diff --git "a/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" "b/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" --- "a/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" +++ "b/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" @@ -1,478 +1,237 @@ [ - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n 1 \n \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 \u2013 Science \nChapter 8 \u2013 How do Organisms Reproduce? \n \n1. Do organisms create exact copies of themselves? \n \n\u25cf The organisms are similar in their looks due to having similar body \ndesigns, which in turn indicates that the source for these designs must \nbe similar. And hence reproduction is that process where these designs \nare created. \n\u25cf The nucleus of a cell contains t he chromosomes , which carry the \ninformation for the inheritance of features from parents to the next \ngeneration. It is present in the form of DNA molecules . \n\u25cf The DNA present in the nucleus of a cell is the source of information \nfor making proteins. If this information changes, then a different set of \nproteins will be synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body \ndesigns in the organisms. \n\u25cf Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the \ncreation of a DNA copy.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nproteins will be synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body \ndesigns in the organisms. \n\u25cf Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the \ncreation of a DNA copy. \n\u25cf This copying of D NA is accompanied by the creation of an additional \ncellular apparatus, after which the DNA copies separate with each of \nthem having its own cellular apparatus. Thus, a cell divides to give rise \nto two cells. \n\u25cf Since this process of copying DNA is a biochemi cal process, it may not \nbe reliable and it will lead to some variations each time. \n\u25cf If the created new DNA copy is not viable, then the cell will not \nsurvive. And the surviving cells will be similar but may not be identical \nto the original and will subtly differ from each other. \n \n1.1. The importance of variation \n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n1.1. The importance of variation \n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem. \n\u25cf Hence reproduction is very much linked with the stability of a \npopulation of a spec ies. \n\u25cf The variations become important here as an organism may be suited for \na specific niche and a drastic change in that due to unforeseen \nenvironmental conditions makes their survival difficult. \n 2 \n \n\u25cf Hence in such situations when a few among the species have some \nvariations, they stand a chance of survival in the new niche. And thus, \nthese species adapt themselves to the new conditions and the species \nare maintained over a period of time. \n\u25cf It can be understood with an example. If a species of bacteria is livin g \nin the temperate waters and suddenly the temperatures rise due to", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nare maintained over a period of time. \n\u25cf It can be understood with an example. If a species of bacteria is livin g \nin the temperate waters and suddenly the temperatures rise due to \nglobal warming, then most of the bacteria in that water would not \nsurvive. But maybe a few variants among them who are able to resist \nthe heat may survive and grow. In case the variations were not present, \nthat entire species of bacteria would have become extinct. \n\u25cf Thus, the importance of variation lies in the survival of a species \nover time. \n \n2. Modes of reproduction \n \nReproduction can be defined as a process that involves the production of an \noffspring by a particular individual or individuals with the aim of propagating \ntheir species. Generally, reproduction happens during the reproductive phase \nof an organism. The mode of reproduction may vary in organisms. They can \nbe broadly categorised as: \na) Asexu al mode of reproduction:", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nof an organism. The mode of reproduction may vary in organisms. They can \nbe broadly categorised as: \na) Asexu al mode of reproduction: \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which a single individual \ncreates a new generation of species is termed as asexual \nreproduction. \n\u25cf Generally unicellular organisms exhibit asexual mode of \nreproduction, though some of them exhibit sexual mode too. \nb) Sexual mode of reproduction: \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which two individuals take \nart in the creation of a new generation of species is termed as sexual \nreproduction. \n \nTypes of asexual mode of reproduction : \n2.1. Fission: \n\u25cf In unicellular organisms the new individuals are created by the process \nof cell division or fission. \n\u25cf The nucleus of the cell divides into new individual cells under \nfavourable conditions. \n\u25cf Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new \nindividuals created. \n \n 3", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nfavourable conditions. \n\u25cf Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new \nindividuals created. \n \n 3 \n \na) Binary fission : This division leads to the formation of two new \nindividuals. These can be further divided based on their plane of \ndivision as: \ni. Irregular binary fission : In this type of fission the plane of \ndivision of a cell is irregular, it can be in any plane. Example - \nAmoeba. \nii. Transverse binary fission : In this type of fission the cells divide \nalong a transverse plane. Example - Paramecium. \niii. Longitudinal binary fission : In this type of fission the plane of \ncell division is lon gitudinal. Example - Euglena . \n \nb) Multiple fission : This is the division of a single cell into many new \ndaughter cells. Example - Plasmodium . \n \n2.2. Fragmentation: \n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces when they are mature.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\ndaughter cells. Example - Plasmodium . \n \n2.2. Fragmentation: \n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces when they are mature. \n\u25cf Each of the fragments or broken pieces grow into a new individual. \nThere should be a cell that is capable of growing into a new individual \nin such organisms. \n\u25cf Example - Spirogyra. \n \n2.3. Regeneration: \n\u25cf This is a process where some fully differentiated organism s can be cut \nor broken into pieces and each of their body parts have the ability to \ngrow into a new individual . \n\u25cf Different cells in this mass of cut cells undergo a lot of changes in an \norganised manner to become different cells and tissues. \n\u25cf Example - Planaria , Hydra . \n \n2.4. Budding: \n\u25cf This is a process where a protuberance like outgrowth which is called \nas bud grows by repeated cell division at a specific site and then they \ndetach from the parent body to develop into a separate individual \norganism.", - "2.4. Budding: \n\u25cf This is a process where a protuberance like outgrowth which is called \nas bud grows by repeated cell division at a specific site and then they \ndetach from the parent body to develop into a separate individual \norganism. \n\u25cf Example - Hydra.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nas bud grows by repeated cell division at a specific site and then they \ndetach from the parent body to develop into a separate individual \norganism. \n\u25cf Example - Hydra. \n \n2.5. Vegetative propagation \nThis is the mode of reproduction by which plants reproduce asexually. \nIn this mode, new plants are developed from a plant\u2019s vegetative parts \n 4 \n \nlike stem, leaf, root . There are different methods of vegetative \npropagation that are carried out in plants which are as follows: \na) Stem cutting : This involves cutting the stem into small pieces \nhaving internodes and axillary buds. These are then planted in the \nsoil to propagate into new plants. This method is used in sugarcane, \nhibiscus, drumstick etc. \nb) Layering: This is a method where the young stem of a plant is bent \nand buried in the soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once \nthe new plant develops, the stem is detached from the parent plant.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nand buried in the soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once \nthe new plant develops, the stem is detached from the parent plant. \nThis is used in jasmine, bougainv illaea. \nc) Grafting : This is a method wherein the stems of two different \nplants are cut and joined together to unite and start developing into \na new plant. This is used in nutmeg, roses etc. \nd) Leaf buds : This is a method in which the buds in the notches of \nleaves develop into new plants. This can be seen in bryophyllum. \n \nAdvantages of the vegetative propagation : \na) The plants that are grown by vegetative propagation bear flowers and \nfruits earlier as compared to the plants produced from seeds. \nb) All plants that are produced this way are genetically similar to the \nparent plant a nd have all its character istics . \n \n2.6. Spore formation: \n\u25cf Many multicellular organisms have specific reproductive parts. \n\u25cf They have tiny thread -like structures with a blob called sporangia .", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n2.6. Spore formation: \n\u25cf Many multicellular organisms have specific reproductive parts. \n\u25cf They have tiny thread -like structures with a blob called sporangia . \n\u25cf These contain cells or spores which eventually develop into new \nindividuals. The spores are very light and covered by a thick wall to \nprotect them and when they come in contact with a moist surface they \nstart to grow. \n\u25cf Example - Rhizopus. \n \n3. Sexual Repro duction: \n \n3.1. Why the sexual mode of Reproduction? \n\u25cf The sexual mode of reproduction involves two organisms, a male and a \nfemale to create a new organism or offspring. \n\u25cf The sexual reproduction allows greater variations in a species as the \ntwo individuals involved in producing the offspring would have \ndifferent patterns of variations. This process includes the combination \n \n 5 \n \nof DNA of two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n 5 \n \nof DNA of two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique. \n\u25cf Hence this ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species within a \npopulation and it also ensures the survival of the species as this process \ngenerates more variations due to the genetic recombination. \n\u25cf The process of combining DNA of two different indiv iduals during \nsexual reproduction will lead to an offspring with twice the amount of \nDNA than their previous generation. \n\u25cf The solution to this lies in the fact that there are certain specialised cells \nin such organisms called germ cells or gametes . These ha ve half the \nnumber of chromosomes and, therefore half the amount of DNA in \ncomparison to the other non -reproductive cells. The combination of \nthese germ cells from two different individuals during the process of \nsexual reproduction restores the original nu mber of chromosomes and \nDNA content in the new offspring.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nthese germ cells from two different individuals during the process of \nsexual reproduction restores the original nu mber of chromosomes and \nDNA content in the new offspring. \n\u25cf The germ cells may be similar and not much different from each other \nin simple organisms. With the complexity of the organisms the germ \ncell also becomes specialised. One of the germ cells becomes large and \nstores food. This is known as the female gamete . The other germ cell \nwhich is small and motile is called the male gamete . These gametes \nlead to the differences in the bodies and reproductive systems of males \nand females. \n \n3.2. Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants \n\u25cf The process of sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of \ngametes to produce offspring . The reproductive parts in angiosperms \n[plants that flower and produce fruits and seeds] are located in the \nflower. The parts of a flower consist of sepals, petals, stamens and \npistils .", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n[plants that flower and produce fruits and seeds] are located in the \nflower. The parts of a flower consist of sepals, petals, stamens and \npistils . \n\u25cf The reproductive parts of the flower are stamen which contains the \nmale gamete and the pistil containing the female gametes. \na) Stamen : This is the male reproductive part and is also known as the \nandroecium. It consists of a filament and an anther that encloses the \npollen grains. The pollen grains produce the male germ -cells or \ngametes. \nb) Pistil : This is the female reproductive part of the flower and is also \nknown as gynoecium. This is made of three parts, namely, stigma, \nstyle and ovary. The enlarged portion at the bottom of a pistil is the \novary that contains an ovule with an egg cell . The middle long part \nof the pistil is the style and the term inal sticky part is the stigma .", - "The enlarged portion at the bottom of a pistil is the \novary that contains an ovule with an egg cell . The middle long part \nof the pistil is the style and the term inal sticky part is the stigma . \n 6 \n \n\u25cf Based on the presence of the stamen or pistil, flowers can be classified \nas:", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nof the pistil is the style and the term inal sticky part is the stigma . \n 6 \n \n\u25cf Based on the presence of the stamen or pistil, flowers can be classified \nas: \na) Unisexual : These are the flowers that contain either stamens or \npistils. These are also called incomplete flowers. Example - papaya, \nmulberry, watermelon etc. \nb) Bisexual : These are flowers that contains stamens as well as pistils. \nExample - Hibiscus, mustard, rose etc. \n\u25cf The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the fusion of \nthe male and the female gametes, followed by the formation of a zygote \nthat eventually develops into a new plant. The process is explained as \nfollows: \na) Pollination: \n\u25cf The process of sexua l reproduction in plants starts with the transfer \nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination.", - "The process is explained as \nfollows: \na) Pollination: \n\u25cf The process of sexua l reproduction in plants starts with the transfer \nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination. \n\u25cf This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals,", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination. \n\u25cf This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals, \nwater etc. which tran sfer the pollen grains. \n\u25cf There can be two types of pollination as follows: \ni. Self-pollination : This involves the transfer of pollen grains from \nthe anther to the stigma of the same flower. Example - wheat, \npeanut, etc. \nii. Cross -pollination : This type of pollination involves the transfer \nof the pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of \nanother flower of the same species. Example - apples, pumpkin \netc. \nb) Fertilization: \n\u25cf Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposi ted in the \nstyle of the pistil. For the next process in reproduction, it needs to \nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary.", - "b) Fertilization: \n\u25cf Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposi ted in the \nstyle of the pistil. For the next process in reproduction, it needs to \nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary. \n\u25cf To facilitate this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and reaches the \novule in the ovary of the pistil.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary. \n\u25cf To facilitate this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and reaches the \novule in the ovary of the pistil. \n\u25cf Here in the ovule the male germ -cell fuses with a female germ -cell to \nform a zygote . This process of fusion of the gametes is termed as \nfertilisation. \n\u25cf After the process of fertilization, the zygote thus formed, divides \nrepeatedly to form an embryo inside the o vule. The ovule later \ndevelops into a seed. \n\u25cf And meanwhile the ovary grows and ripens into a fruit and the other \nparts of the flower, namely the petals, sepals, stamens, style and \nstigma may be shed off. \n 7 \n \n\u25cf The seed present inside the fruit encloses the future plant in its \nembryo . \nc) Germination: \n\u25cf The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a \nseedling when the conditions are suitable. This process is termed as", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nembryo . \nc) Germination: \n\u25cf The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a \nseedling when the conditions are suitable. This process is termed as \ngermination. Certain conditions like nutrients , water and proper \ntemperature are necessary for the process of germination. \n\u25cf The embryo gets its food from the reserve food material stored in the \ncotyledons . It also has a protective outer covering known as seed \ncoat. \n \n3.3. Reproduction in Human Beings. \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction in human beings is sexual mode. The \nreproductive phase of an individual is that phase of life when the \nindividual is ready to reproduce an offspring. Changes are noticed at \nevery phase of growth right from birth. \n\u25cf But there are some changes that begin in the teenage age that start to \nprepare us for the reprod uctive phase of life. This period of \nadolescence leads to sexual maturation. The body needs to create", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nprepare us for the reprod uctive phase of life. This period of \nadolescence leads to sexual maturation. The body needs to create \nspecialised germ -cells to take part in the sexual reproduction. The \nperiod of maturation of the reproductive tissues in the body is termed as \npuberty. \n\u25cf Numerous changes are noticed in both boys and girls during this period. \nThe boys start to have hair growth on their face and body, voice \nchange, active functioning of sweat and sebaceous glands, enlargement \nof penis etc. The changes in the girls include grow th of pubic hair, \nenlargement of breasts, oily skin leading to pimples, onset of \nmenstruation etc. Both of them undergo changes in their body \nappearance and they become more conscious of these bodily changes. \n\u25cf The process of fusion of germ -cells in sexual reproduction, the actual \ntransfer of these germ -cells needs to be done. For the same special \norgans need to be present like penis in males and uterus in females for", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\ntransfer of these germ -cells needs to be done. For the same special \norgans need to be present like penis in males and uterus in females for \ncarrying the baby. \n \n3.3.1. Male reproductive system \n\u25cf The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce \nand transport the male germ -cell or gamete, male hormone \ntestosterone and the organs which facilitate the discharge of male \ngerm -cells into the female reproductive system for fertilization. \n \n 8 \n \n\u25cf The male gamete is the sperm which is a tiny body containing \nthe genetic material and they have a long tail for motility to help \nthem reach the female germ -cell for fertilization. \n\u25cf The system consists of some external organs like penis, scrotum, \ntestes and int ernal organs like urethra, prostate and seminal \nvesicles. \n \n \na) Testes: Testes is the part that is responsible for the production of \nthe male germ -cell or sperms and the male hormone", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nvesicles. \n \n \na) Testes: Testes is the part that is responsible for the production of \nthe male germ -cell or sperms and the male hormone \ntestosterone . Testes are present in a structure known as scrotum , \nlocated outside the abdominal cavity. This is thus located \nbecause the formation of sperm requires a temperature that is \nlower than the normal body temperature. The hormone \ntestosterone plays a role in regulating the formation of sperms \nand also the deve lopment of the secondary sexual characteristics \nthat are seen in boys during puberty. \nb) Vas deferens : The sperms that are produced in the testes are \nstored in the epididymis . Vas deferens is a tube that transports \nthese sperm to the urethra. \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens. \nd) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles : These glands are located \nalong the vas deferens . They secrete a fluid, called semen that", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\ndeferens. \nd) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles : These glands are located \nalong the vas deferens . They secrete a fluid, called semen that \nnourishes the sperm. This semen helps in the easier movement of \nsperms. \n \n \n 9 \n \n3.3.2. Female Reproductive System. \n\u25cf The female reproductive system includes the organs that produce \nthe female germ -cells, provides site for fertilization of the \ngametes and development of the embryo into a new individual. \n\u25cf The female gametes are the eggs that are produced in the ovaries. \n\u25cf They also produce some hormones like estrogen and \nprogesterone that are responsible for the onset of secondary \nsexual characteristics in girls at puberty. \n\u25cf This system includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus \nand vagina that opens externally through the urethra . \n \n \n \na) Ovaries : The ovaries are a pair of glands that are located on \neither side of the uterus. The ovaries protect the female gametes", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nand vagina that opens externally through the urethra . \n \n \n \na) Ovaries : The ovaries are a pair of glands that are located on \neither side of the uterus. The ovaries protect the female gametes \nor eggs and make them suitable for fertilization. At birth the \novary of a girl contains thousands of eggs that are immature. \nAfter puberty, when the eggs mature, the ovaries release one egg \nevery month. The ovaries also produce the hormones oestrogen \nand progesterone that are essential in bringing the secondary \nsexual changes in a girl at puberty. \nb) Fallopian tube : This is also known as oviduct . This is a thin \ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube. \nc) Uterus : This is a bag-like muscular elastic structure into which \nthe two oviducts open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized \negg is implanted and it grows into a foetus. It is made of 3", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nthe two oviducts open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized \negg is implanted and it grows into a foetus. It is made of 3 \ntissues, outer perimetrium, middle layer of myometrium a nd the \ninner endometrium. This is also responsible for supporting the \ndeveloping foetus during the entire gestation period. \n \n 10 \n \nd) Cervix : This is the site where the uterus opens into vagina. This \nfacilitates a passage for the entry of the sperm into the uterus. \n \nFertilization and development: \n\u25cf The process of fertilization of a male and female gamete or \nsperm and egg starts when the sperm enters the female \nreproductive system through the vaginal passage during a sexual \nintercourse. From the vaginal passage they move up through the \nuterus towards the fallopian tubes. \n\u25cf The eggs are present in the fallopian tube, meet the sperm and get \nfertilized. \n\u25cf The fertilized egg, which is known as the zygote, starts dividing", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nuterus towards the fallopian tubes. \n\u25cf The eggs are present in the fallopian tube, meet the sperm and get \nfertilized. \n\u25cf The fertilized egg, which is known as the zygote, starts dividing \nrepeatedly and travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus. \n\u25cf The ball of cells or embry o gets implanted in the endometrial \nlining of the uterus and continues to grow into a foetus. The \nembryo gets its nourishment from the mother through a special \ntissue called the placenta which acts as a connection between the \nmother and the developing embr yo. It helps to transport glucose \nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo. \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body. The child is born due to the \nrhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles. \n \n3.3.3. What happens when the egg is not fertilized? \n\u25cf An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nrhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles. \n \n3.3.3. What happens when the egg is not fertilized? \n\u25cf An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it \ngetting fertilised. In case the egg does not get fertilized, it can \nsurvive for only a day. Similar to the ovary releasing an egg \nevery month, every month, the uterus too prepares itself to the \nfertilized egg by creating a thick and spongy lining in order to \nprovide nourishment to the embryo. \n\u25cf When the fertilization does not occur, this lining too is not \nrequired and this lining and the egg is shed as blood and mucous \nthrough the vagina. This is called menstruation . This cycle occurs \nevery month and lasts for about 2 - 8 days roughly. \n \n3.3.4. Reproductive Health. \n\u25cf The process of sexual maturation is a gradual one which happens \nwhile the general body growth is ongoing.", - "This is called menstruation . This cycle occurs \nevery month and lasts for about 2 - 8 days roughly. \n \n3.3.4. Reproductive Health. \n\u25cf The process of sexual maturation is a gradual one which happens \nwhile the general body growth is ongoing. Some amount of \n \n 11 \n \nsexual maturation does not prepare a young person to be sexually", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nwhile the general body growth is ongoing. Some amount of \n \n 11 \n \nsexual maturation does not prepare a young person to be sexually \nactive or get married and bear children and bring them up. \n\u25cf Reproductive health deals with all these aspects concerned with \nhealthy and safe sexual practices. It becomes difficult for the \nyoung people to make the correct choice given the various types \nof pressure they face from peers, family, society. \n\u25cf Lack of proper information and unhealthy sexual practices can \nlead them to contract some diseases from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them. The diseases transmitted in this manner \nare termed as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like \nbacterial infections such as gonorrhoea an d syphilis, viral \ninfections such as warts and HIV. These can lead to health \ncomplications and be fatal too if left untreated.