Output:
19.1 Confucius’ Demands of the Realm of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                        .   240
       19.2 Laozi’s Quest in the Realm of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                   .   245
       19.3 Zhuangzi’s Quest in the Realm of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                    .   250
       19.4 Brief Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         .   255
       Chinese Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     .   257
20     Chinese Traditional Cultures and Corporate Management . . . . . . . 261
21     A Study of the Question of China’s Cultural Development . . . . . . . 265
22     The Enlightenment and Its Difficult Journey in China . . . . . . . . . .                              279
       22.1 The Eighteenth-Century European “Enlightenment Movement”
            and China’s Sixteenth-Century Late Ming “Enlightenment


Output:
Trend of Thought” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .              279
       22.2 The Mid-Nineteenth-Century Chinese Society Amid the
            “Enlightenment” of the West and Its Struggle to Advance
            Through Manifold Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                   280
       22.3 China’s Own Enlightenment and Its Slogan of “Science
            and Democracy”: Have They Come to Fruition? . . . . . . . . . . . .                              281
       22.4 Whither Enlightenment in Chinese Society? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                          282
Contents                                                                                ix


Output:
23   The Coexistence of Cultural Diversity: Sources
     of the Value of Harmony in Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .               .   285
     23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    .   285
     23.2 Harmony in Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          .   286
     23.3 Commonalities Across Cultural Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                    .   288
     23.4 Regional Diversity and the Bidirectional
            Nature of Cultural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          . 288
     23.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    . 290
24   On the Clash and Coexistence of Human Civilizations . . . . . . . . .                          . 291
     24.1 “The Clash of Civilizations” and the “New Empire” Theory . .                              . 291


Output:
24.2 “Coexistence of Civilizations” and New Axial Age . . . . . . . . .                        . 294
     24.3 Can Chinese Culture Make Contributions to the Coexistence
           of Civilizations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    . 298
           24.3.1 The Confucian Doctrine of Ren (仁, Benevolence,
                    Virtue) Is a Resource of Thinking with a Positive
                    Meaning for the “Coexistence of Civilizations” . . . . .                        . 299
           24.3.2 The Taoist Doctrine of the Way (tao) Can Provide
                    Significant Resources of Thinking to Prevent
                    “The Clash of Civilizations” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .              . 304
25   Constructing “Chinese Philosophy” in Sino-European
     Cultural Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      . 309
     25.1 Western Philosophy and Chinese Philosophy


Output:
as an Independent Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           . 311
     25.2 Paradigms and Frameworks of Western Philosophy
           and Potential Problems in Chinese Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . .                     . 313
     25.3 Future Developments in Chinese Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . .                       . 315
     Chinese Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   . 316
Chapter 1
Confucianism and Constructive
Postmodernism


Output: 1.1    What Kind of Age Are We in Now?


Output:
From a world perspective, our current age can possibly be seen as the transition
from modern capitalist society beginning with the first, eighteenth-century,
Enlightenment toward a postmodern society of a “second enlightenment.” From a
China perspective, our age will be seen as a crucial moment for realizing great
national revival in the context of globalization. All in all, for human society, this
age represents a precious opportunity to enter a totally new era.
    Since the eighteenth-century Age of Enlightenment, Western capitalism has a
history of almost 300 years, during which period the Western world achieved
dazzling “modernization.” But now, “modernized society” is suffering from more
and more intractable problems. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) proposed that reason
should be the watchword of the Enlightenment, but these days “reason” faces its own
problems. Originally, “reason” contained two related aspects: “instrumental reason”


Output:
and “value reason,” both aspects with an extremely important role in advancing human
progress, but the present-day reality is that “scientifically omnipotent” “instrumental
reason” outshines humanistic “value reason,” and the latter has become marginalized.
As a result, everything becomes an “instrument”: people become instruments for others
and the natural world has become an instrument to be used by human beings as they see
fit. The normal and harmonious relation between man and nature has been severely
harmed by man’s unrestrained exploitation, destruction, and waste of natural resources.
In turn, man’s own survival is threatened by deteriorating natural conditions such as
depletion of the ozone layer, poisoned oceans, polluted environment, and unbalanced
eco- environment. Although the Kyoto Protocol for limiting air pollution was signed
in Kyoto, Japan, as early as in December 1997, certain developed countries in the


Output:
December 23, 2011
Translated by Yuan Ailing

© Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd                         1
and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Y. Tang, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture,
China Academic Library, DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-45533-3_1
2                                             1 Confucianism and Constructive Postmodernism


Output:
capitalist world set various obstacles on its path. One example is Canada’s recent
announcement of its intention to withdraw from the Protocol. This illustrates that the
“reason” advocated by the Enlightenment is being changed by some Western leaders
into a “nonrational” and utilitarian “tool.”
    With the growth of industrialization, “free market economy” has promoted
the huge increase of human wealth, and people have won great material benefit
from it. But there is no denying that it has also caused serious polarization
between rich and poor (including country to country, ethnic group to ethnic
group, class to class within a country). If “free market economy” continues to
grow like a rapacious monster, without effective supervision, control, or
restraint, sooner or later it will cause economic crisis and social disturbance.
The global financial crisis that first appeared in the United States in 2008 was
still ongoing when the debt crisis began to sweep Europe in 2011. According to


Output:
Professor Paul Kennedy of Yale University, liberalism freed people from the
shackles of the pre-market-economy age, but it has also put people in danger of
financial crisis and social disasters.1
    Another Enlightenment watchword, “liberation of the individual,” originally
targeted religious superstition and vulgar ignorance, encouraging people to be
fully aware of their own strength so as to fully deploy their “free” creativity.
Today, however, this notion has become an instrument for the domination of others,
a tool that imperialist countries in particular use to support their own hegemony and
impose their own value systems on other countries and people, pushing a univer-
salist doctrine.2 The distorted development of today’s capitalist society has resulted
in people no longer in pursuit of “reason,” but indulging themselves in the lust for
power and worship of money. Consequently, all groups of people live in pain and
mental conflict: Ordinary people struggle to survive harsh conditions; intellectuals


Output:
experience constant guilt because of their inability to settle social chaos; unable to
win people’s trust, politicians exist in a state of self-deception; entrepreneurs
wrestle to figure their way around mutually contradictory rules and systems.
Regardless of rank or identity, it seems the happy life to which all aspire is out of
reach and happiness eludes all. But this is not a problem caused by any individual:
rather, it is an unavoidable pain for a society in the throes of a major transitional
period. Therefore, it is incumbent on each and every one of us to work hard for the
coming of a new age.


Output:
1
  Paul Kennedy, “The Form of Capitalism Will Change to Some Extent,” Cankaoxiaoxi, March 16,
2009.
2
  Universalism: Some Western scholars and politicians believe that only the values preached by
Western empires have “universal value” and that the ideas and cultures of all other nations have no
“universal value” to present-day human society except as museum exhibits. Therefore, we must
distinguish the issue of “universalism” from that of “universal value.” On this, please refer to the
“General Preface” written by Tang Yijie for Zhongguo Ruxue Shi, Peking University Press,
October 2011.
1.2 The Rise of Two Trends of Thought in China in the 1990s                                         3

1.2     The Rise of Two Trends of Thought
        in China in the 1990s


Output:
In the 1990s, there emerged in China’s ideological and cultural circles two ideolog-
ical trends opposing the concept of “monism.” One trend is “postmodernism,” an idea
originating in the West and aiming to deconstruct “modernity.” In the early 1980s,
“postmodernism” had already come to China, but it made little impact at the time: by
the 1990s however, Chinese scholars were suddenly showing it great interest.
Another trend is the “Guoxue tide”—the ardent pursuit of revitalizing traditional
Chinese culture. In truth, in the 1980s, China’s thinkers had advocated greater
emphasis on traditional Chinese culture, but it did not coalesce into a surge tide
until in the 1990s when Guoxue rose quietly in Peking University. What does the rise
of these two trends mean for us?
   In the 1960s, to save human society and cancel out modernity’s concomitant
negative impact, the trend of “postmodernism” first emerged in the West. In its early
period, postmodernism was “deconstructive postmodernism,” posited as a way of


Output:
dealing with problems produced in the course modern society’s development. The
aim was to deconstruct modernity, to oppose monism and advocate pluralism, to
shatter all authority, and to cast the “authoritativeness” and “dominant nature” of
modernity into the shade. But postmodernism of the deconstructive kind produced
neither positive standpoints nor any designs for a new age.
   At the turn of the twenty-first century, “constructive postmodernism,” a concept
based on process philosophy, proposed integrating the positive elements of the first
Enlightenment with postmodernism and thus called for a “second enlightenment.”
   For instance, according to Whitehead’s process philosophy, “man” should not be
taken as the center of everything. Rather, “Man and nature should be regarded as a
closely related living community.”3 According to John B. Cobber, a major founder
of process philosophy, “Constructive postmodernism takes a critical attitude


Output:
towards deconstructive postmodernism. . .we have introduced ecologicalism into
postmodernism. In a postmodern age, man and man will co-exist harmoniously, as
will man and nature. It is an age which will retain something positive of modernity
while transcending dualism, anthropocentrism and male chauvinism, an age that
aims to build a postmodern society for the common good.” According to process
philosophy, if the rallying cry of the first Enlightenment was “to free the self,” then
the second enlightenment’s watchword should be “to care about others” and “to
respect differences” (in a postmodern society). In their opinion, when people use
their personal “freedom” in ways that diminish the community, they are bound to
weaken their own “freedom.” Therefore, it is necessary to reject an abstract concept


Output:
3
  According to the paper “Whitehead’s Process Philosophy,” “Process philosophy takes environment,
resources and human beings as a closely related living community.” Social Sciences Weekly,
Shanghai, August 15, 2002. Even the Stoics of Ancient Greece believed “man is part of nature”
(Translator’s back translation due to lack of the original English version of the relevant quotation).
4                                          1 Confucianism and Constructive Postmodernism


Output:
of freedom in favor of a profound and responsible freedom by bringing in the
notions of responsibility and duty and by revealing the inner relation between
freedom and duty. In the West, constructive postmodernism is a tiny branch stream
with very little influence, but in China, it has attracted the attention of a group of
scholars who are passionate for national revival.
   Karl Theodor Jaspers wrote in The Origin and Goal of History, “Until today
mankind has lived by what happened during the Axial Period, by what was thought
and created during that period. In each new upward flight it returns in recollection to
this period and is fired anew by it. Ever since then it has been the case that recollections
and re-awakenings of the potentialities of the Axial Period—renaissances—afford
a spiritual impetus. Return to this beginning is the ever-recurrent event in China,
India and the West.”4 This is exemplified in the “Guoxue tide” in the late 1990s,


Output:
when China was experiencing a process of national rejuvenation, and for this, the
support of a revitalized national culture was essential.
   In my opinion, it is precisely because traditional Chinese culture (Guoxue) has
had over a century of impact from Western culture that Chinese scholars have had
the chance for reflecting on our own traditional culture. We have gradually come to
realize what of our culture should be promoted, what abandoned, and what
absorbed. For over 100 years, Chinese scholars have been trying to absorb and
digest “Western learning,” and this most certainly laid the foundation for the
transformation of Guoxue in the traditional sense to its modern counterpart. The
new or modern Guoxue must be a spiritually significant power for China’s revival
as well as for the “peace and development” of human society. It will help China to
realize “modernization” in an all-round way and also to avoid the predicament that
Western society currently experiences.


