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C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma, 532 U.S. 411 (2001), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the tribe waived its sovereign immunity when it agreed to a contract containing an arbitration agreement.. ==Background== In 1993, the Citizen Band Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma entered into a contract with C & L Enterprises, Inc. to install a roof on a tribally owned building that was not on reservation land. Prior to the work being performed under the contract, the Potawatomi decided to use a different type of roof, re-bid the job and selected another contractor to install the roof. The contract used with C & L Enterprises was provided by the tribe and contained both an arbitration clause and a choice of law clause. C & L then sought to enforce the arbitration clause and the tribe claimed sovereign immunity. The arbitrator ruled in favor of C & L and C & L filed suit to enforce the judgment in the District Court of Oklahoma County. The trial court denied the tribes motion to dismiss based upon sovereign immunity and the tribe appealed. The Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals affirmed and the Oklahoma Supreme Court declined to review the case. It was next appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. During the time the case was pending, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Kiowa Tribe of Okla. v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc.. In view of that decision, the decision of the Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals was vacated and the case remanded. On remand, the Court of Civil Appeals held that the Potawatomi did have sovereign immunity and C & L appealed. Several other courts had held that an arbitration clause waived immunity, and the Supreme Court granted certiorari to resolve the conflict. ==Opinion of the Court== Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg delivered the opinion of the court, reversing and remanding. An Indian tribe has sovereignty and is immune from suit in a state court unless that immunity has been specifically abrogated by the United States Congress or clearly waived by the tribe. In this case, the Potawatomie Tribe entered into a contract, using a contract form that the tribe provided, that agreed to arbitration and to having the dispute heard in state court. This is a clear waiver of the tribe's sovereign immunity. ==References== ==External links== * Category:United States Constitution Article Three case law Category:United States Supreme Court cases Category:Citizen Potawatomi Nation Category:2001 in United States case law Category:United States tribal sovereign immunity case law Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
C & M Community School District was a school district headquartered in Massena, Iowa. The name was a reference to Cumberland and Massena, the two cities it served. It was almost entirely in Cass County with a small portion in Adams County."C & M." Iowa Secretary of State. Retrieved on July 19, 2018. Detail map for Massena. Circa 2002 it began a "grade sharing" arrangement with the Anita Community School District, in which the districts sent each other's students to their schools. The Anita district operated the high school while the C&M; district operated the middle school; both districts had their own elementary schools. The C&M; district had about 201 students in the 2008–2009 school year. On July 1, 2011, it merged with the Anita district to form the CAM Community School District."REORGANIZATION & DISSOLUTION ACTIONS SINCE 1965-66 ." Iowa Department of Education. Retrieved on July 20, 2018. ==References== ==External links== * * Category:Defunct school districts in Iowa Category:School districts disestablished in 2011 Category:2011 disestablishments in Iowa Category:Education in Cass County, Iowa Category:Education in Adams County, Iowa
C refers to two streetcar routes in Los Angeles, California. The lines were operated by the Los Angeles Railway from 1910 to 1932. ==History== ===Angeleno Heights and Crown Hill (1910–1923)=== The beginnings of the route begin in 1910 when the Los Angeles Railway acquired the Angeleno Heights and Crown Hill Lines from the Los Angeles Inter-Urban Electric Railway, combining them into one service. It operated on a winding circle route in and north of Downtown Los Angeles with a branch to Kensington Road and Douglas Street – cars terminated at their second stop at Bellevue Avenue and East Edgeware Road. Rebuilding of the Broadway Tunnel forced the line to be rerouted there in 1915. Under the new naming scheme adopted in 1921, the line was designated the letter C. The route operated from Douglas Street and Kensington Road via Douglas to Edgeware; Bellevue; Beaudry; Alpine; Figueroa; Boston; Bunker Hill; California; Hill; Temple; North Broadway; 1st; Hill; 5th; Olive; 6th; Flower; 3rd; Boylston; Crown Hill; Columbia; 2nd; Loma Drive; and Belmont as far as Temple. Track on the Echo Park Line was abandoned later in the year and the circle was broken, with a cars terminating at Temple Street and Belmont Avenue. === Temple Street Line (1910–1924)=== Acquired from the Pacific Electric in 1910, the Temple Street Line ran From East 1st Street and San Pedro Street to Fountain Avenue and Edgemont primarily on 1st and Temple Streets. The service was designated as the T line in 1921. ===Crown Hill and Temple Street (1923–1932)=== The T line was absorbed into a new C line, starting in November 1923 with the west end of the route with full integration the following year. The service formed a new circle route, starting and running through Bellevue Avenue and East Edgeware Road to a branch into East Hollywood. The line was straightened downtown via 5th Street after October 1925. In 1927, the Kensington Road and Douglas Street of Temple was transferred to the G. Service was rerouted downtown to rebuild the lines for eight months starting in 1931. In 1932, the former Edgeware line became a shuttle service and was designated line 32. The C was discontinued on June 12, 1932, with portions of the line being transferred to the 2 and L. ==Sources== ==External links== * Category:Los Angeles Railway routes Category:Railway services introduced in 1910 Category:1910 establishments in California Category:Railway services discontinued in 1932 Category:1932 disestablishments in California
The C Eighth Avenue Local is a rapid transit service in the B Division of the New York City Subway. Its route emblem, or "bullet", is since it uses the IND Eighth Avenue Line in Midtown Manhattan. The C operates at all times except late nights between 168th Street in Washington Heights, Manhattan, and Euclid Avenue in East New York, Brooklyn, making all stops along its entire route. During late night hours, the train, which runs express along the entire C route during daytime hours, makes all stops. Historically, most C service ran only during rush hours, along the IND Concourse Line to Bedford Park Boulevard in the Bronx and later along the IND Rockaway Line to Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street in Queens. Prior to 1985, the local C service was referred to as the CC, with the C designation reserved for a complementary express service that was discontinued in 1949. The CC was once the only route to serve the Bronx, Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Queens in a single trip. Outside of rush hour, local service in Manhattan was usually provided by the AA, later relabeled K, which ran between 168th Street and Chambers Street/World Trade Center. In 1988, the K and C were consolidated into one service, and during the 1990s, the C's routing was altered to create the current service pattern. , the C has a daily ridership of 250,000. == History == ===Original IND service=== The AA and CC services were the predecessors to the current C service. A and AA service began on September 10, 1932, with the opening of the first line of the Independent Subway System (IND), the Eighth Avenue Line. The IND used single letters to refer to express services and double letters for local services. The A ran express and the AA ran local from 168th Street to Chambers Street/World Trade Center, known at the time as Hudson Terminal. The AA ran at all times, and it was extended to 207th Street during nights and on Sundays when the A did not run. On February 1, 1933, the AA was extended to the newly- opened Jay Street–Borough Hall station when the A did not run, continuing to terminate at Chambers Street when the A did run. The C and CC services began operation on July 1, 1933, when the IND Concourse Line opened. The CC provided local service between Bedford Park Boulevard and Hudson Terminal during rush hours, and was extended to 205th Street during non-rush hours. It replaced the AA as Eighth Avenue Local. The C ran express, from 205th Street to Bergen Street in Brooklyn during rush hours, running express on the Concourse Line in the peak direction. C trains left Bergen Street between 3:30 p.m. and 6:50 p.m., and left 205th Street between 6:33 a.m. and 11:26 a.m. C trains ran every 4 minutes during rush hours in the peak direction, and every 5 minutes in the reverse-peak direction, and ran with 6- and 7-car trains. During morning rush hours, CC trains operated to 205th Street until 7:30 a.m., and to Tremont Avenue between 7:30 a.m. and 11:30 a.m.. PM rush hour CC trains terminated at Bedford Park Boulevard, and several other trains terminated and originated at Bedford Park Boulevard. CC trains ran every 4 minutes during rush hours, 5 minutes during middays, every 5 and 6 trains during evenings, and every 12 minutes overnight. Trains ran with 5 cars during rush hours, and with 3 cars other times. On August 17, 1933, CC trains stopped terminating at Tremont Avenue. Beginning August 19, 1933, C service was cut back from Bergen Street, but started operating during non-rush hours. At the same time, CC service was cut back from 205th Street during non-rush hours. On January 1, 1936, C service was extended to Jay Street–Borough Hall. On April 9, 1936, C service was extended to Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets. After July 1, 1937, a few C trains continued to run to Bergen Street southbound in the morning rush hour and northbound in the evening rush hour. Also on the same date, weekend C service was discontinued, and CC service was extended to 205th Street to compensate. ===IND Sixth Avenue Line opens=== On December 15, 1940, the IND Sixth Avenue Line opened. Two new services, the BB (later ) and , began running. These lines ran on the Eighth Avenue Line in upper Manhattan, switching to the Sixth Avenue Line in Midtown. The BB ran local to 168th Street during rush hours. The D joined the C as the peak direction Concourse Express. CC trains now ran between Hudson Terminal and Bedford Park during rush hours and on Saturdays and during other times, the D made local stops in the Bronx, replacing CC service. On the same date, limited morning rush hour service began between 205th Street, Bronx and Utica Avenue, Brooklyn, making local stops on the IND Fulton Street Line. AA service was reinstated during this time, but only during off-peak hours (non-rush hours, late Saturday afternoons and Sundays) when the BB and CC did not operate. The CC would provide Eighth Avenue Line local service during rush hours, with the AA replacing it during off-peak hours, mostly unchanged until 1988. In the 1940s, C trains ran every 10 minutes during rush hour, CC trains ran every 4 minutes, and D trains ran every 5 minutes. On October 24, 1949, C express service was discontinued. Additional D service was added to offset this loss. The CC, which only ran during rush hours, began terminating at Broadway–Lafayette Street Mondays to Fridays, and on Saturdays CC service continued to operate to Hudson Terminal. On December 29, 1951, Saturday CC service was discontinued. Weekday CC service returned to its previous terminal at Hudson Terminal on October 30, 1954. File:AA Train (1967-1979).svg File:CC Train (1967-1979).svg 1967–1979 bullets On August 30, 1976, the CC train replaced the train as the rush-hour local along the IND Fulton Street Line and IND Rockaway Line, running from Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street in Queens through Brooklyn and Manhattan to Bedford Park Boulevard in the Bronx, making it the only service to run through all four boroughs served by the subway. The Rockaway Park Shuttle HH was renamed CC. This shuttle ran between Broad Channel and Rockaway Park during off-peak hours, except late nights. With this, all daytime service to and from Rockaway Park was named CC. Late nights, the shuttle ran between Euclid Avenue, Rockaway Park and Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue via Hammels Wye, and was labeled A. File:AA Train (1979-1985).svg File:CC Train - diamond.svg 1979–1985 bullets On August 28, 1977, late night AA service was eliminated. The A began making local stops in Manhattan during late nights, when the AA was not running. On May 6, 1985, the IND practice of using double letters to indicate local service was discontinued. The AA was renamed the K and rush hour CC service was renamed C. The off-peak Rockaway Park Shuttle was renamed . This change was not officially reflected in schedules until May 24, 1987. 