had a chance to elect a new president in 2013, and they elected a moderate cleric named Hassan Rohani. The decision to allow a moderate cleric like Rohani to run for office (and win) was based on the government's willingness to consider a more diplomatic approach both at home and abroad in hopes of avoiding large protests and demonstrations. So far, Rohani has fulfilled expectations of significant reform. Meanwhile, many critics of the Islamic Republic are still calling for a secular regime. They hope a change of the state's laws and institutions will overcome Iran's long history of religious fanaticism. In any case, it might be useful to draw some attention to the collective spirit of Iran's culture and religious traditions. 275 Epilogue Throughout the history of religionin West Asia, there were numerous efforts to revive a more puritan form of spiritual devotion, which resulted in more conflict or the creation of a whole new religion in itself. This pattern can be traced back to the first priest who decided to challenge the socioeconomic order of his time and rebel against the idea of organized religious rituals, Zoroaster. The early spread of Zoroaster's ideas influenced the history of political thought in many places, but his legacy was obscured and nearly destroyed by foreign conquest. It mainly survived through oral sources. The accounts of European travelers and explorers who visited Iran and India after the fifteenth century drew attention to this legacy which gave many European scholars a fresh perspective on the history of faith and


reason. These accounts influenced many post-Enlightenment European philosophers of history who played a role in the rise of Aryan Nationalism. Although the Nazis disgraced the Eastern philosophies of religion, Zoroastrianism is still admired among the Iranians of today. Since the establishment of the Islamic Republic, Zoroastrian traditions and rituals have developed into a form of protest against government policies. In any case, the history of Zoroastrianism should never be ignored by political historians and historians of political ideas. 276 Appendix: Notes on Avestai and Post-Achaemenian Sources The following appendix consists of expanded summary and notes for major Avestai sources such as the Gathas, Yasna, Yashts and Sirozahs, as well as PostAchaemenian sources such as the Vendidad. The Gathas Zoroaster proclaimed that the Creator is the Universal Spirit whichpresides over man, and the human mind is the manner in which the Creator interacts with the universe. The content and style of presentation in the Gathas is characterized by the dialectical interaction of opposites which culminates in progressive motion. As translated by Guthrie, "I pray for you, O Ahura Mazda, through Vohu Manah (good mind or disposition), to grant me both lives, that of the body and of the mind, with the felicity with which Mazda, through truth, supports those to whom Mazda gives the two-lives for their comfort" (Yasna 28.2;; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). A good disposition meant that a person was "mindful to watch over the soul of the Bovine creation" (Yasna 28.4;; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). In other words, justice was personified by the compassionate guardians


Conversion, and Paradise. The thirtyfourth Hymn consists of a Congregational Prayer for Protection and Instruction. The Gathas resume with the forty-third Hymn of the Yasna known as the "Interior Call of Zarathustra" in which he prays for the fulfillment of human aspirations. The forty-fourth Hymn of the Yasna consists of theological content and lessons about the benefits of righteous disposition. Ahura Mazda was identified as "the first father of justice, who established the sun (lit day) and the star (glistering sphere) and the (Milky) Way, who [also] established (the law) by which the moon waxes and wanes" (Yasna 44.3; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). In regard to the benefits of righteous disposition, Zoroaster said, "(O People, you might as well obey me, as I shall let you judge for yourselves),have you prospered under the Daevas?" Under the leadership of the priests our property has been seized and the cattle lament exceedingly. Meanwhile, through Asha (justice) we protect the cattle and maintain proper pasturage (Yasna 44.20; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). The forty-fifth Hymn of the Yasna is a "Repeated Sermon on Dualism Teaching Agriculture as the Road to Paradise." The forty-sixth Hymn of the Yasna contains "War Preliminaries of Heart-searchings and Encouragement." Zoroaster was a man of rank from a good family (Duchesne-Guillemin 1952, 4-5), but in Yasna forty-six, he seems to complain about his lack of possessions and followers. "I know, O Ahura Mazda (mindful lord), the reason why I am so (despised as to be) impotent-It is only because I possess 280 such few flocks and followers"


over the Magian tribe, Through Asha (justice) as 168 Guthrie observed that, "the text is in hopeless condition. This interpretation is as faithful as possible, yet is partially suggested by the context. It possesses the merit of agreeing with the practical interests of that civilization" (Yasna 50.2; Guthrie 1914). 283 advisory-manager, and through the Verses of (good disposition) Vohu Manah, he attained Chisti (Sophia, or wisdom); Thus, for us (the faithful) is Ahura Mazda (the mindful lord) bounteous-at-wish" (Yasna 51.16; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). In a possible metaphor, Chisti (Pouruchista) is also the name of one of Zoroaster's daughters who married Jamaspa Hovgva (Yasna 51.18; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). According to Boyce, the Yanhe hatam (Yasna 51.22; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914) is one of the most sacred prayers in the Yasna,pagan!" (Yasna 53.4; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). "(Vagabond nomads) shall reach the Place of Decay with the Malefactors who, being law-scorning, and, as to their bodies, doomed, Are seeking to degrade the worthy (Magians). Where is the (Ashaist) lord who will deprive them of freedom and of life, (And establish) the (Kingdom) Khshathra, by which, O (mindful) Mazda, Thou shalt give, to the Poor man, who lives justly, that Better (part)?" (Yasna 53.9; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). The main lesson we can learn from the Gathas is that Zoroaster lived in a chaotic period of history in which wild nomads incessantly raided pastoralists for the sake of animal sacrifices. Meanwhile, the priests were essentially tricking nomads into stealing food for them. Duchesne-Guillemin recognized that "the nomad is a thief of


cattle, which he sacrifices and eats" (Duchesne-Guillemin 1952, 5). Although Zoroaster was a priest who underwent formal training, he rebelled against the socioeconomic order of his society and launched a major political upheaval. This upheaval coincided with the transition from semi-nomadic pastoral society to an agricultural society. In an effort to facilitate this process, Zoroaster preached against raiding nomads, and ridiculed priests who "mumbled" their prayers with little thought to their meaning (Boyce 1975, 12). Based on his belief in a single Creator, Zoroaster urged people to abandon nomadic 285 lifestyles and share natural resources such as water and land. He taught the fertilization of the meadows which makes permanent settlements possible (Duchesne-Guillemin 1952, 5). Zoroaster's religion was drawn down from the nebulous region of speculation into theclear, sane light of historical actuality which makes it shine all the brighter by contrast with greater obscurity (Guthrie 1914, 141). Guthrie noted that "it only adds to his glory that he was willing and able successfully to implant his monotheism, his personal devotion, his passion for righteousness and his humanitarianism among those bloodstained nomads" (Guthrie 1914, 141). Although his message was composed in a priestly language, it was meant to be heard by everyone. Zoroaster was a meditative thinker and a visionary, but he was also a priest, and as we have seen in the Gathas, "he continued to pursue this calling while preaching his new message" (Boyce 1975, 214). As stated in the Gathas, "Zoroaster seeks to be heard beyond the Magians" (Yasna 33.7; Guthrie (Tr.)