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nbacterial infections such as gonorrhoea an d syphilis, viral \ninfections such as warts and HIV. These can lead to health \ncomplications and be fatal too if left untreated. \n\u25cf Reproductive health covers the area of safe sex to help young \npeople. Pregnancy is a risk in a sexual act. As pregnancy is very \ndemanding for the body and mind and has to be planned, \nunwanted pregnancies and abortions can be avoided by using \nsome contraceptive methods . \n\u25cf The contraceptive methods can be by using physical barriers that \nblock the entry of sperm into oviducts and not let ting fertilization \ntake place. Examples are condoms or coverings on the penis. \n\u25cf Contraceptive devices like Copper -T or intrauterine \ncontraceptive device (IUCD) that are implanted in the uterus \nwhich does not allow the sperm to travel ahead. \n\u25cf The other contraceptive method changes the hormonal balance of \nthe body, preventing fertilization . These are mostly in the form of", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nwhich does not allow the sperm to travel ahead. \n\u25cf The other contraceptive method changes the hormonal balance of \nthe body, preventing fertilization . These are mostly in the form of \ndrugs which can be taken orally in a scheduled manner. \nExamples are pills like Mala D, I -pill etc. \n\u25cf Another method is the surg ical one like vasectomy in males in \nwhich the vas deferens is blocked to prevent the transfer of \nsperm. In females, tubectomy is done which blocks the fallopian \ntube and thus prevents the egg from reaching the uterus. The \nsurgical methods are more reliable and safer as compared to the \nother methods. \n\u25cf Though surgery is used to abort unwanted pregnancies, it has \nbeen widely misused by the people, especially for illegally \naborting a female foetus. \n \n \n 12 \n \n\u25cf There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide (killing of \na foetus), which states that prenatal sex determination is \nprohibited.", - "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n 12 \n \n\u25cf There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide (killing of \na foetus), which states that prenatal sex determination is \nprohibited. \n\u25cf A proper ratio of males to females is essential to maintain a \nbalance in the society and to have a healthy population too.", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass - 10 Science \nChapter 1 4 - Sources of Energy \n\uf0b7 Characteristics of a good fuel: \n1. High calorific value \n2. Less smoke \n3. Less residue after burning \n4. Easy availability \n5. Inexpensive \n6. Easy to store and transport \n \n\uf0b7 Fossil fuels: \no Plant and animal remains were buried under the earth and subjected to \nhigh temperature and pressure conditions millions of years ago, \nresulting in the formation of lava flows. \no For example, coal, petroleum , and so forth. \no These fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources that contribute \nto pollution in the environment. \n \n\uf0b7 Thermal power plants: \n1. Thermal electricity is generated from coal, petroleum, and natural \ngas. \n2. The transmission of electricity is very efficient. \n3. The steam generated by the combustion of fossil fuels powers the \nturbine , which generates electricity . \n \n\uf0b7 Hydro power plant: \n \n \n 2", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\n3. The steam generated by the combustion of fossil fuels powers the \nturbine , which generates electricity . \n \n\uf0b7 Hydro power plant: \n \n \n 2 \n \n \n1. It is the most common form of renewable energy , derived from water \nfalling from vast heights . \n2. It is a non-polluting and clean source of energy. \n3. Dams are built to catch water flowing via high -altitude Rivers. There \nis a lot of potential energy in the stored water. \n4. When water falls from a height, potential energy is converted to \nkinetic energy , which rotates the turbines to produce electricity . \nDisadvantages of Hydro power plant: \n1. Construction is extremely costly . \n2. Dams are not feasible on all riverbeds. \n3. Submergence of large areas of human settlement and agricultural \nlands. \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues. \n \n\uf0b7 Non-conventional sources: \n1) Bio Mass: \n \n \n 3", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\nlands. \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues. \n \n\uf0b7 Non-conventional sources: \n1) Bio Mass: \n \n \n 3 \n \no It is the source of our country's routinely used fuels. \no Cow dung cakes, firewood, coal, and charcoal , for example. \no Bio gas is a combination of gases created when biomass decomposes in \nthe absence of oxygen (Anaerobic Respiration). \no Biogas is primarily composed of methane . \no Animal dung, sewage, agricultural leftovers, vegetable wastes, chicken \ndroppings, and other wastes are utilised in Bio gas plants to make Bio \ngas. \n \n2) Wind Energy: \n \n \n 4 \n \no Mechanical and electrical energy can be converted from it. \no Wind turbines, which are used to lift water, use kinetic energy from \nthe wind. \no Benefits: \n1. Environment friendly \n2. Renewable \no Disadvantages: \n1. Wind speed is not always consistent.", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\nthe wind. \no Benefits: \n1. Environment friendly \n2. Renewable \no Disadvantages: \n1. Wind speed is not always consistent. \n2. Requires a big space to construct a series of wind turbines. \n3. A significant quantity of capital is required. \n4. The output is lower than the investment. \n \n3) Solar Energy: \n \n \n 5 \n \no Solar cells can convert solar energy into electricity (photovoltaic \ncells). \no Photovoltaic cells use silicon solar cells to convert solar radi ation \ninto electricity. \no A solar panel is made up of solar cells arranged on big flat sheets. \no Solar cookers have a big glass plate and are painted black on the \noutside to capture solar energy through the greenhouse effect. \no Advantage of Solar cookers: \n1. Eco friendly \n2. Renewable \n3. Used in rural areas. \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking. \no Disadvantages of solar cooker: \n1. Silicon cells are not cheap.", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\n1. Eco friendly \n2. Renewable \n3. Used in rural areas. \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking. \no Disadvantages of solar cooker: \n1. Silicon cells are not cheap. \n2. Solar radiation is not uniformly distributed across the \nEarth's surface. \n3. Not suitable for usage at night or on foggy days. \n4. Cannot be used to make fried chapattis because they require \na temperature of at least \n140 C\uf0b0 . (Only a solar cooker can \nreach a maximum temperature of \n100 C\uf0b0 .) \no Solar water heater, Solar furna ce, etc. are the other solar \ndevices. \n4) Geo Thermal Energy: \no Geo thermal energy is a type of energy that is derived from the \nsun's heat . \n \n \n 6 \no When this heat melts the rocks, magma is created. \no Magma is the term for molten rocks and hot gases.", - "4) Geo Thermal Energy: \no Geo thermal energy is a type of energy that is derived from the \nsun's heat . \n \n \n 6 \no When this heat melts the rocks, magma is created. \no Magma is the term for molten rocks and hot gases. \no Magma collects at various depths under the earth's surface. These \nare known as \" Hot Spots \" because when underground water", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\no Magma is the term for molten rocks and hot gases. \no Magma collects at various depths under the earth's surface. These \nare known as \" Hot Spots \" because when underground water \ncomes into touch with them, it turns into steam , which may be \nused to generate power . \no Advantages of Geo thermal energy: \n1. Renewable \n2. Inexpensive \no Disadvanta ges of Geo thermal energy: \n1. Very few sites available for harnessing energy. \n2. Expensive \n \n5) Nuclear Energy: \no Nuclear energy is the energy released when the nucleus of an \natom of a substance undergoes changes. \no It is utilised as a source of heat and as a fuel for marine boats. \no Advantages or Nuclear Energy: \n1. Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels. \n2. A significant amount of energy is released from a small \namount of fuel. \no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy: \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage \n2. Expensive nucl ear plant construction \n3. Pollution of the environment", - "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\namount of fuel. \no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy: \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage \n2. Expensive nucl ear plant construction \n3. Pollution of the environment \n \n6) Energy from the sea: \no Tidal Energy in India: Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, and West \nBengal \u2013 \n\uf0d8 Relies on tidal action to control the rise and fall of sea level. \n\uf0d8 Dams are built across a narrow stretch of sea , and a turbine \nconverts tidal energy to electricity. \n\uf0d8 The main disadvantage for using this is that, there is no \nconsistent tidal action . \no Wave Energy: \n\uf0d8 Turbines are rotated by the kinetic energy of sea waves. \n\uf0d8 These turbines produce electricity.", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n \n 1 \n \n \n \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 16 - Management of Natural Resources \n \n\u25cf Natural resources are naturally occurring assets that are used to sustain life \nand meet our daily needs. \n\u25cf It includes forests, water, coal, natural gases, and petroleum reserves. \n\u25cf Depletion i.e., reduction in number or quality of natural resources is \nincreasing at an alarmi ng rate. \n\u25cf We should use our resources wisely so as to sustain the resources and conserve \nour environment. \n\u25cf One such measure to protect our environment was the Ganga Action Plan \n(GAP) taken by the national body to conserve River Ganga because it \ncontained disease -causing microorganisms . \n\u25cf We must follow three R\u2019s to protect our environment and these are: \n1. Reduce: Means to use less or to reduce our daily consumption of resources. \nFor example: Use less water for bathing, walking or cycling to save petrol", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n1. Reduce: Means to use less or to reduce our daily consumption of resources. \nFor example: Use less water for bathing, walking or cycling to save petrol \n2. Recycle: This means processing wastes like plastic, paper, metals to new and \nusable products again. \n3. Reuse: The p rocess of using things again and again in order to protect the \nenvironment . \nFor example: Using same cloth bag for shopping rather than using many \npolythene bags \n\u25cf Reusing the substances again is best because it does not need any external \nenergy for the thin gs to be used again. \n \nWhy do we need to manage our resources? \n\u25cf Because the resources available to us are limited and take millions of years to \nform. \n\u25cf With the human population increasing at a tremendous rate the demand for \nresources is also increasing which increases the use of resources. \n\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes damage to the \nenvironment.", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\nresources is also increasing which increases the use of resources. \n\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes damage to the \nenvironment. \n\u25cf The management of natural resource s should be in a sustainable manner so \nthat these will last for generations to come. \n \n 2 \n \n \n \n\u25cf And should be available to everyone i.e., should be equally distributed to \neveryone. \n \nForest and wildlife: \n\u25cf Forests are called the lungs of earth because it provides oxyge n which is our \nmost important demand for survival \n\u25cf We depend on forests directly or indirectly for our survival. It provides home \nand food to innumerable species. \n\u25cf Forests also offer watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and floods and \nreduce climate change. \n\u25cf Stakeholders: \nStakeholders are the people who depend upon forests for various perspectives \nof life. These include, \na. The forest department of the country \nb. The industrialists", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u25cf Stakeholders: \nStakeholders are the people who depend upon forests for various perspectives \nof life. These include, \na. The forest department of the country \nb. The industrialists \nc. The wildlife and nature enthusiasts \n\u25cf Some examples of local people working for the conservation of forests include \nthe case of the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan who protected \u2018khejri\u2019 trees \nin Kheja rli village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. \n\u25cf We have to conserve forests. The importance of forests cannot be \nunderestimated. \n\u25cf Forest resources should be used in a manner that is both environmentally and \ndevelopmentally beneficial. \n\u25cf Sustainable development: \n\u25cf Sustainable development is the idea of utilizing natural resources in present \nwithout compromising the need of future generations. \n\u25cf It can be achieved by using the resources judiciously and realizing the fact \nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems. \n \nWater for all:", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u25cf It can be achieved by using the resources judiciously and realizing the fact \nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems. \n \nWater for all: \n\u25cf Water is a basic necessity for all biotic life. All organisms need water to exist \nand survive. \n\u25cf Water is essential because our daily activities are dependent on water. \n\u25cf The lack of water and consumption of contaminated water can cause serious \nhealth issues . \n\u25cf Despite having \n71% water available on earth in many areas water scarcity has \nbeen observed since the freshwater is only \n3% . \n 3 \n \n \n \n\u25cf Despite nature\u2019s monsoon bounty in India, we are unable to sustain \nunderground water and water pollution has resulted in the loss of vegetation \ncover. \n\u25cf Rainwater harvesting (for rec harging groundwater ), irrigation using dams, \ntanks, and canals help to sustain water resources. \n \n\u25cf Dams: \n\u2b9a It is the structure used to control the flow of water in rivers and canals.", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\ntanks, and canals help to sustain water resources. \n \n\u25cf Dams: \n\u2b9a It is the structure used to control the flow of water in rivers and canals. \n\u2b9a It is used to convert the kinetic energy of flowing water to electrical energy \nwith the help of motors. \n\u2b9a The dam is a good alternative for non -renewable sources of energy and also \ncauses less harm to the environment. \n\u2b9a It also helps in water storage which cou ld be used at the time of water shortage \nin the area. \n\u2b9a The dam also assures the consistent flow of water in rivers and prevent floods \nand drought -like situations \n\u2b9a Although, the dam has adversely affected marine life as well as humans. \n \n\u25cf Water harvesting: \n\u2b9a Water harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater and reusing it rather \nthan making it run away. \n\u2b9a It is an age-old concept in India used in many states of India.", - "\u25cf Water harvesting: \n\u2b9a Water harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater and reusing it rather \nthan making it run away. \n\u2b9a It is an age-old concept in India used in many states of India. \n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc.", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u2b9a It is an age-old concept in India used in many states of India. \n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc. \n\u2b9a Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that \nmismanagement and over -exploitation of these resources will be reduced. \n\u2b9a The advantages of groundwater are that it does not evaporate and does not \nprovide breedi ng grounds. \n \n\u25cf Coal and petroleum: \n\u2b9a Coal and petroleum were formed from the degradation of fossils millions of \nyears ago. \n\u2b9a These are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter how \ncarefully we use them still we should use them in a sustainable manner. \n\u2b9a Combustion of coal and petroleum gives out products like carbon dioxide, \nwater, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of sul phur which are poisonous at high \nconcentrations . \n 4", - "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\nwater, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of sul phur which are poisonous at high \nconcentrations . \n 4 \n \n \n \n\u2b9a Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which when increased leads to global \nwarming. \n\u2b9a Therefore, we need to use these resources judiciously and look for alternative \nsources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, etc. \n \n\u25cf An overview of natural resource management: \n\u2b9a Natural resources are not available in abundance so we should realize that \nselfish goals will lead to the misery of lots of people. \n\u2b9a Sustainable management of natural resources is becoming important despite \nbeing a difficult task. We should try our best to conserve them . \n\u2b9a And use the natural resources very wisely so that our coming generation c an \nalso benefit.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 9 \u2013 Heredity and Evolution \n \n1. Accumulation of variation during Reproduction : \n\uf0b7 Reproduction is a process that gives rise to new offspring that are similar \nto the parents but with some variations between them due to the process \nof DNA copying . \n\uf0b7 It may be noted that these differences are slightly visible in asexual \nreproduction as in p lants, but they are greater variations and diversity in \nthe case of sexual reproduction which involves the fusion of two different \ngametes . \n\uf0b7 This leads to the variations that are seen in each generation. \n\uf0b7 These variations may be advantageous or disadvantag eous to the \nindividuals and may or may not enable them to cope with the changing \nenvironmental conditions. For example , the bacteria that can tolerate \nhigher temperature s would survive the heat waves. \n\uf0b7 These variations accumulate over generations in the ev olutionary process", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nhigher temperature s would survive the heat waves. \n\uf0b7 These variations accumulate over generations in the ev olutionary process \nowing to the environmental factors and lead to the formation of new \nspecies and are equally important for their survival. \n \n2. Heredity: \n\uf0b7 The biological process that maintains or passes on the characteristics and \ntraits of the parents to their offspring is termed heredity . Example, colour \nof skin or hair, eyes, height etc. \n\uf0b7 This is responsible for maintaining the variations in generations an d thus \nthe evolution of species over a period of time. \n \n2.1 Inherited traits : \n\uf0b7 The characteristics that are inherited fr om the parents are termed as traits , \nlike eye colour or skin colour in humans. If the parent has brown and black \neyes, then the offspring may inherit a brown or black or a combination of \nboth. \n\uf0b7 This depends on the set of genes responsible for that trait.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\neyes, then the offspring may inherit a brown or black or a combination of \nboth. \n\uf0b7 This depends on the set of genes responsible for that trait. \n\uf0b7 The traits that are inherited in this manner are termed inherited traits and \nthese are the cause of the variations in the population, tho ugh everyone has \na similar basic feature. \n \n2.2 Rules for the Inheritance of traits - Mendel\u2019s contributions: \n \n 2 \n\uf0b7 The rules of inheritance comes from the fact that both the parents \ncontribute equally to the development of the traits in the offspring. \n\uf0b7 Gregor Johann Mendel , often referred to as the \u2018 Father of genetics\u2019 was \na pioneer who used his science and mathematics knowledge to frame the se \nlaws of inheritance. He did so using pea plants for his experiment s as he \nfound them easy to grow and they had g reater number of visible \ncharacteristics like ta ll/short, white/violet flowers, round/wrinkled seeds.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nfound them easy to grow and they had g reater number of visible \ncharacteristics like ta ll/short, white/violet flowers, round/wrinkled seeds. \n\uf0b7 Mendel found during his experiments that there were some factors \ncontrolling the traits, which are now known as genes . \n\uf0b7 The genes are present as a pair f or a specific trait and then they are termed \nas alleles . \n\uf0b7 Depending on the genes the expression of the traits could be either \ndominant or recessive . If we take the t allness in a plant as dominant trait, \nthen it can be denoted by \u2018T\u2019 and shortness in the plant would be a \nrecessive trait, denoted by \u2018t\u2019. Thus the plant will be tall if it\u2019s alleles are \n\u2018TT\u2019 or \u2018Tt\u2019. \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the same allele for \na trait, they are termed as homozygous . Example - TT or tt .", - "Thus the plant will be tall if it\u2019s alleles are \n\u2018TT\u2019 or \u2018Tt\u2019. \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the same allele for \na trait, they are termed as homozygous . Example - TT or tt . \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the different alleles \nfor a trait, they are termed as heterozygous . Example - Tt.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the different alleles \nfor a trait, they are termed as heterozygous . Example - Tt. \n\uf0b7 The morphological expression of a single character is termed as \nphenotype . Example - tallness or shortness , round or wrinkle d seeds of the \nplant. \n\uf0b7 The genetic constitution or the allele pair for a specific trait is termed as \nthe genotype . Example - Tt or t tot TT. \n\uf0b7 Mendel was a mathematician so; he found the statistics of the traits in each \ngeneration by using a statistical met hod known as Punnett square for \npredicting t he possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. \n\uf0b7 He conducted his experiments to find two types of inheritance namely: \n \n1) Monohybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 Mendel took a tall (TT) and short (tt) pea plant, crossed it to get the \noffspring.", - "\uf0b7 He conducted his experiments to find two types of inheritance namely: \n \n1) Monohybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 Mendel took a tall (TT) and short (tt) pea plant, crossed it to get the \noffspring. The first generation or F1 were all found to be tall , \nshowing only one of the traits of the parent. \n \n \n 3", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\noffspring. The first generation or F1 were all found to be tall , \nshowing only one of the traits of the parent. \n \n \n 3 \n \n \n\uf0b7 Then he self -pollinated the parent and the F1 plants. It was \ninteresting to see that the offspring of the parent plants were all tall, \nbut the offspring of the F1 plants, the F2 generation did not have all \ntall plants. A quarter of them were short , which indicated that both \ntraits of the parent was inherited by F1 generation. \n\uf0b7 The traits of tallness wa s dominant and so it was expressed even with \nthe genotype of TT, Tt but the shortness was a recessive trait that \ncould be expressed only with a genotype of tt. \n \n \n \n\uf0b7 So, the genotype - 1:2:1 And the phenotype - 3:1 \n\uf0b7 The inheritance of a trait by a pair of single alleles of a gene is termed \nas monohybrid inheritance .", - "\uf0b7 So, the genotype - 1:2:1 And the phenotype - 3:1 \n\uf0b7 The inheritance of a trait by a pair of single alleles of a gene is termed \nas monohybrid inheritance . \n \n \n2) Dihybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 When a pea plant with two different traits; a plant with round green", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nas monohybrid inheritance . \n \n \n2) Dihybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 When a pea plant with two different traits; a plant with round green \ncolour seed (RR yy) is crossed with wrinkled yellow seed ( rrYY) \nplant. \n\uf0b7 The F1 generation turned out to have round yellow seeds , RrYy, \nwhich showed the dominant traits to be round shape and yellow \ncolour . \n \n \n \n 4 \n \n \n\uf0b7 When the F1 generation were self -pollinated , the F2 generation had \ngreater variations than the parent and new combination also came \nup. \n \n \n \n\uf0b7 So, the genotype - 9 different combinations and the phenotype - \n9:3:3:1 . \n\uf0b7 The inheritance of different traits by t wo pairs of alleles for it is \ntermed as dihybrid inheritance . And here the two traits of \nround/wrinkled seeds and green/yellow colour were inherited \nindependently. \n \n \n 5 \n \n2.3 How do these traits get expressed?", - "And here the two traits of \nround/wrinkled seeds and green/yellow colour were inherited \nindependently. \n \n \n 5 \n \n2.3 How do these traits get expressed? \n\uf0b7 The DNA present in the cell is responsible for making the proteins. A", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nindependently. \n \n \n 5 \n \n2.3 How do these traits get expressed? \n\uf0b7 The DNA present in the cell is responsible for making the proteins. A \nsection of this DNA that provides information for one protein is termed as \nthe gene for that specific protein. \n\uf0b7 The proteins that are thus synthesized are essential in many of the \nbiochemical reactions that are responsible for the expression of a trait and \nthey are controlled by specific enzymes. \n\uf0b7 Any alterations in them will lead to a v ariation in that trait, and hence genes \ncontrol the traits in a such a way. If the traits are to be inherited \nindependently from both the parents, then they need to be present \nseparately. \n\uf0b7 Therefore each gene set is present as a separate independent pieces that are \ncalled as chromosomes , with each cell having two sets , one each from \nboth the parents. \n\uf0b7 When these two germ cells combine, they tend to restore the number of", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\ncalled as chromosomes , with each cell having two sets , one each from \nboth the parents. \n\uf0b7 When these two germ cells combine, they tend to restore the number of \nchromosomes and hence the DNA. Hence there are two genes for the \nexpression of every trait . \n \n2.4 Sex determination : \n\uf0b7 There are various mechanism that determine the sex of a new born \norganism. It may be based on the temperature where the fertilised eggs is \nkept as in few reptiles, or they may changes ex as in snails. Humans on \nthe other hand the sex of a new born child is determined predominantly by \nthe genes inherited from the parents. \n\uf0b7 All the chromosomes in humans are not paired. There are generally a pair \nof 22 chromosomes , with a one of the pair being from each of the p arent. \nThese generally determine all the traits. \n\uf0b7 There is a pair of chromosomes known as the sex chromosomes that differ \nin males and females. The females have a correct pair and they are termed", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nThese generally determine all the traits. \n\uf0b7 There is a pair of chromosomes known as the sex chromosomes that differ \nin males and females. The females have a correct pair and they are termed \nas X chromosomes, but men have an X chromosome and its pair as Y. So \nthe genotype of women is XX and men is XY . \n\uf0b7 If we look at the inheritance pattern of a male and female, we can see that \nX is inherited by the child from their mother by default and the sex of the \nchild depends on which pair of the sex chromosome is being inherited \nfrom the father . \n\uf0b7 If it X, then the pair becomes XX and the child is a girl and if Y is inherited, \nthen it becomes XY and thus the chid is a boy. \n \n 6 \n \n3. Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The process of a gradual development over millions of years in organisms \nthrough generations by inheriting the traits of their previous generations is \ntermed as evolution .", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n3. Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The process of a gradual development over millions of years in organisms \nthrough generations by inheriting the traits of their previous generations is \ntermed as evolution . \n\uf0b7 The evolution eventually leads to the evolvement of new species . \nAccording to J B S Haldane, life on earth may have started as a simple \norganic molecule and has developed into complex organism with the \nchanging conditions on earth during various periods. \n\uf0b7 Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist who proposed the idea \nof \u201cevolution of species by natural selectio n\u2019 although he was not aware \nof the mechanisms responsible for the variations. \n\uf0b7 Natural selection refers to the selection of some traits of a population that \nfavour their survival making them adapt to the en vironment. \n\uf0b7 It was Mendel who proposed the mechanism behind the inheritance of \ntraits. Both these scientist worked on their theories independently.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n\uf0b7 It was Mendel who proposed the mechanism behind the inheritance of \ntraits. Both these scientist worked on their theories independently. \n\uf0b7 These traits that are inherited may be acquired also. \n \n3.1 Acquired and inherited traits: \n\uf0b7 Any trait that is acquired by an organism during its lifetime due to any \nexternal conditions is not transmitted to its offspring. These traits are \ntermed as acquired trait . Example - the way a person speaks or the skills \nhe/she has. These changes do not af fect the germ cells and so they cannot \nbe passed on from one generation to the other. \n \n \n 7 \n\uf0b7 Any trait that is genetically inherited or passed down from one generation \nto the next generation is termed as inherited trait . Example - the colour of \neyes or skin. \n \n4. Speciation: \n\uf0b7 A group of organisms that are similar in their traits and are capable of \nbreeding within themselves are termed as species .", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\neyes or skin. \n \n4. Speciation: \n\uf0b7 A group of organisms that are similar in their traits and are capable of \nbreeding within themselves are termed as species . \n\uf0b7 The mechanism or process by means of which a new or distant species is \nformed from the pre -existing species due to v arious factors is termed as \nspeciation . \n\uf0b7 This process leads to the formation of different species within a population \nthat is not capable of reproducing among themselves. \n\uf0b7 The various factors for the same may be seen as: \n1) Splitting of population: \n\uf0b7 The popul ations tends to grow rapidly when there is a favourable \nenvironment for their survival. As a result the population is very \nlarge and spread out. \n\uf0b7 This makes it difficult for all the members to interact among \nthemselves due to the geographical isolation , so they tend to \nreproduce with the local near by population. And if they are \nseparated by any barrier like a mountain or a river, then they are \nisolated further .", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nreproduce with the local near by population. And if they are \nseparated by any barrier like a mountain or a river, then they are \nisolated further . \n\uf0b7 This will cause the gene flow or transfer of genes in a population \nto reduce and they may d evelop into a new or distant species. \n2) Genetic drift : \n\uf0b7 The populations undergoes a change in their genes for some \ntraits that are specific to that species due to unprecedented \nreasons. This leads to them being transferred to another existing \npopulation. \n\uf0b7 Example - If there are a population of red and green beetles and \nthe green are eliminated by being in a forest fire, then the \npopulation of only red beetles will remain. \n3) Natural selection : \n\uf0b7 The process by which certain populations are selected over othe rs \ndue to their variations and ability to adapt is termed as natural \nselection . They lead to the formation of new species over a period \nof time.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\ndue to their variations and ability to adapt is termed as natural \nselection . They lead to the formation of new species over a period \nof time. \n\uf0b7 Example - In case of a storm, the birds with long or short wings \ndied as compared to the ones with average wings. So, they were \n \n 8 \nnaturally selected to adapt to that environment changes and they \nsurvive to evolve their species. \n\uf0b7 The process of genetic drift and natural selection will eventually lead to two \nisolated sub species that are entirely different from eac h other and they form \na new species altogether and thus speciation occurs. \n \n5. Evolution and Classification: \n\uf0b7 Every species goes through a phase of evolution. The similarities among \norganisms that allow them to be grouped are based on the characteristics \nor the details of the appearance or behaviour that is seen for a particular \nform or a function.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\norganisms that allow them to be grouped are based on the characteristics \nor the details of the appearance or behaviour that is seen for a particular \nform or a function. \n\uf0b7 There are some basic characteristics that are shared by most of the \norganisms like, the cell being the fundamental unit of life. But the next \nlevel of grouping or classification may not be common for all the \norganisms, like the cell may have a nucleus or not. This classification goes \nfurther as whether the nucleated cells are single celled or multicellular. \nThis allows a hierarchy to be created in the evolution process that helps \nus in the classification of groups . \n\uf0b7 Thus the more common characteristics are shared by two species, the more \nclosely related they are. The more closely they are related, indicates that \nthey have had common ancestors recently. Example - In a family, a brother \nand a sister are closely related with common ancestors as parents . Now the", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nthey have had common ancestors recently. Example - In a family, a brother \nand a sister are closely related with common ancestors as parents . Now the \ngirl and her cousin too are related as they common ancestors, grandparents. \nBut they are distant than her brother as they common ancestors in second \ngenerati on. \n\uf0b7 Thus small group of species with recent common ancestors are built, \nfollowed by distant common ancestors and this goes on backwards in the \nevolutionary process. \n \n5.1 Tracing Evolutionary relationships: \n\uf0b7 In the evolutionary relationships, the occurrence of common c haracteristics \nare the basis of classifying them into groups. These common characteristics \ncan be identified as being of 2 types, na mely : \n1) Homologous characteristics : These are those characteristics that \nare present in different organ ism but look similar and they have a \nhave a common ancestor . They may have the similar basic organ", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nare present in different organ ism but look similar and they have a \nhave a common ancestor . They may have the similar basic organ \nstructures but with a different function in various organisms. \nExample - Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians have four \nlimbs , but each serves a different purpose and are modified to \nperform that function. \n \n 9 \n2) Analogous characteristics : These are those characteristics that \nhave the similar function in different organisms and they have \nevolved independently for different ancestors . Example - the \nwings of bats and of birds look similar as they serve to perform the \nsame function of flying, but the wings of a bat are actually a fold of \nskin between the fingers. \n\uf0b7 Hence these different types of characteristics help in tracing the \nevolutio nary relationships between species to a great extent. \n \n5.2 Fossils: \n\uf0b7 To study the evolutionary relationships, the current species as well as the", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nevolutio nary relationships between species to a great extent. \n \n5.2 Fossils: \n\uf0b7 To study the evolutionary relationships, the current species as well as the \nspecies that are no longer in existence also needs to be considered. \n\uf0b7 The body of an organism usually decomposes when it dies, but due to some \nenvironmental conditions like hot mud or lava, their bodies may be buried \nin them, harden and eventually leave an impression o f the body parts. This \npreserved traces of the living organisms that existed in a past ge ological \nperiod are termed as fossils. \n\uf0b7 The fossils help in determining the various evolutionary stages of the \nspecies. The process of conversion of an organism into a fossil is termed \nas fossilisation and its study is referred to as palaeontology. \n\uf0b7 There a re two ways to determine the age or dating of the fossils. \n1) Relative dating: This method involves the digging of the earth and \nexcavating the fossils from the rocks. The more recent ones are", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n1) Relative dating: This method involves the digging of the earth and \nexcavating the fossils from the rocks. The more recent ones are \nfound closer to the earth\u2019s surface. \n2) Radiometric dating: In this method, the fossils can be dated based \non the radioactive elements present in the rocks and detecting the \nratios of different isotopes of the same element in the material of the \nfossil . \n \n5.3 Evolution by Stages: \n\uf0b7 It is well established that e volution is a gradual process that takes place \nover thousands of years. The complex organs that have evolved in \norganisms is not due to a single DNA change but due to thousands of such \nchanges over a large period of time. If the eyes of an octopus and the \nvertebrates are considered then it is different in both of them suggesting \nthat they have evolved independently. It is also to be noted that a change \nbrought on for a particular feature may have later evolved into a different", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nthat they have evolved independently. It is also to be noted that a change \nbrought on for a particular feature may have later evolved into a different \nfunction alto gether. For example, the purpose of feathers initially was \nconsidered to provide insulation in cold weather and this is seen in some \nof the reptiles like the dinosaur , who could not fly. In the evolutionary \n \n 10 \nprocess birds adapted these feathers for flight. This leads to the belief that \nbirds were closely related to reptiles. \n\uf0b7 Similarly some structures that are dissimilar have evolved from common \nancestors. The best example of it would be wild cabbage that humans have \nused as food for over two thousand years. They generated different types \nof vegetables out of the would cabbage by artificial selection and \ndeveloped the cabbage with short leaves, broccoli which is arrested \nflowers, cauliflower, the swollen parts as kohlrabi, or leafy kale. If not for", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\ndeveloped the cabbage with short leaves, broccoli which is arrested \nflowers, cauliflower, the swollen parts as kohlrabi, or leafy kale. If not for \nartificial selection in this, it would not be known that they originated from \na common ancestor . \n\uf0b7 The change in the DNA is yet another way to understand the ev olutionary \nrelationships . The comparison of the DNAs of different species would \ngive an insight into the changes that have happened in their evolutionary \nprocess. \n \n6. Evolution should not be equated with progress : \n\uf0b7 The evolution of a new species does not indicate that the old species has \nbeen eliminated or they are inefficient than the new one. It indicates that \nthe new species have evolved as a result of changing environmental \nconditions. \n\uf0b7 It can be said that evolution is a process of creating diversity of species \ndue t o natural selection and genetic drift . This creates a population that is", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nconditions. \n\uf0b7 It can be said that evolution is a process of creating diversity of species \ndue t o natural selection and genetic drift . This creates a population that is \nnot capable of reproducing with the original species. For example, humans \nand chimpanzees may have had common ancestors and with time they have \nevolved in separate directions leading to the present species. \n\uf0b7 Hence there is no progress that can be mapped during evolution. Each and \nevery species diversifies in order to reproduce and survive and adapts itself \naccordingly. \n\uf0b7 The on ly factor is that more and more complex organs have developed in \nthe evolutionary process. That does not indicate the simplest older species \nlike the bacteria are extinct. They can survive in diverse conditions of hot \nsprings, Antarctica etc. Humans are th e most evolved, but they are just \nanother species in the evolutionary process. \n \n6.1 Human Evolution:", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nsprings, Antarctica etc. Humans are th e most evolved, but they are just \nanother species in the evolutionary process. \n \n6.1 Human Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The evolutionary relationship in humans ha s also been traced by the \nvarious methods of excavation, time -dating, studying the fossils, and DNA \nsequences . A great diversity exists among the people of the world in their \nfeatures, colours, etc. Many times , groups of humans were grouped based \non their skin colour. But there is no biological reason for that as all the \n \n 11 \nhumans are part of a single same species. Eve ryone belongs to the species \n- Homo sapiens . \n\uf0b7 A large number of genes are present in this gene pool which is the source \nof the vast variations found in humans. This is the reason that no two \nindividuals are alike in looks, abilities, etc, that leads to the diversity in \nskin colour, height, hair colour, etc.", - "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nof the vast variations found in humans. This is the reason that no two \nindividuals are alike in looks, abilities, etc, that leads to the diversity in \nskin colour, height, hair colour, etc. \n\uf0b7 Though the humans inhabit different parts of the modern world, all of them \noriginated from Africa . The original inhabitants of Africa migrated to \nacross to West Asia, central Asia, Eurasia etc and all this while they were \ntravelling back to Africa too. This lead to a diverse gene pool in a staggered \nmanner as the population across the world increased.", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass \u2013 10 Science \nChapter 15 - Our Environment \n \n1. What happens to the environment when we add waste to it. \nThe environment of an organism refers to the physical and biological conditions in \nwhich the organism lives. The physical conditions consist of various factors like soil, \ntemperature, light, etc. Whereas the biological conditions include the plants, \nanima ls, and microorganisms around it. A slight change in any of these conditions \ncan affect the organism. \nWhen the waste generated is added to the environment it disturbs the ecological \nbalance. The wastes are broadly classified into two categories: - \nSubstanc es that can be broken down by biological processes are known as", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nbalance. The wastes are broadly classified into two categories: - \nSubstanc es that can be broken down by biological processes are known as \nbiodegradable. On the other hand, substances that can not be broken down by \nbiological processes are known as non -biodegradable. These substances can be inert \nand remain in the environment for a very long time causing harm to the various \nmembers of the ecosystem. \n \n2. What are the components of the ecosystem? \nAll organisms including plants, animals, microorganisms, and human beings interact \nwith the physical surroundings as well as with each oth er to maintain balance in our \nenvironment. \nAn ecosystem is a community of organisms with their physical environment \ninteracting with each other as an ecological unit, leading to the flow of energy. An \necosystem is made up of biotic components which include living organisms and \nabiotic components which include physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, \nsoil, and minerals.", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\necosystem is made up of biotic components which include living organisms and \nabiotic components which include physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, \nsoil, and minerals. \nAn ecosystem can be of two types: \nNatural : - Ponds, forests, and lakes are natural ecosystems \n \n 2 \nArtificial: - garden and crop field s are man -made \nIn both of the above ecosystems, all living organisms interact with each other and \ntheir growth, reproduction, and some of the other activities are affected by the abiotic \ncomponents of the ecosystem. \nOrganisms present in the ecosystem can be further categorized into producers, \nconsumers, and decomposers in accordance with the manner in which they obtain \ntheir nutrition from the environment. \nProducers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food without the", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\ntheir nutrition from the environment. \nProducers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food without the \nhelp of any other o rganism. They are also called autotrophs. They synthesize their \nfood from inorganic substances by a process called photosynthesis. Autotrophs are \nthe green plants, phytoplankton, and blue -green algae. \nConsumers are the organisms that do not produce food bu t depend directly or \nindirectly on producers for their food needs. These are called heterotrophs. \nConsumers can be further classified into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and \nparasites. For example Humans, snakes. Decomposers are the organisms that feed \non dead and decaying matter and break down the complex organic substances into \nthe simple inorganic substances. These simpler substances go into the soil and are \nused up again by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi. \n \n2.1 Food chains and Webs:", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nthe simple inorganic substances. These simpler substances go into the soil and are \nused up again by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi. \n \n2.1 Food chains and Webs: \nThe series of organisms that are taking part at various biotic levels constitute a food \nchain. Food chains signify the feeding relationship between the organisms in an \necosystem. In the food chain, the flow of energy from one species to another occurs. \nEvery food chain always begins with producers. \n The successive levels present in the food chains of a community are known as \ntrophic levels. From autotrophs, the energy is passed to the heterotrophs and \ndecomposers. When this energy is transferred from one le vel to the other level, some \nof the energy is lost to the environment in forms that cannot be used again. A \ncommon example of food chains are: - \nPlants \u2192 Deer \u2192 Lion", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nof the energy is lost to the environment in forms that cannot be used again. A \ncommon example of food chains are: - \nPlants \u2192 Deer \u2192 Lion \n \n \n 3 \nThe food chain consists of up to three or four trophic levels. Since the loss of energy \nat every step is so huge that a very small amount of usable energy remains when it \nreaches the fourth trophic level. The number of individuals at the lower trophic levels \nof an ecosystem is generally more therefore the largest number is of the producers. \nThe length and complexity of food chains differ. Every organism is in general eaten \nby two or more other kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other \norganisms belonging to a higher level. This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web.", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\norganisms belonging to a higher level. This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web. \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional. \nThe energy that is captured by the autotrophs is passed to the higher tro phic levels \nand energy does not revert back to the lower level. Some of the harmful chemicals \nenter our bodies through the food chain. For example use of several pesticides and \nother chemicals to protect the crops from diseases and pests runoff with water in the \nfield which are taken up by the fishes entering in the food chain. \nBiological magnification is a phenomenon by which harmful substances or \nchemicals accumulate from the lower trophic level to a higher one. As human beings \nare at the top level in an y food chain, so the maximum concentration of these harmful", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nchemicals accumulate from the lower trophic level to a higher one. As human beings \nare at the top level in an y food chain, so the maximum concentration of these harmful \nchemicals gets accumulated in the body which can cause death of the person. \n \n3. How does the environment affect our activities? \n3.1 Ozone layer and its depletion. \nOzone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer is present in the \nupper layer of the atmosphere i.e. stratosphere. It is a very deadly poison. It is \nresponsible for causing skin cancer in human beings. Whereas, at the higher levels \nof the at mosphere, it protects us from harmful UV radiations of the sun which is \ndangerous to living organisms. Ozone depletion is the marked reduction of ozone \nmolecules in the stratosphere due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerants \nand other coolants. Oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet rays gets broken down to", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nmolecules in the stratosphere due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerants \nand other coolants. Oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet rays gets broken down to \nnascent oxygen molecules. This nascent oxygen further reacts with the oxygen \npresent in the atmosphere and forms ozone molecule. \n \n \n 4 \nIn order to limit the damage to the ozone layer the release o f CFC s into the \natmosphere needs to be reduced instead alternatives should be used. \n \n3.2 Managing the garbage produced: \nImprovements in the lifestyle have to lead to greater amounts of waste material \ngeneration. Changes in the packaging of items have resu lted in huge amount of waste \nbecoming non -biodegradable. Increased use of non -biodegradable items has left the \nenvironment polluted with them. In order to manage this waste we can do following: -", - "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nbecoming non -biodegradable. Increased use of non -biodegradable items has left the \nenvironment polluted with them. In order to manage this waste we can do following: - \n1. Use of concept of 3R's (reduce, reuse and recycle). \n2. Sep eration of biodegradable and non -biodegradable waste.", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 5 - Periodic Classification of Elements \n \nIntroduction: \n\u25cf In the beginning, scientists had classified elements into two broad \ncategories as metals and non -metals . Some elements exhibited properties \nbecause of which they could neither be classified as metals nor non -metals \nand hence were called metalloids . This classification was not sufficient \nfor scientific study. Over the years, many chemist s attempted to make a \nrational and systematic classification. It was based on the physical and \nchemical properties of each element. These results were then tabulated in \nthe form of a table. \n\u25cf Periodic table \u2013 The table giving the arrangement of the known el ements \naccording to their properties so that similar elements fall within the same \nvertical column and dissimilar elements are separated. \n \nDobereiner's Triads: \n\u25cf In 1817, a German chemist named Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner arranged", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nvertical column and dissimilar elements are separated. \n \nDobereiner's Triads: \n\u25cf In 1817, a German chemist named Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner arranged \nthe elements with similar properties into groups. \n\u25cf He identified many such groups which had three elements in them. \nHence, these groups were termed as triads . \n\u25cf In a triad, the elements were arranged in increasing order of their atomic \nmasses. When the arithmetic mean of the atomic mass of the first and the \nthird element was taken, it came out to be approximately the same as that \nof the second or the middle elemen t. This is a distinctive feature that can \nbe used to identify if elements form a triad. \n\u25cf This classification was also not sufficient as not many triads could be \nidentified. Only three were identified as: \n \n 2 \n \n \nNewlands' Law of Octaves: \n\u25cf In 1866, an English scie ntist, John Newlands arranged many of the then", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nidentified. Only three were identified as: \n \n 2 \n \n \nNewlands' Law of Octaves: \n\u25cf In 1866, an English scie ntist, John Newlands arranged many of the then \nknown elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses. So, he \nstarted with the element having the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and \nended at Thorium which was the \nth56 element. He noticed that the eighth \nelement was similar in properties to the first element . \n\u25cf It was concluded that there exists some systematic relationship between \nthe order of atomic masses and the repetition of properties of elements. \nThis relationship, when repres ented in a tabular form, presented a periodic \nrepetition of the properties of the elements. Hence, the term periodicity \nwas introduced. \n\u25cf This had a resemblance to the eight musical notes in both Western as well \nas Indian music. \n \n \n\u25cf It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only up to Calcium", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nwas introduced. \n\u25cf This had a resemblance to the eight musical notes in both Western as well \nas Indian music. \n \n \n\u25cf It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only up to Calcium \nbecause after Calcium, every eighth element did not possess properties \nsimilar to that of the first. John Newlands had assumed that only 56 \n \n \n 3 \nelements existed in nature and no more elemen ts would be discovered in \nthe future. But several new elements were discovered later on, whose \nproperties did not fit into the Law of Octaves. So, this was not sufficient \neither. \n \nMendeleev's Periodic Table: \n\u25cf In 1869, a Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Men deleev classified the \nthen known 63 elements based on their physical and chemical properties \nin the increasing order of the atomic masses in the form of a table. \n\u25cf He had observed that properties of the elements recur cyclically when they", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nin the increasing order of the atomic masses in the form of a table. \n\u25cf He had observed that properties of the elements recur cyclically when they \nwere arranged in th e order of their increasing atomic masses. This \nobservation led to the conclusion that the physical and chemical properties \nof the elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses. This came \nto be known as the law of chemical periodicity . \n\u25cf Periodic Ta ble is the tabulation of all the known elements in a tablular \nformat based on this law. It contains eight vertical columns called \n'groups' and seven horizontal rows called 'periods' . Each of the eight \ngroups has two sub -groups A and B. The properties of el ements of a sub -\ngroup resemble each other more markedly than the properties of those \nbetween the elements of the two sub -groups. \n \nAchievements of Mendeleev's Periodic Table: \nSome of the important contributions of Mendeleev's periodic table are as \nfollows:", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nbetween the elements of the two sub -groups. \n \nAchievements of Mendeleev's Periodic Table: \nSome of the important contributions of Mendeleev's periodic table are as \nfollows: \n1) Systematic Study of Elements \u2013 The table provided the arrangements of \nelements showing similar properties into groups. This was very useful in \nstudying and remembering the properties of a large number of elements in \na systematic way. \n2) Prediction of New Elem ents \u2013 Mendeleev had predicted new elements \nand had left three blanks for these undiscovered elements. He was able to \npredict their properties more or less accurately. He named them eka -\nboron, eka -aluminium and eka -silicon. \n3) Correction of Atomic Masses - Based on the elements\u2019 positions in the \nperiodic table, Mendeleev was able to correct their atomic masses. The \natomic mass of beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9.0. \n \nLimitations of Mendeleev\u2019s classification:", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nperiodic table, Mendeleev was able to correct their atomic masses. The \natomic mass of beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9.0. \n \nLimitations of Mendeleev\u2019s classification: \nAlthough Mendeleev's periodic table has many advantages, it could not explain \ncertain things, which are considered as its limitations. They are as follows: \n \n 4 \n1) Assigning a position to Hydrogen: Hydrogen has a electronic \nconfiguration as that of alkali metals a nd combines with halogens, oxygen, \nsulphur to form compounds, like \n22 HCL,H O,H S and at the same time it \nexists as a diatomic molecule like halogens. So, Mendeleev was not able \nto assign a proper position for hydrogen. \n2) Assigning position to isotopes: The isotopes have similar properties but \ndiffer in their atomic masses. Mendeleev\u2019s classification would place \nthem in different groups due to their different atomic masses, but isotopes \nwere not placed so as their propertie s were similar.", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nthem in different groups due to their different atomic masses, but isotopes \nwere not placed so as their propertie s were similar. \n3) Anomalous pairing of some elements: Mendeleev did not follow the \nincreasing atomic masses but grouped some elements based on similar \nproperties. Argon with an atomic mass of 39.9 was placed before \npotassium with atomic mass of 39.1. Also s ome elements with similar \nproperties like copper (Cu) and mercury (Hg) were placed separately, and \nsome very dissimilar elements were placed in one group. Copper was \nplaced in group I, the elements of which had no similarities with copper. \n \nThe Modern Periodic Table: \n\u25cf In the year 1913, an English physicist named Henry Mosely found that \nthe atomic number of an element, which was denoted by symbol \u2018Z\u2019 was \na more basic property to group them instead of their atomic masses. Thus \nMendeleev's period ic table was modified for the same. The elements were", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\na more basic property to group them instead of their atomic masses. Thus \nMendeleev's period ic table was modified for the same. The elements were \nnow grouped based on the increasing atomic number. \n\u25cf This came to be known as the Modern Periodic Law and it states, \n\u2018properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic number\u2019. \nHence the new classification of the elements based on this came into \nexistence and was termed as \u2018 Modern Periodic Table\u2019 . \n\u25cf With this system of grouping it was easy to predict the properties of the \nelements when they were arranged in the order of increasing atomic \nnumbers. It is to be noted that the periodicity of the elements is based on \nthe electronic configuration or the num ber of protons in the nucleus. \n \n \n 5 \n \n \n \nSalient features of the Modern Periodic Table: \nThe table has 18 vertical columns that are known by the name of groups and 7 \nhorizontal rows that are named as periods .", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nSalient features of the Modern Periodic Table: \nThe table has 18 vertical columns that are known by the name of groups and 7 \nhorizontal rows that are named as periods . \n1) Periods: \n\u25cf There are 7 periods in this table. The periods have the same \nelements that have the same valence shell or the energy shell. \nExample - Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl are placed in the same shell as \nthey have the electronic shells as K, L and M. \n\u25cf In a period, the number of electrons present in the energy shells \nincrease by 1 on moving from left to right within a period. Example \n- Na - 1, Mg - 2, Al - 3, and so on. \n\u25cf The number of elements present in a period can be determined by \nthe formula \n22n , where n is the number of the shell from the \nnucleus.", - "Example \n- Na - 1, Mg - 2, Al - 3, and so on. \n\u25cf The number of elements present in a period can be determined by \nthe formula \n22n , where n is the number of the shell from the \nnucleus. Example: \n \n \n \n 6 \n\u25cf The first period consists of two elements only namely, hydrogen \nand helium as they have only 1 valence shell. Example - hydrogen", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nnucleus. Example: \n \n \n \n 6 \n\u25cf The first period consists of two elements only namely, hydrogen \nand helium as they have only 1 valence shell. Example - hydrogen \n(Z = 1 or shell as K = 1), helium (Z = 2 or shell as K = 2) \n\u25cf The second period has 8 elements with 2 shells and it starts with \nlithium (Z = 3 o r shells as K = 2, L = 1) and ends with neon (Z = 10 \nor shells as K = 2, L = 8). \n\u25cf The third period has 8 elements with 3 shells and it starts with \nsodium (Z = 11 or shells as K = 2, L = 8, M = 1) and ends with \nargon (Z = 18 or shells as K = 2, L = 8, M = 8 ).", - "\u25cf Similarly the fourth period has 18 elements with 4 shells and starts \nwith potassium (Z = 19) and ending with krypton (Z = 36). \n\u25cf The fifth period having 18 elements with 5 shell starts with \nrubidium (Z = 37) and ends with xenon (Z = 54). \n\u25cf The sixth period with 32 elements has 6 shells and it starts with \ncaesium (Z = 55) ending with radon (Z = 86).", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nrubidium (Z = 37) and ends with xenon (Z = 54). \n\u25cf The sixth period with 32 elements has 6 shells and it starts with \ncaesium (Z = 55) ending with radon (Z = 86). \n\u25cf The seventh and last period is incomplete with 19 elements starts \nfrancium (Z = 87) and goes on till oganesson (Z = 118). \n2) Groups: \n\u25cf There are 18 grou ps in the periodic table. The group consists of \nelements that have the same number of electrons in the valence shell \nor outermost shell of the atom. \n\u25cf The valence shell predominantly decides the physical or chemical \nproperties of the elements, so the elemen ts of the same group have \nthe same properties due to the same number of valence electrons. \nExample - fluorine and chlorine have valence electrons as 7 and \nthey belong to group 17.", - "Example - fluorine and chlorine have valence electrons as 7 and \nthey belong to group 17. \n \n 7 \n \n\u25cf The number of shells increases by one unit as the elements move \ndown in the periodic table in a group. \n3) Blocks:", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nthey belong to group 17. \n \n 7 \n \n\u25cf The number of shells increases by one unit as the elements move \ndown in the periodic table in a group. \n3) Blocks: \n\u25cf The periodic table is also divided into 4 blocks that is based on the \nsubshell of the valence electrons. They are: \n\u25cf s-Block elements : All the elements of group 1 and 2 are included \nin this block and their general electronic configuration is \n12ns\uf02d \nExample - Hydrogen (H), Sodium (Na), etc from group 1 and \nMagnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), etc from group 2. \n\u25cf p-Block elem ents: This includes the elements from group 13 to 18. \nThey have an electronic configuration as \n2 1 6ns np\uf02d . \n\u25cf d-block elements : This includes group 3 to 12 elements. They have \na general electronic configuration as \n\uf028\uf0291 10 1 2n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d .", - "\u25cf d-block elements : This includes group 3 to 12 elements. They have \na general electronic configuration as \n\uf028\uf0291 10 1 2n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d . \n\u25cf f-block elements : This block has sets of elements, lanthanides and \nthe actinides. They have the electronic configuration of \n\uf028\uf029\uf028\uf0291 14 0 1 2n 2 f n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n\uf028\uf0291 10 1 2n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d . \n\u25cf f-block elements : This block has sets of elements, lanthanides and \nthe actinides. They have the electronic configuration of \n\uf028\uf029\uf028\uf0291 14 0 1 2n 2 f n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d\n. The lanthanides starts from Lanthanum \n(La) - Lutetium (Lu) and the actinides starts from Actinium (Ac) - \nLawrencium (Lr). \n \nPosition of elements in the periodic table: \n\u25cf The position of the various elements are decided on the basis of their \nvalence shells and the number of electrons present in their valence \nshells.", - "Position of elements in the periodic table: \n\u25cf The position of the various elements are decided on the basis of their \nvalence shells and the number of electrons present in their valence \nshells. Example - Sodium (Z - 11, 2,8,1), so it has 3 shells, so it is placed \n \n \n 8 \nin period 3 and since it has 1 valence electron in outermost shell, it is \nplaced in group 1. \n\u25cf The position of an element in the periodic table determines its chemical \nnature . Based on the position of the elements in the periodic table, they \ncan be classified as follows: \n1) Noble gases: These are a group of elements placed in group 18,", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nnature . Based on the position of the elements in the periodic table, they \ncan be classified as follows: \n1) Noble gases: These are a group of elements placed in group 18, \nwhich are tasteless, odourless monoatomic gases that have very low \nchemical reactivity. There are 6 such gases, namely, Helium (He), \nNeon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn). \nThey are also referred to as inert gases and due to their inertness , \nthey are suitable to be used where reactions are not required. \nExamp le - He is used by deep -sea divers in the breathing gas to \nprevent toxicity of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. \n2) Normal elements: All the elements that are placed in groups 1 to 7 \nare included in this.", - "Examp le - He is used by deep -sea divers in the breathing gas to \nprevent toxicity of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. \n2) Normal elements: All the elements that are placed in groups 1 to 7 \nare included in this. \n3) Alkali metals: The elements in group 1, namely Lith ium (Li) - \nFrancium (Fr), except Hydrogen (H) are termed as alkali metals as \nthey tend to form hydroxide with water which are strong alkalis.", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nFrancium (Fr), except Hydrogen (H) are termed as alkali metals as \nthey tend to form hydroxide with water which are strong alkalis. \nThus alkali metals are very reactive and react quickly with water or \nair. Example - Sodium (Na) reacts violently w ith oxygen in the air, \nso it stored in mineral oil. \n4) Alkaline earth metals: These include the group 2 elements starting \nfrom Beryllium (Be) - Radium (Ra). They are less reactive than the \nalkali metals that are found as a compound . \n5) Transition elements: These include the elements from group 3 to \n11. These are so named as they exhibit a transition in their \nproperties from the left to the right, including increase in atomic \nsize, ionization energy, electronegativity. \n6) Inner transition elements: These are elements with similar \nproperties, placed at the end of group 3 in period 7 and 8. These are \ncalled as the lanthanide series starting from Lanthanum (La) -", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n6) Inner transition elements: These are elements with similar \nproperties, placed at the end of group 3 in period 7 and 8. These are \ncalled as the lanthanide series starting from Lanthanum (La) - \nLutetium (Lu) in period 6 with 14 elements. The period 7 contains \n14 elements starting from Actinium (Ac) - Lawrencium (Lr). \n7) Halogens: These include a group of elements in group 17 that are \ngenerally non -metals that can exist in solid, liquid and gas form. \n \n 9 \nThey react with the metals to form salts. They are Fluorine (F), \nChlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), Astatine (At) and \nTennessine (Ts).", - "9 \nThey react with the metals to form salts. They are Fluorine (F), \nChlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), Astatine (At) and \nTennessine (Ts). \n \nProperties of the periodic table: \n1) Valency: \n\u25cf The term valency denotes the number of electrons that are gained \nor lost by an atom in order to complete its outermost shell to have a \nstable electronic configuration. This valency is the number of \nelectrons present in the valence shell.", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nor lost by an atom in order to complete its outermost shell to have a \nstable electronic configuration. This valency is the number of \nelectrons present in the valence shell. \n\u25cf It can be noted t hat the valency increases from left to right in a \nperiod, and then decreases. \n\u25cf The valency in the group remains the same through the group, \ngoing downward. \n\u25cf Example - Period 2 elements have atomic number from 3 to 10, so \nthey have 2 shells with increasing number of valence till C and then \nit decreases. But all the group 2 elements have 2 electrons in their \noutermost shell, so their valency is 2. \n \n2) Atomic size: \n\u25cf The atomic size is determined by the atomic radius of the atom and \nit can be termed as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the \natom to its outermost shell. \n \n \n 10 \n\u25cf It is seen that the elements are placed across a period from left to \nright, the atomic radius decreases . This is because an increased", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n 10 \n\u25cf It is seen that the elements are placed across a period from left to \nright, the atomic radius decreases . This is because an increased \nnuclear charge has the tendency to pull the electrons towards the \nnucleus, thereby decreasing the radius of the atom, and thus the \natomic size too decreases. \n\u25cf It is not the same in a group. As the elements move down a group, \nthere is an addition of an extra shell, hence their atomic radius and \nthus atomic size increases . Example - \n \n3) Ionization energy: \n\u25cf It is termed as the amount of energy that is required to remove the \nelectrons that are present in the outermost shell of the atom. \n\u25cf Across the period, since the atomic radius decreases, these electrons \nin the outermost shell are much closer to the nucleus and therefore \nit requires more energy to remove them. So, ionisation energy \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the groups, since a shell is being added down the group, so the", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nit requires more energy to remove them. So, ionisation energy \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the groups, since a shell is being added down the group, so the \natomic radius increases which leads to the electrons in the \noutermost shell being far from the nucleus and therefore it is easy \nto remove them. Hence in a group, the ionisation energy decreases \ngoing from top to bottom. \n \n \n \n 11 \n4) Electron affinity: \n\u25cf It is termed as the amount of energy change as a result of an addition \nof an electron to the atom or the ability of an electron to accept \nelectrons. \n\u25cf In a period, from left to right as the nuclear charge increases and \natomic size decreases, it is easy for the addition of electrons, which \nleads to generation of more energy. Hence electron affinity \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the group, as atomic size increases, nuclear charge decreases, so \nlesser number of electrons can be added which leads to lesser", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the group, as atomic size increases, nuclear charge decreases, so \nlesser number of electrons can be added which leads to lesser \nenergy generation. Hence electron affinity decreases from top to \nbottom in a group . \n \n5) Metallic and non -metallic properties: \n\u25cf The metals are those elements that have a tendency to lose electrons \nand attain a positive charge. So, the metallic nature of elements \nmeans that they are electropositive and have low ionization energy. \nThis metallic character decreases along a period. \n\u25cf Non-metallic nature of elements indicate that they have an ability \nto gain electrons and attain a negative charge. So, this non -metallic \nnature indicates that they are electronegative and have high \nionization energies. \n\u25cf Hence this non-metallic nature increas es along a period . Hence, \nmoving along a period from left to right, the metallic character \ndecreases and non -metallic character increases and there is a semi -", - "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nmoving along a period from left to right, the metallic character \ndecreases and non -metallic character increases and there is a semi -\nmetallic nature in between them. \n \n \n 12 \n\u25cf The metallic nature increases down a group as the atomic size \nincreases and they have an increased tendency of losing electrons. \nExample - \n \n6) These trends can be summarised with the chart for easy reference:", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nChapter 6 - Life Processes \n \nWhat are life processes? \nBiology is the study of living things . All living things are called organisms, both plants and \nanimals are living organisms. But how we decide whether something is living or non -living \ndepends on 7 life processes . If something is living it will carry out the 7 life processes below. \n \n1. Movement \nBoth animals and plants have the ability to move. Plants are rooted and move slowly as they \ngrow. Their roots move down into the soil and their stems move up towards the light. Animals \non the other hand move quickly and can move their entire bodies. They can move in search of \nfood, shelter or to avoid danger. \n \n2. Respiration \nRespiration is the process of extracting energy out of the food we eat. All living things respire \nbecause the y need energy to grow, to replace worn out parts and to move. Respiration takes \nplace in the mitochondria of the cell. \n \n3. Sensitivity", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nbecause the y need energy to grow, to replace worn out parts and to move. Respiration takes \nplace in the mitochondria of the cell. \n \n3. Sensitivity \nAll living organisms are sensitive; this means that they have an awareness of changes in their \nenvironment. Animals respond quickly to stimuli such as heat, light, sound, touch and \nchemicals which have taste and smell. On the other hand, plants generally appear less sensitive \nand their response is slower. \n \n4. Growth \nAll living organisms grow. Plants continue growing throughout t heir lives. Animals stop \ngrowing once they reach adulthood. Even when growth stops, materials within an animal\u2019s \nbody are still being replaced from its food. \n \n5. Excretion \nAll living things make waste products these can be useless or harmful to it and therefore need \nto be got rid of. Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste. Plants store waste", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nAll living things make waste products these can be useless or harmful to it and therefore need \nto be got rid of. Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste. Plants store waste \nsubstances in their leaves, the waste is removed when their leav es fall off. Animals breathe \nout waste carbon dioxide, other waste substances leave the body in urine and sweat. \nNote: Getting rid of faeces or undigested food is not excretion but egestion. \n \n6. Reproduction \nAll living things must produce offspring like themselves in order for their species to survive. \nThis is the process known as reproduction. Plants produce seeds that give rise to new plants \nof the same species. Animals lay eggs or have babies. Reproduction can be of two types, \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nSexual which involves two parents and the union of two gametes and Asexual where one \nparent can reproduce itself. \n \n7. Nutrition", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nSexual which involves two parents and the union of two gametes and Asexual where one \nparent can reproduce itself. \n \n7. Nutrition \nNutrition is needed for energy and growth, both plants and animals need food. Plants are able \nto make their own food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to turn simple molecules like \ncarbon dioxide and water into more complex carbohydrate molecules. Animals are unable to \nmake their own food so rely on other plants and other animals for their nutrition. Animals take \nin complex substances and break them down i nto small, simple, soluble molecules which can \nbe used for energy and growth \n \nNutrition: \nEnergy required to carry out different life processes is obtained through the process of nutrition. \nDepending on the mode of obtaining nutrition, organisms are classif ied as autotrophs or \nheterotrophs. \ni. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nheterotrophs. \ni. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide \nand water. Examples: Green plants and some bacteria. \nii. Heterotrophs cannot synthesise their own food and are dependent on oth er organisms for \nobtaining complex organic substances for nutrition. Example: Animals and fungi \n \nAutotrophic Nutrition: \nA type of nutrition in which organisms synthesize the organic materials they require from \ninorganic sources. Chief sources of carbon and nitrogen are carbon dioxide and nitrates, \nrespectively. All green plants are autotrophic and use light as a source of energy for the synthesis \nof food through photosynthesis. \n2 2 6 12 6 2 2\nGlucose6 12 6 6Sunlight\nChlorophyllCO H O C H O H O O\uf02b \uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be \uf0ae \uf02b \uf02b\n \nThe following events occur during this process.", - "(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll \n(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen \nand oxygen.