Output:
Western society currently experiences.
   In other words, the new Guoxue should stick to the principle of Fanben Kaixin.
Only through Fanben (return to the source) are we able to Kaixin (open up new
territory). Fanben requires of us a deep understanding of Guoxue’s essence and
insists on the mainstay nature of our own culture, whereas Kaixin requires of us a
systematic understanding of the new problems facing China and human society,
problems in need of urgent resolution. The two aspects are inseparable: Only by
digging deeper into the true essence of Guoxue can we open up new territory at the
appropriate time. Only by squarely addressing the problems of human society can
we better promote and update the essence of Guoxue, so that in the twenty-first
century, the flame of Guoxue will once more be ignited by the Fanben Kaixin
principle and contribute to human society.
   What are the prospects of these two trends of thought in China? Will they exert a


Output:
positive impact on Chinese society and on human society as a whole? To answer
these questions, we must fully investigate the possibility of integrating the two.


Output:
4
 Karl Theodor Jaspers, The Origin and Goal of History, trans. by Wei Chuxiong, et al., Huaxia
Publishing House, June 1999, p. 14.
1.3 In the New Historical Period of Chinese Revival. . .                                    5

1.3     In the New Historical Period of Chinese Revival
        and in the Context of Globalization, Traditional
        Chinese Culture May Well Make an Epochal
        Contribution to Human Society


Output:
China is in the process of national revival, and this must have the support of
revitalized national culture. However, in this globalized age, the revitalization of
our traditional culture requires us not only to address our own social problems but
world problems also. It follows that while developing our traditional culture, we
must keep in mind that it belongs to both China and the world at large. It requires us
not only to pay close attention to the actual development of our own culture but also
to incipient tendencies in Western culture. Here, the author would like to offer a
possible trend for discussion, namely: Could a combination of Guoxue and con-
structive postmodernism—the former traditional Chinese learning and the latter of
Western origin and still in the bud—have something to offer to the healthy and
rational development of China and the rest of the world?

1.3.1     “Man and Nature as a Closely Related Living
          Community” and “Unity of Man and Heaven”


Output:
According to John B. Cobber, “Today we recognize that man is a part of nature and
that we live an ecological community.” This idea, although coming directly from
Whitehead, is very similar to a traditional Chinese notion—the unity of Man and
Heaven, Heaven implying the laws of nature. As a core traditional Chinese value, it
is a mode of thinking that differs from the “man-nature dichotomy” idea that long
prevailed in the West.
    In 1992, 1,575 famous scientists from around the world signed and published a
document named “World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity.” Its first line read:
“Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course.” Why has nature
been so devastated? There is no getting away from the fact that the long prevalence
of the “man-nature dichotomy” mindset made nature a victim.5 Fortunately, the
“unity of Man and Heaven” way of thinking offers us a feasible way toward
tackling the destruction of the natural world.


Output:
tackling the destruction of the natural world.
    As early as 2,500 years ago, Confucius was exhorting people to both “know
Heaven” and “fear Heaven.” The first admonition requires us to learn more


Output:
5
 Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, trans. by Ma Yuande, The Commercial Press,
August 1988. On page 91 of the final volume of this translation, it is written, “Descartes’
philosophy completed or nearly completed the dualism of spirit and material that began from
Plato and was developed by Christian philosophy for religion related reason. . . According to
Descartes’ system, the spiritual world and the material world are two parallel and independent
worlds and the study of one may not involve the other.”
6                                        1 Confucianism and Constructive Postmodernism


Output:
about nature and thus consciously use it to improve the welfare of human beings.
The second requires us to hold nature in awe and fulfill our duty of protecting it.
According to Zhu Xi, another great thinker of ancient China, “Heaven is inseparable
from man and man from Heaven.” What he is telling us is that, after Heaven gives
birth to man, man and Heaven have formed an inseparable relation, one that requires
man to embody the laws of Heaven and to be responsible for it.
    As we have seen, in dealing with the relation between man and nature, traditional
Chinese philosophy takes a road similar to that of constructive postmodernism.
As Léon Vandermeersch put it, “Western humanism that brought the world such a
perfect thought as the concept of human rights now faces many challenges from
modern society that as yet it has been unable to answer. Why, then, not give some
consideration as to whether Confucian thinking might indicate a way forward for the


Output:
world, for example: respect for nature as proposed in the ‘unity of man and Heaven’
concept; and the philanthropic spirit that ‘all men are brothers’? We can and should
bring to bear the essence of Confucian teaching on current world problems, to
examine them afresh from a new perspective.”6
    Why does Vandermeersch put Western thought on human rights together with
the three concepts from Chinese thinking as mentioned above? As we know, human
rights are very important to us, because man should not be deprived of the right of
freedom, and social progress can only be realized with “freedom of thought,”
“freedom of speech,” “freedom of belief,” “freedom of movement,” etc. However,
the question of how to protect human rights is often subject to interference by external
forces, to removal even. This has been the case in China and overseas. Some Western
thinkers and politicians widen the concept of human rights to the extent that there are


Output:
no limits and that man can destroy nature at will. Hence, Vandermeersch asserted
that there should be some constraints on man’s rights over nature, and to do that, we
should use the significant philosophical asset of the concept of their unity.
    According to Christian belief, God created the world in its complete form and
man can do nothing further to it. However, in Vandermeersch’s opinion, once God
created a complete world, the rest was man’s problem and for man to address. Just
as André Gide, the French writer, said, “God proposes and man disposes.” The
Confucian view that “all men are brothers” is linked to another traditional Chinese
idea, namely, “world outlook.” This considers that man’s loftiest ideal is “the world
being One” (or the world is in Great Harmony). As written in The Great Learning, it
is important to cultivate one’s moral character, to take good care of one’s family, to
run the State well, and thence to make the whole world peaceful and harmonious.


Output:
For any country or nation, it is important to consider not just its own interests but
“peace in the world” (i.e., common interests of mankind), which, in my opinion,
should be an intrinsic meaning of “human rights.” In other words Western thinking
on human rights would do well to look into the traditional thought and culture


Output:
6
  Léon Vandermeersch, “The Significance of Ruzang (Confucian Collection) in the World,”
Guangming Daily, August 31, 2009.
1.3 In the New Historical Period of Chinese Revival. . .                                     7

of other nations (such as China) for valuable elements that could supplement and
enrich its own approach and thereby set human society on a more reasonable path.

1.3.2     Constructive Postmodernism, a Second Enlightenment
          and Confucian Renxue (Learning of Goodness)


Output:
According to constructive postmodernism, if the watchword of the first
Enlightenment was “liberty of the individual,” then those of the second should be
“care about others” and “respect for differences.”7 The former can be described as
ren (goodness), a core value of the Confucian school. The starting point and basis of
ren is “love of family,” but according to Confucius, we should not only extend ren
to family members but beyond the family too. Similarly, as taught by Mencius, an
important successor of Confucius, “Apart from taking good care of the elderly and
children of one’s own kin, one should extend concern for the elderly and children of
other families.” He also asserted that love for family was a prerequisite for loving
others, and loving others a prerequisite for loving all creatures.
    Mencius’ thought is also in line with the “care about others” line proposed by
constructive postmodernism. According to constructive postmodernism scholars,


Output:
their philosophy is to try to “construct a postmodern world where all living commu-
nities get due attention and concern” on the basis of “retaining some positive factors
of modernity” (mainly valuable concepts such as “freedom,” “democracy,” “human
rights,” etc., as proposed by Western thinkers on the basis of reason).8 This can be
regarded as a more comprehensive description of “care about others.” In the develop-
ment of human society, culture always undergoes a process of accumulation,
inheritance, and creation. A postmodern society must retain the positive factors of
modernity such as “freedom,” “democracy,” “human rights,” etc., before the signifi-
cance of “constructing a postmodern world in which all living communities get due
attention and concern” can be fully displayed. “Respect for differences” can be taken
as a different way of expressing the Confucian proposition “the Ways move in
parallel and do not interfere with each other.”