1914). He certainly succeeded in this matter. His campaign against raiding nomads and dishonest priests culminated in the first expression of monotheistic thought which had more influence on world religions than any other single faith. Yasna Yasna means worship and sacrifice (Mills 1887, 195). It is now hardly necessary to say that the Yasna is the chief liturgy of the Zarathustrians, in which confession, invocation, prayer, exhortation, and praise are all combined as in other liturgies (Mills 1887, 195). The Yasna, like many other religious compositions, is made up of more or 286 less mutually adapted fragments of different ages, as well as modes of composition (Mills 1887, 195). As mentioned, the Gathas are sung in the middle of the Yasna starting with the twenty-eighth Hymn. In thefirst Hymn of the Yasna, the sacrifice commences. "I announce, and I (will) complete (my Yasna) to Ahura Mazda, the Creator, the radiant and glorious, the greatest and the best most beautiful (?) (to our conceptions), the most firm, the wisest, and the one of all whose body is the most perfect, who attains His ends the most infallibly, because of His Righteous Order, to Him who disposes our minds aright, who sends His joy-creating grace afar; who made us, and has fashioned us, and who has nourished and protected us, who is the most bounteous Spirit" (Yasna 1.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 195-196). "I announce and I (will) complete (my Yasna) to the Good Mind, and to Righteousness the Best, and to the Sovereignty which is to be


desired, and to Piety and Bountiful, and to the two, the Universal Weal and Immortality, to the body of the Kine, and to the Kine's Soul and to the Fire of Ahura Mazda, that one who more than (all) the Bountiful Immortals has made most effort (for our succor)!" (Yasna 1.2;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 196). The next few lines continue with similar announcements for intentions to worship "Asnya, the day lords of the ritual order, with similar praise to Havani the holy, the lord of the ritual order, to Savanghi, Visya, and to Mithra of the wide pastures of the thousand ears, and the myriad of eyes, to Yazad, Roman Hvastra, Zarathustrotema, Sraosha, the Fravashis of the Saints, Yairya, the yearly feasts, and to Mathra, the revelation giventhe Zaothra conjointly with the Baresman in my worship, and the Baresman conjointly with the Zaothra. Yea, I desire to approach this Zaothra (here), and with this (present) Baresman, and I desire to approach this Baresman conjoined with this Zaothra with my praise; and I desire to approach this Baresman with praise provided with its Zaothra with its girdle, and spread with sanctity" (Yasna 2.1; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 203).169 The term Zaothra is the Avestai term for a Zoroastrian priest.170 "In this Zaothra and the Baresman I desire to approach Ahura Mazda, with my praise, the holy lord of the ritual order, and the Bountiful Immortal, (all) those who rule aright, and who dispose of all aright, these also I desire to approach and with my praise" (Yasna


"flesh and wine" (Boyce 2001, 148-149). 289 holy, and with the Yasht of those stars which are the creatures of Spenta Mainyu, and with the Yasht of the start of Tistrya, the radiant, the glorious, and with that of the moon which contains the seed of cattle, and with that of the resplendent sun, the eye of Ahura Mazda, and of Mithra, province-lord of the provinces, and with that of Ahura Mazda (as He rules the day) the radiant, the glorious, and with that of the Fravashis of the saints, (who rule this month) (Yasna 3.13; Mills 1887, 210).173 "With thy Yasht, the Fire's, O Ahura Mazda's son! with all the fires, and to the good waters with the Yasht of all the waters which are Mazda-made, andBountiful Immortals (all)" (Yasna 4.7;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 215). The early part of the Yasna contains repetitive hymns, with the content of the some hymns being very similar (Yasna 3.13, 3.14, 4.16, and 4.17).174 "And these we announce and we present to Ahura and to Mithra, the lofty, and imperishable, and holy two, to the stars, the creatures of Spenta Mainyu, and to the star Tistrya, the radiant, the glorious, and to the Moon which contains the seed of cattle, and to the resplendent Sun, of the swift horses, Ahura Mazda's eye, and to Mithra, the lord of provinces, for their sacrifice, homage, their propitiation and their praise; yea we present hereby to Ahura Mazda (as here rules this day) and to the Fravashis of the saints (as


(owing to its subject, but not its dialect), next after the Sros-yasht (Mills 1887, 230). According to Mills, Haoma, also known as Soma, referred to a deity which flourished not only before the Gathas, but before the Riks of the Veda, in Aryan ages before Iranian and Indian became two peoples (Mills 1887, 230). According to the Haoma-yasht, "At the hour of Havani. Haoma came to Zarathustra, as he served the (sacred) Fire, and sanctified (its flame), while he sang aloud the Gathas" (Yasna 9.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 231). Haoma told Zoroaster about "the reign of Yima the brilliant, (he of many flocks, the most glorious of those yet born, the sunlike- 293 one of men)," which was a period when "there was neither cold nor heat, therewas neither age nor death, nor envy demon-made" (Yasna 9.4-5; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 232). There was also plenty of water and food for people, plants, and cattle (Yasna 9.4-5; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 232). Yima is also known as Yama, Jam, Jamshid, and Gamshed. In the Vedas, Yama, as the first man, is the first priest too; he brought worship here below as well as life, and 'first he stretched out the thread of sacrifice' (Mandala 1.66.8;; Oldenberg 1897, 57, Mandala 1.38.5,; Müller (Tr.) 1891, 81-88, and Darmesteter 1879, 12). "Although in the existing Yasna, Yama/Yima is represented as the ruler, not progenitor, of the human race, the Vedas know as a consort for him, namely his twin sister Yami, by whom he has children. Her existence is not


of man (Boyce 1975, 97). 294 "the antithesis of evil spirit" (Boyce 1984, 2).177 According to the ninth Hymn of the Yasna, Zoroaster, born of Pouraspa, was the first to recite the Ahuna Vairya (Gathas or Gathic Hymns) (Yasna 9.13-14; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 235). The Ahuna Vairya (Yasna 27.13; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 281) precedes the Gatha Ahunavaiti which consists of Hymns 28-34 of the Yasna. The physiology of the Haoma plant is described in the tenth Hymn of the Yasna. "O Haoma, thou growest on the mountains, apart on many paths, and there still may'st thou flourish. The springs of Righteousness most heavily thou art, (and the fountains of the ritual find their source in thee" (Yasna 10.4;; Mills (Tr) 1887, 240). "Grow (then) because I pray tothy Gathas, holy Haoma, these thy songs, and these thy teachings, and these thy ritual words, health imparting, victory giving, from harmful hatred healing giving" (Yasna 10.18;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 243-244). The eleventh Hymn of the Yasna is the prelude to the Haoma offering. It includes a piece in the Gathic dialect, "I celebrate my praises for good thoughts, good words, and good deeds for my thoughts, my speeches, and (my) actions" (Yasna 11.17;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 247). The twelfth Hymn of the Yasna is the Mazdayasnian Confession. "I drive the Daevas hance; I confess as a Mazda-worshipper of the order of Zarathustra" (Yasna 12.1; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 247). The thirteenth Hymn of the Yasna includes invocations and dedications to Ahura Mazda (Yasna 13.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 250).


