Chapter 17. Shipping
Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member) and Osman Keh Kamara (Co-Lea member)
1. Introduction
For at least the past 4,000 years, shipping has been fundamental to the developmen of civilization. On the sea or by inland waterways, it has provided the dominant wa of moving large quantities of goods, and it continues to do so over long distances From at least as early as 2000 BCE, the spice routes through the Indian Ocean and it adjacent seas provided not merely for the first long-distance trading, but also for th transport of ideas and beliefs. From 1000 BCE to the 13" century CE, the Polynesia voyages across the Pacific completed human settlement of the globe. From the 15 century, the development of trade routes across and between the Atlantic an Pacific Oceans transformed the world. The introduction of the steamship in th early 19" century produced an increase of several orders of magnitude in th amount of world trade, and started the process of globalization. The demands of th shipping trade generated modern business methods from insurance to internationa finance, led to advances in mechanical and civil engineering, and created ne sciences to meet the needs of navigation.
The last half-century has seen developments as significant as anything before in th history of shipping. Between 1970 and 2012, seaborne carriage of oil and gas nearl doubled
(98 per cent), that of general cargo quadrupled (411 per cent), and that of grain an minerals nearly quintupled (495 per cent) (UNCTAD, 2013). Conventionally, aroun 90 per cent of international trade by volume is said to be carried by sea (IMO, 2012) but one study suggests that the true figure in 2006 was more likely around 75 pe cent in terms of tons carried and 59 per cent by value (Mandryk, 2009). Not only ha the quantity of cargo increased, the average length of voyages has also increased between 2000 and 2013 the estimated amount of international seaborne shipment measured in ton miles increased by 65 per cent from 30,648 to 50,506 billion to miles, while the total amount of international cargo rose by only about 50 per cen (UNCTAD, 2013). This growth in the average length of voyages has been largely i the carriage of coal, grain and ores.
© 2016 United Nation 

12 000
10000  8 00 6 00 400 200 074 1980 | 1985 | 1990 | 1995 | 2000 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 201 Container 102 | 152 | 234 | 371 | 598 | 969 | 1076] 1193] 1249] 1127| 1275| 1421 | 1480] 157 Other dry cargo| 1123| 819 | 1031| 1125] 1928| 2009| 2112| 2141| 2173 | 2004] 2027| 2084] 2184| 230 Five major bulks} 608 | 900 | 988 | 1105| 1295/ 1709| 1814| 1953| 2065| 2085 | 2335{ 2486 | 2665| 278 1B Oil and gas 1871 | 1459] 1755| 2050} 2163] 2422| 2698 | 2747| 2742| 2642| 2772] 2794| 2836] 2904
Figure 1. International Seaborne Trade: selected years 1980 — 2013. Millions of tons loaded. The “Fiv Major Bulks” are iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite/alumina and phosphate rock. “Other Dry Cargo includes agricultural produce, metals, and forest products). Source: UNCTAD, 2013.
2. Nature and Magnitude of World Shipping Movements
2.1. Cargo traffic
Global shipping movements naturally mirror the world economy. The moder period up to 2008 therefore generally showed a steady increase. The economic crisi of 2008, not surprisingly, produced a drop in activity, but this was less than the dro in the world’s Gross Domestic Product, largely because of the continuing demand i eastern Asia for bulk movement of iron ore and coal (UNCTAD, 2013). Figure  shows the way in which world cargo movements are increasing. Figure 2 shows th distribution of total shipping movements around the world. The different mai trades have substantially different distributions and patterns of sailings: th container routes are concentrated in the East/West belt around the southern part o the northern hemisphere and are very regular in their sailings, while both the fiv main bulk dry cargoes (iron ore, coal, grain, bauxite/alumina and phosphate rock and the oil and gas trade are focused on the sources of these cargoes. Their sailing are also affected by changes in the market prices for these commodities. Th carriage of bulk dry cargoes and oil and gas tends to have a higher proportion o return journeys in ballast. The mineral cargoes, in particular, have strong emphase on routes from Africa, South America, Australia and Indonesia to eastern Asia (Kaluz et al., 2010). Significant changes in maritime traffic routes could result fro developments in extracting hydrocarbons from the earth: the growth of the shal gas industry of the United States of America, for example, is leading to major falls i United States imports, and growth of United States exports, with consequen changes in trade routes (EIA, 2014a).
© 2016 United Nation 

7 7 er 2 —— ¢ 4 % % 1 3 4 4 %  2 2 ue ay “i ye ey % ey yb %,, 2
e % o ay “ap
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations Figure 2. Global Network of Ship Movements (data 2012). Data derived from daily Automatic
Identification System (AIS) messages recorded for each 0.22 X 0.22 grid square. The coloured scal shows the number of messages recorded over the year for the grid squares. Source: IMO, 20140.
For a long time there was an imbalance in cargo movements between developed an developing countries: cargo volumes loaded in the ports of developing countries fa exceeded the volumes of goods unloaded. This reflected the difference in volume o exports from developing countries (dominated by raw materials) and their import (substantially finished goods). As Figure 3 shows, over the past four decades  steady change has occurred: loadings and unloadings in the ports of developin countries reached near parity in 2012, driven by the fast-growing import demand i developing regions, fuelled by their industrialization and rapidly rising consume demand.
© 2016 United Nation 

Figure 3. Cargoes loaded and unloaded in the ports of developing countries 1970 — 2012. Percentag share in tonnage of global loadings and unloadings. Source: UNCTAD, 2013.
General cargo transport has been transformed by the introduction of containe shipping. Before 1957, when the first container shipment was made from Housto to New York in the United States, general cargo had to be loaded and unloade package by package, with relatively long times needed to turn ships around, and hig labour costs. The introduction of standardized containers (the Twenty-foo Equivalent Unit (TEU) and the Forty-foot Equivalent Unit (FEU)) enabled ships an ports to be constructed so that compatibility was not an issue. (Ninety per cent o current shipments are of FEU, but the TEU is widely used for statistical purposes (Levinson, 2007). The convenience of being able to handle practically all forms o general cargo in this way is a major factor in producing the massive expansion o long-distance maritime transport. For a long time, growth in the volume o container traffic was three to four times the growth in world GDP (the average wa 3.4 times over the period 1990-2005). A variety of factors now seem to be changin and some analysts suggest that the multiplier has fallen to only 1.5 times in 2012 and may continue at this level. This would imply that in future the global shippin industry would grow more slowly (UNCTAD, 2013). Table 1 shows how trade level and the consequent distribution of container movements between parts of th world vary widely.
© 2016 United Nation 

Table 1. Container movements on the 10 most heavily trafficked routes 2006.
Route Number of TEU Movements ('000 Far East to Far East 21,75 Far East to North America 13,76 Far East to North-West Europe 8,95 North America to Far East 3,95 Far East to Mediterranean 3,75 North-West Europe to Far East 3,57 Far East to the Persian Gulf and Indian Subcontinent 3,32 North-West Europe to North America 3,19 Latin America to North America 2,79 North-West Europe to North-West Europe 2,518
Source: Adapted from Mandryk, 2009.
Increases in the size of cargo vessels, and consequent efficiency gains, have been  major factor in enabling unit freight costs for containers, for oil and gas and for bul traffic to be contained, thus encouraging growth in trade. It seems likely that th trend of increases in the size of vessels will continue. This trend is, however constrained by the limitations on the size of vessels that ports can handle and b navigational choke-points. At present, three main choke-points constrain the size o vessels. These are the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal and the Straits of Malacca. Th approximate maximum dimensions of vessels that can navigate these three passage are shown in Table 2. Vessels larger than these dimensions must seek alternativ routes: around Cape Horn, around the Cape of Good Hope and around or throug the Indonesian archipelago, respectively. These alternative routes add significantl to the costs of some of the main shipping routes, but may be offset by economies o scale in using larger vessels. Work is in progress to provide a new set of locks on th Panama Canal, which are expected to open in 2016, enabling ships within the “Ne Panamax” classification to pass through the canal (ACP, 2014). This is expected t result in significant changes in patterns of shipping between the Atlantic and Pacific Proposals exist for a further canal through Nicaragua, which might (if completed have even larger effects. Work has already started on expanding the Suez Canal Subject to such changes and the emergence of alternative routes, the scope fo efficiency savings from increasing the size of ships, and thus for containing costs, i likely to diminish, as the limits at the choke-points restrict further growth in the siz of vessels.
© 2016 United Nation 

Table 2. Choke-points in international shipping: maximum sizes of vessels.
Classification | Length Beam | Draft | Air-draft Approximate | Approximat (overhead | dead-weight | Twenty-foo clearance | tonnage* Unit (TEU above containe water) capacity
Malaccamax 333-400 59 25 | Unlimited” 300,000 15,000 —
metres | metres | metres 18,000
Panamax 294.13 32.31 12.04 57.91 65,000 — 5,000
metres | metres | metres metres 85,000
New 366 49 15.2 57.91 120,000 13,000
Panamax metres | metres | metres metres
Suezmax Unlimited 50 20.1 | 68 metres 120,000 — 14,500
metres | metres 200,000
Largest 415 65 35 320,000 —
current metres | metres | metres 500,000
crude-oil
tankers
Largest 400 59 16 184,600 19,100
current metres | metres | metres
container
ships
Source: STH 2014.
The other source of potential increases in the deployment of larger vessels is th effects of climate change. As a result of the warming of the Arctic, it is becomin possible (at least in summer) to navigate between the Pacific and the Atlanti through both the North-West Passage (through the Canadian Arctic archipelago) an the Northern Sea Route (NSR - along the Arctic coast of the Russian Federation) These possibilities are currently only open to ice-class vessels. The extent to whic larger vessels can be deployed depends on the routes that are feasible: Arcti shipping routes, especially the NSR, are subject to significant draft and bea restrictions (Humpert et al., 2012). Increases in the frequency and severity o northern hemisphere blizzards and Arctic cyclones may also limit the use thes routes (Wassman, 2011). The Nordic Orion (75,600 dead-weight tons (dwt)) becam the first commercial vessel to pass through the North-West Passage in October 201 (G&M, 2014). The NSR has been used for Russian internal traffic since the 1930s Some international transit traffic took place (with the aid of icebreakers) in the early
* Dead-weight tonnage (DWT) is a measure of how much weight a ship can safely carry. It is th aggregate of the weights of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast water, provisions, passengers, and crew ? There are now proposals for a bridge across the Malacca Strait, which would introduce a limit.
© 2016 United Nations

1990s and the number of ships using the transit passage rose from four in 2010 to 7 in 2013 (Liu, 2010 and Economist, 2014). The route between Shanghai an Rotterdam via the NSR is approximately 4,600 km (about 40 per cent) shorter tha the route via the Suez Canal, and would take 18-20 days compared to 28-30 days vi the Suez Canal (Verny and Grigentin, 2009). Some estimates suggest that, in th longer term, up to 20 per cent - 25 per cent of global shipping movements could b affected by possible Arctic routes, which could offer up to 35 per cent savings i movement time and, hence, costs (Laulajainen, 2009). Others are more pessimistic but can see some possibilities (Liu et al., 2010). The International Maritim Organization (IMO) has developed a new International Code for Ships Operating i Polar Waters (the Polar Code), covering both Arctic and Antarctic waters. The Cod has been made mandatory under the International Convention on the Safety of Lif at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fro Ships (MARPOL) through the adoption of relevant amendments to thos Conventions, respectively in November 2014 and May 2015. The expected date o entry into force for the Code is 1 January 2017. Nevertheless, the requirements i the Code will need support through infrastructure such as improved charts an emergency response plans and waste-reception and other facilities capable o dealing with activities on a much larger scale than at present exists (COMNAP 2005 TRB 2012).
As well as the global, long-haul traffic, sea transport also carries much freight o shorter routes. Comparable statistics on this are difficult to find. Within Europe,  study for the European Commission in 1999 showed that 43 per cent of the tota freight ton-miles within Europe (including both international and national traffic were carried on short-sea journeys — an amount about the same as the ton-miles o road haulage. This high proportion was due to the fact that the average movemen length by sea was much greater: the average sea movement was nearly 14 time that of the average road movement. Efforts are being made to increase the amoun of freight carried on short-sea movements, in order to reduce both the pressure o roads and air pollution emissions (EC, 1999). Similar motives underlie the “America’ Marine Highway Program”, under which the United States is investing to increas the amount of short-sea freight movements along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts an from the Gulf of Mexico to the east coast (MARAD, 2014). Elsewhere containerization is leading to rapid growth in short-sea coastal freight movements for example, in Brazil, the volume of containers carried in coastwise traffic has grow between 1999 and 2008 from 20,000 TEU to 630,000 TEU (+3,050 per cent) (Dias 2009). To a large extent, the scale of coastwise freight transport reflects the need t distribute more locally the large number of containers arriving in global movement in very large ships. Roll-on/roll-off ferries also play an important role in the mor local movement of containers and other cargo, often combined with passenge traffic.
One specialised form of maritime transport that attracts concern in some quarters i the transport of radioactive materials. A wide range of materials need to b transported, from supplies for nuclear medicine to the components in the nuclea fuel cycle. Since 1961 the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has publishe advisory regulations on the safe transport of radioactive material, which are
© 2016 United Nation 

generally adopted. Particular concern has been expressed about the shipment o used nuclear fuel for recycling. Since 1971, some 7,000 civil shipments of ove 80,000 tons of used nuclear fuel have been reported, mostly to the reprocessin plants at Cap la Hague (France) and Sellafield (United Kingdom of Great Britain an Northern Ireland). These include 160 shipments (totalling 7,140 tons) from Japan t Europe (WNA, 2014). A 2011 survey of the transport of radioactive material i northern Europe confirmed that there had been no maritime transport accident involving a release of radioactive materials (KIMO, 2011), and none have bee reported since then (European Union, 2013).
2.2 Passenger traffic
Since the advent of large aircraft, maritime passenger traffic has effectively bee confined to short-sea ferries and cruise ships. Every State with inhabited offshor islands too far offshore for the strait to be bridged has ferry services. State consisting of, or containing, archipelagos rely heavily on ferries for interna passenger transport. International passenger ferries are particularly important i the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and the Caribbean, where several States face eac other across relatively short sea-crossings. Roll-on/roll-off ferries (where passenge vehicles and their passengers can make the journey together) have substantiall aided the growth of short-sea passenger transport. Roll-on/roll-off ferries are als important for local freight movements, especially in Europe. Growth in passenge transport by ferries is governed mainly by improvements in the facilities and genera economic growth in the countries concerned. Over the past decade, for example the traffic on Greek passenger ferries has stagnated in the light of the Gree economic crisis, while traffic on passenger ferries in Indonesia and the Philippine has continued to grow substantially. Total ferry passengers worldwide in 2008 an its regional components are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. World ferry traffic volume and distribution 2008.
Passengers | Cars | Buses | Freigh vehicles
World traffic volumes (millions of 2,052 | 252 | 677 3 journeys Percentages of world total in eac regio America and Caribbean 14.6 | 29.7 | 11.9 2. Baltic 10.9 | 33.7 | 38.6 24. Mediterranean 21.2 | 14.3 | 14.9 26. North Sea 4.4| 7.5 | 32.4 31. Pacific 1.5] 0.4] <0.1 1.5
© 2016 United Nations