80px 1985–1988 C bullet File:K Train (1985-1987).svg 1985–1988 K bullet ===Modern service consolidations=== On December 10, 1988, the K designation was discontinued and merged into the C, which now ran at all times except late nights. The C ran from Bedford Park Boulevard to Rockaway Park during rush hours, 145th Street to Euclid Avenue during middays, and from 145th Street to World Trade Center during evenings and weekends. The A now ran express in Brooklyn during middays, and the B was extended to 168th Street during middays and early evenings. On October 23, 1992, rush hour C service was cut back from Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street to Euclid Avenue. The 1992 change introduced five A trips in each direction run from 59th Street–Columbus Circle to Rockaway Park during rush hours, with the Rockaway Park Shuttle (renamed from H to S) operating between Broad Channel and Rockaway Park at all times. On May 29, 1994, weekend service between 7 a.m. and 11 p.m. was extended to Washington Heights–168th Street (effectively recreating the old AA) to allow A trains to run express. Beginning April 30, 1995, C service was extended to 168th Street during middays as construction on the Manhattan Bridge cut B service from Manhattan. On November 11, 1995, midday service was cut back to 145th Street after B service to 168th Street was restored. The B and the C, which both ran local along Central Park West, switched northern terminals on March 1, 1998, ending the connection between the C and the Bronx. Instead of alternating between three different terminals depending on the time of day, all C service now terminated at 168th Street. The change was made to reduce crowding on the C and to reduce passenger confusion about the C's route. Starting on May 2, 1999, C trains were extended to Euclid Avenue on evenings and weekends; The 1999 change had the C now run local in Brooklyn and Manhattan, and the A express, at all times except late nights. In the wake of the September 11, 2001, attacks, World Trade Center station was temporarily not usable as a terminal for the E. C service was suspended until September 24. Local service along Central Park West was replaced by the A and D, and the E was extended from Canal Street to Euclid Avenue replacing C service in Brooklyn. On January 23, 2005, a fire at the Chambers Street signal room crippled A and C service. C service was suspended until February 2 and was replaced by the A, B, D, E, and V along different parts of its route. Initial assessments suggested that it would take several years to restore normal service, but the damaged equipment was replaced with available spare parts, and normal service resumed on April 21. From midday on March 29, 2020 to April 29, 2020, C trains were suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, and A trains to Lefferts Boulevard ran local in their place. ==Maintenance and rider issues== ===Criticism=== In August 2012, the Straphangers Campaign rated the C train the worst of the city's subway services for the fourth straight year. No other service has ranked worst for more than three years in a row. The group found that the C performed worst in three of the six categories in its annual State of the Subways Report Card: amount of scheduled service, interior cleanliness, and breakdown rate. It also ranked next-to-worst in car announcement quality, after the 7, but performed above average in regularity of service and crowding. The New York Times called the C the "least loved of New York City subway lines", citing its fleet of R32s, which were almost 50 years old at the time the Times reported on the issue. The New York Times has also stated that the C train "rattled and clanked along the deteriorating maze of tracks beneath the city, tin-clad markers of years of neglect." In 2017, the Times referred to the R32s on the C as the world's oldest subway cars "in continuous daily operation". The R32s were initially retired in late April 2020, but were temporarily pressed back into service from July through October 2020 and finally retired in early January 2022. In January 2020, the R179 fleet that replaced the R32 was pulled from service due to two incidents involving R179 cars. This resulted in some service cutbacks that were later somewhat reverted when the R179s were investigated and placed back into service. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City and too few crews to run trains, the route was suspended entirely from March 29 to April 29, 2020, when C trains began running 75 percent of normal service. The cutbacks meant that wait times during rush hours increased from 8 to 12 minutes. In March 2021, TWU 100, the union for subway workers, sued the MTA in order to prevent the reduced frequencies from being permanent. That same month, the MTA decided to bring back full C service; full service was restored in mid-2021. ===Improvements=== In 2011, problems with the R32s were at a peak as the fleet's failure rate was rising steadily. In 2012, money was directed to replace the R32 with the R179. Bombardier Transportation won the $600 million contract to build 300 new cars. The R179s were expected to replace the R32s with some being allocated to the C. However, delivery of the R179s was delayed until 2017 and the R32s momentarily remained in service after the order was completed, so stopgap measures were implemented. All trains on the C were only long, partially due to lower ridership levels on the route, according to NYC Transit's Rapid Transit Loading Guideline. This contrasted to those on the rest of the mainline B Division (except for the Eastern Division and the train), which are long. In the summer of 2010, some 600-foot-long R44 trains ran on the C, displacing some R32s, whose air conditioning units were repaired. In the summers of 2011 and 2012, some 600-foot-long R46 trains were used on the C, while the R32s were used on the A, which had significant outdoor sections where the air conditioning units did not have to be used. In the summers of 2013 and 2014 as well as from May 2015 to February 2019, some 480-foot-long R160As ran on the C, covering half of its fleet, because of the R32s' continuously aging air compressors caused by the entirely underground C route. Concurrently, some R32s in exchange were transferred to East New York Yard, where they were used on the mostly outdoor . On December 16, 2017, after several failed proposals to permanently lengthen C trains as ridership increased, some 600-foot-long R46 trains were reassigned to the C, displacing some more R32s, which were reassigned to the A. On November 6, 2018, some 480-foot-long R179 trains started running on the C, gradually displacing the R160As back to East New York Yard by February 6, 2019. Since delivery of the R179s, they have periodically experienced major mechanical and technical issues, forcing the MTA to remove them from service system-wide for brief periods of time to allow these issues to be corrected. == Route == === Service pattern === The following table shows the lines used by the C: Line From To Tracks IND Eighth Avenue Line 168th Street Canal Street local IND Eighth Avenue Line Chambers Street High Street all IND Fulton Street Line Jay Street–MetroTech Euclid Avenue local === Stations === For a more detailed station listing, see the articles on the lines listed above. 20px|C service Stations Subway transfers Connections Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Eighth Avenue Line Eighth Avenue Line Eighth Avenue Line Eighth Avenue Line Eighth Avenue Line (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) Bx6 Select Bus Service (IND Concourse Line) M60 Select Bus Service to LaGuardia Airport M86 Select Bus Service M79 Select Bus Service (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) ↓ (IND Queens Boulevard Line) Station is ADA-accessible in the southbound direction only. (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) (IRT Flushing Line) (BMT Broadway Line) (42nd Street Shuttle) at (IND Sixth Avenue Line at , daytime only) Port Authority Bus Terminal M34A Select Bus Service M34 / M34A Select Bus Service Amtrak, LIRR, NJ Transit at Pennsylvania Station M23 Select Bus Service (BMT Canarsie Line at ) M14A/D Select Bus Service (IND Sixth Avenue Line) PATH at 20px|alt=Elevator access to mezzanine only (at ) (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line at ) (BMT Broadway Line at ) PATH at (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) (IRT Lexington Avenue Line) (BMT Nassau Street Line) PATH at Brooklyn Brooklyn Brooklyn Brooklyn Brooklyn NYC Ferry: East River and South Brooklyn routes (at Old Fulton Street and Furman Street) Fulton Street Line Fulton Street Line Fulton Street Line Fulton Street Line Fulton Street Line (BMT Fourth Avenue Line) 20px|alt=Elevator access to mezzanine only (IND Crosstown Line) (BMT Franklin Avenue Line) B44 Select Bus Service, LIRR Atlantic Branch at B15 bus to JFK Int'l Airport B46 Select Bus Service (BMT Jamaica Line) (BMT Canarsie Line) ==Notes== == References == == External links == * MTA NYC Transit – C Eighth Avenue Local * * * MTA NYC Transit – A C Line Review ** Main Document # Category:New York City Subway services
C is a service on the S-train network in Copenhagen. It serves the Klampenborg radial and the inner part of the Frederikssund radial, and also reinforces service on the outer part of the Frederikssund radial in high-traffic period. Service C is one of the base services on the network, running between Ballerup and Klampenborg every 20 minutes from about 5:00 to 1:00 every day. Between about 6:00 to 19:00 on Monday to Saturday it runs every 10 minutes, and in this period half of the trains continue from Ballerup to Frederikssund. On Friday and Saturday nights there is also a 30 minutes service throughout the night. ==History== The C service was created in 1950 when the service between Ballerup and Holte (see service B) was split into two in order to make the timetable correspond better in Vanløse. Ever since then C has been primarily a Ballerup service. Name Southern end Years Northern end C Frederikssundbanen: all stops to Ballerup 1950–1955 Nordbanen: all stops to Holte in rush hours C Frederikssundbanen: all stops to Ballerup 1955–1963 as above except non-stop Hellerup-Lyngby C Frederikssundbanen: all stops to Ballerup 1963–1964 as above, but ran daytime Mo-Sa C Frederikssundbanen: all stops to Ballerup 1964–1972 as above, but ran all day Mo-Sa C to Ballerup, non-stop Vanløse-Herlev 1972–1973 as above, but ran all day Mo-Sa C daytime Mo-Fr as above, otherwise all stops to Vanløse 1973–1979 as above, but only daytime Mo-Fr Cc to Ballerup daytime Mo-Fr, non-stop Valby-Vanløse-Herlev 1979–1989 as above, but only daytime Mo-Fr C Frederikssundbanen: all stops to Ballerup 1979–1989 Klampenborgbanen: all stops to Klampenborg C Frederikssundbanen: all stops to Ballerup 1989–2007 Klampenborgbanen: all stops to Klampenborg C all stops to Ballerup; some daytime trains to Frederikssund Sep 2007- Klampenborgbanen: all stops to Klampenborg Note that from 1979 to 1989 both Cc and C services ran. Until 1979, in the time C ran to Ballerup but not to Holte it ordinarily terminated in Hellerup. These trains were routinely extended to Klampenborg on Sundays where the weather was good enough to attract more passengers than the ordinary service could transport. Between 1972 and 1979 the stopping Ballerup service was called H. The rush-hour service Cx ran from 1966 to 1993: Name Southern end Years Northern end Cx Frederikssundbanen: to Ballerup; non-stop København H-Herlev 1966–1972 terminated at Østerport Cx to Ballerup; non-stop København H-Jyllingevej 1972–1977 Nordbanen: to Hillerød; non-stop until Holte Cx to Ballerup; non-stop København H-Jyllingevej 1977–1989 as above plus stop in Lyngby Cx to Ballerup; non-stop Valby-Jyllingevej 1989–1993 terminated at København H Superseded by service H+ Superseded by service H+ Superseded by service H+ Superseded by service H+ Category:S-train (Copenhagen)
C is a 2011 Japanese anime television series produced by Tatsunoko Production. The story follows Kimimaro Yoga, an economics student who is introduced to the alternate reality of the Financial District, where people bet their own futures in battles. Entres—the series' term for the fighters—can accumulate large quantities of money by winning but they will have their futures altered if they lose. As the story proceeds Kimimaro starts to perceive the effects of the Financial District's existence in the real world. The anime was directed by Kenji Nakamura, who was given the opportunity to create a storyline for an original series. Nakamura was affected by the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers—one of the key events of the financial crisis of 2007–08—and envisioned a story about economic battles. He was moved by stories he heard during the interviews he conducted with people related to the economics field, and the series became darker in tone during its development. Through macroeconomics jargon, the series addresses trust and the need to act to ensure a better future. The series was broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV's Noitamina programming block between April 15 and June 24, 2011, before being released on DVD and Blu-Ray discs by Toho. It was simulcasted with a week's delay by Funimation Entertainment in the United States, by Siren Visual in Australia, and by Anime on Demand in the United Kingdom. The anime also aired in the United States on the Funimation Channel and on Pivot in 2013. Its home media distribution was handled by Funimation in the United States, by Siren Visual in Australia, and by MVM Entertainment in the United Kingdom. Cs premise and core concept have been praised by Western reviewers, who were nonetheless disappointed by the execution of the story and the development of the characters. One of the critics' main concerns was that the story was inconclusive and that some plot elements were not fully worked. Its art received mixed responses but was highly criticized for its use of 3D computer graphics, while the musical score was mainly praised. The series has also been highlighted both as a good action show and as a series that can arouse reflective discussions on economic philosophy. ==Plot== C is set in a world where Japan goes through a financial crisis that causes high rates of unemployment, crime, and suicide. The series revolves around Kimimaro Yoga, a 19-year-old boy raised by his aunt after his father disappeared and his mother died. A scholarship student of economics, his only dream is to live a stable, ordinary life. One day he meets Masakaki, a mysterious man who offers him a large amount of money if he will allow his "future" to be held as collateral. When Kimimaro accepts the money, he becomes an "Entre" (short for "entrepreneur") and is drawn into the alternative reality of the Financial District, where Entres make transactions using a special currency called Midas Money. In the Financial District, each Entre is paired with a special creature who personifies their futures known as "Assets"; Kimimaro is designated to be accompanied by Mashu, a horned girl who can conjure up fire-based attacks. Entres are summoned there once a week to compete against each other, betting their money in a battle known as "Deal". Entres who lose all of their money and become bankrupt are banished from the Financial District with tragic consequences to them or their loved ones in reality. Kimimaro first discovers this when he defeats one of his professors, Daisuke Ebara, who entered Deals to support his family. Daisuke's punishment for bankruptcy is the erasure of his children from history. Kimimaro discovers that bankruptcy led his father to commit suicide and he finds a reason to continue there despite his disinterest in money and his fear of hurting others. Kimimaro's attitude attracts veteran Entre Soichiro Mikuni, who wants him to join the Starling Guild, whose members' aim is to win by small margins so their victories do not greatly affect reality. Mikuni has a great influence over both the Japanese Government and the whole of Japan's finance market and aims to own Tokyo's Financial District. Born into a wealthy family, Mikuni was a rebel who wanted to be a musician; as his band broke up, Mikuni became a personal assistant to his father. When the elder Mikuni's corporation started