the Yenhe hatam" (Yasna 21.5;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 269). As mentioned, the Yenhe hatam is also one of the most sacred prayers for Zoroastrians (Yasna 51.22, Guthrie (Tr.) 1914) (Boyce 2001, 37). "(The Yenhe. (To that one) of begins do we offer, whose superior (fidelity) in the sacrifice Ahura Mazda recognizes by reason of the sanctity (within him; yea, even to those female saints also we sacrifice) whose (superior fidelity is thus likewise known; thus) we sacrifice to (all, to both) the males and females (of the saints)!) A word for the Yasna by Zarathustra, the saint. Yenhe, &c. Here the worshipper indicates and offers the Yasna (which is the sacrificial worship) of Mazda as 298 by the command (or as the institution) of Ahura. Hatam. Here theworshipper indicates and offers the Yasna (which is the sacrificial worship) of Mazda as by the command (or as the institution) of Ahura. Hatam. Here the worshipper offers the sacrificial worship as if with the beings who are among those who are destined to live" (Yasna 21.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 268-269). The sacrifice continues in the twenty-second Hymn of the Yasna. "With the Baresman brought hither together with the Zaothra, for the worship of the Creator Ahura Mazda, the resplendent, the glorious, and for that of the Bountiful Immortals, I desire to approach this Haoma with my praise, offered (as it is) with punctilious sanctity (or, for a blessing), and this fresh milk, and this plant Hadhanaepata" (Yasna 22.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 270). "I desire to approach this


branch for the Baresman with my praise, and the memorized recital and fulfillment of the Mazdayasnian law, and the heard recital of the Gathas, and the well-timed and persistent prayer for the blessings (uttered) by the holy lord of the ritual order, and this wood and perfume, even thine, O Fire, Ahura Mazda's son, and all good objects Mazda-made for the propitiation of Ahura Mazda, the resplendent, the glorious, and of the Bountiful Immortals, and of Mithra of the wide pastures, and of Raman Hvastra, and of the resplendent sun, immortal, radiant, of the fleet horses, and of Vayu, (of predominant influence and working on high, set over the other beings in the creation" (Yasna 22.22-24; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 271). In the Iranian philosophy of religion, sacrifices wereaccompanied by offerings, under the protection of Mithra, lord of the contract" (Boyce 2001, 148). The twenty-third Hymn of the Yasna consists of "Prayers for the approach of the Fravashi Saints of Ahura Mazda," which is typically reserved for funeral occasions (Yasna 23.1-2; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 272-273). "I desire to approach with my praise those Fravashis which have existed from of old, the Fravashis of the houses, and of the villages, of the communities, and of the provinces, which hold the heaven in its place apart, and the water, land, and cattle, which hold the children in the wombs safely enclosed apart so that they do not miscarry" (Yasna 23.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 272-273). Subsequently, the twenty-fourth Hymn of the Yasna consists of Haoma, Myazda, and Zaothra presentations


"Srosh Yasht." "We worship Sraosha, (Obedience) the blessed, the stately, him who smites with the blow of victory, and who furthers the settlements, the holy, (ruling) as the ritual lord. Him do we worship, who in the creation of Mazda the first adored Ahura, with the Baresman spread, who worshipped the Bountiful Immortals (first), who worshipped both the protector and the Creator, who are (both) creating all things in the creation" (Yasna 57.2;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 298). According to Mills, since Sraosha is the only divinty of the later groups mentioned in the first four Gathas, this Yasht would seem to have claims to antiquity next after the pieces in the Gathic dialect. "With Yasna 28.6 in view, where Sraosha 'finds the way' to Ahura, or 'finds HisHaoma and the flesh, and the Hadhanaepata lifted up with sacred regularity as to thee, O Ahurian One, for the propitiation of Ahura Mazda, of the Bountiful Immortals, of Sraosha (Obedience) the blessed, and of the Fire of Ahura Mazda, the ritual's lofty lord" (Yasna 66.1;; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 320). The rest of this Hymn contains content which was previously translated. The sixty-seventh Hymn of the Yasna also contains material that was previously translated. The sixty-eighth Hymn of the Yasna consists of additional offerings to the Ahurian One and the waters. "We offer this to thee, O Ahurian (daughter) of Ahura! As a help (?) for life. If we have offended thee, let this Zaothra then attain to thee (for satisfaction), for it is thine with its Haoma,


of the Sirozah, which describes the creation of the world and the final triumph of Ahura Mazda over Ahriman and the Daevas (Yasht 1.24; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 31). The Haptan Yasht, also known as the Yasht of the seven Amshaspands, is recited on the first seven days of the week. In other words, the days consecrated to the Amesha Spentas (Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 35). The first part states, "To Ahura Mazda, bright and glorious, and to the Amesha Spentas; Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, Khshathra Vairya, Spenta Armaiti, Haurvatat, Ameretat. Be propitiation, with sacrifice, prayer, propitiation, and glorification" (Yasht 2.1-5; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 36). It also mentions Mithra, the 311 lord of the wide pastures, as well as Rama Hvastra (Yasht 2.4; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 36).189 The Ardibehesht Yasht,which corresponds to the third day of the Sirozah, mainly focuses on the glorification of Asha Vahishta. Ardibehesht, also known as Ordibehesht, is the Parsi form for Asha Vahishta (Darmesteter 1883, 41). Ahura Mazda said to Zoroaster, "That thou mayest increase Asha Vahishta, O Spitama Zarathustra, with hymns of praise, with performance of the office, with invocations, holy words, sacrifice, blessings, and adoration – once to abide in the shining luminous space, in the beautiful abodes – for the sacrifice and invocation of us, the Amesha Spentas" (Yasht 3.1;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 42). Zoroaster said, "Say unto me the right words, such as they are, O Ahura Mazda, that I may increase Asha Vahishta, with hymns of praise, with performance of the office, with invocations, holy words, sacrifice,


blessings, and adoration, once to abide in the shining luminous space, in the beautiful abodes, for the sacrifice and invocation of you, the Amesha Spentas" (Yasht 3.2;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 42-43). Asha Vahishta is a force against sickness, darkness, and falsehood. The Khordad Yasht, which corresponds to the sixth day of the Sirozah, begins with praise for Haurvatat.190 "Ahura Mazda said to Zarathustra, I created for the faithful 189 Rama Hvastra, also known in the Indian tradition as Vayu, refers to the god that gives good folds and good pastures to cattle, and as a good shepherd, acquired a connection to Mithra, the lord of the wide pastures (Darmesteter 1879, xiv and 23). 190 The fourth (Shahrevar), fifth (Sepandarmad), seventh (Mordad), eighth (Dai pa Adar), ninth (Adar), fifteenth(Dai pa Mihir), twenty second (Bad), twenty third (Dai pa Din), twenty seventh (Asman), twenty ninth (Mahraspand), and thirtieth (Aneran) day of the Sirozah are all missing their corresponding Yashts. 312 the help, the enjoyments, the comforts, and the pleasures of Haurvatat. We united them with him who would come up to thee as one of the Amesha Spentas, as he would come to any of the Amesha Spentas, Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, Kshathra Vairya, Spenta Armaiti, Haurvatat, and Ameretat" (Yasht 4.1;; Darmesteter 1883, 49). The second part of the Khordad Yasht emphasizes the importance of the Bareshnum rituals. Zoroaster asked how does the way of the faithful diverge from the way of the wicked, and Ahura Mazda answered, "It is when a man pronouncing my spell, either


unto Tistrya, the bright and glorious star, that afflicts the Pairikas, that vexes the Pairikas, who, in the shape of worm stars, fly between the earth and the heavens, in the sea Vouru Kasha, the powerful sea, the large-sized, deep sea of salt waters" (Yasht 8.8;; Darmesteter 1883, 95-96). Pairika, also known as pari, refers to a deceptively beautiful female daeva. It is rooted in the demonic pattern of shooting stars which are described as witches [pairikas] that hover beneath earth and sky (Yasht 8.8; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 95-96 and Lincoln 2009, 279). As Antonio Panaino has shown, the sinister shooting stars 315 in question are to be understood as the seasonal meteor showers of late summer, associated with the period of drought that normally ends when Siriussoul of the bull' (the primeval Bull)" (Darmesteter 1883, 110). "We sacrifice unto the powerful Drvaspa, made by Mazda and holy, who keep the flocks in health, the young ones in health; who watches well from afar, with a wide-spread and long-continued welfare-giving friendship" (Yasht 9.1; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 111). The majority of the Gos Yasht consists of prayers addressed to Drvaspa by the Iranian heroes, Haoshyangha, Yima, Thraetaona, Haoma, Husravah, Zarathustra, and Vishtaspa (Darmesteter 1883, 110).191 191 Haoshyangha has the epithet Paradhata, thought to mean the "first appointed," that is, to rule over the world (Boyce 1975, 104). Thraetaona is invoked for warding off fevers and maladies, and in living Zoroastrian observance it is he who, as King Fredon (Faridun), is turned to for help, through religious


