The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 1-4. 
IN THE DARKEST PLACES THERE IS LIGHT: FREEDOM OF CHOICE 
KEYNOTE ADDRESS AT WORLD CONGRESS OF LOGOTHERAPY XII 
Edith Eva Eger 
Those who have gathered in this room today possess a common bond that binds us together. Looking around the room we know that our personal histories, our cultures, our ethnicities, our genders, and even our faiths are diverse. And yet, we come together. Admittedly, we are very different. Unashamedly, we have a unique understanding of life and the way life is to be lived. However, it is more than just a philosophy about life and living that binds us and brings us together. Rather, it is a man who gave us eyes to see the world as it really is and to see beyond what we see. A man who widened and broadened our visual field of understanding so that the spectrum of meaning became conscious and visible to each of us. A man, who like Robert Frost, took the road less traveled and that... made all the difference. And, the road not taken by Viktor Frankl has made all the difference for you and me. 
The great American poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, penned these marvelous words in his poem The Builder: 
All are architects of Fate, 
Working in these walls of Time: 
Some with massive deeds and great, 
Some with ornaments of rhyme. 
Nothing useless is, or low; 
Each thing in its place is best; 
And what seems but idle show 
Strengthens and supports the rest. 
For the structures that we raise, 
Time is with materials filled; 
Our todays and yesterdays 
Are the blocks with which we build. 
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Our beloved friend and mentor, Viktor Frankl, echoed a similar theme when we wrote: "It did not really matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us. Life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfill the tasks which it constantly sets for each individual." "Man does not simply exist but always decides what his existence will be, what he will become in the next moment." This is where the poet and the philosopher, who took different roads, came to a similar conclusion: we are responsible to life and the work expected from us. We either invent ourselves or the world will invent us and shape us to its liking. And I hasten to call to your memory that the reason Viktor Frankl, and hundreds-of-thousands like him, including myself, ended up in Auschwitz and other concentration camps, was because people failed to invent themselves. They allowed a hideous and heinous ideology to shape their thinking and set their destiny. 
You and I have been fortunate enough to stand on the shoulders of a giant who made sense out of nonsense. He wrestled with the difficult questions, not settling for a pop-psychology gimmick to salve his conscience and those of his clients. If logotherapy teaches us anything it is that we, as practitioners, do not run away from or avoid the difficult issues or questions. We live in a world immersed in gimmickry. By that I mean that too often individuals, communities, professionals, institutions and politicians look for the quick fix to a difficult problem or situation. The result is often an aspirin effect-temporary relief. The path to long-term health for individuals or communities is not through a gimmick. Frankl wrote "the experiences of camp life show that man does have a choice in action" and we have an obligation to lead, guide, and help give birth to lasting solutions that bring healing and the ability for others to be survivors and not victims. 
We must not forget that we are the carriers of this message "that everything can be taken away from [you] but one thing; the last of the human freedoms--to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one's own way." I was fortunate that while in the cattle car--being herded to Auschwitz with thousands of others--my mom sensed the great impending danger. Again and again she repeated these words to my sister and me: "Magda! Edie! Always remember whatever happens, if all else is taken away from you, you still have what is in your head!" I too had the ability and power to choose. Before long I realized the Nazi guards were more 
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imprisoned than I was. While they had external freedom, they were internally imprisoned with crazed ideology. However, I was experiencing inner freedom though I was imprisoned. Did it make a difference? Well, who is before you today? I am! And I stand before you a survivor, not a victim, because I too had the power to choose my attitude in the most awful of places. 
If I had fought the Nazi guards I would have died. If I had decided to flee my circumstances and run into the wire, I would have died. However, I decided to accept my situation and flow. I did what I could to adjust and adapt to the circumstances. I clung to hope. I recalled the words of my mother. And, I gave myself a vision from the first day I was in the camp when I was forced to dance in front of Dr. Mengele. Some in the field of psychology may call it escapism, but I prefer to call it a personal transformation. By doing this I was able to rise above the wickedness about me and not give in to hopelessness and despair. While dancing before the "angel of death" himself I envisioned myself dancing the part of Juliet in the Budapest Opera House. It was then that the stench of death and horror around me faded--and I learned about the power of the mind to transform and take me beyond the situation I was in. I was able to see the world the way it could be, not the way it was. 
This is the strength of logotherapy. In the midst of the most hopeless situations and facing that which cannot be changed, a transformation takes place. A personal tragedy is turned into a triumph. A defeat is turned into a victory. I am not talking about a panacea. Nor am I talking about another gimmick to remedy a personal situation. I am talking about the challenge to change ourselves and our perspectives on the events within our lives. In the Spring 1999 issue of The International Forum for Logotherapy, Helen Gennari emphasized that logotherapy "assists clients to discover their own solutions to existing problems." We are their ophthalmologists, helping them to see more clearly. We are their midwives, helping them give birth to hope and meaning. We are their signs pointing to the path that is overgrown and difficult to see, but it is the path that leads to the transformation of the person. 
Viktor Frankl taught us that if "there is a meaning in life at all, then there must be a meaning in suffering." This is the role of the "pressure cooker," to help us discover the meaning of suffering. And, do we use the role of pressure cooker to help our patients and those we meet during life's journey to see things not as they are but as they can become? Or, to realize adversity is their best teacher--if they 
3 
only listen. We must be models of this philosophy of life. Our words must reflect our inner discovery of meaning and purpose. Logotherapy is more than an intellectual ascent or simple remedy for the ills of the world. It is a process to change our perspective, to understand our choices and make choices, and the freedom to determine what our existence will be and what we "will become in the next moment." 
Frankl reminds us we have the power and we have the choice! "Man is capable of changing the world if possible, and changing himself for the better if necessary." And that change is made and "lived in the terms of responsibleness." That is why he recommended "the Statue of liberty on the East Coast be supplemented with a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast." However, today that view is probably applicable throughout the world as we see a lack of responsibility on the rise. 
So, what can we give to Dr. Frankl? What is our responsibility? First, be a model of this philosophy of life. Second, be messengers of this message. Third, actively engage or participate in research that demonstrates and confirms the therapeutic principles of logotherapy. Fourth, influence your corner of the world. Do the job that only you can do. Remember, some have massive and great deeds, while others work without notoriety. However, everyone has a part that "strengthens and supports the rest." 
EDITH EVA EGER, Ph.D. is a Holocaust Survivor, Clinical Psychologist, University Professor, and Diplomate in Logotherapy. 
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The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 5-13. 
Physician-Assisted Suicide: A Choice Against Meaning 
Jerry L. Long, Jr. 
Physician-assisted suicide is the act whereby a doctor will enable a patient to take their own life. This is done usually by the administration of a lethal combination of a strong sedative to put the patient to sleep followed by a large dosage of muscle relaxant, which causes their heart to stop beating. The physician does not administer the deadly medication but, rather, makes it available for the patient to self-administer. In cases where it is physically impossible for the patient to perform the required tasks (such as someone who is completely paralyzed), a third party is called upon to fulfill the final wishes of the patient. After ingestion of the drugs, the patient goes into a sleep from which they never awaken. Virtually all patients who resort to this final act are either terminally ill or in extremely severe chronic physical pain from which they have found little, if any, relief. 12 
For obvious reasons, this practice brings out very serious ethical, legal and philosophical issues. While debate rages on, the ultimate question is profoundly simple -"Does a person have the right to take their life?" Any answer catalyzes further debate on the very same grounds as the precipitating question! However, implicit within that question itself is another highly cogent and debatable point. Namely, what is the definition of the word "right?" Reaching any consensus on such a definition proves to be virtually impossible. Thus. while the question is deeply philosophical, each and every answer is uniquely personal. In other words, it is not ethicists or philosophers who ultimately answer this question but it is each affected human being faced with the decision to live or die. 
This brings us to a second, more practical question. Namely, "Can the person take their life?" Ultimately, the answer to this is "yes" (even if help is needed to physically carry out the act). 
5 
Whether or not a person has the right to take their life requires a uniquely personal answer, and if a person can in fact take their own life, this brings us to a third, and very relevant, philosophical question -"Should a person take their life?" Again, each answer is individualized. 
The foll01Ning paper focuses on the inherent, albeit frequently overlooked, choices that every person has who may be contemplating physician-assisted suicide. Most people in situations where consideration of this act occurs fail to see other, more positive, alternatives available instead of suicide. For example, it is a medical fact that powerful
12
analgesics exist which can alleviate virtually any level of physical pain.7· As has been demonstrated with the hospice movement, the prescription and administration of such medications brings about not only symptomatic relief, but it also tremendously enhances the general wellbeing of the person -thus, improving their quality of life. 12 
In virtually all of these cases, the patient is quick to point out that their pain and suffering are not worth enduring. This contention is used 
56 12
frequently as justification for their decision to end their lives.3' ' ' Is this valid? At first glance it may appear to be so. However, this level of analysis and understanding is two dimensional insofar as it acknowledges only the physical and mental realms, thereby reducing one to a far more primitive level of existence. If one restricts their evaluation by stopping at such a reductionistic level, then a great disservice has been done -a great disservice primarily to the patient. Contrastingly, togotherapy maintains that human beings are three-dimensional -having not only the physical and the mental realms, but also the uniquely human 
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quality of spirituality.1· ·· ·· · Additionally, logotherapy contends that meaning in life may be 
39
achieved up to. and including, one's final breath.2• •·10 However, from the perspective of logotherapy, the unnatural and intentional cessation of one's life is antithetical to the achievement of meaning in life! That is, meaning in life is inextricably intertwined with the awareness and active use of the inherent spirituality in each and every human being. More specifically, by positively modifying one's attitude in the face of adversity and saying "yes" to life, the person is utilizing their "defiant power of the 
569
human spirit. "3· ·· If one says "no" to life by choosing physician-assisted suicide, then, by default. they have suppressed their spirituality by allowing their physical and psychological condition to control them instead of them controlling it. Whereas one's spirituality is always existent, "life challenges" afford one some of the greatest opportunities
56
for growth and, indeed. triumph!3· · 
In the case of a person faced with a problem so terrible they are contemplating physician-assisted suicide, it is only logical that the most probable way for them to find meaning in life is through the attitudinal 
6 
35
avenue for deriving meaning in life.2· · ·6 By this time they are, most likely, 
preoccupied with their condition and its side effects. Thus, what remains as the best possibility for finding meaning in life is to help them positively modify their attitude toward their suffering. By doing so, they may derive a sense of purpose, dignity and integrity by defying their dilemma and exerting noetic control over it! 
It would be fair to say that virtually any person, when first receiving news of a tenninal, pennanent, and/or chronically painful illness, would be shocked, confused, angry, and, almost certainly, at a loss for a rational course of action.12 Understandably, they need time to "absorb" the tragic news. Then, it seems obvious that an integral part of any treatment would be intensive counseling. Such counseling would be twofold. First, the immediate task would be to assist the person to begin the process of adjustment toward their devastating condition. Second, at some point, counseling would focus on empowering the person to explore all available options (especially the positive, qrowth oriented 
56 12
ones) and, hopefully, to help them choose a path for life.2-· ·· 
Intervention may be either fonnal (that is, seeing a mental health professional for counseling) or infonnal (demonstrated by examples such as visits by one's church clergy or openly discussing matters with family members and friends). Regardless of what type(s) of assistance may occur, it can be said safely that any person in such dire circumstances ls, essentially, in a crisis situation. 
I have developed a seven~stage model of crisis intervention that Is very applicable for persons facing such life threateningnife debilitating conditions. I have entitled this model "Logotherapeutic Transcendental 
6
Crisis lntervention."5· 
