cult of Amun grew in religious power and political influence, as various kings showed gratitude for Amun’s help in overthrowing the Hyksos. The Karnak Temples were further developed in Amun’s honor, along with smaller temples devoted to Mut, Khonsu, Ptah, and Montu. The New Kingdom eventually faded, as conflict over succession to the throne added to the country’s troubles with droughts, civil unrest, and corrupt officials. “Egypt is the gift of the Nile,” proclaimed Herodotus, the Greek historian (485–425 b.c.), for it was the flooding of the Nile each yearthat allowed Egypt to thrive and prosper. Hapi, the Nile god, was believed to live in the caverns of the cataracts in the south and preside over the annual rising of the river, while Khnum was the god of the river. Irrigation was the only means of watering crops in the bone-dry desert, and so important was irrigation to the Egyptians that they carved “nilometers” on the rocks along the riverbank to measure the height of the annual flood. Religious rituals were faithfully observed in order to ensure the rise of the Nile. One of the versions of the hymn to the Nile found on a papyrus fragment begins:
Hail, O Nile You show yourself in the land, Coming in peace, giving life to Egypt . . .

Because Egyptian


mythology put Egypt at the center of the universe, any group that was not culturally Egyptian and living in maat was a potential enemy. Early in Egypt’s history, the enemies were most likely local warring tribes. By the Middle Kingdom, when Egypt had more exposure to the ancient world, the nine bows represented specific groups of people. Eventually they came to represent foreign nations. But these also changed from time to time. During the New Kingdom reign of Amenhotep III, the nine bows of Egypt included: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The Hau-nebu (from the northeast coast of the Mediterranean) The Shat (a Nubian group from the third cataract on the Nile) The Ta-Shema The Sekhet-iam (a people of the western oasis) The Ta-MehuThe Pedjtiu-Sju (nomadic people from the eastern desert) The Te-hennu (the Libyans) The Iuntiu-seti (a nomadic group, perhaps Nubian) The Mentiu nu Setet (Asiastics living in Canaan)

nile

Eventually the Meshwesh from Libya, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians were included among the nine bows of Egypt. While the traditional enemies were not always the same, the number nine seems to have remained constant.

no (no-amun) Biblical name used by prophets in the Old Testament for Egypt’s ancient religious capital, Thebes.
nome goDS During Egypt’s Predynastic period, every settlement had its own local god or goddess. As the settlements grew and prospered, the country was divided into nomes, something like states, each with its own capital city. Some local village gods grew in importance and were elevated to the position of nome god.


Nile (south) and past the cataracts (treacherous currents formed by huge boulders in the Nile). Nubia was home to extended families, or clans, ruled by local kings who controlled the gold mines. Egypt needed gold, and by the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 b.c.), her army dominated Nubia. The Egyptians built forts and opened trade routes to import exotic goods, animal skins, and ivory from deep in Africa and collected tribute in gold. Along with the military, traders, and tax collectors came an army of priests bringing Egyptian culture and religion with them. Egyptian gods and goddesses were similar to Nubian deities, and over time they merged, as the Nubians accepted Egyptian religion and mythology. Egyptian temples were built, often with a Nubian flare, and the Egyptians and Nubians worshippedMeroe—south of Gebel Barkal, below the third cataract

Nubian pyramids are different than those in Egypt: They are solid masonry, close together, and much smaller than Egyptian pyramids. For many years they mystified archaeologists, for there were no burial chambers inside, no treasure, and no hidden chambers. Egyptologist George Reisner, of the Harvard University and Museum of Fine Arts expedition, solved the mystery of where the kings and queens of Nubia were buried when he excavated in Nubia from 1906 to 1932. Reisner discovered that the burial chambers of Nubian royalty were separate from their pyramids. They were rock-cut chambers near (but not in) the pyramids. Instead of wooden coffins and stone sarcophagi like the Egyptians, Nubian kings were laid to rest on a stone funerary bed in the


serpent’s heads. Although he was referred to as “Father of the Gods,” he remained a primordial god with no followers or temple. In the Memphite creation myth, Nun is associated with Ptah, and Naunet, usually his wife, is his daughter. nut The great sky goddess Nut was part of the Heliopolitan Ennead—the first nine gods. Nut was the daughter of Shu, the air god, and sister and wife of Geb, the earth god. As the great sky goddess, Nut was represented as a woman whose body stretched across the Earth so she touched the eastern and

