Part I Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats
One of the main services provided by the oceans is food for human consumption resulting in benefits for human health and nutrition, economic returns, an employment. These benefits can be enjoyed sustainably, but only if the intensity an nature of harvesting and culture are appropriately planned and managed, and access t the potential benefits is made available.
Part IV of the WOA reviews these issues under the headings of the Ocean as a source o food (Chapter 10), Capture fisheries (Chapter 11), Aquaculture (12), Fish stoc propagation (13), Specialized marine food sources (14), and Social and economic aspect of fisheries (15). Chapter 10 summarizes the contributions of seafood’ to huma nutrition and alleviation of hunger, discussing both patterns at regional and sub-regiona scales and their trends over time. Chapter 11 looks in more detail at capture fisheries presenting trends over time both globally and regionally in overall harvest levels an fishing gear used. It also looks at major species harvested at these scales, and th sustainability of use of the harvested species. It also looks at the ecosystem effects o fishing, considering the nature, levels, and, where information is available, trends, i effects on bycatch species, marine food webs, and habitats. Chapter 12 reviews th same types of information for aquaculture, considering overall production an production of key species at global and regional scales, and, with regard to ecosyste effects, considers issues such as introduction of alien species, local degradation an conversion of habitats, use of antibodies, genetic manipulations, and other simila factors in this form of production. Chapters 13 and 14 address focused issues o artificial propagation of fish and use of marine plants and species other than fish an invertebrates as food. Chapter 15 then assesses the magnitude of economic and socia benefits from fisheries and aquaculture. The assessment again looks at trends bot globally and regionally, and in addition at differences in the nature, scales, an distribution of social and economic benefits of large-scale and small-scale fisheries. Th role of trade, hunger, poverty, worker safety and related issues are all addressed, wit particular attention to the interactions of trade, hunger, and poverty alleviation in ho benefits may be taken and distributed.
The synthesis in Chapter 16 brings these aspects of the ocean as a source of foo together. It integrates the perspectives of the sustainability of harvested and culture stocks and the impacts on marine ecosystems from fishing and aquaculture, with th perspectives of economic benefits and social / livelihoods benefits.
* Both the terms “seafood” and “fish” are used to include a variety of marine sources of food, dependin on the source being consulted. In Part IV both terms are used generically to refer to all types of fis (including both bony and cartilaginous species) and invertebrates consumed as food. When information i presented on a subset of these taxa, the text is explicit about the intended group of species.
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Chapter 10. The Oceans as a Source of Food
Contributors: Beatrice Ferreira (Co-Lead member), Jake Rice (Lead member) Andy Rosenberg (Co-Lead member)
1. Introduction
One of the main services provided by the oceans to human societies is the provisionin service of food from capture fisheries and culturing operations. This includes fish invertebrates, plants, and for some cultures, marine mammals and seabirds for direc consumption or as feed for aquaculture or agriculture. These ocean-based sources o food have large-scale benefits for human health and nutrition, economic returns, an employment.
A major challenge around the globe is to obtain these benefits without compromisin the ability of the ocean to continue to provide such benefits for future generations, tha is, to manage human use of the ocean for sustainability. In effect, this means tha capture fisheries and aquaculture facilities must ensure that the supporting stocks ar not overharvested and the ecosystem impacts of the harvesting or aquaculture facilitie do not undermine the capacity of a given ocean area to continue to provide food an other benefits to society (see Chapter 3). Further, the social and economic goals of th fisheries and aquaculture should fully consider sustainable use in order to safeguar future benefits.
2. Dimensionality of the oceans as a source of food
Capture fisheries and aquaculture operate at many geographical scales, and vary in ho they use marine resources for food production. Here, “small-scale” refers to operation that are generally low capital investment but high labour activities, relatively lo production, and often family or community-based with a part of the catch bein consumed by the producers (Béné et al., 2007; Garcia et al., 2008). Large-scal operations require significantly more capital equipment and expenditure, are mor highly mechanized and their businesses are more vertically integrated, with generall global market access rather than focused on local consumption. These descriptions ar at the ends of a spectrum continuum of scales with enormous variation in between.
The geography of harvesting and food production from the sea is also important Williams (1996) documents that until the mid-1980s, developed countries dominate both harvesting and aquaculture, but thereafter developing countries became
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dominant, first in capture fisheries and later in mariculture. A general division of large scale fisheries and mariculture in the developed world and small-scale operations in th developing world was never absolute. Small-scale operations were present in all areas but highly mobile large-scale fisheries are increasingly operating around the glob (Beddington et al., 2007; World Bank/FAO, 2012), and large aquaculture facilities fo export products are increasing in the developing world (Beveridge et al., 2010; Hall e al., 2011).