heard; we sacrifice unto Mithra, the lord of the wide pastures, sleepless, and ever awake" (Yasht 10.11-12; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 122). Some of the latter passages of the Mihir Yasht seem to provide a short account of the social constitution and morals of Zoroastrian Iran (Darmesteter 1883, 149). "O Mithra, lord of the wide pastures, thou master of the house, of the borough, of the town, of the country, thou Zarathustrotema (chief of the sacerdotal order, the so-called Maubedanmaused). Mithra is twentyfold between two friends or two relations; Mithra is Khosrow, was an ancient Iranian King who "united the Arya nations into one kingdom" (Yasht 9.21;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 115). 192 According to Darmesteter, the Mihir Yasht, one of the longest of the Avesta and one of thebetween the faithful and the Law, the covenant), and then he will be every day of victorious strength" (Yasht 10.115-117; Darmesteter 1883, 149-150). In this passage, Mithra (the contract) is twentyfold, that is, twenty times more strictly binding than between any two strangers, and thirtyfold between two men of the same group, etc. The metaphoric account of a moral contract (covenant) is a common theme in the Abrahamic tradition (Jeremiah 31.31 and Quran 2.40). Darmesteter suggested that Yasht 10.121-122 may be the source of the trials and initiation rituals of later Roman Mithraicism (Mithraism) (Darmesteter 1883, 119).194 Zoroaster asked Ahura Mazda to tell him how the faithful man shall drink the libations 194 Early references to Christ as the sun, the prevalence of his sunlike halo in Christian


art, and the Church's decision to fix the commemoration of the Nativity on December 25 (a day traditionally celebrated by sunworshippers as the annual "birth" of the sun following the winter solstice) all seem to point to some possible "solar" origin of Christianity. More specifically, particularly given the evangelical association of the Nativity with the Persian Magi, they may indicate some possible early contact between Christianity and Mithraism, a Persian religion that flourished throughout the Roman Empire during the second and third centuries, and which actually revolved around the cult of the sun. The correspondence between the Mithraist "day of the sun" and the day claimed by the Church to have been the day of the Resurrection may indeed have been purely coincidental. Nevertheless, its observance probably addedand Yasht 11), and subsequently he became the only Zoroastrian divine being to be honored in Muslim Persia, where he is known as Saros (Soroush), the angel who carries messages between God and Man" (Boyce 1975, 60, Yasna 57.2; Mills (Tr.) 1887, 298, and Yasht 11.1; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 160). "We sacrifice unto the holy, tallformed, fiend smiting Sraosha, who makes the world increase the holy and master of 319 holiness. Good prayer, excellent prayer to the worlds, O Zarathustra" (Yasht 11.1;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 160). The Rashn Yasht is devoted to Rashnu Razista, "the truest True, who is the Genius of Truth" (Darmesteter 1883, 168). The Rashn Yasht corresponds to the eighteenth day of the Sirozah. Rashnu, is known as one of the three judges of the


1883, 179 and Boyce 2001, 15). According to Darmesteter, it is "the inner power of every being that maintains it and makes it grow and subsist" (Darmesteter 1883, 179). Ahura Mazda said to Zoroaster, "Do thou proclaim, O pure Zarathustra, the joy, vigor, and strength, the glory, the help, and the joy that are in the Fravashis of the faithful, the awful and overpowering Fravashis; do thou tell how they come to help me, how they bring assistance unto me, the awful Fravashis of the faithful" (Yasht 13.1; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 180). 320 The Bahram Yasht corresponds to the twentieth day of the Sirozah. Bahram is also known as Verethraghna, as well as the genius of truth. Bahram is characterized as a protector, "who is the best-armed of284). The Zamyad Yasht, which is inscribed to the Genius of the Earth, is devoted to a description of the mountains and the kingly Glory (Kavaem Hvareno) (Darmesteter 1883, 286). The Zamyad Yasht corresponds to the twenty eighth day of the Sirozah. "The first mountain that rose up out of the earth, O Spitama Zarathustra, was the Haraiti Barez (Alborz Mountain Range). That mountain stretches all along the shores of the land washed by the waters (of the Caspian Sea) towards the east" (Yasht 19.1; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 287). "I bless the sacrifice and prayer, and the strength and vigor of Mount Ushi Darena, made by Mazda, the seat of holy happiness; of the kingly Glory, made by Mazda;; of the Glory that cannot be forcibly seized, made


by Mazda" (Yasht 19.97; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 308-309). Mount Ushi Darena refers to the Mountain of Understanding which is located in Seistan (Sistan) (Bundahishn 9.18; Anklesaria (Tr.) 323 1956, 76). The Zamyad Yasht is the final Yasht which corresponds to the Sirozah. The twentieth Yasht is a supplement to the Tir Yasht which ought to follow immediately after it is recited (Darmesteter 1883, 310). The twenty first and twenty second Yashts are fragments.195 Post-Achaemenian Sources During the Ashkanian (Parthian) period (248 BCE-224 CE), Zoroastrian scholars compiled mixed sets of prose texts in late Younger Avestai. This collection is known as the Vi Daevo Data (Videvtat), later corrupted to the Vendidad (Boyce 1975, 274). These texts were concerned with the laws of purity, and its name means "the antithesisof evil spirit" (Boyce 1984, 2). This is the only congregational text that is not recited entirely from memory. The ancient Avesta as presented by Zoroaster to Vishtaspa, king of Bactria, was supposed to have been composed of twenty-one books, the greater part of which was burnt by Alexander the Great (Darmesteter 1879, xxxii). After the death of Alexander the priests from the Zoroastrian religion met together, and by collecting the various fragments that had escaped the ravages of the war and other that they knew by heart, they formed the present collection, which is a very small part of the original book, 195 The fragment of the twenty first Yasht is a eulogy of the Ashem Vohu prayer (Darmesteter 1883, 311). The fragment of the twenty second


Yasht is a description of the fate that attends the soul of the righteous and the soul of the wicked after death (Darmesteter 1883, 314). When one of the faith departs this life, its soul "takes its seat near the head, singing the Ushtavaiti Gatha and proclaiming happiness: 'Happy is he, happy the man, whoever he be, to whom Ahura Mazda gives the full accomplishment of his wishes!' On that night his soul tastes as much of pleasure as the whole of the living world can taste" (Yasht 22.1-2; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 314). The Ushtavaiti Gatha refers to the second set of the Gathas which begins with the word "ushta" (Yasna 43.1;; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). In contrast, when the soul of a wicked person departs this life, ittastes as much suffering as the whole of the living world can taste (Yasht 22.20; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1883, 318). 324 as out of the twenty-one books there was only one that was preserved in its entirety, the Vendidad (Darmesteter 1879, xxxii). The Vendidad functions as a code or manual for Zoroastrian priests. As mentioned, it is one of twenty one volumes, but the only one that was preserved in its entirety. It is linguistically distinct from Avestai and Younger Avestai portions of the Avesta which suggests that it was originally composed shortly before the development of the Median and Persian Empires. The Vendidad has often been described as the book of the laws of the Parsis; it may be more exactly called the code of purification, a description,