Nut, the sky goddess, swallowed the sun at night and gave birth to it in the morning. (Courtesy of Bob Brier)

nut

western horizon with her hands and feet. Although paintings of Nut show herwith ankles touching and her hands close together, it seems she was actually meant to touch the four cardinal points—north, south, east, and west—thus protecting all the sky. Nut had several important associations. In the earliest texts, she was seen as having power over the gods. In some instances she is portrayed as cow goddess of the sky, but most often she is shown as a woman. Nut as a Sky Goddess In the Heliopolitan Ennead mythology, Nut married her brother Geb. Their children Isis, Osiris, Nephthys, and Set became part of the ennead and later became the main characters in the Isis and Osiris myth. In one version of the myth, Nut was the wife of Re the sun god, who became angry when she slept with


her brother Geb and cast a spell that prevented her from bearing children during any month of the year. With the help of Thoth, who won a bet with the moon and took some of its light to create five additional days at the end of the year, Nut was able to bear children on the five Epagomenal days, because they did not belong to any month. Nut is often portrayed with her body arched over Geb but separated by Shu the god of air. Nut and Re As a sky goddess, Nut was closely associated with Re and the cult of sun worship, and one of her titles was “Lady of Heliopolis.” She was the goddess who swallowed the sun each day when it

set and gave birthto the sun each morning when it appeared on the horizon; she was “Great One Who Gives Birth to the Gods.” The tomb of Ramses VI in the Valley of the Kings shows the slender body of Nut arched over the ceiling that represents the sky. The sun god sails in his solar barque (boat) along the body of the goddess during the day and disappears into her mouth at sunset for his nightly journey inside her body and is born again in the morning. Nut and Resurrection Nut played an important part in the funerary beliefs of the Egyptians from the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts to the early Christian period. The Pyramid Texts tell us that the goddess enfolds the king in her soul and that she


uncovers her arms for the monarch, both allusions to the funeral of the king. Further texts make reference to Nut as the king’s “coffin,” “sarcophagus,” and “tomb.” Her role as a protective goddess extends from the pharaoh to his courtiers in the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 b.c.), when her image began to be painted on the inside of coffin lids. In the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.) Book of the Dead illustrations, Nut has risen from the Netherworld and appears as a goddess rising from a sycamore tree. Nut was called “the Mistress of All Above for All Eternity” and her image, in a star-patterned dress, appeared on the second-century a.d. Christian coffin of Archon Soter from Thebes. Nut was not only a protector of the deceased; she also providedair for his or her breath and water and bread for his or her sustenance.

obeliSkS One of ancient Egypt’s most impressive monuments, the obelisk is a foursided stone pillar tapering to a pyramidion (pyramid shape) on top. The name “obelisk” comes from the Greek word for meat skewer, and the Arabic word for obelisks, messalah, means needle. The ancient Egyptians called them tekhen. Obelisks first appeared during the early Dynastic period (3100–2686 b.c.) in the temple of the sun god at Heliopolis, the city called On and Beit Shamsh (city of the sun) in the Bible. Obelisks were considered sacred to the sun god, because each day the first rays of the sun reflected from their pyramid-shaped tops. Obelisks seem to have evolved from a much earlier sacred


stone called the benben, which was associated with the Benu bird. These small obelisk shapes were a focal point of worship in the temples, but their exact purpose is not known. Most obelisks are made of pink granite quarried near the southern city of Aswan. An unfinished obelisk found in the quarry reveals how such large stones were removed. The obelisk was pounded out with balls of hard stone called diorite, which is harder than granite. The diorite balls that have been found weigh about 12 pounds each, and they were used like hammers. The force of the blows eventually freed the sides of the obelisk, and then caverns were dug along the bottom until it was completely free. Since no chisel marks have been found on theresembled the benben shape. The oldest standing true obelisk, cut from a single block, dates from the Middle Kingdom under King Sesostris I (1965–1920 b.c.) and was erected at Heliopolis. The mate to this obelisk apparently fell during the Middle Ages, and the stone was reused in other building projects. Each side of the standing obelisk is inscribed with a single row of identical hieroglyphs that read:
Horus, living-in-births, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Kheperkare, Two Ladies, living in births, Son of Re, Sesostris beloved of the souls of Heliopolis, living forever, Horus of gold, living-in-births the good god Kheperkare. The first occasion of the Jubilee he made [it] to be given life forever.

Although obelisks were erected in many Egyptian cities, Thebes probably had the most and certainly


the largest obelisks. The Theban obelisks were dedicated to Amun-Re, and most of them stood in Karnak Temple. Today only two are still standing: one of Thutmose I and one of Hatshepsut. Of the four obelisks Hatshepsut dedicated to “her father, Amun,” the one still standing is inscribed:
. . . She made as her monument for her father Amun, Lord of Thrones-of-the-Two-Lands two great obelisks of hard granite from the South, their upper part being of electrum, the best of all foreign lands. Seen on both sides of the river, their rays flood the Two Lands when Aten dawns between them . . .