Stage 1 (Current Level of Functioning) of this model represents the person's level of functioning prior to the onset of crisis. Stage 2 (Onset of Crisis) is the point at which the person first receives news of their tenninal disease, chronically debilitating condition, etc. As stated previously, an initial reaction of shock and dismay usually occurs. Then, after the gravity of their predicament sets in, it is only natural that they quickly enter the downward spiraling Stage 3 of the model (Rapid Descent into Despair). Thus, it is a reasonably safe assumption that, after being diagnosed with anything as severe as inoperable cancer, a terminally debilitating condition, or some chronically painful problem, the person soon enters Stage 4 (Bottoming Out). It is at this stage when despondency, hopelessness, and depression take a large toll on both physical and emotional fortitude of the person. AdditlOnally, it is at this stage that the person usually begins thinking about and possibly considering physicianassisted suicide as an option to end their suffering. 
7 
However, those who succumb and carry out this final act are making a choice against meaning. That is, while "bottomed out," they are allowing their condition to control them (instead of them taking control of it) and denying their inherent spirituality the opportunity to flourish. Simply put, "giving in" to the despondency and despair that naturally accompanies Stage 4 by committing physician-assisted suicide diminishes or negates the probability of leaving behind a positive, meaningful, and life-oriented legacy. 
In sharp contrast to committing physician-assisted suicide at Stage 4, the ultimate goal is to empower the person through Stage 5 (Progressive Improvement during Clinical Intervention) to Stage 6 (Return to Previous Level of Functioning) and on to "defy their dilemma" and reach Stage 7 (Transcending the Trauma). Whether this "positive defiance" is achieved by that person alone or with the help of others is, ultimately, irrelevant. It is the achievement of self-transcendence which is paramount! By "staring death in the face," defying it with every fiber of one's being to the last possible moment. and truly living life to its fullest, one is afforded countless opportunities for both spiritual growth and seizing life's boundless meanings to the fullest degree. What is fundamentally important to remember is this: by "saying yes to life" despite pain and suffering, one is afforded an opportunity to fulfill the ultimate pinnacle of human existence -to overcome adversity by transforming physical tragedy into noetic triumph! 
There is an important aspect of treating those in such dire situations that warrants a brief discussion. Unfortunately, all too often today's "medical establishmenf focuses heavily on physiology, pharmacology, and treatment plans only for "the problem" ( such as metastatic cancer). Few "treatment plans" attend to the person's emotional and spiritual wellbeing. Indeed, addressing the physiological aspects of any disease or debilitating condition is extremely important. Drug therapy is often very useful in alleviating the negative impact of the primary problem and/or any concomitant problems. However, if treatment consists only of these components then, by default, only two dimensions of the person's being have been addressed: the physical and the mental. Nowhere in such a therapeutic regimen has the uniquely human quality of s~irituality even 
56 12
been acknowledged and, as a result, it is never treated!3·· • 
Now, let us practically illustrate this topic through exploration of a case history (all names have been changed to protect confidentiality). Alison, a 52-year-old woman, and Tom, her husband of 34 years have two adult children --Steve, age 32, and Stephanie, age 28. Allison lived the "dream life" which so many hear about but so few experience. At 18 she married her high school sweetheart, and, although times were lean, they were happy -both living in the present and planning for the future. 
8 
Two years later came the birth of Steve. Although struggling through college, Allison and Tom were overjoyed at this physical expression of the deep love they shared. Allison temporarily stopped her college studies to better manage the household (years later she described this as a blessing in disguise). Tom graduated and obtained a job in his chosen field. Four years later came the birth of Stephanie. She, too, was greeted with joy and love as the family grew both in size and stability. 
Tom's job afforded enough financial security that they were able to get their first house. It was only a small frame house, but it was theirs. The ensuing years brought mountains of happiness and, of course, its share of tribulation. Their children were thriving. After twelve years, they moved to their current home -a nice, but certainly not luxurious, brick house in a small suburb of the city where Tom worked. The children were in their turbulent teenage years and Allison saw this as a perfect opportunity to finish her college degree. She did so, barely in time to begin seeing her own children off to their college careers. Time passed quickly and, in the blink of an eye, she and Tom were celebrating their 
30th 
anniversary. However, only four years tater, Allison received devastating news -she had ovarian cancer, which had metastasized, to her pancreas, liver, lungs, and even her brain. 
Her entire world came crumbling dC'1Nn. Understandably, she became depressed. Exploratory surgery was performed with the final news that the cancer was inoperable, grC'1Ning rampantly and only minimally responsive to chemotherapy. In short, Allison was told she had only 6-12 months to live. After several weeks of grieving and soul searching, Allison summoned her family for a talk. She explained that she was considering physician-assisted suicide and loved them enough to want to hear their feelings. To a person, they were adamantly against it but, precisely because of their love for her, supported her whatever her decision. 
Now, the previous theoretical discussion has a distinctive practical side --a real patient whose condition serves to elucidate the "real world" applications of our topic under consideration: physician-assisted suicide. The example of Allison is precisely the type of case (that is, person) we are discussing. Her situation serves to illustrate the tremendous exigencies that face each unique human being in such a dire predicament as feeling "cut down" during their prime. 
One of the fundamental propositions of logotherapy is that every person in such a situation as Allison has a choice on how they respond to 
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the demands of life.2•,•· ·9 1ndeed, they may proceed with the decision to commit physician-assisted suicide. However, logotherapy contends this is a choice against meaning. That is, as inherently spiritual beings, to knowingly end life is to destroy the essence of one's "spiritual-being" and 
9 
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the very essence of what is meant by authentic existence.3• • · Furthermore, logotherapy maintains that even in, and particularly during, terrible suffering, saying "yes" to life is, contrastingly, a choice for meaning. Even when one is stripped of physical well-being, subjected to pain and suffering, or treated as less than completely human, by positively modifying one's attitude toward an unalterable fate a person may transcend their trauma and make a choice for meaning by defying 
3569
their dilemma.1· ·· · That is to say, they have taken control of their predicament instead of letting it control them. Moreover, they have freely chosen life despite, and in spite of, their suffering! By "saying yes to life" despite everything, they have endowed their suffering with meaning. 
Frankl simply, yet eloquentty got to the heart of the matter with two of
3
his famous "meaning equations" : 
DESPAIR= SUFFERING -MEANING 
HOPE • SUFFERING + MEANING 
By making the choice to say "yes" to life in spite of everything, such a decision often results in a life of great challenge. There may, and in all probability will, be a substantial amount of suffering. However, as Frankl stated: "To live is to suffer. To survive is to find meaning in the 
3
suffering."2· You see, life affords not only many challenges but also boundless opportunities. By viewing life as being filled with ·abundant challenges" instead of countless "insurmountable obstacles," the patient has the chance to fill their final days with gratitude instead of 
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bittemess.3··· ·12 It may be said that by choosing life instead of death, one is afforded a wonderful and unique opportunity for a challenging, meaningful, and, consequently, very happy life! 
We need go no further to exemplify this contention than by looking at the life of Professor Viktor Frankl. He had achieved both professional and personal success before World War 11, and, despite the opportunity to emigrate and escape Nazi persecution, he chose to stay in Austria out of unflinching loyalty to his family. The heavy price he paid for this decision was three years of indescribable suffering, torture, and pain from his incarceration at three different camps, including the infamous and horrid Auschwitz. Instead of emerging from this experience bitter and vengeful, he emerged triumphant -triumphantly maintaining that human beings are basically good, knowing unequivocally that life has meaning under all circumstances, and devoting the remaining years of his life disseminating this message to the entire world. Despite the suffering he endured, he often referred to his experiences in the camps as "the personal testing ground of my theory!" Even during his final years when he battled 
10 
terminal heart disease, he fought with every ounce of courage, every available bit of medical technology, and the highest degree of dignity all the way to the very end. What a powerful testament his example is to demonstrate the effects of a positive attitude and the defiant power of the human spirit! 
There are virtually identical parallels between some of the circumstances in Professor Frankl's life and those In the life of someone contemplating physician-assisted suicide. At any moment during his imprisonment, Professor Frankl could have succumbed to great depression, lost all hope and committed suicide (there ware several readily available means to do so). Not only did he reject such actions, but, in their place, he counseled others, secretly reconstructed a confiscated manuscript, and envisioned some of the possibilities survival 
9
would hold.1· He did these things with no guarantees and, in fact, virtually insurmountable odds against his survival! Similarly, every person who is in a situation which they feel is "forcing" them to contemplate Bhr,sician-assisted suicide still has the freedom of choice to 
36
select life.2· · · · 1 No matter what the circumstances, they still retain the intangibly solid freedom to choose their attitude and, thus, their actions! 
If a person chooses life and decides to "make the best of what they have left," then valuable and meaningful experiences may occur that otherwise would be precluded if they chose death. That is, experiences such as spending immeasurably meaningful time with their loved ones, and experiences such as spending "quiet time" reflecting back uoon their 
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life which may retroactively flood it with meaning and purpose. ··· ••· By doing so, they seize the boundless opportunities life still holds for them. 
Now, one might ask, ·what if one chooses life but requires powerful analgesics that render the person to regularly sleep at quite some length, be "groggy" at times, and feel in a somewhat altered state?'' I respond by asking that even if such side effects occur, wouldn't fifty-percent lucidity be better than absolutely none at all? Thus, during the person's lucid moments, the derivation of meaning in life is possible whereas no such achievement of purpose and gratitude could occur if the person had chosen death. 
Many people contend that physician-assisted suicide allows them to 
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die with dignity. Logotherapy maintains the exact opposlte.2• • • • • Namely, there is no inherent "dignity" in killing one's self. In fact, such an action serves to defeat the very essence of the life they may have led up to that point. That is, by committing such an act, one leaves behind a family which is usually beset with feelings of confusion, uncertainty as to what to grieve about (the loss of their loved one or the manner in which they died), and, quite frequently, an overwhelming sense of guilt 
11 
(exemplified by questions such as "Did I do anything which may have caused my loved one to decide to commit suicide?" or "Is there somethini I could have done which might have helped them change their mind?").3-· 6·12 Specific to the patient themselves, intentionally ending their life robs them of dignity by denying their spirituality the opportunity to grow and, indeed, to flourish! As discussed previously, deriving meaning in life and having opportunities to fill one's final days with purpose and gratitude are precluded if one chooses premature death. 
Contrastingly, logotherapy maintains that "dying with dignity" is exemplified by facing adversity with courage, seizing and fulfilling the meaning of each and every moment and truly living until the natural 
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exhalation of one's final breath.2· · ·~· One may be confined to a wheelchair, bedridden, or even incapable of speaking, but none of these conditions preclude the achievement of meaning in life. As Frankl stated: "Retroactively flooding one's life with meaning is available up to. and including, the final breath."2 Even in an extremely dire situation --such as if one is incapable of speech -how richly may they, and those around them. be virtually flooded with meaning by a faint smile, even a hint of laughter, or a piercing look of love. By choosing to "make the most of what one has," not only that person, but also all of those who love them, may find the true essence of human dignity. 
Conclusion 
The purpose of this brief discussion has been twofold: I) to demonstrate that every human being has positive choices even in dire adversity, and; 2) to illustrate how choosing life holds the potential for activating one's inherent spirituality, thereby affording the opportunity for discovering meaning in life. By choosing to continue living, one may be surrounded by a halo of life instead of a shroud of death. Contrasting, and ironically, the acronym for physician-assisted suicide is the sequence of letters "P.A.S." For those who choose this option they are committing an act for which the same acronym of "PAS." may be used. Namely, they are "Precluding Attitudinal Success!" 
JERRY L. LONG, Jr., Ph.D., is a Clinical Psychologist, College Professor, active national and international public speaker, and frequent presenter at World Congress of Logotherapy and other professional conferences. He resides in the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex where he teaches university classes and does periodic crisis intervention. 
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References 
1. 
Frankl, V. E. (1959). Man's search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press. 