Output:
parallel and do not interfere with each other.”
    Different ideological and cultural traditions often have different features.
Fortunately, such differences can be meaningful to human society to an extent
and are by no means necessarily at odds.9 For example, to allow the concept of
“democracy” proposed by the West as having positive meaning in specific social


Output:
7
  Wang Zhihe, “Postmodernism Calls for a Second Enlightenment,” World Culture Forum,
February 2007.
8
  “For the Common Welfare: an Interview with John B. Cobber” (interviewed by Wang Xiaohua),
Social Sciences Weekly, Shanghai, June 13, 2002.
9
  According to the section “Supreme Harmony” of Correcting Ignorance by Zhang Zai, “Every-
thing has its opposite and the opposite must move against the thing. When the opposite moves
against the thing, there must be fight between them. As long as there is fight, the end must be
harmony.”
8                                        1 Confucianism and Constructive Postmodernism


Output:
conditions is not to deny traditional Chinese thinking such as Minben (people as the
root) as also having positive meaning in specific social conditions too; nor do we
deny the “universal value” of our traditional thoughts such as “Do not do to others
what you do not want done to yourself.” Only by acknowledging that every
ideological and cultural tradition has its positive effect on human society can
different countries and nations coexist and co-prosper. Absorbing and digesting
the strong points of different cultural systems as a means to achieving real com-
prehension of them is an essential path for the development of culture. Just as Russell
said, “Many times in the past has it been proved that exchanges between different
civilizations made milestones in the development of human civilizations.”10 We
should remember that as human beings, we face common problems. We may adopt
different ways to tackle those problems, but we often come to the same end via


Output:
different routes. Therefore, “respect others” and “the Ways move in parallel and do
not interfere with each other” have equivalent value to us.


Output:
1.3.3    Defining “Human” and Examining “Human Rights”
         from the Standpoint of Li: A Traditional Chinese
         Concept


Output:
The human rights concept is a very important one for modern society. But each
ideological and cultural tradition should discuss deeply how to have the concept
play a positive role in building a healthy and rational society. As written in Thinking
Through Confucius, coauthored by Hall and Ames, two well-known American
philosophers, “What we need to do is not only study Chinese traditions but also
to use them as a cultural resource to enrich and restructure our own. The Confucian
school defined ‘man’ from a societal perspective. Can we use it to modify and
strengthen the Western mode of liberalism? Can we find some useful resource from
a society built on li (rites, courtesy, ceremony, etc.) to help us better understand our
insufficiently rooted but indeed valuable outlook on human rights?”11
    This paragraph discusses three issues: one, that the West should not stop at
studying China’s thinking and culture but go on to apply those things so as to “enrich


Output:
and restructure” its own; two, the necessity of understanding the significance of
“man” as defined from a societal perspective in traditional Chinese culture; and,
three, that China’s li contains elements that could well be valuable if brought into the
Western concept of human rights.
    In my opinion, the three issues raised by Hall and Ames are for treating the
condition of some of Western philosophical concepts being “insufficiently rooted.”
It is precisely because of the great importance attached to man’s right of liberty in


Output:
10
   “Comparison between Chinese and Western Cultures,” in Russell’s A Free Man’s Worship,
Time Literature and Art Press, April 1988. The Chinese translation is slightly changed.
11
   Thinking Through Confucius, Peking University Press, August 2005.
1.3 In the New Historical Period of Chinese Revival. . .                              9


Output:
modern society (since the first Enlightenment) that human society has developed by
leaps and bounds. The right of liberty is a great creative force. That said, the misuse
of right of liberty by an individual, a country, or a nation can, in certain circum-
stances, constitute a threat to suppression or violation of the rights of other
individuals, countries, or nations. To define “human” from a societal perspective
as traditional Chinese culture does means “not defining it from the isolated angle of
‘the individual’” because “humans” have to live and grow up in various relations
since the moment of birth. It is much like what Karl Marx said in Theses on
Feuerbach, “the essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual.
In reality, it is the ensemble of social relations.”12
    How then are we to handle the complex “social relations of man?” In ancient
China, great emphasis was placed on li in dealing with these relations. Although li


Output:
was a conceptual thing, it did have a restricting power on man’s behavior. As
written in The Analects of Confucius: “In practicing the rules of li, harmony is to be
prized.” The most important role of li is to promote social harmony as a normalizing
power over society. As written in the Book of Rites, “. . .rulers use li to protect
morality and laws to prevent people from committing crimes.” Rulers created li for
preventing moral norms being ruined and made laws for keeping social order. As
written in “Explaining Government” by Jia Yi of the Former Han Dynasty, “Li is
put into practice before people do something wrong whereas law is executed after
people do bad things. The role of law is visible whereas the role of li is invisible and
hard to perceive.” Another reason that li is greatly valued in our tradition is, as
advocated by the Confucian school, the importance of reciprocal relationships
among people. As written in the Books of Rites, “What is human righteousness?


Output:
It involves ten (or five pairs of) person-to-person relations: A father is kind to
children and children show filial obedience to parents; brothers are kind to each
other; a husband is responsible to wife and wife obedient to husband; the older
children are kind to younger siblings and the younger respect the older; a ruler is
benevolent and his subjects are loyal.” That is to say, according to the Confucian
school, the moral relation between people should be a relation of rights and
corresponding obligations rather than one-sided enjoyment of rights without
fulfilling obligations. China’s li was created precisely in order to balance the rights
and obligations of those social relations. Therefore, in my opinion, is it possible to
call premodern China a society under “rule of li and law?” This, of course, is an
ideal of the Confucian school.
    From this, one could envisage in establishing a “convention on human rights”
also establishing a “convention on obligations” at the same time, so as to keep a


Output:
balance between rights and obligations. This would accord with what Hall and
Ames believed a possible role for li—“enriching and restructuring” the Western
concept of human rights. One might envisage a “convention of obligations” to
protect and strengthen a “convention on human rights.”


Output:
12
     Complete Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Vol. 3, p. 5.
10                                         1 Confucianism and Constructive Postmodernism


Output:
According to John B. Cobber, “Traditional Chinese ideology is very attractive to
constructive postmodernism, but we should not just return to it. Instead, our
postmodernism should renew itself by serious scientific means and by adjusting
itself to the changing society. The pre-modern tradition should absorb the positive
factors of the Enlightenment such as concern for and respect of individual rights
before it can contribute something to the postmodern society.”13 This paragraph has
great significance for study of our ideology and culture. Traditional or premodern
Chinese culture needed to absorb rather than exclude all valuable fruits achieved by
modern society since the Enlightenment, such as freedom, democracy, human
rights, etc., concepts that embody “concern and respect for individual rights.” In
addition, we must work hard to put into practice those positive concepts before we
can successfully align traditional or premodern Chinese culture with postmodern-


Output:
ism and promote the transformation from modern to postmodern society.
    It is good to note that some Chinese scholars have had extensive contact and
satisfactory cooperation with Western scholars of constructive postmodernism. The
representative figures of constructive postmodernism have also realized the value of
traditional Chinese culture to their research and are absorbing nutrition from it.
Similarly, some Chinese scholars have noticed the practical significance of con-
structive postmodernism in helping human society out of predicament and are
paying close attention to the development of this thought. If an organic synthesis
between the widely influential “Guoxue tide” and constructive postmodernism can
be achieved, then pioneered deeply in Chinese society, and developed further,
China could perhaps proceed smoothly to completing the mission of its own “first
enlightenment,” realize modernization, and then rather rapidly enter a postmodern


Output:
society marked by a “second enlightenment.” If this does come to pass, the fruits
achieved in China’s current cultural revival will be of great significance to human
history.
    In this paper, the author explores the possibility of communication and integra-
tion of Western and Chinese cultures. Whether this possibility can become reality
hinges mainly on how China’s Guoxue can adapt to healthy social development and
whether constructive postmodernism, currently a minor branch of thinking in the
West, can become more mainstream and win widespread acceptance. The author
stresses that this paper is simply a theoretical foray—a tryout—and would welcome
any comments.


Output:
13
   “For the Common Welfare: an Interview with John B. Cobber” (interviewed by Wang Xiaohua),
Social Sciences Weekly, Shanghai, June 13, 2002.
Chapter 2
The Contemporary Significance
of Confucianism

2.1    Why Addressing the Topic “The Contemporary
       Significance of Confucianism”?


Output:
I have delivered speeches on the topic “The Contemporary Significance of
Confucianism” several times, including in the 1980s and 1990s of the last century.
Now, I will continue to address it in the twenty-first century. In addition to me, more
and more scholars have started to address this topic. Why? I think there are two
important reasons: One is that we are on the eve of the great revival of the Chinese
nation. So now, we must review our historical and cultural tradition. Karl Jaspers
presented the notion of “the Axial Age.” He thought that great thinkers emerged in
ancient Greece, Israel, India, China, and other countries almost simultaneously
around 500 B.C., and they all presented unique ideas on problems which concern all
human beings. Aristotle and Plato in ancient Greece, Prophets of Judaism in Israel,
Shakyamuni in India, and Laozi and Confucius in China independently initiated and
formed distinctive cultural traditions. Through 2,000 years of development, these


Output:
cultural traditions have become central to human intellectual wealth, but these
different cultures in different regions developed independently at the beginning
and did not originally influence each other. He says, until today mankind has lived
all by what was thought and created during the Axial Age. In each new upward leap,
it returns in recollection to this period and is fired anew by it. Even since then, it has
been the case that recollections and reawakening of the potentialities of the Axial
Period—renaissances—always afford a spiritual impetus. The return to the root is
the continuous thing in China, India, and West (see Jaspers 1989, p. 14). For
instance, the Europeans in the renaissance looked back at the origin of their culture,
ancient Greece, which revived European civilization and left its mark on global


Output:
Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 2008, 3(4): 477–501
Translated by Yan Xin from Jianghan Luntan 江汉论坛 (Jianghan Tribune), 2007, (1): 5–14

© Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd                           11
and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Y. Tang, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture,
China Academic Library, DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-45533-3_2
12                                              2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
culture. Similarly, Song and Ming Neo-Confucianism in China was stimulated by
Indian Buddhism; the Confucian thinkers, by “recalling” Confucius and Mencius in
the pre-Qin period, had promoted the ingenious Chinese philosophy to a new
height. When we enter into the new millennium, the world’s intellectual circle
has started to appeal for the arrival of “a New Axial Age.” Thus, it has become
important to review and research ancient thoughts and wisdom and recall the origin
of our own culture in order to respond to the new, diverse world culture. Secondly,
in the new century, our country has brought forward a great project to build a
“harmonious society.” Fei Xiaotong has raised the issue of “cultural self-
consciousness.” In order to build a “harmonious society,” we have to know our own
“culture.” What is “cultural self-consciousness”? Fei Xiaotong in Reconsideration
on Humanistic Value said:
     Cultural self-consciousness denotes that people who live in a context of some culture have