3. Trends in capture fisheries and aquaculture
According to FAO statistics reported by member States, production of fish from captur fisheries and aquaculture for human consumption and industrial purposes has grown a an annual rate of 3.4 per cent for the past half century from about 20 to above 162 mm by 2013 (FAO, 2014a; FAO, 2015). Over the last two decades though, almost all of thi growth has come from increases in aquaculture production. Chapters 11 and 12 of thi Assessment describe the time course of capture fisheries and aquaculture developmen over the last several decades.
Globally aquaculture production has increased at approximately 8.6 per cent per yea since 1980, to reach an estimated 67 mmt in 2012, although the rate of growth ha slowed slightly in recent years. Of that total, however, more than 60 per cent is fro freshwater aquaculture. In addition nearly 24 million tons of aquatic plants (mostl seaweeds) were cultured on 2012. Total marine aquaculture production is growin slightly faster than freshwater aquaculture in all regions, but, like freshwate aquaculture, over 80 per cent of production is concentrated in a few countries particularly China, as well as some other east and south Asian countries (FAO, 2014a).
Some of the fish taken in capture fisheries are used as feed in aquaculture, fishmeal, fis oil and other non-human consumption uses. Thus the total harvest from captur fisheries and production from mariculture is not all available for human consumption This use of fish is debated with regard to the best use of production from captur fisheries (Naylor et al., 2009; Pikitch et al., 2012). The total amount of fish used fo purposes other than direct consumption has been declining slowly since the early 2000 from about 30 per cent to just over 20 per cent of total capture fishery harvest in 201 (FAO 2014a). Consequently, fish for human consumption has been increasing slightl faster than the human population, increasing the importance of fish in meeting foo security needs (HLPE, 2014).
Finally, fishing is also undertaken for recreational, cultural and spiritual reasons. Eve though fish taken for these purposes may be consumed, they are addressed in chapter 8 and 27, and will not be considered further here.
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4. Value of marine fisheries and mariculture
Fish harvested or cultured from the sea provide three classes of benefits to humanity food and nutrition, commerce and trade, and employment and livelihoods (see Chapte 15 for additional detail). All three classes of benefits are significant for the world.
4.1 Food and nutrition
According to FAO (2014a) estimates, fish and marine invertebrates provide 17 per cen of animal protein to the world population, and provide more than 20 per cent of th animal protein to over 3 million people, predominantly in parts of the world wher hunger is most widespread. Asia accounts for 2/3 of the total consumption of fish However, when population is taken into account, Oceania has the highest per capit consumption (approximately 25 kg per year), with North America, Europe, Sout America and Asia all consuming over 20 kg per capita, and Africa, Latin America and th Caribbean are around 10 kg per capita. Per capita consumption does not capture th full importance of the marine food sources to food security, however. Many of the 2 countries where these sources constitute more than a third of animal protein consume are in Africa and Asia. Of these, the United Nations has identified 18 as low-income food deficient economies (Karawazuka Béné, 2011, FAO, 2014b). Thus fish an invertebrates, usually from the ocean, are most important where food is needed most.
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Table 1. Total and per capita food fish supply by continent and economic grouping in 2011*
Total food supply Per capita food suppl (million tonnes live weight
equivalent) (kg/year World 132.2 18. World (excluding China) 86.3 15. Africa 11.0 10. North America 7.6 21. Latin America and the Caribbean 5.9 9. Asia 90.3 21. Europe 16.4 22. Oceania 0.9 25. Industrialized countries 26.4 27. Other developed countries 5.6 13. Least-developed countries 10.3 12. Other developing countries 89.9 18. LIFDCs* 21.2 8.6
* Preliminary dat * Low-income food-deficit countries.
Source: FAO Information and Statistics Branch, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2015.
Not only are marine food sources important for overall food security, fish are rich i essential micronutrients, particularly when compared to micronutrients available whe meeting human protein needs from consumption of grains (WHO 1985). Compared t protein from livestock and poultry, fish protein is much richer in poly-unsaturated fatt acids and several vitamins and minerals (Roos et al., 2007, Bonhan et al., 2007) Correspondingly, direct health benefits relative to reducing risk of obesity, hear disease, and high blood pressure have been linked to diets rich in fish (Allison et al. 2013).