2. 
Frankl, V. E. (1965). The doctor and the soul. NY: Alfred A. Knopf. 

3. 
Frankl, V. E. (1985, May 24). "The rehumanization of psychotherapy". Speech before the University of Texas Health Science Center. Houston. 

4. 
Frankl, V. E. (1966). What Is meant by meaning? Journal of Existentialism, 7 (25), 21-28. 

5. 
Long, J. L. (1997). Logotherapeutic transcendental crisis intervention. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 20, 104112. 

6. 
Long, J. L (1997). Crisis Intervention and beyond: Using logotherapy to transcend the trauma. Journal des Viktor-Frankllnstituts, 5, (1), 25-42. 

7. 
Khatami, M. (1995). Existential therapy for chronic pain. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 18, 13-18. 

8. 
Leslie, R. C. (1995). Logotherapy and religion. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 18, 28-31. 

9. 
Fabry, J. B. (1980). The pursuit of meaning. San Francisco: Harper & Row. 

10. 
Starck, P. L (1983). Patients' perceptions of the meaning of suffering. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 6, 110-116. 

11. 
Tillich, P. (1952). The courage to be. New Haven: Yale University Press. 

12. 
Amenta, M. 0. (1986). Spiritual concerns. In M. 0. Amenta and N. 


L. Bohnet (Eds.). Nursing Care of the Terminally Ill (pp. 115-172). Boston: Little, Brown. 
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The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, ,14-16. 
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF MAIEUTIC QUESTIONING WITHIN THE SOCRATIC METHOD 
Randy L. Scraper 
What student of logotherapy can ever forget Frankl' s question to a physician client of his who was increasingly overwhelmed with grief at the death of his wife, "How would your wife have felt if you would have died first?" The question helped deliver meaning to the physician that gave awareness of meaning and purpose in his suffering. 
Or who can forget Lukas' question to a female patient of hers overcome with depression, "Why do you stand in the middle of the flowers and pick the 
weeds?" 
These are excellent examples of Socratic questions. Such questions are not new. They have been used with great benefit for centuries. The Christian scriptures record that Jesus asked his disciples, "Why do you seek the living among the dead?" 
Socratic Questions: Maieutic Questions 
The Socratic method consists of a dialogue, which contains a series of easily answered questions designed to lead a person to the awareness the questioner is presenting. Within the Socratic method, there exists a particular form of question known as a maieutic question. The maieutic question helps deliver a new idea or awareness from within the consciousness of the person being questioned in much the same way that a "midwife" helps in the delivery of the birth of a child. Learning to identify and use maieutic questions is both an art and a science. 
It is important to note that, just as the baby exists on its own apart from the delivery and yet is inextricably attached to the delivery for its life, the meaning which a Socratic question helps to deliver is already present and being nurtured in any given situation. The meaning which a 

14 
Socratic question helps deliver will either aim someone toward, or move someone further toward an understanding of purpose in their life. For this reason there is great power in Socratic questions. It is quite normal for us to remember them and it is desirable for us to know when and how to form and use them. 
Formulating Socratic Questions Context 
The context for use of Socratic questions is very important. The situation needs to be conducive to meaning discovery. This means that counseling situations as well as meaningful friendly conversations are excellent opportunities for using such questions. Arguments, heated discussion, or other negatively charged emotional times are not the best times to use Socratic questions, but even in these situations I have experienced a rare moment when the positing of such questions has successfully helped deliver truth that was meaningfully received. 
Socratic questioning needs to be separated from questions that are used for information gathering or clarification. While the use of such questioning is useful in many therapies, Socratic questioning is different in nature and purpose. The timing and placement of Socratic questions in the course of a conversation can be crucial to their successful use. This makes them both an art and a science. 
Essential to the successful forming and use of Socratic questions is the development of a good understanding of the client's situation. Socratic questions are formed in response to a client's situation. The helper must be patient and open to the client's own meaning discovery. The helper is encouraged to hear his or her own questions that help to connect disparate meanings as they arise. This helps foster and nurture the context for meaning discovery and the resultant formation of Socratic questions. 
Paradigm Shifting 
Often the most restrictive factor involved in preventing the formation and use of Socratic questions and their resultant delivery of meaning is the fact that current relationships to meaning may be bound in rationalization. Certain psychic paradigms alienate meaning discovery. For instance, some people truly do not see the trees for the forest, or perhaps in true logotherapy fashion we could say they do not see the flowers for the weeds! The process of rationalization can impede the process of conceptualization that needs to take place in order to aid transcendence. When one's thinking is bound by what "makes sense" to that individual, a Socratic question is often the catalyst for a paradigm 
15 
shift. Helping a person "see things" (including themselves) from a different perspective encourages the transcendence that can have a positive effect on meaning discovery. 
Question Construction 
Successful Socratic questioning is both an art and a science. On the "science" side, I offer three possible techniques that I have found to be helpful. 
•  The  Comparison  Technique-Examples  of  this  technique  include  
Lukas' question which  compares "weeds" and "flowers", or Jesus'  
statement which compares the "living" and the "dead." The delivery  
of meaning rests heavily on the comparison and the invitation to the  
listener to see their situation in a different way, i.e., ;the way that is  
guided by the comparison.  
•  The  Transcendence  Technique-Frankl's  question  cited  at  the  
beginning of this article is a good example of this technique. Through  
his question he helps the physician transcend his pain and grief to  
experience an alternative view. It is this view -his understanding that  
had he died first his wife would be experiencing great pain of loss 
that helps him find  a  purpose in his  own  suffering. Being able  to  
transcend one's own situation is key to the meaning discovery, and  
the  Socratic  question  is  the  vehicle  for  facilitating  that  
transcendence.  
•  The Contemplation Technique-This technique requires taking time to  
hear one's own questions and discover how these questions connect  
disparate meanings. The ability to think critically about the client's  
situation  as  well  as  gain  an  understanding of the  client's  current  
meaning paradigm are the keys to this technique.  

Conclusion 
Even though Socratic questions have been around for a long time, the Science of forming and using Socratic questions is a fledgling endeavor. There is a noted lack of scientific literature on the subject. The great power present for positive change through the use of Socratic questions invites us to help grow this much needed "art and science" forward. Why should we settle for asking questions when we could help give birth to meaning? 
RANDY L. SCRAPER, D.Min. (3313 West Broadway Court, Broken Arrow, Oklahoma 74012 USA) is a Dip/ornate in logotherapy and Executive Minister of The First United Methodist Church of Tulsa Oklahoma. 
16 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 17-23. 
FRANKLIAN PSYCHOTHERAPY: TREATMENT ELEMENTS AND DYNAMICS 
Jim Lantz, Ph.D. 
Franklian Psychotherapy, Logotherapy, Existential Psychotherapy, and Existential Analysis are four terms for a treatment approach originally developed by Viktor Frankl, M.D., that pays close attention to both problems and meanings to be found in daily 
26
life.1 · ·3.4·5· In this article, I review the elements and treatment dynamics of my approach to Franklian psychotherapy I have developed, evaluated, and refined since 1970 in child welfare, hospital, family service, mental health, and private practice 
settings.5.6. 1.s.9., 0.11.12 

Franklian psychotherapy is a structured life situation for the study and treatment of disrupted meaning and problem-solving in human life. Franklian treatment illuminates the psychodynamic, sociodynamic, and existential aspects of life in multidimensional ways to provide a rich and accurate understanding of the client through an encounter with the quality and style of their relationship patterns with others, themselves, and the therapist. 1.4·6•8· 
The purpose of the present article is to utilize Franklian concepts to broaden and enrich the psychodynamic and sociodynamic viewpoints of mental health treatment and to arrive at a more complete understanding of assessment and intervention including the spiritual, meaning, noetic, and sacred level of human existence. This integration occurs through a discussion of the elements and dynamics of Franklian treatment. 
17 
Franklian Treatment Dynamics 
In my approach to Franklian psychotherapy, there are three basic treatment dynamics: noticing, actualization and honoring. 5•6•12 Treatment dynamics are understood to be healing processes that are facilitated by the five elements of Franklian psychotherapy: human meeting, dynamic reflection, existential reflection, therapeutic 
789
directives, and tribalization. ·· The relationship between treatment dynamics and treatment elements in Franklian psychotherapy is illustrated in the Figure. 
Elements of Franklian Psychotherapy  Franlclian Treatment Dynamics Noticing Actualization  Honoring  
Human Meeting  X  X  X  
Dynamic Retlection Existential Reflection Therapeutic Directives Tribalization  X  X X X  X  

