Chapter 13. Fish Stock Propagation
Contributors: Kai Lorenzen, Stephen Smith, Michael Banks, Chang Ik Zhang Zacharie Sohou, V. N. Sanjeevan, Andrew Rosenberg (Lead Member)
1. Definition
Fish stock propagation, more commonly known as fisheries enhancement, is a set o management approaches involving the use of aquaculture technologies to enhance o restore fisheries in natural ecosystems (Lorenzen, 2008). “Aquaculture technologies include culture under controlled conditions and subsequent release of aquati organisms, provision of artificial habitat, feeding, fertilization, and predator control ”Fisheries” refers to the harvesting of aquatic organisms as a common pool resource and "natural ecosystems” are ecosystems not primarily controlled by humans, whethe truly natural or modified by human activity. This places enhancements in a intermediate position between capture fisheries and aquaculture in terms of technica and management control (Anderson, 2002).
The present chapter focuses primarily on enhancements involving releases of culture organisms, the most common form of enhancements often described by terms such a ‘propagation’, ‘stock enhancement’, ‘sea ranching’ or  ‘aquaculture-base enhancement’.
2. Enhancements in marine resource management
Enhancements are developed when fisheries management stakeholders or agencie take a proactive, interventionist approach towards achieving management objectives b employing aquaculture technologies instead of relying solely on the protection o natural resources and processes. Enhancement approaches may be used effectively o ineffectively in resource management. To understand how enhancement initiatives ca give rise to such different outcomes, it is important to consider not only the technica intervention but the management context in which the initiative has arisen, includin ecological and socioeconomic factors as well as the governance arrangement (Lorenzen, 2008).
2.1 Effective enhancements
Enhancement approaches may be employed towards different ends commonly referre to as sea ranching, stock enhancement and restocking (Bell et al. 2008). Sea ranchin entails releasing cultured organisms to maintain stocks that do not recruit naturally in
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the focal ecosystem. This may involve stocks that once recruited naturally but no longe do so due to loss of critical habitat, or it may involve creation of fisheries for desire “new” species for which the focal system provides a habitat suitable for adult stages bu not for spawning or for juveniles. Stock enhancement is the practice of releasin cultured organisms into natural stocks of the same species on a regular basis, with th aim of increasing abundance or harvest beyond the level supported by natura recruitment. Restocking entails temporary releases of cultured organisms into wil stocks that have been depleted by overfishing or extreme environmental events, wit the aim of accelerating recovery or enabling recovery of stocks “trapped” in a deplete or declining state. The use of enhancement approaches represents a spectrum fro strongly production/catch-oriented applications to strongly conservation/restoration oriented ones, and entails quite different management practices (Section 13.5; Table 2).
The technical intervention of enhancements interacts synergistically with governanc arrangements. Stakeholders or management agencies invest in enhancements whe they have incentives to do so, either because they stand to gain material benefits (e.g increase in harvests) or because engaging in enhancement activities increases th perceived legitimacy of management arrangements or agencies (for example stakeholders may be more supportive of a management agency that engages in fisherie enhancement activities than of one that only regulates fishing). Enhancements require  reasonable level of governance control to emerge at all (they are unlikely to emerg under unregulated open access), and they tend to further strengthen governanc control when implemented (Anderson, 2002; Drummond, 2004; Lorenzen, 2008). B helping to strengthen and transform governance arrangements, enhancement initiative can sometimes generate fisheries management benefits beyond those directl attributable to the technical intervention.
Economic and social benefits of enhancements may arise from biological outcomes suc as increased catches or maintenance of fisheries and other ecosystem services in highl modified environments. Successful enhancements often have further, more derive benefits. Pinkerton (1994), for example, describes economic benefits of Alaska salmo enhancements that result from greater consistency and quality of harvests, as well a greater volume. Enhancements can make economic and social benefits fro aquaculture technologies available to stakeholders, such as traditional fishers who ma lack the assets, skills or interest to engage in conventional aquaculture.
In addition to direct management benefits, enhancements provide opportunities fo advancing basic knowledge of ecology, evolution and exploitation dynamics of marin resources (Lorenzen 2014).