Red Sea and Persian Gulf 3.7) 0.5] 0.9 0.2
South-East Asia 43.7 | 13.9 | 1.3 12.9
Source: Adapted from Wergeland, 2012.
2.3 Cruise ships
The other major sector of passenger maritime transport is cruise ships. Althoug maritime tourist travel can be traced back to 1837, and a substantial busines developed, especially in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19°" century (P&O, 2014), th modern cruise ship industry emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a means o employing ocean-going passenger liners at a time when mass long-distanc passenger air-travel was emerging and coming to dominate the long-distanc passenger market. When the market demand became clear, specialized cruise ship began to be built, with less emphasis on speed than passenger liners, and more o space for entertainment and relaxation. The market has grown steadily and rapidl since then: the estimated numbers were 3,774,000 journeys in 1990 and 21,556,00 journeys in 2013 (Figure 4). The total turnover of the cruise market was estimated a 37.1 billion United States dollars (CMW, 2014). Growth has slowed somewhat sinc 2008, but has continued.
Global Passenger Growth [iy america [Bj zuore Ra ROW | rotar
2 2u Bea. 2098 o 20 - 02 aa 15.9 16.6 an sae
1 10
5
°
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2013 (F) 2014 (est)
Figure 4. Growth in numbers of passenger cruise journeys 2007 — 2014.
(millions of journeys). Note: ROW is “Rest of the World” Source: CLIA, 2014.
Over half the market demand in 2013 was from the United States (51.7 per cent) The remaining demand is reported as 26.6 per cent from Europe, 3.6 per cent fro Australia and New Zealand, 3.4 per cent from Brazil, 3.4 per cent from Canada an 11.3 per cent from the rest of the world. The main target areas in terms o itineraries and ship deployment for cruises in 2013 are reported as: the Caribbea (34 per cent), the Mediterranean (22 per cent), the rest of Europe (11 per cent),
© 2016 United Nations

Australia (5 per cent), Alaska (5 per cent), South America (4 per cent), Asia (3 pe cent) and other areas (16 per cent) (CLIA, 2014).
There appears to be a trend towards larger vessels. In the Baltic Sea, the Helsink Commission has calculated that the average number of passengers on the cruis ships calling at Baltic ports rose between 2006 and 2012 by 49 per cent, from 1,09 to 1,635 (HELCOM, 2014a).
2.4 The world fleet of ships
The size of the world’s fleet of ships has been increasing rapidly in the period fro 2000 — 2013 (Figure 5). The persistence of a high rate of growth after the economi crisis of 2008 is accounted for by the lead time between the ordering and delivery o vessels: 2012 was the first year since 2001 in which the tonnage of ships delivere fell below the tonnage delivered in the previous year (UNCTAD, 2013).
4.80 ca [ 440 1200 | [o a) ee a 80 600 [a 400  20 o 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005, 2010 201 Gi Other 31 45 49 58 75 49 92 16 1 Container bh 20 26 44 64 98 169 20 | General cargo) 116 106 103 104 101 92 108 8 1 Dry bulk 186 232 235 262 276 321 457 68 i Oil tanker 339 261 246 268 282 336 450 491
Figure 5. Total size of the world fleet of ships 1980 — 2013. Source: UNCTAD, 2013. Note: Figure 5 includes all propelled seagoing merchant vessels of 100 GT and above, excluding inland waterwa vessels, fishing vessels, military vessels, yachts, and offshore fixed and mobile platforms and barge (with the exception of floating production storage and offloading units (FPSOs) and drillships).
The age profile of the world fleet has also been changing: by January 2013, 20 pe cent of all seagoing merchant ships were less than five years old, representing 40 pe cent of the world’s deadweight tonnage. At that point, the average age (per ship) i January 2013 was 9.9 years for dry-bulk carriers, 10.8 years for container ships, 16. years for oil tankers, and highest for general-cargo ships (25 years) and th miscellaneous ships (22.6 years). The average ages of oil tankers and dry bul carriers are lower because of the rapid increases in their numbers. The figure for oi tankers also reflects the phasing out of single-hulled oil tankers (UNCTAD, 2013).
© 2016 United Nations
1 

The practice of registering ships in flag States other than that of the owner’ nationality has grown, particularly under what are called “open registries”, whic (among other things) may not impose requirements on the nationality of officers o other crew. The proportion of vessels over 1,000 gross tonnage’ flying a fla different from that of their owner’s nationality has increased steadily from less tha 41.5 per cent in 1988 to 73 per cent in 2013. In 2013, more than half the tonnage o the world’s ships was registered with four registries — Panama (21.52 per cent) Liberia (12.16 per cent), the Marshall Islands (8.60 per cent) and Hong Kong, Chin (7.97 per cent) (UNCTAD, 2013) (Figure 6). Because of the attractions of “ope registries”, a number of States have created international shipping registers. Thes usually have less stringent requirements on the nationality of crew, but may not b open to ships trading solely within national waters.
G@ Panama
B Liberia
O Marshall Island O Hong Kong (China @ Singapore
@ Greece
@ Bahamas
O Malta
@ China
@ Cyprus
Olsle of Man
@ United Kingdo @ Rest of World
Figure 6. Share of the World’s Gross Tonnage by Registry 2013. (12 Registries with the largest gros tonnage on the register and the total gross tonnage of all other Registries). Source: compiled fro UNCTAD, 2013).
The pattern of ownership of vessels varies widely between the registries. Fo example, among the 12 largest registries, some have negligible proportions owne or controlled by nationals. For others (China and Greece), the tonnage i predominantly controlled by nationals. Yet others have substantial, but no predominant, proportions controlled by nationals. This variable pattern is also foun among all the other registries. Figure 7 shows the estimated spread of ownershi and/or control for ships of over 1,000 gross tonnage between the 12 largest ship owning States and the rest of the world. Owners from five countries (China,
3 “Gross tonnage” is a measure of “the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship (International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969) and is calculated from th volume of the ship multiplied by a reduction factor which increases with the size of the ship.
© 2016 United Nation 

Germany, Greece, Japan, and the Republic of Korea) together account for 53 per cen of the world tonnage. Among the top 35 ship-owning countries and territories, 17 are i Asia, 14 in Europe, and 4in the Americas (UNCTAD, 2013).
Greece
B Japan
O China
O Germany
B Republic of Kore B Singapore
B United States
O United Kingdo m Norway
B Taiwan Province of Chin DO Denmark
DB Bermuda
B Rest of the World
Figure 7. Spread of the control/ownership of vessels of over 1,000 gross tonnage between the 1 largest fleets and the rest of the world 2013. Source: compiled from UNCTAD, 2013.
2.5 Ship safety
Whether ships are carrying passengers or cargo, the main aim is that the ship shoul reach port safely at the end of the voyage. In the 1960s, concern about the number of collisions of ships, the damage that they could inflict on the environment, the risk to the lives of those on board and the economic effects of losses led to th development of various recommendations on methods of navigation in areas wit high levels of shipping activity. In 1971, the IMO Assembly adopted the principle o compulsory measures for ships’ routing under the SOLAS Convention, of which th scheme in the Dover Straits was the first (IMO, 2014c).
The IMO has now established some 152 ships’ routing measures around the world These include Traffic Separation Schemes (which require ships going in opposit directions to stay in designated lanes), Inshore Traffic Zones (designated area landward of a traffic separation scheme for coastal traffic), Deep-Water Route (routes which have been accurately surveyed for clearance of sea-bottom an submerged objects), and Areas To Be Avoided (areas in which either navigation i particularly hazardous or it is exceptionally important to avoid casualties and whic should be avoided by all ships, or by certain classes of ships). In addition, a numbe of Governments and port authorities have established similar schemes, particularl in the approaches to major ports (UKHO, 2014). The importance of ships’ routin measures can be seen from the straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean A 2004 study showed that the majority of the accidents in the period 1953 to 199 were collisions between two or more ships; after the introduction of a traffi separation scheme in 1994, the majority of the accidents were groundings o strandings (Akten, 2004).
© 2016 United Nations
1 

In addition to the ships’ routing measures adopted by IMO, the IMO has designated on the proposal of coastal States, Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) in thei exclusive economic zones, where associated measures to protect the environmen can be approved. Fourteen such areas have so far been designated. Eight establis Areas to be Avoided (ATBA), six impose mandatory reporting requirements on som or all ships (MSR), four include Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS), two impose a ba on any ship anchoring in a specified area, and one imposes a mandatory deep-wate route (DWR). In addition, two recommend the use of pilotage and two recommen the use of an established two-way route. Three of the areas (the Great Barrier Reef Malpelo Island and the Paracas National Reserve) are linked to areas designated a World Heritage Sites (see Chapter 8 — Cultural Ecosystem Services from the Ocean) The 14 areas, the States proposing them, and the additional protective measure adopted are (in the order of their designation):
(a) Great Barrier Reef (Australia, 1990) (for measures see (h) below) (b) Sabana-Camagiiey Archipelago (Cuba, 1997, ATBA) (c) Malpelo Island (Colombia, 2002 — ATBA);
(d) Marine area around the Florida Keys (United States, 2002 — ATBA mandatory no-anchoring areas);
(e) Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, 2002 — DWR) (f) | Paracas National Reserve (Peru, 2003 — ATBA);
(g) Western European Waters (Belgium, France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain an the United Kingdom — MSR);
(h) Extension of the Great Barrier Reef PSSA to include the Torres Strai (Australia and Papua New Guinea, 2003 — MSR, two-way route recommended pilotage);
(i) | Canary Islands (Spain, 2004 — ATBA, TSS, MSR, recommended routes) (j) | Galapagos Archipelago (ATBA, MSR, recommended routes);
(k) Baltic Sea (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Polan and Sweden, 2004 — TSS, DWR, ATBA, MSR);
(Il) | Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (USA, 2007 — ATBA MSR for all USA ships and all other ships over 300 gross tonnage recommended reporting for other ships);
(m) Strait of Bonifacio (France and Italy, 2011 — MSR, recommendation o navigation);
(n) Saba Bank (Caribbean Netherlands, 2012 — ATBA, mandatory no anchoring area) (IMO, 2014d).
Work continues to improve the safety of navigation, including through on-goin improvements to charts, electronic aids to navigation and other navigation services Such improvements have played a significant part in achieving the reductions i shipping casualties described in this chapter (IMO, 2014e).
© 2016 United Nations
1 

The combined effect of all these measures has been to achieve a steady reduction i the number of ships lost at sea, with environmental, social and economic benefits less pollution of the sea, fewer lives lost and less disruption of trade. Over the lon term, in 1912, the casualty rate was about 1 in 100 ships from a fleet of about 33,00 ships; in 2009, the casualty rate was about 1 in 670 ships from a fleet of abou 100,000 (Allianz, 2012). The following graph (Figure 8) shows how the number o ships lost has decreased over the past decade to 2013. (However, more recently casualties to ships carrying refugees may affect the picture).
5 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 8. Number of ships over 1,000 gross tonnage lost 2002 — 2013. Source: Allianz, 2014 (based o Lloyd’s List Intelligence Casualty Statistics).
As for the locations of these events, they are naturally concentrated on the mai shipping lanes. As Table 4 shows, 30 per cent of the losses between 2002 and 201 were in the waters off eastern Asia.
Table 4. Shipping losses over 1,000 gross tonnage by sea area
SEA AREA 2002 - | 201 201 South-East Asian Seas (the waters off southern China, Viet Nam and 296 18
the eastern coasts of the Malaysian peninsula and Thailand, th coasts of Brunei Darussalam and Sarawak (Malaysia) and aroun Indonesia and the Philippines and Singapore)
Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea 215 1 North-West Pacific (the waters off northern China, Japan, the 207  Korean peninsula and the Pacific coast of the Russian Federation)
The North Sea, the English Channel, other waters around the Britain 135  and Ireland, and the Bay of Biscay
The Persian Gulf and its approaches 96  South-West Atlantic 82  Western Mediterranean 73  Wider Caribbean 51  Western Indian Ocean 51 3
© 2016 United Nations
1 