to crumble as a result of the financial crisis, he chose to save it, denying his terminally ill daughter Takako the funds she needed to undergo a medical procedure unavailable in Japan. Swearing vengeance on his father after Takako fell into a coma, Mikuni bought out his father's company with the money he earned from his first victory in the Financial District to take away the thing his father held most dear. Because of this, Mikuni's Asset, Q, is modeled after his sister. It is later revealed the risk is not limited to the individual Entres' futures. Kimimaro starts to notice a few buildings disappearing in Tokyo. Later, the Southeast Asian Financial District goes bankrupt and starts disappearing, along with Singapore, and parts of Hong Kong and Shanghai. Mikuni uses his ability, "Darkness", to protect Japan from the effects of the district's collapse. In exchange for 20 years of Mikuni's future, Masakaki allows a large quantity of Midas Money to be printed and deposited into Mikuni's account. Mikuni and his colleagues use the Midas Money to invest in failing institutions in Japan. Artificially propping up failing banks and enterprises spares the Japanese economy but causes unintended consequences. People begin disappearing, poverty increases, birth rates decline, and morale drops as the Midas Money starts to invade the real Tokyo. To investigate the nature of Financial Districts, the International Monetary Fund sends Jennifer Sato to become an Entre in Tokyo. Seeing the effects of Mikuni's actions, Sato and Kimimaro try to stop him from using up his remaining future to print more Midas Money. Mikuni defeats Sato after she passes her Asset, George, to Kimimaro, who confronts Mikuni when he is about to use the Midas Money press in exchange for rest of his future. With the help of Masakaki, Kimimaro realizes he is in possession of a black card, giving him the means to revert the press. A struggle for control over the press ensues, and Mikuni and Kimimaro engage in a Deal. The battle is concluded when Midas Money disappears from the world along with Mikuni's powers, allowing the crisis to pass through Japan without influence. Declared the winner, Kimimaro orders the reversing of the presses and the return of the futures to their original places. With the Assets disappearing as a result, Mashu kisses Kimimaro before she disappears. Kimimaro then returns to reality to find that US dollar has become Japan's official currency and everyone's futures have been returned to them. However, Masakaki appears before Kimimaro and explains to him that the Financial District can reappear. ==Voice cast== Characters Japanese English Kimimaro Yoga Kōki Uchiyama Todd Haberkorn Mashu Haruka Tomatsu Brina Palencia Soichiro Mikuni Daisuke Hosomi J. Michael Tatum Q Saori Gotō Monica Rial Masakaki Takahiro Sakurai Scott Freeman Jennifer Sato Mayumi Asano Martha Harms ==Production== ===Staff=== C was produced by Tatsunoko Production and was directed by Kenji Nakamura. The script was chiefly written by Noboru Takagi, who was helped by Manabu Ishikawa, Shinsuke Onishi and Kenji Sugihara. Character designs were handled by Mebae, animation character design was done by Takashi Hashimoto, while Yuuho Taniuchi was in charge of art design, and Keiichi Sato was the conceptual designer. Kōji Yamamoto was the main producer, working with producers Makoto Kimura, Daisuke Konaka and Takeshi Yoda. Hashimoto was the main animation director, Hiroshi Itō was the art director, and Yuzo Sato was the CGI director. Taku Iwasaki composed the musical score and Yukio Nagasaki was the sound director. ===Development=== The idea of a money-themed anime arose after the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers in 2008, an event that resulted in the largest bankruptcy filing in U.S. history and is considered one of the key events of the financial crisis of 2007–08 that led to the Great Recession. At first, however, the anime's focus was not on money itself; its premise involved economic battles taking place around the world and the plan was to create something lighter than the final result. The premise changed around January 2010 at the culmination of the recession, when Nakamura perceived a common feeling that Japan would not recover from the crash. After researching the history of currency, between February and August 2010 he conducted over twenty interviews with retired politicians from the Central Bank, finance professionals, college professors, nonprofit organization (NPO) members and other experts. He expected to find a broad consensus but was frustrated by obtaining too many divergent opinions and to know there was no such consensus in economics because it involves human action. Nakamura was moved by the stories of two interviewees; a trader impressed that U.S. CEOs were dealing with billions of dollars at the same time the Japanese economy was in poor condition, showing his concern for his country on the world stage; and the story of the Future Bank Business Association, an NPO that provided loans to individuals to upgrade their old refrigerators to more efficient models and that received the payment with the difference in energy savings. For Nakamura, both interviews showed the interviewees' desire to help Japan despite their divergent opinions on how to do it. The interviewees made clear Japanese people should act and that they could choose between having stability and poverty or chaos and wealth. Nakamura concluded that not deciding which path to take led to ruinous consequences, that waiting was not an option, and that people should design the future in the present. At the same time, he was worried the Japanese were abandoning their concern for the future generation by pushing financial risk into the future. By hearing inspiring stories, Nakamura pondered why people would try to help someone they had never met; he considers this question and the necessity to act to build a better future to be the main themes of C. Nakamura appointed Naoki Osaka, the editor-in-chief of economics publisher Toyo Keizai, to be the anime's advisor and concluded he could not make a "light" economic story. Nakamura purposely made the Financial District setting seem other-worldly, although it is connected to the real world. This way he could fulfill one of the missions an anime has in his opinion; to present a difficult and specialized theme in a soft way to an unfamiliar audience. He kept the story as a battle anime as a means of keeping it entertaining, which also gave him the possibility of changing it into a more in-depth media, gradually introducing finance and macroeconomics jargon metaphorically through the battles. On portraying the characters and their reasons to battle, and after reading the gambling-themed manga Kaiji, Naoki and Nakamura tried to avoid depicting money as something that would unequivocally make people crazy, and felt this path should be avoided. ==Themes and analysis== Kimimaro's objectives in life were interpreted as representing those of an average 21st- century person. When he succeeds in the Financial District, the other characters say it is a rarity for a newcomer, which was interpreted as a metaphor for "the difficulty regular people have in finding a secure economic foothold nowadays, when nepotism is rife amongst big money institutes". Kimimaro and Mikuni can be seen as depicting different perspectives about money and the morals of pursuing and accumulating it. Nakamura did not present any view as the correct one, but preferred to leave grey areas for the viewer; "Control asks how far you're willing to go for moneyand how far is too far". Others thought it was not a neutral presentation and that "it can serve as a broad treatise against modern economics and globalism". The recurrence of the number 666 was interpreted as a subtle affirmation that "money is the root of all evil". In the context of a crash, Nakamura may have tried "to reflect the sense of futility and confusion" it caused. In such a scenario, "To most people, moneyserious, high level money and the inner workings of the real world finance sectorsis confusing at best, unknowable at worst". The financial markets and credit were highlighted as the anime's focus. One reviewer said the anime could be directed towards the extension of the modern credit ("After we leverage our retirement funds, aren't our futures the next logical step?") or the credit itself ("Is getting money now and working it and its compounding interest off for years to come really that different from trading on future potential for present gain?"). Business and banking were also considered the anime's subject because they were portrayed as "the ultimate form of gambling". The story's exchange of a portion of one's life for money could also be interpreted as a metaphor for wage labor. Following that logic, the Deals become a metaphor for commerce because one takes another person's money, which represents the slice of a person's life. The show also depicts the value of money as a mutually-agreed-upon cultural fiction that can disappear when the agreement breaks, meaning one's life is exchanged for what is merely inked paper. ==Release== No. Episode title First airing English Japanese 1 Complication 2011-04-15 2 Coincidence 2011-04-22 3 Conspiracy 2011-04-29 4 Conversion 2011-05-06 5 Cultivation 2011-05-13 6 Conflict 2011-05-20 7 Composition 2011-05-27 8 Confidence 2011-06-03 9 Collapse 2011-06-10 10 Collision 2011-06-17 11 Control 2011-06-24 The series' eleven episodes were initially broadcast consecutively on Fuji Television's anime-dedicated block Noitamina from April 15, to June 24, 2011. The series was licensed to be simulcasted on the Internet in six territories, including the English-speaking Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Funimation Entertainment and Anime on Demand simulcasted the series starting from April 21, 2011 on their own respective websites, while Siren Visual made it available through Anime News Network in Australia on April 22. In the United States, the series also aired on the Funimation Channel beginning on January 14, 2013, and on Pivot TV from October 5, 2013. In the United Kingdom, after Anime on Demand went defunct, it was added to Animax UK's streaming site; the first episode was available on March 6, 2015. The episodes of C were later released on DVD and Blu-Ray in Japan; produced by Pony Canyon, the four volumes were released by Toho between August 19 and November 25, 2011. A rental version of the DVD was also made available by Toho from September 9 and December 9, 2011. In the United States, Funimation released an English- dubbed version of the series in a DVD/Blu-ray combo limited edition set on October 30, 2012; a budget-priced re-release followed on July 19, 2016. In Australia and in the United Kingdom, it was released as a DVD box set with English and Japanese audio available on November 15, 2012, by Siren Visual, and on October 14, 2013, by MVM Entertainment, respectively. All of the episodes had sung by Nico Touches the Walls as the opening theme and "RPG" sung by School Food Punishment as the ending theme. Along with the score composed by Taku Iwasaki, these songs were released in a 24-track original soundtrack CD by Sony Music Entertainment Japan's Ki/oon Music label on August 17, 2011. ==Reception== Sales data for C are scarce; the first DVD and Blu- Ray volume sold 460 and 1,180 copies respectively. The anime has been praised for its themes and originality, but is sometimes criticized for its execution and story. UK Anime Network's Andy Hanley wrote that if the series "managed to live up to its lofty ambitions and goals", it would be "an absolute classic". Bradley Meek of THEM Anime Reviews and Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network (ANN) were more specific on the cause of the problem, saying that despite its unique, interesting concepts, poor writing and the "dully unimaginative narrative mechanics" hinder its potential. Likewise, Luke Carroll, also from ANN, praised it for trying new ideas not previously seen in anime but said it does not deliver them satisfactorily. In a more positive review, Erin Finnegan of Otaku USA said although there was no satisfactory conclusion, viewers wanting something unusual would find it worth watching. The most positive analysis was done by The Fandom Post's Chris Beveridge, who said the series "does all ties things together well and leaves you with a satisfied feeling about the overall experience". André Van Renssen from Active Anime and Meek found C to be interesting mainly as an action show. The latter called the Deals "one of the great things about this series", while Carroll found them "surprisingly intense". In opposition, Beveridge praised C for avoiding a sole focus on the battles and providing a show that centers on the characters' actions, highlighting "the tightness of the themes and the gray areas that drive it all home". Finnegan called it a "smart show" that has "thoughtful themes about the economy's effect on people's lives". Although Hanley and Carroll also saw this reflective aspect in a positive light, Kimlinger regarded it as a negative, saying debating economic philosophy is the show's sole point of interest and calling its story "a total and utter bore". Most reviewers found the story to be inconclusive, including Finnegan, who said the series fails to communicate its points, an opinion shared by Carroll. The latter cited the use of shares, Kimimaro's father and his diary, and the way elements of the story relate to Mashu as aspects that are left unresolved or are not satisfactorily concluded. Another example, highlighted by UK Anime's Elliot Page and Hanley, is Kimimaro's love interestone of the plot elements that Page said are introduced and then forgotten. Hanley said these oversights and poor characterizations restrain the story's potential. The main problem, according to Hanley, is Kimimaro's passivity, which Kimlinger likewise noted. Meek found the characters' motivations are neither relatable nor interesting, criticizing Mikuni's portrayal as someone who wants to safeguard his ailing younger sister but is prepared to sacrifice the rest of the world. Kimlinger wrote that several characters only embody plot points and have no personalities, while Meek also criticized Mashu and Sato as fanservice characters. Hanley said Mikuni's backstory was a weak aspect that adds little to the story, in opposition to Kimlinger, who found it "surprisingly moving", and Beveridge, who described it as "strong". The most positive analysis of the characters was done by Beveridge, who said Kimimaro is a good lead character and Mikuni "gives it that elevated feeling". The art of the series has been mainly criticized for the way it handled its 3D computer graphics scenes. Both Carroll and Hanley described the 3D graphics as "hit-and-miss"; the former considered it his biggest complaint about the show, while the latter thought the visuals were "initially eye-catching and expressive". Japanators's Ben Huber said despite poor computer graphics, the overall animation was worthy of compliment. Van Renssen emphasized how it affected the character designs, saying their drawn counterparts are better, but he and Huber noticed the use of CG decreases as the series progresses. Although Finnegan described it as an "art-house looking series" and the character design as appealing and original, Carroll and Page mostly criticized it, with the latter writing that, except for Masakaki, "all of the male characters look downright ugly". Carroll said the character art is "rather average for most of the cast, the notable exceptions being the Assets"; both Van Renssen and Kimlinger praised the Assets and its powers' diversity. While criticizing the characters, Page commended the anime's backgrounds, especially those of the Financial District. Carroll, on the other hand, lamented the Financial District's lack of structural details, such as windows and doors. Kimlinger praised the artwork and called the series "a flashy, elaborately animated treat for the eyes". Beveridge especially praised the Financial District, saying, "The series works a very good look". One of the aspects that were mostly praised is the series' music. Page said, "One thing I can praise without qualifier is that the background music ... is very good". Van Renssen highlighted the music on summarizing the show's qualities and also praised the opening and ending themes, which Huber called "pretty awesome". The themes were also praised by Carroll, as well as its "moody background music [that] suits the tone of the series well"; he deemed it "an average but solid affair" on the audio aspect. Kimlinger wrote that most of the series' emotions are communicated through "the great Taku Iwasaki's beautiful, moody score". Its sound effects were highlighted by Beveridge because they "drive home its point". ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2011 Japanese television series debuts Category:2011 Japanese television series endings Category:Action anime and manga Category:Anime with original screenplays Category:Funimation Category:Mystery anime and manga Category:Noitamina Category:Tatsunoko Production
C (stylized as 「C」) is the debut studio album by Japanese entertainer Miho Nakayama. Released through King Records on August 21, 1985, the album features Nakayama's debut single "C". The album peaked at No. 11 on Oricon's albums chart and sold over 90,000 copies. == Track listing == ==Charts== Chart (1985) Peak position Japanese Albums (Oricon) 11 ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1985 debut albums Category:Miho Nakayama albums Category:Japanese- language albums Category:King Records (Japan) albums
C or Do is the first note and semitone of the C major scale, the third note of the A minor scale (the relative minor of C major), and the fourth note (G, A, B, C) of the Guidonian hand, commonly pitched around 261.63 Hz. The actual frequency has depended on historical pitch standards, and for transposing instruments a distinction is made between written and sounding or concert pitch. It has enharmonic equivalents of B and D. In English the term Do is used interchangeably with C only by adherents of fixed Do solfège; in the movable Do system Do refers to the tonic of the prevailing key. ==Frequency== Historically, concert pitch has varied. For an instrument in equal temperament tuned to the A440 pitch standard widely adopted in 1939, middle C has a frequency around 261.63 Hz (for other notes see piano key frequencies). Scientific pitch was originally proposed in 1713 by French physicist Joseph Sauveur and based on the numerically convenient frequency of 256 Hz for middle C, all C's being powers of two. After the A440 pitch standard was adopted by musicians, the Acoustical Society of America published new frequency tables for scientific use. A movement to restore the older A435 standard has used the banners "Verdi tuning", "philosophical pitch" or the easily confused scientific pitch. ==Octave nomenclature== ===Middle C=== Middle C (the fourth C key from left on a standard 88-key piano keyboard) is designated C4 in scientific pitch notation, and c′ in Helmholtz pitch notation; it is note number 60 in MIDI notation."MIDI Note/Key Number Chart", computermusicresource.com While the expression Middle C is generally clear across instruments and clefs, some musicians naturally use the term to refer to the C note in the middle of their specific instrument's range. C4 may be called Low C by someone playing a Western concert flute, which has a higher and narrower playing range than the piano, while C5 (523.251 Hz) would be Middle C. This technically inaccurate practice has led some pedagogues to encourage standardizing on C4 as the definitive Middle C in instructional materials across all instruments. On the Grand Staff, Middle C is notated with a ledger line above the top line of the bass staff or below the bottom line of the treble staff. Alternatively, it is written on the centre line of a staff using the alto clef, or on the fourth line from the bottom, or the second line from the top, of staves using the tenor clef. ===Other octaves=== In vocal music, the term High C (sometimes called Top C) can refer to either the soprano's C6 (1046.502 Hz; c′′′ in Helmholtz notation) or the tenor's C5; both are written as the C two ledger lines above the treble clef but the tenor voice sings an octave lower. Tenor C is an organ builder's term for small C or C3 (130.813 Hz), the note one octave below Middle C. In older stoplists it usually means that a rank was not yet full compass, omitting the bottom octave, until that octave was added later on. ==Designation by octave== Scientific designation Helmholtz designation Octave name Frequency (Hz) Other names Audio C−1 C͵͵͵ or ͵͵͵C or CCCC Octocontra Quadruple Low C (64′ Organ Pipes) 100px C0 C͵͵ or ͵͵C or CCC Subcontra Triple Low C (32′ Organ Pipes), Octobass C 100px C1 C͵ or ͵C or CC Contra Double Low C (16′ Organ Pipes), Double Bass w/ either Low C Extension, 5 Strings, or in 5ths Tuning 100px C2 C Great Low C, cello C, 8′ C (see organ pipe length) 100px C3 c Small 4′ C or Tenor C (organ), viola C, Tenor Middle C (Tenor Voice) 100px C4 c′ One-lined Middle C for Sopranos, 2′ Organ pipes 100px C5 c′′ Two-lined Treble C, Tenor High C (written an octave higher for tenor voices),"The Note That Makes Us Weep" by Daniel J. Wakin, The New York Times, September 9, 2007 1′ Organ Pipes 100px C6 c′′′ Three-lined align="right" High C (soprano) 100px C7 c′′′′ Four- lined align="right" Double high C 100px C8 c′′′′′ Five-lined align="right" Eighth octave C, triple high C 100px C9 c′′′′′′ Six-lined align="right" Quadruple high C C10 c′′′′′′′ Seven-lined align="right" Quintuple high C For a classical piano and musical theory, the middle C is usually labelled as C4; however, in the MIDI standard definition (like the one used in Apple’s GarageBand), this middle C (261.626 Hz) is labelled C3. In practice, a MIDI software can label middle C (261.626 Hz) as C3–C5, which can cause confusion, especially for beginners. The frequencies given in this table are based on the standard that A = 440 Hz and with equal temperament ==Graphic presentation== ==Scales== ===Common scales beginning on C=== * C major: C D E F G A B C * C natural minor: C D E F G A B C * C harmonic minor: C D E F G A B C * C melodic minor ascending: C D E F G A B C * C melodic minor descending: C B A G F E D C ===Diatonic scales=== * C Ionian: C D E F G A B C * C Dorian: C D E F G A B C * C Phrygian: C D E F G A B C * C Lydian: C D E F G A B C * C Mixolydian: C D E F G A B C * C Aeolian: C D E F G A B C * C Locrian: C D E F G A B C ===Jazz melodic minor=== * C ascending melodic minor: C D E F G A B C * C Dorian ♭2: C D E F G A B C * C Lydian augmented: C D E F G A B C * C Lydian dominant: C D E F G A B C * C Mixolydian ♭6: C D E F G A B C * C Locrian ♮2: C D E F G A B C * C altered: C D E F G A B C ==See also== * Piano key frequencies * A440 (pitch standard) * C major * C minor * Root (chord) ==References== Category:Musical notes
C is a 2010 novel written by Tom McCarthy. C is McCarthy's third novel and sixth book. The novel was shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Critics were polarized by the work. ==Plot== The novel revolves around Serge Carrefax, born in the late 19th century in England. The plot follows his life before and after World War I. ==Themes== A major theme in the novel is communication, and the way technology influences the way individuals and societies communicate. ==Reception== Jennifer Egan, writing for the New York Times, referred to the novel as fusing "Pynchonesque revelry in signs and codes with the lush psychedelics of William Burroughs". Leo Robson, in a review for the New Statesman, describes the book as "full of familiar delights and familiar tedium". It continues "After a certain point, most sentences go something like this (not a parody): "Everything seems connected: disparate locations twitch and burst into activity like limbs reacting to impulses sent from elsewhere in the body, booms and jibs obeying levers at the far end of a complex set of ropes and cogs and relays."New Statesman article ==References== Category:2010 British novels Category:British historical novels Category:Novels set in the United Kingdom Category:Jonathan Cape books
C (pronounced – like the letter c) is a general-purpose computer programming language. It was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie, and remains very widely used and influential. By design, C's features cleanly reflect the capabilities of the targeted CPUs. It has found lasting use in operating systems, device drivers, protocol stacks, though decreasingly for application software. C is commonly used on computer architectures that range from the largest supercomputers to the smallest microcontrollers and embedded systems. A successor to the programming language B, C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to construct utilities running on Unix. It was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating system. During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity. It has become one of the most widely used programming languages, with C compilers available for practically all modern computer architectures and operating systems. The book The C Programming Language, co-authored by the original language designer, served for many years as the de facto standard for the language. C has been standardized by ANSI since 1989 (ANSI C) and by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). C is an imperative procedural language, supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope and recursion, with a static type system. It was designed to be compiled to provide low-level access to memory and language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards- compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. Since 2000, C has consistently ranked among the top two languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages. == Overview == C is an imperative, procedural language in the ALGOL tradition. It has a static type system. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines (also called "functions", though not in the sense of functional programming). Function parameters are passed by value, although arrays are passed as pointers, i.e. the address of the first item in the array. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointers to the thing being referenced. C program source text is free-form code. The semicolon separates statements and curly braces are used for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the following characteristics: * The language has a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control flow primitives: `if/else`, `for`, `do/while`, `while`, and `switch`. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil. * It has a large number of arithmetic, bitwise, and logic operators: , etc. * More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement. * Functions: ** Function return values can be ignored, when not needed. ** Function and data pointers permit ad hoc run-time polymorphism. ** Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions. ** Variables may be defined within a function, with scope. ** A function may call itself, so recursion is supported. * Data typing is static, but weakly enforced; all data has a type, but implicit conversions are possible. * User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible. ** Heterogeneous aggregate data types (`struct`) allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit. ** Union is a structure with overlapping members; only the last member stored is valid. ** Array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects: they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no "array" keyword in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example `month[11]`. ** Enumerated types are possible with the `enum` keyword. They are freely interconvertible with integers. ** Strings are not a distinct data type, but are conventionally implemented as null- terminated character arrays. * Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine addresses to pointers. * Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function, with an untyped return type `void`. * Memory can be allocated to a program with calls to library routines. * A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation. * There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via `static` and `extern` attributes. * Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines. * The generated code after compilation has relatively straightforward needs on the underlying platform, which makes it suitable for creating operating systems and for use in embedded systems. While C does not include certain features found in other languages (such as object orientation and garbage collection), these can be implemented or emulated, often through the use of external libraries (e.g., the GLib Object System or the Boehm garbage collector). === Relations to other languages === Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C, including C++, C#, Unix's C shell, D, Go, Java, JavaScript (including transpilers), Julia, Limbo, LPC, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Rust, Swift, Verilog and SystemVerilog (hardware description languages). These languages have drawn many of their control structures and other basic features from C. Most of them (Python being a dramatic exception) also express highly similar syntax to C, and they tend to combine the recognizable expression and statement syntax of C with underlying type systems, data models, and semantics that can be radically different. == History == === Early