Output:
“self-knowledge” of their own culture, and can explain its origin, development, character-
     istics, and its trend. It does not mean that people “return to the original culture,” and “return
     to the ancients,” and it does not mean “complete westernization” or “complete tahua 他化
     (otherization)” at the same time. The request for self-knowledge intends to strengthen the
     ability of self-determination in the process of cultural transformation, and grasp the
     initiative status of cultural choice in the process of adaptation to new conditions and new
     era. (Fei Xiaotong 2005, p. 248)


Output:
It means that we have to have “self-knowledge” of our culture, establish our
place in our culture, and have an “independent ability” in the state of globalization
and cultural diversity in the great historical era that we are building our “harmoni-
ous society.” Our place in our culture does not mean “completely returning to the
ancients” and “complete westernization”; instead, it means assuring that our own
culture can take deep root in society, like leaves which flourish if the roots are deep.
So we have to persist in our cultural understanding in order to be able to absorb and
digest the outstanding cultures of other nations to nourish our own culture.
   In this situation, when we study our history and the prospect of our national
culture, we have to adapt to the new trend of the contemporary development of world
culture, that is, the “New Axial Age.” We have to have cultural self-consciousness in
order to meet the goal of building a “harmonious society.” In the new historical era,


Output:
what problems face the world and our society? Which issues should we address in
order to realize “the New Axial Age” and our “harmonious society”?


Output:
2.2      Various Points of View About the “Learning of the
         Chinese Classics,” Especially Confucianism, in
         Academic and Cultural Circles

Entering into the twenty-first century, the learning of the Chinese classics becomes
popular. There are various opinions and explanations on this phenomenon. The
so-called learning of the Chinese Classics can be found in Zhouli·Chunguan·
Yueshi 周礼·春官·乐师 (Zhouli 1980), which is the earliest record: “The duty of
the official in charge of music is to administer the affairs of nation-owned school,
and to teach the offspring of high-ranking officials music and dance.” But, now, the
2.2 Various Points of View About the “Learning of the Chinese Classics,”          13


Output:
“learning of the Chinese classics” seems to be the opposite of “Western learning.”
The reason is that as we face the influence of “Western learning,” we encounter the
problem of how to protect and develop our own traditional culture. The develop-
ment of Chinese culture faces a dual task. One is that we must protect our culture
and maintain our cultural foundation. And the other is how we deal with Western
culture. This has been the basis of the cultural dispute of “China and the West, the
Ancient and the Modern” for the past hundred years. But today, in the time of
globalization, we must go out of the dispute, synchronize the teachings of “China
and the West, and the Ancient and the Modern,” and realize the ability of different
cultures to coexist and prosper.
   Today, there are various points of view about the “learning of the Chinese
classics,” especially Confucianism, in academic and cultural circles. I will give a
brief introduction in the following passages:


Output:
brief introduction in the following passages:
1. Some scholars propose the outline as “the reconstruction of Chinese Confucian-
   ism.” They think that we “must revive Confucianism omni-directionally in order
   to fight against the omni-directional challenge of Western civilization” and “the
   revival of Confucianism is an urgent affair to revive Chinese culture and
   reconstruct Chinese civilization.” Therefore, they advocate establishing Confu-
   cianism as the national religion and realizing the so-called “combination of
   politics and religion” of China’s ancient times (Jiang Qing 2005, pp. 3–7).
2. There are two critiques of this point of view: One is from “the school of
   liberalism.” The critics believe that “the theory that Confucianism can save the
   nation” counteracts contemporary democratic politics and is harmful to the idea
   of “equality.” The critics assume that their purpose is to establish “Confucian-
   ism” as “the national religion,” and they “attempt to ideologize Confucianism


Output:
and make use of Confucianism as the instrument of dictatorship” (Chen 2006, p.
   6). Another critique is from Marxist scholars. They think that “the essence of
   salvation in Confucianism is an exaggeration of moral function” and “to apply
   the ontological Dao of Heaven and ontological nature and destiny to pursue the
   kingliness Dao of politics, but this only leads to the trap of feudal dictatorship
   again.” “The real savior can only be Marxism” (Ibid.).
3. Some scholars fully affirm “Confucianism” in order to maintain and develop
   Confucian thoughts. For instance, modern Neo-Confucians think that “the Dao
   of kingliness without,” which can adapt to modern democratic politics, can be
   developed from the learning of the sageliness within. They also think that the
   system of epistemology can develop from the Confucian “learning of mind and
   nature.” Others think that “san gang wu chang 三纲五常 (the Three Bonds and
   the Five Moral Rules) in human relationships” still have value. In the 1994


Output:
conference, Tu Weiming gave up his former belief that the three bonds still had
   value for the belief that “the Five Moral Rules in human relationships still had
   value.” His opinion on “cultural China” is important for making Chinese culture
   known to the world. But he divided “cultural China” into several circles, with the
   core circle including Chinese mainland, Taiwan, etc. The second circle includes
   the overseas Chinese. And the third circle includes those countries which have
   been influenced by Chinese culture. The fourth circle covers foreigners who
14                                     2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
study and enjoy Chinese culture. But one of his beliefs is debatable. He said:
   “The category of cultural China is very broad. Some persons who have no
   consanguineous relationship with China, but have a great impact on China are
   also a part of cultural China” (Tu Weiming 2002, p. 430). This is questionable.
   From this logic, we can infer the categories of “cultural Europe” and “cultural
   America” and that Chinese thinkers like Confucius, Mencius, Laozi, and
   Zhuangzi had an impact on them, so they are also a part of “cultural Europe”
   and “cultural America,” too.
4. Of course, some scholars think that the May Fourth Movement refuted Confu-
   cianism, and to once again raise Confucianism to a high status is a historical
   regression.
      How should we look at Confucian thoughts? There are various answers.
   Today, the many perspectives to this issue indicate that our society is
   progressing, because academic and cultural questions can only be raised in an


Output:
environment of free discussion and improved by rational dialogue.
    Of course, I myself have my own opinion on “Confucianism,” and debates will
determine whether my opinion is right or not. It is just one voice. I have several
opinions on academics and culture. First, there is no absolutely right way of
thinking and culture in history, because each of them contains internal contradic-
tions, including Confucianism. So, some aspects of Confucianism inevitably have
historical limitations and cannot adapt to the needs of modern society. The univer-
sal significance of Confucianism also needs to be interpreted in a modern way.
Second, although thinking and culture are moving forward, the issues raised by
ancient philosophers and their thoughts are the same as today because some
philosophical issues last forever. For instance, the problem of “the relationship
between human and nature” is still discussed in contemporary Chinese philosophy.


Output:
Third, Bertrand Russell said: “Contacts between different civilizations have often
in the past proved to be landmarks in human progress” (Russell 1922, p. 195). Any
culture that wants to have continuous historical development must absorb and
digest other nations’ cultures, and a culture can only keep up with other cultures
through mutual exchanges, especially in the era of globalization. Looking at
Chinese history, the entry of Indian Buddhism has proven this. Chinese culture
has benefited from Indian Buddhism; Indian Buddhism was further developed and
promoted in China. It was absorbed by Chinese culture and had a profound impact
on Neo-Confucianism in the time of the Song and Ming dynasties. Today, we must
absorb and digest Western culture and other nations’ cultures fully and systemat-
ically in the time of globalization. Only in this way can Chinese academics and
culture adapt to the demands of contemporary human society and our own nation’s


Output:
development. Therefore, our culture must be national and international. Fourth,
cultural subjectivity should be established. Any national culture must take root in its
own soil because it is necessary to understand, comprehend, protect, and develop a
native culture fully in order to rationally and healthily develop as well as have the
capacity to absorb other nations’ cultures in depth. A culture that is unable to
2.2 Various Points of View About the “Learning of the Chinese Classics,”             15


Output:
maintain its autonomy and is unable to absorb other nations’ cultures to enrich and
develop its own culture will be wiped out or completely assimilated.
   Based on the above discussions, we may analyze “Confucianism” from three
different perspectives: political Confucianism, orthodox Confucianism, and
academic Confucianism.
   Confucianism has been intertwined with politics in past dynasties; undoubtedly,
it played an important role in feudal dictatorship. Confucianism pays special
attention to its function in moral cultivation, which has a positive side, but the
negative side leads to absolute rule, making China a society of “the rule of man”
and making it difficult for China to achieve the “rule of law.” Confucians often
moralized politics and glorified political rule; and they also politicized morality,
making it an instrument of politics. Of course, some of the political philosophy in
Confucianism limited dictatorship, for instance, “to resist high-ranking official with


Output:
virtue,” “people are the most valuable,” and “to kill a dictator” (King Xuan of Qi
asked: “Is it tolerable if a government official kills his king?” Mencius said: “He
who destroys benevolence and righteousness is called a dictator. I just heard about
King Wu of Zhou, the first king of Zhou Dynasty, who killed the dictator Zhou 纣,
the last ruler of the Shang Dynasty, and I have never heard that he killed his king as
an official”) (Mencius 1980, Liang Huiwang xia). It was also typical of Confucians
to apply “tian天 (Heaven)” in restricting the emperor’s power. Confucians
proposed that humans should revere “Heaven” and fate. In some circumstances,
“the interaction between Heaven and man” can also restrict the “emperor’s power.”
For instance, when natural disasters or strange phenomena happened, officials
would write to the emperor to warn him. Then, the emperor would have to publish
an imperial self-criticism. But speaking as a whole, the negative function of