SEA AREA 2002 - | 201 2013
Bay of Bengal 50 3
Eastern seaboard of the United States 45 0
Other parts of the world 372 18
Total Losses worldwide 1,673 94
Adapted from Allianz, 2014 (based on Lloyd’s List Intelligence Casualty Statistics).
In the late 1990s a series of disasters involving ships not covered by the IM Conventions and their requirements prompted IMO to undertake action as part o their Integrated Technical Cooperation Programme to help States in various region to develop codes to improve the standard of shipping in those regions. By 1999 States in Asia, the Caribbean and the Pacific agreed codes for non-Convention ships which many States have incorporated into their legislation. Draft regulations hav been developed for Africa, and the IMO has been assisting some States to use thes as a basis for improving the safety of ships operating in their waters. Much work stil remains to be done, because the infrastructure and skilled personnel needed t implement the regulations are often not available (Williams, 2001). Even wher regional codes have been adopted, they do not apply to vessels under 15 — 2 metres (depending on the region). Concern therefore remains in many parts of th world (especially Africa) about improving the safety of small vessels — for example,  2012 study showed that 70 per cent of the shipping incidents between 1998 an 2011 reported in South Africa involved small ships or fishing vessels (Mearns et al. 2012).
3. Socioeconomic aspects of shipping
3.1 Profitability of the world fleet
The profitability of ferries and the carriage of cargoes within a State (“cabotage”) wil depend very heavily on local circumstances. Many States subsidize ferries t offshore islands from general taxation in order to remove the disadvantages whic those living on such islands would otherwise suffer. Restrictions on which ships ma carry out cabotage (which can be restricted to ships flying the national flag of th State within which the carriage takes place) can significantly affect the profitability o routes. States may also intervene to make cabotage more profitable in order t encourage cargo traffic to use sea routes rather than land routes, in order to reduc pressure on roads or the need to build or improve them.
The profitability of international traffic, particularly on intercontinental routes, is, o the other hand, very much a matter of the global shipping market. Long-distanc cargo capacity is largely traded on a global market, which is focused on certain citie with well-established local shipbroking networks. Among these are Amsterdam, th Netherlands; Athens (Piraeus), Greece; Copenhagen, Denmark; Hong Kong, China;
© 2016 United Nations
1 

London, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; New York, Unite States; Oslo, Norway; Shanghai, China; and Tokyo, Japan. This market covers bot ships operated principally by those who own them, and ships whose owner generally expect to charter them out to other firms to operate. Ships can easil switch between these categories, depending on the levels of supply and demand i the market. Since the level of activity in global shipping is closely linked to the leve of global trade within the four main markets of oil and gas, the main bulk cargoes containers and general cargo, the levels of supply and demand of shipping in th market will likewise fluctuate. Extended periods of growth in global trade encourag ship-owners to invest in new capacity — even more so if growth causes demand t outstrip supply significantly, as happened at some periods over the past tw decades. 2001 to 2012 saw the longest sustained growth in the size of the worl fleet in history, with record deliveries of new vessels year after year. Additions t capacity will also be caused by investment in new vessels which can operate mor efficiently, usually because they are larger. The entry into service of such improve vessels will cause other vessels to be cascaded down the markets. Mismatche between increases in capacity and growth in global trade will lead to overcapacit and falls in freight rates and consequent drops in profitability. Likewise, if globa demand drops because of economic recessions, the long lead-time for new shippin means that capacity will continue to grow from deliveries of vessels ordered at  time of growth, thus enhancing the effects of falls in demand (UNCTAD, 2013).
The drop in global trade from the 2008 global recession led to serious drops i freight rates, especially for container ships. For container ships, recovery in trade i 2011 did not immediately lead to better freight rates, in view of the large increase in new capacity. Measures such as slowing voyages (which both saves fuel and use more capacity) and transferring capacity from east-west routes (where trad remained low) to north-south routes (where trade was growing) meant that in 201 container freight rates recovered. For tankers carrying oil, gas and chemicals, th position has been similarly poor, with rates over 2009 — 2013 roughly half those o the peak of early 2008. For bulk carriage of coal, grain and minerals, rates over th same period have been only 10 per cent - 30 per cent of the peak 2008 rates. I 2012, a survey revealed that 21 carriers of the top 30 that publish financial result reported an overall operating loss of 239 million dollars in 2012, with only seve carriers turning in positive results (UNCTAD, 2013).
Overall, the pattern has been one of bigger ships offered by fewer companies Although, in general, the level of service for cargo carriage by regular sailings, a shown by the UNCTAD Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, has improved over the pas decade, the result of concentrating cargo in bigger vessels owned by bigge companies has been to reduce the level of competition. In 2004, 22 countries wer served by three or fewer carriers: in 2013, 31 countries were facing this situatio (UNCTAD, 2013). In 2013, three of the largest container shipping lines propose collaboration in the scheduling of sailings and allocation of cargo to sailings, whil retaining separate sales and pricing systems. These proposals were not accepted b all States and have now been dropped. However, in 2014, the shipping companie involved in those proposals and other companies formed two alliances. Some in the
© 2016 United Nations
1 

shipping industry believe that further arrangements may be proposed (SCD, 2014 Lloyds List, 2014).
In recent years, passenger cruise ships have suffered some bad publicity, with th loss of the Costa Concordia and a number of other adverse events. However, all th major cruise lines have been reporting profits. Across the industry, profits pe passenger were reported to grow by nearly 18 per cent between 2011 and 2013 from 157 dollars to 185 dollars (Statista, 2014).
4. Seafarers
4.1 Numbers of seafarers
Worldwide, there are just over 1.25 million seafarers. Only about 2 per cent of thes are women, mainly in the ferry and cruise-ship sectors (ITF, 2014). Their origins ar shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Broad Geographical Origins of Seafarers 2010.
Origin Officers per cent Ratings per cen Africa / 50,000 8 112,000 1 Latin
America
Eastern 127,000 20 109,000 1 Europe
Far East 184,000 30 275,000 3 Indian Sub- 80,000 13 108,000 1 Continent
OECD 184,000 29 143,000 1 Countries
Total - All 624,000 100 747,000 10 National
Groups
Source: BIMCO/ISF, 2010.
Although there are many uncertainties, a recent survey by the Baltic Internationa Maritime Council Organization and the International Shipping Federation indicate that the industry will most probably face a continuing shortage of qualified cre (and particularly of officers) when shipping markets recover. There is also a hig wastage rate of qualified crew leaving the industry, and this contributes to potentia shortages (BIMCO/ISF, 2010).
© 2016 United Nations
1 

4.2. Conditions of work for seafarers
Because ships and those who work on them are operating in a world market, and ar frequently (and, in international shipping, usually) not operating within the Stat under whose flag they fall, international action to regulate the pay and conditions o seafarers has been a major concern of the International Labour Organization (ILO since its foundation in 1919. In 2006, the ILO adopted the Maritime Labou Convention (MLC) as the “fourth pillar” of international maritime law (alongsid SOLAS, the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification an Watchkeeping for Seafarers, as amended (STCW), and MARPOL). The MLC embodie “all up-to-date standards of existing international maritime labour Conventions an Recommendations, as well as the fundamental principles to be found in othe international labour Conventions”. The MLC entered into force on 20 August 201 and, by June 2014, had been ratified by 61 States representing 80 per cent of globa shipping tonnage (ILO, 2014).
The MLC continues and restates a unique system for setting recommended minimu wages for seafarers from all countries. A Subcommittee of the ILO Joint Maritim Commission (with representation of Governments, seafarers and ship-owners) ha agreed on an increase in the minimum monthly basic wage figure for able seafarer to 592 dollars (7,104 dollars a year) from 1 January 2015 and to 614 dollars (7,36 dollars a year) from 1 January 2016 (ILO 2014)
The pay of officers is determined by the market. However, there are noticeabl differences between pay rates, depending on the national origin of the officer concerned. A global survey in 2012 showed the following pattern of salaries (Tabl 6).
Table 6. Pay of ships’ officers in United States dollars a year
ORIGIN JOB TYPE
Master Chief Chief Second
Mariner Engineer Officer Enginee Asia 111,422 102,740 74,319 72,99 Eastern Europe 109,627 104,448 74,653 81,12 Western Europe 138,320 104,628 90,273 81,871
Source: compiled from Faststream, 2012
Because seafarers can find themselves in foreign ports without many of the suppor services available to land-based workers, the rights under the MLC on such issues a enforcing arrears of pay are very important. In addition, a survey based on 3,48 cases presented to the Legal Committee of the IMO strongly suggested that th rights of seafarers, as set out in the IMO/ILO “Guidelines on fair treatment of
© 2016 United Nations
1 

seafarers in the event of a maritime accident”, are often subject to violation. Amon the views expressed were that the survey showed a need to keep up pressure fo better implementation of the Guidelines, and that seafarers were more exposed t criminal proceedings than many other workers (UNCTAD, 2013).
4.3 Safety of seafarers
There are difficulties in obtaining a clear picture of the deaths and injuries suffere by seafarers. In this context, it seems necessary also to consider deaths and injurie suffered by those working at sea in the fishing industry, since these have simila causes. In 1999, a study looking at 19 major shipping administrations over th period 1990 — 1994 concluded that casualties arising from disasters involvin merchant vessels were grossly underreported, and in addition failed to addres mortality from all other causes of death at sea (Nielsen, 1999). In 2013, when th Secretary-General of IMO launched the Accident Zero Campaign, he noted that th available statistics are neither accurate nor comprehensive, and suggested that ther is a need for an official global statistical base (Sekimizu, 2013). The statistics quote by the IMO Secretary-General showed the following pattern of deaths (Table 7) a far as they could be ascertained:
Table 7. Pattern of Deaths of Seafarers 2008 - 2012
Year | Deaths of seafarer 2008 1,94 2009 2,39 2010 1,50 2011 1,09 2012 1,051
Source: Sekimizu, 2013.
Of these, about 10 per cent were in the fishing sector, 40 per cent in domesti shipping and 50 per cent in other categories, including international shipping Statistics on serious injuries to seafarers are even less easily established.
Over the past three decades, acts of piracy and armed robbery have re-emerged a serious risks to seafarers. Much attention has been focused on such attacks o shipping in waters off eastern Africa, but reports show that the problem is mor widespread. In the last three years, action against attacks off eastern Africa appear to have had some success, but attacks elsewhere are also of concern - especially i the South China Sea area, the location of over half the incidents reported in 2013 The statistics cover reports of alleged piracy (outside the territorial sea) and arme robbery at sea in the territorial sea and port areas (Figure 9). Of the 132 attack reported in 2013 in the South China Sea area, 70 per cent allegedly occurred while
© 2016 United Nations
1 

the ship was in port. Worldwide, 17 per cent of the attacks were reported to involv actual violence against the crew (IMO, 2014a).
—? Malacca Strai 250 —m- Indian Ocea ~*~ East Afric > West Afric —*— Latin America and the Caribbea —@®- Mediterranean Se —+— North Atlanti —— South China Se ———~ Arabian Se Others
Regional
=Total
$ 8 8 8 & &$ & 8 8 8 § $§ 8 2 § Q a a a Q Q a a S S S S S 2  = = = = = = = = a a a a a a a
Figure 9. Reports of Alleged Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery Committed or Attempted 1984 — 2013 Source: IMO, 2014a.
4.4 Safety of Passengers
There are several aspects to the safety of passengers on board passenger ships. Th aspect on which most attention has been focused by the international community since at least the Titanic disaster in1912, is protection against incidents involvin ships on international voyages. Although (as with deaths and injuries to seafarers there are problems in establishing the relevant statistics for deaths of, and injurie to, passengers, there seems to be little doubt that the number of incidents involvin passenger ships on international voyages, and the consequent harm to passengers, i small and has fallen steadily: 13 passenger vessels were lost in 2002 as compared t six in 2013 (Allianz, 2014). A second aspect of passenger safety is that of passenge ferries on domestic voyages. Although, again, statistics are limited, the IM Secretary-General has drawn attention to the fact that in the 2% years from Januar 2012 to June 2014, 2,932 lives were lost in domestic passenger ship accident around the world. The third main aspect of passenger safety is the accidents an other events of a kind that have nothing to do with the failure of vessels: these cove not only medical emergencies, but also crimes committed by crew or othe passengers, and people falling overboard. The size of modern cruise ships (with u to about 5,000 passengers and 2,500 crew) means that this kind of event is as likel to happen on a ship as in a small town. However, investigation and follow-up are  matter for the flag State of the vessel. Statistics on these aspects of passenger safet are not consistently collected. However, because of the large proportion of cruis trips that start in its territory or involve its citizens, the United States since 2010 ha required reporting these incidents to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for,
© 2016 United Nations
600
TOTAL
2 