2.2 Ineffective enhancements
Often, enhancements are initiated under conditions that are fundamentally unsuitabl for their effective use, or designed inappropriately. Such ineffective enhancements ca nonetheless persist for a considerable time and sometimes do considerable ecological
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and economic damage. Incentives for stakeholders or management agencies to engag in enhancement activities can exist even in the absence of evidence of their technica effectiveness, and once investments have been made and stakeholders have becom vested, it becomes increasingly difficult to discontinue such initiatives. These issue point to the need for constructive science and management engagement with th development of new, and the reform of existing, enhancements (Section 13.4).
2.3 Examples of enhancement efforts
The following examples illustrate the potential for well-managed enhancements t contribute to fisheries management goals and the interactions between the technica and governance dimensions of such initiatives.
Very large-scale enhancement efforts are undertaken in the Pacific Northwest of th United States of America (Naish et al., 2007). These efforts include enhancements t support commercial and recreational fisheries (Knapp et al., 2007), enhancement an restocking initiatives to meet tribal treaty obligations (Smith, 2014), and restoratio efforts for endangered populations (Kline and Flagg, 2014). Pacific Northwester habitats once hosted a tremendous biomass of salmon that comprised a significan component of food and nutrient webs linking ocean and freshwater biomes. Fo example, it is estimated that the Columbia River once hosted returns of 10-16 millio wild salmon (Johnson et al., 1997). Historical overharvest, irrigation withdrawals hydropower dams and other factors have reduced returns. Of the current returns o around 1 million, hatchery fish make up around 80 per cent (95 per cent of the coho 70 to 80 per cent of the spring and summer chinook, 50 per cent of the fall chinook, an 70 per cent of the steelhead) (NMFS, 2000)). In Oregon, Nicholas and Hankin (1989 estimated that 21 of 36 coastal stocks of spring and fall chinook salmon were almos entirely comprised of wild fish. In the remaining stocks, the percentage of hatchery fis in the runs ranged from 10 to 75 per cent. Oregon’s hatchery programme annuall releases 74 million salmonids: 60.4 million salmon, 6.4 million steelhead and 7.6 millio trout (ODFW, 1998). Such hatchery programmes can maintain fisheries when essentia habitats are degraded or inaccessible and help conserve or restore endangere populations, but they also pose ecological and genetic risks to wild populations. A majo scientific review of Columbia River hatchery programmes successfully used populatio modelling to identify hatchery operation and harvest policies that simultaneousl improve the conservation status of wild populations and provide moderate increases i harvest (Paquet et al., 2011). In Alaska, large-scale salmon enhancements are run b community-based Aquaculture Associations. Since the mid-1970s, Aquacultur Associations produce and release juvenile salmon and, in return, gain exclusive rights t a share of the harvest in the form of “cost-recovery fish”. The associations have sinc become engaged in many aspects of salmon fisheries management, effectively creatin a co-management system with the State of Alaska.
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The world’s largest marine invertebrate fisheries enhancement is the scallo enhancement operation run by fishing cooperatives in Hokkaido, Japan (Uki, 2006) Development of an effective spat collecting, on-growing and releasing technology in th mid-1960s created the opportunity to seed scallop grounds with high densities o juveniles. Fishing cooperatives adopted rotational seeding and harvesting of fishin grounds, combined with predator control, and increased regional production from a average of 40,000 tons to around 300,000 tons per year. The success of thi enhancement has been attributed to a combination of factors including suitable habitat the species’ biology (young optimal harvest age, low post-release dispersal), integratio of spat releasing with predator control and rotational harvesting, and devolution o management to a fishing cooperative with exclusive rights over the resource (Uki, 2006).
In New Zealand, the Japanese scallop enhancement technology was adapted to reviv the Southern Scallop Fishery in what became a restocking initiative combined with far reaching changes in governance. Adoption of aquaculture technology allowed th fishery to opt out of the fisheries management framework of the time and transition t an individual quota-based regime and rotational seeding and harvesting. Culture juveniles contributed strongly to initial recovery but natural recruitment becam dominant as the fishery was rebuilt (Drummond, 2004). More recently, low spa survival has led to a sharp reduction in catches and to the closure of some of the mai grounds (Williams et al. 2014). This decline in survival may be related due to changes i productivity due to increasing sedimentation in the area.