Noticing 
In Franklian psychotherapy, the central and most basic human motivational dynamic is the Will to Meaning.1•2•8•11 In this view, all humans have a desire to discover and experience a sense of meaning and purpose in life. When a person is able to discover and experience a sense of meaning in life, happiness is generally (not always) a 
byproduct.3.4,9, 12 When a person is not able to discover, experience, and/or actualize a sense of meaning in life, the person experiences an existential-meaning vacuum.2,3.4 This vacuum may then be filled with 
18 
symptoms and problems that grow and flourish. For many people, the Will to Meaning is frustrated because they have difficulty noticing the meaning potentials (opportunities) in daily life. In such a situation, it is the responsibility of the Franklian therapist to engage in human meeting and to utilize existential reflection to help the client notice meaning potentials (see Figure), which in turn, also shrinks the symptoms and problems that grow in the existential-meaning vacuum. 1 ·3.4· 8•9 
Honoring A second treatment dynamic in Franklian psychotherapy is 
79 11
honoring (or re-collection).3· •· In honoring the therapist helps the client remember, recover, re-collect, celebrate and honor forgotten meaning potentials that have been actualized previously and deposited into the past.3•9•12 Such re-collection is most effectively facilitated when the therapist engages in human meeting and instigates the process of existential reflection . 1 2 
2
In Frankl's view,1· .4 honoring shrinks the existential-meaning vacuum because it helps people remember and confirm accomplishments and meaning potentials that have been actualized and made forever real. In Frankl' s view,3.4 honoring is the reason why life-review experiences are effective with older adults. To Frankl, such re-collection should not be limited to use with older adults. It should be understood as a powerful method of shrinking the existential-meaning vacuum with individuals, groups, couples, and families of all ages. In this author's family, re-collection occurs every evening at dinner when family members share their achievements, problems, joys, sorrows, and actualized meaning potentials with each other in a consistent way.8•11 
Actualization 
In actualization the Franklian psychotherapist helps the client develop insight into how new patterns can help the client do a better job at making use of the meaning potentials to be found in life.8•9•11 The therapist helps the client gain understanding that will help them to utilize freedom to make use of (validate through experience) in the here and now the meanings that have been noticed and honored.6•8·12 
19 
Elements of Franklian Psychotherapy 
In Franklian psychotherapy, the term "elements of psychotherapy" refers to the actions, activities, methods and contributions made by the therapist to facilitate the manifestation of the treatment dynamics. The five elements of treatment in Franklian psychotherapy are human meeting, dynamic reflection, existential reflection, therapeutic directives, and tribalization. 
Human Meeting 
Human meeting is the committed presence of one person to another, including an openness to the potentials of the other person even when such openness is difficult, demanding, and/or unpleasant. 3 Such an openness to otherness has also been described as integrity, commitment, and loyalty.8 In Franklian psychotherapy, the therapist must make a commitment of human meeting to the client requesting help. 
In making a commitment of human meeting, the therapist does not insist that the client agree to any preset period of time for treatment. In other words, the therapist is willing to be open to meet the client's emergent treatment needs throughout the process of treatment.11 · 12 The therapist hopes for rapid improvement and change but does not reject the client if they cannot live up to the therapist's expectations for change. 5•8•11 
In human meeting, the Franklian psychotherapist does not hide 
from the client's pain behind either an ardent stance of objectivity or 
a belief in an overly rigid interpretation of the treatment role. 
Although the therapist must remember to stick to their role, such a 
concern with role should not be used to blunt encounter, dilute 
compassion and concern, or to distance the therapist from the pain 
and concerns of the client.3•11 The treatment element of human 
meeting provides the client with the support that is often needed to 
facilitate the treatment dynamics of meaning potential awareness, re
collection, and pattern change. Human meeting gives the client a 
feeling of acceptance and of being understood.9 · 10 
Dynamic Reflection and Existential Reflection In Franklian psychotherapy, reflection is a central part of the 
1 23 11
helping process. • • • Reflection facilitates noticing (through existential reflection), honoring (through existential reflection), and actualization (through dynamic reflection). 
20 
Frankl3 describes dynamic reflection as problem-centered and problem-solving reflection that aims for the achievement of knowledge that is verifiable, objective, clear, precise, universal. In dynamic reflection, thought is directed toward confronting and reducing problems. Because dynamic reflection is directed towards knowledge that is verifiable, it is abstract and includes an objective relationship between the thinker and the object of thinking.11 In contrast to dynamic reflection, existential reflection is the way to discover and rediscover unity, connection, wholeness, meanings, and the spirituality of human life. In Franklian psychotherapy, dynamic reflection is used to gain problem clarity through verification and objectification; existential reflection is used to gain a richer understanding of the meanings and meaning potentials in life.3•9•11 
The mechanics of existential reflection are difficult to present in an exact and systematic way. One aspect of existential reflection is disbelief in the complete adequacy of dynamic reflection, which, in turn, results in an attempted recovery of the unity of experience that has been distorted by the powers of abstract thought. Frankl3 points out that the abstract and experimental aspects of dynamic reflection are reductionistic, clouding the meanings in existence. Frankl 3.4 suggests that whenever dynamic reflection reduces life, friendship, love, fidelity, encounter, courage, despair, joy, and other manifestations of meaning to experiences that falsely appear to be understood clearly, existential reflection must and will rise up to correct the blindness of dynamic reflection. 
A second aspect of existential reflection is its capacity to help us discover and participate in the unmeasurable meanings of life in a serious, sensitive, and rigorous fashion.3•11 Existential reflection involves awareness and discovery through participation, encounter, and concrete involvement rather than distant and disengaged abstraction . 11 Existential reflection is thought and awareness in the presence of meaning; it is participation in contemplation; it 1s 
11 12
connection to what is being experienced.3• • Existential reflection is often manifested in the activities of meditation, prayer, art, poetry, music, and an I-Thou dialogue.11 
21 
Therapeutic Directives 
In Franklian psychotherapy, a basic treatment goal is to help the client to change dysfunctional patterns and to develop new patterns that do a better job of helping the client to notice, re-collect, and 
11 12
actualize the meaning potentials in daily life.3• · A therapeutic directive is an assigned task designed to help the client validate through experience the meanings discovered and re-collected. Therapeutic directives can be homework assignments or they can be provided to the client for accomplishment during the time and space of the interview.9•11 · 12 Therapeutic directives facilitate actualization. 
Tribalization 
In utilizing the process of tribalization (which can also be called network intervention or social system development), the therapist recognizes that the physical, social, political, economic, and cultural environment is often a major reason for disruption of a client's search for meaning and purpose in life.8•11 Tribalization helps clients increase meaning potentials in their social network and increase the availability of resources used to actualize meaning potentials. 8•11 
Summary 
The author's approach to Franklian psychotherapy includes the treatment dynamics of noticing, honoring and actualization. These treatment dynamics are facilitated by the elements of Franklian treatment: human meeting, dynamic reflection, existential reflection, therapeutic directives, and tribalization. Numerous clinical illustrations of Franklian practice can be found in publications by this 
789 10 11 12
author.6· ··• · • Evaluation reports documenting the usefulness of the approach have also been provided in the same publications. 
JIM LANTZ, Ph.D. [1947 College Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA] 
is a Dip/ornate in logotherapy, Co-Director of Lantz and Lantz Counseling Associates, and a faculty member at The Ohio State University, College of Social Work. 
22 
References 
1. 
Frankl, V. (1955). The doctor and the soul. NY: Vintage Books. 

2. 
Frankl, V. (1959). Man's search for meaning. NY: Simon & Schuster. 

3. 
Frankl, V. (1969). The will to meaning. NY: New American Library. 

4. 
Frankl, V. (1997). Man's search for ultimate meaning. NY: Insight Books. 

5. 
Lantz, J. ( 1 9 7 4). Existential treatment and the Vietnam veteran family. In Ohio Department of Mental Health Yearly Report (pp. 33-36). Columbus: Ohio Department of Mental Health. 


6. Lantz, J. (1986). Family logotherapy. Contemporary Family Therapy, 8, 124-135. 
7. Lantz, J. (1991). Franklian treatment with Vietnam veteran couples. Journal Religion and Health, 30, 131-138. 
8. Lantz, J. (1993). Existential family therapy: Using the concepts of Viktor Frankl. Northvale: Jason Aronson, Inc. 
9. Lantz, J. (1995). Frankl's concept of time: Existential psychotherapy with couples and families. Journal Contemporary Psychotherapy, 25, 135-144. 
10.Lantz, J. (1996). Logotherapy as trauma therapy. Crisis Intervention and Time Limited Treatment, 2, 243-253. 
11. Lantz, J. (1996). What works in logotherapy? Voices: Journal of the American Academy of Psychotherapists, 32, 32-40. 
12. Lantz, J. (1998). Viktor Frankl and interactional group psychotherapy. Journal Religion and Health, 37, 93-104. 
23 

The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 24-29. 
Life Review and Life Preview 
Mignon Eisenberg 
The present paper comments on a project in which university students interviewed older persons for life review. The interviews were broadened beyond typical life review therapy in that the logotherapeutic perspective was specifically emphasized in the materials the students were given to guide the interviews. 