Another has fallen, and only small pieces of the other two have been found. Hatshepsut’s nephew

offErIng tAblE

This nineteenth-century illustration shows the only two obelisks leftstanding at Karnak Temple. (Illustrated
London News)

and successor, Thutmose III, had seven obelisks at Karnak, and the tallest surviving one is the Lateran Obelisk in Rome. Rome now has 13 obelisks, more than any other city in the world. The Romans moved many obelisks from Egypt in early Christian times but were unable to properly balance the monoliths, causing them to topple and sink into the ground. Several were excavated and erected again in the sixteenth century a.d. Ramses II had more obelisks than any other pharaoh, but they were not the largest. Many of his obelisks stood in the Delta city, Pi-Ramses (Ramses’s City) and have been lost, but fragments of at least 23 different obelisks have been found. Ramses II also erected two obelisks in front of


Luxor Temple. One remains standing today, and the other was moved to Paris in 1832. The obelisk that now stands on the bank of the Thames in London belonged to Thutmose III. It is one of a pair that were dedicated to Amun-Re, erected in Heliopolis during the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 b.c.). In Roman times the pair was moved to Alexandria and placed in front of a temple

to Caesar. Thutmose’s second obelisk was sent to New York in 1881 and now stands in Central Park. The obelisks in New York and London are sometimes referred to as Cleopatra’s Needles. Another of Thutmose III’s obelisks was moved to Istanbul, Turkey.

offering tAble At first offering tables were used only by the king, but during the New Kingdom (1550–1069the primordial waters of chaos before the world began, the Ogdoad is one of several creation myths in ancient Egypt. In the beginning, the Ogdoad existed only as a force of power but then took the form of frogs and serpents. Eventually they evolved into Nun and Nunet, who became water; Hek and Heket, who became formlessness; Kek and Keket, who became darkness, and Amun and Amunet, who became invisibility or hiddenness. In another version of the myth, the eight Ogdoad gods merged to become the cosmic egg that was fertilized by Amun when he was still a serpent. Yet another myth says Amun laid the cosmic egg and it hatched into the sun god. The myth of the Ogdoad originated in Hermopolis, an important cult center for


religion and magic. Because they believed the sun god was born there, the priests of Hermopolis claimed to have the first sunrise in the world.

ogDoAD

the Step Pyramid at Saqqara and the Great Pyramid complex on the Giza plateau. A new literature was born—a group of magical spells called Pyramid Texts. Fifth and Sixth Dynasty kings carved magical spells on the walls of their pyramids to help them get to the next world. This was the first time an official version of life after death was recorded in ancient Egypt, though only the king was allowed to have magical texts in his pyramid. With the death of King Pepi II, the era of the Old Kingdom was brought to a dramatic close. Pepi’s advanced age (he is believed tohave been around 100 when he died) made him ineffectual in his final years as ruler. This weakened government, as well as famine and drought across Egypt, caused great unrest, until the civilization finally collapsed into anarchy and chaos. The pyramids were robbed and left open, and the magical spells were no longer a secret, the consequences of which became very important in the Middle Kingdom.

on

The Egyptian city Heliopolis, the ancient cult center of the sun god, is the biblical city On. The ancient site is about five miles northeast of modern Cairo. Two legends have grown up around a “Virgin’s Tree” growing in this area. The oldest is the myth that Isis suckled the infant Horus under a tree in the Delta near the city of On.


Later a “Virgin’s Tree” (now located on Sharia el-Qaffasin in modern Heliopolis or ancient On) came to represent the story of Isis suckling Horus. A Christian version of the story is that the holy family rested under this tree during their flight into Egypt. Another myth set in On tells us the sun god Re bathed each day at sunrise in a sacred pool; the Christian version of the myth says in this sacred pool the Virgin Mary washed the garments of Christ.

onouriS (also anhur, inhert)

olD kingDom The second of six historic periods in ancient Egypt (Predynastic, Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, Late, and Ptolemaic), the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 b.c.) was a time of prosperity in Egypt because there was strong central government and a king withabsolute power. The Old Kingdom was an era of great achievement. Mythological tales arose, the notion of “divine kingship” was established, and pyramids were built—

Primarily a god of hunting and warfare, Onouris was often associated with other gods, and most often he is associated with the struggle between Set and Horus because of the spears, ropes, and lances he carries. One of his titles is “Lord of the Lance.” Onouris is portrayed as a bearded god with four tall feathers on his skullcap crown, and he carries a spear or a rope. In the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 b.c.), his cult center was near Abydos, and later he was worshipped in the Delta town of Sebennytos, where he became the principal god of that city. During the Ptolemaic period,


Onouris was viewed by the Greeks as the Egyptian equivalent of their war god, Ares.

opEt, thE fEstIvAl of

During the Late period (747–332 b.c.), the Egyptians associated Onouris with Shu, the god of air, and he was depicted as a man wearing a long kilt and a headdress made up of four long feathers. His consort was Mehit, a lioness-headed goddess. Onouris-Shu was popular during the reign of Nectanebo II (360–343 b.c.), who built a temple for him in the Delta town of Sebennytos.