Output:
political Confucianism is more obvious because it was used by politics. In any
case, the thoughts of “stupid loyalty” and “my majesty is holy and wise, and your
subject commits intolerable crime and should be put to death” are not advisable. So,
when Confucianism is manipulated by politicians, many problems arise.
   Orthodox Confucianism: the development and influence of schools with system-
atic traits and a successive heritage must have their own tradition whether it is in the
West or in China. In China, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism all have their
own traditions. Because schools with traditions continuously develop, among them,
Confucianism is especially conscious of inheriting its tradition, and Confucians
regard the inheritance of the cultural traditions of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou
dynasties as their responsibility. “Confucius inherits the Dao of Yao and Shun
and imitates King Wen and King Wu of Zhou” (Zisi 1980, Chapter 30). Therefore,


Output:
today, we should consciously inherit our own cultural tradition. But if Confucian-
ism overemphasizes its “orthodox tradition,” it might exclude other schools and
suppress heterodoxy. Heterodoxy is to oppose and overthrow mainstream thought
and blaze a new path for new ways of thinking. Confucianism as a whole is
relatively inclusive. For instance, Confucians hold that “The myriad things grow
equally without harming each other and the circulation of the four seasons, the
travel of the sun and the moon go smoothly without interference” (Ibid.).
But sometimes there is also a strong sense of exclusiveness in Confucianism.
16                                    2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
For instance, Mencius rejected Yang Zhu and Mozi, and he criticized Yang Zhu’s
lack of filial piety to his father because he advocated universal and equal benevo-
lence and Mozi’s lack of loyalty to the emperor because he insisted that individuals
came first. Here, Mencius goes too far. Another example is Han Yu’s exclusion of
Buddhism. At that time, Buddhism had caused some problems, including a tremen-
dous waste of national wealth. But Han Yu suggested “The government should
secularize Buddhism monks and nuns, burn off sutra, and transform Buddhism
temples to civilian houses” (Han 1991, p. 174). His words go too far. It is not good
if factionalism is too strong.
    “The academic tradition of Confucianism” is about the history of Confucian
learning and its academic ideals. In this aspect, the positive value of Confucianism
can be seen, and Confucianism can offer significant resources for human society.
Now and in the future, Confucianism should not be ideologized. Learning is learning,


Output:
and it should not depend on politics. No school of learning should be viewed as the
ruling one, and the “contention of a hundred schools of thought” should be put into
practice. Of course, we must analyze the thoughts offered by sages and outstanding
men in history and interpret them according to contemporary circumstances in order
to uncover resources which can assist in the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation
and be universally significant for the rational and all-around development of human
society. In order to achieve this goal, Confucianism should be renewed in order to
make it a source of real spiritual wealth.


Output:
2.3   What are the Main Issues in Contemporary Human
      Society?


Output:
We may judge the value of learning from many perspectives, such as politics,
economics, science, and technology. Perhaps, it is most important to make a
philosophical judgment on the value of a school. Therefore, we must learn about
the main problems faced by our society, nation, and mankind. These issues should
be the starting point for considering philosophical questions.
   What are the main issues in contemporary human society? In my opinion, there
are three: one is the relationship between man and nature, a conflict which is quite
serious. The second is the relationship between man and man, including relation-
ships between man and self (man and society), nation and nation, and people and
people. The third problem is the relationship between body and mind. The biggest
problem facing mankind is the conflict between man and nature, man and man (man
and society), and the conflict within oneself. These issues are related to building a


Output:
“harmonious society” and human society’s “peaceful coexistence.” In my opinion,
the three philosophical propositions, “the unity of nature and man,” “the unity of
self and others,” and “the unity of body and mind,” can provide some valuable
approaches and important philosophical resources to resolving the three conflicts.
Of course, I do not mean that these problems can only be solved by Confucianism.
   As we enter the twenty-first century, we will see that the past century was a
century of rapid development, a progressive century, but it was also a tragic century
2.4 The Relationship Between Man and Nature                                        17


Output:
full of conflict and fighting. In 100 years, there were two world wars, and more than
a hundred million people died unnaturally due to war. Many cultural artifacts made
by mankind several centuries ago were destroyed. China has experienced much
suffering, but has also made great progress in the past 100 years. In this process, we
nearly completely negated our cultural tradition, and we refused to absorb some
progressive Western cultures for a long time, too. It led to social problems, such as
“a crisis of belief,” “moral vacuum,” “environmental pollution,” and “money
worship.” How should we tackle these problems? I, and not only me, but other
scholars, too, think that we can find philosophical resources from the past 5,000
years to deal with these problems. Many scholars have looked for answers to these
problems. Of course, we should not think that thoughts and culture can solve all
problems. If we think that thoughts and culture can tackle all problems, it will lead


Output:
to “cultural determinism.” Then, it will be like the belief that science and technol-
ogy can tackle human and social problems, leading to the trap of “the omnipotence
of science,” of “scientism.” Therefore, when we discuss “the significance of
Confucianism,” we simply want to find resources and approaches which can be
applied to contemporary human and social problems and a way to deal with these
problems.


Output: 2.4   The Relationship Between Man and Nature


Output:
On the problem of “conflict between man and nature,” in 1992, 1575 scientists,
including half the Nobel laureates, signed the “World Scientists’ Warning to
Humanity,” which stated that human beings and the natural world are on a collision
course. In my opinion, the warning signaled that human kind will encounter a
serious crisis if the world continues as it is now. Advanced science and technology
can benefit people, but as a part of nature, people not only control a lot of
instruments to destroy nature but also control weapons which can be used to destroy
human beings in the process of conquering nature. The never-ending exploitation
and destruction of nature results in consequences such as the waste of natural
resources, the depletion of the ozone layer, the evaporation of the ocean, environ-
mental pollution, the sudden and sharp growth in the human population, and
ecological imbalance. The result is the destruction of “a harmonious nature” and


Output:
“the harmonious relationship between man and nature,” threatening conditions for
human existence. These situations have a relationship with the subject-object
dichotomy in Western philosophy. For instance, in A History of Western Philoso-
phy, Russell said: “the philosophy of Descartes. . .it brought to completion, or very
nearly to completion, the dualism of mind and matter which began with Plato and
was developed, largely for religious reasons, by Christian philosophy. . .the Carte-
sian system presents two parallel but independent worlds, that of mind and that of
matter, each of which can be studied without reference to the other” (Russell 1972,
p. 567). It means that for a long time, spirit and matter have been regarded as
independent and isolated in Western philosophy. Therefore, this kind of philosophy
18                                           2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
is established on an “external relationship” (“man” and “nature” are two unrelated
factors.), or it can be said that they regard “mind” and “matter” as two independent
dual factors, and when Western philosophers study one, they do not involve the
other (but Western philosophy has changed, for instance, Whitehead criticizes the
dualism in the traditional way of thinking in his Process Philosophy). It means that
Western thought involves the dualism of “subject-object” (“mind” and “matter,” or
“nature” and “man”) from Plato in the Axial Age. But Chinese philosophy is
different because it is based on “the unity of Heaven and man” (subject and object
are connected and cannot be divided).
    One of the origins of Chinese philosophy is Zhou Yi 周易 (The Book of
Changes). There is an important passage on the Chu Bamboo Slips unearthed in
Jing Men, Hubei province, in 1993. It states (Jingmen 1998, Yucong yi 语丛一):
     The Rituals describes the manners of intercourse.
     The Music is used to enjoy or educate.


Output:
The Music is used to enjoy or educate.
     The Book of History is □□□□ [sic].
     The Book of Odes is a collection of poems of the past and the present.
     The Book of Changes is to communicate the Dao of nature and the Dao of man.
     The Spring and Autumn Annals is a collection of affairs of the past and the present.


Output:
These bamboo slips were written around 300 B.C. They say that “Change
communicates with the Dao of nature and the Dao of man.” It means that the
Book of Changes studies the Dao of Heaven (law of Heaven or nature) and the Dao
of man (order in society) and why they are connected through a comprehensive
study of the subjects. That is, people in ancient times had already realized that they
had to include “man” when studying “nature,” and when studying “man,” they had
to involve “Heaven,” too. This is “the unity of nature and man.” In fact, this had
already been revealed in Confucius’ Analects. Zi Gong said: “I cannot hear Master
Confucius’ saying about nature and the Dao of nature” (Confucius 1980, Gongye
chang). Although Zi Gong had never heard Confucius speak about “nature and the
Dao of nature,” he brought forward this issue, which indicates that there was great
interest in the relationship between “human nature” (man) and “the Dao of Heaven


Output:
(nature).” When looking at the development of human society, people originally
came across the relationship between “man” and “nature (Heaven)” because
humans cannot live without “nature.” Therefore, the ancient Chinese always paid
attention to “the relationship between man and nature.”
   Of course, there are various attitudes and methods to deal with “the relationship of
man and nature.” Some scholars held that man should comply with nature; some
scholars thought that man should make use of “nature” to serve man, “know and
apply nature to serve people”; and some scholars held that “both man and nature have
their own laws and advantages.” But the mainstream Confucian thinkers believed in
“the unity of man and nature.” The so-called unity of man and nature means that
“nature” is inseparable from “man” and “man” is inseparable from “nature,” too.
   Why is there such a belief? Well, it has a long history. We know that the Book of


Output:
Changes was originally a fortune-telling book used to predict good or bad luck and
misfortune or good fortune. Who was asked to answer people’s fortunes? Tian 天
(Heaven). “Man” asks tian about good or bad luck and misfortune or good fortune.
2.4 The Relationship Between Man and Nature                                       19


Output:
The Book of Changes recorded these answers, and so it became a book on the
relationship between “Heaven” (tian) and “man.” Subsequently, various interpre-
tations of this book formed a new one, that is, Yizhuan 易传 (The Appendices to the
Book of Changes). Among them, The Appended Remarks in particular can be
regarded as a philosophical interpretation of the Book of Changes. The Book of
Changes solves the problem of the relationship between “Heaven” and “man”; then
what is the relationship between “Heaven” and “man”? The Appended Remarks
answers this. It argues that the Book of Changes includes everything, and the book
not only includes “the Dao of Heaven,” “the Dao of earth,” but also includes “the
Dao of man.” Although “the Dao of Heaven” is manifested by yin and yang, “the
Dao of earth” is presented as “hardness” and “softness,” and “the Dao of man” is
manifested as “benevolence” and “righteousness.” The principle of the three is