The project was conducted over the course of a 1 0-year period. Israel university students interviewed and tape-recorded older persons in five to eight hour-long sessions per interviewee. 
Both the students and the older interviewees benefited from this project of logotherapeutic life review and preview. The results demonstrate that good life review therapy incorporates the existential balancing force of additional life preview. 
Die Young as Late as You Can 
The logotherapeutic approach broadened the scope of reviewing one's life, by injecting the imperative to redirect and restructure one's current and future life wherever possible" This prompted each interviewee to engage in a life preview simultaneously with the life review, shifting the emphasis away from potential hyperreflection toward dereflection and selftranscendence. 
As a result of the life preview element of the interviews, some of the interviewees decided to write autobiographic documents for their children and grandchildren. Old age was acknowledged to be 
24 
not simply a biological decline but truly a biographic ascent during this late life period of heightened perception and potential. The decision to "die young as late as possible" promoted the capacity to live in the present. This fostered immediate enjoyment of people (especially children), nature, colors, warmth, love, humor, and beauty in any form. It fostered a comfortable acceptance of the life cycle, the universe, and generations. "Having done one's best" caused feelings of serenity. Often, the old became interested in teaching and in sharing their knowledge. Creativity was stimulated frequently in the form of memoirs, art, music, handicrafts. They started to talk about "how I want to live the rest of my life." 
The interviews provided a rich supply of models for the students' own future lives. Dis-engagement was replaced by "reengagement." Old people's "bizarre" behavior was no longer seen as abnormal, but as normal reactions to abnormal circumstances. The members of all age groups became less conscious of age differences. The sense of isolation and uselessness of the old abated, with the old being models for creating meaningful lives. 
The incorporation of existential analysis into the life review interviews broadened the field of noetic vision, so the interviewees became aware of the full spectrum of personal meanings and value possibilities. They felt free to make their own decisions and assume responsibility for their choices. 
Holocaust survivor interviewees became aware that theirs should not be a self-pitying survivor's guilt, but a survivor's responsibility. They became aware that their meaning was to prove to themselves and others that they had the task to demonstrate day by day that they were worthy to be saved so they could be models of ethical behavior to others. 
Guide Materials for the Interviewing 
Three-page guide materials were given to the participating students to stimulate the life reviews and previews. With the help of the guide materials, the interviewees soon realized they still had free will. The interviewees demonstrated Kierkegaard's wise insight that life can only be understood backward and lived forward. 
25 
The guide materials encouraged the interviewees to bring supplementary documents like photos, diaries, treasured objects, letters, and souvenirs to augment the interview. To stimulate the flow of memory, questions suggested by the guide materials included: 
• 
What would you do different if you could live life over? 

• 
What period of your life do you think about most frequently? 

• 
How do you feel about that period of your life? 

• 
How do you feel about your parents? 

• 
How do you feel about your childhood? 

• 
How do you feel about your adolescence? 

• 
How do you feel about your young adulthood? 

• 
How do you feel about your Married life? 

• 
How do you feel about your work experience? 

• 
How do you teei about the way you raised your children? 

• 
What do you regret most about your life? 

• 
What has been the most satisfying thing about your life? 

• 
What is your philosophy of life? 

• 
What is your advice for me? 


This practical fight against ageism was conducted over a period of ten years. yielding a harvest of stories of changing perspectives on old and young age. 
The Fragile Lifeline is Mended 
Lite review is seen as a universal mental process brought about by the realization of approaching death. It is frequently associated with late life, but it is also recognized in people of all ages in periods of life-threatening illness or accidents. 
The tendency of older persons to reminisce about the past appears to have a psychotherapeutic function in which the older persons reflect on their lives in order to resolve, reorganize, and reintegrate what has troubled or preoccupied them. The capacity for free assoc1at1on seems to be renewed, bringing up memories deeply buried in the unconscious. As a result, the fragmented 
26 
lifeline is mended and the existential balance of the life preview discovered. 
Examples 
Here are two examples obtained during the interviews that show meaning still can be found in unavoidable suffering of old age. The first example illustrates how meaning can be found through an experience, the second through activities. 
• "Every morning, the tables are set for marmalade and honey, eggs, milk, and coffee. Around it the patients are seated, in wheelchairs and straw fauteuils. No word is said. Sadness and depression rule. 
Of a sudden, all eyes are turn to one spot: There, on the floor, in the middle of the breakfast room hops a small and happy sparrow, prancing gracefully on the floor, picking up with its beak the small crumbs that fell from the tables. It is not afraid of us. Now it spreads its wings and flies to one of the less occupied tables and picks at the bread pieces that remain orphaned. And again it comes down to the floor and performs for us like a young ballerina. Suddenly, the gloomy faces break into broad smiles and a light of grace shines in the dull eyes. God bless you, little lovely bird. If you knew what you bring us with your small wings! 
You bring us the infinite spaces. You bring us the blue skies and the fresh air. You bring us freedom. With the start of the long day in front of us, you bring us feelings of happiness, light, and liberty. And when you leave us and fly away to the open spaces we fly behind you to mysterious places. We thank you, my tiny bird." 
• "Miryam, 90 years old, mother of three sons and a daughter, entered the department of the infirm at the home a week ago. She kept complaining about the home, locked herself in her room, showed no interest in the various activities, and had increased difficulty in functioning, especially her mobility. She needed help to overcome the crisis of leaving her old place filled with memories and being dependent on others. At the 
27 
first meeting, I asked her to tell me about herself. She was born 1n Jaffa, Israel. Her grandmother, a widow, had come to Israel with four children from Russia. Her mother, a beauty, married a Jaffa man from a wealthy family. She gave birth to three daughters; and since her husband wanted a son, he divorced her and married again a woman who gave him two sons. Her mother also remarried and gave birth to Miryam and later to two more daughters and a son. 
From the age of 11 Miryam was in charge of keeping house, since her mother was ailing and died at age 60. Miryam quit school in the third grade to help with her siblings. Miryam married and had children. The family was very religious and so was Miryam who prayed a lot and read the Talmud and Bible. Her husband was secular at the time they married but turned religious through Miryam. Miryam told about her adolescence: her family was driven out of Jaffa by the Turks; had to live in tents. When World War II broke out, there was no food and wateL The brother was drafted and thus could send food to the family. Miryam was on a committee that helped the refugees from Jaffa. During the interview it became clear what resources Miryam had: faith in God, ability to adjust even in time of hardship, and her ability to overcome difficulties and help others. This information gave me confidence that Miryam would also overcome her present crisis. A smile lit her face when she talked about herself. She was blessed with a good sense of humor--another asset. 
At the home, Miryam was tormented by such questions as: What can I still do? What meaning does my life now have? Together we tried to find answers. She could be a model to her children and grandchildren in how to cope in difficult circumstances. She could provide the family glue, an important and meaningful task. She could be a model of coping to others in the home. Miryam changed her negative outlook about life in the home and began to see advantages like her ability to ease the lite of her children by not being a burden on them. She could establish social ties in the home, a very important aspect. I encouraged her to make a list of desirable activities 
28 
that would enrich her life. Miryam wrote that she could increase her interest in the study of the Bible and Talmud, topics that interested her greatly. She could form a study group. She could tell her grandchildren and great grandchildren about her interesting life, which covered a good part of the history of the Jewish settlement in Israel. No history book could give them that first-hand knowledge. 
Miryam actualized her late-life preview by collecting material for the opening of the Bible and Talmud study groups. She had freed herself of focusing on herself and realized her ability to self-transcend. She changed her outlook on life, and turned from a closed and self-centered person into an optimistic person with a positive self-image. Use was made of Miryam's religious inclination, which helped her overcome problems and difficulties. We also decided to transmit her knowledge to others, in the form of a study group. 
Several weeks later Miryam told me she had started to conduct her study group and people thanked her for the joy and interest she provided. Her children told me she started telling them each time they came a few chapters of her life. They had never known what an interesting and exciting past she had. They started bringing the grandchildren, who were thirsty for tales of "the great grandma," and the visits turned from obligations to a desired activity to which they looked forward. Miryam now was a person who realized meaning in life. Thanks to her contribution and help to others she turned into a happy person." 
Mignon Eisenberg, Ph.D. [P. 0. Box 3741 Ramat Hadar, Hod Hasharon, 45220 Israel] ,s Founder and Director of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Israel and teaches /ogotherapy at several Israeli universities. She is a Diplomate of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy in the U.S.A. and Director of the Chicago Institute of Logotherapy. 
29 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 30-39. 
AN OPTIMISTIC STANCE TOWARD DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR 
George E. Rice 
Lack of discipline, use of drugs, fighting, violence, gangs, lack of interest, poor attitude, and truancy top the list of school problems as perceived by the general public. 15 Educators agree that society is plagued by drug and alcohol use, crime, violence, and child abuse and that as these problems have increased, so have the discipline problems in schools. Very often, statistics similar to the following are cited as support:10· P
¦ 
Homicide by youths under age seventeen years tripled between 1984 and 1994. 

¦ 
Juvenile arrest rates for weapons-law violations increased 103 percent between 1985-1994. 

¦ 
Youth under eighteen account for about 20 percent of the nations violent crimes. 

¦ 
Juvenile killings with firearms quadrupled between 1984 and 1994. 

¦ 
Although illegal drug use among high school seniors had declined since the 1980s, it began rising again in 1992. 


The Carnegie Corporation of New York estimates that seven million young people between ages ten and seventeenapproximately one of every four adolescents-are extremely vulnerable to multiple high-risk behaviors.4 A partial list of high-risk behaviors reported by Gottfredson includes:12· P-1 

30 
¦ Low attachment to school 
• Poor school performance 
¦ 
Tendencies toward impulsiveness 