however, which is itself only so far correct that the laws of purification are the object of the largest part of the book (Darmesteter 1879, xxxiii). According to Mary Boyce, the Videvdat, "the code abjuring daevas, is a collection of miscellaneous pieces of varying antiquity, put together at some relatively late date to form a night office celebrated to smite the powers of darkness" (Boyce 1975, 274). The core sections of the Videvdat concern "the purity laws, to which were added various heterogeneous works such as the first fargard" (Boyce 1975, 274). The first fargard (chapter) begins with a dialogue between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. As it says in the first line of the Vendidad, "Ahura Mazda spake unto Spitama Zarathustra, saying: I have made every land dearto its dwellers, even though it had no charms whatever in it, had I not made every land dear to its dwellers, even though it had no charms whatever in it, then the whole living world would have invaded Airyana Vaego" (Fargard 1.1-2;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 4). "The first of the good lands and 325 countries which I, Ahura Mazda created, was the Airyana Vaego, by the good river Daitya" (Fargard 1.3;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 4-5). Airyana Vaego (Iran Vaej) refers to the area inhabited by the Aryans. "Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft the serpent in the river and winter, a work of the Daevas" (Fargard 1.3;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 5). "There are ten winter months there, two summer


months, and those are cold for the waters, cold for the earth, cold for the trees. [So] winter falls there with the worst of plagues" (Fargard 1.4;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 5).196 Airyana Vaego is the first of sixteen other "good lands" which were described in the first chapter of the Vendidad. "Various suggestions have been made as to why this list was originally drawn up, the most reasonable (in the light of its preservation as a religious work) seeming to be that these were lands which early accepted Zoroastrianism (though later, evidently, than the wholly unknown regions named in the Farvardin Yasht)" (Boyce 1975, 275). 197 "The second of the good lands which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the plains in Sughdha (Soghd)" (Fargard 1.5;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879,5). "Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his 196 In the Zoroastrian tradition, "it is known that [in the ordinary course of nature] there are seven months of summer [relatively warm weather] and five months of winter [relatively cold weather]" (Bundahishn 25.126; Anklesaria (Tr.) 1956, 114-115 and Darmesteter 1879, 5). 197 "Khwarezmia does not appear among them;; and its absence has been explained as due to its identification, as the land of the prophet's own people, with Airyanem Vaejah (Airyanem Vaego), the traditional homeland of the Aryans, where all the greatest events in their prehistory were held to have taken place – although it must be admitted that the lines devoted to Airyanem Vaejah, which introduce the text, are plainly late in


composition" (Boyce 1975, 4 and 275). 326 witchcraft the fly Skaitya (cattle fly), which brings death to the cattle" (Fargard 1.5;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 6). The third of the good lands Ahura Mazda created refers to Margu, also known as Merv and Margiana, which is an area that overlaps with modern day Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. "The third of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the strong, holy Mouru, [and] thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter created-by his witchcraft sinful lusts" (Fargard 1.6;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 6). The fourth of the good lands refers to Bakhdhi, also known as Bakhtri, Bactria, and Balkh, which is a region in Northern Afghanistan. "Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death andhe counter-created by his witchcraft, the Bravara" (Fargard 1.7; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 6). 198 Bactria and Margiana is the site of the Bactria-Margiana Archeological Complex, which is a modern label for a Bronze Age civilization which dates back to 2200 BCE, and faded away some 500 years later (Lawler 2003, 979). "Four thousand years ago along the banks of the ancient Oxus River, which now separates Afghanistan from Uzbekistan, there were people who lived in vast compounds protected by high walls, produced their own bronzes, ceramics, and stone seals, and traded their wares as far as the Persian Gulf and Palestine" (Lawler 2003, 979).199 "When the Persians arrived in 198 Bravara refers to the "corn carrying ant" (Fargard 14.5;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 167). 199 Although these people would


have been key players in Bronze Age Central Asia, their civilization remains an enigma due to twentieth century politics. For decades Soviet archeologists labored in this region but revealed little to their Western colleagues, and the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the 327 these regions, however, in the mid sixth century BCE, the dominant power seems to have been Bactria; and a legend persisted, down into Sassanian times and beyond, which associated both Zoroaster and his patron Vishtaspa with the Bactrian capital of Balkh" (Boyce 1975, 275-276). "Presumably this, like the legend which set the kavis in Seistan (Sistan) and made the Hamun Lake holy, was a product of that mixture of piety and patriotism which led various Zoroastrian peoples to associate the prophet with their ownhomelands" (Boyce 1975, 276). The fifth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Nisaya, which lies between Mouru and Bakhdhi, where Angra Mainyu counter-created "the sin of unbelief" (Fargard 1.8; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 6). The sixth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Haroyu (Herat) with its (river) lake, where Angra Mainyu counter-created the stained mosquito (Fargard 1.9; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 6-7). The seventh of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Vaekereta, of the evil shadows, where Angra Mainyu countercreated "the Pairika Knathaiti, who clave unto Keresaspa" (Fargard 1.10;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 7). According to Darmesteter, it is possible that in later traditions, the accounts of the seventh land were localized to Kabulistan, also known as Kapul and Iranian revolution closed off those countries for


study. Now a growing number of scientists are focusing their attention on what is dubbed the Bactrian-Margiana Archeological Complex (BMAC) to understand its extent and its influence on the neighboring Mesopotamian and Indus civilizations. Material from BMAC had long been found in archeological sites across the region, but researchers did not know where it originated. The collapse of the Soviet Union and now the cautious re-opening of Iran give Western scientists a chance to explore this neglected culture, which left traces across the Middle East and likely reached far beyond the confines of the Asian steppes (Lawler 2003, 979). 328 Kabul, which is the largest city in Afghanistan. The eighth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Urva of the rich pastures, whereupon Angra Mainyu counter-created prideand tyranny (Fargard 1.11; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 7). The ninth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Khnenta in Vehrkana, and thereupon Angra Mainyu created "a sin for which there is no atonement, [which is] the unnatural sin" (Fargard 1.12;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 7). Vehrkana is also known as Varkana, Hyrcania, and Gorgan, which means land of the wolves in Farsi.200 The tenth of the good lands created by Ahura Mazda was the beautiful Harahvaiti, where Angra Mainyu counter-created a sin for which there is no atonement, the burying of the dead (Fargard 1.13; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 7-8).201 Harahvaiti is also known as Harût, Arakhaj, and Arachoisa (Boyce 1975, 274-275). The eleventh of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Haetumant (Sistan), where Angra Mainyu counter-created the


evil witchcraft of the Yatus (wizards) (Fargard 1.14; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 8). The twelfth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was Ragha (Rai) of the three races, where Angra Mainyu counter-created the sin of utter unbelief (in which they doubt themselves and cause other people to doubt) (Fargard 1.16; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 8). 200 Khnenta refers to a river in Vehrkana, consequently the river Gorgan (Darmesteter 1879, 7). Gorgan possibly refers to a large area around the southeastern shore of the Caspian Sea which is part of Iran and Turkmenistan. This area includes the city of Gorgan, which was formerly known as Astarabad up until 1937. The city of Gorgan is located in the province of Golestan, which is known for a heavy presence of wolves. 201Zoroastrians associate a corpse with impurity, so they avoid instances in which a corpse will defile the earth and fire. 329 The thirteenth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was the strong, holy Kakhra, where Angra Mainyu created a sin for which there is no atonement, the burning of corpses (Fargard 1.17; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 8-9). The fourteenth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created "was the four-cornered Varena, for which was born Thraetaona, who smote Azis Dahaka" (Fargard 1.18;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 9). The fifteenth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was the Seven Rivers, or the basin of the affluents of the Indus, also known as Panjab, which means Five Rivers (Fargard 1.19; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 9). Thereupon Angra Mainyu counter-created "abnormal issues in