In the Republic of Korea, the National Fisheries Research and Development Institut (NFRDI) developed seed production technology to release healthy juveniles of rockfis and sea bream. Since 1998, seed production and fish release have successfully enhance fishery resources and increased the income of fishermen. In the early stages of see production, national facilities took the lead to develop techniques, but currently privat companies produce the seed. Between 1986 and 2012, 46 marine species includin abalone, various flatfish, sea bream and sea slugs were targets for production and 1,41 million juveniles of fish and shellfish species were stocked in the sea in the Republic o Korea. In the Republic of Korea, habitat restoration tools are also widely applie together with fish release in situations where habitat has been identified as the primar factor limiting production. These tools refer to the increase in available habitat and/o access to key habitat for at least some stages of the life history of a target species Although artificial habitats are currently popular in some areas and widely used scientific evaluation of the effectiveness of habitat restoration is incomplete. In th Republic of Korea, construction of artificial reefs is aimed at improving productivity o devastated fishing grounds by providing fish resources with habitats, and spawning an nursery grounds. Since 1971, about 3,000 fishing grounds have been augmented, wit artificial reefs covering a total area of 216 kha as of 2012. Fifty-five per cent of the are with artificial reefs is utilized as fishing grounds and the other 45 per cent is preserve as spawning and nursery grounds of fish resources. Enhanced fisheries are manage cooperatively with fishing communities and marine enhancement in the Republic of
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Korea is becoming integrated into a comprehensive ecosystem-based fisherie management approach (Zhang et al., 2009).
In India, efforts with regard to stock enhancement of Penaeid prawns along the Keral coast have not met with the desired success. This probably reflects heavy mortality o hatchery grown post larvae on their release to the sea, as they are neither acclimatize to the stress conditions of the sea nor have they acquired adequate predator avoidanc skills. An additional effort in India is intended to revive depleted marine snail specie along the coast of Tamil Nadu; Xancus pyrum (sacred chank), Babylonia spirata (whelk) Hemifusus pugilinus (spindle shells), Chicoreus ramosus (murex) and C. virgineus. Wil stocks of all of these species are heavily exploited for their meat (India exports 700 t 900 tons of frozen whelk meat every year), shells (used as a trumpet in temples and fo the manufacture of ornaments) and opercula (which have medicinal value and ar exported to Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan). About 10,000 juveniles and 0. million larvae of the above species were sea-ranched in the Gulf of Mannar in Octobe 2010. It is premature to comment on the success of this experiment, but regular survey of the-grow out site show only a few dead organisms.
2.4 Global extent of enhancements
Marine fisheries enhancement is a widespread activity. Between 1984 and 1997, 6 countries reported stocking over 30 billion individuals of over 180 species in marin environments (Born et al., 2004). The global contribution of enhancements to marin fish production is difficult to quantify exactly, but is unlikely to exceed one to tw million tons per year (around 1-2 per cent of global marine fisheries and aquacultur production) (Lorenzen 2014). This modest contribution to global production should no distract from the fact that considerable efforts and monetary investments are expende on enhancement initiatives, and that enhancements contribute substantially to severa high-value fisheries as well as to restoration efforts for various species of conservatio concern.
2.5 Developing or reforming enhancements
According to the reviewed assessments, enhancements are often initiated or promote by fisheries stakeholders, but require scientific and management engagement in orde to assess the potential of such initiatives, to develop effective enhancement system where the potential exists, and to discontinue initiatives that are likely to be ineffectiv or harmful. Constructive science and management engagement with enhancement may be guided by the widely used and recently updated “responsible approach (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Lorenzen et al., 2010). The updated responsible approac consists of 15 recommended actions, divided into three stages of development o reform (Table 1). A staged approach ensures that the basic potential of enhancements i assessed (Stage I) prior to investment in technology development and pilot studie (Stage II), which in turn precede operational-scale implementation(Stage III). Qualitative
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and quantitative modelling are crucial in Stage |, and experimental (adaptive management is central to assessing enhancement capacity and ecological impacts i later stages. This requires monitoring of temporal and spatial controls where fisherie are not enhanced and possibly not exploited (Caddy and Defeo 2003; Leleu et al., 2012 Costello, 2014). The most systematic and rigorous application of many idea summarized in the responsible approach can be found in the Hatchery Reform proces being applied to Pacific salmon hatchery programmes (Mobrand et al., 2005; Paquet e al., 2011).