Output:
united, and the three are the manifestation of qian 干 and kun 坤. The Confucian
Zhang Zai in the Song Dynasty said: “Heaven, earth, and man all have the Dao of
qian and kun. The Change penetrates in Heaven, earth, and man, and yin and yang
are its substance (qi), hardness and softness is its form, and benevolence and
righteousness are its nature” (Zhang Zai 1978, p. 235). From the example in the
Book of Changes that unites Heaven (earth) and man, we can see that Heaven and
man are a connected entity. The reason that qian and kun are used to describe the
unity of “Heaven,” “earth,” and “man” is that qian denotes vigorous movement and
kun denotes generosity and virtue in the Appendices to the Book of Changes.
Therefore, “man” has a special responsibility for “Heaven and Earth” (Heaven).
“Man” should know what is demanded by Heaven and Earth in the spirit of
“constantly striving for self-improvement” and “with profound generosity to con-


Output:
tain things or complete things.” Zhang Zai said, “the Dao of Heaven” and “the Dao
of man” are similar in the sense of “reason or truth.” If we want to know the
principle of being a man, we have to know the Dao of “Heaven and Earth,” and if
we know the truth of “Heaven and Earth,” we can know the principle or law of
“man” (society).
    Confucians in the Song Dynasty developed “the unity of nature and man.” For
instance, Cheng Yi said:“Is it allowable to know the Dao of man but do not know the
Dao of nature? The Dao is one. Is it right if the Dao of man is one, and the Dao of
nature is another one?” (Cheng and Cheng Yi 2004, Er Cheng yishu, Vol. 18).
According to the Confucian thinking, “nature” and “man” cannot be divided, and
they cannot be regarded as an external and opposite relationship, and we cannot
study only one of the two. Zhu Xi expressed this idea much clearer. He said: “Nature
is man, and man is nature. At the beginning of human birth, they are produced from


Output:
nature; and after the birth, nature is human too” (Zhu Xi 1990, Vol. 17). Zhu Xi held
that “nature” cannot be independent of “man,” and “man” cannot be independent of
“nature.” At the time of birth, humans come from nature, but when there is a human
being, the Dao of “nature” (Heaven) is embodied by “man.” In other words,
“humans” are responsible for “nature.” If there were no “humans,” how would the
lively atmosphere of “nature” be embodied, how would “the constantly striving to
become stronger” of “nature” be embodied, and how would “containing things
or completing things with profound generosity” of the “earth” be embodied?
20                                    2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
So man should know that “the work to establish mind or heart for Heaven and Earth”
and “the work to establish life for people” are the same and cannot be separated.
Therefore, the Yucong yi of Guodian Zhujian 郭店竹简·语丛一(Collection One
of the Guo Dian Bamboo Slips for Writing) said: “The Dao can be mastered after
knowing what Heaven (nature) does and what man does. If we know the Dao, then
we know what fate is” (Jingmen 1998). If we know “the Dao of nature (Heaven)”
(the law of nature) and the Dao of man (the law of human society and life), then we
can know the unified principle or reason for “nature or Heaven” and “man” and the
development of “nature or Heaven” (the Dao of nature or Heaven) and “man” (“the
Dao of man,” society). Confucius said: “It is necessary to know destiny or fate
mandated by Heaven” (Confucius 1980, Weizheng). He means that “man” should
know about “nature or Heaven.” Confucius also said: “man should have reverence


Output:
for fate or destiny as mandated by Heaven or nature (Ibid., Jishi) and cannot
randomly destroy the law of development of “nature or Heaven.” A Chinese
philosopher never regards “nature or Heaven” as a dead thing. Instead, it is organic,
constantly developing, growing, and united with man as an entity. It is common
sense that the existence of “man” cannot be separated from “nature or Heaven,” but
why does “man” regard “nature or Heaven” as an opposing object and recklessly
destroy and conquer “nature”? It is because he regards the relationship between
“nature” and “man” as external and does not know that the relationship between
“nature” and “man” is close and internal. “The internal relationship” is different
from “the external relationship” because “the external relationship” denotes that
“nature” and “man” are independent and unrelated. But “the internal relationship”
denotes that “nature” and “man” have a close relationship. Therefore, “the unity of


Output:
nature and man” is an ancient philosophical proposition in Chinese philosophy, and
it is the cornerstone of Chinese Confucian thought as well as a proposition which
needs to be continuously reinterpreted by human society. When we consider the
problems of human beings and our relationship with nature, we should bear in mind
the idea of “the unity of nature and man,” and we must deepen our discussion of the
close relationship between “nature” and “man.” Human society has neglected
the close relationship between “nature” and “man” for a long time, and so are we
now being punished by nature? Why have we chosen a confrontational relationship
with nature?
    The idea of “the unity of nature and man” (the thought, “yi 易 (change) is to
communicate the Dao of nature with the Dao of man”), which originated from
Yijing, supplies a way of thinking that resolves the current conflict between nature
and man. It can inspire us in the following three aspects.


Output:
Firstly, “The unity of nature and man” as a way of thinking says that people
ought not regard “man” as the opposite of “nature” because “man” is a part of
“nature” and “the birth of man is from nature.” Acts to destroy “nature” are the
same as destroying “man,” and “man” will be punished by “nature.” Therefore,
“man” should “know nature” (knowing nature in order to reasonably make use of
nature) and should “revere nature.” (Man should revere nature and regard work to
protect nature as a holy obligation.) Now, we emphasize only “knowing nature”
and blindly use “knowledge” to exploit and conquer “nature” and even destroy
2.4 The Relationship Between Man and Nature                                       21


Output:
“nature.” But man does not know that we should revere “nature.” It is definitely an
extreme manifestation of “scientism” (the omnipotence of science and technology).
“Scientism” denies the holiness of “nature or Heaven” and consequently denies the
transcendence of “nature or Heaven.” Thus, humanist spirit loses its foundation.
The Chinese thought of “the unity of nature and man” holds that “knowing nature”
is the same as “revering nature.” If we “know nature” but do not “revere nature,” we
will regard “nature” as a dead thing, not knowing that it is organic, alive, and
vigorous. “Revering nature” but not “knowing nature” leads man to regard “nature
or Heaven” as a mystical power outside of “man” and does not help man gain the
real favor of nature. “Knowing nature” is united with “revering nature,” and it is an
important manifestation of “the unity of nature and man,” reflecting the inner
obligation of “man” to “nature.” The philosophical proposition, “the unity of nature


Output:
and man,” symbolizes the complicated relationship between “nature” and “man,”
which not only includes how “man” should understand “nature” but also that “man”
should revere “nature” because of its holiness. This is the reason why Chinese
Confucianism has not become a universal religion (like Buddhism and Christian-
ity), but Confucianism possesses a certain “religiosity.” Confucian thought has a
religious function in China, that is, Confucians think that the “inner” morality of
“man,” which is mandated by “nature,” needs moral cultivation to realize its
“transcendence” as “transcendence from an ordinary person to the level of a
sage.” Therefore, “the unity of nature and man” is not only a recognition of “nature”
but also a realm of life that “man” should pursue. The reason is that tian (nature,
Heaven) does not just mean nature; it also means “Heaven” in the sense of holiness.
“Human nature” should be asked to reach a transcendent sphere which is equal to


Output:
tian (Heaven, nature). In this sense, “man” and “nature” are not in opposition.
Instead, “man” is united with “Heaven and Earth.” For instance, Mencius said, “The
people of the place where the superior man has visited will be influenced and
educated; the impact at the place where the superior man has stayed is miraculous,
and the sage acts along with Heaven and Earth” (Mencius 1980, Jinxin shang). In
this way, the superior man realizes personal transcendence. This way of thinking
not only helps us get rid of the problem of “the division between Heaven and man”
(the antagonism of Heaven and man) but also opens a way for human beings to
attain the ideal human realm.
    Secondly, we cannot regard the relationship between “Heaven (nature)” and
“man” as a kind of external relationship, because “Heaven is man, and man is
Heaven,” and so “Heaven” and “man” are inherently connected. “Man” cannot be
separated from “Heaven,” and “man” cannot survive without “Heaven”; “Heaven”


Output:
cannot be separated from “man”; without “man,” the reason of “Heaven” cannot be
embodied, and so who can realize “the Dao of Heaven”? Understanding the
relationship between “Heaven” and “man” is a characteristic of Chinese philoso-
phy. On this point, Wang Fuzhi made an important observation. He reviewed
ancient scholars’ theories and concluded that they had merely grasped the outer
phenomena of the pre-Qin Confucianism and thought that the Book of Changes was
only about “the Dao of Heaven,” but did not know that the Book of Changes had
been the root or foundation of “the Dao of man” since the Han Dynasty (Wang
22                                     2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
Fuzhi 1975, Vol. 9, Qiancheng shang). Zhou Dunyi’s doctrine of “taiji picture” is
about the root (origin) of “the unity of Heaven and man,” which explains that the
birth of man is the result of a change in “the Dao of Heaven.” While changing into
“the Dao of Heaven,” Heaven gives its essential part to “man” and makes “man”
possess “human nature,” which is different from other things. Then, man can
discover that all the principles of moral human relations of “the Dao of man” (the
rules of human society) are in the order of the yin-yang movement of “the Dao of
Heaven” (the law of the universe). “The Dao of man” and “the Dao of Heaven”
should be united. “The Dao of man” is based on “the Dao of Heaven” because
“man” is a part of Heaven (nature), so a discussion of “the Dao of man” cannot be
separated from “the Dao of Heaven,” and discussion of “the Dao of Heaven” must
also take “the Dao of man” into consideration because “the principle of daily life