among others, cruises starting or ending in its ports. The reports show 130 report of alleged serious crimes in 2011 — 2012 (Rockefeller, 2013).
5. Links to other industries
5.1 Shipbuilding
The steady growth in the numbers and size of vessels of all kinds resulted in recor levels of ships being on order in 2008: the dead-weight tonnage (dwt) on order gre by between 50 per cent (general cargo) and 1000 per cent (bulk carriers) to a total o around 600 million dwt. The economic crisis of 2008 resulted in a rapid decline i new orders, and as a consequence many shipyards are thought likely to have t reduce employment. Over the decade from 2002 to 2012, there have been majo changes in the location of shipbuilding: in 2012, China (41 per cent), Republic o Korea (33 per cent) and Japan (18 per cent) produced about 92 per cent of all ne dwt tonnage; six years earlier in 2006, China had been producing only about 15 pe cent, about the same as the European shipyards taken together. The Philippines als has a growing shipbuilding industry: 3 per cent of global dwt completed in 2012 Eastern Asia has thus become dominant in the global shipbuilding market (UNCTAD 2013).
5.2 Ship-breaking
The ship-breaking industry has likewise become more concentrated. In 2012, 70 pe cent of all gross tonnage reported as sold for demolition was sold to ship-breakin yards in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan; 22 per cent was sold to ship-breaking yard in China and 3 per cent to yards in Turkey, leaving only 5 per cent being sold to th rest of the world (UNCTAD, 2013). The ship-breaking industry has given rise t concerns about both the impact on the workers employed and the effects on th marine environment (see Chapter 20). An ILO expert group described it as ver hazardous for the workers and presenting many threats to the environment, wit major difficulties in enforcing regulations (ILO, 2003). The Hong Kong Internationa Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships was adopte in 2009. To enter into force, this requires ratification by 15 States representing 4 per cent of the gross tonnage of the world fleet and the combined maximum annua ship recycling volume of these States constituting not less than 3 per cent of th gross tonnage of their combined fleet. However, at the end of 2014, only thre States representing 1.98 per cent of world tonnage had ratified it (IMO, 2014b) From the start of 2015, the IMO will implement, in coordination with th Government of Bangladesh, a project aimed at enhancing the standards of health safety and environmental compliance of ship recycling in Bangladesh.
5.3. Bunkers
Ships need to burn fuel to move, and there is therefore a substantial world-wid industry delivering ships’ bunkers (as ships’ fuel is named). Estimates of total
© 2016 United Nations
2 

worldwide fuel consumption by ships vary: calculations in the IMO Greenhouse Ga study based on a bottom-up approach using data on ship movements fro Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) show a total consumption of about 32 million tons per year in 2011, compared with a figure of 254 million tons a yea based on top-down data on sales of bunkers (IMO 20140). This compares with a estimate by the United States Energy Information Agency of around 164 million ton a year (EIA, 2014b). In 2010, this represented about 1.5 per cent of the world’s tota primary energy supply (OECD, 2014). Most of the bunkers are residual fuel oil — tha is, the fuel oil that remains after lighter fractions have been removed for other uses As a consequence, it often has high sulphur content and presents other problem (such as the need to heat it before it can be pumped to the engines). Restriction are being introduced on bunkers, in order to combat air pollution from ships (se below). Much of the delivery of bunkers takes place in the larger ports, especiall those situated near navigational choke-points. Singapore is the world’s leading por for the supply of ships’ bunkers (MPA, 2014).
5.4 Marine insurance
Alongside the maritime transport industry, a major industry has grown up to insur ships and their cargoes while they are in transit. This is an important component o maritime transport, since cargo owners, ship owners, crew and the rest of the worl (including the marine environment) can easily be damaged by ship accidents.  means of ensuring compensation is essential. Many States require a valid insuranc certificate as a precondition of entry to their ports: for example, this is  requirement in all European Economic Area States (EC, 2009) The annual premiu income worldwide of the marine insurance industry was estimated at 28,930 millio United States dollars (excluding the offshore energy industries, whose insurance i often included in marine insurance figures, because it is provided by the same firms) The premiums on cargoes and freight costs represented 18,139 million dollars (62. per cent) of this business, the ships themselves 8,563 million dollars (29.6 per cent) and 2,228 million dollars (7.7 per cent) the cost of insurance against causing damag to the marine environment. In addition to the commercial insurance of ships cargoes, freight costs and environmental risks, many ships are entered int Protection and Indemnity Clubs (P & | Clubs). These are non-profit associations o ship owners, which cover their members against other risks not covered by th marine insurance policy. These clubs are financed by calls on members. In 2013, th total of calls from P & | Clubs was estimated at 3,630 million dollars (Seltmann 2014).
An important element of these insurance arrangements is the inspection of ships b independent surveyors. These inspections are organized by Classification Societies which also lay down construction standards for ships that are consistent with th legal requirements of the States with which the Classification Society works Registration by a Flag State, as well as obtaining insurance, is normally conditional o a Classification Society issuing a certificate that the ship meets the standards lai down for its class. There are over 100 Classification Societies in the various parts o the world. The major Classification Societies formed, in 1961, the Internationa Association of Classification Societies (IACS), which currently consists of 12 member
© 2016 United Nations
2 

societies and has adopted common approaches to the task of classification throug the development of unified rules, requirements and interpretations— for example the Common Structural Rules for Tankers and Bulk Carriers 2006 (IACS, 2014).
6. Pathways by which shipping impacts on the marine environment and th nature of those impacts
Shipping’s impacts on the marine environment can be divided into the catastrophi and the chronic. Catastrophic impacts on the marine environment result fro disasters involving the ship, and may lead to its total loss: for example, collisions fires, foundering and wrecks. Chronic impacts are those that result from the day-to day operation of ships, without calling into question the ship’s integrity or continue functioning (Donaldson, 1994). Both are important, and both are addressed by ver similar methods, including by ensuring the safe construction of vessels and their saf operation through construction standards, safe navigation methods, and the prope training and deployment of the crew.
Figure 2 highlights the way in which major shipping routes pass through certai choke-points: among the more significant are the Malacca and Singapore Straits, th Strait of Hormuz, the Bab al Mandab at the entrance to the Red Sea, the Suez Canal the straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Sound and the Belts a the entrance to the Baltic Sea, the English Channel and the Straits of Dover, and th Panama Canal. Concerns about chronic effects are therefore greatest in these areas because it is there that those effects are most concentrated.
Catastrophic events produce the most serious impacts on the marine environment as well as being very serious from the point of view of the crew and any passenger and in their economic impact. As explained above, the combined effect of effort under a number of international conventions has been to reduce steadily th number of ship losses and other catastrophic events.
6.1 Combined impacts of catastrophic events and chronic inputs to the ocean fro ships
For most of the major threats to the ocean from shipping, MARPOL provides th technical specifications for preventing and reducing the threats. It was adopted i 1973, adapted in 1978 to facilitate its entry into force, and entered into force for th provisions relating to oil and noxious liquids in bulk in 1983. Since then, it ha developed over time (as explained below), both by strengthening the requirement and by bringing into force regulations relating to additional fields. Othe international conventions also address threats to the marine environment arisin from ships (see also below).
Effective implementation and enforcement of the requirements of thes international conventions are crucial.
© 2016 United Nations
2 

6.2. Oil
Oil spills from shipping have a wide range of impacts. Catastrophic discharges o large amounts of hydrocarbons will produce large oil slicks with consequentiall massive impacts. Smaller slicks will have lesser impacts, but may be equally seriou if they are repeated frequently. The impacts range from covering seabirds with oi (which can lead to death), through killing and tainting fish and shellfish and makin the stock of fish farms unusable to covering beaches and rocky shores with oil (whic can adversely affect tourism). In specific cases, problems can be caused fo industries that rely on an intake of seawater (such as marine salt production desalinization plants and coastal power stations) and coastal installations (such a marinas, ports and harbours) (ITOPF, 2014a). In summarising general experienc with oil spills, the study on the environmental impact of the spill of 85,000 tons o crude oil in the 1993 Braer catastrophe (Ritchie et al., 1994) drew attention to thre important features of major oil spills:
(a) There is an initial, very serious impact, usually with extensive mortality o seabirds, marine mammals, fish and benthic biota and coastal pollution;
(b) In many circumstances, however, marine ecosystems will recove relatively quickly from oil spills: crude oil loses most of its toxicity withi a few days of being spilled at sea, mortality of marine biota decline rapidly thereafter, sub-lethal effects are of limited long-term significanc and marine ecosystems recover well where there are nearby sources o replacement biota;
(c) Nevertheless, the local circumstances of an oil spill will be ver significant. The impact on seabirds, marine mammals and sessile biot will obviously be worse if the spill occurs in areas where they are presen in large numbers at the season when the spill occurs — the location o breeding and nursery areas and migration routes and other regula concentrations being particularly important.
The ambient temperature is one of the local circumstances that are most significan for the duration of the impact and the timing of recovery. In warmer areas, th bacteria that break down hydrocarbons are more active, and the effects wil disappear more quickly. In spite of the size (about 1 million tons) of the discharge (not including the airborne deposits from the burning of a further 67 million tons) the effect on the coasts of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia of the discharges from oil well during the Gulf War in 1991 was largely disappearing within 18 months. Thes coasts had largely recovered within five years. However, oil appears to hav persisted in salt marshes and at lower depths in the lower sediments as a result o their anaerobic condition (Readman et al., 1992; Jones et al., 1994; Otsuki et al. 1998; Barth, 2001). In colder areas, on the other hand, bacterial activity is muc lower, and the effects of oil spills persist much longer. The impact of the Exxo Valdez disaster, in which 35,000 tons of oil were spilt in 1989, was still measurabl 20 years later (EVOSTC, 2010).
Local circumstances will also determine the appropriate response to an oil spill. I relatively calm water, it is often appropriate to contain an oil spill with floatin booms and use skimmers to retrieve as much oil as possible. With such equipment,
© 2016 United Nations
2 

it is possible to recover a large proportion of the spill — two-thirds of the 934 ton spilt from the Fu Shan Hai in the Baltic in 2003 were recovered (HELCOM, 2010). Th other major approach is the use of chemical dispersants. Opinion is divided on th appropriateness of using them: some States regard them as appropriate in man cases, depending on the meteorological circumstances, the local environment an the nature of the oil spill; other States regard them as unacceptable (for examples see the different opinions in BONN, 2014).
The problem of pollution from oil was the starting point of MARPOL, and the rules t prevent it are in its Annex |. The Annex covers the construction of oil tankers, thei operation, what discharges of oily water are permitted, the equipment that must b used and the record-keeping required about any discharges. These requirement have been strengthened over time. In particular, it requires the phasing out o single-hulled oil tankers by, at the latest, 2015.
MARPOL Annex | not only prohibits any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixture from any ships in the waters around Antarctica, but also provides for the designatio of Special Areas, in which more stringent limits on the discharge of oily water apply As a counterpart to the designation of Special Areas, coastal States in a Special Are must be parties to MARPOL and must provide appropriate reception facilities for oil waste (see also Chapter 18 - Ports). An important feature of Special Areas is that th maximum permitted level of oil in water discharged is 15 parts per million. In  number of States, the legal system considers that any visible slick on the sea surfac must have been caused by a discharge above this level (for examples, see NSN 2012). Special Areas have been designated, and are in force, in the Mediterranea Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the “Gulfs Area”*, the Antarctic Area (south o 602S), North-West European Waters and Southern South African waters. Thre further areas have been designated, but are not yet in force because the coasta States have not all notified IMO that adequate reception facilities are in place: th Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Oman area of the Arabian Sea (IMO, 2014f).
In some parts of the world, special measures have been introduced to reduce oi pollution. Aerial surveillance, supplemented and guided more recently by the use o satellite surveillance, has been used in North-West Europe. Coupled with a effective programme of prosecutions of owners and masters of ships observe unlawfully discharging oil, this has led to decreases over the last two decades in th numbers of oil spills, both in absolute terms and in terms of numbers of oil spill observed per hour flown (BONN, 2013; HELCOM, 2014). In the Mediterranean, pilo projects of this kind have been undertaken (REMPEC, 2014). Canada also has set u similar surveillance programmes, using both aerial and satellite surveillance (Canada 2011).
Over the past forty years, there have been substantial reductions in the scale o marine environmental problems from oil pollution. As Figure 10 shows, after th amount of oil transported by sea started to recover from the effects of the 197 price increases, the amount transported (measured in ton/miles) has steadily
* The “Gulfs Area” is the sea area between the Arabian Peninsula and the Asian mainland.
© 2016 United Nations
2 

increased. At the same time, the number of recorded spills of more than 7 tons ha steadily decreased. Forty-six per cent of the spills between 7 and 700 tons betwee 1970 and 2013 occurred as a result of collision or grounding and 26 per cent as  result of hull or equipment failure or fire or explosion. For spills of over 700 tons i that period, 63 per cent were the result of collision or grounding and 28 per cent o hull or equipment failure or fire or explosion. In both cases the remaining cause were unidentified (ITOPF, 2014a, UNCTAD, 2012).
Billion Tonne-Miles No. of spills > 7 tonne 12,000 14 12 10,00 10 8,00 8 6,00 6 4,00 4 2,00 2 0  1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 201 —Seabome oil trade (Billion Tonne-Miles) —No. of spills >7 tonne [Source: Fearnresearch 1970-1989, Lloyds List intelligence 1990-2012] Qa >
Figure 10. Seaborne oil trade and number of tanker spills of more than 7 tons 1970 - 2012. Source ITOPF, 2014b.
As Figure 11 shows, a similar decrease is observed in the amount of oil involved i these oil
© 2016 United Nations
2 

spills 700 gap
   j Gememe i 60 ABT SUMME 260,000 Tonne 500 ‘CASTILLO DE BELLVER  252,000 Tonnes  400  s0 eae  (mea (mea 20 HEBE! SPIRI 11,000 Tonne 10 ot LA sl I L [in So 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
Figure 11. Quantities of oil in spills of more than 7 tons in the years 1970 — 2013. (with notes of th major recent oil spills and their sizes). Source: ITOPF, 2014b.
Nevertheless, a significant problem remains, especially near major shipping routes.  study has shown that even low levels of oil fouling in Magellanic penguins appear t be sufficient to interfere with reproduction (Fowler et al., 1995). One way in whic the extent of the remaining problem can be seen is from observations on shoreline of the proportion of the dead seabirds found there which have been contaminate by oil. Diving seabirds are very sensitive to oil pollution: once such a bird is pollute with oil, it is likely to die from hypothermia and/or inability to forage. In th MARPOL North-Western Europe Special Area, the proportion of common guillemot (Uria aalge) stranded near the major shipping routes in the southern North Sea wa about 40 per cent in 2010, compared with about 4 per cent around the Orkne Islands (OSPAR, 2010). Similar reports have been made about the oiling of seabird in other areas with high levels of shipping: in the MARPOL Southern South Afric Waters Special Area, studies note that, on the basis of the proportion of th population that has been affected, the African penguin is considered to hav suffered more from oiling than any other seabird species globally (Wolfaardt, 2009 Garcia-Borboroglu et al., 2013). In the Straits of Malacca, there is a serious proble with illegal discharges of oil: during the five-year period from 2000 to 2005, ther were 144 cases of oil spills into the sea; of this number, 108 cases were due to illega discharges from ships (BOBLME, Malaysia, 2011). In the waters around south eastern South America, used both by coastwise local shipping and large vessel travelling between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, a study showed that betwee 1980 and 1994 some 22,000 adult and some 20,000 juvenile Magellanic penguins
© 2016 United Nation 