3. Management considerations
3.1 The fisheries system and management context
Enhancements enter into existing fisheries systems and it is crucial to gain a broad based understanding of the system prior to defining management objectives an assessing possible courses of action. At a minimum the following should be considered the biology and status of the target fish stock (biological resource), the supportin habitat and ecosystem, the aquaculture operation, stakeholder characteristics (o fishers, aquaculture producers and resource managers), markets for inputs and outputs governance arrangements, and the linkages between these components. A framewor for enhancement-fisheries system analysis is outlined in Lorenzen (2008).
3.2 Stakeholder involvement
Stakeholder involvement is central to effective scientific and management engagemen with enhancement initiatives because stakeholders tend to have a large influence on th initiation and development of such _ initiatives. Only when stakeholders ar constructively involved in the assessment and decision-making process is th enhancement initiative likely to develop towards a beneficial conclusion (which may b an effective enhancement or the discontinuation of an ineffective or damagin initiative). Stakeholder involvement also makes the often considerable knowledge an experience of stakeholders accessible to the scientific and management process.
3.3 Identifying appropriate biological and technical system designs
Different enhancement strategies, such as sea ranching, stock enhancement an restocking, involve quite different management approaches and considerations (Utte and Epifanio, 2002; Naish et al., 2007 and Lorenzen et al., 2010; Lorenzen et al., 2012) Table (2) outlines the different practices involved with regards to aquaculture, stock an genetic management (based on Lorenzen et al., 2012).
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3.4 Stock dynamics and management
Quantitative assessment of stock dynamics and the potential of enhancement as well a alternative management options, such as harvest restrictions to contribute to stoc management objectives, is important at all stages of enhancement initiatives (Cadd and Defeo, 2003; Walters and Martell, 2004; Lorenzen, 2005). Different consideration apply to ranching, stock enhancement and restocking systems (Table 2). In ranchin systems where maintaining natural recruitment is not a management goal, stoc structure could be manipulated to maximize biomass production in food fisheries or t maximize abundance of ‘catchable’ size fish in put-and-take recreational fisheries. I stock enhancements where cultured fish are released into wild populations, it would b desirable to manage stocking and harvesting activities so as to limit negative impacts o naturally recruiting stock components which may arise from compensatory ecologica responses to stocking or from overfishing of the natural spawning stock (Hilborn an Eggers 2000; Lorenzen, 2005). Such effects may reduce or eliminate net benefits fro enhancement and pose conservation threats to wild stocks. Impacts of enhancement on wild stocks could be reduced by separating the cultured and wild populatio components as far as technically possible at the point of stocking, and throug differential harvesting and possibly induced sterility of cultured fish (Lorenzen, 2005 Naish et al., 2007; Mobrand et al., 2005). According to these authors, restocking is likel to be advantageous over natural recovery only for populations that have been deplete to a very low fraction of their carrying capacity and requires concomitant reductions i fishing effort (Lorenzen 2005). Fisheries models and assessment tools are now availabl to conduct such quantitative assessment at all stages in the development or reform o enhancements (Lorenzen, 2005; Michael et al. 2009).
3.5 Aquaculture production for enhancements
Rearing of marine organisms in culture facilities subjects them to domesticatio processes that have strong and almost always negative impacts on their capacity t survive, grow, and reproduce in the wild (Le Vay et al., 2007; Lorenzen et al., 2012).  variety of measures, such as rearing in near-natural environments, environmenta enrichment, life-skills training and soft release strategies, can counteract suc domestication effects, but none are likely to be wholly effective (Olla et al., 1998; Brow and Day, 2002). Aquaculture production for release into natural ecosystems may benefi from culture practices that differ from those normally employed in facilities producin organisms for on-growing in aquaculture facilities and may also require different geneti management.