onouriS-Shu (also anhur-shu)

opening

of the m outh c eremony Of all the rituals performed on the mummy, the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony was by far the most important, for it ensured that the deceased would have breath in the next world and could speak and eatagain. The ceremony was held in front of the tomb on the day of burial and involved more than a dozen participants. An officiating priest held a papyrus roll that described how the rituals should proceed. Members of the family played the roles of Isis and her sister Nephthys. A central character was called “The-son-who-loved-him,” and lesser characters played the guardians of Horus. Before the ceremony began, the ground was purified with water from four vases representing the four corners of the Earth. Incense was burned, various gods were invoked, and a calf was slaughtered to commemorate the battle in which Horus avenged the death of his father, Osiris. In the myth, Set’s conspirators, in dismembering Osiris’s corpse, attempted to escape Horus by changing into various animals, but


I open for thee thy two eyes. I have opened thy mouth with the instrument of Anubis, with the iron implement with which the mouths of the god were opened . . . You shall walk and speak, your body shall be with the great company of the gods . . . You are young again, you live again. You are young again, you live again.

One of the last rites in ancient Egyptian funerals was the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony, performed by the high priest so the mummy would have life and breath in the next world. (Photo by Pat Remler)

With this prayer, the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony was concluded and the mummy was placed in its tomb to await resurrection in the Netherworld.

opet,

the feStivAl ofOne of Egypt’s most important religious events, the festival of Opet celebrated the journey of Amun from Karnak to Luxor Temple and the symbolic sexual union of Amun and the king’s mother, so that she could give birth to the king’s royal ka. The festival of Opet took place in the second month of the season of Akhet—the three weeks in summer when the Nile flood reached it crest. The cult statues of Amun and his wife and son, Mut and Khonsu, and statues of the king and his ka were carried with great ceremony along an avenue of sphinxes from Karnak Temple to Luxor Temple. A distance of about three miles separates the two temples. Along the avenue of sphinxes were several resting spots called “barque stations”


or kiosks, so priests carrying the ceremonial boat with the shrine and cult statue could stop and rest. It was here that the people who lined the processional way could approach the statue of Amun, which remained hidden inside the shrine unless a breeze blew aside the curtain. When the procession reached Luxor Temple it was greeted with a joyous reception by various groups of dancers, singers, and musicians. The mammisi, or birth house, had been prepared as a place for the king to rest and experience a symbolic rebirth and rejuvenation and where the royal ka magically entered his body. His emergence from the birth house signaled the renewal of royal authority and affirmed the divine nature of the king. We have a great deal of informationabout the

orAclEs
Opet Festival because the Eighteenth Dynasty king Amenhotep III (1390–1352 b.c.) commissioned the Colonnade Hall at Luxor Temple, and his grandson Tutankhamen decorated the walls with scenes from the Opet Festival. The scenes carved on the west wall show the procession from Karnak to Luxor, and the scenes on the east wall show the procession sailing downstream on return to Karnak. Luxor. Various cult statues of the districts of Thebes also were carried from the holy of holies for the people to see, and the British Museum papyrus records that the statue of Amun from the Theban district of Pe-Khenty solved the crime. During the festival, a citizen named Amunemwia appeared before his local oracle and reported a theft. Amunemwia’s job was to guard the storehouse of


or spoke for the god from a hidden chamber. We do know that oracles were consulted for all kinds of questions. There is even a record of one having solved a crime. The story of the oracle-sleuth is told on a papyrus in the British Museum. The crime took place in Thebes, the capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom, during the festival of Opet, in which the statue of Amun was carried on the shoulders of shaven-headed priests from the Temple of Karnak to the Temple of

Oracle statues hidden inside their shrines were carried on sacred boats during festival days. This block from a temple shows the boat resting on a base. It was carried by the poles extending under the boat. (Photograph
by Pat Remler)

Oracles were notonly for the common people; there are many accounts of pharaohs having consulted oracles. Thutmose III, in one of his inscriptions, mentions that when he was a young boy attending a procession, the statue of Amun noticed him and halted, and it was then that he knew he would become pharaoh. Hatshepsut, the female ruler of Egypt and the aunt of Thutmose III, stated that her famed trading expedition to the land of Punt was the result of an oracle’s command. Oracle statues not only gave advice, but they could also perform miraculous cures. One of the most interesting is recorded on a stele (stone slab) in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The stele told of a cure performed by Khonsu during the reign of Ramses II, but


it was recorded almost 1,000 years after the event by a priest who believed the story should be saved for posterity. According to the text, Ramses II was in the city of Naharin, where the heads of all foreign countries came with gifts of homage. The king of Bekhten brought his beautiful daughter before the pharaoh, and he married her and made her his queen. Sometime later when the royal couple were in Thebes, a messenger arrived from the king