(Spheniscus magellanicus) were being killed each year by oil from discharges fro ships passing through the foraging areas for their colonies on the coast (Grandini 1994). Happily, the solution adopted in 1997 of requiring coastal shipping to follo routes further out to sea may have reduced this problem: over the years 2001  2007, the number of oiled penguins observed annually was around 100 (Argentina 1998; Boersma, 2008). However, other reports are less optimistic (see Chapter 36B) Further north, on the Atlantic coast of Canada, there are also reports of substantia numbers of seabirds being killed by oil. A conservative estimate is put at 300,00 birds a year, with appreciable effects on the populations of species commonl suffering this fate (Canada, 2011).
Effective response to oil spills requires a good deal of organization and equipment The international framework for this is provided by the 1990 Internationa Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPR Convention). This entered into force in 1995, and 107 States are now parties. Th IMO plays an important role in coordination and in providing training (IMO, 20148) Coastal States have to bear the capital cost of establishing adequate respons capability, but may be able to recover operational costs if and when that capacity i deployed to deal with an oil spill. Developing countries can have difficulties i mobilising the resources for investment in the necessary facilities (Moller et al. 2003).
Major oil spills can cause serious economic damage to a wide range of people an enterprises. After the 1967 Torrey Canyon disaster, many States sought to make i easier for those suffering economic damage to obtain reparation. The 196 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage and the 197 International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund fo Compensation for Oil Pollution aimed to achieve this. These Conventions wer revised in 1992 and the revisions came into force in 1996. By July 2014, 115 State were parties to both the 1992 Conventions, and 24 States have become parties to  supplementary protocol providing for additional compensation if the damag exceeds the limits of the 1992 Convention. The economic effect of the Convention is basically to transfer the economic consequences of an oil spill from the coasta State to the States in which undertakings receive cargoes of oil. This is done eithe through the insurance costs which the cargo carriers have to incur and include in th costs of the voyages or (to the extent that the damage exceeds the amount insure and the coastal State participates in the funds) through the contributions paid to th funds by those that receive oil cargoes and are located in the States parties.
6.3 Hazardous and noxious substances and other cargoes capable of causing harm
Oil is not the only ship’s cargo capable of causing damage. Much depends on th quantities involved — large quantities of nearly any cargo can have an advers impact, at least on the local environment. SOLAS and MARPOL require precaution against damage from a range of other cargoes, including through requirin compliance with the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code, th International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, the International Code for the Safe
© 2016 United Nations
2 

Carriage of Grain in Bulk and the International Code for the Construction an Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk.
Data on marine pollution incidents involving hazardous and noxious substances ar scarce (FSI, 2012). A 2010 study looking at 312 reported incidents of this kin between 1965 and 2009, mainly in the North Atlantic, concluded that reports ha become much more frequent since about 2000, with the advent of the internet. I found that about 33 per cent of the cases involved bad weather or structura damage, 30 per cent collision or grounding, 11 per cent fire or explosion and only  per cent failures in loading or unloading. Only about half the cases involve discharges into the sea. The three most common substances involved were iron ore sulphuric acid and caustic soda (Cedre, 2010).
The increased use of containers means that a substantial amount of hazardous o noxious substances is being carried in containers. In 2010 a group of containe owners set up a voluntary system to report incidents involving containers, such a fires and spillages, with a view to analysing the data to see if any patterns emerge which could be useful for risk reduction. The Container Notification Informatio System now covers about 60 per cent of all container slot capacity. Data on th number of incidents have not yet been published, but some preliminary conclusion have been announced: nearly 50 per cent of incidents involved containers where th contents had been mis-declared; 75 per cent of incidents involved hazardous o noxious cargos; no particular global pattern of loading ports emerged from th incidents, but incidents appeared to be higher with containers packed in June, Jul and August (CINS, 2014).
Containers lost overboard are another source of potential pollution from hazardou and noxious substances. Some estimates have suggested that the numbers of suc containers could be in the thousands annually. However, the World Shippin Council, based on a survey to which 70 per cent of the global container shippin capacity responded, estimated in 2011 that about 350 containers are lost overboar each year, excluding mass losses of 50 or more containers as a result of a major shi disaster. If those mass losses are included, the number of containers lost rises t about 650 a year out of about 100 million carried annually (WSC, 2011). On th other hand, it must be remembered that even one container lost overboard ca have a lasting and widespread effect on the marine environment: a containe holding 28,800 plastic yellow ducks, red beavers, blue turtles and green frogs wa lost in 1992 in the middle of the Pacific. The toys have been washed up not only al around the Pacific, but also as far away as the Hebrides in the United Kingdom i 2003 (Ebbesmeyer, 2009).
Following on from the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Cooperation (OPRC), a protocol dealing with preparedness an response to incidents involving hazardous and noxious substances was adopted i 2000. This follows the same model as the OPRC Convention. It came into force i 2007, but so far only 33 States have become parties. Efforts to set up a international agreement to deal with compensation for liability and damage fro hazardous and noxious ships’ cargoes were started as long ago as 1984.  convention was agreed in 1996 but, despite further efforts, no scheme is yet in force
© 2016 United Nations
2 

to provide international support where a hazardous or noxious cargo cause economic damage.
6.4 Sewage
The problems from the discharge of sewage (in the narrow sense of human an animal urine and faecal waste) from ships are the same as those for simila discharges from land, which are discussed in Chapter 20. Basically, the problems ar the introduction of nutrients into the sea, and the introduction of waterborn pathogens. Away from land, the oceans are capable of assimilating and dealing wit raw sewage through natural bacterial action. Therefore, the regulations in Annex I to MARPOL prohibit the discharge of sewage into the sea within a specified distanc of the nearest land, unless ships have in operation an approved sewage treatmen plant. (IMO, 2014)).
In summary, discharge of sewage into the sea outside a Special Area is permitted:
(a) When a ship has in operation an approved sewage treatment plant to meet th relevant operational requirements (these are broadly similar to the performance o an effective secondary sewage-treatment plant on land);
(b) When a ship is discharging comminuted and disinfected sewage using a approved system at a distance of more than three nautical miles from the neares land;
(c) When a ship is discharging sewage which is not comminuted or disinfected at  distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land (MARPOL Annex IV a in force from 2005).
Because of the problems of eutrophication described in Chapter 20, th amendments to MARPOL Annex IV by IMO in 2011 introduces the Baltic Sea as  special area under Annex IV and adds new discharge requirements for passenge ships while in a special area. In effect, when adequate reception facilities are i place, passenger ships capable of carrying more than 12 passengers may onl discharge sewage if nitrogen and phosphorus have been removed to specifie standards. (MEPC, 2012).
“Grey water” (that is, waste water from baths, showers, sinks, laundries an kitchens) is not covered by MARPOL Annex IV. Some States (for example, the Unite States in respect of Alaska) have introduced controls over the discharge of sewag and grey water from larger passenger ships putting into their ports because the loca conditions (in Alaska, particularly the water temperature) make the breakdown o any contaminants it may contain quite slow (EPA, 2014a). Furthermore, som States, particularly small island developing States, have difficulties in managin sewage discharged ashore from cruise ships and from the large numbers of suc ships visiting their ports. These challenges for small island developing States ar discussed further in Chapter 25.
© 2016 United Nations
3 

6.5 Garbage
There is no doubt that a substantial part of the marine debris considered in Chapte 25 originates from ships. The damage to the environment from this marine debris i described in that chapter. This debris is constituted by waste from the norma operations of the ship that is thrown overboard. All the serious (and not entirel understood) consequences of marine debris described in that chapter therefor apply to this chronic form of discharge from ships. Because of the large numbers o passengers that they carry, cruise ships generate a high proportion of the garbag generated at sea — in 1995, the United States National Research Council estimate that cruise ships produced 24 per cent of the solid waste generated on board ships although they represented only 1 per cent of the world fleet (NRC, 1995). Becaus of the scale of the challenge, most large cruise ships now incinerate on board eac day a high proportion of the waste that they generate (75 to 85 per cent of garbag is generally incinerated on board on large ships (EPA, 2008)).
Annex V to MARPOL seeks to eliminate and reduce the amount of garbage bein discharged into the sea from ships. Although the Annex is not a compulsory part o the requirements of MARPOL, 15 States, with combined merchant fleets constitutin no less than 50% of the gross tonnage of the world’s merchant shipping becam parties to enable its entry into force on 31 December 1988. Experience showed tha the requirements in the original version of Annex V were not adequately preventin ships’ garbage from polluting the sea. United Nations General Assembly resolutio 60/30 invited IMO to review the Annex. This was done and a revised version entere into force in 2013. Alongside this, IMO adopted guidelines to promote effectiv implementation. The revised Annex V prohibits generally the discharge of al garbage into the sea, with exceptions related to food waste, cargo residues, cleanin agents and additives and animal carcasses. It also provides for Special Areas wher the exceptions are much more restricted. The Special Areas comprise th Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the "Gulfs" area®, th North Sea, the Antarctic area (south of 602S) and the Wider Caribbean Regio (including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea) (IMO, 2014h).
Providing adequate waste reception facilities in ports and ensuring that thos facilities are used is important. The provision of waste-reception facilities in ports i considered in Chapter 18. However, it should be noted here that small islan developing States face major problems in establishing adequate port waste reception facilities (Corbin, 2011). The greatest effort to promote use of waste reception facilities has been in Europe, by requiring ships to deliver garbage on shor before leaving port, and removing any economic incentive to avoid doing so. Unde this approach, with a few exceptions, all ships are required to deliver their garbag to the port waste-reception facility before leaving port, and the cost of such facilitie is to be recovered from ships using the ports, with all ships (again with som exceptions) contributing substantially towards the cost of those facilities, whether or
° The sea area between the Arabian Peninsula and the mainland of Asia.
© 2016 United Nations
3 

not they made use of them (European Union, 2000). This substantially removes an economic advantage from not using them. This has resulted in a significant (abou 50 per cent) increase between 2005 and 2008 in the amount of garbage delivered o shore in European Union ports (EMSA, 2010).
As the OECD pointed out in its 2002 report: “Illegal discharge of wastes at sea ofte takes place away from shorelines and under cover of night. These two factors mak it difficult for port and coastal States to detect acts of pollution, and/or positivel identify the polluting vessel” (OECD, 2002). As said in Chapter 25, more informatio is needed.
6.6 Air pollution
Since the replacement of sail by steam and then diesel, ships have been makin emissions to the air. By the early 1990s it was becoming apparent that, in som parts of the world, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur oxides (SOx) fro ships were becoming a serious element in air pollution for coastal States with heav shipping traffic in their coastal waters (OSPAR, 2000). Even short-term exposure t NOx produces adverse respiratory effects, including airway inflammation, in health people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. It also reduce resistance to respiratory infections (Knelson et al., 1977; Lee, 1980; EPA, 2014b) Airborne NOx is also a substantial source of nitrogen inputs into coastal waters, an can thus contribute to excessive levels of nutrients (OSPAR, 2010: see also Chapte 20). Exposure to SOx likewise weakens resistance to respiratory infections, and i linked to higher rates of mortality in humans. It is also a contributor (with land-base emissions) to acid rain, which can harm forests and fresh waters (Greaver et al. 2012). SOx emissions from ships have been worsening for decades, as a result of th increasing restrictions on the levels of sulphur in hydrocarbon fuels used on land: a restrictions have reduced the extent to which fuel oils with higher sulphur conten can be used on land, so such fuel oils have become more attractive for use at sea because there were no restrictions and the reduced demand on land lowered th price. NOx and SOx, together with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), can also reac in sunlight to produce smog, which affects many major cities: for coastal cities emissions from ships can contribute to this problem (EPA, 2014c). In addition shipping was seen as a further source of chlorofluorocarbons and other substance which were contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer, and thus increasin ultraviolet radiation on the earth’s surface (GESAMP, 2001). Estimates in 1997 o total global NOx emissions from shipping suggested that they were equivalent to 4 per cent of such emissions in North America and 74 per cent of those in Europea OECD countries, and that total global SOx emissions from shipping were equivalen to 35 per cent of such emissions in North America and 53 per cent of such emission in European OECD countries. The global emissions of both NOx and SOx wer concentrated in the northern hemisphere (Corbett et al., 1997) — see Figure 12 fo SOx. Emissions from shipping have therefore been seen as a significant contributor source of air pollution in many parts of the world.
© 2016 United Nations
3 