developments === Timeline of C language Year Informal name C Standard 1972 Birth 1978 K&R; C 1989/1990 ANSI C, ISO C ISO/IEC 9899:1990 1999 C99 ISO/IEC 9899:1999 2011 C11, C1x ISO/IEC 9899:2011 2018 C17 ISO/IEC 9899:2018 2024* C23, C2x ISO/IEC 9899:2023 The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually, they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. The original PDP-11 version of Unix was also developed in assembly language. ====B==== Thompson wanted a programming language for developing utilities for the new platform. At first, he tried to write a Fortran compiler, but soon gave up the idea. Instead, he created a cut-down version of the recently developed BCPL systems programming language. The official description of BCPL was not available at the time and Thompson modified the syntax to be less wordy, and similar to a simplified ALGOL known as SMALGOL. Thompson called the result B. He described B as "BCPL semantics with a lot of SMALGOL syntax". Like BCPL, B had a bootstrapping compiler to facilitate porting to new machines. However, few utilities were ultimately written in B because it was too slow, and could not take advantage of PDP-11 features such as byte addressability. ====New B and first C release==== In 1971, Ritchie started to improve B, to utilise the features of the more-powerful PDP-11. A significant addition was a character data type. He called this New B (NB). Thompson started to use NB to write the Unix kernel, and his requirements shaped the direction of the language development. Through to 1972, richer types were added to the NB language: NB had arrays of `int` and `char`. Pointers, the ability to generate pointers to other types, arrays of all types, and types to be returned from functions were all also added. Arrays within expressions became pointers. A new compiler was written, and the language was renamed C. The C compiler and some utilities made with it were included in Version 2 Unix, which is also known as Research Unix. ====Structures and the Unix kernel re-write==== At Version 4 Unix, released in November 1973, the Unix kernel was extensively re-implemented in C. By this time, the C language had acquired some powerful features such as `struct` types. The preprocessor was introduced around 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder and also in recognition of the usefulness of the file-inclusion mechanisms available in BCPL and PL/I. Its original version provided only included files and simple string replacements: `#include` and `#define` of parameterless macros. Soon after that, it was extended, mostly by Mike Lesk and then by John Reiser, to incorporate macros with arguments and conditional compilation. Unix was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. Earlier instances include the Multics system (which was written in PL/I) and Master Control Program (MCP) for the Burroughs B5000 (which was written in ALGOL) in 1961. In around 1977, Ritchie and Stephen C. Johnson made further changes to the language to facilitate portability of the Unix operating system. Johnson's Portable C Compiler served as the basis for several implementations of C on new platforms. (Note: The PDF is an OCR scan of the original, and contains a rendering of "IBM 370" as "IBM 310".) === K&R; C === In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language. This book, known to C programmers as K&R;, served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as "K&R; C". As this was released in 1978, it is also referred to as C78. The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard, described below. K&R; introduced several language features: * Standard I/O library * `long int` data type * `unsigned int` data type * Compound assignment operators of the form `=op` (such as `=-`) were changed to the form `op=` (that is, `-=`) to remove the semantic ambiguity created by constructs such as `i=-10`, which had been interpreted as `i =- 10` (decrement `i` by 10) instead of the possibly intended `i = -10` (let `i` be −10). Even after the publication of the 1989 ANSI standard, for many years K&R; C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R; C code can be legal Standard C as well. In early versions of C, only functions that return types other than `int` must be declared if used before the function definition; functions used without prior declaration were presumed to return type `int`. For example: long some_function(); /* This is a function declaration, so the compiler can know the name and return type of this function. */ /* int */ other_function(); /* Another function declaration. Because this is an early version of C, there is an implicit 'int' type here. A comment shows where the explicit 'int' type specifier would be required in later versions. */ /* int */ calling_function() /* This is a function definition, including the body of the code following in the { curly brackets }. Because no return type is specified, the function implicitly returns an 'int' in this early version of C. */ { long test1; register /* int */ test2; /* Again, note that 'int' is not required here. The 'int' type specifier */ /* in the comment would be required in later versions of C. */ /* The 'register' keyword indicates to the compiler that this variable should */ /* ideally be stored in a register as opposed to within the stack frame. */ test1 = some_function(); if (test1 > 1) test2 = 0; else test2 = other_function(); return test2; } The `int` type specifiers which are commented out could be omitted in K&R; C, but are required in later standards. Since K&R; function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files. In the years following the publication of K&R; C, several features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T; (in particular PCC) and some other vendors. These included: * `void` functions (i.e., functions with no return value) * functions returning `struct` or `union` types (previously only a single pointer, integer or float could be returned) * assignment for `struct` data types * enumerated types (previously, preprocessor definitions for integer fixed values were used, e.g. `#define GREEN 3`) The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R; specification, led to the necessity of standardization. === ANSI C and ISO C === During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly. In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEE working group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C". This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89. In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language. ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication. One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R; C, incorporating many of the subsequently introduced unofficial features. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), `void` pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R; interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code. C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most modern C code is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness. In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R; C-based compilers, the `__STDC__` macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R; sections to prevent the use on a K&R; C-based compiler of features available only in Standard C. After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years. In 1995, Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, known informally as C95) was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. === C99 === The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99". It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda. C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including `long long int` and a `complex` type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays and flexible array members, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with `//`, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers. C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has `int` implicitly assumed. A standard macro `__STDC_VERSION__` is defined with value `199901L` to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99. The C compiler in Microsoft Visual C++, however, implements the C89 standard and those parts of C99 that are required for compatibility with C++11. In addition, the C99 standard requires support for Unicode identifiers in the form of escaped characters (e.g. or ) and suggests support for raw Unicode names. === C11 === In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1X" until its official publication of ISO/IEC 9899:2011 on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations. The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi- threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++. The standard macro `__STDC_VERSION__` is defined as `201112L` to indicate that C11 support is available. === C17 === Published in June 2018 as ISO/IEC 9899:2018, C17 is the current standard for the C programming language. It introduces no new language features, only technical corrections, and clarifications to defects in C11. The standard macro `__STDC_VERSION__` is defined as `201710L`. === C23 === C23 is the informal name for the next (after C17) major C language standard revision. It is expected to be published in 2024. === Embedded C === Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations. In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C language to address these issues by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features not available in normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing. == Syntax == C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard. Contains a BNF grammar for C. Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance during the preprocessing phase. Comments may appear either between the delimiters `/*` and `*/`, or (since C99) following `//` until the end of the line. Comments delimited by `/*` and `*/` do not nest, and these sequences of characters are not interpreted as comment delimiters if they appear inside string or character literals. C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as `struct`, `union`, and `enum`, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as `char` and `int` specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces (`{` and `}`, sometimes called "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures. As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by `if` ... [`else`] conditional execution and by `do` ... `while`, `while`, and `for` iterative execution (looping). The `for` statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. `break` and `continue` can be used within the loop. Break is used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement and continue is used to skip to its reinitialisation. There is also a non-structured `goto` statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function. `switch` selects a `case` to be executed based on the value of an integer expression. Different from many other languages, control-flow will fall through to the next `case` unless terminated by a `break`. Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators and may contain function calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next "sequence point"; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call. Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (`&&`, `||`, `?:` and the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages. Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language: "C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better." The C standard did not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such changes on already existing software. === Character set === The basic C source character set includes the following characters: * Lowercase and uppercase letters of ISO Basic Latin Alphabet: `a`–`z` `A`–`Z` * Decimal digits: `0`–`9` * Graphic characters: `! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ { | } ~` * Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, newline Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one. Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but they are not entirely portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows multi-national Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using `\uXXXX` or `\UXXXXXXXX` encoding (where the `X` denotes a hexadecimal character), although this feature is not yet widely implemented. The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return. Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard. === Reserved words === C89 has 32 reserved words, also known as keywords, which are the words that cannot be used for any purposes other than those for which they are predefined: * `auto` * `break` * `case` * `char` * `const` * `continue` * `default` * `do` * `double` * `else` * `enum` * `extern` * `float` * `for` * `goto` * `if` * `int` * `long` * `register` * `return` * `short` * `signed` * `sizeof` * `static` * `struct` * `switch` * `typedef` * `union` * `unsigned` * `void` * `volatile` * `while` C99 reserved five more words: * `_Bool` * `_Complex` * `_Imaginary` * `inline` * `restrict` C11 reserved seven more words: * `_Alignas` * `_Alignof` * `_Atomic` * `_Generic` * `_Noreturn` * `_Static_assert` * `_Thread_local` C23 will reserve 14 more words: * `alignas` * `alignof` * `bool` * `constexpr` * `false` * `nullptr` * `static_assert` * `thread_local` * `true` * `typeof` * `typeof_unqual` * `_Decimal128` * `_Decimal32` * `_Decimal64` Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language. Some standard headers do define more convenient synonyms for underscored identifiers. Some of those words were added as keywords with their conventional spelling in C23 and the corresponding macros were removed. The language previously included a reserved word called `entry`, but this was seldom implemented, and has now been removed as a reserved word. === Operators === C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for: * arithmetic: `+`, `-`, `*`, `/`, `%` * assignment: `=` * augmented assignment: * bitwise logic: `~`, `&`, `|`, `^` * bitwise shifts: `<<`, `>>` * boolean logic: `!`, `&&`, `||` * conditional evaluation: `? :` * equality testing: `==`, `!=` * calling functions: `( )` * increment and decrement: `++`, `--` * member selection: `.