women and excessive heat" (Fargard 1.19; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 9). The sixteenth of the good lands Ahura Mazda created was the land by the floods of the Rangha, where people live without a head, and thereupon Angra Mainyu counter-created by his witchcraft winter, a work of the Daevas (Fargard 1.20; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 9).202 "There are still other lands and countries, beautiful and deep, desirable and bright, and thriving" (Fargard 1.21;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 10). The second chapter of the Vendidad begins with Zoroaster asking about the first mortal who conversed with Ahura Mazda. "The fair Yima, the great shepherd, O holy Zarathustra, he was the first mortal, before thee, Zarathustra, with whom I, Ahura Mazda, did converse, whom I taught the law of Ahura, the law ofof dire winter, which is to destroy every living creature, Yima, being advised by Ahura, builds a Vara (also Var, meaning boat) to keep there the seeds of every kind of animals and plants, and the blessed live there a most happy life under his rule" (Darmesteter 1879, 10). In the "Mazdaean cosmology, the world was made to end by fire, so this dire winter was no longer the last incident of its life, and therefore, the Var of Yima came to be nothing more than a sort of Noah's ark" (Darmesteter 1879, 11). The third chapter of the Vendidad begins with Zoroaster asking about the conditions which support and harm the Earth. Ahura Mazda replied, the first place is whereon one of the faithful steps forward, O


Spitama Zarathustra, with the holy wood in his hand, the baresma in his hand, the holy meat in his hand, the holy mortar in his hand, fulfills the law with love, and beseeching aloud Mithra, the lord of the wide pastures, and Rama Hvastra (Fargard 3.1; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 22-23). The second place is "whereon one of the faithful erects a house with a priest within, with cattle, with a wife, with children, and good herds, within; and wherein afterwards, cattle go on thriving, the dog is thriving, the wife is thriving, the child is thriving, the fire is thriving, and every blessing of life is thriving" (Fargard 3.2-3; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 23). In contrast, the 331 first place where the Earth feels the sorest grief is thecleanse water and Haoma (Fargard 6.1-43; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 66-72).204 In order to properly lay a body to rest, "the worshippers of Ahura Mazda shall erect a building out of the reach of the dog, of the fox, and of the wolf, and wherein rain water cannot stay" (Fargard 6.50;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 73). If they cannot afford it, "they shall lay down the dead man on the ground, on his carpet and his pillow, clothed with the light of heaven, and beholding the sun" (Fargard 6.51; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 74). The seventh chapter of the Vendidad mainly deals with the impurity of death when it takes hold of a corpse. Ahura Mazda told Zoroaster that impurity rushes upon the corpse immediately after death (Fargard 7.2; Darmesteter (Tr.)


son for his father and the daughter for her mother, he or she shall stay for thirty days if they are righteous and sixty days if they are sinners (Fargard 12.1; Darmesteter 1879, 145). On this account, the relatives of the recently deceased were shut out of the frequented parts of the house (Darmesteter 1879, 144). After Zoroaster asked Ahura Mazda how he shall cleanse the house, Ahura Mazda answered, "They shall wash their bodies three times, they shall wash their clothes three times, they shall chant the Gathas three times, they shall offer up a sacrifice to my Fire, they shall offer up the bundles of the baresma, they 205 The Bareshnum ceremony involved the use of consecrated bull's urine which was a common disinfectant in theearly history of soap production. 335 shall bring libations to the good waters; then the house shall be clean, and the waters may enter, then the fire may enter, and then the Amesha Spentas may enter, O Spitama Zarathustra" (Fargard 12.2;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 145). The thirteenth chapter of the Vendidad offers praise for "the Dog." The dog is "the good creature among the creatures of the good spirit that from midnight till the sun is up goes and kills thousands of the creatures of the evil spirit" (Fargard 13.1;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 152). The dog has always been a valuable ally for shepherds who were hoping to deter attacks from wolves and thieves (Fargard 13.17; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 156). The followers of Ahura Mazda are advised to


(Fargard 13.46; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 162). Like a thief and a beast, he likes the darkness, he prowls about in darkness, and he is a shameless eater; an unfaithful keeper (Fargard 13.47; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 162-163). Like the courtesan, he is intrusive, walks about the roads, he is meager and poor (Fargard 13.48; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 163). Finally, like a child, he likes sleeping, he is apt to run away, he is full of tongue, and he goes on all fours (Fargard 13.48; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 163). The fourteenth chapter of the Vendidad is an appendix to the last clauses of the previous chapter, which provides a full length description for the atonement of a murder of a water dog (Darmesteter 1879, 165).207 The water dog is thecome" (Fargard 15.8; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 173-174). After identifying the five major sins, the fifteenth chapter seems to discourage drug induced abortions. "If a man come near unto a damsel, either dependent on the 338 chief of the family or not dependent, either delivered unto a husband or not delivered, and she conceives by him, let her not, from the dread of the people, produce in herself the menses, against the course of nature, by means of water and plants" (Fargard 15.10;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 174). It also says that the father is equally responsible for such an act, as well as any other person who provides assistance (Fargard 15.12-14; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 175). A man is also responsible for the life of the child if he does


(Tr.) 1879, 186-187).209 Zoroastrians are advised to 208 The food is held out to her from a distance in a metal spoon (Darmesteter 1879, 182). 209 "Chapter seventeen, which has given full scope to the ironical humor of many, is an invaluable document in the eyes of the mythologist, as he finds in it, if not the origin and explanation, at least the oldest record of world-wide superstitions. Not only in Bombay, but all over the world, people are found who believe that hair and nails are weapons in the hands of the evil one. The Estonians, on the shores of the Baltic, take the utmost care not to drop the pairings of their nails on the ground, lest the devil should pick them up, to make asleeps on throughout the night, neither performing the Yasna nor chanting the hymns, worshipping neither by word nor by deed, neither learning nor teaching, with a longing for (everlasting) life, he lies when he says, 'I am an Athravan,' do not call him an Athravan, O holy Zarathushtra!' thus said Ahura Mazda" (Fargard 18.5;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 190). After Zoroaster asked what makes the unseen power of death increase, Ahura Mazda answered, "It is the man that teaches the wrong law (religion), it is the man who continues for three years without wearing the sacred girdle, 210 without chanting the Gathas, without worshipping the good waters" (Fargard 18.8-9; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 191). In the nineteenth chapter of the Vendidad, Angra Mainyu remains unsuccessful in his attempts to deceive


boundless Time; to me the Amesha Spentas, the all-ruling, the all beneficent, gave it" (Fargard 19.9;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 206-207). "Zoroaster chanted aloud the Ahuna Vairya. The holy Zoroaster said aloud: This I ask thee: teach me the truth, O Lord, which is the beginning of a Gathic hymn, in which Zarathustra applies to Ahura Mazda to be taught the mysteries of the world and of the law" (Fargard 19.10;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 207).211 The twentieth chapter of the Vendidad discusses "Thrita, the First Healer" (Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 219). Thrita was the "first of the healthful, the wise, the happy, the wealthy, the glorious, the strong man of yore, drove back sickness to sickness, drove back death to death, and first turned away the point of the poniardand the fire of fever from the bodies of mortals" (Fargard 20.2;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 220). The twenty first chapter of the Vendidad offers praise to the holy bull, the holy waters and rain, as well as the light of the sun, the moon, and the stars. As it says, "Let showers, shower down new waters, new earth, new trees, new health, and new healing powers" (Fargard 21.3;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 225). However, in the twenty second chapter of the Vendidad, Angra Mainyu created diseases which caused Ahura Mazda to apply for healing to the holy word and Airyaman. Ahura Mazda, the maker of all good things, made paradise, 211 As mentioned, the Ahuna Vairya is a prominent hymn in the Gathas (Yasna 44.1; Guthrie (Tr.) 1914). 341