Output:
and things” of “the Dao of man” is in the order of the yin-yang movement of “the
Dao of Heaven.” Zhang Zai said that Yijing “contains the principle of Heaven, and
also includes the Dao of man” (Zhang Zai 1978, p. 65).
   Thirdly, why does Confucian philosophy hold that there is an “internal relation-
ship” between “Heaven and man”? From the Western Zhou Dynasty, there is an
intellectual tradition described as “the ear of Heaven is the ear of my people, and the
eye of Heaven is the eye of my people” (Mencius 1980, Wanzhang shang). The
tradition can be traced from Confucius and Mencius to Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Zhu
Xi, Lu Jiuyuan, and Wang Yangming. On this point, Zhu Xi’s saying reflects
Confucius’ consistency on “the learning of benevolence.” He said: “the man of
benevolence” “should have the heart to produce abundantly in the sense of nature,
in sensing the heart of tender affection for man and beneficence for things, the
benevolent man’s heart includes four morals (benevolence, righteousness, rituals,


Output:
and wisdom) and penetration into the four beginnings of the four morals” (Zhu Xi
1936, Vol. 13). “The Dao of Heaven” continuously produces and regards benevo-
lence as the heart. “Heaven” (nature) can make myriad things grow well, so “man”
should follow the example of “Heaven” (nature) and show kindness to man and
benefit myriad things. The reason is that “Heaven and man is united as a whole” and
“man” obtains the essence of “Heaven” to become a “man,” so man should realize
the function of “nature” (Heaven) and “the tender affection for other man, and bring
benefits to things.” “The heart of Heaven” and “the heart of man” have actually the
same heart. “Man” must realize “the Dao of Heaven” and sense “the Dao of
Heaven.” The value of life is to realize “the destiny (fate) of Heaven,” so the
relationship between “Heaven” and “man” is actually internal.
   We discuss the proposition of “the unity of Heaven and man” and understand it


Output:
philosophically on the above points to see its real spirit and value. It is a kind of
world view, a way of thinking that is applied to an interpretation of “the unity of
Heaven and man.” Its significance is that it endows “man” with an inescapable
responsibility. “Man” can realize its own transcendence and achieve the ideal
“unity of Heaven and man” only in the process of “imitating Heaven (nature)”
(enhancing to the sphere of “Heaven”).
   Of course, the Confucian idea of “unity of Heaven and man” probably cannot
directly solve specific problems in human society’s “conflicts between man and
2.5 The Relationship Between Man and Man                                             23


Output:
nature.” However, as a philosophical proposition, the thought of “the unity of
Heaven and man” holds that “Heaven” and “man” cannot be separated into two
parts; instead, “Heaven” and “man” should be regarded as an inherent union. There
is an internal communication between “Heaven” and “man,” which undoubtedly
provides a positive way of thinking for philosophically resolving the relationship
between “Heaven” and “man.”

2.5    The Relationship Between Man and Man


Output:
“The conflict between man and man” that exists in contemporary society is more
complicated than “the conflict between man and nature.” Interpersonal conflict is
not only related to the various conflicts between “self and others,” “man and
community,” “nation and nation,” “people and people,” and “region and region.”
For instance, the pursuit of material needs and power, the struggle for natural
resources, and the expansion of possession and ambition cause conflict and war
between nations, peoples, and regions and leads to “imperial hegemony” and
“terrorism.” Excessive preoccupation with the pursuit of money and the enjoyment
of material goods, especially the ruling class’ corruption and their oppression of
ordinary people, cause tensions in the relationships between people, a negative
social atmosphere, numerous factions, and factionalism. In society, children, youth,
and the aged all have their own problems. Misunderstandings and hostility in daily


Output:
life, the isolation of souls, then lead to the dissolution of social harmony. This trend
will result in the collapse of human society. Does Confucianism provide a helpful
intellectual resource for contemporary society’s faults? In my opinion, the Confu-
cian “learning of benevolence” may have much significance for the formation of
harmony “between man and man,” between, nations, peoples, and regions, or
“harmonious society.”
    The volume of “xing zi ming chu 性自命出 (nature coming out of fate)” in the
Guodian Chumu Zhujian says that “Dao originates from affection (feeling, emo-
tion), and affection comes from nature. The beginning is close to affection, and the
end is close to righteousness.” It means that interpersonal relationships are initially
founded on affection (feeling), and affection comes from human nature. Therefore,
at the start of interpersonal relationships, affection is more important (such as the
affection between a mother and child), and later on, morality and justice (Dao, or


Output:
the way, and justice or righteousness) become more important than affection. Here,
“the Dao” denotes “the Dao of man,” which means the law of interpersonal
relationships or principles of social relations. It is connected with “the Dao of
Heaven,” but different from “the Dao of Heaven,” which means the law of nature
(or the external world beyond “man”). “Dao originates from affection,” meaning
that interpersonal relationships are initially founded on affection. It is the starting
point of Confucius’ “learning of benevolence.” Confucius’ disciple Fan Chi asked
him what “benevolence” was, and Confucius answered, “to love people.” Where
does the moral command “to love people” come from? Zhongyong quotes
24                                     2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
Confucius: “Benevolence is the character of man, and it is foremost to love family.
The moral character of benevolence is inborn, and it is essential to love one’s own
family” (Zisi 1980, Chapter 20). But Confucians think that the spirit of benevolence
cannot just rest on the love of one’s own family. The Guodian Chujian says, “It is
affection to love family sincerely, but benevolence is understood as a broad
affection for ordinary people, not only affection for one’s father” (Jingmen 1998).
It is natural to have much love for one’s own family; love (affection) that is
extended to other people can be regarded as “benevolence.” There is also the
saying, “filial piety should be extended to affection for ordinary people under the
sky” (Ibid., Tang yu zhi dao). However, affection for one’s family is the foundation
of affection for others. It means that the Confucian “learning of benevolence”
requires an extension of the affection for one’s family to the affection of ordinary


Output:
people. The principle, “put oneself in the place of another,” and the practice, “treat
the aged with respect in my family, and extend that respect to the aged outside of
my family. Treat the young in my family with tenderness and then extend that
tenderness to other young outside of my family” (Mencius 1980, Liang Huiwang
shang), reflecting benevolence. It is not easy to abide by the principle “put oneself
in the place of another”; one must take “the Dao of zhong 忠 (the full development
of one’s original good mind) and shu 恕 (the extension of that mind to others),”
described as “you do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you”
(Confucius 1980, Yanyuan), “if you wish to establish your own character, also
establish the character of others, and if you wish to be prominent, also help others to
be prominent” (Ibid., Yongye), to be the principle for carrying out “benevolence.”
(Zhu Xi’s Sishu jizhu explains “To realize one’s good to the best is zhong, and the


Output:
extension of one’s good is shu.”) If “benevolence” is extended to society (all human
society), it is like Confucius’ saying, “To master oneself and return to ritual is
benevolence. If a man (the ruler) can for one day master himself and return to the
rites (ceremony), all under Heaven will return to benevolence. To practice benev-
olence depends on oneself. Does it depend on others?” (Ibid., Yanyuan) In the past,
“overcome selfish desire” and “revive the ritual” had always been explained as two
parallel acts, but such an understanding is not correct in my opinion. Overcoming
selfish desire and reviving the ritual is benevolence means that it is “benevolence” if
“reviving the ritual” is based on “overcoming selfish desire.” Fei Xiaotong explains
this well. He said: “Only overcoming selfish desire, the ritual can be revived. To
revive the ritual is a necessary condition for entry into society and becoming a
social person. To limit one’s selfish desire or to raise one’s selfish desire may be the


Output:
key difference between western and eastern cultures” (Fei Xiaotong 2002, p. 4).
This is a reasonable explanation. If one enters society, he must require something of
himself. For instance, he should ask himself to abide by the principle, “you do not
do to others what you do not want them to do to you”; then he can follow social
criterion (the ritual) and become a social person. A nation is the same; it must abide
by the requirements of the world “pact” and the general rules. Then, the world pact
and general rules can be preserved. Fei Xiaotong thought that “the restriction of
selfish desire” in Chinese culture was good for interpersonal relationships, while
“the encouragement of selfish desire” in Western culture, which placed the self
2.5 The Relationship Between Man and Man                                              25


Output:
above other persons or other nations, surely and easily led to conflict and war.
According to Zhu Xi, the saying can be understood as “conquering selfish desire
and returning to the rituals, which represents the principle of Heaven” (Zhu Xi
1983). He means that we should restrict our own selfish desire in order to conform
to rituals and criterion in our behaviors and actions. “Benevolence” is man’s innate
characteristic (“affection is originated from nature”); in the sense of social life, “the
ritual (ceremony)” is the external system which regulates people’s behavior, and its
function is to regulate interpersonal relationships in order to ensure harmony. It
symbolizes that “the importance of the use of rites (ceremony) is harmony.”
Demanding that people obey the ritual (ceremony) must be based on their internal
heart (mind) of “the affection for others,” which conforms to “benevolence.”
Confucius says: “To practice benevolence depends on oneself. Does it depend on


Output:
others?” (Confucius 1980, Yanyuan). On the relationship between “benevolence”
and “rites (ceremony),” Confucius clearly said: “If a man is not benevolent, what
has he to do with rites (ceremonies, etc.)? If he is not benevolent, what has he to do
with music?” (Ibid., Bayi) Without the heart (mind) of benevolence, the system of
rites (ceremony) and music is deceptive and is for cheating. Therefore, Confucius
held that society can be harmonious and peaceful if people consciously pursue
“benevolence,” base “the heart (mind) of benevolence” on certain criterion, and put
it into practice in daily society. This is the meaning of the saying “if a man (the
ruler) can for one day control himself and return to the rites (ceremony), all under
Heaven will return to benevolence” (Ibid., Yanyuan). The action of pursuing
benevolence in daily practice is similar to “seeking to reach the greatest height
and brilliancy and follow the Dao of the Mean” in Zhongyong. “Seeking to reach