`, `->` * object size: `sizeof` * type: `typeof`, `typeof_unqual` since C23 * order relations: `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=` * reference and dereference: `&`, `*`, `[ ]` * sequencing: `,` * subexpression grouping: `( )` * type conversion: `(typename)` C uses the operator `=` (used in mathematics to express equality) to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives. C uses the operator `==` to test for equality. The similarity between these two operators (assignment and equality) may result in the accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an error message (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression `if (a == b + 1)` might mistakenly be written as `if (a = b + 1)`, which will be evaluated as true if `a` is not zero after the assignment. The C operator precedence is not always intuitive. For example, the operator `==` binds more tightly than (is executed prior to) the operators `&` (bitwise AND) and `|` (bitwise OR) in expressions such as `x & 1 == 0`, which must be written as `(x & 1) == 0` if that is the coder's intent. == "Hello, world" example == The "hello, world" example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R;, has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display. The original version was: main() { printf("hello, world "); } A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is: #include int main(void) { printf("hello, world "); } The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by `#include`. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the `stdio.h` standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as `printf` and `scanf`. The angle brackets surrounding `stdio.h` indicate that `stdio.h` can be located using a search strategy that prefers headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the same name, as opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific header files. The next line indicates that a function named `main` is being defined. The `main` function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run- time environment calls the `main` function to begin program execution. The type specifier `int` indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the `main` function, is an integer. The keyword `void` as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments. The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the `main` function. The next line calls (diverts execution to) a function named `printf`, which in this case is supplied from a system library. In this call, the `printf` function is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal `"hello, world "`. The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type `char`, set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array (for `printf` to know the length of the string). The ` ` is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the `printf` function is of type `int`, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the `printf` function succeeded.) The semicolon `;` terminates the statement. The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the `main` function. According to the C99 specification and newer, the `main` function, unlike any other function, will implicitly return a value of `0` upon reaching the `}` that terminates the function. (Formerly an explicit `return 0;` statement was required.) This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution. == Data types == thumb The type system in C is static and weakly typed, which makes it similar to the type system of ALGOL descendants such as Pascal. There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, and enumerated types (`enum`). Integer type `char` is often used for single-byte characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (`struct`), and unions (`union`). C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way. Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: "declaration reflects use".) C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative. === Pointers === C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type- checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers; the result of a `malloc` is usually cast to the data type of the data to be stored. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated `struct` objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to other pointers are often used in multi-dimensional arrays and arrays of `struct` objects. Pointers to functions (function pointers) are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch), in dispatch tables, or as callbacks to event handlers . A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as `0`, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, as the `NULL` macro defined by several standard headers or, since C23 with the constant `nullptr`. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true. Void pointers (`void *`) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore be used as "generic" data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type. Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types. === Arrays === Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays. However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's `malloc` function, and treat it as an array. Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option.For example, gcc provides _FORTIFY_SOURCE. Array bounds violations are therefore possible and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions. C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multi-dimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row- major order. Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, in early versions of C the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this was to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns.) C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address this issue. The following example using modern C (C99 or later) shows allocation of a two-dimensional array on the heap and the use of multi-dimensional array indexing for accesses (which can use bounds-checking on many C compilers): int func(int N, int M) { float (*p)[N][M] = malloc(sizeof *p); if (!p) return -1; for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) for (int j = 0; j < M; j++) (*p)[i][j] = i + j; print_array(N, M, p); free(p); return 1; } And here is a similar implementation using C99's Auto VLA feature: int func(int N, int M) { // Caution: checks should be made to ensure N*M*sizeof(float) does NOT exceed limitations for auto VLAs and is within available size of stack. float p[N][M]; // auto VLA is held on the stack, and sized when the function is invoked for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) for (int j = 0; j < M; j++) p[i][j] = i + j; // no need to free(p) since it will disappear when the function exits, along with the rest of the stack frame return 1; } === Array–pointer interchangeability === The subscript notation `x[i]` (where `x` designates a pointer) is syntactic sugar for `*(x+i)`. Taking advantage of the compiler's knowledge of the pointer type, the address that `x + i` points to is not the base address (pointed to by `x`) incremented by `i` bytes, but rather is defined to be the base address incremented by `i` multiplied by the size of an element that `x` points to. Thus, `x[i]` designates the `i+1`th element of the array. Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of `sizeof`), an expression of array type is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element. This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference. The total size of an array `x` can be determined by applying `sizeof` to an expression of array type. The size of an element can be determined by applying the operator `sizeof` to any dereferenced element of an array `A`, as in `n = sizeof A[0]`. Thus, the number of elements in a declared array `A` can be determined as `sizeof A / sizeof A[0]`. Note, that if only a pointer to the first element is available as it is often the case in C code because of the automatic conversion described above, the information about the full type of the array and its length are lost. == Memory management == One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three principal ways to allocate memory for objects: * Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory. * Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited. * Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as `malloc` from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function `realloc` or `free` These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three. Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary. Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this. (See the article on `malloc` for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the program can even begin execution.) Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur. Heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before it is deallocated explicitly, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed, but is referenced subsequently, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the failure symptoms appear in a portion of the program unrelated to the code that causes the error, making it difficult to diagnose the failure. Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection. == Libraries == The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., `-lm`, shorthand for "link the math library"). The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Several separate standard headers (for example, `stdio.h`) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities. Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python. === File handling and streams === File input and output (I/O) is not part of the C language itself but instead is handled by libraries (such as the C standard library) and their associated header files (e.g. `stdio.h`). File handling is generally implemented through high-level I/O which works through streams. A stream is from this perspective a data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device. The high- level I/O is done through the association of a stream to a file. In the C standard library, a buffer (a memory area or queue) is temporarily used to store data before it is sent to the final destination. This reduces the time spent waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive. Low-level I/O functions are not part of the standard C library but are generally part of "bare metal" programming (programming that's independent of any operating system such as most embedded programming). With few exceptions, implementations include low-level I/O. == Language tools == A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool lint was the first such, leading to many others. Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems. There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow, serialization, dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection. Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage. == Uses == ===Rationale for use in systems programming=== thumb|The C programming language C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded system applications. This is for several reasons: * The code generated after compilation does not demand many system features, and can be invoked from some boot code in a straightforward manner – it is simple to execute. * The C language statements and expressions typically map well on to sequences of instructions for the target processor, and consequently there is a low run- time demand on system resources – it is fast to execute. * With its rich set of operators, the C language can utilise many of the features of target CPUs. Where a particular CPU has more esoteric instructions, a language variant can be constructed with perhaps intrinsic functions to exploit those instructions – it can use practically all the target CPU's features. * The language makes it easy to overlay structures onto blocks of binary data, allowing the data to be comprehended, navigated and modified – it can write data structures, even file systems. * The language supports a rich set of operators, including bit manipulation, for integer arithmetic and logic, and perhaps different sizes of floating point numbers – it can process appropriately-structured data effectively. * C is a fairly small language, with only a handful of statements, and without too many features that generate extensive target code – it is comprehensible. * C has direct control over memory allocation and deallocation, which gives reasonable efficiency and predictable timing to memory-handling operations, without any concerns for sporadic stop-the-world garbage collection events – it has predictable performance. * Platform hardware can be accessed with pointers and type punning, so system-specific features (e.g. Control/Status Registers, I/O registers) can be configured and used with code written in C – it interacts well with the platform it is running on. * Depending on the linker and environment, C code can also call libraries written in assembly language, and may be called from assembly language – it interoperates well with other lower-level code. * C and its calling conventions and linker structures are commonly used in conjunction with other high-level languages, with calls both to C and from C supported – it interoperates well with other high-level code. * C has a very mature and broad ecosystem, including libraries, frameworks, open source compilers, debuggers and utilities, and is the de facto standard. It is likely the drivers already exist in C, or that there is a similar CPU architecture as a back-end of a C compiler, so there is reduced incentive to choose another language. ===Once used for web development=== Historically, C was sometimes used for web development using the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) as a "gateway" for information between the web application, the server, and the browser. C may have been chosen over interpreted languages because of its speed, stability, and near-universal availability. It is no longer common practice for web development to be done in C, and many other web development tools exist. ===Some other languages are themselves written in C=== A consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. For example, the reference implementations of Python, Perl, Ruby, and PHP are written in C. ===Used for computationally-intensive libraries=== C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, because the layer of abstraction from hardware is thin, and its overhead is low, an important criterion for computationally intensive programs. For example, the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica, and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C. Many languages support calling library functions in C, for example, the Python-based framework NumPy uses C for the high-performance and hardware-interacting aspects. ===C as an intermediate language=== C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code. However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C--. Also, contemporary major compilers GCC and LLVM both feature an intermediate representation that is not C, and those compilers support front ends for many languages including C. ===End-user