of Bekhten saying that the king’s wife’s sister was ill with a sickness that had affected her limbs. The king asked Ramses to send one of his wise men to cure her. Ramses sent priests in charge of secret writings in the House of Life to cure the queen’ssister, but to no avail. The king of Bekhten then asked for an oracle to be sent. Ramses presented the request to Khonsu, who was one of the most powerful oracles. Ramses said, “Oh thou good lord, if thou incline thy face to Khonsu-the-Plan-Maker, the great god, smiting the evil spirits, he shall be conveyed to Bekhten.” The oracle nodded vigorously, and so Khonsu-the-PlanMaker was sent to Bekhten. According to the stele the journey took 17 months. When finally the oracle was brought before the princess, the evil spirit that possessed her left immediately and she was cured. Upon seeing how powerful the oracle was, the king decided to keep it in his country. He retained the statue for three years and nine months, until he had a


vision. In a dream he saw the oracle coming toward him in the form of a golden falcon that flew toward Egypt. The king awoke in a fright and, taking the dream as an omen, ordered the oracle to be returned with a great retinue and many gifts to Thebes.

osIrEIon
This story demonstrates that both foreigners and Egyptians believed oracles could heal the sick, solve crimes, settle legal disputes, and send prophetic dreams. Because they had such diverse capabilities, oracles were often consulted and played an important part in an ancient Egyptian’s life. when he became pharaoh. A second Osireion exists in the vicinity of the Great Sphinx. God of the dead, husband to Isis, and father of Horus, Osiris is the best-known deity of the Egyptian gods. ThePyramid Texts tell us that Osiris is the firstborn child of the earth god Geb and his wife, Nut, the sky goddess. Given earthly rule by his father, Osiris brought agriculture and winemaking to the people of Earth, and in that capacity Osiris was called Wennefer, “the Eternally Good Being.” Because of the jealousy of his brother Set, Osiris became the central figure in the Osiris myth, a story of envy and treachery. He has more titles and associations than any other god in the Egyptian pantheon. Osiris ultimately became the god of resurrection to whom all people prayed in the hope of attaining their own resurrection in the Netherworld. In the Book of the Dead, spell 182 accompanies the illustration of the mummy on a bier (bed),


and

oSiriS

oSireion

A unique temple dedicated to the funerary god, Osiris. Built of huge granite blocks similar to those used in construction during the Old Kingdom, the Osireion is situated on a man-made island behind the temple of Seti I at Abydos. This may be the cenotaph, or false tomb of Osiris, “He Who Sleeps in the Water”; according to mythology, Osiris’s head was buried at Abydos. The walls of the Osireion are decorated with mythological scenes from the Book of the Dead, the Book of Gates, and other religious texts. Recent scholarship suggests that the Osireion was built during the Nineteenth Dynasty in the style of the Old Kingdom by Seti’s grandson, Merneptah,

The Osireion is the legendary tomb of Osiris. It was built from huge granite blocks similar tothose typically used in the Old Kingdom, but new studies suggest that it was built later, during the reign of Seti I. (Photo by
Pat Remler)

oxyrhynchus

Osiris is shown as a bearded man wrapped like a mummy wearing an atef crown—a tall crown with a feather on each side. His hands protrude from his white mummy bandages and hold the crook and the flail, two symbols of power in ancient Egypt. His flesh is colored green when he is associated with vegetation and regeneration, black when he is associated with the Nile silt or the Underworld. Osiris was worshipped in a number of sanctuaries throughout Egypt—in the Delta at Letopolis, Heliopolis, Memphis, Herakleopolis, and Hermopolis, but his largest and most important cult center was located at Abydos.

oSiriS beD A wooden


frame in the shape of the silhouette of Osiris, the Osiris bed was a symbol of regeneration. It was filled with Nile silt and barley seed and placed in royal and private tombs during the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.). When the seeds sprouted in the tomb, it was considered a symbolic resurrection of the deceased. An Osiris bed found in the tomb of Yuya and Tuya, the grandparents of Akhenaten, was found to have produced a crop of sprouts that were eight inches tall. Osiris is mentioned in a mythological papyrus as “He Who Is in the Grain of the Gods.” Osiris beds were also found in the tombs of Tutankhamen and Horemheb, the last king of the Eighteenth Dynasty. oSiriS
myth See Isis and Osiris, myth of.