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\n(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll \n(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen \nand oxygen. \n(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. \n \nThese green plants absorbs water from the soil by roots. Co 2 enters from the atmosphere thr ough \nstomata, Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants. \nHeterotrophic Nutrition: \n \nAll heterotrophs depend on autotrophs for their nutrition. \nThe three main types of heterotrophic nutrition are: \n1. Holozoic nutrition : Complex food is taken into a specialist digestive system and broken down \ninto small pieces to be absorbed. Eg: Ameoba, Humans \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \n2. Saprophytic nutrition : Organisms feed on dead organic remains of other organisms. Eg: Fungi \nlike bread moulds yeast and mushroom s. \n3. Parasitic nutrition : Organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host), with the", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nlike bread moulds yeast and mushroom s. \n3. Parasitic nutrition : Organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host), with the \nhost receiving no benefit from the parasite. Eg: cascuta, ticks, lice, leeches and tape worms. \n \nHow do Organisms Obtain Their Utrition? \n \n \n \nIn single celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire surface. \nEg: Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger -like extensions of the cell surface which fuse \nover the food particle forming a food -vacuole. Inside the food vacuole, complex subs tances are \nbroken down into simpler ones which then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested \nmaterial is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out. \n \nNutrition in Human Beings: \nIn humans, digestion of food takes place in the alimentary can al, made up of various organs and \nglands. \n \nIn the mouth, food is crushed into small particles through chewing and mixed with saliva, which \ncontains amylase for digesting starch.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nglands. \n \nIn the mouth, food is crushed into small particles through chewing and mixed with saliva, which \ncontains amylase for digesting starch. \n \nOn swallowing, food passes through the pharynx and oesophagus to reach the st omach. Gastric \njuice contains pepsin (for digesting proteins), HCl and mucus. \n \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin. \nThe mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under normal \nconditions. \n \nFrom the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. The small intestine is the site of the \ncomplete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. \nThe liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat. \nThe pancreas secretes pancreat ic juice which contains the enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for \ndigesting starch, proteins and fats, respectively.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nThe pancreas secretes pancreat ic juice which contains the enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for \ndigesting starch, proteins and fats, respectively. \n \nIn the small intestine, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are completely digested into glucose, \naminoacids, fatty acids and glycerol. \n \nThe villi of the small intestine absorb the digested food and supply it to every cell of the body. \n \nThe unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water from this \nmaterial. The rest of the material is removed from the body via t he anus. \n \nRespiration: \n \nDuring respiration, the digested food materials are broken down to release energy in the form of \nATP. \nDepending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be of two types: \ni. Aerobic respiration: It occurs in the presence of air (oxygen). \nii. Anaerobic respiration: It occurs in the absence of (air) oxygen.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\ni. Aerobic respiration: It occurs in the presence of air (oxygen). \nii. Anaerobic respiration: It occurs in the absence of (air) oxygen. \n \nIn all cases the first step is the break -down of glucose, a six -carbon molecule, into a three -caron \nmolecule called pyruvate . This process taken place in the cytoplasm. Further, the pyruvate may be \nconverted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process takes place in yeast during fermentation. \nSince this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called anaerobi c respiration. \nBreak -down of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria. \nA large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to anaerobic \nrespiration. \nSome times when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, the pyruva te is converted into lactic \nacid. This build up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps. \nCLASS - X SCIENCE", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nacid. This build up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps. \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \n \n \nTerrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration, whereas aquatic organisms use \noxygen dissolved in water. \nIn humans, inhalati on of air occurs through the following pathway: \nNostrils _ Nasal passage _ Pharynx _ Larynx _ Trachea _ Bronchus _ Bronchiole _ Alveolus \n(please put arrow marks ------\uf0e0) \n \nIn human beings are is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air passing thr ough the nostrils \nis filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in \nthis process. From here, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are \npresent in the throat. These ensure that the air -passage does not collapse. \nWithin the lungs the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in \nballoon -line structures which are called alveoli.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nWithin the lungs the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in \nballoon -line structures which are called alveoli. \nThe alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and are the sit es where exchange of gases (O 2 \nand CO 2) occurs between blood and the atmosphere. \nThe blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the \noxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels t o be transported to all \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nthe cells in the body. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always \ncontain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for \nthe carbon dioxide to be relea sed. \nIn humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the different \ntissues of the body. This pigment in present in the red blood cells. \n \nTransportation :", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nIn humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the different \ntissues of the body. This pigment in present in the red blood cells. \n \nTransportation : \nTransportation in Human Beings : \nThe circulatory system is composed of the heart, blood and blood vessels which transport various \nmaterials throughout the body. \n \nThe heart: \n \n \n \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe human heart has four chambers \u2014two atria (right and left) and two ventricles (right and left). \nThese chambers prevent the oxygen rich blood from m ixing with the blood containing carbon \ndioxide. The right half of the heart receives deoxygenated blood, whereas the left half receives \noxygenated blood. \nThe carbon dioxide \u2013rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed, and \nthe ox ygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart. This oxygen -rich blood \nis then pumped to the rest of the body.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nthe ox ygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart. This oxygen -rich blood \nis then pumped to the rest of the body. \nVentricular walls are much thicker than atrial walls. \nHumans show double circulation i.e. blood goes through the heart twice a nd complete separation \nof oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. \nArteries carry blood from the heart to different parts of the body, whereas veins deliver the blood \nback to the heart. Arteries are connected to veins by thin capillaries, wherein materials are \nexchanged between the blood and cells. \nBlood has platelet cells which circulates around the body and prevent the blood loss at the site of \ninjury. \nLymph is also involved in transportation. It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and \ncontains les s protein. It drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces which join \nto from large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. It carries digested and absorbed fat", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nto from large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. It carries digested and absorbed fat \nfrom intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood. \n \nTransportation in plants : \nPlant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from roots. These \ntwo pathways are constructed as independently organized conducting tubes. One, the xylem moves \nwater and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem tran sports products of photosynthesis \nfrom the leaves where they are synthesised to other parts of the plant. \n \nThe component of xylem tissue ( tracheids and vessesls) of roots, stems, leaves are interconnected \nto form a continuous system of water conducting ch annels that reaches all parts of the plant. \nTranspiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells \nof the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all parts of the plant", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nof the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all parts of the plant \nparts thro ugh the interconnected water conducting channels. \n \nThe loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration . \nThus it helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from \nroots t o the leaves. It also regulates temperature. \nThe transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in phloem. \nIt transports amino acids and other substances. The translocation of food and other substances \ntakes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and down \nward directions. \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising energy. Material like sucrose is transferred \ninto phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases t he osmotic pressure of the tissue", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nThe translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising energy. Material like sucrose is transferred \ninto phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases t he osmotic pressure of the tissue \ncausing water to move into it. This pressure. This allows the phloem to move material according \nto the plant\u2019s needs. For example, in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be \ntransported to the buds which n eed energy to grow. \n \nExcretion: \nDuring excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes generated are removed from the body \n \nExcretion in Human Beings: \nIn humans, a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, the urinary bladder and the urethra constitute the \nexcretory system. Kidneys are located in the addomen, one on either side of the backbone. Urine \nproduced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until \nit is released through the urethra.", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nproduced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until \nit is released through the urethra. \n \nEach kidney has large numbers of basic filtration units called nephrons. Some substances in the \ninitial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water , are selectively re -\nabsorbed as the urine flows along the tube. The amount of water re -absorbed depends on how \nmuch excess water there is in the body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted. \nThe urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which connects the \nkidneys with the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to \npass it out through the urethra. The bladder is muscular so it is under nervous control. As a result \nwe can control the urge to urinate. \n \nExcretion in plants : \nPlants do not have an excretory system and carry out excretion in various ways such as", - "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nwe can control the urge to urinate. \n \nExcretion in plants : \nPlants do not have an excretory system and carry out excretion in various ways such as \ntranspiration, releasing wastes into the surrounding soil, losing their leaves and storing waste \nmaterials in cell vacuoles. Other waste products are stored as resins and gums in old xylem.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nCorrosion\nAlloys\nAlloys are homogeneous mixtures of\u00a0metal\u00a0with other metals or nonmetals.\u00a0Alloy formation\nenhances the desirable properties of the\u00a0material, such as hardness, tensile strength and\nresistance to corrosion.\nExamples of few alloys - \nBrass: copper and zinc\nBronze: copper and tin\nSolder: lead and tin\nAmalgam: mercury and other metal\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material usually a metal by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", - "Rusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) + xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192 CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192 Ag2S(black) + H2(g)\nPrevention of CorrosionPrevention :\u00a0\n1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: Application of paint or\u00a0oil or grease on\u00a0metal surfaces\nkeep out air and moisture.\n2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nkeep out air and moisture.\n2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.\n3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.\nExample: silver plating, nickel plating.\n5. Sacri\ufb01cial protection:\u00a0Magnesium is more reactive than iron.", - "Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.\nExample: silver plating, nickel plating.\n5. Sacri\ufb01cial protection:\u00a0Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on the\narticles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode, undergoes reaction (sacri\ufb01ce) instead\nof iron and protects the articles.Metals and Non-metalsPhysical Properties\nPhysical Properties of Metals\n\u25cfHard and have a high tensile strength\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires\n\u25cfHigh melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))\n\u25cfDense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density\n\u25cfLustrous\n\u25cfSilver-grey in colour, (except gold and copper)\nNon-Metals\nNonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.\nPhysical Properties of Nonmetals\nOccur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature\nBrittle\nNon-malleable\nNon-ductile\nNon-sonorous\nBad conductors of heat and electricity\nExceptions in Physical Properties\nAlkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.\nMercury is a liquid metal.\nLead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.\nMercury expands signi\ufb01cantly for the slightest change in temperature.", - "Mercury is a liquid metal.\nLead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.\nMercury expands signi\ufb01cantly for the slightest change in temperature.\nGallium and caesium have a very low melting point\nIodine is non-metal but it has lustre.\nGraphite conducts electricity.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nMercury expands signi\ufb01cantly for the slightest change in temperature.\nGallium and caesium have a very low melting point\nIodine is non-metal but it has lustre.\nGraphite conducts electricity.\nDiamond\u00a0conducts heat and has a very high melting point.\nChemical Properties\nChemical Properties of Metals\u25cfAlkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.\n\u25cfMg reacts with hot water.\n\u25cfAl, Fe and Zn react with steam.\n\u25cfCu, Ag, Pt, Au do not react with water or dilute acids.\nReaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)\nMetal + Oxygen\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Metal oxide (basic)\n\u25cfNa and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch\n\ufb01re.\n 4K(s) +O2(g) \u2192 2K 2O(s) (vigorous reaction)\n\u25cfMg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.", - "4K(s) +O2(g) \u2192 2K 2O(s) (vigorous reaction)\n\u25cfMg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)\n4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) \u2192 2Al 2O3(s)\n\u25cfSilver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.\nBasic Oxides of Metals", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)\n4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) \u2192 2Al 2O3(s)\n\u25cfSilver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.\nBasic Oxides of Metals\nSome metallic oxides get dissolved in water\u00a0and form alkalis.\u00a0Their aqueous solution turns\nred litmus blue.\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\nK2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2KOH (aq)\nAmphoteric Oxides of Metals\nAmphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form\nsalt and water.", - "For example - Al 2O3,ZnO ,PbO ,SnO\nAl2O3(s) + 6HCl (aq) \u2192 2AlCl 3(aq) + 3H 2O(l)\nAl2O3(s) + 2NaOH (aq) \u2192 2NaAlO 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) \u2192ZnCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) \u2192Na 2ZnO 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nReactivity Series\nThe below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order. \nSymbol \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 ElementK Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)\nBa Barium\nCa Calcium\nNa Sodium\nMg Magnesium\nAl Aluminium\nZn Zinc\nFe Iron\nNi Nickel\nSn Tin\nPb Lead\nH Hydrogen\nCu Copper\nHg Mercury\nAg Silver\nAu Gold", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nBa Barium\nCa Calcium\nNa Sodium\nMg Magnesium\nAl Aluminium\nZn Zinc\nFe Iron\nNi Nickel\nSn Tin\nPb Lead\nH Hydrogen\nCu Copper\nHg Mercury\nAg Silver\nAu Gold\nPt Platinum\nReaction of Metals with Water or Steam\nMetal +Water \u2192Metal \u00a0hydroxide \u00a0or\u00a0Metal \u00a0oxide +Hydrogen\n2Na + 2H 2O(cold) \u2192 2NaOH +H2+heat\nCa+ 2H 2O(cold) \u2192Ca(OH)2+H2\nMg+ 2H 2O(hot) \u2192Mg(OH)2+H2\n2Al+ 3H 2O(steam ) \u2192Al2O3+ 3H 2\nZn+H2O(steam ) \u2192ZnO +H2\n3Fe + 4H 2O(steam ) \u2192Fe3O4+ 4H 2\nReaction of Metals with Acid\nMetal +dilute", - "\u2192Al2O3+ 3H 2\nZn+H2O(steam ) \u2192ZnO +H2\n3Fe + 4H 2O(steam ) \u2192Fe3O4+ 4H 2\nReaction of Metals with Acid\nMetal +dilute \u00a0acid \u2192Salt +Hydrogen \u00a0gas\n2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute ) \u2192 2NaCl (aq) +H2(g)\n2K(s) +H2SO 4(dilute ) \u2192K2SO 4(aq) +H2(g)\nOnly Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.\u00a0\nMg(s) + 2HNO 3(dilute ) \u2192Mg(NO 3)2(aq) +H2(g)\nMn(s) + 2HNO 3(dilute ) \u2192Mn(NO 3)2(aq) +H2(g)\nDisplacement ReactionA more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.", - "How Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts\nMetal \u00a0A+Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0B\u2192Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0A+Metal \u00a0B", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nHow Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts\nMetal \u00a0A+Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0B\u2192Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0A+Metal \u00a0B\nFe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nCu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nReaction of Metals with Bases\nBase +metal \u2192salt+hydrogen\n2NaOH (aq) +Zn(s) \u2192Na 2ZnO 2(aq) +H2(g)\n2NaOH (aq) + 2Al (s) + 2H 2O(l) \u2192 2NaAlO 2(aq) + 2H 2(g)\nExtraction of Metals and Non-Metals\nApplications of Displacement Reaction\nUses of displacement reaction\n1. Extraction of metals\n2. Manufacturing of steel\n3.", - "Extraction of metals\n2. Manufacturing of steel\n3. Thermite reaction:\u00a0Al( s) +Fe2O3(s) \u2192Al2O3+Fe(molten )\nThe thermite reaction is used in welding of railway tracks, cracked machine\u00a0parts, etc.\nOccurrence of Metals\nMost of the\u00a0elements\u00a0especially metals occur in nature in the combined state with other\nelements. All these compounds of metals are known as\u00a0 minerals. But out of them, only a few\nare viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.\nAu, Pt - exist in the native or free state.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nelements. All these compounds of metals are known as\u00a0 minerals. But out of them, only a few\nare viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.\nAu, Pt - exist in the native or free state.\nExtraction of MetalsMetals of high reactivity - Na, K, Mg, Al.\nMetals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.\nMetals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg\nRoasting\nConverts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.\nIt also removes volatile impurities.\n2ZnS (s) + 3O 2(g) +Heat \u2192 2ZnO (s) + 2SO 2(g)\nCalcination\nConverts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of\nlimited air. It also removes\u00a0volatile impurities.", - "It also removes\u00a0volatile impurities.\nZnCO 3(s) +heat \u2192ZnO (s) +CO 2(g)\nCaCO 3(s) +heat \u2192CaO (s) +CO 2(g)\nAl2O3.2H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Al 2O3(s) + 2H 2O(l)\n2Fe 2O3.3H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l)\nExtracting Metals Low in Reactivity SeriesBy self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive\u00a0metals\u00a0like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n2Fe 2O3.3H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l)\nExtracting Metals Low in Reactivity SeriesBy self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive\u00a0metals\u00a0like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,\nare heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the\nremaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal\u00a0and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no\nexternal\u00a0reducing agent is used.", - "In this process, no\nexternal\u00a0reducing agent is used.\n1.2HgS (Cinnabar) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2HgO (crude \u00a0metal ) + 2SO 2(g)\n2HgO (s) +heat \u2192 2Hg (l) +O2(g)\n2.Cu2S(Copper\u00a0pyrite ) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2Cu 2O(s) + 2SO 2(g)\n2Cu 2O(s) +Cu2S(s) +heat \u2192 6Cu(crude \u00a0metal ) +SO 2(g)\n3.2PbS (Galena) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2PbO (s) + 2SO 2(g)\nPbS(s) + 2PbO (s) \u2192 2Pb (crude \u00a0metal ) +SO 2(g)\nExtracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series\nSmelting -\u00a0it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore(metal oxide) to a high temperature\nwith a suitable reducing agent.", - "The crude metal is obtained in its molten\u00a0state.\nFe2O3+ 3C (coke) \u2192 2Fe + 3CO 2", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nwith a suitable reducing agent. The crude metal is obtained in its molten\u00a0state.\nFe2O3+ 3C (coke) \u2192 2Fe + 3CO 2\nAluminothermic reaction -\u00a0also known as the\u00a0Goldschmidt\u00a0reaction is a highly exothermic\nreaction in which metal oxides usually of Fe and Cr are heated to a high temperature with \naluminium.\nFe2O3+ 2Al \u2192Al2O3+ 2Fe +heat\nCr2O3+ 2Al \u2192Al2O3+ 2Cr +heat\nExtraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series\nElectrolytic reduction:\n1. Down\u2019s process:\u00a0 Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\u00a0\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.", - "At the cathode (reduction) -\u00a0\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2. Hall\u2019s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a \ufb02uoride solvent usually cryolite,\n(Na 3AlF 6) is electrolysed.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\n2Al3++ 6e\u2013\u2192 2Al (s)Metal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n6O2\u2013\u2192 3O 2(g) + 12e\u2013\u00a0\nOxygen\u00a0gas is liberated.\nEnrichment of Ores", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n(Na 3AlF 6) is electrolysed.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\n2Al3++ 6e\u2013\u2192 2Al (s)Metal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n6O2\u2013\u2192 3O 2(g) + 12e\u2013\u00a0\nOxygen\u00a0gas is liberated.\nEnrichment of Ores\nIt means removal of impurities or gangue from ore, through various physical and chemical\nprocesses. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the\nproperties of the ore and the gangue.\nRe\ufb01ning of Metals\nRe\ufb01ning of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in\nmetallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal\u00a0and the gangue.\nElectrolytic Re\ufb01ning\nMetals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are re\ufb01ned electrolytically.", - "It is the last step in\nmetallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal\u00a0and the gangue.\nElectrolytic Re\ufb01ning\nMetals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are re\ufb01ned electrolytically.\nAnode \u2013 impure or crude\u00a0metal\nCathode \u2013 thin strip of pure metal\nElectrolyte \u2013 aqueous solution of metal salt\nFrom anode\u00a0 (oxidation) - metal ions are released into the solution \nAt cathode (reduction) - equivalent amount of metal from solution is deposited", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nElectrolyte \u2013 aqueous solution of metal salt\nFrom anode\u00a0 (oxidation) - metal ions are released into the solution \nAt cathode (reduction) - equivalent amount of metal from solution is deposited\nImpurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.", - "The Why Questions\nElectronic con\ufb01guration\n\u00a0Group 1 elements - Alkali metals\nElement Electronic \u00a0configuration\nLithium (Li) 2, 1\nSodium (Na) 2, 8, 1\nPotassium (K) 2, 8, 8, 1\nRubidium (Rb) 2, 8, 18, 8, 1\u00a0Group 2 elements - Alkaline earth metals\nElement Electronic \u00a0configuration\nBeryllium (Be) 2, 2\nMagnesium (Mg ) 2, 8, 2\nCalcium (Ca) 2, 8, 8, 2\nStronium (Sr) 2, 8, 18, 8, 2\nHow Do Metals and Nonmetals React\nMetals lose valence electron(s) and form cations. \nNon-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.", - "Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.