applications=== C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications. However, such applications can also be written in newer, higher- level languages. == Limitations == While C has been popular, influential and hugely successful, it has drawbacks, including: * The standard dynamic memory handling with `malloc` and `free` is error prone. Bugs include: Memory leaks when memory is allocated but not freed; and access to previously freed memory. * The use of pointers and the direct manipulation of memory means corruption of memory is possible, perhaps due to programmer error, or insufficient checking of bad data. * There is some type checking, but it does not apply to areas like variadic functions, and the type checking can be trivially or inadvertently circumvented. It is weakly typed. * Since the code generated by the compiler contains few checks itself, there is a burden on the programmer to consider all possible outcomes, to protect against buffer overruns, array bounds checking, stack overflows, memory exhaustion, and consider race conditions, thread isolation, etc. * The use of pointers and the run-time manipulation of these means there may be two ways to access the same data (aliasing), which is not determinable at compile time. This means that some optimisations that may be available to other languages are not possible in C. FORTRAN is considered faster. * Some of the standard library functions, e.g. `scanf` or , can lead to buffer overruns. * There is limited standardisation in support for low-level variants in generated code, for example: different function calling conventions and ABI; different structure packing conventions; different byte ordering within larger integers (including endianness). In many language implementations, some of these options may be handled with the preprocessor directive `#pragma`, and some with additional keywords e.g. use `__cdecl` calling convention. But the directive and options are not consistently supported. * String handling using the standard library is code- intensive, with explicit memory management required. * The language does not directly support object orientation, introspection, run-time expression evaluation, generics, etc. * There are few guards against inappropriate use of language features, which may lead to unmaintainable code. This facility for tricky code has been celebrated with competitions such as the International Obfuscated C Code Contest and the Underhanded C Contest. * C lacks standard support for exception handling and only offers return codes for error checking. The `setjmp` and `longjmp` standard library functions have been used to implement a try-catch mechanism via macros. For some purposes, restricted styles of C have been adopted, e.g. MISRA C or CERT C, in an attempt to reduce the opportunity for bugs. Databases such as CWE attempt to count the ways C etc. has vulnerabilities, along with recommendations for mitigation. There are tools that can mitigate against some of the drawbacks. Contemporary C compilers include checks which may generate warnings to help identify many potential bugs. Some of these drawbacks have prompted the construction of other languages. == Related languages == C has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such as C++ and Java. The most pervasive influence has been syntactical; all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically. Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting. When object-oriented programming languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler. The C++ programming language (originally named "C with Classes") was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as an approach to providing object-oriented functionality with a C-like syntax. C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming, and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions. Objective-C was originally a very "thin" layer on top of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk. In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk, and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C. == See also == * Compatibility of C and C++ * Comparison of Pascal and C * Comparison of programming languages * International Obfuscated C Code Contest * List of C-based programming languages * List of C compilers == Notes == == References == == Sources == * ** By courtesy of the author, also at * * == Further reading == * (source) * (free) * (archive) * (archive) * * * * (free) == External links == * ISO C Working Group official website ** ISO/IEC 9899, publicly available official C documents, including the C99 Rationale ** * comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions * A History of C, by Dennis Ritchie * C Library Reference and Examples Category:American inventions Category:Articles with example C code Category:C programming language family Category:Cross- platform software Category:High-level programming languages Category:Procedural programming languages Category:Structured programming languages Category:Programming languages created in 1972 Category:Programming languages with an ISO standard Category:Statically typed programming languages Category:Systems programming languages
C was a restaurant in Tampere, Finland, selected as restaurant of the year in early 2011, by the Finnish Gastronomic Society.Vuoden ravintolat, Finnish Gastronomic Society. Accessed on 19 February 2017. The restaurant received recognition especially for quality ingredients, food preparation according to season and good matching between food and wine.Tamperelainen Ravintola C valittiin Vuoden ravintolaksi, Paistinkääntäjät ry. Accessed on 19 February 2017.Vuoden ravintola löytyi Tampereelta – Lue perustelut täältä!, Tamperelainen 22 February 2011. Accessed on 19 February 2017. The restaurant was located west of the Tampere Central Station in the district of Kyttälä.Tampere map service (Rautatienkatu 20), city of Tampere. Accessed on 19 February 2017.Esittely, restaurant C. Accessed on 19 February 2017. The chief cook of C was Ilkka Isotalo and the sommelier was Christina Suominen. Restaurant Perla was previously located at the same address. C closed in December 2022. The address is now occupied by a bistro, Bistro C. ==References== ==External links== * Official site * Laitinen, Vesa: Ravintola C on Tampereen paras kunnes toisin todistetaan, Aamulehti 29 July 2016 * Kinnunen, Jari: Tampereen parhaat ravintolat ja muut ruokakohteet, mtv.fi 24 February 2015 * C at TripAdvisor * C at Lonely Planet * Romanttisimmat ravintolat, visittampere.fi Category:Restaurants in Finland Category:Kyttälä
"C" (stylized as "「C」") is the debut single by Japanese entertainer Miho Nakayama. Written by Takashi Matsumoto and Kyōhei Tsutsumi, the single was released on June 21, 1985, by King Records. ==Background and release== Aside from being her debut single, "C" marked the beginning of her collaboration with songwriters Matsumoto and Tsutsumi, who went on to write songs on her first four albums. The song was used as the opening theme of the TBS drama series , which starred Nakayama. "C" peaked at No. 12 on Oricon's weekly singles chart and sold over 170,000 copies. The song earned Nakayama the Best New Artist award at the 27th Japan Record Awards and the Best Newcomer Award at the 23rd Golden Arrow Awards. Nakayama self-covered the song on her 2019 album Neuf Neuf. ==Track listing== All lyrics are written by Takashi Matsumoto; all music is arranged by Mitsuo Hagita. ==Charts== Weekly charts Chart (1985) Peakposition Oricon Weekly Singles Chart 12 The Best Ten 15 Year- end charts Chart (1985) Peakposition Oricon Year-End Chart 67 ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1985 debut singles Category:1985 songs Category:Japanese-language songs Category:Japanese television drama theme songs Category:Miho Nakayama songs Category:Songs with lyrics by Takashi Matsumoto (lyricist) Category:Songs with music by Kyōhei Tsutsumi Category:King Records (Japan) singles
Cyril Alfred "C A" Joyce (12 June 1900 – 5 November 1976) was a British prison manager and headmaster of an approved school. He was born in Derby, Derbyshire, England on 12 June 1900. Joyce served in the army during World War I, and afterwards in the Army Education Corps. He then took a degree at University College, Southampton. He joined the prison service in 1922. In 1933, Joyce married Janet Gertrude Oxenham Froggatt (4 September 1904 – 26 August 1974). One of his charges at a borstal (Hollesley Bay) was the young IRA volunteer and novelist Brendan Behan, known for his autobiographical novel, Borstal Boy. He appeared as a castaway on the BBC Radio programme Desert Island Discs on 30 October 1971. A biography of Joyce, The hidden boy, by Richard Heron Ward, was published in 1962. His autobiography, Thoughts of a Lifetime, was published in 1971. Joyce's wife was an accomplished sculptor. He died at Wootton, Isle of Wight, on 5 November 1976, aged 76. == Biography == * == Autobiography == * == References == Category:1900 births Category:1976 deaths Category:People from Derby
Chadipirala Adinarayana Reddy is an Indian politician. He was a Member of Legislative Assembly, representing Jammalamadugu (Assembly constituency) in Andhra Pradesh. He won as MLA from Indian National Congress party in 2004 and 2009. Later he joined YSRCP and won as MLA in 2014. Later he moved from YSRCP to TDP and worked as Minister for Marketing & Warehousing, Animal husbandry, Dairy development, Fisheries and Cooperatives. Presently he joined BJP and has been posted as vice president for BJP in Andhra Pradesh. Chadipiralla's family has been active in politics since 1990. He has worked as chemistry lecturer in B.A.R. junior college, Parlapadu. He has won as MLA on behalf of Indian National Congress 2 consecutive times from Jammalamadugu [2004-2014] and won as MLA on behalf of YSRCP party from Jammalamadugu [2014-2019]. In 2016, Nara Chandrababu Naidu Garu welcomed him into Telugu Desam Party and has given the responsibility of Kadapa MLC. He has played a key role in TDP's victory. TDP Party president has entrusted him with role of State Cabinet Minister for Marketing & Warehousing, Animal husbandry, Dairy development, Fisheries and Cooperative in 2017. He has played a major role in TDP towards victory in Nandyal elections 2017. He has contested as MP candidate from Kadapa parliamentary segment and lost in 2019. Positions held: *2004-2009 MLA Jammalamadugu *2009-2014 MLA Jammalamadugu *2014-2019 MLA Jammalamadugu *2017-2019 Cabinet Minister for Marketing & Warehousing, Animal husbandry, Dairy development, Fisheries and Cooperative *2020 - Incumbent - Vice President - AP - BJP ==References== Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Andhra Pradesh Category:1958 births Category:Living people Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Andhra Pradesh
C Album is the third studio album of the Japanese duo KinKi Kids. It was released on August 4, 1999, and debuted at the top of the Oricon charts, selling 451,230 copies in its first week. The album was certified double platinum by the RIAJ for 800,000 copies shipped to stores in Japan. ==Track listing== ==References== ==External links== * C Album Information Category:1999 albums Category:KinKi Kids albums
C AllStar is a Hong Kong Cantopop boy band formed through a singing contest Star Hunt () held by Kingdom C in 2009. The group consists of four members: King Wu, Kenny Chan, Andy Leung, and Jase Ho. They debuted with the album Make It Happen in 2010. The group is best known for its a cappella singing and the most prominent song is "Tin Tai" (). It has won various music awards since its debut, including four times Ultimate Song Chart Award for Group of the Year (Gold), four times JSG Awards Presentation Best Musical Group, etc. == Career == === 2009–2010: Star Hunt and debut === In 2009, Hong Kong music label Kingdom C held a singing contest Star Hunt (). King Wu, Andy Leung, Kenny Chan, and Jase Ho were the four semi-finalists of the contest. They gained popularity from busking at the pedestrian zone on Sai Yeung Choi Street South. In 2010, they released "Tin Tai" (). They were inspired by a story of a couple in Chongqing who had been living in the mountains for more than 50 years. The song went famous overnight and was charted on multiple local charts. They also won multiple awards with the song in the following year. === 2011–2017: Rising popularity === In July 2011, they held their first concert. They joined Media Asia Music in October. In October 2013, they released the album Cantopopsibility. The album adopted different music styles, including trance, bossa nova, rhythm and blues, etc. In March 2014, they held a concert at the Hong Kong Coliseum for the first time, named Our Woodstock Concert 2014 (). In 2017, it was announced that there would be a concert at the Hong Kong Coliseum for the second time. The members competed against one another to win the chance to solo since their producer decided that there wasn't enough time for all four members to solo. The winner was voted by the netizens. At last, Jase Ho won the chance to solo. === 2017–2020: Suspension === In January 2017, the group announced that they would be separated after the concert in October. King Wu explained that they feel like the life in the group is somewhat disheartened and they would like to pursue solo activities so that members can evolve in more specific fields. In the light of anti-extradition bill protests, the group temporarily reunited and released "You Are Not Alone" () in July 2019, noting "we are all together in the storm". In August 2020, the group built a virtual Hong Kong Colliseum stage and held a live virtual Minecraft concert named Make It Happen @ 10 C AllStar Virtual Live on the 10th anniversary of their debut, becoming the first in Asia to do so. === 2021–present: Reunion === On 25 January 2021, C AllStar announced on Facebook that they would officially work as a group again. Three days later, "Together We Strive For A Better World" () was released. The song charted first in all five music charts in Hong Kong. On 15 April 2021, amid the wave of emigration from Hong Kong, the group released the song "For those who stay, For those who had left" (), quoting the scripts from Tenet: "What’s happened, happened. Which is an expression of fate in the mechanics of the world. It’s not an excuse to do nothing." The song charted first in all five music charts in Hong Kong, making the group become the first to have two songs to do so in the same year. They held three concerts later in the year, including one with Joyce Cheng. In January 2022, local media reported that ten Canto-pop singers and groups had been put on a blacklist of government-funded broadcaster RTHK, with radio DJs having been ordered not to play their songs. C AllStar was reportedly on the list. In response to a letter by lawmaker Tik Chi-yuen requesting clarification, RTHK wrote: "RTHK has been supporting the development of Chinese pop music. Program hosts choose songs based on professionalism and suitability to the programs." == Discography == === Studio albums === * Make it Happen (2010) * 新預言書 (first edition) (2011) * 新預言書 (second edition) (2012) * To Begin From The End (2012) * Cantopopsibility (2013) * 時日如飛 C AllCollection (2014) * 生於斯 (2015) * 此刻無價 C AllCollection (2017) * 人類世 (2021) === Live albums === * 2012 C AllLive (2013) * 我們的胡士托演唱會 (2014) * 生於C AllStar 演唱會 2017 Live (2017) * C AllStar集合吧! 演唱會2021 (2021) === Extended plays === * 我們的胡士托 (2011) * Collab Star (2015) * LoveaHolic Vol.1 (2017) * LoveaHolic Vol.2 (2017) == See also == * Lai Ying Tong == References == == External links == * * Category:Hong Kong boy bands Category:Cantopop musical groups Category:Musical groups established in 2009 Category:2009 establishments in Hong Kong