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Figure 12. Estimated annual emissions of SOx from ships 1997. Source: Corbett et al., 1997.
In 1997 a new annex to MARPOL (Annex VI) was adopted to limit the main ai pollutants contained in ships’ exhausts, including NOx and SOx. It also prohibit deliberate emissions of ozone-depleting substances and regulates shipboar incineration and emissions of VOCs from tankers. Following its entry into force i 2005, it was revised in 2008 to reduce progressively up to 2020 (or, in the light of  review, 2025) global emissions of NOx, SOx and particulate matter, and to introduc emission control areas (ECAs) to reduce emissions of those air pollutants further i designated sea areas (IMO, 2014n). These requirements can be achieved either b using bunkers with lower sulphur content (which may have higher prices) or b installing exhaust scrubbers. Some shipping companies have announced fue surcharges to meet extra costs which they attribute to the new requirement (Container Management, 2014).
6.7 Anti-fouling treatments
Ships have always been at risk of marine organisms (such as barnacles) taking u residence on their hulls. This increases the resistance of the hull in its passag through water, and thus slows its speed and increases the fuel requirement. Wit fuel being around half the operating cost of a vessel, this can be a significant extr cost. Historically, the response involved taking the ship out of water and scrapin the hull. Because of the inconvenience and cost of this, various treatment developed, mostly involving the application copper sheeting or copper-based paints In the 1960s, organic compounds of tin were developed, which were shown to b very effective when applied as paints to ships’ hulls, with the tin compounds leachin into the water. The most effective was tributyl tin (TBT) (Santillo et al., 2001). By th late 1970s they were commonly used on commercial and recreational craft fro developed countries. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, oyster (Crassostrea gigas harvests in Arcachon Bay, France, failed. Subsequent research identified that TB was the cause. At the same time, research in the United Kingdom showed that TB was an endocrine disruptor in a marine whelk species (Nucella lapillus) causing
© 2016 United Nations
3 

masculinisation (imposex) in females and widespread population decline. Bans o TBT on boats less than 25 metres long first started in the 1980s. In 1990, the IM recommended that Governments should eliminate the use of antifouling paint containing TBT. This resolution was intended as a temporary restriction until the IM could implement a more far-reaching measure. The International Convention on th Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships was adopted in 2001. Thi prohibited the use of organotin compounds as biocides in anti-fouling paints. Thi Convention came into force in 2008, and has been ratified by 69 States, representin 84.41 per cent of the gross tonnage of the world’s merchant fleet (IMO, 2014)) There are the typical enforcement problems with this Convention. There is also  legacy problem in that dry docks and port berths may have deposits of old anti fouling paint in the sediments on their bottoms. As and when this sediment has t be removed, disposal into the sea will be a problem, since it may remobilise the TB remains.
6.8 Wrecks
The seabed is littered with the remains of shipwrecks, some dating as far back as th second millennium BCE. The main impact on the marine environment comes fro more recent wrecks, since the introduction of fuel oil as the source of the motiv force. Such more recent wrecks will usually contain bunkers, which will eventuall leak, and become a new source of oil pollution of the sea. Likewise, cargoes ma present dangers of pollution from oil or hazardous substances. There are a numbe of other problems: first, and depending on its location, a wreck may constitute  hazard to navigation. Secondly, substantial costs are likely to be involved in th location, marking and removal of hazardous wrecks. The Nairobi Internationa Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, 2007, aims to resolve these and relate issues. It sets out rules on how to determine whether a wreck presents a hazard makes the owner of the ship liable for costs of removal and marking (subject to th rules on limits for liability for marine damage) and requires compulsory insurance t cover such costs for ships registered in, or other ships entering or leaving, State parties to the Convention. The Convention will enter into force in 2015. So far ther are 12 contracting States, representing 13.84 per cent of the gross tonnage of th world’s merchant fleet (Bray et al, 2007; IMO, 2014).
6.9 Invasive species
Invasive non-native species are a major and growing cause of biodiversity loss. The can cause health problems, damage infrastructure and facilities, disrupt captur fisheries and aquaculture and destroy habitats and ecosystems. In some cases, th transport by shipping is clear. For example, in 1991 and 1992, the bacterium tha causes cholera (Vibrio cholerae) was found in ballast water from five cargo ships i ports in the United States along the Gulf of Mexico (McCarthy, 1994). In other cases it can be inferred. There are two main ways in which ocean shipping transport invasive species: as attachments to hulls, and in ballast water that has been taken u and discharged by ballasting operations during the stages of a voyage.
© 2016 United Nations
3 

So far, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has identifie 84 non-native invasive marine species which have appeared in marine habitat outside their natural distribution (GISD, 2014). A separate review (Molnar et al 2008), using a wide range of reports (not all peer-reviewed), identified 329 marin invasive species, with at least one species documented in 194 marine eco-region (84 per cent of the 232 marine eco-regions worldwide used in the review). The mai groups of species listed were crustaceans (59 species), molluscs (54), algae (46), fis (38), annelids (worms) (31), plants (19), and cnidarians (sea-anemones, jellyfish, etc (17). The review found 205 species with detailed shipping pathway information. O these, 39 per cent are thought to have been, or likely to have been, transported onl by fouling of ships’ hulls, 31 per cent in ballast water, and 31 per cent by one o other of these routes. Some regional reviews have also identified high numbers o non-native species: for example, 120 in the Baltic Sea and over 300 in th Mediterranean (Zaiko et al., 2011).
Another review of reports of cases of invasive species (Williams et al, 2008) foun several estimates of economic damage in the range of millions of US dollars to th localities where the invasive species had been studied. Figure 13 shows a summar of the scale of transfers between origins and destinations (Nelleman, 2008).
Invasive marine specie pathways and origins
KR From NWAAtlantic
my From NE Atlantic
mw From Asia
Major areas wit invasive marine species
©) e O 150 - 25 oO < 150
Number of invasiv alien species
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Figure 13. Major pathways and origins of invasive species infestations in the marine environment Source: Nelleman et al, 2008.
The scale of these problems led to international efforts to address the pathway through ships’ ballast water and biofouling. In 1991 the IMO Marine Environmen Protection Committee (MEPC) adopted guidelines for preventing the introduction o unwanted organisms and pathogens from ships’ ballast water and sedimen discharges. In 1993, the IMO Assembly followed this up by asking the MEPC t review the guidelines with a view to developing an international convention and, in
© 2016 United Nations 3 

1997 invited States to use the guidelines to address this problem. More tha fourteen years of negotiations were needed to develop the 2004 Internationa Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediment (the BWM Convention). The Convention will require all ships to implement a Ballas Water and Sediments Management Plan. All ships will have to carry a Ballast Wate Record Book and will be required to carry out ballast water management procedure to a given standard. States parties can take additional measures subject to specifie criteria and guidelines. The MEPC completed the work of developing the guideline in 2008. The basic requirements of the BWM Convention are the ballast wate exchange standard and the ballast water performance standard. Ships performin ballast water exchange must do so with an efficiency of 95 per cent volumetri exchange of ballast water. Ships using a ballast water management system mus meet a performance standard based on agreed numbers of organisms per unit o volume. The BWM Convention requires acceptance by 30 States representing 35 pe cent of the gross tonnage of the world merchant fleet before it can enter into force By November 2014, 43 States representing 32.54 per cent of the tonnage of th world merchant fleet had accepted it. It therefore seems likely to enter into forc fairly soon (IMO, 2014j, IMO, 2014k).
The Guidelines for the control and management of ships’ biofouling to minimize th transfer of invasive aquatic species (Biofouling Guidelines) were adopted in Jul 2011. The Biofouling Guidelines are intended to provide a globally consisten approach to the management of aquatic organisms on ships’ hulls, and represent  decisive step towards reducing the transfer of invasive aquatic species by ships. I addition, biofouling management can improve a ship’s hydrodynamic performanc and, therefore, be an effective tool in enhancing energy efficiency and reducing ai emissions. In October 2012, the IMO supplemented the Biofouling Guidelines wit Guidance for minimizing the transfer of invasive aquatic species as biofouling (hul fouling) for recreational craft, less than 24 metres in length.
6.10 Noise
The marine environment is subject to a wide array of human-made noise fro activities such as commercial shipping, oil and gas exploration and the use of variou types of sonar. This human activity is an important component of oceani background noise and can dominate in coastal waters and shallow seas. Long-ter measurements of ocean ambient sound indicate that low frequency anthropogeni noise has been increased, primarily due to commercial shipping, both as a result o increases in the amount of shipping and as a result of developments in vessel desig (particularly of propellers), which have not prioritised noise reduction. Shippin noise is centred in the 20 to 200 Hz frequency band. Noise at these low frequencie propagates efficiently in the sea, and can therefore affect marine biota over lon distances. Baleen whales use the same frequency band for some of thei communication signals. A variety of other marine animals are known to be affecte by anthropogenic noise in the ocean. Negative impacts for least 55 marine specie (cetaceans, fish, marine turtles and invertebrates) have been reported in scientifi studies. The effects can range from mild behavioural responses to complet avoidance of the affected area. A 1993 study concluded that “low-frequency noise
© 2016 United Nations
3 

levels increased by more than 10 dB in many parts of the world between 1950 an 1975,” corresponding to about 0.55 dB per year. A 2002 study indicated an increas of approximately 10 dB over 33 years (about 0.3 dB per year). Subsequen measurements up to 2007 confirmed this but suggest that, in some places at least the subsequent rate of increase has slowed or stopped. It is generally agreed tha anthropogenic noise can be an important stressor for marine life and is widel regarded as a global issue that needs addressing (NRC, 2003, Tyack 2008, Andrew e al., 2011, UNEP 2012).
6.11 Enforcement
The effectiveness of the internationally agreed rules to protect the marin environment from the adverse effects of shipping depends to a large extent on th extent of enforcement. There are important economic aspects to the ways in whic this enforcement is carried out. The United Nations Convention on the Law of th Sea (UNCLOS) gives flag States, coastal States and port States a range of powers t enforce internationally agreed rules and standards. For port-State control, ports ar often competing with their neighbours. This makes it economically important for th port-States to be certain that their enforcement actions are not disadvantaging th competitive positions of their ports. Port-State inspection is, therefore, carried ou in many regions in accordance with memorandums of understanding between th States of the region. Memorandums of understanding (MoU) have been set u covering most ocean regions: Europe and the north Atlantic (Paris MoU — 27 States) Asia and the Pacific (Tokyo MoU — 19 States and territories); Latin America (Acuerd de Vifia del Mar — 15 States); Caribbean (Caribbean MoU — 14 States and territories) West and Central Africa (Abuja MoU — 14 States); the Black Sea region (Black Se MoU - 6 States); the Mediterranean (Mediterranean MoU — 10 States); the India Ocean (Indian Ocean MoU — 17 States); and the Riyadh MoU (part of the Persian Gul — 6 States). These port-State inspection organizations publish details of the results o their inspections, which can have economic significance for ship operators, sinc cargo consignors tend not to want to use shipping lines which have a poo performance.
Attention to the implementation of international rules and standards demand qualified inspectors to undertake the various controls. Most port-State contro inspectors have qualified through service on board ships. A demand for mor inspectors may well be in competition for the same pool of staff, which (as note above) may be itself inadequate for the primary task of crewing ships if the stead growth in shipping activity continues.
7. Significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t shipping (including information gaps and capacity-building gaps)
This section summarises the most significant elements from the foregoing sections.
© 2016 United Nation 

Shipping is a vital component of the world economy. As the world economy ha become increasingly globalized, the role of shipping has become more important The economic crisis of 2008 produced some reductions in the levels of shipping, bu those have recovered and growth has resumed, though not at quite the previou rate. Shipping has provided means for many States rich in primary resources t export those resources, and for many States that are developing their economies t export their products. Gradually, the balance of the tonnage of goods loaded i developed and in developing countries is becoming more equal. Increasing huma wealth will therefore continue to be a driver in increasing the scale of shipping tha is needed.
The pressures that shipping imposes on the environment are significant an widespread. In total they represent a significant contribution to the cumulativ pressures that humans are imposing on the rest of the marine environment, and tha is affecting the harvest from the sea and the maintenance of biodiversity. Th pressures are particularly concentrated at certain choke points where shippin routes crowd through narrow sea-passages, e.g., straits or canals. Those pressure are also diverse — some result from shipping disasters, and some are chronic (oi discharges, loss of containers, garbage, sewage, air pollution, noise, anti-foulin treatments of hulls, transport of invasive species). Over the past 40 years, globa rules and standards have been developed to regulate most of these. Steps are no being taken to make the enforcement of these rules and standards more unifor throughout the world.
However, there is still a significant number of States and territories that have no been able to become parties to the various international conventions an agreements that embody these rules and standards. These States and territorie need to build the capacities which will enable them to commit themselves t implementing these rules and standards. The necessary skilled staff and facilities wil also be needed to implement those rules and standards. Although the IMO an other international organizations have programmes to support such capacity building, there are still gaps.
There are signs that, at least in some regions, the implementation of these globa rules and standards and other local measures is helping to improve the status of th marine environment. The overall number of ships lost at sea has continued t decrease, and in some areas oil discharges seem to have declined. But there is  continuing growth in shipping. Unless the everyday pressures generated by shippin can be steadily reduced, the continuing growth in shipping will lead to increase pressure on the ocean. Even if all ships can meet the standards of the best increased numbers and tonnage of shipping will eventually increase the pressures o the environment.
However, in many parts of the world, coastal States do not have adequate plans t respond to maritime casualties. Such plans often require substantial investment i plant and equipment and the training of personnel. The resources for suc investment are sometimes lacking.
From the social aspect of shipping, it is noteworthy that Africa and South Americ are underrepresented in the labour force. The divergence between the genders is
© 2016 United Nations
3 

even more noteworthy, with only an estimated 2 per cent of the maritime labou force being female. It is also noteworthy that there are significant differences in th levels of pay of ships’ officers depending on their national origin.
Current reports suggest that there is an adequate labour force to provide the crew of the current levels of shipping. If (as is expected) the amount of world shippin continues to grow, crew shortages may develop. Skilled staff will also be needed t enforce the internationally agreed rules and standards, and this demand may b competing with those for ships’ crews.
The entry into force of the 2006 Maritime Labour Convention in 2013 was a majo step forward in ensuring the provision of decent working and living conditions fo seafarers. Capacities will need to be built for its enforcement.
There is a gap in the information available on deaths of, and injuries to, seafarers This information is essential for ensuring that they have decent working condition and for reducing the numbers of seafarers’ deaths and injuries. Likewise, th information available on the deaths of, and injuries to, passengers does not appea to be adequate to support policy development in this field, although suc information as is available does not suggest that this is a major problem.
© 2016 United Nations
3 