\u00a0\nFor example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged\ncalcium\u00a0and chloride ions.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nforming an ionic bond.\u00a0\nFor example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged\ncalcium\u00a0and chloride ions.\nCalcium atom loses 2 electrons and\u00a0attains the electronic con\ufb01guration of the\u00a0nearest noble\ngas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a\u00a0net charge of +2.\nThe two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain\nthe electronic con\ufb01guration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).\nIonic CompoundsThe electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound\ntogether.\nExample: MgCl 2,CaO ,MgO ,NaCl ,etc .\nProperties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).\n2. Have high melting and boiling points.\n3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution\u00a0and when melted.\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.", - "Properties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).\n2. Have high melting and boiling points.\n3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution\u00a0and when melted.\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.\nPhysical Nature\nIonic solids usually exist in a regular, well-de\ufb01ned crystal structures.\nElectric Conduction of Ionic Compounds", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.\nPhysical Nature\nIonic solids usually exist in a regular, well-de\ufb01ned crystal structures.\nElectric Conduction of Ionic Compounds\nIonic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free\nand act as charge carriers.\nIn solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attractions and not free to\nmove; hence do not conduct electricity.\nFor example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds\nMost ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds\nMost ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This\noccurs due to the polar nature of water.\u00a0For example, NaCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl\u2212 ions bound together\nthrough electrostatic forces of attractions.\u00a0When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with\nwater, the partial positively charged ends of water\u00a0molecules interact with the Cl\u2212 ions,\nwhile\u00a0the negatively\u00a0charged end of the water molecules interacts\u00a0with the Na+ ions.\nThis\u00a0ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assist in the breaking of the\nstrong\u00a0electrostatic forces of attractions within the crystal and ultimately in the solubility of\nthe crystal.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nAcids, Bases and Salts\nIntroduction to Acids, Bases and Salts\nClassi\ufb01cation of matter\nOn the basis of\na) composition -\u00a0 elements, compounds and mixtures\nb) state - solids, liquids and gases\nc) solubility - suspensions, colloids and solutions\nTypes of mixtures - homogeneous and heterogeneous\nTypes of compounds -\u00a0covalent and ionic\nWhat Is an Acid and a Base?\nIonisable and non-ionisable compounds\nAn ionisable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions\nalmost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.\nA non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions\u00a0when dissolved in water or in its\nmolten state.\u00a0Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.", - "Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.\nExamples\u00a0Acids\u00a0\nHydrochloric acid (HCl )\nSulphuric acid\u00a0\u00a0(H 2SO 4)\nNitric acid\u00a0(HNO 3)\nBases\u00a0\nSodium hydroxide (NaOH)", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.\nExamples\u00a0Acids\u00a0\nHydrochloric acid (HCl )\nSulphuric acid\u00a0\u00a0(H 2SO 4)\nNitric acid\u00a0(HNO 3)\nBases\u00a0\nSodium hydroxide (NaOH)\nPotassium hydroxide (KOH)\nCalcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)\nBronsted Lowry theoryA Bronsted acid is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0donor. \nA Bronsted base is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0acceptor.\nExample \nIn the reaction:\u00a0 HCl(aq) +NH 3(aq) \u2192NH+\n4(aq) +Cl\u2212(aq)\nHCl - Bronsted acid and Cl\u2212 - its conjugate acid\nNH 3\u00a0 - Bronsted base and NH+\n4 - its conjugate acid\nPhysical test\nGiven\u00a0are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.\na. Taste\nAn acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.", - "a. Taste\nAn acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.\nThe method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue\nLitmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants - red litmus and blue litmus.\nAn acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.", - "An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.\nb) Methyl orange\nIn neutral solution - orange\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - yellow\nc) Phenolphthalein\nIn neutral solution - colourless\nIn acidic solution - remains colourless\nIn basic solution - pink\nAcid Base ReactionsReactions of acids and bases\na) Reaction of acids and bases with metals\nAcid\u00a0+ active metal\u00a0\u2192\u00a0 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2HCl \u00a0 +Mg\u2192MgCl 2+H2(\u2191)\nBase\u00a0+ metal \u2192 salt + hydrogen + heat", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nAcid Base ReactionsReactions of acids and bases\na) Reaction of acids and bases with metals\nAcid\u00a0+ active metal\u00a0\u2192\u00a0 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2HCl \u00a0 +Mg\u2192MgCl 2+H2(\u2191)\nBase\u00a0+ metal \u2192 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2NaOH \u00a0 +Zn\u2192Na 2ZnO 2+H2(\u2191)\nA more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.\n2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.", - "2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.\n2HCl \u00a0 + \u00a0CaCO 3\u2192CaCl 2\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a0CO 2\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0Mg (HCO 3)2\u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a02H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a02CO 2\nEffervescence indicates liberation of\u00a0 CO 2\u00a0gas.\nc) Neutralisation reaction\n1. Reaction of metal\u00a0oxides and hydroxides with acids\nMetal\u00a0oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.\nAcid + base \u2192 salt + water + heat\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0MgO \u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\n2HCl +Mg(OH)2\u2192MgCl 2+ 2H 2O\n2.", - "Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\n2HCl +Mg(OH)2\u2192MgCl 2+ 2H 2O\n2. Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.\nThey are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal\nbicarbonates.\nMost of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.", - "Most of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.\nHydronium ion\nHydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the\noxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.\nFormation of a hydronium ion\nDilution", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nHydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the\noxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.\nFormation of a hydronium ion\nDilution\nDilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent\n(usually water) to it.\nIt is a highly exothermic process.\nTo dilute an acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.\nStrength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\nWeak acid or base: When only a few\u00a0of the molecules of given amount of an acid or a base\ndissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\u00a0\nDilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.", - "Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nDilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.\nIf pH < 7 - acidic solution\nIf pH > 7-\u00a0 basic solution\npH scale\nImportance of pH in everyday life1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals\nPlants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.", - "pH sensitivity of plants and animals\nPlants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.\n3. pH in the digestive system\nThe process of digestion happens at a speci\ufb01c pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.\n3. pH in the digestive system\nThe process of digestion happens at a speci\ufb01c pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.\nThe pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is in\ufb02uenced by HCl in\nour stomach.\u00a0\n4. pH in tooth\u00a0decay\nTooth decay happens when the teeth are\u00a0exposed to an acidic environment of\u00a0pH\n5.5\u00a0and\u00a0below.\u00a0\u00a0\n5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.", - "5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.\nManufacture of Acids and Bases\nManufacture of acids and bases\na) Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0+ water \u2192 acid\nSO2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO3(aq)\nSO3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO4(aq)\n4NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) +O2(g) \u2192 4HNO 3(aq)\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.\nb) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\n4NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) +O2(g) \u2192 4HNO 3(aq)\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.\nb) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", - "b) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)\nf) Few metallic oxides + water \u2192 alkali\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\ng) Ammonia + water \u2192 ammonium hydroxide\nNH 3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NH 4OH(aq)\nSalts\nSalts\nA salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.", - "Examples - KCl ,NaNO 3,CaSO 4,etc.\nSalts are usually prepared by neutralisation\u00a0reaction of an acid and a base.\nCommon salt\nSodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it\u2019s used all over the world for\ncooking.\nFamily of salts", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nCommon salt\nSodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it\u2019s used all over the world for\ncooking.\nFamily of salts\nSalts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,\nLiCl.\npH of salts\nA salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).\nA salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature.\u00a0pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.", - "pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.\nPreparation of Sodium hydroxide\u00a0\nChemical formula - NaOH\nAlso known as - caustic sodaPreparation (Chlor-alkali process):\nElectrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.At anode: Cl 2\u00a0is released \nAt cathode: H2\u00a0is released\nSodium hydroxide remains in the solution.\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nAt cathode: H2\u00a0is released\nSodium hydroxide remains in the solution.\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2\nb. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia :\nNaCl (aq) +NH 3(g) +CO 2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NaHCO 3(aq) +NH 4Cl(aq)\nUses:\n1. Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3.", - "Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.\nChemical formuala - \\(Na_2CO_3 \\)\nPreparation: By heating\u00a0NaHCO 3\n2NaHCO 3(s) \u2192Na 2CO 3(s) +CO 2(g) +H2O(g)\nNa 2CO 3(s)\u00a0 + \u00a010H 2O(l)\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Na 2CO 3.10H 2O(s)Uses\n1. In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\n2NaHCO 3(s) \u2192Na 2CO 3(s) +CO 2(g) +H2O(g)\nNa 2CO 3(s)\u00a0 + \u00a010H 2O(l)\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Na 2CO 3.10H 2O(s)Uses\n1. In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.\nPlaster of parisGypsum , \u00a0CaSO 4.2H 2O\u00a0(s)\u00a0on \u00a0heating \u00a0at\u00a0100\u00b0C \u00a0(373K )\u00a0gives \u00a0CaSO 4.H2O\u00a0and \u00a0H2O\nCaSO 4.H2O\u00a0is plaster of paris.\nCaSO 4.H2O means\u00a0two formula units of CaSO 4 share\u00a0one molecule of water.", - "CaSO 4.H2O means\u00a0two formula units of CaSO 4 share\u00a0one molecule of water.\nUses - cast for healing fractures.1\n23\n2\n1\n21\n2", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations\nIntroduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations\nPhysical and chemical changes\nChemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties\nare formed.\nExample: Fe(s)\u00a0 + \u00a0CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\nHere, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and\ncopper are formed.\nPhysical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.\nExample: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).\u00a0\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature\nc) Formation of a precipitate\nd) Change in colour\ne) Change of state\nChemical reaction\nChemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by\nmaking or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.\nTypes of chemical reactionsTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nChemical Reactions and Equations I\nWord equation\nA\u00a0 word equation is a\u00a0chemical reaction\u00a0expressed in words rather than\u00a0chemical\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic\nsymbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.\nValency is the combining capacity of an\u00a0element. It can be considered as the number of\nelectrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a\nmolecule.\nWriting chemical equations\nRepresentation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the\nreactants and products is known as a chemical equation.\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".\n\u2022 For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2191)\".\n\u2022 For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2193)\".\nBalancing of a Chemical Reaction\nConservation of mass\nAccording to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a\nchemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to\nbalance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.\nIn other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-VERY SHORT QUESTIONS.txt\nVery Short Answer Type Question [1 mark] \nOne Sentence Answer \n1. What is a redox reaction? \n2. What is corrosion? Explain its advantage and disadvantage. \n3. What is rancidity? How can we reduce the problem of rancidity? \n4. How is corrosion different from rusting? \n5. What is meant by endothermic and exothermic reactions? Give suitable example \nfor each. \n6. Define different types of chemical reaction and give examples for each. \n7. Why is photosynthesis considered as an endothermic reaction? \n8. In electrolysis of water, why is the volu me of gas collected over one electrode \ndouble that of the other electrode? \n9. What happens when water is added to solid calcium oxide taken in a container? \nWrite a chemical formula for the same. \n10. Give three types of decomposition reaction. \n11. Name the compound us ed for testing CO2-gas.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-VERY SHORT QUESTIONS.txt\nDirection (Q 12 to 16): In the following Questions, the Assertion and Reason have \nbeen put forward. Read the statements carefully and choose the correct \nalternative from the following:", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-VERY SHORT QUESTIONS.txt\n(a) Both the Assertion and Reason are correct and the reason is the correct \nexplanation of the Assertion. \n(b) The Assertion and the reason are correct but the Reason is not the correct \nexplanation of the Assertion. \n(c) Assertion is true but the Reason is false. \n(d) The statement of the Assertion is false but the reason is true. \n12. Assertion : AgBr is used on photographic and X -ray film \nReason : AgBr is photosensitive and changes to Ag and bromine in presence \n of sunlight and undergoes decomposition reaction. \n13. Assertion: Magnesium ribbon keeps on burning in atmosphere of nitrogen. \nReason : Magnesium reacts with nitrogen to form magnesium nitride and \n this reaction is combination reaction . \n14. Assertion :Zinc reacts with sulphuric acid to form to form zinc sulphate and \n Hydrogen gas and it is displacement reaction. \nReason : Zinc reacts with oxygen to form Zinc oxide", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-VERY SHORT QUESTIONS.txt\nHydrogen gas and it is displacement reaction. \nReason : Zinc reacts with oxygen to form Zinc oxide \n15. Assertion : MnO 2 + 4 HCl ---\uf0e0 MnCl 2 + Cl 2 + 2 H 2O is r edox reaction. \nReason : MnO 2 oxides HCl to Cl 2 and gets reduced to MnCl 2 \n16. Assertion : lead nitrate on thermal decomposition gives lead oxide , brown \n coloured nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas . \nReason : Lead nitrate reacts wi th potassium iodide to form yellow ppt of lead \niodide \n And the reaction is double displacement as well as precipitation \nreaction.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-MCQ.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations \nMCQ Type Questions \n1. Some crystal s of copper sulphate were dissolved in water. The colour of the \nsolution obtained would be \n(a) Green \n(b) Red \n(c) Blue \n(d) Brown \n2. When dilute HCl is added to zinc pieces taken in a test tube \n(a) No change take place \n(b) The colour of the solution becomes yellow \n(c) A pungent smelling gas gets liberated \n(d) A small bubbles of H2 gas appear on the surface of zinc pieces. \n3. PbS reacts with ozone (O3) and forms PbSO4. As per the balanced equation, \nmolecues of ozone required for e very one molecule of PbS is/are \n(a) 4 \n(b) 3 \n(c) 2 \n(d) 1 \n4. Chemically rust is \n(a) Hydrated ferrous oxide \n(b) Hydrated ferric oxide \n(c) Only ferric oxide \n(d) None of these \n5.", + "Chemically rust is \n(a) Hydrated ferrous oxide \n(b) Hydrated ferric oxide \n(c) Only ferric oxide \n(d) None of these \n5. Which of the following reactions is not correct \n(a) Zn + CuSO 4 -----\uf0e0 ZnSO 4 +Cu \n(b) 2 Ag + Cu(NO 3)2 --\uf0e0 2 AgNO 3 + Cu \n(c) Fe + CuSO 4 -\uf0e0 FeSO 4 + Cu \n(d) Mg + 2 HCl ---\uf0e0 MgCl 2 + H 2", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-MCQ.txt\n5. Which of the following reactions is not correct \n(a) Zn + CuSO 4 -----\uf0e0 ZnSO 4 +Cu \n(b) 2 Ag + Cu(NO 3)2 --\uf0e0 2 AgNO 3 + Cu \n(c) Fe + CuSO 4 -\uf0e0 FeSO 4 + Cu \n(d) Mg + 2 HCl ---\uf0e0 MgCl 2 + H 2 \n6. Copper displaces which of the following metals from its salt solution: \n(a) ZnSO 4 \n(b) FeSO 4 \n(c) AgNO 3 \n(d) NiSO 4 \n7. In an electric cell where electrolysis is carried out , anode has: \n(a) Positive charge \n(b) Negative charge \n(c) Connected to negative terminal of the battery \n(d) None of these is correct \n8. The reaction H 2 + Cl 2 --\uf0e0 2 HCl represents: \n(a) oxidation \n(b) reduction \n(c) decomposition \n(d) combination \n9.", + "The reaction H 2 + Cl 2 --\uf0e0 2 HCl represents: \n(a) oxidation \n(b) reduction \n(c) decomposition \n(d) combination \n9. In the reaction PbO + C --\uf0e0 Pb + CO \n(a) PbO is oxidized \n(b) C act as an oxidizing agent \n(c) C act as a reducing agent (d) Reaction does not represent redox reaction \n10. A substance which oxidizes itself and reduces other is known as \n(a) Oxidizing agent \n(b) Reducing agent \n(c) Both (a) and (b) \n(d) None of these.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-MCQ.txt\n10. A substance which oxidizes itself and reduces other is known as \n(a) Oxidizing agent \n(b) Reducing agent \n(c) Both (a) and (b) \n(d) None of these. \n11. Take about 5 ml of dil.HCl in a test tube and add a few pieces of fine granules \nof zinc in it. Which gas is evolved? \n(a) Chlorine \n(b) Hydrogen \n(c) HCl \n(d) Nitrogen \n12. Dissolving sugar is an example of: \n(a) Physical change \n(b) Chemical change \n(c) Redox reaction \n(d) None of these \n13. Heat is evolved during: \n(a) Endother mic reaction \n(b) Displacement reaction \n(c) Combustion reaction \n(d) Combination reaction \n14. Which of the following is not a balanced equation?", + "Heat is evolved during: \n(a) Endother mic reaction \n(b) Displacement reaction \n(c) Combustion reaction \n(d) Combination reaction \n14. Which of the following is not a balanced equation? \n(a) Fe + Cl 2 ----\uf0e0 FeCl 3 \n(b) Mg + CuSO 4 -----\uf0e0 MgSO 4 +Cu \n(c) NaOH + HCl --\uf0e0 NaCl + H 2O \n(d) Zn + S -\uf0e0 ZnS \n15. The reaction between lead nitrate and potassium iodide present in aqueous \nsolution is an example of \n(a) Decomposition reaction \n(b) Displacement reation \n(c) Double displacement reaction \n(d) Neutralization reaction", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-MCQ.txt\nsolution is an example of \n(a) Decomposition reaction \n(b) Displacement reation \n(c) Double displacement reaction \n(d) Neutralization reaction \n16. What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iro n filings? \n(a) hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced \n(b) chlorine gas and iron hydroxides are produced \n(c) no reaction takes place \n(d) iron salt and water are produced. \n17. Which of the following gases can be used for the storage of fresh sample of \nan oil for a longer time? \n(a) Carbon dioxide or oxygen \n(b) Nitrogen or helium \n(c) Helium or oxygen \n(d) Nitrogen or oxygen. \n18. In the decomposition of lead (II) nitrate to give lead (II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide \nand oxygen gas, the coefficient of nitrogen dioxide ( in the balanced equation) \nis \n(a) 1 \n(b) 2 \n(c) 3 (d) 4 \n19.", + "In the decomposition of lead (II) nitrate to give lead (II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide \nand oxygen gas, the coefficient of nitrogen dioxide ( in the balanced equation) \nis \n(a) 1 \n(b) 2 \n(c) 3 (d) 4 \n19. We store silver chloride in dark coloured bottles because it is \n(a) A white solid \n(b) Undergoes redox reaction \n(c) To avoid action by sunlight \n(d) None of the above.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-MCQ.txt\n(b) 2 \n(c) 3 (d) 4 \n19. We store silver chloride in dark coloured bottles because it is \n(a) A white solid \n(b) Undergoes redox reaction \n(c) To avoid action by sunlight \n(d) None of the above. \n20. Silver articles turn blak when kept in the open for a few days due to formation \nof \n(a) H2S \n(b) AgS \n(c) AgSO 4 \n(d) Ag2S", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nChapter 1 \nCHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS \nChem ical Reaction: The tra nsformation of chemical substance into another \nchemical substance is known as Chemical Reaction. \nFor example: Rusting of iron, the setting of milk into curd, digestion of food, \nrespiration, etc. \nIn a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed which is completely different in \nproperties from the original substance, so in a chemical reaction, a chemical change \ntakes place. \nOnly a rearrangement of atoms takes place in a chemical r eaction. \n\u2022 The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants. \n\u2022 The new substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction are called \nproducts. \nExample: The burning of magnesium in the air to form magnesium oxide is an \nexample of a chemical reaction. \n 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) 2MgO(s) \nBefore burning in air, the magnesium ribbon is cleaned by rubbing with sandpaper.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nexample of a chemical reaction. \n 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) 2MgO(s) \nBefore burning in air, the magnesium ribbon is cleaned by rubbing with sandpaper. \nThis is done to remove the protective layer of basic magnesium carbonate from the \nsurface of the magnesi um ribbon. \nReactant: Substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants. \nExample: Mg and O 2. \nProduct: New substance formed after a chemical reaction is called a product. \nExample: MgO. \nCharacteristics of Chemical Reactions: \n(i) Evolution of gas: The chemical reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid is \ncharacterised by the evolution of hydrogen gas. \n Zn(s) + H 2SO 4(aq) \u2192 ZnSO 4(aq) + H 2(g) \u2191 \n(ii) Change in Colour: The chemical reacti on between citric acid and purple \ncoloured potassium permanganate solution is characterised by a change in colour \nfrom purple to colourless.", + "The chemical reaction between sulphur dioxide gas and acidified potassium", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\ncoloured potassium permanganate solution is characterised by a change in colour \nfrom purple to colourless. \nThe chemical reaction between sulphur dioxide gas and acidified potassium \ndichromate solution is characterized by a change in colour from orange to green. \n(iii) Change in state of substance: The combustion reaction of candle wax is \ncharacterised by a change in state from solid to liquid and gas (because the wax is a \nsolid, water formed by the combustion of wax is a liq uid at room temperature \nwhereas, carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of wax is a gas). There are \nsome chemical reactions which can show more than one characteristics. \n(iv) Change in temperature: The chemical reaction between quick lime water to \nform slaked lime is characterized by a change in temperature (which is a rise in \ntemperature). \nThe chemical reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid is also \ncharacterised by a change in temperature (which is a rise in temperature).", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\ntemperature). \nThe chemical reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid is also \ncharacterised by a change in temperature (which is a rise in temperature). \n(v) Formation of precipitate: The chemical reaction between sulphuric acid and \nbarium chloride solution is characterised by the formation of a white precipitate of \nbarium sulphate. \n BaCl 2(aq) + H 2SO 4(aq) \u2192 BaSO 4(s) (ppt) + 2HCl(aq) \nWhat is a chemical Equation \nChemical Equation: Representation of chemical reaction using symbols and \nformulae of the substances is called Chemical Equation. \nExample: A + B \u2192 C + D \nIn this equation, A and B are called reactants and C and D are called the p roducts. \nThe arrow shows the direction of the chemical reaction. Condition, if any, is written \ngenerally above the arrow. \nWhen hydrogen reacts with oxygen, it gives water. This reaction can be represented \nby the following chemical equation: \n Hydroge n + Oxygen \u2192 Water", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\ngenerally above the arrow. \nWhen hydrogen reacts with oxygen, it gives water. This reaction can be represented \nby the following chemical equation: \n Hydroge n + Oxygen \u2192 Water \n H2 + O 2 \u2192 H 2O \nIn the first equation, words are used and in second, symbols of substances are used \nto write the chemical equation. For convenience, the symbol of substance is used to \nrepresent chemical equatio ns. \nA chemical equation is a way to represent the chemical reaction in a concise and \ninformative way. \nA chemical equation can be divided into two types: Balanced Chemical Equation and \nUnbalanced Chemical Equation. \n(a) Balanced Chemical Equation: A balanced chemical equation has the number of \natoms of each element equal on both sides. \nExample: Zn + H 2SO 4 \u2192 ZnSO 4 + H 2 \nIn this equation, numbers of zinc, hydrogen and sulphate are equal on both sides, so \nit is a Balanced Chemical Equation.