It should be noted, however, that there are also potential health risks from consumptio of seafood, particularly as fish at higher trophic levels may concentrate environmenta contaminants, and there are occasional outbreaks of toxins in shellfish. Substantia effort is invested in monitoring for these risks, and avoiding the conditions wher probability of toxin outbreaks may increase. More broadly, food safety is a ke worldwide challenge facing all food production and delivery sectors including all parts o the seafood industry from capture or culture to retail marketing. This challenge of
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course faces subsistence fisheries as well. In the food chain for fishery products, risk o problems needs to be assessed, managed and communicated to ensure problems ca be addressed. The goal of most food safety systems is to avoid risk and preven problems at the source. The risks come from contamination from toxins or pathogen and the severity of the risk also depends on individual health, consumption levels an susceptibility. There are international guidelines to address these risks but substantia resources are required in order to continue to build the capacity to implement an monitor safety protocols from the water to the consumer.
Because of the several limiting factors affecting wild fish catch today (see Chapter 11), i is forecasted that aquaculture production will supply all of the increase in fis consumption in the immediate future. Production is projected to rise to 100 million ton by 2030 (Hall et al., 2011) and to 140 million tons by 2050, if growth continues at th same rate.
Estimates by the World Resources Institute (Waite et al., 2014), assuming (a) the sam mix of fish species, (b) that all aquaculture will go to human consumption and (c) tha there will be a 10 per cent decrease in wild fish capture for food, indicate that th growth in aquaculture production cited above would boost fish protein supply to 20. million tons, or 8.7 million tons above 2006 levels. This increase would meet 17 per cen of the increase in global animal protein consumption required by 9.6 billion people fo 2050 (Waite et al. 2014).
4.2 Commerce and trade
The total value of world fish production from capture fisheries and marine an freshwater aquaculture was estimated to be 252 billion USD in 2012, with the “first sale” value of fish from capture fisheries at approximately 45 per cent of that value (FA 2014a). Consistent accounting for “value” has been elusive, providing alternative valu estimates that are as much as 15-20 per cent greater (e.g., Dyck and Sumalia, 2010) The different possible accounting schemes make it correspondingly difficult to estimat the growth rate of economic value of fisheries, but all approaches project the value t have increased consistently for decades and likely to continue to increase. This increas in economic value is attributable to several factors, including increased productio (primarily from aquaculture), an increasing proportion of catches directed to huma consumption, improvements in processing and transportation technologies that add t the product’s value, and changing consumer demand (Delgado et al 2003). Severa factors contribute to increasing consumer demand. The factors include increasin awareness of health benefits of eating fish, increasing economic consumer power i developed and developing economies, and market measures such a certification o sustainably harvested fish and aquaculture products (FAO 2014a).
Just as total per capita consumption of fish underestimates the importance of fish t food security in many food-deficit countries, the total economic value of fish sale underrepresents the value of fish sales to low-income parts of the world. There is a
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“cash crop” value to fish catches of even small-scale subsistence fishers. Most of thi “value” is not captured in the formal economic statistics of countries, and probabl varies locally and seasonally (Dey et al., 2005). However studies have shown that th selling or trading of even a portion of their catch represents as much as a third of th total income of subsistence fishers in some low income countries (Béné et al., 2009).
4.3 Employment and livelihoods
These differences between large-scale and small scale fishers are particularly importan in considering employment benefits from food from the ocean. Estimates of full-time o part-time jobs derived from fishing, vary widely, with numbers ranging from 58 millio to over 120 million jobs being available (BNP 2009, FAO 2014a). All sources agree tha over 90 per cent are employed in small-scale fisheries. This includes jobs in th processing and trading sectors, where opportunities for employment of women ar particularly important (BNP 2009). The value-chain jobs are considered to nearly tripl the employment benefits from fishing and mariculture, compared to direct employmen from harvesting (World Bank 2012). All sources report that more than 85 per cent o the employment opportunities are in Asia and a further 8 per cent in Africa, largely i income-deficit countries or areas. It is even harder to track direct and value-chai employment from small-scale aquaculture production and break out the portion that i derived from marine aquaculture (Beveridge et al., 2010), but recent estimates fo employment from aquaculture exceed 38 million persons (Phillips et al., 2013).
Of the 58.3 million people estimated to be employed in fisheries and aquaculture (4. per cent of total estimated economically active people), 84 per cent were in Asia and 1 per cent in Africa. Women are estimated to account for more than 15 per cent of peopl employed in the fisheries sector (FAO, 2014).