¦ 
Low levels of social competency 

¦ 
problems identifying consequences 

¦ 
poor problem-solving skills 

¦ 
lack of empathy 

¦ 
incorrectly interpreting social cues 

¦ 
Early problem behavior 

¦ 
Beliefs favoring law violation 


Since delinquents are deficient in a number of thinking skills necessary for social adaptation, they often do not think before they act. They believe that what happens to them is due to fate or chance rather than their own actions. They misinterpret social cues, fail to consider alternative solutions to problems, and lack interpersonal skills necessary for effective communication. It is also noteworthy that children who demonstrate aggressive behavior tend to attribute hostility to other people's intentions and to misperceive their own aggressiveness and responsibility for conflict. 
Frankl describes this view as pan-determinism in that it disregards the individual's capability to take a stand toward any conditions whatsoever: 7• P-733 
Man is not fully conditioned and determined but rather 
determines himself, whether he gives in to conditions or 
stands up to them. In other words man is ultimately self
determining. Man does not simply exist, but decides what his 
existence will be. Frankl continues by emphasizing that we can find meaning even when confronted with a hopeless situation or fate that cannot be changed. "When we are no longer able to change a situation-we are challenged to change ourselves." 7, P 116 
Frankl believes that a lack of meaning is responsible for the frequent phenomenon of "emptiness" or "existential frustration" that many youth face in today's world.9 This inner emptiness prompts students to seek emotional experiences through drugs, violence, and relationships. Their empty selves are unwilling to worry through difficult problems. Frankl suggests that when an educational system fails to provide appropriate levels of tension (expectations) students are likely to create it either in healthy or unhealthy ways (sports, 
31 
drugs, violence, etc):7 P45 
An education that is still based on the homeostasis theory is 
guided by the principle that as few demands as possible 
should be imposed upon young people. It is true that young 
people should not be subjected to excessive demands. 
However, we also have to consider the fact that, at least 
today, in the age of an affluent society, people suffer too few 
demands rather than too many. The affluent society is an 
under-demanding society by which people are spared tension. 
. . and people who are spared tension are likely to create it in 
a healthy or unhealthy way. 
Gottfredson and Gottfredson found that the strongest correlates of school disorder are characteristics of population and community contexts in which schools are located.13 Schools in urban, poor, disorganized communities experience more disorder than other schools. This, according to Frankl cannot be used as an excuse for delinquent behavior for "...man is by no means merely a product of heredity and environment.. There is a third element: decision. Man ultimately decides for himself. And, in the end, education must be education toward the ability to decide."8· pxxv Dreikurs had also emphasized that children cannot be allowed to use heredity or environment as an escape from responsibility:6,P 5 
We do not regard the child as the victim of forces that 
converge on him: hereditary, talent, or environmental. What 
he is when he is born is less important than what he does with 
it afterwards. The living conditions in which he finds himself 
are less important than what he does with himself in those 
conditions. This view opens the way for change through new 
and appropriate concepts and goals. It is the basis for a more 
optimistic outlook. 
While schools can not be expected to reverse their communities' problems, they can influence their own rates of disorder. Schools, and the teachers within them, have a great potential to influence students throughout the developmental years. Their consistent access to large numbers of youth in their early school years is an opportunity to provide a model of healthy individual-and school -level experiences related to personal values, attitudes, and beliefs. Cushman argues that if a culture lacks community and tradition, then structural societal (educational) change is needed to fill the vacuum. 5 
32 
National priorities for children focus on schools as a locus for prevention of diverse social problems including violent and disruptive behavior. The Department of Health and Human Services' Healthy People 2000 goals include increasing high school graduation rates and reducing physical fighting, weapon carrying, substance use, and pregnancy among adolescents. A National Education Goal, states that every school will be free of drugs, violence, and the unauthorized presence of firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning by the year 2000. The 1986 DrugFree Schools and Communities Act provided funds to states to develop and operate school-based drug prevention programs; in 1994, this legislation was modified to authorize expenditures for schoolbased violence prevention programs as well. 
To justify the budget expenditures, studies were commissioned to determine which programs worked and which programs did not. The research on student-based prevention programs, particularly those aimed at indoctrination, were not shown to be effective in addressing disruptive and violent behavior. 18 Additionally, Gottfredson reported that the overall pattern of results for programs involving peers in delivery of services was not promising-particularly when used as stand alone programs. 12 Recommendations were presented to Congress that funding be reduced for program categories shown to be ineffective. These include counseling students for delinquency prevention, alternative activities such as community and recreation services in the absence of more potent prevention programs, and instructional drug prevention programs focusing on information dissemination, such as DARE. 
Their findings reinforced previous drug related research by Botvin that found that "information dissemination" approaches which taught primarily about drugs and their effects, "fear arousal" approaches that highlighted the risks, "moral appeal" approaches which emphasized the evils of use, and "affective education" which focused on building self-esteem, responsible decision-making, and interpersonal growth were largely ineffective for reducing substance use in the absence of modeling, demonstration, and practice (role-playing).3 
As discouraging as the statistics and program studies appear, we now have more information about classroom management skills and practices that positively impact youth behavior than ever before. Programs that showed the most promise included strategies and skills 
33 
aimed at clarifying and communicating norms about behaviors (establishing school rules and improving consistency of enforcement) and comprehensive instructional programs that focused on a range of social competency skills (self-control, stress, responsible decisionmaking, and communication skills). Of note, however, was the emphasis not only on content of more effective programs, but upon the use of modeling or demonstrating behavior, and interaction, as modes of delivery. As stated above, delinquents often do not think before they act. They believe that what happens to them is due to fate or chance rather than their own choices. They misinterpret social cues, fail to consider alternative solutions to problems, and lack interpersonal skills necessary for effective communication. Programs that combine behavioral and cognitive methods to alter immediate behavior and promote behavior change to other settings have been shown to decrease aggressive behavior. 
Educators need to explore their personal philosophies and beliefs about why people do the things they do and how they get to be the way they are. Deeply held beliefs influence the management of students. These deeply held beliefs (habits) often operate outside a person's immediate awareness. For example, assuming that students know the expectations or appropriate behavior as a function of age is one such belief that may need deliberate attention. Regardless of age, some youth may not have learned acceptable social behaviors. Educators may need to develop aspects of students' character by helping them find a sense of meaning in education and life; teaching them about the realities of psychological and emotional courage, empathy, respect for self and others (i.e. that life is potentially meaningful under any circumstances). Therefore behavioral expectations and social skills will have to be explicitly taught through the utilization of modeling, role playing, and reinforcement. 
According to Levine and Nidiffer, the personal character and integrity of a mentor or teacher make an immense difference in violence prevention. 14 Perhaps school programs aimed at character development in children should begin with developing character as well as competence in teachers. The values and sense of self-control that teachers model will play a decisive role in the creation of a safe school environment. Research indicates that individuals are more likely to model the behavior of people who they view as possessing competence and self control and who are a major source of control, support, and reinforcement. 1 It is also true that young people are 
34 
more likely to model behavior that is exhibited by several adults. This underscored the importance of the total school climate. 
Children accept and emulate the behavior of people, such as teachers, who are important in their lives. As responsible adults, teachers must consciously model values, attitudes, and behaviors that will lead children to behave responsibly. When Frankl was asked whether it is possible to teach values, he responded that "values cannot be taught; values must be lived. Nor can meaning be given; what a teacher can give to students is not meaning but rather an example." 9· P·87 
The school and classroom environment, with rules of conduct that encourage respectful behavior to others, establishes healthy boundaries where children can feel secure and accepted. In a structured classroom the organization of space, the presentation of instructional materials, the demeanor of the teacher, and the amount and kind of preparation are important to success. This outcome-based approach necessitates careful preparation and constant monitoring of student behavior by teachers. Teachers teach students to follow socially acceptable standards that the students may or may not have participated in developing. As students learn to internalize responsible behavior their self-esteem matures and they gain increasing control over their behavior. An optimistic approach such as this recognizes that most children, even problem or dysfunctional children, can be taught to behave responsibility in the classroom regardless of the children's socioeconomic or family history. This means acting and teaching in accordance with an internalized set of values and beliefs and modeling acceptance of the consequences of an act, whether positive or negative. 
Most teachers become educators because they love to teach and enjoy contributing to the lives of young people. As classroom teachers, however, there quickly comes the realization that discipline and management not only take time and energy but, without it, other reasons (values) for becoming an educator become ineffective. The beliefs and thoughts we hold about why people do the things they do and how they get to be the way they are exert a tremendous influence on how we understand and interact with those around us. This becomes important in the classroom when the dominant cultural beliefs of the class differ from an individual's basic beliefs. For example, adopting a stance that children attending school today know the right way to behave, many educators think that punishment will 
35 
stop inappropriate and increase appropriate behavior. However, some students come from homes where education is not valued, parental guidance is limited, interactions are disrespectful and hostile, and fighting 1s encouraged as a way to solve problems. The issue becomes one of punishing disrespect and irresponsibility or teaching respect and responsibility. This revised view of discipline is instructional with an emphasis on teaching students to behave responsibly at school. While it is true that the environment is important in influencing students' behavior; students' cognition also influences behavior. In other words, the principles of behavioral theory (man as machine) are viewed as tendencies that can be mediated by cognition (i.e., a student could choose to not hand in an assignment, regardless of the positive or negative influences offered.). 
Salthouse emphasizes that youths' aggressive and violent behavior, which can thrive in their emptiness, are not caused by their environment. He suggests that appropriate models and programs could stimulate young people to find meaning through better choices: 17 
Logotherapy also affirms that society or the conditions it 
creates by frustrating the will to meaning neither causes the 
existential vacuum, nor the violence that breeds in it. It can 
and does however, provide a climate in which the existential 
vacuum and consequent violence thrive. By the some token, 
society cannot give meaning to persons within it. Nonetheless, 
it can stimulate, challenge, and induce meaning in persons by 
establishing programs to this end, offering models for it, and 
providing opportunities for it to happen. 
Classroom Leadership/Management (CUM) is a model for developing internal self-control and organizing a classroom and school to produce a positive climate in which the adults exhibit a professional attitude toward their work and students and emphasize the importance of education through their words and actions. 16 It provides an optimistic view in that regardless of children's background or environment, schools can provide an environment for meaningful development. Cognitive restructuring begins by utilizing the basic tenets of logotherapy to examine paradigms and their impact on behaviors and attitudes of individuals.2 Within this component, processes of decision making (free will) and accepting consequences (responsibility) are developed. Determinism is questioned as teachers learn the importance of modeling and 
36 
recognizing those things over which they have control or influence and those things beyond their control or influence. Teachers learn, for example, that although they have no control over what a student says to them, they do have control in how they respond to the student. Building upon this foundation, teachers learn to adopt a proactive stance in designing a classroom environment that is safe and secure. Principles of reinforcement, motivation, and communication and their influence on teachers and students' self-esteem are explored . 
From this knowledge base the expectations (space utilization, rules, procedures, and consequences) necessary for optimal classroom operation are chosen. These do not need to be arbitrarily or authoritatively decided upon and may or may not be developed with the cooperation of students. Once an operational set of guidelines is developed, planning begins tor presentation to the student. Choosing appropriate methods and activities (explicit instruction, modeling, role playing, cooperative groups, discussion) from identified research that will help students firmly internalize the expectations is an important consideration. 12 The explanation should include a rationale that explores the need for group guidelines and structure, information, and activities that present the expectations and consequences as choices to be made, and application (practice) to real life problems. Helping students recognize the importance of responsibility in the choices they make and realize that what they decide and do matters is another aspect of the program. Critical to the program's success is the final component, maintenance, which also depends upon modeling-doing what you say. Careful monitoring allows you to detect inappropriate behaviors or symptoms of potentially more serious behaviors when they are easiest to address. Ignored misbehaviors or symptoms are likely to increase-occasionally to the point of becoming crises behavior. Teachers who have developed internal strength, a broad knowledge base in classroom management and instructional skills, and effective communication skills can deal with misbehaviors calmly and quickly, in a meaningful way, without becoming overly emotional or reactive. 
In summary, there are significant differences in what teachers may have experienced and what today's children have experienced. Teachers must be willing to accept students regardless of how the students have been influenced by the culture or their experiences; and teachers must be willing to work with students to be thoughtful in their choices. To accomplish this, teachers learn to be aware of their 
37 
choices (areas of freedom) and to accept responsibility for their decisions. Ginott, in describing his early years in teaching, presents possible choices for teachers that impact their students:11 • P-13 
I am the decisive element in the classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess tremendous power to make a child's life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humor, hurt or heal. In all situations it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated, and a child humanized or dehumanized. Classroom Leadership/Management, based upon the basic tenets 
of Logotherapy and current research with disruptive children, prepares teachers to make these decisions. Teachers learn to work with students as clients who are what they are through environment and poor choices and to empower them with an awareness of their freedom-not from circumstances, but to meaning potentials in their selection of activities, experiences, and attitudes. 
GEORGE E. RICE, Ph.D. [5603 Bon Aire Drive, Monroe, Louisiana 71202 USA] is Professor, Department of Educational Leadership & Counseling at The University Louisiana at Monroe, Louisiana. He holds certifications in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi in the areas of Administration, Instructional Supervision, Classroom Leadership/ Management, and Assertive Discipline. 
References 
1.. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 
2. 
Barnes, R. C. (1997). Course I: Introduction to logotherapy. Dallas, TX. 