but "then the ruffian looked at me, the ruffian Angra Mainyu, the deadly, wrought by his witchcraft nine diseases, and ninety, and nine hundred, and nine thousand, and nine times ten thousand diseases. So mayst thou heal me, O Mathra Spenta, thou most glorious one" (Fargard 22.1-2; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 230). "The will of the Lord is the law of holiness, and the riches of Vohu-Mano shall be given to him who works in this world for Mazda, and wields according to the will of Ahura the power he gave him to relieve the poor (Fargard 22.25; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 235). "Keep us from our hater, O Mazda and Spenta, perish, O fiendish Drug, perish away to the regions of the north, never more to give unto deaththe living world of the holy spirit" (Fargard 22.25;; Darmesteter (Tr.) 1879, 235). In addition to the Vendidad, there are various composite works and prayers such as the Nyayesh, the Gah, and the Little Avesta that were grouped together with all other major Zoroastrian works which established the "Great" Avesta. The Great Avesta included the sources mentioned above, some of which were previously unwritten. It also included stories about the life of Zoroaster, apocalyptic works, and sources for law, cosmogony, and scholastic science (Boyce 1984, 3). The Great Avesta was completed during the Sassanian period around the fifth and sixth century CE (Boyce 1984, 3). The Sassanian authorities placed copies of the Great Avesta in the libraries of the chief fire temples but they were all destroyed during


the Arab, Turkic, and Mongol invasions. However, the scope of its content is known from a detailed summary given in 342 the Denkard (Boyce 1984, 4). The Denkard (Acts of Religion) is a massive compilation of very diverse materials concerning the history of Zoroastrianism made in the ninth and tenth centuries (Boyce 1984, 4).212 It was written in the Pahlavi script, which was the written form of Middle Farsi that was based on the Phoenician and Aramaic alphabet.213 The first three books of the Denkard were edited by Adurbad of Emedan, who also wrote the remaining six books which are dated to 1020 CE (Sanjana 1874, 26). Various undated fragments of the Denkard survived through oral transmission and were rewritten centuries later by the Parsis. The only manuscriptthat is nearly complete is now in Bombay, dated to 1659 (Gignoux 1994, 284). The Denkard includes portions of a liturgical text, as well as two very cryptic and difficult works on priestly rituals (Boyce 1984, 3). 212 Dastur Peshotanji Behramji Sanjana, Darab Peshota Sanjana, and Ratanshah Kohiyar published an edition of the Dinkard in Bombay (1874) based on the fragments of the original compilation by Adurbad of Emedan dated to 1020 CE. 213 Iranians refer to their language as "Farsi," which is known in English as "Persian." 343 Sources Afnan, Ruhi Muhsen. 1969. Zoroaster's Influence on Anaxagoras, the Greek Tragedians, and Socrates. New York: Philosophical Library. Al-e Ahmad, Jalal. 1982. Gharbzadegi (Westruckness) (John Green and Ahmad Alizadeh, Tr.). Lexington, KY: Mazda. Al-i Ahmad, Jalal. 1984. Occidentosis: A


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Journal, Vol. 41, No. 1: 179-199. Zaehner, Robert Charles. 2002. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. London: Phoenix Press. Zarrinkoob, Abdolhossein. 2000. Do Kame Sukut [Two Centuries of Silence]. Tehran: Sukhan. Zerubavel, Eviatar. 1985. The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week. New York: Free Press. Zirinsky, Michael P. 1992. "Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza, 1921-1926," International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 24, No. 4: 639-663.Dutchess County has officially become a go-to destination for equestrian sports. The beauty and pageantry of horses and the grueling, triathlon-style discipline of the equestrian world will be on full display this weekend at the 14th annual Millbrook Horse Trials.

This year, for the first time a total of $25,000 in prize money will be awarded to top-level riders at the event, which begins Thursday and continues through Sunday. But the monetary draw is just another piece to a complex puzzle of equestrian success built by Louise Meryman of Pine Plains. Meryman, who admits that the equestrian world is "her life," began this event way back in 1985 at the former Millbrook Equestrian Center. After several incarnations of the event, the Millbrook Horse Trials has now emerged as one


of the top places in the world for horses and riders to test their mettle against each other.

"It truly is a destination event now,'' Meryman said. "It's among one of the top five-six events in the country, and it's one of the very few that run every level — from introduction all the way to advanced level, where riders are competing to qualify for spots on the United States team.''

Meryman said that with the World Equestrian Games looming later this summer, riders that are competing for spots on the team will descend on Coole Park Farm, several miles east of the Village of Millbrook. A ride out to the farm, which is located off Bangall-Amenia Road, and you'll know you are in horse country. The beautiful landscape, rollinghills and expansive open spaces are a far cry from the more populous centers of Dutchess County.

For equestrian loyalists from around the country, as well as for casual fans of the sport, the setting represents nothing short of perfection.

"We are truly fortunate to have an event of this caliber in our backyard,'' said Mariann Caprino, a former Millbrook Horse Trials participant who is on the MHT organizing committee. "The event celebrates riders, the extraordinary athleticism of the horse and the spectacular Dutchess County landscape. It's simply a perfect combination.''

Meryman organizes the Millbrook Horse Trials along with Olivia von Melle Kamp, who was on board with the original event nearly 30 years ago. Meryman said that the modern MHT is put together with a board of 10 people who


Challenge No 8: Partnership problems

17 May 2012, Narayan Kulkarni, BioSpectrum

Finding the perfect partners in the supply chain, marketing channels and co-development collaborations to ensure maximum speed and growth of product development, finding the best partner for every activity locally in a small country such as Singapore and fledgling relationships between universities and academic institutions with the biotech industry are few issues before the industry.

"Geographical remoteness can be a negative factor in the minds of potential partners in the West who may succumb to an unintentional 'out of sight, out of mind' attitude," says Dr Deborah Rathjen of Bionomics, Australia. "However, advances in communications technology have broken down some of these barriers. A global manager is now an expectation in Australian biotechnology companies."

Dr Noel Moore of HistoIndex points outby Eric
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By The Way: A Contemporary Art News Podcast is a by weekly podcast where two artist friends irreverently discuss news from the art world. The show is co-produced and co-hosted by Eric Wall and Ando, and is written by Eric Wall.
Eric is an artist and art professional with nearly 20 years of experience in the arts. Based in Stockholm, Sweden, he has also lived and worked in Germany, Denmark, and the US, which has given him some unique insights into the contemporary art world.
Ando is the founder of The Undergang Armchair, a podcast based around conversations with artists about their craft. He is a working


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Estimated: $45,000 - $65,000Ukraine Scientists Navigate Lockdown To Reach Antarctica

Olga SHYLENKO

April 30, 2020

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Yuriy Otruba was preparing for his sixth scientific expedition to Antarctica when the coronavirus pandemic hit, shutting borders, grounding flights and locking down countries he needed to travel through.

After repeated trips since 2009, the 34-year-old Ukrainian scientist feared this year's journey would be impossible due to strict lockdown measures imposed throughout the world to contain the COVID-19 pandemic.

The journey from Kiev to the Akademik Vernadsky research base on Galindez Island in the Antarctic usually lasts a week.

Yet it took Otruba and his team of 10 a number of false starts and more than four weeks as they navigated several continents and a slew of anti-virus restrictions to reach their destination.

"I felt like our chances were getting


smaller and smaller and smaller," said Otruba, a geophysicist who was leading a team for the first time this year.