When full- or part-time participants in the full value-chain and support industries (boat building, gear construction, etc.) of fisheries and aquaculture and their dependents ar included, FAO estimated that between 660 and 820 million persons derive som economic and/or livelihood benefits (FAO 2012, Allison 2013). Direct employment i fishing is also growing over 2 per cent per year, generally faster than human populatio growth (Allison, 2013). However, there has been a shift from 87 per cent in captur fisheries and the rest in aquaculture (primarily freshwater) in 1990, to approximately  70:30 division in 2010, with slightly faster growth in employment in mariculture than i freshwater aquaculture (FAO, 2012).
Trade in fishery products further complicates efforts to evaluate trends in th contribution of the oceans to human well-being. Fish is one of the most heavily trade food commodities on the planet, with an estimated 38 per cent of fishery production b 2010, up from 25 per cent in 1976 (FAO, 2012). This represents about 10 per cent o international agricultural exports. The direct value of international exports was ove 136 billion USD in 2012, up 102 per cent in just 10 years (FAO, 2014a http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4136e.pdf); European Union (EU) countries alone imported
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more than 514 billion in fish products in 2013, although slightly over half of that wa from trade among EU Member States (http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4136e.pdf). Fish trad is truly global, with FAO recording fish and fishery products exported by 197 countries led by China, which contributes 14 per cent of the total exports.
Developing countries contribute over 60 per cent by volume and over 50 per cent b value of exports of fish and fish products. Although this trade generates significan revenues for developing countries, through sales, taxation, license fees, and paymen for access to fish by distant water fleets, there is a growing debate about the tru benefits to the inhabitants of these countries from these revenue sources (Bostock e al., 2004; World Bank 2012). The debate centres on whether poor fishers would benefi more from personal or community consumption of the fish than from sales of the fish t obtain cash or credit. The issue is complicated by the leasing of access rights for foreig vessels which may compete for resources with coastal small scale fishers. With small scale and large-scale fisheries each harvesting about half of the world’s fish, resolvin the relative importance of large-scale and small-scale fisheries to food security, in a increasingly globalized economy, is complex. Reviews found the issue to be polarized i the early 2000s (FAO 2003; Kurien, 2004), and there has been little convergence o views over the ensuing decade (HLPE, 2014).
5. Impacts of fisheries and mariculture, on marine ecosystems
Harvesting or culturing marine fish, invertebrates or plants necessarily has at least direc and immediate, and often indirect and longer-term impacts on marine ecosystems. Fo over a century fisheries experts have sought ways to evaluate the short-term and long term sustainability of varying levels of fish harvests (Smith 1994), and to manag fisheries to keep these harvests within sustainable bounds (Garcia et al., 2014) Assessing and managing the wider ecosystem impacts of fisheries and aquaculture i even more challenging (Garcia et al., 2014). These impacts may range from loss o habitat due to destructive fishing practices to impacts on the structure of marine foo webs by selectively harvesting some species that play a key role in the integrity of  given ecosystem. The fact that these effects may be difficult to quantify in no wa diminishes their importance in sustaining the capacity of the oceans to provide food an other benefits to human society. Moreover, the scope of assessments of impact continues to expand, as life cycle analyses are introduced into fisheries (Avadi an Fréon, 2013). Results indicate that, for example, the carbon footprint of a kg of fish a market depends greatly on modes of capture and transport. However, the carbo footprint is often substantially lower than the footprint of a kg of poultry or livestoc (Mogensen et al., 2012). Other chapters in this Assessment, primarily in Part VI, conside a broad range of impacts on the ocean of human activities. Since food production fro the ocean is such an important benefit, particular care must be taken to ensure tha sustained capacity to produce food from fisheries and aquaculture is not diminished.
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6. Conclusions
This chapter sets the stage for assessing the role of the oceans as a source of food. Th chapters to follow will assess in depth the ways that food is taken from the sea. Eac chapter will consider the trends in yields, resources, economic benefits, employment and livelihoods, the interactions among the trends, and their main drivers, on global an regional scales as appropriate. They will also look at the main impacts of the variou food-related uses of the ocean on biodiversity — both species and habitats. Some o these interactions will also be considered, from the perspective of the affecte components of biodiversity, in Part VI of the World Ocean Assessment. Each chapte will also consider the main factors that affect the trends in benefits, resources used an impacts. Together a picture will emerge of the importance of the ocean as a source o food, and of fisheries and mariculture as sources of commerce, wealth, and livelihood for humankind, with a particular focus on the world’s coastal peoples.
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