The Bayer designation c Aquarii is shared by three stars in the constellation Aquarius: * c1 Aquarii or 86 Aquarii * c2 Aquarii or 88 Aquarii * c3 Aquarii or 89 Aquarii c Aquarii Aquarii, c
C Batter C is a video release by ambient techno group The Orb, released in November 2011, featuring a short film titled Battersea Bunches (originally screened in 2010), its soundtrack, and remixes. ==Track listing== == References == Category:The Orb albums Category:2011 video albums
C Battery Royal Horse Artillery are a Close Support Battery of 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery currently based in Albemarle Barracks, Northumberland, England ==History== ===19th century=== During the Corunna campaign commanded by Capt. Henry Eveleigh, participated in the retreat, but embarked before the battle began. Half of C Bty was deployed on the Jowaki expedition of 1877–8. ===Northern Ireland=== C Battery, 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery, was attached to 1st Battalion The Royal Anglian Regiment during an operational tour of Northern Ireland from May until November 1991. The Battalion, and Battery, were on ops in County Fermanagh, mainly operating from St. Angelo Barracks in Eneskillen. The Battery return to Northern Ireland in October 1992 as part of a Regimental Tour of Armagh with C Battery manning the PVCP at Middletown which was also Battery HQ and Keady RUC Station. The tour concluded in April 1993. The Regiment was again deployed to Armagh in October 1996 with C Battery being selected as the first non-Infantry Ops Company covering most of the province in support of operations. Based at Drammad Barracks in Armagh they covered from South of Londonderry to West of Belfast during what was a busy time for the South Armagh sniper using a variety of armoured land rover, helicopter and foot patrols The tour concluded in April 1997. ==See also== *British Army *Royal Artillery *Royal Horse Artillery *List of Royal Artillery Batteries ==References== ==Bibliography== * ==External links== * * * Category:Royal Horse Artillery batteries Category:Royal Artillery batteries Category:British military units and formations of the Crimean War Category:1793 establishments in Great Britain Category:Military units and formations established in 1793
C Bear and Jamal is a German-American animated musical comedy children's television series that originally aired on the Fox Kids programming block from 1996 to 1997. It centers on an elementary school-aged boy named Jamal and his companion "C Bear", an orange hip-hop teddy bear who raps. Film Roman co- produced the show. == Characters == * Jamal Harrison Wingo (Arthur Reggie III) - Jamal is a cheerful, imaginative 9-year-old (later 10-year-old) African- American boy. He always keeps C Bear by his side. * C-Bear (Tone Loc) - C Bear is a wise rapping teddy bear with a hip-hop style. He comes to life whenever Jamal is around and is always ready to give him advice. He has the power to take Jamal on magical adventures at the snap of his finger. C Bear sometimes breaks the fourth wall with sarcastic remarks to the audience. * Hawthorne Wingo (George L. Wallace) - Hawthorne is Jamal’s father. He sometimes wonders why Jamal still keeps C Bear. It's unknown what happened to Hawthorne's wife. * Bernice Wingo (Dawnn Lewis) - Bernice is Jamal's grandmother. She is kind hearted and gentle, and is most often seen cooking meals for her family. * Willis Wingo (Darryl Sivad) - Willis is Jamal's grandfather and the husband of Bernice. He is bald and rarely leaves his chair by the television. * Maya (Kim Fields) - Maya is Jamal’s classmate and love interest. She is bold and outspoken, and has a loud voice. She is the smartest of Jamal’s friends, often getting the highest test scores in class. * Big Chill (Aries Spears) - Big Chill is Jamal’s fat friend, who is always hungry and speaks like he has a cold. Upon entering a room, he'll say "the b-i-g c-h-i-double-l is in the hizzouse". Big Chill has been held back in school a few times. Though his exact age is unknown, he is old enough to drive a car and, in one episode, mentions filling out tax forms. * Kwame (Aries Spears) Kwame is Jamal's best friend. He is dressed in African clothes and believes in "power to the people". He has a tendency to label anything and everything as a "conspiracy by 'The Man'”. He is the second smartest of Jamal’s friends. * Chipster (Jeannie Elias) - Chipster is Jamal's Caucasian friend. He is silly and likes to make his friends laugh. * Kim (Margaret Cho) - Kim is Jamal's Asian friend and Maya’s best friend. She is feisty and quick to stand up to anyone who bullies her friends. * Javier (Paul Rodríguez) - Javier is Jamal's Latino friend. He has a wide vocabulary, often using big words that Jamal and his friends barely understand. He is the third smartest in class, achieving the second highest grades after Maya. * Miss Fine - Miss Fine is Jamal’s teacher. She is kind but firm, always pushing her students to do their best. * Sooner - Sooner is the Wingos’ basset hound and C Bear’s rival. Sooner and C Bear often engage in cartoonish chases and fights, which are usually won by C Bear. ==Episodes== ===Series overview=== ===Season 1 (1996)=== ===Season 2 (1996–97)=== == Credits == * Executive Producers: Tone Loc, Phil Roman, Margaret Loesch * Producer: Bob Richardson * Story Editors: L. Rice, Al Sonya * Voice Director: Debbie Allen * Executives in Charge of Production: Bill Schultz, Anne Luiting * Studio Production Manager: Lolee Aries * Manager of Foreign Production: Kenneth T. Ito * Casting: Eileen Mack Knight * Director of Creative Development: Guy Vasilovich * Directors: David Brain, Vincent Davis, Brian Hogan, Emory Myrick * Music by: Kurt Farquhar * Main Title Song Written and Performed by: Tone Loc * Character Design: Bruce W. Smith * Layout Design: Charles Payne, Cliff Vorhees * Prop Design: Gary Hoffman, Jim Schumann * Painting: Deborah Mark, Belle Norman, Elizabeth Reed, Cookie Tricarico * Art Director: Brad Landreth * Backgrounds: Nathan Chew * Layouts: Nathan Chew * Color Key Supervisor: Phyllis Craig * Storyboards: Robert Boyle, Sandra Frame, Gary Hoffman, Brian Hogan, Chris Hubbard, Jay Lender, Scott Shaw! * Picture Editors: Don Barrozo, Lee Harting * Post Production Sound Services: Advantage Audio, Inc. * Sound Recording Mixers: Melissa Gentry-Ellis, Ray Leonard, Jim Hodson * Sound Effects Design: Michael Warner * Music Editor: Fil Brown * Track Department: Peter Aries * Creative Producer: Swinton O. Scott III * Creative Consultants: Earl Richey Jones, Todd R. Jones, Bruce W. Smith * Creative Concepts: Frankyln Ajaye, Barry Douglas * Executive in Charge of Production for Fox Kids: Barney Gilmore * Production Accountant: Kyle C. Hammans * Production Managers: Barbara Cordova, Stephanie Elliott * Assistant Film Editor: Kurtis Kunsak * Negative Cutting: D and A Negative Cutting, Inc., Tim Heyen * Telecine: Editel, Complete Post, Inc., Sunset Post * Operator: Larry Field * Post Production Director: Barbara Beck * Post Production Supervisor: Noel Quinn-Roman * Overseas Supervisor: Russell Crispin == Home video releases == Xenon Entertainment Group released every episode of the show on VHS and DVD in 2000. As of January 2022, C Bear and Jamal can be streamed on The Roku Channel.C Bear and Jamal at The Roku Channel. ==References== == External links == * - Fox Kids * * Category:1990s American animated television series Category:1990s American black cartoons Category:1990s American musical comedy television series Category:1996 American television series debuts Category:1997 American television series endings Category:1990s German animated television series Category:1996 German television series debuts Category:1997 German television series endings Category:American children's animated adventure television series Category:American children's animated comedy television series Category:American children's animated fantasy television series Category:American children's animated musical television series Category:German children's animated adventure television series Category:German children's animated comedy television series Category:German children's animated fantasy television series Category:German children's animated musical television series Category:Hip hop television Category:Fictional African-American people Category:Fox Broadcasting Company original programming Category:English-language television shows Category:Fox Kids Category:Television shows set in Los Angeles Category:Television series by Film Roman Category:Animated television series about bears Category:Animated television series about children
C Both Sides was a collective art project that started in 2006 by artists Teresa Doyle and Edel O Reilly Flynn in association with Westmeath County Council. The project consisted of people being invited to send postcards from all over Ireland to Doyle and O Reilly Flynn's addresses which were then later displayed in Mullingar Arts Centre in 2007. The project was later expanded and culminated in an exhibition held in Dublin in 2009. ==Background== Initially, knowledge of the project spread through internet postings and press releases in local papers. Over 500 cards were received and collated. This small exhibition then travelled to New York. The project was intended to create a social document of Ireland at the time. Following the initial C Both Sides exhibition, An Post decided to sponsor the ongoing project. The launch of "An Post C Both Sides", a 12-month project, took place in November 2007 at the Gallery of Photography, Meeting House Square in Temple Bar. At the launch, Teresa Doyle described the project as Ireland's largest "collaborative art exhibition". ==Activities== Each month of the project's operation had a different theme, which guided the participants when creating a postcard. Workshops were held based on the theme of the month. In August 2008, for example, the theme was migration, and a workshop was held in Ilac Centre City Library, with a group of migrants. Also each month, a public figure was invited to make a postcard, which was featured on the website along with a short interview based on the topic of postcards. With An Post's sponsorship, the project was rolled out nationally, and each household in Ireland received a blank postcard. The participants were encouraged to consider "both sides" of the postcard. In total, over 3,000 submissions were received, of which 250 were chosen by a panel, to be displayed in an exhibition. ==Exhibition== The 12-month project culminated in an exhibition in the Dublin Civic Offices, on Wood Quay. Travel writer and broadcaster, Manchán Magan opened the exhibition in March 2009. The postcards were displayed in pigeon-holes which were fitted with clear Perspex frames mounted on a rotating spindle. This allowed the viewer to see "both sides" of the postcard. ==References== ==External links== *Anpostcbothsides.ie (archived) * Category:Arts in Ireland Category:Republic of Ireland postal system Category:2007 in art Category:2007 in the Republic of Ireland
C. Byre Gowda was an Indian senior legislator and cabinet minister of Karnataka, India. He was the Minister of Agriculture from 1996 to 1999 in the cabinet of Chief Minister J.H Patel. ==Political Career== C Byre Gowda represented the Vemgal Assembly segment for five consecutive terms. He was heading the All-India Progressive Janata Dal(AIPJD) faction. Gowda was a minister in three Janata Parivar Cabinets- those of Ramakrishna Hegde, H D Deve Gowda , and JH Patel. Originally from the CPI, Gowda has been an acknowledged expert on all agricultural matters and is known for his ability to talk extensively about farmers and their problems. He was a State President of Janata Dal (United) from 1999 to 2003. == Biography == C Byre Gowda was married to Savithramma. His son, Krishna Byre Gowda, is also a politician and a member of the Legislative Assembly from the Byatarayanapura Constituency. == Death == C Byre Gowda died on July 29, 2003, following a heart attack. He was 70. == References == Category:Karnataka MLAs 1983–1985 Category:Karnataka MLAs 1985–1989 Category:Karnataka MLAs 1989–1994 Category:Karnataka MLAs 1994–1999 Category:Karnataka MLAs 1999–2004 Category:Agriculture Ministers of India Category:2003 deaths Category:Janata Dal politicians Category:Mysore MLAs 1972–1977
C C Land Holdings Limited () is a manufacturer of packaging products and travel bags. The company is also involved in property development, mainly in Chongqing, China.C C Land Holdings LimitedC C Land Holdings Limited The company was formerly known as Qualipak International Holdings Limited. In 2006, its business was transformed to be a property developer through the acquisition of Chongqing Zhongyu Property Development Company Limited. In 2007, it changed its name to C C Land Holdings Limited. In March 2017, CC Land bought London's Leadenhall Building for £1.15 billion. ==References== ==External links== * *C C Land Holdings Limited *Chongqing Zhongyu Property Development Co., Ltd Category:Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange Category:Real estate companies of China Category:Privately held companies of China Category:Real estate companies established in 1992 Category:Companies based in Chongqing Category:Manufacturing companies of Hong Kong Category:Chinese companies established in 1992
c Capricorni can refer to two different stars: * c1 Capricorni or 46 Capricorni,HD 206834, HD-DM-GC-HR-HIP-Bayer-Flamsteed Cross Index, N. D. Kostjuk, Institute of Astronomy of Russian Academy of Sciences, 2002; CDS ID IV/27A. commonly called simply c Capricorni. * c2 Capricorni or 47 Capricorni.HD 207005, HD-DM-GC-HR-HIP-Bayer-Flamsteed Cross Index, N. D. Kostjuk, Institute of Astronomy of Russian Academy of Sciences, 2002; CDS ID IV/27A. ==References== Category:Capricornus Capricorni, c
The Bayer designations c Carinae and C Carinae are distinct. *for c Carinae, see HD 76728 *for C Carinae, see HD 69863 Carinae, c Category:Carina (constellation)