References
ACP (2014). Autoridad del Canal de Panama  https://www.pancanal.com/eng/pr/press-releases/2014/06/25/pr514.htm (accessed 4 July 2014).
Akten, Nekmettin (2004). Analysis of Shipping Casualties in the Bosphorus, Journa of Navigation, vol. 57, issue 03.
Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty (2012). SE with Cardiff University, Safety an Shipping 1912 to 2012 http://www.agcs.allianz.com/assets/PDFs/Reports/AGCS_safety_and_shipping report.pdf (accessed 22 July 2014).
Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty (2014) SE, Safety and Shipping Review http://www.agcs.allianz.com/insights/white-papers-and-case-studies/shipping review-2014/ (accessed 22 July 2014).
Andrew, R.K., Howe, B.M., and Mercer, J.A. (2011). Long-time trends in ship traffi noise for four sites off the North American West Coast, Acoustical Society o America, 129, 642.
Argentina 1998 — Prefectura Naval Argentina, Ordenanza No 13/98 (Rutas de lo buques que transportan hidrocarburos y sustancias nocivas liquidas en grane en navegacion maritima nacional), 8 January.
Barth, H. (2001). The coastal ecosystems 10 years after the 1991 Gulf War oil spil (unpublished http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_III|/Geographie/phygeo/ ownloads/barthcoast.pdf
(accessed 21 June 2014).
BIMCO/ISF (Baltic International Marine Council and International Shippin Federation) (2010). Manpower 2010 Update: The Worldwide Demand for an Supply of Seafarers https://www.bimco.org/en/News/2010/11/~/media/About/Press/2010/Manp wer_Study_handout_2010.ashx (accessed 20 June 2014).
BOBLME Malaysia (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Countr report on pollution — Malaysia  http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology-07.pd (accessed 17 March 2014).
Boersma, P. Dee (2008). Penguins as Marine Sentinels, BioScience, vol. 58, No. 7.
BONN (2013). Bonn Agreement, Annual report on aerial surveillance for 201 http://www.bonnagreement.org/eng/html/welcome.html (accessed 31 Ma 2014).
BONN (2014). Bonn Agreement, Counter-Pollution Manua http://www.bonnagreement.org/eng/html/welcome.html (accessed 31 Ma 2014).
© 2016 United Nations 4 

Bray, S. and Langston, W.J., Tributyltin pollution on a global scale - An overview o relevant and recent research: impacts and issues, WWF, Godalming.
Brazil (2013). Marinha do Brasil - Diretoria de Hidrografia e Navegacdo, Manual d Utilizagdo do Sistema de Tarifa de Utilizagdo de Fardis https://sistuf.dhn.mar.mil.br/arquivos/manual.pdf (accessed 20 June 2014).
Canada (2011). Environment Canada, Birds oiled at Sea. http://www.ec.gc.ca/mbc com/default.asp?lang=En&n=C6E52970-1 (accessed 20 April 2014).
Cedre (2010). Centre de documentation, de recherche et d’expérimentation sur le pollutions accidentelles des eaux. Bulletin de information du Cedre No 27, 201 (ISSN 1247-603X).
CINS (Container Incident Notification System Organization) (2014). Liner ‘Carg Incident Notification System’ growing up http://www.containerownersassociation.org/news/370-liner %E2%80%I98cargo-incident-notification-system%E2%80%99-growing-up.htm (accessed 31 May 2014).
CLIA (Cruise Lines International Association) (2014). State of the Cruise Industr Report. http://www. cruising.org/sites/default/files/pressroom/Infographic.pd (accessed 5 July 2014).
CMW (Cruise Market Watch) (2014). Growth http://www.cruisemarketwatch.com/growth/ (accessed 8 July 2014).
COMNAP (Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes) (2005) International Coordination of Hydrography in Antarctica: Significance to Safet of Antarctic Ship Operations, XXX Antarctic Consultative Meeting, New Delhi 2007 (HCA7-INF5).
Corbett J.J., and Fischbeck, P.S. (1997). Emissions from Ships, Science, vol 278, 1997.
Container Management (2014): “Maersk announces Low-Sulphur Surcharge” (http://container-mag.com/2014/10/09/maersk-announces-low-sulphur surcharge/ accessed 10 December 2014).
Corbin, C. (2011). Protecting the Caribbean Sea from marine-based pollution lessons from the MARPOL Annex V Special Area Designation, In Technica Proceedings of the Fifth International Marine Debris Conference March 20-25 Honolulu, Hawai‘i, USA (Ben Carswell, Kris McElwee, and Sarah Morison, eds) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Technical Memorandu NOS-OR&R-38, 2011.
Dias, M. (2009). O Desenvolvimento do Transporte de Contéineres na Cabotage Brasileira, in www.antaq.gov.br/portal/SeminarioCabotagem.asp (accessed  July 2014).
Lord Donaldson of Lymington (1994): Safer Ships, Cleaner Seas: Report of Lor Donaldson's Inquiry into the Prevention of Pollution from Merchant Shippin (Command Paper Cm 2560), Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, Unite Kingdom.
Ebbesmeyer, C. and Scigliano, E. (2009). Flotsametrics and the Floating World: How
© 2016 United Nations 4 

One Man's Obsession with Runaway Sneakers and Rubber Ducks Revolutionize Ocean Science, Collins, London (ISBN. London Collins (ISBN: 9780061971150).
EC (European Commission). (1999). The Development of Short Sea Shipping i Europe: A Dynamic Alternative in a Sustainable Transport Chain, (COM(1999 317 final).
EC (European Parliament and the Council of the European Union) (2000). Directiv of 27 November 2000 on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste an cargo residues. (Directive 2000/59/EC as amended).
EC (European Parliament and the Council of the European Union) (2009) Directive of 23 April 2009 on the insurance of shipowners for maritime claim (Directive 2009/20/EC).
Economist (2014). Polar bearings, The Economist, 12 July 2014.
EIA (USA Energy Information Administration) (2014a). U.S. Natural Gas Imports an Exports 2013 - http://www.eia.gov/naturalgas/importsexports/annual (accessed 10 July 2014).
EIA (USA Energy Information Agency (2014b), International Energy Satistics  Consumption of Residual Fuel Oil for Bunkerin (http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=66&aid=1 (accessed 20 October 2014).
EMSA (European Maritime Safety Agency) (2010). Horizontal Assessment Report  Port Reception Facilities (Directive 2000/59/EC), 2010 http://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/maritime/consultations/doc/prf/emsa report.pdf (accessed 6 June 2014).
EPA (USA Environmental Protection Agency) (2008). Cruise Ship Discharg Assessment Report, (document EPA842-R-07-005).
EPA (USA Environmental Protection Agency) (2014a). Sewage and Graywate Standards Development http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/vwd/sewage_gray.cf (accessed 14 August 2014).
EPA (USA Environmental Protection Agency) (2014b). Nitrogen Oxides — Healt http://www.epa.gov/oaqps001/nitrogenoxides/health.html (accessed 21 Jul 2014).
EPA (USA Environmental Protection Agency) (2014c). Southern California Air Qualit http://www.epa.gov/Region9/socal/air/index.html (accessed 21 July 2014).
EU (2013). European Union, Report from the Commission to the Europea Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee o the implementation by the Member States of Council Directive 2006/11 EURATOM on the supervision and control of shipments of radioactive waste an spent fuels (COM(2013) 240 final).
EVOSTC (Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) (2010). Status of Injured Resource and Services. http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/index.cfm?FA=status.injure (accessed 20 June 2014).
Faststream (Faststream Recruitment Ltd) (2012). Maritime Salary Review.
© 2016 United Nations 4 

http://www. faststream.com/faststream_recruitment_news/2012_maritime_sa ary_review/ (accessed 20 May 2014).
Fowler, G.S., et al. (1995). Hormonal and Reproductive Effects of Low Levels o Petroleum Fouling in Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus Magellanicus), The Auk vol. 112, section 2.
FSI (IMO Sub-committee on Flag State Implementation) (2012). Casualty Statistic and Investigations — report by IMO Secretariat, IMODOCS FSI 20/5/4.
G&M (2014). A reality check on the North-West Passage “boom”. The Globe an Mail, Toronto, 7 January.
Garcia-Borboroglu, P., Boersma, P.D., Reyes, L.M. and Skewgar, E. (2013) Petroleum Pollution and Penguins: Marine Conservation Tools to Reduce th Problem. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Marin Conservation Congress, George Madison University, Fairfax, Virginia http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p296486_index.html (accessed 30 Jun 2014).
GESAMP (2001). Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution A Sea of Troubles. Arendal, Norway (ISBN 82-7701-019-9).
GISD (2014). International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Global Invasiv Species Database http://www. issg.org/database/species/search.asp?sts=sss&st=sss&fr=1&x=12 y=9&sn=&rn=&hci=8&ei=-1&lang=EN (accessed 25 November 2014).
Gandini, P., Boersma, D., Frere, E., Gandini, M., Holik T., and Lichtschein, V. (1994) Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) Affected by Chronic Petroleu Pollution along the Coast of Chubut, Argentina. The Auk, Vol. 111(1), 20-27.
Greaver, T.L., Sullivan, T.J., Herrick, J.D., Barber, M.C., Baron, J.S., Cosby, B.J. Deerhake, M.E., Dennis, R.L., Dubois, J-J.B., Goodale, C.L., Herlihy, A.T. Lawrence, G.B., Liu, L., Lynch, J.A., and Novak, K.J. (2012). Ecological effects o nitrogen and sulfur air pollution in the US: what do we know? Frontiers i Ecology and the Environment, Vol. 10, No. 7. 365-372.
HELCOM (Helsinki Commission) (2010). Ecosystem Health of the Baltic Sea 2003 2007: HELCOM Initial Holistic Assessment, Baltic Sea Environment Proceeding No. 122. Helsinki (ISSN 0357 — 2994).
HELCOM (Helsinki Commission) (2014a). 2013 HELCOM overview on port receptio facilities for sewage in the Baltic Sea area and related trends in passenger traffi (HELCOM document 4/16/Rev 1).
HELCOM (Helsinki Commission) (2014b). Annual report on illegal discharge observed during aerial surveillance 2013 http://helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/HELCOM%20report%200n%20Illegal%20dis harges%20observed%20during%20aerial%20surveillance%20in%202013.pd (accessed 12 July 2014).
Hildebrand, J.A. (2009). Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in th ocean Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol 395.
© 2016 United Nations 4 

Humpert M., and Raspotnik, A. (2012). The Future of Arctic Shipping, The Arcti Institute. http://www.thearcticinstitute.org/2012/10/the-future-of-arctic shipping.html (accessed 25 July 2014).
IACS, (International Association of Classification Societies) (2014). Classificatio Societies - What, Why And How http://www.iacs.org.uk/document/public/explained/Class_WhatWhy&How.P F (accessed 20 October 2014).
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (2008). Security in the transport o radioactive material, Vienna, [AEA Nuclear Security Series No. 9 (ISBN 978-92 0-107908-4).
ICS (International Chamber of Shipping) (2014). World Seaborne Trad http://www.ics-shipping.org/shipping-facts/shipping-and-world-trade/world seaborne-trade (accessed 3 July 2014)
IEA (International Energy Agency) (2014). Key World Energy Statistics 2014, Paris.
ILO (International Labour Organization) (2003). Safety and health in shipbreaking Guidelines for Asian countries and Turkey, /LO 2003 (MESHS/2003/1).
ILO (International Labour Organization) (2014). Press Release — “ILO body adopt new minimum monthly wage for seafarers” 28 February 2014  http://www. ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/media-centre/press releases/WCMS_236644/lang--en/index.htm (accessed 31 May 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2012). International Shipping Facts an Figures — Information Resources on Trade, Safety, Security, Environment http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/ShipsAndShippingFactsAndFigures/Th RoleandImportanceofInternationalShipping/Documents/International pe cent20Shipping per cent20- per cent20Facts per cent20and pe cent20Figures.pdf (accessed 17 April 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2013). IMO Instruments Implementatio Code (III Code) (IMO document A 28/Res 1070).
IMO (International Maritime Organisation) (2014). Special areas under MARPOL http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/Pollution/Prevention/SpecialArea UnderMARPOL/Pages/Default.aspx (accessed 21June 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014a). Reports on Acts of Piracy an Armed Robbery against Ships - Annual Report — 2013 (MSC.4/Circ.208 1 Marc 2013° http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Security/SecDocs/Documents/PiracyReports/2 8 Annual_2013.pdf (accessed 31 May 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014b). Ships’ Routin http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/ShipsRouting.aspx
8 The document is dated 1 March 2013, but states that it contains the information for the year
ending 31 December 2013.
© 2016 United Nations 4 