Output:
the greatest height and brilliancy” (Zisi 1980, Chapter 27) means that people should
pursue the highest principle, the ideal of benevolence, in life; “To follow the Dao of
the Mean” asks people to realize the spirit of “benevolence” in daily life “the
doctrine of the mean, denotes the use of the mean.” “Seeking to reach the greatest
height and brilliancy” and “following the Dao of the Mean” cannot be separated
into two parts, and “the Dao of sageliness within and kingliness without” is the
highest Confucian ideal. Today, we are trying to build a harmonious society, so
Confucius’ sayings are very important. There are many explanations of “benevo-
lence” in the Confucius Analects, but there are no words for “benevolent gover-
nance.” However, “to lead the people with virtue and regulate them by the rules of
ceremonies (rites, property),” “to love people widely,” “to elect the virtuous and
able talents,” “to extensively bring benefit to the people and bring salvation to all,”


Output:
etc. are all about “benevolent governance.” There are many discussions of “benev-
olent governance” in Mencius, and the meaning of “benevolent governance” is
broad. Some of the explanations are not compatible with the needs of contemporary
human society, but two of them are important in helping us to build a harmonious
society and achieving world peace. One is “the practice of benevolent government”
should ensure people have fixed property. Mencius said: “The people follow the
right Dao, because they have fixed property and stable hearts, and without fixed
property, there cannot be stable hearts” (Mencius 1980, Teng Wengong shang). He
means that ordinary people should have some fixed property in order to ensure that
26                                           2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
they have certain moral and behavioral principles. Without fixed property, a person
will not have moral ideas and behavioral guidelines. Mencius said: “Benevolent
governance should start with the private ownership of land” (Ibid.). He means that a
benevolent government should ensure that ordinary people have their own land
first. I believe that we must ensure that ordinary people have some fixed property if
we truly want to build a harmonious society. At the international level, every nation
and people should possess the wealth that they deserve; powerful nations should not
exploit other nations’ wealth and resources or pursue power politics. The second
point of Mencius’ “benevolent governance” opposes unjust war. He said, “those
who carry out the kind and right Dao will gain more support, otherwise, others will
find scant support who lose the kind and right Dao.” Here, “the Dao” means
“morality and justice.” In Gongsun Chou, there is a passage that says that favorable


Output:
weather is less important than advantageous terrain and advantageous terrain is less
important than the support of the people. It reads:
     It is not needed to confine civilians by a national boundary, not necessarily to protect a
     nation with a dangerous mountain, and to threaten the world by the weapons of destruction.
     Those who carry out the kind and right Dao will gain more support. Others who give up the
     kind and right Dao will find scant support. He who has the least support, his family and
     relatives will all oppose him, and all the people under the sky will come and pledge
     allegiance to he who has the most support. The just superior man will win if he launches
     a war against those who are opposed by all supporting forces, even by his family and
     relatives, or he need not launch the war. (Mencius 1980, Gongsun Chou xia)


Output:
The passage tells us that it is not necessary to have national boundaries to restrict
civilians, to depend on advantageous terrain to protect a nation, and to rely on
weapons of mass destruction to threaten the world. Confucians usually divide war
into two kinds: “the just war” and “the unjust war.” Mencius says, “there is no just
war in the Spring and Autumn Period” (Ibid., Jinxin xia), and “those who lose
public support will lose the regime” (Ibid., Lilou shang). This idea also applies to
the ruler of a nation. In the early Han Dynasty, Jia Yi wrote an article, Guo Qin lun
过秦论 (An analysis of the fall of the Qin Dynasty). In his article, he concluded that
the Qin Dynasty fell because “the Qin government did not carry out the policy of
benevolence and righteousness after it had established a united nation, so it lost
sovereignty even though it had taken over national power and had many advan-
tages” (Jia Yi 1989, Vol. 1). He quoted the proverb, “the past events are today’s


Output:
lesson.” Is that the wisdom we should absorb today? Such Confucian thoughts
should have some meaning to the rulers of a nation and for the ruling group of the
world’s developed nations. “Manage state affairs and pacify the world” for “benev-
olent governance” and “the Dao of kingliness,” instead of “arbitrariness” and
oppression.
    Since Samuel P. Huntington presented his thesis on the conflict of civilizations
in 1993, it has been hotly debated by scholars from all countries. In human history,
it is not uncommon to find conflicts and war caused by cultural differences (for
instance, differences in philosophy, religion, values). Having entered the twenty-
first century, there is no world war, but regional wars frequently break out between
nations, peoples, and regions, with political and economical problems being
2.5 The Relationship Between Man and Man                                            27


Output:
important reasons, but culture is also an important reason. To resolve conflicts and
even wars due to cultural differences, perhaps Confucius’s notion of “harmony
without sameness” might be a very important principle. In Chinese history, there
are two concepts, “he 和 (harmony)” and “tong 同 (sameness),” which are regarded
as different, so there is the so-called discrimination of harmony and sameness.
According to the records on Zhaogong ershi nian of Zuozhuan 左传·昭公二十年
(the 20th year of the Duke Zhao, Zuozhuan), “Duke Zhao asked, ‘Is only Liang
Qiuju harmonious with me?’ Yanzi (Yan Ying) answered, ‘Ju is the same as you. Is
it harmonious with you?’ The Duke said, ‘Is harmony different from sameness?’
Yan answered, ‘It is different. It is like cooking a thick soup, which needs water,
fire, vinegar, catsup, salt, and plum to cook fish or meat, firewood to burn, and then
seasoned to assure a fine taste. If the taste is too mild, the cook will add seasoning,


Output:
and if the taste is too thick, he will add water to dilute the taste. When the superior
man has the soup, he will find it delicious. The relationship between the emperor
and his officials is alike. . .Now Ju is different, because he always agrees with you
no matter what decisions you make. It is like adding water to improve the flavor of
water. Who would want this? If musical instruments always play the same tone,
who could listen to it? This is why sameness should not be advocated’” (Zuo
Qiuming 1980, Zhaogong ershi nian). In Zhengyu of Guoyu 国语·郑语, “The
harmonious relationship between things is helpful to produce new things, while
sameness cannot. To add one with another is called harmony, so it can create
something new; while if the same thing is put together, all will lose their vital
force. So the past kings used earth, metal, wood, water, and fire to produce the
myriad things” (Zuo Qiuming 1997, Vol. 16). Therefore, “harmony” and “same-


Output:
ness” are not the same. If different and related things can harmoniously grow, then
things will develop. If same things are put together, the result is the suppression of
vital force. The highest ideal in traditional Chinese culture is “ten thousand things
grow together without harming each other; their Dao move in parallel without
mutual interference” (Zisi 1980, Chapter 30). (“The ten thousand things growing
together” with “their Dao moving in parallel” expresses a “lack of sameness”; “they
do not damage” or “interfere with each other”—this is “harmony.”) This can be a
rich source of ideas for the coexistence of many cultures.
    Different nations and countries should have cultural exchanges and dialogue in
order to achieve a common understanding, that is, a process of mutual recognition
from difference to a sense of commonality. This kind of mutual recognition does
not mean that one side exterminates the other or that one side is completely


Output:
assimilated by another. It means the search for junctures where different cultures
can come together and develop. This is harmony. Therefore, we must diligently
strive for harmonious coexistence among different cultures through dialogue. Now,
many scholars in China and the West have recognized the importance of pursuing
mutual understanding among different cultures through dialogue. For instance,
Habermas puts forward the notions of “justice” and “solidarity” (Habermas
1996). I think these should be used as principles in the relationship between
different nations and cultures. Habermas’ principle of justice can be understood
as that every national culture should be independent and self-determining; the
28                                     2 The Contemporary Significance of Confucianism


Output:
“principle of solidarity” can be understood as that one nation should regard other
national cultures with a sympathetic attitude and respect other cultures. Only
through continuous dialogue and communication and other means can good com-
munication between different national cultures be established. The German philos-
opher Gadamer pointed out that “understanding” should be extended to a “broad
dialogue” (Pan Derong 2002, pp. 65–68). It is to increase “understanding” to the
level of “broad dialogue” that the subject and object become equal. In other words,
dialogue can only be truly carried out under the condition of mutual equality. It can
be said that Gadamer’s consciousness of subject-object equality and his theory on
cultural dialogue are important and necessary ideas for our age. The idea is in
inspiration for us to correctly understand Sino-foreign cultural relationships and
national relationships. Habermas’ principles of justice and solidarity and Gadamer’s


Output:
theory of broad dialogue both recognize, as their premise, the need for harmony
without sameness. It is only if we recognize that nations and states with different
cultural traditions can achieve harmonious coexistence will it be possible for them
to have equal rights and duties; it is only under such conditions that “broad
dialogue” can truly and smoothly accomplish its ends. Thus, Confucius’ principle
of “harmony without sameness,” based on the notion that harmony is valuable,
should become a basic principle for handling relations between different cultures.


Output: 2.6   The Relationship Between Body and Mind


Output:
If we use the Confucian notion of “the unity of Heaven and man” as a philosophical
resource to resolve “the contradictions between man and nature” and “the unity of
self and others” to resolve “the contradictions among men,” we may then use the
“integration of the inner and the outer” to moderate the contradictions within
ourselves. There are pressures in modern society. In particular, the unlimited
pursuit of sensual pleasure results in psychological imbalance and a split in the
human personality. Psychological imbalance induces spiritual disturbances, alco-
holism, murder, suicide, etc. This distortion of the human body and mind has
become a social disease that seriously affects social peace. The reason for this is
the withering of morality; people no longer have a sense of harmony between body
and mind. Many perceptive scholars have proposed theories and policies about how
to cure the disease. In traditional Chinese culture, much attention has been given to


Output:
this in the Confucian practice of cultivating the person and nurturing the mind.
   Xing zi ming chu in Guodian Chumu zhujian says: “if you intend to know the
Dao, you should return to the innate goodness within yourself, it is called moral
cultivation” (Jingmen 1998). Daxue 大学 (The Great Learning) stresses that peo-
ple’s moral practice is important to building a harmonious society. In the first
chapter of the book, it says: “The Dao of learning to be great consists in manifesting
the clear character, renovating the people, and abiding (staying, resting) in the
highest good” (Zeng Can 1980, Chapter 1). Zhu Xi commented, “the word, reno-
vate, means remove from old. And if I am clear about myself and clean, I should
2.6 The Relationship Between Body and Mind                                            29