3.6 Genetic management
Genetic management is important for maximizing post-release fitness and enhancemen effectiveness, and for minimizing risks to the genetic integrity of wild stocks. Three mai sets of issues need to be considered: (1) potential disruption of neutral and adaptive
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spatial population structure due to translocation; (2) impacts of hatchery spawning an rearing on the genetic diversity of stocked fish and the enhanced, mixed stock; (3 impacts of hatchery rearing on the fitness of released fish and their naturally recruitin offspring; and (4) hybridization between stocked and wild species (Utter and Epifanio 2002; Tringali et al., 2007; Araki et al., 2008). Appropriate sourcing and management o brood stock, possibly combined with rearing practices that minimize domesticatio selection are key genetic management actions and it may also be necessary to limit th contribution of cultured fish to the naturally spawning population (Miller an Kapuscinski, 2003; Tringali et al., 2007; Baskett and Waples, 2013). Different geneti management approaches may apply in sea ranching systems or “separated” stoc enhancement programmes where direct genetic interactions between stocked and wil fish are absent and where, for example, selective breeding may be used to improve th post-release performance of hatchery fish (Table 2; Jonasson et al., 1997).
3.7 Pathogen interactions
Impacts on wild stocks from pathogen and parasite interactions that may cause diseas may occur via three mechanisms: (1) introduction of alien pathogens, (2) transfer o pathogens that have evolved increased virulence in culture, (3) changes in hos population density, age/size structure, or immune status that affect the dynamics o established pathogens. It is therefore important to implement an epidemiological, risk based approach to managing disease interactions that accounts for ecological an evolutionary dynamics of transmission and host population impacts (Bartley et al. 2006).
3.8 Governance
Enhancements require governance systems that are effective at restricting exploitatio and ensuring that those who invest in the resource through stocking can reap at least  sufficient share of the benefits. Depending on the wider governance framework, suc arrangements can be based on individual or communal use rights (e.g., individual quota or territorial use rights) or on government regulation (and taxation to recoup costs).  second important requirement of governance systems for enhanced fisheries i coordination of the fisheries and aquaculture components in terms of stock, genetic an health management.
3.9 Impacts on marine ecosystems
Potential impacts of enhancements on marine ecosystems differ between types o enhancement system. Impacts on non-target species are of the most concern i ranching systems where organisms that do not recruit naturally in the receivin ecosystem may be released in high numbers and harvested intensively. Specie introduced outside their native range pose particular risks (many have minimal impacts,
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but a small proportion become invasive and inflict massive ecological and economi damage). In stock enhancement systems, ecological and genetic impacts on the wil stock component tend to be of the most concern. Restocking initiatives will hav broadly positive impacts on marine ecosystems as long as good stock and geneti management approaches are in place. Although potential impacts of marin enhancement activities are well understood, empirical evidence for such impacts i limited except for the large-scale salmon enhancements in the Pacific Northwest an the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America (Naish et al., 2007; Crawford, 2001). Thi paucity of information likely reflects the limited scale of marine enhancements to date.
3.10 Interactions with other sectors
Aquaculture technologies enable enhancements in the first place and availability o cultured organisms from the commercial aquaculture sector can greatly reduce th barriers for fisheries stakeholders to engage in enhancements. Interactions wit fisheries may occur in terms of access conflicts or impacts on wild target or non-targe species and such interactions may increase as marine enhancements become mor common. Market interactions between products from enhancements and fro aquaculture and capture fisheries can be significant where enhancements account fo substantial market share as in the case of salmon (Knapp et al., 2007). However, th market share of enhancements is small for most species and products, so tha enhancements are more often impacted through the market by developments in th aquaculture and capture fisheries sectors than vice versa.
3.11. Technical and economic performance
As discussed previously, the technical and economic performance of marin enhancements is highly variable. Reviews by Hilborn (1998) and Arnason (2001 concluded that only a small proportion of documented enhancements are demonstrabl economically successful, but for many information is insufficient to assess economi viability, and some are demonstrably unsuccessful. Further assessments an comparative analyses are urgently required.