Osiris, godHatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, and in the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramses II. oxyrhynchuS
Characterized by its long snout, the Oxyrhynchus fish was the sacred emblem of the seventeenth Upper Egyptian nome. Oxyrhynchus is Greek for “long-nosed.” According to the myth of Isis and Osiris, when Set hacked the body of his brother Osiris into pieces and scattered them, the phallus was thrown into the Nile and consumed by three fish. The Greek historian Plutarch describes the species of these fish in his book De Iside et Osiride, The Tale of Isis and Osiris. One is the Oxyrhynchus, and because this fish consumed the phallus of Osiris, it was considered sacred.

oZyMAnDIAs
Priests were forbidden to eat any fish, and before entering a temple, a priest would recite the


phrase, “I am clean. I have not eaten fish.” In all of the offering scenes on tomb walls where tables are piled high with the finest foods, there are no fish included in the offerings—except in the tomb of Mena, in the Valley of the Nobles, where one fish appears on the table. Although fish was a staple in the diet of ancient Egyptians, eating the Oxyrhynchus fish in the seventeenth nome was prohibited. During the Late period (747–332 b.c.), when the people of the seventeenth nome discovered that their neighbors in Cynopolis were eating the sacred fish, it caused a minor civil war. of the inscription on the colossal statues of Ramses, now toppled and broken, was the inspiration for the nineteenth-century English poem by Percy Bysshelost to us.
Eighteenth Dynasty queen Hatshepsut included this passage to Pakhet in her inscription on the walls of the Speos Artemidos:
. . . Great Pakhet, who roams the wadis, resident in the eastern desert, seeking the rainstorm’s paths, since there was no relevant libation-service that fetched water for her. I have made her enclosure as what this goddess intended for her Ennead, the door of acacia inlaid with bronze, in order that they might be in her register of festival-offerings . . .

pAkhet (pasht) A feline goddess whose name means “she who scratches,” Pakhet is the guardian of the wadi (dry riverbed). In the Coffin Texts she is called the “Night Huntress.” During the New Kingdom, Pakhet was worshipped at her cult center at Beni Hassan in Middle


Egypt, where two rock-cut temples were dedicated to her. The larger of the two is well known as the Speos Artemidos, the grotto of Artemis. It was named by the Greeks, who saw Pakhet as a form of the Greek goddess Artemis. As a lion goddess, Pakhet was also worshipped with the other feline goddesses Sekhmet and Bastet. The

pAlermo Stone A black basalt stele carved on both sides, the Palermo Stone is the earliest known king’s list. The Palermo Stone was seven feet wide and two feet high when it was carved in the Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 b.c.). Unlike most Egyptian stelae, the Palermo Stone stands on its long side, so it is longer than it is tall. It includes names of mythical rulers before Egypt’s historic periodand continues to the middle of the Fifth Dynasty. The text is mythological in the sense that it lists rulers for thousands of years before Horus, who (see Contendings of Horus and Set) chose Menes to be the first mortal king of Egypt. The stele lists each king, the years of his reign, and notable events that occurred, such as the year of the Battle and Smiting of the Northerners, the year of the Second Occurrence of the Numbering of all Large and Small Cattle of the North and South, the year of the Seventh Occurrence of Numbering Gold and Land. The stele also chronicles the carving and dedication of statues of the gods, festivals celebrated, and the height of the inundation, the annual Nile flood. Now fragmented,


pieces of the Palermo Stone are in various museums: the Palermo Museum in Sicily, the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, and the Petrie Museum in London.

pAlEttE
pAlette An important part of ceremonial and magical equipment in ancient Egypt, there were two different kinds of palettes: one for grinding minerals to make cosmetics, and the other for holding a scribe’s brushes and ink. Cosmetic or ceremonial palettes like the Narmer Palette were usually carved from greywacke, a dark slatelike stone, and were made during the Predynastic period (5500–3100 b.c.). Cosmetic palettes were usually in the shape of animals, often a turtle, but some represented Min the fertility god. Whether magical or ceremonial, their primary use was to grind pigments such as malachite for green and galena for black, to make thebecome sinister if provoked. He was a god of the shepherds and their flocks, a fertility god, and a god of the woods. He was shown as half man, half goat, holding a seven-reed flute. When the Greek Ptolemies ruled Egypt, the Greek god Pan was associated with the Egyptian god, Ba-neb-djed, a fertility god who is shown as a ram and is known as the Ram of Mendes.

pAntheon See gods of ancient Egypt. pApyruS Much of what Egyptologists know about Egyptian mythology, magic, religion, and medicine has come from ancient papyri. Many papyri are named for the person who found or owned them. All of the most famous papyri have been translated, and the following is a list of some of the best known:
Abusir Papyri Three sets


sacrifices to the gods, and guarding various parts of the mortuary temple. Special rituals were performed on the specific festival days, such as the Festivals of Sokar, god of the dead; the Festival of the Night of the god Re; the Festival of the Goddess Hathor; and the Festival of the fertility god, Min. Along with the duties of the priests, there were jobs in the mortuary temple for scribes, physicians, hairdressers, and flute players. Large tracts of land or estates were allocated to support the pharaoh’s mortuary cult. An estate provided grain, fruit, vegetables, milk, wine, beer, fats, poultry, and meat offerings to the ka of the deceased pharaoh and the gods, and they were then used to feed the temple staff. The papyri also give accountsof furniture, funerary equipment, and financial transactions showing the flow of goods from the royal estates to the various temples. Papyrus Chester Beatty A mythological papyrus in the British Museum, one part of which relates the tale of the contendings of Horus and Set.