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nExample: Zn + H 2SO 4 \u2192 ZnSO 4 + H 2 \nIn this equation, numbers of zinc, hydrogen and sulphate are equal on both sides, so \nit is a Balanced Chemical Equation. \nAccording to the Law of Conservation of Mass, mass can neither be created nor \ndestroyed in a chemical reaction. To obey this law, the total mass of elements \npresent in reactants must be equal to the total mass of elements present in products. \n(b) Unbalanced Chemical Equation: If the number of atoms of each element in \nreactants is not equal to the number of atoms of each element present in the product, then the chemical equation is called Unbalanced Chemical Equation. \nExample: Fe + H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + H 2 \nIn this exa mple, a number of atoms of elements are not equal on two sides of the \nreaction. For example; on the left -hand side only one iron atom is present, while \nthree iron atoms are present on the right -hand side. Therefore, it is an unbalanced \nchemical equation.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nreaction. For example; on the left -hand side only one iron atom is present, while \nthree iron atoms are present on the right -hand side. Therefore, it is an unbalanced \nchemical equation. \nBalancing a Chemical Equation: To balance the given or any chemical equation, \nfollow these steps: \nFe + H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + H 2 \nWrite the number of atoms of elements present in reactants and in products in a \ntable as shown here. \nName of atom No. of atoms in the rea ctant No. of atoms in the product \nIron 1 3 \nHydrogen 2 2 \nOxygen 1 4 \nBalance the atom which is maximum in number on either side of a chemical \nequation. \nIn this equation, the number of oxygen atom is the maximum on the RHS. \nTo balance the oxygen, one needs to multiply the oxygen on the LHS by 4, so that, \nthe number of oxygen atoms becomes equal on both sides.", + "In this equation, the number of oxygen atom is the maximum on the RHS. \nTo balance the oxygen, one needs to multiply the oxygen on the LHS by 4, so that, \nthe number of oxygen atoms becomes equal on both sides. \nFe + 4 \u00d7 H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + H 2 \nNow, the number of hydrogen atoms becomes 8 on the LHS, which is more than that", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nthe number of oxygen atoms becomes equal on both sides. \nFe + 4 \u00d7 H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + H 2 \nNow, the number of hydrogen atoms becomes 8 on the LHS, which is more than that \non the RHS. To balance it, one needs to multiply the hydrogen on the RHS by 4. \nFe + 4 \u00d7 H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + 4 \u00d7 H 2 \nAfter that, the number of oxygen and hydrogen atoms becomes equal on both sides. \nThe number of iron is one on the LHS, while it is three on the RHS. To balance it, \nmultiply the iron on t he LHS by 3. \n3 \u00d7 Fe + 4 \u00d7 H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + 4 \u00d7 H 2 \nNow the number of atoms of each element becomes equal on both sides. Thus, this \nequation becomes a balanced equation. Name of atom \nNo. of atoms in the reactant \n No.", + "Thus, this \nequation becomes a balanced equation. Name of atom \nNo. of atoms in the reactant \n No. of atoms in the product \nIron 3 3 \nHydrogen 8 8 \nOxygen 4 4 \nAfter balancing, the above equation can be written as follows: \n3Fe + 4H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + 4H 2. \nTo Make Equations More Informative: \nWriting the symbols of physical states of substances in a chemical equation:", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\n3Fe + 4H 2O \u2192 Fe 3O4 + 4H 2. \nTo Make Equations More Informative: \nWriting the symbols of physical states of substances in a chemical equation: \nBy writing the physical states of substances, a chemical equation becomes more \ninformative. \n\u2022 Gaseous state is represented by symbol (g). \n\u2022 Liquid state is represented by symbol (l). \n\u2022 Solid state is written by symbol (s). \n\u2022 Aqueous solution is written by symbol (aq). \n\u2022 Writing the condition in which reaction takes place: The condition is generally \nwritten above and/or below the arrow of a chemical equation. \nThus, by writing the symbols of the physical state of substances and condition under \nwhich reaction takes place, a chemical equation can be made more informative.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nWhat are the types of a chemical reaction Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination Reaction, Decomposition Reaction, \nDisplacement Reaction, Double Displacement Reaction, Neutralization Reactions, \nExothermic \u2013 Endothermic Reactions and Oxidation -Reduction Reactions. \nTypes of Chemical Reactions: \nChemical reactions can be classified in following types: \n(i) Combination Reaction: Reactions in which two or more reactants combine to \nform one product are c alled Combination Reactions. \nA general combination reaction can be represented by the chemical equation given \nhere: \n A + B \u2192 AB \nExamples: \nWhen magnesium is burnt in the air (oxygen), magnesium oxide is formed. In this \nreaction, magnesium is combine d with oxygen. \n 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) \u2192 2MgO(s) \n Magnesium + Oxygen \u2192 Magnesium Oxide \nWhen carbon is burnt in oxygen (air), carbon dioxide is formed. In this reaction, \ncarbon is combined with oxygen.", + "2Mg(s) + O 2(g) \u2192 2MgO(s) \n Magnesium + Oxygen \u2192 Magnesium Oxide \nWhen carbon is burnt in oxygen (air), carbon dioxide is formed. In this reaction, \ncarbon is combined with oxygen. \nC (s) + O 2(g) \u2192 CO 2(g)", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nMagnesium + Oxygen \u2192 Magnesium Oxide \nWhen carbon is burnt in oxygen (air), carbon dioxide is formed. In this reaction, \ncarbon is combined with oxygen. \nC (s) + O 2(g) \u2192 CO 2(g) \nCarbon + Oxyge n \u2192 Carbon dioxide \n(ii) Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which one compound decomposes in \ntwo or more compounds or elements are known as Decomposition Reaction. A \ndecomposition reaction is just the opposite of combination reaction. \nA general decomposit ion reaction can be represented as follows: \n AB \u2192 A + B \nExamples: \nWhen calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon \ndioxide.", + "A \ndecomposition reaction is just the opposite of combination reaction. \nA general decomposit ion reaction can be represented as follows: \n AB \u2192 A + B \nExamples: \nWhen calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon \ndioxide. \nCaCO 3(s) CaO(s) + CO 2(g) \nCalcium carbonate \u2192 Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide \nWhen ferric hydroxide is heated, it decomposes into ferric oxide and water \n 2Fe(OH) 3(s) Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l) \nThermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a substance on heating is known \nas Thermal Decomposition.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\n2Fe(OH) 3(s) Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l) \nThermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a substance on heating is known \nas Thermal Decomposition. \nExample: 2Pb(NO 3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO 2(g) + O 2(g) \nElectrolytic Decomposition: Reactions in which compounds decompose into \nsimpler compounds because of passing of electricity, are known as Electrolytic \nDecomposition. This is also known as Electrolysis. \nExample: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and \noxygen. \n 2H 2O(l) 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) \nPhotolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which a compound \ndecomposes because of sunlight are known as Photolysis or Photo Decomposition \nReaction.", + "2H 2O(l) 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) \nPhotolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which a compound \ndecomposes because of sunlight are known as Photolysis or Photo Decomposition \nReaction. \nExample: When silver chloride is put in sunlight, it decomposes into silver metal and \nchlorine gas. \n 2AgCl(s) (white) 2Ag(s) (grey) + Cl 2(g) \nPhotographic paper has a coat of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nchlorine gas. \n 2AgCl(s) (white) 2Ag(s) (grey) + Cl 2(g) \nPhotographic paper has a coat of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed \nto sunlig ht. It happens because silver chloride is colourless while silver is a grey \nmetal. \n(iii) Displacement Reaction: The chemical reactions in which a more reactive \nelement displaces a less reactive element from a compound is known as \nDisplacement Reactions. Displacement reactions are also known as Substitution \nReaction or Single Displacement/ replacement reactions. \nA general displacement reaction can be represented by using a chemical equation \nas follows : \n A + BC \u2192 AC + B \nDispla cement reaction takes place only when \u2018A\u2019 is more reactive than B. If \u2018B\u2019 is \nmore reactive than \u2018A\u2019, then \u2018A\u2019 will not displace \u2018C\u2019 from \u2018BC\u2019 and reaction will not be \ntaking place. \nExamples: \nWhen zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas an d zinc chloride.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\ntaking place. \nExamples: \nWhen zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas an d zinc chloride. \n \n Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) \u2192 ZnCl 2(aq) + H 2(g) \nWhen zinc reacts with copper sulphate, it forms zinc sulphate and copper metal. \n \n Zn(s) + CuSO 4(aq) \u2192 ZnSO 4(aq) + Cu(s) \n(iv) Double Displacement Reaction: Reactions in which ions are exchanged \nbetween two reactants forming new compounds are called Double Displacement \nReactions. \n AB + CD \u2192 AC + BD \nExamples: \nWhen the solution of barium chloride reacts with the solutio n of sodium sulphate, \nwhite precipitate of barium sulphate is formed along with sodium chloride.", + "AB + CD \u2192 AC + BD \nExamples: \nWhen the solution of barium chloride reacts with the solutio n of sodium sulphate, \nwhite precipitate of barium sulphate is formed along with sodium chloride. \n \n BaCl 2(aq) + Na 2SO 4(aq) \u2192 BaSO 4(s) (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq) \nWhen sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and \nwater are formed.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nNaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) \u2192 NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l) \nNote: Double Displacement Reaction, in which precipitate is formed, is also known \nas precipitation reaction. Neutralisation reactions are also examples of double \ndisplacement reaction. \nPrecipitation Reaction: The reaction in which precipitate is formed by the mixing of \nthe aqueous solution of two salts is called Precipitation Reaction. \nExample: \n \nNeutralization Reaction: The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form \nsalt and water by an exchange of ions is called Neutralization Reaction. \nExample:", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\n(v) Oxidation and Reduction Reactions: \nOxidation: Addition of oxygen or non -metallic element or removal of hydrogen or \nmetallic element from a compound is known as Oxidation. \nElements or compounds in which oxygen or non -metallic element is added or \nhydrogen or metallic element is removed are called to be oxidized . \nReduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non -\nmetallic elemen t from a compound is called Reduction. \nThe compound or element which goes under reduction in called to be reduced . \nOxidation and Reduction take place together. \nOxidizing agent: \n\u2022 The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent. \n\u2022 The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent. \nReducing agent: \n\u2022 The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent. \n\u2022 The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nReducing agent: \n\u2022 The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent. \n\u2022 The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent. \nThe reaction in which oxi dation and reduction both take place simultaneously is \ncalled Redox reaction. \nWhen copper oxide is heated with hydrogen, then copper metal and hydrogen are \nformed. \nCuO + H 2 \u2192 Cu + H 2O \n(i) In this reaction, CuO is changing into Cu. Oxygen is being removed f rom copper \noxide. Removal of oxygen from a substance is called Reduction, so copper oxide is \nbeing reduced to copper. \n(ii) In this reaction, H 2 is changing to H 2O. Oxygen is being added to hydrogen. \nAddition of oxygen to a substance is called Oxidation, so hydrogen is being oxidised \nto water. \n\u2022 The substance which gets oxidised is the reducing agent. \n\u2022 The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent. \n(vi) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nto water. \n\u2022 The substance which gets oxidised is the reducing agent. \n\u2022 The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent. \n(vi) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: \nExothermic Reaction: Reaction which produces energy is called Exothermic \nReaction. Most of the decomposition reactions are exothermic. \nExample: \nRespiration is a decomposition reaction in which energy is released.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nWhen quick lime (CaO) is added to water, it releases energy. \n \nEndothermic Reaction: A chemi cal reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is \ncalled Endothermic Reaction. \nExample: Decomposition of calcium carbonate. \n \nEffects of Oxidation Reactions in Everyday life: Corrosion and Rancidity. \nCorrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals i nto their undesirable \ncompounds due to their reaction with oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the \natmosphere is called Corrosion. \nExample: Rusting of iron. \n \n \nRusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is \ncalled Rust .", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nRusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is \ncalled Rust . \n \nThe rusting of iron is a redox reaction. \nCorrosion (rusting) weakens the iron and steel objects and structures such as \nrailings, car bodies, bridges and ships etc. and cuts short their life. \nMethods to Prevent Rusting \n\u2022 By painting. \n\u2022 By greasing and oilin g. \n\u2022 By galvanisation. \nCorrosion of Copper: Copper objects lose their lustre and shine after some time \nbecause the surface of these objects acquires a green coating of basic copper \ncarbonate, CuCO 3.Cu(OH) 2 when exposed to air.", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nCorrosion of Silver Metal: The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (becomes dull) \non exposure to air, due to the formation of a coating of black silver sulphide(Ag 2S) on \nits surface by the action of H 2S gas present in the air. \n \n 2 Ag(s) + H 2S -------- ----\u2192 Ag2S + H 2 \nRancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes \nwhen they are left exposed to air for a long time. This is called Rancidity. It is caused \ndue to the oxidation of fat and oil present in food materials. \nMethods to prevent rancidity: \n\u2022 By adding anti -oxidant. \n\u2022 Vacuum packing. \n\u2022 Replacing air by nitrogen. \n\u2022 Refrigeration of foodstuff. \nQuick Notes \n1. Chemical Reaction: During chemical reactions, the chemical composition of \nsubstances changes or new substances are formed. \n2.", + "\u2022 Vacuum packing. \n\u2022 Replacing air by nitrogen. \n\u2022 Refrigeration of foodstuff. \nQuick Notes \n1. Chemical Reaction: During chemical reactions, the chemical composition of \nsubstances changes or new substances are formed. \n2. Chemical Equation: Chemical reactions can be written in chemical equation form \nwhich should always be balanced. \n3. Types of Chemical Reactions:", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\n2. Chemical Equation: Chemical reactions can be written in chemical equation form \nwhich should always be balanced. \n3. Types of Chemical Reactions: \nCombination reaction: A single product is formed from two or more reactants. \n2Mg + O 2 \u2192 2MgO \nDecomposition reaction: A single reactant breaks down to yield two or more \nproducts. \n\u2022 Thermal decomposition: 2Pb(NO 2)2 \u2192 2PbO + 4NO 2 + O 2 \n\u2022 Electrolysis: 2H20 \u2192 2H 2 + O 2 \n\u2022 Photochemical reaction: 2AgBr \u2192 2Ag + Br 2 \nDisplacement reaction: One element is displaced by another element. \nZn + CuSO 4 \u2192 ZnSO 4 + Cu \nDouble displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants. \nAgNO 3 + NaCl \u2192 AgCl + NaNO 3 \nRedox reaction: Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.", + "Zn + CuSO 4 \u2192 ZnSO 4 + Cu \nDouble displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants. \nAgNO 3 + NaCl \u2192 AgCl + NaNO 3 \nRedox reaction: Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously. \nCuO + H 2 \u2192 Cu + H 2O \nExothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved. \nC + O 2 \u2192 CO 2 (g) + heat \nEndothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed. \nZnCO 3 + Heat \u2192 ZnO + CO 2", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nC + O 2 \u2192 CO 2 (g) + heat \nEndothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed. \nZnCO 3 + Heat \u2192 ZnO + CO 2 \nRedox reaction: Chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction take place \nsimultaneously. \n4. Oxidation: Reaction that involves the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. \n5. Reduction: Reaction that shows the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen. \nZnO + C \u2192 Zn + CO \nZnO is reduced to Zn \u2014reduction. C is oxidized to CO \u2014Oxidation. \n6. Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Our Daily Life: \n\u2022 Corrosion: It is an undesirable change that occurs in metals when they are \nattacked by moisture, air, acids and bases. \nExample, Corrosion (rusting) of Iron: Fe 2O3.", + "Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Our Daily Life: \n\u2022 Corrosion: It is an undesirable change that occurs in metals when they are \nattacked by moisture, air, acids and bases. \nExample, Corrosion (rusting) of Iron: Fe 2O3. nH 2O (Hydrated iron oxide) \u2022 Rancidity: Undesirable change that takes place in oil containing food items \ndue to the oxidation of fatty acids. \nPreventive methods of rancidity: Adding antioxidants to the food materials,", + "CHAPTER 1 -CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\ndue to the oxidation of fatty acids. \nPreventive methods of rancidity: Adding antioxidants to the food materials, \nstoring food in the airtight container, flush ing out air with nitrogen gas and \nrefrigeration.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations \nCompetency Based Questions", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\n1. A compound 'X' used for drinking, has pH =7. Its acidified solution \nundergoes decomposition in presence of electricity to produce gases ' \nY' and 'Z' The volume of Y is double than Z. Y is highly combustible \nwhereas Z is supporter of combustion. identify X. Y & Z and write th e \nchemical reactions involved. \n2. An aqueous solution of metal nitrate P reacts with sodium bromide \nsolution to form yellow not of compound O which is used in \nphotography. O on exposure to sunlight undergoes decomposition \nreaction to form metal present in P a long with reddish brown gas. \nIdentify P & O. Write the chemical reaction & type of chemical reaction. \n3. Bhawana took a pale green substance A in a test tube, and heated it \nover the flame of a burner. A brown coloured residue B was formed \nalong with evolution of two gases with burning smell of sulphur. Identify \nA & B. Write the chemical reaction involved. \n4.", + "A brown coloured residue B was formed \nalong with evolution of two gases with burning smell of sulphur. Identify \nA & B. Write the chemical reaction involved. \n4. A student took 2 -3 g of a substance X in a glass beaker & poured water", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\nalong with evolution of two gases with burning smell of sulphur. Identify \nA & B. Write the chemical reaction involved. \n4. A student took 2 -3 g of a substance X in a glass beaker & poured water \nover it slowly. He observed bubbles along with hissing noise. The \nbeaker becomes quite hot. Identify X. What type of reaction is it? \n5. A substance X used for coating iron articles is added to a blue solution \nof a reddish brown metal Y. The colour of the solution gets discharged . \nIdentify X and Y & also the type of reaction. \n6. A reddish brown ve ssel developed a green coloured solid X when left \nopen in air for a long time. When reacted with dil H 2S04.", + "Identify X and Y & also the type of reaction. \n6. A reddish brown ve ssel developed a green coloured solid X when left \nopen in air for a long time. When reacted with dil H 2S04. it forms a blue \ncoloured solution along with brisk effervescence due to colourless & \nodourless gas Z. X decomposes to form black coloured oxide Y of a \nreddish brown metal along with gas Z. Identify X. Y. & Z. \n7. A student has mixed the solutions of lead (II) nitrate and potassium \niodide,", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\nreddish brown metal along with gas Z. Identify X. Y. & Z. \n7. A student has mixed the solutions of lead (II) nitrate and potassium \niodide, \n(i) What was the colour of the precipitate fo rmed? Can you name the \ncompound precipitated? \n(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction, \n(iii) What type of reaction is it? 8. Observe the following activity & answer the Questions", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\na. Do you observe anything happening around the zinc granules \nb. Is there any change in its temperature? \nc. Why is glass tube not dipp ed in dil H 2SO 4? \nd. How is H 2 gas collected by downward displacement or upward \ndisplacement of water? \ne. Is H 2 gas soluble or insoluble in water? \nf. Is H 2 gas heavier or lighter than air? \n9. A reddish brown metal X when heated in presence of oxygen forms a \nblack compound Y which is ba sic in nature when heated with hydrogen \ngas gives back X. Identify X & Y. Write the chemical reaction between Y \n& H 2 .Identify the substance being oxidized & reduced \n10. Name the type of reaction seen in the diagram below. Write the equation \nfor the reaction.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\n11. A student burnt a metal A found in the form of ribbon. The ribbon burnt \nwith a dazzling flame & a white powder B is formed which is basic in \nnature. Identify A & B. Write the balanced chemical equation. \n12. A student drop ped few p ieces of marble in dilute H Cl contained in a test \ntube. The gas evolved was passed through lime water. What change \nwould be observed in lime water? Write chemical reactions for both the \nchanges observed. \n13. Astha has been collecting silver coins and Co pper coins. One day she \nobserved a black coating on silver coins and a green coating on Co pper \ncoins. Which chemical phenomenon is responsible for these coatings? \nWrite the chemical name of black and green coatings \n14. Identify the type of chemical reaction \n(i) \n(ii) \n15. A student took 2 -3 g o f a substance X in a glass beaker & poured water \nover it slowly. He observed bubbles along with hissing noise.", + "Identify the type of chemical reaction \n(i) \n(ii) \n15. A student took 2 -3 g o f a substance X in a glass beaker & poured water \nover it slowly. He observed bubbles along with hissing noise. The \nbeaker becomes quite hot. Identify X. What type of reaction is it?", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\nover it slowly. He observed bubbles along with hissing noise. The \nbeaker becomes quite hot. Identify X. What type of reaction is it? \n16. A substance X used for coating iron articles is added to a blue sol ution \nof a reddish brown metal. T he colour of the solution gets discharged \nIdentify X and Y & also the type of reaction. \n17. A solution of a substance \u2018X\u2019 is used for white washing \n i. Name the substance \u2018X\u2019 and writes its formula. \n ii. Write the reaction of the substance \u2018X\u2019 named in (i) above with water \n18. A shiny brown coloured element \u2018X\u2019 on heating in air becomes black in \ncolour. Name the element \u2018X\u2019 and the black coloured compound formed. \n19. An aqueous solution of metal nitrate P reacts with sodium bromide \nsolution to form yellow ppt of compound Q which is used in \nphotography. Q on exposure to sunlight undergoes decomposition \nreaction to form metal present in P along with reddish brown gas.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\nsolution to form yellow ppt of compound Q which is used in \nphotography. Q on exposure to sunlight undergoes decomposition \nreaction to form metal present in P along with reddish brown gas. \nIdentify P &Q. Write the chemical reaction & type of chemic al reaction. \n20. A reddish brown vessel developed a green coloured solid X When left \nopen in air for a long time. When reacted with dil , it forms a blue \ncoloured solution along with brisk effervescence due to colourless & \nodourless gas Z. X decomposes to for m black coloured oxide Y of a \nreddish brown metal along with gas Z, Identify X, Y, & Z. \n21. A metal is heated with dil H 2SO 4. The gas evolved is collected by the \nmethod shown in the figure: Answer the following", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS.txt\n(a) Name the gas. \n(b) Name the method of collection of gas. \n(c) Is the gas soluble or insoluble in water? \n(d) Is the gas lighter or heavier than air?