3. 
Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Filazzola, A. D., & Botvin, E. M. (1990). A cognitive-behavioral approach to substance abuse prevention: One year follow up. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 4763. 

4. 
Carnegie Corporation of New York (1990). Turning points: 


s
Preparing American youth for the 2 1 ' century. NY: CCNY. 5, Cushman, P. (1990). Why the self is empty. American Psychologist, 45, 599-611. 
38 
6. 
Dreikurs, R., Grunwald, B. B., & Pepper, F. C. (1982). Maintaining sanity in the classroom (2nd ed.). NY: Harper & Row. 

7. 
Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man's search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. NY: Simon & Schuster. 

8. 
Frank, V. E. (1986). The doctor and the soul: From psychotherapy to logotherapy. NY: Vintage Books. 

9. 
Frankl, V. E. (1988). The will to meaning. NY: Penguin Books. 

10. 
Gest, T. (1996, March). Crime time bomb. U. S. News and World Report, pp. 28-30, 32, 36. 

11. 
Ginott, H. (1971 ). Teacher and child. NY: Macmillan. 

12. 
Gottfredson, D. C. (1998). School-based crime prevention. Retrieved 6/9199 at http://www.nejrs.orq/works/chapter 5.htm. 


13. Gottfredson, G.D., & Gottfredson, D. C. (1985). Victimization in schools. NY: Plenum. 
14. 
Levine, A., & Nidiffer, J. (1995). Beating the odds: How the poor get to college. San Francisco: Josey-Bass. 

15. 
Lowell, R. C., Gallup, A. M., & Elam, S. M. (1997). The 29th annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup poll of the public's attitudes toward the public schools. Phi Delta Kappan. 79, 41-56. 

16. 
Rice, G. E., & Taylor, G. E. (1998). The peanut butter and jelly guide to teaching. (2nd ed.). Vicksburg, MS: ETSI, Inc. 

17. 
Salthouse, A. R. (1999, June). Youth's violent cry for meaning. Paper presented at World Congress of Logotherapy. Dallas, TX. 

18. 
Sherman, L. W., Gottfredson, D., Machenzie, D., Eck, J., Renter, P., & Bushway, S. (1997). Preventing crime: What works, what doesn't, what's promising. (A report to the United States Congress). Washington, D. C.: National Institute of Justice. 


39 
lhe lnternat,onal Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 40-46. 
VIKTOR FRANKL INSTITUTE OF LOGOTHERAPY offers Foundation Courses in Logotherapy via Distance Learning 
Ann V. Graber 
While I was studying logotherapy in pursuit of the Diplomate credential, I often experienced frustration when courses where not available at a time or place I could consider. I hoped that if I ever reached my goal of becoming a Diplomata in Logotherapy, and if I were subsequently approved as an instructor for the Institute, I could· help othtirs who wanted to study logotherapy to do so more conveniently. Long before the opportunity arose, I studied ways of how to implement a Distance learning format, as a structured and guided self-study program, that would not only transmit information, but also be noetically and intellectually challenging for the learner without compromising the Institute's educational endeavors. 
Introductory Course in logotherapy via Distance learning 
In 1994, when an Introductory Course in Logotherapy had insufficient enrollment, there were some very disappointed students who did not want to wait any longer or travel any farther to take this course. Dr. Robert Barnes, President of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy and former Chair of the Institute's Education and Credentialing Committee. was approached about the feasibility of offering the Introductory Course in Logotherapy in a Distance Leaming format. Dr. Barnes was not c1ware of a precedent, nor of reasons why it could not be done. Although Or. Barnes was enthusiastic about such an initiative, he was also concerned about the quality of instruction as well as the demonstration of satisfactory mastery of logotherapy presented in such a course. 
Student needs and Institute objectives were kept in mind when designing our Distance Leaming format that was subsequently approved !Jy the Education and Credentialing Committee and the Institute's Boards of Directors The curriculum of the Introductory Course in Logotherapy, newlv revised by Dr. Barnes and others, was compiled into a Study 
40 
Guide. The Study Guide was arranged in five sections with clearly indicated required readings for each section; four sections ending with a self-test, the fifth culminating in the Final Examination. 
Stud_'L Guide Content, "Introductory (;9~rs~ il'l 1ogotherapy": 
Section 1 : History of Logotherapy 
Section 2: Assumptions and Concepts of Logotherapy 
Section 3: Franklian Psychology. Purpose in Life Test (PIU 
Section 4: Comparison of Psychotherapies. Techniques of 
Logotherapy 
Section 5: "The Future of Logotherapy" by Viktor Frankl 
Final Examination, Course Evaluation 
A Supplementary Reading Section, containing pertinent articles from professional journals, further elaborates on the text presented in the Study Guide. 
To facilitate interaction between Distance Learners and their instructor, a prearranged, half hour telephone tutorial (or other form of communication) is required of Distance Learners for each of the five sections studied. Telephone expenses are borne by the student. During the tutorial discussion, the material can be clarified, pertinent questions answered, and the student's progress assessed. This periodic contact with an instructor, who is an approved faculty member of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy, will assure that the Distance Learner is not laboring in isolation and has someone available for guidance, encouragement, and for individual instruction. The written Final Examination, submitted to the instructor, further demonstrates the Distance Learner's assimilation of the course materials. 
Prerequisites: There are NO prerequisites for the Introductory Course in Logotherapy. It is available to any adult learner interested in the subject matter. 
Requirements: The requirements for this course remain the same for Distance Learning as for the on-site course: Tuition is $150.00 (U.S.). Required reading (in addition to the Study Guide): Pursuit of Meaning by Joe Fabry; Man's Search for Meaning by Viktor Frankl. The Introductory Course in Logotherapy via Distance Learning needs to be completed within six months from the registration date. 
41 
Achievement: Upon successful completion of the course, a "Certificate of Completion" is awarded by the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy. The Introductory Course in Logotherapy via Distance learning is considered to have the educational equivalent of 15 contact hours (equaling the hours for the same course offered on-site). Fifteen Continuing Education credits ( 1 .5 CEU's) are available to individuals for specified professions (see "Continuing Education Credit" toward the end of this article). 
Intermediate A Course: Franklian Psychology and Logotherapy 
The Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy expanded its Distance Learning program very cautiously. After several students had satisfactorily completed the Introductory Course in Logotherapy through the Distance Learning format, there were numerous requests for other courses to be made available in that learning venue. In 1996, the lnstitute's Education and Credentialing Committee approved a pilot project to test the feasibility of Distance Learning tor the Intermediate A Course, a much more application-oriented curriculum. The beautifully written curriculum, Logotherapy Intermediate A: Franklian Psychology and Logotherapy, by Paul Welter, Ed.O., was adapted to the Distance Learning format. As a university counselor educator and instructor of logotherapy, Dr. Welter obviously gave much forethought to crafting this curriculum. His didactic presentations call for immediate application of the newly presented concepts, assuring the best possible assimilation. 
Since the Intermediate A Course is a 30 hour on-site course, the material it encompasses is twice that of the Introductory Course in Logotherapy. This is reflected in the Study Guide. It contains ten units, each with clearly indicated required readings. Units 2 -9 call for a written demonstration of how the material covered was applied to existential situations or to case studies. Unit 10 ends with a comprehensive written examination. 
Study Guide Content, "Intermediate A Course:_: 
Unit 1: Introduction and Overview 
Unit 2: Franklian Philosophy 
Unit 3: Some Learning and Teaching Components of Franklian 
Philosophy and Logotherapy 
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Unit 4: Motivation, Values, and Attitudinal Change 
Unit 5: Maieutic Dialogue as a Teaching Method for Attitudinal 
Change 
Unit 6: The Steps of Logotherapy. Additional Logotherapeutic 
Methods 
Unit 7: Metaphors and Stories for Attitudinal Change 
Unit 8: Structured Experiences (autobiographical) 
Unit 9: Responding to Despair and Violence: Choosing Life 
with Meaning 
Unit 10: Summary, Review, Examination, and Course Evaluation 
Supplementary Reading Section containing selected articles from the INTERNATIONAL FORUM FOR LOGOTHERAPY. Together with an Appendix, they complement the text in the Study Guide. Again, telephone tutorials (or other communication) for each of the ten Units are required with the Distance Learning instructor. 
Preregllisites: Successful completion of the Introductory Course in Logotherapy is mandatory before enrolling in the Intermediate A Course. 
Requirements: Tuition is $300.00 (U.S.). Required reading (in addition to the Study Guide): W11/ to Meaning by Viktor Frankl, Meaning in Suffering by Elizabeth Lukas. This course is to be completed within one year from the registration date. Students' files are closed after one year and marked "incomplete" if the time requirement has not been met. 
Achievement: A "Certificate of Completion" is issued by the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy upon successful completion of the course. This course is considered to have the equivalent of 30 contact hours applicable to Continuing Education. 
Continuing Education Credit 
The Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy is approved by the American Psychological Association as a provider of Continuing Education for psychologists. The National Board for Certified Counselors has granted provider number 5259; the Texas State Board of Social Work Examiners granted provider number CS 1543; the Alabama State Board of Nursing granted provider number ABN 1164 to the Viktor Frankl Institute (accepted by reciprocity by the Texas State Board of Nurse 
43 
Examiners as Type 1). The Texas State Board of Examiners of Marriage and Family Therapists has also approved the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy as a provider of Continuing Education credit. The Texas State Board of Examiners of Professional Counselors honors credits given by APA and NBCC approved Continuing Education providers. The Texas Certification Board of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors accepts Texas LPC approved credits. The Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy maintains responsibility for the program. For further information regarding Continuing Education credit. consult the licensing boards or agencies in your state, province, or country, or call the lnstitute's office at 915-692-9597. 
Progress Report on the lnstitute's Distance learning Program 
Since its inception in 1994, thirty-three students have completed the Introductory Course in Logotherapy via Distance Learning and twenty-two have successfully completed the Intermediate A Course since it was approved in 1996. As of this writing, September 1999, our Distance l.earning program has reached eager students of logotherapy in the following countries: Australia, Bermuda, Brazil, Canada, England, Finland, Mexico, Norway, South Africa, and the United States. Many of our Distance Learners have continued their study of logotherapy through on-site courses offered by the Viktor Frankl Institute. This was evidenced by the large number of Associate (23) and Diplomate (3} credentials awarded at the Twelfth World Congress of Logotherapy in Dallas, June, 1999. Many of those who earned their credentials recently have done a portion of their studies through Distance Learning. 
From the experiential vantage point of having tutored more than fifty Distance Learners during the past five years, I can offer the following observations: Distance Learning is a good learning format for self-starters and for persons who enjoy learning at their own pace. It is work. This format is NOT for those who thrive in a group setting and who need the stimulation of being with others in order to learn. Distance Learning saves travel expenses and time away from work. It can be done at the learner's convenience. It may be the only way for some who are isolated or separated by great geographic distances to participate in the formal study of logotherapy. 
44 
Among the pleasant surprises I encountered as a Distance Learning instructor were: 
. 
The high quality of work completed by students when they had time to reflect on the material studied and discussed; and, who could then write their assignments in a non-pressured way. 