4. International agreements and guidelines
There are currently no international agreements pertaining directly to fisherie enhancements. Some FAO instruments, including the FAO Technical Guidelines fo Responsible Fisheries, deal with issues associated with fisheries enhancements (e.g. FAO, 2008). In addition, eco-labelling of products from enhanced fisheries has bee considered at the Expert Consultation on the Development of Guidelines for th Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Inland Capture Fisheries held in 201 (FAO, 2010). The FAO Committee on Fisheries adopted these Guidelines in 2011 (FAO,
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2011). The ICES Code of Practice on the Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organism (ICES, 2005) is widely accepted and applies to introductions carried out for the purpos of fisheries enhancements.
5. Future trends
Enhancements are likely to become more widespread as burgeoning demand fo seafood and increasingly severe human impacts on the coastal oceans create greate demand for proactive management, aquaculture technologies become available for a ever-increasing number of marine species, and governance arrangements for man fisheries move towards rights-based systems that provide strong incentives fo investment in resources (Lorenzen et al., 2013). Greater scientific and managemen attention to enhancements is required to aid the development of potentially effectiv initiatives and to avoid widespread investment in ineffective or damagin enhancements (Lorenzen, 2014).
6. State of scientific knowledge, application and recommendations
Rapid progress has been made in the scientific understanding of marine enhancement over the past 20 years (Leber, 2013). Unfortunately, the scientific knowledge and tool now available to aid the development or reform of enhancements are not widel applied (Lorenzen 2014). Reasons may include that mainstream fisheries an aquaculture scientists are often unaware of developments in this interdisciplinary are or not adequately trained to conduct the necessary assessments. Research provider and management agencies need to build capacity for engaging with enhancemen initiatives using current science. Improved reporting on enhancement initiatives an outcomes at national and international level is also important. Currently, harvests fro enhanced fisheries tend to be lumped into either capture fisheries or aquacultur production figures in national and international statistics (Born et al., 2004; Klinger e al., 2012).
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Table 1. Elements of the updated “responsible approach” to fisheries enhancement (Lorenzen et al. 2010).
Stage I: Initial appraisal and goal settin (1) Understand the role of enhancement within the fishery system
(2) Engage stakeholders and develop a rigorous and accountable decision-makin process
(3) Quantitatively assess contributions of enhancement to fisheries management goal (4) Prioritize and select target species and stocks for enhancement
(5) Assess economic and social benefits and costs of enhancement
Stage Il: Research and technology development including pilot studies
(6) Define enhancement system designs suitable for the fishery and managemen objectives
(7) Design appropriate aquaculture systems
(8) Use genetic resource management to avoid deleterious genetic effect (9) Use disease and health management
(10) Ensure that released hatchery fish can be identified
(11) Use an empirical process for defining optimal release strategies
Stage Ill: Operational implementation and adaptive managemen (12) Devise effective governance arrangements
(13) Define a stock management plan with clear goals, measures of success and decisio rules
(14) Assess and manage ecological impacts
(15) Use adaptive management
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Table 2. Design criteria for biological-technical components of marine enhancement fisheries system serving different objectives (adapted from Lorenzen et al., 2012).
Sea ranching
Stock enhancement
Re-stocking
Aim o enhancement
Wil populatio status
Aquacultur management
Geneti management
Populatio management
Increase fisherie catch
Absent o insignificant
Production oriented
Partia domestication
Conditioning fo release
Possibly induce sterility
Maintain geneti diversity
Selection for hig return
Stocking an harvesting t create desire populatio structure
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Increase fisheries catc while conserving o increasing naturall recruiting stock
Numerically large
Possibly depleted relativ to carrying capacity
Integrated programmes as for re-stockin Separated programmes:
as for sea ranching
Integrated programmes as for re-stockin Separated programmes as for sea ranching;
also selection to promot separation
Integrated programmes:
restricted stocking an harvesting to increas catch while conservin naturally recruiting stock
Separated programmes as for sea ranching;
also measures to promot separation
Rebuild depleted wil stock to highe abundance
Numerically large o small
Depleted relative t carrying capacit Conservation-oriented
Minimize domestication
Conditioning for release
Preserve all wil population geneti characteristics
High stocking densit over short period temporarily restricte harvesting o moratorium
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