(accessed 8 July 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014b). Hong Kong Conventio http://www.imo.org/about/conventions/listofconventions/pages/the-hong kong-international-convention-for-the-safe-and-environmentally-sound recycling-of-ships.aspx (accessed 10 July 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization (2014c). Summary of Status o Convention http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/StatusOfConventions/Pages/Default. spx, (accessed 12 July 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014d). Particularly Sensitive Sea Area http://pssa.imo.org/#/intro (accessed 31 May 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014e). International Convention on Oi Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation 199 http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/Internatio al-Convention-on-Oil-Pollution-Preparedness,-Response-and-Co-operation (OPRC).aspx (accessed on 31 May 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014f). Carriage of Chemicals by Ship http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/ChemicalPol ution/Pages/Default.aSpx
(accessed 31 May 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014g). Prevention of Pollution b Garbage from Ships http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/Garbage/Pa es/Default.aspx (accessed 31 May 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014h). Prevention of Pollution b Sewage from Ships http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/Sewage/Pag s/Default.aspx
(accessed 7 June 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014j). Prevention of Pollution b Sewage from Ships http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/Sewage/Page /Default.aspx (accessed 7 June 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014k). Water Management http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/BallastWaterManagement/Pages/ efault.aspx (accessed 20 November 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (20141). Status of Conventions http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/StatusOfConventions/Documents/Sta us%20-%202014.pdf (accessed 28 November 2014).
IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014m). Special areas under MARPOL.
http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/Pollution/Prevention/SpecialAreas
© 2016 United Nations 4 

UnderMARPOL/Pages/Default.aspx (accessed 21June 2014).
IMO, (2014) — International Maritime Organization, Prevention of Air Pollution fro Ships (http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution Pages/Air-Pollution.aspx accessed 3 December 2014).
IMO, (2014) — International Maritime Organization, Third IMO Greenhouse Gas Stud 2014.
IOPCF (International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds) (2013). Annual Report http://www.iopcfunds.org/uploads/tx_iopcpublications/annualreport2013_e. df (accessed on 31 May 2014).
lrons, David B., et al (2000). Nine Years after the "Exxon Valdez" Oil Spill: Effects o Marine Bird Populations in Prince William Sound, Alaska, The Condor, vol. 102 No. 4.
ITF (International Transport Workers Federation) (2014). Women Seafarer http://www. itfseafarers.org/ITI-women-seafarers.cfm (accessed 1 July 2014).
ITOPF (International Tanker Owners Federation) (2014a). Information and Statistics http://www. itopf.com/knowledge-resources/data-statistics/statistics (accessed 30 May 2014).
ITOPF (International Tanker Owners Federation) (2014b). Oil Tanker Spill Statistic 2013 http://www. itopf.com/fileadmin/data/Documents/Company_Lit/OilSpillstats_ 013.pdf (accessed 30 May 2014).
Jones, D.A., et al (1994). Intertidal recovery in the Dawhat ad-Dafi and Dawhat al Musallamiya region (Saudi Arabia) after the Gulf War oil spill. Courier de Forschungs-Institut Senckenberg, vol 166.
Kaluza, P., Kolzsch, A., Gastner, M.T. and Blasius, B. (2010). The complex network o global cargo ship movements. Journal of the Royal Society: Interface, (7).
Kendall, Steven J., Erickson, W.P., Lance, B.K., Irons, D.B. and McDonald, L.L. (2001) Twelve Years after the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. The Condor, Vol. 103, No. 4.
KIMO (Kommunenes Internasjonale Miljgorganisasjon) (2011). The Transport o Nuclear Materials by Sea in Northern Europe. Lerwick (United Kingdom), 2011.
Knelson, J.H. and Lee, R.E. (1977). Oxides of Nitrogen in the Atmosphere: Origin Fate and Public Health Implications. Ambio, vol. 6, No. 2/3.
Laulajainen, R. (2009). The Arctic Sea Route. International Journal of Shipping an Transport Logistics, vol. 1(1).
Lee, S.D. (ed.) (1980). Nitrogen Oxides and their Effects on Health. Ann Arbor Scienc Publishers, Michigan.
Levinson, Marc. (2008). The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the Worl Smaller and the World Economy Bigger. Princeton (ISBN 9781400828586).
Liu, Miaojia and Kronbak, Jacob. (2010). The potential economic viability of usin the Northern Sea Route (NSR) as an alternative route between Asia and Europe.
© 2016 United Nations 4 

Journal of Transport Geography, vol. 18, Issue 3.
Lloyds List, 2014. CMA CGM, UASC and China Shipping unveil rival to 2M, G6 an CKYHE, Tuesday 09 September 2014.
Mandryk, W. (2009) (Lloyd’s Marine Intelligence Unit), Measuring global seaborn trade. International Maritime Statistics Forum, New Orleans http://www.imsf.info/papers/NewOrleans2009/Wally_Mandryk_LMIU_IMSFO9 pdf (accessed 10 July 2014).
MARAD (2014) USA Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration America’s Marine Highway Program http://www.marad.dot.gov/ships_shipping_landing_page/mhi_home/mhi_ho e.htm (accessed 20 June 2014).
MARPOL (1973/78). The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollutio from Ships. United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1340, I-22484.
McCarthy, S.A., Khambaty, F.M., (1994). International dissemination of epidemi Vibrio cholerae by cargo ship ballast and other nonpotable waters. Applie Environmental Microbiology, Vol 60, 7.
Mearns, K., Olivier J. and Jordaan M. (2012). Shipping Accidents along the Sout African Coastline http://www.academia.edu/537251/Shipping Accidents _Along_the_South_Afri an_Coastline (accessed 20 June 2014).
MEPC (IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee) (2012). Resolutio MEPC.227(64), IMO Document MEPC 64/23/Add.1, Annex 22.
MLC (International Labour Organization) (2006). The Maritime Labour Convention http://www. ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:91:0::::P91_SECTION: LC_AS (accessed on 2 July 2014).
Moller, T.H., Molloy, F.C. and Thomas, H.M. (2003): Oil Spill Risks and the State o Preparedness in the Regional Seas. International Oil Spill Conferenc Proceedings: Vol. 2003, No. 1, pp. 919-922.
Molnar, J.L., Gamboa, R.L., Revenga, C., and Spalding , M.D. (2008). Assessing th Global Threat of Invasive Species to Marine Biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecolog and the Environment, Vol. 6, 9.
MPA (Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore) (2014) Bunkering http://www.mpa.gov.sg/sites/port_and_shipping/port/bunkering/bunkering.p ge (accessed 20 October 2014).
Nelleman, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. (Eds) (2008). In Dead Water — Merging of climat change with pollution, over-harvest, and infestations in the world’s fishin grounds. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Norway.
Nielsen, D., and Roberts S. (1999). Fatalities among the world’s merchant seafarer (1990-1994). Marine Policy, Volume 23, 1.
NRC (USA National Research Council (1995)). Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans Controlling Garbage and Plastic Wastes at Sea. National Academy Press:
© 2016 United Nations 4 

Washington, DC, 1995.
NRC (USA National Research Council - Committee on Potential Impacts of Ambien Noise in the Ocean on Marine Mammals (2003)). Ocean Noise and Marin Mammals. National Academies Press. Washington (DC) USA.
NSN (North Sea Network) (2012). North Sea Manual on Maritime Oil Pollutio Offences. London, (ISBN 978-1-906840-45-7).
OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) (2003). Cos Savings Stemming from Non-Compliance with International Environmenta Regulations in the Maritime Sector http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=DST /DOT/MTC(2002)8/FINAL&docLanguage=En (accessed 7 June 2014).
OSPAR (OSPAR Commission) (2000). Quality Status Report on the North-Eas Atlantic. London, 2000 (ISBN 0 946956 52 9).
OSPAR (OSPAR Commission) (2010). Quality Status Report 2010, London (ISBN 978 1-907390-38-8).
Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y., and Reynolds, R.M. (eds) (1998). Offshor Environment of the ROPME Sea Area after the War-Related Oil Spill — Results o the 1993-94 Umitaka-Maru Cruises, Tokyo 1998 (ISBN 4-88704-123-3).
P&O (2014). Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, Our History http://www. poheritage.com/our-history (accessed 6 July 2014).
Rall, David P. (1974). Review of the Health Effects of Sulfur Oxides. Environmenta Health Perspectives, Vol. 8.
Readman, J.W., Fowler, S.W., Villeneuve, J.-P., Cattini, C., Oregioni B., Mee, L.D (1992). Oil and combustion-product contamination of the Gulf marin environment following the war. Nature, 358.
REMPEC (2014). Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for th Mediterranean, Illicit Discharges http://www.rempec.org/rempec.asp?thelDS=2_161&theName=PREVENTION& helD=8&daChk=2&pgType=1 (accessed 12 July 2014).
Ritchie, W., and O’Sullivan, M. (eds). (1994). The Environmental Impact of the Wrec of the Braer, Scottish Office Environment Department. Edinburgh (ISBN 0748 0900 0).
Rockefeller (2013). Staff Report Prepared For Senator John D. Rockefeller IV Chairman, USA Senate Committee On Commerce, Science, And Transportation Cruise Ship Crime. http://www.lipcon.com/files/cruise-ship-crime-consumers have-incomplete-access-to-cruise-crime-data.pdf (accessed 20 July 2014).
Santillo, D., Johnston, P., Langston, W.J. (2001). Tributyltin (TBT) antifoulants: a tal of ships, snails and imposex. In: Harremoes P, Gee D, MacGarvin M, Stirling A Keys J, Wynne B, et al., eds Late Lessons from Early Warnings: Th Precautionary Principle. Environment Issue Report, no. 22., Europea Environment Agency, Copenhagen.
© 2016 United Nations 4 

SCD (Supply Chain Digest) (2014). http://www.scdigest.com/ontarget/14-07-23 3.php?cid=8310 (accessed 26 July 2014).
Sekimizu, K. (2013). Address of the Secretary-General of the International Maritim Organization at the Opening of the Fifty-Sixth Session of the Sub-Committee o Fire Protection, 7 January 201 http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/SecretaryGeneral/Secretary GeneralsSpeechesToMeetings/Pages/FP-56-opening.aspx (accessed 31 Ma 2014).
Sekimizu, K. (2014). Address of the Secretary-General of the International Maritim Organization at the Opening of the Ninety-Third Session of the Maritime Safet Committee, 14 May 2014 http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/SecretaryGeneral/Secretary GeneralsSpeechesToMeetings/Pages/MSC93opening.aspx (accessed 30 Jun 2014).
Seltmann, A. (2014). Global Marine Insurance Report 2014. International Union fo Marine Insuranc http://www.iumi.com/images/gillian/HKfromHH/20140922_1200_Seltmann_A trid_FactsFigures_corr.pdf (accessed 23 May 2014).
Statista Inc. (2014) http://www.statista.com/statistics/204563/cruise-revenue expenses-and-profit-per-passenger-worldwide/ (accessed 21 July 2014).
STH (2014). Ship Trade House — Types of Vessel (http://shiptradehouse.com/vsltypes accessed 22 May 2015).
Stebbing, A.R.D. (1985). Organotins and water quality — some lessons to be learned Marine Pollution Bulletin. 16 (10).
TRB (Transportation Research Board) (2012). Safe Navigation in the U.S. Arctic  Summary of a Conference, Seattle http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/conf/CPW11.pdf (accessed 3 July 2014).
Tyack, P.L., 2008. Implications for Marine Mammals of Large-Scale Changes in th Marine Acoustic Environment. Journal of Mammalogy, 89(3), 549-558.
UKHO (United Kingdom Hydrographic Office) (2014). Annual Summary of Notices t Mariners 2014. Taunton (ISBN 978-0-70-773-2138).
UNCLOS (1982). United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363.
UNCTAD (2012). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Liability an Compensation for Ship-Source Oil Pollution: An Overview of the Internationa Legal Framework for Oil Pollution Damage from Tankers - Studies in Transpor Law and Policy - 2012 No. 1, New York and Geneva.
UNCTAD (2013). Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Trade an Development (UNCTAD), Review of Maritime Transport 2013, New York an Geneva (ISBN 978-92-1-112872-7) http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/rmt2013_en.pdf
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2012). Convention on Biological
© 2016 United Nations 4 

Diversity, Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice Scientific Synthesis on the Impacts of Underwater Noise on Marine and Coasta Biodiversity and Habitats (SBSTTA document 16/INF/12).
USMA (USA Maritime Administration) (2014). Marine Highway Fact sheet http://www.marad.dot.gov/documents/AMH_Fact_Sheet_V11.pdf (accessed 7
July).
Verny J. and Grigentin, C. (2009). Container shipping on the Northern Sea Route International Journal of Production Economics, 122.
Wergeland, T. (2012). Ferry Passenger Markets. In The Blackwell Companion t Maritime Economics (Wayne K. Talley, ed.) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444345667.ch9/summar (accessed 2 July 2014).
Williams, |. and Hoppe, H. (2001). Safety Regulations for Non-Convention Vessels  The IMO Approach http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=18002&filename=Saf ty.pdf (accessed 20 June 2014).
Williams, S.L. and Grosholz, E.D. (2008). The Invasive Species Challenge in Estuarin and Coastal Environments: Marrying Management and Science, Estuaries an Coasts, Vol. 31 (1).
WNA (World Nuclear Association) (2014). Transport of Radioactive Materials http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Transport/Transport-of Radioactive-Materials/ (accessed 1 July 2014).
WNA (World Nuclear Association) (2014). Transport of Nuclear Fuels http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Transport/Transport-of Radioactive-Materials/ (accessed 7 July 2014).
Wolfaardt, A.C. et al. (2009). Review of the rescue, rehabilitation and restoration o oiled seabirds in South Africa, especially African penguins Spheniscus demersu and Cape gannets Morus capensis, 1983-2005, African Journal of Marin Science, Volume 31, Issue 1.
WSC (World Shipping Council). (2011). Containers Lost at Sea http://www.worldshipping.org/industry issues/safety/Containers_Overboard__Final.pdf (accessed 31 May 2014).
Zaiko, A., M. Lehtiniemi, A. NarScius, and S. Olenin (2011). Assessment of bioinvasio impacts on a regional scale: a comparative approach. Biological Invasions Volume 13, Issue 8, 1739-1765.
© 2016 United Nations 5