pAn

pAntheiStic Deity (Pan = all, theistic = gods) A composite god or goddess that embodies all the divine power of the deities it represents. magic played an important part in Egyptian religion, and it was by magic that the powers of individual gods could be combined to form a pantheistic deity. For example, when Isis is shown with wings, she has all of her power and magic combined with the strength and power of her son Horus, the falcon god. It was not so much


that pantheistic deities were new gods joining the cosmos but that by using their existing powers, a new and stronger magic could be employed against a specific enemy. Because poisonous snakes and scorpions were so dangerous in ancient Egypt, a pantheistic deity was often called upon for protection from their bites.

pApyrus

Papyrus Ebers Written about 1500 b.c., this medical papyrus is the longest and most famous of the medical papyri. A collection of bits of medical wisdom and magic, many sections are believed to have been copied from much older documents. The papyrus was discovered with another medical papyrus (the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus) in a tomb on the west bank in Luxor in 1862 and is named for the German Egyptologist George Ebers, who found it. The papyrusis now at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus Named for the first American Egyptologist, the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus is a compilation of medical advice and magical spells for dealing with trauma injuries. The surgical portion of the papyrus contains 48 cases dealing with injuries from the head to the spinal column. The front of the papyrus records the scientific approach to medicine, and on the reverse is an almost purely magical set of cures. The papyrus is

almost 15 feet long and is a New Kingdom copy of an Old Kingdom text. It was purchased from an antiquities dealer in Luxor and given to the New York Historical Society when Smith died. Harris Papyrus A mythological papyrus in the British Museum that relates


the Myth of the Doomed Prince, a tale about love and loyalty when a prince goes in search of his destiny. Leiden-London Papyrus A magical and medical papyrus listing complex rituals, the LeidenLondon Papyrus was purchased in the early part of the nineteenth century in Alexandria. Today, half the papyrus is in the British Museum and half is in the museum in Leiden, Holland. Written in demotic, a late Egyptian script, in the third century a.d., the spells are a mixture of Greek and Egyptian mythology and medical advice. Papyrus Westcar A mythological text chronicling tales of magic in the Old Kingdom. It tells the tale of Sneferu (Fourth Dynasty

Papyrus was used like paper in ancient Egypt and was made from thin slices of the papyrus stalk. Sheetsof papyrus were glued together to make long scrolls. (Photo by Pat Remler)

0 pApyrus plAnt
2552–2528 b.c.) and how he summoned his magician to part the waters when one of the palace maidens lost her turquoise amulet while rowing on the pleasure lake. Papyrus Westcar is in the Egyptian (Agyptisches) Museum in Berlin. Rhind Mathematical Papyrus Discovered in Luxor on the west bank in a small chapel near the Ramesseum (the mortuary temple of Ramses II), the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus was purchased by A. Henry Rhind in 1858. The papyrus was written in about 1650 b.c. by a scribe named Ahmose, who notes that he is copying from an older text. Written in hieratic, a cursive form of hieroglyphs, the papyrus is divided into three sections: mathematics, geometry, and


a collection of mathematical problems. Originally the papyrus was 18 feet long and about 13 inches wide. When it arrived at the British Museum, however, it was fragmented, and several pieces were missing. These were later discovered among the property of the New-York Historical Society. Turin Papyrus Known as the Royal Canon of Turin, the Turin Papyrus dates from about 1200 b.c. and is a list of more than 300 king’s names, starting with Menes and ending with Ramses II. The papyrus was written in the hieratic script and was the most complete chronicle of Egypt’s monarchs through the Nineteenth Dynasty, including the length of each king’s reign in years, months, and days. The papyrus was badly damaged during transportation to the Turin Museum, and scholars are stillwith papyrus other than Thoth, the god of writing. The papyrus plant became scarce in Egypt for hundreds of years, and only in modern times has it

been reintroduced and cultivated commercially in Egypt. Papyrus has tall, slender stalks with feathery green tufts on top and grows best in marshy areas around the Nile. When papyrus is harvested, it is cut just above the water level. The lower portion of the stalk makes the best paper. The stalk is peeled and the inner pith is sliced into strips from one quarter to one eighth of an inch thick, then placed on an absorbent surface with the edges overlapping. The strips are pounded with wooden mallets for an hour or two and placed in a press. The sap from the