. 
The enthusiastic response to our Distance Learning program by eager students of logotherapy from outside of the United States. 

. 
The relatively low drop-out rate in spite of the considerable amount of work and self-discipline this format requires. 

. 
Best of all, the wonderful people I have come to know through this learning venture, who are attracted to Viktor Frankl's philosophy and logotherapy worldwide! Many have traveled far to participate subsequently in the Institute's on-site courses held intermittently each year, and to enjoy the "spirit of logotherapy" in the company of their peers at the World Congresses on Logotherapy. 


How to Enron in a DistllllCII LHTning Course 
In order to serve our students optimally, E-mail and facsimile communication have been added to telephone and mail as available alternatives. To enroll in either the Introductory Course In Logotherapy or the Intermediate A Course offered by the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy, contact the lnstitute's Distance Learning coordinator: 
Dr. Ann Graber 
512 Pare Forest 
St. Charles, MO, 63303 
USA Telephone: (636)-947-6175 Telefax: (636)-724-4980 E-Mail: LTDistLrng@AOL.com 
Upon request, a registration form and a course description will be sent to you. Tuition and book fees are payable at the time of registration for the respective course. Beyond the general process of Distance Learning described in this article, you and your instructor will schedule mutually convenient times for tutorial communications and for tailoring written logotherapy assignments (for the Intermediate A Course) to be pertinent to each student's professional discipline. In this guided selfstudy venture, your instructor functions primarily as a mentor. 
45 
The Future of Logotherapy and Distance Learning 
Entering the information age with its incredible communication capabilities, the biggest expansion in higher education is taking place through delivery systems that were not feasible only a short decade ago. It is now possible, more than ever before, to make logotherapy widely available to those who are sincerely interested in Viktor Frankl's philosophy and psychotherapy. The Institute will be able to serve many through the Distance Learning format who need to continue their education to meet licensing requirements. Having the approval of the APA, NBCC, and numerous other professional organizations the Viktor Frankl Institute of logotherapy can be a Continuing Education provider through this added outreach. Furthermore, the Institute is in the unique position to offer instructions in logotherapy through its English language curriculum leading to an Associate and a Diplomate credential for qualified applicants. With English being the foremost "foreign" language studied in the world today, the potential of reaching interested learners worldwide is enormous. 
To assure that the "spirit of logotherapy" remains intact, Distance Learning will have to retain a personal element where the individual learner's dignity and uniqueness is valued. To remain engaged in the course work the significance of communication with an instructor cannot be underestimated. Recognizing the importance of being with others who further inspire our "search for meaning," a portion of the curriculum will always need to be taught on-site in a group format. 
There is an eagerness by many to meet others of similar ideological persuasion and to communicate with them. Exposure to and interaction with the larger community of logotherapists can best be facilitated through further course work and attendance of World Congresses. To that end, you may wish to mark your calendar now to attend the next World Congress on Logotherapy, June 20-24, 2001, in Dallas, Texas, USA. 
Ann V. Graber, DMin (Pastoral Counseling), earned her Diplomata in Logotherapy in 1993. A faculty member of the Viktor Frankl Institute, Ann serves as an on-site instructor, supervising Diplomate, and Distance Learning Coordinator. 
46 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 2000, 23, 47-49. 
Guilt: Words to a Man on Death Row 
Viktor Frankl 
In 1966 \!1kto1 Frankl talked lo the inmates of California's larf?eSt swte prison, San Quenrin. He spoke in the chapel, and his talk also was hroadcust to the men ill their cells. During the queslion period Dr. Frankl was asked huw to deal with guilt. In a subsequent question he was asked if" he would address a few words to a man on death row who was scheduled to be executed the followinR week. 
The Meaning of Guilt 
I have talked about my strong conviction that life has meaning under all conditions, until the last moment of our lives. This is also true for conditions which I have termed the "tragic triad": unavoidable suffering, death, and guilt. 
In suffering, what matters is the attitude we take toward situations where the suffering has become unavoidable. In guilt, what matters is the attitude we take toward ourselves. toward the evil we have committed, to detach ourselves from our former self, to identify no longer with our former guilty self, to become a different being, to change for the better. 
This is done by facing what we have done, having the courage to say. "this is wrong," and in any way try hard to grow beyond it. This is meaningful. There arc many lives in which this new attitude toward the self may he the framework and core of the deepest meaning a person can fulfill. 
I wonder if your library has a copy of Tolstoy's short novel, "The Death of Ivan llyich." It tells the story of a man who, at the age of 60, learns that he has only a short time to live. He suddenly starts to reevaluate his life. he sees everything with different eyes, he sees that he has wasted his whole life. fie has not really loved, his life did not have a real content. He is a1;hamccl of himself and sincerely repents and regrets. 
Only a great artist like Tolstoy is capable of recounting such a 
change. Tolstoy shows how this man, in confrontation of his former 
self, for the first time in his life, begins to grow, go beyond hirmelf, to 
fulfill his deepest meaning, experiencing his life including its failures. 
and by acknowledging his failures, he transct'n<ls them, he goes 
beyond them. Literally to his last moment, neither suffering, nor 
imminent death, nor guilt can do aw,ty with the potential of 
discovering the infinite mc;rningfulness of life. 
47 
Facing Guilt on Death Row 
When I was thinking \vhat r could possibly say to the inmates of a prison that might be of some help, I especially thought of the men on <leath row. I knew that one of them was to be executed. I probably have failed but you may have noticed that many of my remarks were addressed to him. 
I spoke to him when I spoke of the fact that it is my deep conviction that, first, what counts is not the length of life. Either life is meaningful, then it is meaningful even when it is shortened. Or life is meaningless, then there is no sense extending it infinilely. Secondly, even when we find ourselves in an inescapable situation of suffering, by the attitude we adopt in the face of an unchangeable fate we can invest meaning in the very last days of our lives. 
All these arc poor word,, but believe me I would never in my life venture to address these words to others had I not been in the ~ame situation, Perhaps my situation was even Jess meaningful because I was reduced below humanness, to a thing. My friends in Ausschwitz told me on the first day, "you, Yiktor, arc most likely to be sent to the gas chamber, because you don't look strong, and the SS needs only strong men, so the Nazis can squeeze rhe remaining strength out of a body for their labor needs." 
I didn't look well, I had just said good-bye to my wife who died at the age of 25 in another concentration camp, and I do not believe either that her life had been meaningless. We were wife and husband, how rich did wc make our lives for each other during the short time of our being together! Can anything or anybody do away with this'? It c:rnnot be undone by the fact that she died. Could she have made me richer in meaning had she lived up lo 90 years of age? How I wished this could have happened but this was not our fate. But what we did experience was perfect, just heavenly. There is nothing beyond it. If ,omcthing is 100 percent. it cannot be mnre. One would wish ii would last longer, but one must he grateful for the good things that happened in the past, they are preserved there forever. 
Now I said before -and this seems frivolous to say -that in a way my situation was perhaps less meaningful than for the man in the death cell, because he has a load of guilt on his ~houldcrs. How he handles that guilt can be infinitely meaningful. He now can decide what altitudes he takes toward his own guilt during these last days. how to approach his guilt. He faces a fate nobody even wishes to speak about, that's why I was not explicit during my talk. But believe me. I didn·t expect to survin, I had written my book manuscript. 1 had lost it in Auschwitz. I ha<l no children, the Gestapo had insisted that the pregnancy or my wife be interrupted. so I was convinced that neither 
48 
my bodily child nor my spiritual child w,.>uld survive me, alld even less rhar r would survive. 
At some moments I told myself: if life's meaning merely consists in surviving a situation, thi., is no true meaning. Either there is a meaning independent of whether we survive or not, then I would like to survive, hut if not, at least there is a meaning. Or there is no meaning, there is nothing, then I would not even want to survive in a meaningless life. So I struggled with this problem until I had this thought: what a life would it be if its meaning depended on whether a manuscript is published or one survives for a few more years. Ami decided that if this manuscript never would he published. okay. But J decided to live according to what I put on paper. l had wished to publish my conviction th:11 the ~rnnd we rnke is the ulrimate somce of rne;u1111g. 
This is even more true when we face a situation of inescapable suffering. 1 was in such a situation and decided to do what I had written. 
It was granted to me to survive, not due to any merits but as a fact. More than ever I am convinced that what matters is not the length of our lives, but what we arc, what we become in the hour of ultimate despair. We may do nnthing, we cannot do anything. but we may well hecome something, hecome someone. There are people who become their authentic self in the face or death. They have fulfilled themselves and fulfilled the meanings of their lives at the moment at which no one would believe it, and all the observ1::rs are ashamed. 
49