"It's a very beautiful, picturesque place," he told AFP by phone from the base, surrounded by snow-capped "mountains, the nature of Antarctica, its sanctity".

"When you first get here, you are enchanted."

The obstacle for this year's expedition was "very specific," said Yevgen Dykyi head of the National Antarctic Scientific Center. "It was called the coronavirus pandemic."

"It was the longest and most difficult journey to Antarctica over the years," he said.

Ukrainian scientists are stationed at the base for one-year stints, with new teams usually arriving in early spring.

Britain founded the Faraday station in 1947, and in 1996 gave it to Kiev, which renamed the base after celebrated Ukrainian scientist Volodymyr Vernadsky.

Aregular itinerary brings new teams through Chile or Argentina, and then by boat to the base in a journey that usually takes around a week.

On March 16, Ukraine's 25th expedition including six scientists and five support staff set off for Earth's only virus-free continent.

Yet at the first stop, in Istanbul, it became clear that the 10 men and one woman would not make it to Colombia, then to Chile, with both countries announcing border closures.

They headed home to mandatory quarantine and to devise an alternative route, this time with the help of Ukrainian diplomats.

Yet subsequent attempts also ran aground, with two flights cancelled one after another.

In the end Ukraine's foreign ministry "did the impossible", chartering flights and arranging permissions to enter the countries closed to foreigners, Dykyi said.

The


team set off again at the end of March, travelling from Kiev to Qatar, Brazil and then Chile.

"A lot of hard work was done to get to Chile," which was under lockdown when the team arrived, Otruba said.

The flight from Qatar to Brazil was packed, Otruba said, and some among the expedition were afraid of getting infected and having to "call the entire expedition into question".

When the team eventually arrived at Punta Arenas on the southern tip of Chile, they isolated for two weeks in a hotel as a precaution, before finally boarding a boat loaded with food, fuel and research equipment to Antarctica.

After more than four weeks, the team arrived on April 21.

As a precaution, they brought an oxygen concentrator and medical oxygen cylinders in case aregion. It is in unknown if in its early period whether it was a caste-based dance or not. By the time when Ghumura entered into the sphere of folk dance, above from the level of tribal dance, it was extensively performed by almost all castes and communities. Perhaps, Ghumura was a caste-based dance of a particular caste in its beginning and later on extended to different castes and communities. It was then widely accepted as a mass dance from folk dance.

Development and spread
Ghumura dance has had the opportunity to represent the nation in international events in Delhi, Moscow, and other places.

References

External links

Category:Classical dance genres of India
Category:Kalahandi district


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James Romansoff, 58, was struck by a passenger train at 12:54 a.m. Monday while working near 106th Street on the Park Avenue viaduct, according to Metro-North. He was part of a crew restoring power to tracks that had been closed for weekend maintenance when he was hit by a train traveling on the Harlem Line from Grand Central Terminal to Poughkeepsie. He was taken to Mount Sinai Hospital, where he was pronounced dead.

The matter is being investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board and the Federal Railroad Administration. According to Peter Knudson, a spokesperson for the NTSB, three investigators were sent to the scene of the accident to investigate what happened. Knudson said Tuesday that the investigation is still ongoing and there were no updates to report, andinformation would most likely be released in the form of a preliminary report once the investigation was concluded.

Metro-North recently installed safety hardware called the Enhanced Employee Protection System, designed to prevent trains from traveling down a section of track where workers are conducting maintenance. The system was in place when Romansoff was hit, according to Metro-North spokesperson Marjorie Anders.

The incident is the latest of several investigations into Metro-North by the NTSB, including the derailment in the Bronx in December that left four dead and 71 injured. The MTA recently announced the creation of a
Chief Safety Officer position
, and new Metro-North President Joseph Guilietti has outlined a
100-day plan
to improve safety for riders and workers. Anders said that Monday's accident will not have an impact on the implementation of the


all applicants before his visit.
Miss Indian America
Miss Delores Racine was crowned Miss Indian America at the All American Indian Days at Sheridan, Wyo. Miss Racine is the granddaughter of Mr. and Mrs. Bill Spanish of Browning, Montana. Since the Blackfoot Tribe is our neighbor, it is with respect to them that the picture of this young lady will appear in more than 2,400 copies of Char-Koosta. In the Indian language her name is Sic Pi Na Kee (Black Eyes). Photo courtesy Glacier Reporter, Browning.Cargo Sorting and Intralumenal Vesicle Budding by the ESCRT Complexes Membrane budding and fission is a fundamental process of eukaryotic cell biology. Endocytosis, the formation of intracellular transport and secretory vesicles, and mitochondrial fission are examples of inward budding. In the classical example of clathrin-mediated endocytosis, the cytosolic protein dynamin forms arrays on the outside of the membrane neck, and membrane fission is driven thermodynamically by the hydrolysis of GTP. The formation of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) is the prototypical example of outward budding. MVBs are formed during the maturation of endosomes destined to fuse with lysosomes, and mediate the sorting of ubiquitinated membrane proteins to the lysosome. Portions of the limiting membrane of the endosome are internalized to form intralumenal vesicles (ILVs). When the MVB fuses with the


trying to make some sort of news out of?"

Parrikar termed it as a show of frustration and desperation of the opposition.

On August 17, BJP's general secretary of Panaji, Pundalik Rautdessai filed two complaints as the news spread - one with the Election Commission and another - a criminal complaint - with the Cyber Crime Cell of the Goa Police against unnamed accused for propagating fake news against chief minister Manohar Parrikar.

Goa Suraksha Manch sings the 'Mannu' song.

The complaint with the Election Commission termed the clips and the news circulating mainly on social media platforms "fake" and urged it to take action.

On Friday, Shiv Sena chief Uddhav Thackeray tore into Manohar Parrikar on the supposed audio via his editorial in Sena mouthpiece Saamana. In a rather strongly worded editorial,Thackeray slammed Parrikar for his statement and "prayed" for his loss in the upcoming bypolls. The Sena chief just stopped short of blaming Parrikar of the electoral performance of BJP in Goa and said that such a statement is an insult to Prime Minister Narendra Modi. However, he did not specify how the PM was insulted.

With the bypolls around the corner it seems that this controversy has not seen its last. Expect some fireworks in the coming days. With few concrete issues to target the incumbent CM and five-time Panaji legislator with, the opposition has chosen to be innovative — a spoof on Mumbai RJ Malishka's "Sonu Song", the "Mannu song" ironically penned by his relative, Sidhanath Buyao, asks - "Panaji, do you still trust bhai".

Then there is


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Find the best things to do in London with our ultimate guide to attractions and events.

Visit London, enjoy the city’s fantastic sights and events, and make the most of the fabulous host of things to do in London. Whether you are a first-time visitor to the capital or a Londoner born and bred, you’ll discover plenty of things to see in London, from iconic London tourist attractions to unusual ideas for your days out in London.

You could also get lost in the wonders of London museums, savour some delicious traditional dishes and see London sights from a new perspective with one of the many London tours. Use the London Attractions Map to help you pinpoint all the places you want toand carry on brushing to repeat the process. After the initial swill of the brush in water, the saliva in the mouth acts as a suitable conductor for the electricity.

And if that all sounds more like a painful visit to the dentist rather than a pleasant way to spend two minutes in the bathroom, a spokesman for the manufacturers promised: 'You can't feel the electric current when you clean your teeth.'

She added: 'Even if the build-up is quite large, the brush moving up and down in the mouth is enough to dislodge them.

'As the brush also sterilizes your mouth by taking away the bacteria that are in the plaque, your mouth feels cleaner for longer.'

The Proton Magnesium Toothbrush, to give it its full name, was invented by Takanori