been found in several tombs. The tree has dark green, leathery leaves; small, yellowish flowers; and small yellow fruit that the Greek botanist Theophrastus proclaimed “sweet and delicious.” to be worshipped. Graffiti from as late as a.d. 473 tell us that Nubian pilgrims visiting the temple were still making offerings to the old gods. Other notable buildings on the island are the Temple of Hathor, the Gateway of Hadrian, the Temple of Augustus, the Kiosk of Trajan, and the Gate of Diocletian. Today the Isis Temple at Philae is among the best preserved in Egypt. The Isis Temple was designed with 12 rooms: the Hall of the King’s Purification, Hall of Offerings, Hall of the Ennead, the holy of holies (sanctuary), and several rooms for storage and forthe priest’s regalia. The walls of the temple are decorated with scenes of Isis, Hathor and the Ptolemaic queens and inscribed with the Lamentations of Isis, a series of prayers and rituals performed in the temple during the celebration of the story of Isis and Osiris. When the Aswan dam was opened in 1902, it flooded Philae Island and made it inaccessible for much of the year. In the 1960s, when the new high dam was built, the temples were dismantled and 40,000 blocks were reassembled on a nearby island. The moving and rebuilding of the temple was completed in 1980, and the temples now stand above the Nile, 43 feet higher than before.

perSephone

When the Greeks ruled Egypt, they associated their goddess of the Underworld, Persephone, with Isis,


the Egyptian mother goddess.

phArAoh The supreme ruler of Egypt, the pharaoh was believed to be the living manifestation of the god Horus. The word pharaoh is not Egyptian. Pharaoh is a title used in the Bible and was not commonly used in Egypt until the New Kingdom (1550–1069 b.c.). In ancient Egyptian language, per ah simply meant “The Great House,” a term the Israelites applied to the person who lived in the palace, and from the New Kingdom on, the word was sometimes used to refer to the ruler of Egypt. From the beginning of Egyptian mythology, the pharaoh was identified with the gods—especially with Horus, the falcon god. According to one myth, when the goddess Sekhmet became angry and was sent to destroy humankind, Re saved thepeople and continued to rule in Egypt until he grew weak. In his place he sent his son Horus to rule and protect the people of Egypt. Mythology tells us that when Horus no longer ruled on Earth, he helped Menes unite Upper and Lower Egypt and become the first king of Egypt.

L¬

philAe templeS Cult center of the great mother goddess Isis, the Temples of Philae stand on an island that must have appeared as a green oasis among the boulders of the first cataract, south of modern Aswan. Philae emerged as a religious center during the reign of Nectanebo I (Thirtieth Dynasty, 380–343 b.c.). As Isis rose to prominence on the island, construction of temples and shrines continued through the Ptolemaic and Roman periods until the second


century a.d., when Ptolemy II (285–246 b.c.) built a grand temple dedicated to Isis that became the focal point of the island. For the next 500 years, Philae remained one of the most important religious centers in the ancient world. Although Christianity came to Egypt in the first century a.d., the Temple of Isis at Philae was one of the last places where the ancient gods continued

pigS Centuries before the religious taboos of the Hebrews and the Moslems, the pig was censured in ancient Egypt. The evil god Set could appear in many different forms, and one of his manifestations was a pig. Scenes from the Festival of Victory carved on the wall of Edfu Temple show Set as a hippopotamus and as a pig. Curiously, at onetime the pig represented one of the nomes (states) in the Delta (north), but it was generally viewed as a lowly animal and was raised and eaten only by the lower classes. If a pig was offered as a sacrifice to the gods, it was viewed as a lowly or poor man’s sacrifice. When Egypt was first united under king Narmer, the pig was deemed an unacceptable sacrifice to the falcon god, Horus. In the myth the Contendings of Horus and Set, the evil Set kills Horus’s father, Osiris. Because of this, the pig, forever associated with Set, became an unworthy sacrifice. Herodotus, the Greek historian, tells us that swineherds, because of their association with the pigs they tended, were not allowed to attend important religious festivals in


is the only comprehensive narrative of the myth that exists from the ancient world. Plutarch is best known for his Parallel Lives, a series of 80 biographies of famous Greeks and Romans, including Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. He was educated in Athens and was initiated into the priesthood of the temple at Delphi in Greece. priApuS
When the Greeks ruled Egypt, they associated their fertility god Priapus with the Egyptian ram-headed god Ba-neb-djed, also a fertility god.

prieStS Egyptian priests were called hem-netjer, “servant of god,” and every temple had various classes of priests. At the top of the hierarchy was the high priest, the “First Prophet of the God.” He was well educated, an elder of the temple, and a skilled administrator and politician. As overseer ofthe temple and all of its land holdings, the high priest was very powerful. Usually a man would rise to this position through the ranks of the priesthood, but sometimes the pharaoh chose his son as the high priest. In the early days of Egypt’s nationhood, the pharaoh was undoubtedly the high priest, but later a designated high priest acted as a substitute for the pharaoh during temple ceremonies. As the number of temples and ceremonies grew, each temple needed a high priest and many lesser priests. Beneath the high priest was a whole cadre of priests in different groups, each with specialized training. Among these was the “second prophet,” an administrator to oversee the offerings that were made in the temple each day. One important group was