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\n1 \n SALWAN PUBLIC SCHOOL , RAJENDRA NAGAR \nCLASS \u2013 X \nLESSON PLAN \nCHAPTER -1: CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS \nCHAPTER -1: Science :( CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS ) \nClass Transaction \n \n \n \n(9-10 days) PART -I \n \nTotal: 4 periods (approx. 35 min each) \n \nSub-Topic: Introduction regarding situations of daily life -Physical and \n chemical changes \nSub-Topic: Chemical equations(writing equations) \n \nSub-Topic: Chemical equations(writing balancing equations) \n \nSub-Topic : Type of chemical reactions (combina tion and decomposition) \n \nPre-requisite for the \ncourse (KNOWLEDGE) This lesson requires: \n\uf0b7 Basic knowledge of the situations of daily life and think what happens \nwhen physical and chemical changes take place \n\uf0b7 The nature and the identity of the initial substance have somewhat \nchanged. \n\uf0b7 What is actually meant by a chemical reaction?", + "\uf0b7 What is actually meant by a chemical reaction? How do we come to \nknow that a chemical reaction has taken place? \n \nLearning Objectives", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nLearning Objectives \n \n Students will be able to: \n\uf0b7 recognize the Physical and chemical processes associated with \nbiological and industrial processes affecting life and the \nenvironment. \n\uf0b7 understand chemical reaction they encounter every day. \n\uf0b7 represent equations to represent the reactions . \n\uf0b7 apply the principles of conservation of mass to balance chemical \nreactions \n\uf0b7 identify the different types of chemical reaction and explain.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nTeachers ' activity \n Introduction: Teacher will introduce the topic by asking various questions \nfrom previous knowledge : \n\uf0b7 Analytical skills (scrutinizing an observation): To identify physical \nand chemical changes. Example -Paper is torn or Paper is burnt, ice \nis melting or iron nail is kept exposed to moist air. \n Evidence -based active -learning instructional strategies : \n\uf0b7 Problem solving (investigating and applying established principles \nto justify an observation) \n 2 \n \nExample - Activity: -Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and collection of \nmagnesium oxide in a watch -glass. \nConcept insight: Always remember that magnesium being a reactive metal will \nreact with oxygen if kept in open. So, it has to be cleaned before it is burned in \nair. \nActivity: -Formation of hydrogen gas by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on \nzinc. \nConcept insight: The key to this answer is to remember that metals react with", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nair. \nActivity: -Formation of hydrogen gas by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on \nzinc. \nConcept insight: The key to this answer is to remember that metals react with \nhydrochloric acid to form respective metal chlorides an d liberate hydrogen gas. \n\uf0b7 Critical thinking and collaboration (Competitive evaluation of given \ninformation) \nExample - To make a chemical equation more informative, the physical states of \nthe reactants and products are mentioned along with their chemical form ulae \nfrom given information of different activities. \nConcept insight: First convert the word equation into skeletal equation with \nstate and then balance the different atoms on both sides of the equation. \n\uf0b7 The ability to understand complex concepts (Inspect ing and analyzing \nreasons for variation in established principles);Types of chemical \nreactions: \nExample - Combination and decomposition reactions : Chemical reactions", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nreasons for variation in established principles);Types of chemical \nreactions: \nExample - Combination and decomposition reactions : Chemical reactions \ninvolve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new \nsubstances and balan cing equations with the help of law of conservation of \nmass \nConcept insight: Remember that a chemical equation should be balanced to \nfollow the Law of conservation of mass. \nRecapitulation (working effectively with others): \nExample -Discuss brain storming questions in class in group.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nLearning Outcomes Students will be able to know: \n\uf0b7 A complete chemical equation which represents the reactants, \nproducts and their physical states symbolically. \n\uf0b7 How to write the balanced chemical equation . \n\uf0b7 A combination and d ecomposition reactions. \n\uf0b7 Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are \ncalled exothermic reactions. \n\uf0b7 Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic \nreactions.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nAssessment \uf0b7 Continuously monitor student progress by asking oral questions. \n\uf0b7 Providing active involvement of students in their own learning by \ngiving daily Practice Problems in the class. \n\uf0b7 Peer assessment in Lab Activities \n\uf0b7 Written test \nSelf-Study, \uf0b7 Self-Study (Independent Practice) -The teacher would ensure that 3 \n Assignments , \nHomework each student should bring NCERT Book and tries to be independent \nat the work as well as be under the teacher\u2019s guidance. \n\uf0b7 Guided practice followed by Independent Practice ( Question \nBank): \nOn completion of the chapter, students will be answer the following \nrevision questions: \nQ.1.Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air? \nQ.2. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the \nreactions: Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric \nacid so lution (in water) to produce sodium chloride solution and water.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nreactions: Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric \nacid so lution (in water) to produce sodium chloride solution and water. \nQ.3.Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a test tube and a dd dilute \nhydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid to this. \n(a)Do you observe anything happening aroun d the zinc granules? \n(b)Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is there any change in its \ntemperature? \nQ.4.Take a small amount of calcium oxide or quick lime in a beaker , slowly \nadd water to this and touch the beaker. \n(a)Do you feel any change in temperature? \n(b) Write the balanced chemical equation with physical state. \nQ.5.Take about 2 g silver chloride in a china dish and Place this china dish in \nsunlight for some time. \n(a)Observe the colour of the silver chloride after some time \n(b).Name type of the reaction.", + "Q.5.Take about 2 g silver chloride in a china dish and Place this china dish in \nsunlight for some time. \n(a)Observe the colour of the silver chloride after some time \n(b).Name type of the reaction. \nQ.6.Take about 2 g barium hydroxide in a test tube. Add 1 g of ammonium", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN TEACHER.txt\nsunlight for some time. \n(a)Observe the colour of the silver chloride after some time \n(b).Name type of the reaction. \nQ.6.Take about 2 g barium hydroxide in a test tube. Add 1 g of ammonium \nchloride and mix with the help of a glass rod. Touch the bottom of the test \ntube with your palm. \n(a)What do you feel? \n(b)Is this an exothermic or endothermic reaction? \nHomework: The students, with the help of the teacher, will solve the \nquestions from NCERT back e xercise in their notebook.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\n1 \n SALWAN PUBLIC SCHOOL , RAJENDRA NAGAR \nCLASS \u2013 X \nLESSON PLAN \nCHAPTER -1: CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS \nCHAPTER -1: Science :( CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS ) \nClass Transaction \n \n \n \n \n(10-12 days) PART -II", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\n(10-12 days) PART -II \n \nTotal: 5 periods (approx. 35 min each) \nSub-Topic: Types of chemical reactions -Combination Reaction and different \nactivities. \nSub-Topic: Types of chemical reactions -Decomposition Reaction and different \nactivities. \nSub-Topic: Types of chemical reactions -Displacement Reaction and different \nactivities. \nSub-Topic : Type of chemical reactions \u2013Double displacement reaction and \ndifferent activities. \nSub-Topic :- Oxidation and reduction reaction (Corrosion and rancidity) \nPre-requisite for the \ncourse (KNOWLEDGE) This lesson requires: \n\uf0b7 Knowledge of the basic properties and mechanisms of chemical \nreactions. \n\uf0b7 The nature and the identity of the initial substance have somewhat \nchanged. \n\uf0b7 What is actually meant by a chemical reaction? How do we come to \nknow that a chemical reaction has taken place? \n \nLearning Objectives", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nLearning Objectives \n \n Students will be able to: \n\uf0b7 Classify a chemical reaction as a combination, decomposition, \nsingle replacement, double replacement, exothermic or \nendothermic reaction. \n\uf0b7 Differentiate between the types of chemical reactions. \n\uf0b7 Predict the products of a chemical reaction. \n\uf0b7 Understand the different sets of conditions required such as \ntemperature, light etc in reactions. \n\uf0b7 Know the effects of oxidation reactions in everyday life like \ncorrosion and rancidity.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nTeachers ' activity \n Introduction: Teacher will introduce the topic by performing various \nactivities: \nEvidence -based active -learning instructional strategies : \n\uf0b7 Problem solving (investigating and applying established principles \nto justify an observation) Activity: - \nExample -1-: Formation of calcium hydroxide \nExample -2: Heating of calcium carbonate \nExample -3: Electrolysis of water 2 \n Example -4: Reaction of iron nails with copper sulphate solution \nExample -5: Reaction between Sodium Sulphate and Barium Chloride \nExample -6: Reaction between Cu and O 2; CuO and H 2. \n\uf0b7 Critical thinking and collaboration (Competitive evaluation of given \ninformation) \nRecall Activity : \nYou are given test tube, the solutions of lead (II) nitrate and potassium iodide \nand are instructed to mix together in a test tube. Give answers by activity : \n(i)What was the colour of the precipitate formed? Can you name the \n compound precipitated?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nand are instructed to mix together in a test tube. Give answers by activity : \n(i)What was the colour of the precipitate formed? Can you name the \n compound precipitated? \n(ii)Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction. \n(iii)Is this also a double displacement reaction?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\n\uf0b7 The ability to understand the effects of oxidation reactions in \neveryday life? \nExample - Browning of cut surfaces of fruits. Formation of metal oxide on \nmetal like iron rust -Corrosion, Burning of crackers , Rancidity: \n\uf0b7 Recapitulation (working effectively with others): \n Example -Discuss brain storming questions in class in group. \n \nLearning Outcomes Students will be able to know \n\uf0b7 displacement and double displacement reaction. \n\uf0b7 precipitation reactions which produce insoluble salts. \n\uf0b7 importance of Redox reaction in ever day life. Oxidation is the gain of \noxygen or loss of hydrogen. Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of \nhydrogen. \n\uf0b7 molecular interactions and chemical reactions in the body .", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nAssessment \uf0b7 Continuously monitor student progress by asking oral questions. \n\uf0b7 Providing active involvement of students in their own learning by \ngiving daily Practice Problems in the class. \n\uf0b7 Peer assessment in Lab Activities \n\uf0b7 Written test \nSelf-Study, \nAssignments , \nHomework \uf0b7 Self-Study (Independent Practice) -The teacher would ensure that \neach student should bring NCERT Book and tries to be independent \nat the work as well as be under the teacher\u2019s guidance. \n\uf0b7 Guided practice followed by Independent Practice ( Question \nBank): \nOn completion of the chapter, students will be answer the following \nrevision questions: \nQ.1.Give some examples of combination and decomposition reactions. \nQ.2. What happens when Ferrous sulphate crystal is heated? Write the \nequations also. \nQ.3.Dissolve 0.5 gram silver nitrate 10 ml of water in a test tube and place a 3 \n Copper wire in a test tube. \nExplain your observation.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nequations also. \nQ.3.Dissolve 0.5 gram silver nitrate 10 ml of water in a test tube and place a 3 \n Copper wire in a test tube. \nExplain your observation. \nQ.4. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement \nreactions? Write equations for these reactions. \nQ.5.Take about 2 g silver bromide in a china dish and Place this china dish in \nsunlight for some time. \n(a)Observe the colour of the silver bromide after some time \n(b).Name type of the reaction. \nQ.6.An iron knife kept dipped in a blue copper sulphate solution turns the \nblue solution light green. Why? \nHomework: The students, with the help of the teacher, will solve the \nquestions from NCERT back e xercise in their notebook.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-5 MARKS.txt\nLong Answer Type Questions [ 5 Marks ] \n1. (a) Define a balanced chemical equation. Why should an equation be \nbalanced? \n(b) Write the balanced chemical equation for the following reaction: \n(i) Phosphorus burns in presence of chlorine to form phosphorus penta \nchloride. \n(ii) Burning of natural gas. \n(iii) The process of respiration. \n2. (a) Explain two ways by which food industries prevent rancidity. \n(b) Discuss the importance of decomposition reacti on in metal industry with \nthree points. \n3. (a) Write one example for each of decomposion reaction carried out with help \nof \n(i) Electricity (ii) Heat (iii) Light \n(b) Which of the following statements is correct and why copper can displace \nsilver from silver ni trate and silver can displace copper from copper sulphate \nsolution. \n4. What happens when a piece of \n(a) Zinc metal is added to copper suphste solution? \n(b) Aluminium metal is added to dilute hydrochloric acid?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-5 MARKS.txt\nsolution. \n4. What happens when a piece of \n(a) Zinc metal is added to copper suphste solution? \n(b) Aluminium metal is added to dilute hydrochloric acid? \n(c) Silver metal is added to copper sulphate solution? \nAlso write the balanced chemical equation if the reaction occurs. \n5. On heating blue coloured powder of copper (II) nitrate in a boiling tube , \ncopper oxide (black), oxygen gas and a brown gas X is formed. \n(a) Write a balanced chemical equation of the reaction \n(b) Identif y the brown gas x evolved. \n(c) Identify the type of reaction \n(d) What could be the pH range of aqueous solution of the gas x? \n6. On adding a drop of barium chloride solution to an aqueous solution of \nsodium sulphate, white precipitate is obtained. \n(a) Write the balanced chemical equation of the reaction involved. \n(b) What other name can be given to this precipitation reaction? \n(c) On adding diu te hydrochloric acid to the reaction mixture, white precipitate \ndisappears. Why?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-5 MARKS.txt\n(b) What other name can be given to this precipitation reaction? \n(c) On adding diu te hydrochloric acid to the reaction mixture, white precipitate \ndisappears. Why? \n7. You are provided with two containers made up of copper and aluminium. You \nare aso provided with solutions of dilute HCl, dilute HNO 3, ZnCl 2 and H 2O. In \nwhich of the above cont ainers of these solutions can be kept?", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nLESSON PLAN \nClass: 10 Chapter: 1 ( Chemical Reactions and Equations )", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nTopics to be covered Chemical reactions, writing chemical equations, Balancing \nchemical equations, types of chemical reactions -\ncombination reactions, decomposition reactions, \ndisplacement reactions, double displacement reactions, \nneutralization reactions , precipitation reactions, redox \nreactions \nPrevious Knowledge \u2022 Students know differences between physical \nchange and chemical change \n\u2022 Studied the symbols of elements and chemical \nformulae of molecules. \n\u2022 Also studied law of conservation of mass. \nLearning Objectives \u2022 To understand the chemical reactions in daily life \n\u2022 Able to write the chemical equations from the \nstatements \n\u2022 Understand how to balance chemical reactions \n\u2022 Study different types of chemical reactions \n\u2022 Define the terms reactants, products, precipitate, \nneutralization etc. \nLearning Experiences \u2022 In combination reactions two or more substances \ncombine to form a single compound . \n\u2022 In decomposition reactions a single compound", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nneutralization etc. \nLearning Experiences \u2022 In combination reactions two or more substances \ncombine to form a single compound . \n\u2022 In decomposition reactions a single compound \nbreaks down into two or more substances. \n\u2022 Displacement reactions are the reactions in which a \nmore active element displace a less active element \nfrom its solution. \n\u2022 In double displacement reactions ions are \nexchanged between two compounds. \n\u2022 REDuction + Oxidation = REDOX reaction \nResources NCERT book \nReference book \u2013Prdeeps Publications \nYou tube ,education channels", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHERS.txt\nTeaching Aids Usage of ICT( power point) multimedia., Lab activities( \nvirtual lab also) \n \nProcedure Class starts with the introduction \nThe topics are presenting with power point , audiovisual \naids, virtual lab and lab activities \nAt the end homework and assignments are given \n \nAssessment Methods Oral questioning , class tests and monthly tests", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-IMPORTANT NOTES.txt\nFocus Points \n1.Chemical Reaction: During chemical reactions, the chemical composition of \nsubstances changes or new substances are formed. \n2. Chemical Equation: Chemical reactions can be written in chemical equation form \nwhich should always be balanced. \n3. Types of Chemical Reactions: \nCombination reaction: A single product is formed from two or more reactants. \n2Mg + O 2 \u2192 2MgO \nDecomposition reaction: A single reactant breaks down to yield two or more \nproducts. \n\uf0b7 Thermal decomposition: 2Pb(NO 2)2 \u2192 2PbO + 4NO 2 + O 2 \n\uf0b7 Electrolysis: 2H20 \u2192 2H 2 + O 2 \n\uf0b7 Photochemical reaction: 2AgBr \u2192 2Ag + Br 2 \nDisplacement reaction: One element is displaced by another element. \nZn + CuSO 4 \u2192 ZnSO 4 + Cu \nDouble displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants.", + "Zn + CuSO 4 \u2192 ZnSO 4 + Cu \nDouble displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants. \nAgNO 3 + NaCl \u2192 AgCl + NaNO 3 \nRedox reaction: Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously. \nCuO + H 2 \u2192 Cu + H 2O", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-IMPORTANT NOTES.txt\nDouble displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants. \nAgNO 3 + NaCl \u2192 AgCl + NaNO 3 \nRedox reaction: Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously. \nCuO + H 2 \u2192 Cu + H 2O \nExothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved. \nC + O 2 \u2192 CO 2 (g) + heat \nEndothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat en ergy is absorbed. \nZnCO 3 + Heat \u2192 ZnO + CO 2 \nRedox reaction: Chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction take place \nsimultaneously. \n4. Oxidation: Reaction that involves the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. 5. Reduction: Reaction that shows the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen. \n ZnO + C \u2192 Zn + CO \n ZnO is reduced to Zn \u2014reduction. \n C is oxidized to CO \u2014Oxidation. \n6.", + "5. Reduction: Reaction that shows the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen. \n ZnO + C \u2192 Zn + CO \n ZnO is reduced to Zn \u2014reduction. \n C is oxidized to CO \u2014Oxidation. \n6. Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Our Daily Life: \n\uf0b7 Corrosion: It is an undesirable change that occurs in metals when they are \nattacked by moisture, air, acids and bases.", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-IMPORTANT NOTES.txt\n6. Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Our Daily Life: \n\uf0b7 Corrosion: It is an undesirable change that occurs in metals when they are \nattacked by moisture, air, acids and bases. \nExample, Corrosion (rusting) of Iron: Fe 2O3. nH 2O (Hydrated iron oxide) \n\uf0b7 Rancidity: Undesirable change that takes place in oil containing food items \ndue to the oxidation of fat ty acids. \nPreventive methods of rancidity: Adding antioxidants to the food materials, \nstoring food in the airtight container, flushing out air with nitrogen gas and \nrefrigeration.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nChemical Reactions\nand Equations1 CHAPTER\nConsider the following situations of daily life and think what happens\nwhen \u2013\n\u0084milk is left at room temperature during summers.\n\u0084an iron tawa/pan/nail is left exposed to humid atmosphere.\n\u0084grapes get fermented.\n\u0084food is cooked.\n\u0084food gets digested in our body.\n\u0084we respire.\nIn all the above situations, the nature and the identity of the initialsubstance have somewhat changed. We have already learnt about physicaland chemical changes of matter in our previous classes. Whenever a chemicalchange occurs, we can say that a chemical reaction has taken place.\nYou may perhaps be wondering as to what is actually meant by a\nchemical reaction. How do we come to know that a chemical reactionhas taken place? Let us perform some activities to find the answer to\nthese questions.\nFigure 1.1\nBurning of a magnesium ribbon in air and collection of magnesiumoxide in a watch-glassActivity 1.1Activity 1.1Activity 1.1Activity 1.1Activity 1.1", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nthese questions.\nFigure 1.1\nBurning of a magnesium ribbon in air and collection of magnesiumoxide in a watch-glassActivity 1.1Activity 1.1Activity 1.1Activity 1.1Activity 1.1\nCAUTION: This Activity needs\nthe teacher\u2019s assistance. It\nwould be better if studentswear eye protection.\n\u0084Clean a magnesium ribbonabout 2 cm long by rubbingit with sandpaper.\n\u0084Hold it with a pair of tongs.Burn it using a spirit lamp orburner and collect the ash so\nformed in a watch-glass as\nshown in Fig. 1.1. Burn themagnesium ribbon keeping it\nas far as possible from your\neyes.\n\u0084What do you observe?", + "1.1. Burn themagnesium ribbon keeping it\nas far as possible from your\neyes.\n\u0084What do you observe?\n\u201cFacts are not science \u2014 as the dictionary is not literature.\u201d\nMartin H. FischerScience 2Activity 1.2Activity 1.2Activity 1.2Activity 1.2Activity 1.2\nFigure 1.2\nFormation of hydrogengas by the action ofdilute sulphuric acid onzincFrom the above three activities, we can say that any ofthe following observations helps us to determine whethera chemical reaction has taken place \u2013\n\u0084change in state\n\u0084change in colour", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084change in state\n\u0084change in colour\n\u0084evolution of a gas\n\u0084change in temperature.\nAs we observe the changes around us, we can see\nthat there is a large variety of chemical reactions taking\nplace around us. We will study about the various types\nof chemical reactions and their symbolic representationin this Chapter.Activity 1.3Activity 1.3Activity 1.3Activity 1.3Activity 1.3\n\u0084Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a test tube.\n\u0084Add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid to this\n(Fig. 1.2).CAUTION: Handle the acid with care.\n\u0084Do you observe anything happening around the zinc\ngranules?\n\u0084Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is there any change inits temperature?\u0084Take lead nitratesolution in a testtube.\n\u0084Add potassiumiodide solutionto this.\n\u0084What do youobserve?", + "\u0084Do you observe anything happening around the zinc\ngranules?\n\u0084Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is there any change inits temperature?\u0084Take lead nitratesolution in a testtube.\n\u0084Add potassiumiodide solutionto this.\n\u0084What do youobserve?\n1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC AL EQUAAL EQUAAL EQUAAL EQUAAL EQUA TIONSTIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS\nActivity 1.1 can be described as \u2013 when a magnesium ribbon is burnt in", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC1.1 CHEMIC AL EQUAAL EQUAAL EQUAAL EQUAAL EQUA TIONSTIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS\nActivity 1.1 can be described as \u2013 when a magnesium ribbon is burnt in\noxygen, it gets converted to magnesium oxide. This description of achemical reaction in a sentence form is quite long. It can be written in ashorter form. The simplest way to do this is to write it in the form of aword-equation.The word-equation for the above reaction would be \u2013\nMagnesium + Oxygen \u2192Magnesium oxide (1.1)\n (Reactants) (Product)\nThe substances that undergo chemical change in the reaction (1.1),\nmagnesium and oxygen, are the reactants. The new substance,magnesium oxide, formed during the reaction, is the product.\nA word-equation shows change of reactants to products through an", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nmagnesium and oxygen, are the reactants. The new substance,magnesium oxide, formed during the reaction, is the product.\nA word-equation shows change of reactants to products through an\narrow placed between them. The reactants are written on the left-handside (LHS) with a plus sign (+) between them. Similarly, products arewritten on the right-hand side (RHS) with a plus sign (+) between them.The arrowhead points towards the products, and shows the direction ofthe reaction.You must have observed that magnesium ribbon burns with a\ndazzling white flame and changes into a white powder. This powder is\nmagnesium oxide. It is formed due to the reaction between magnesiumand oxygen present in the air.Chemical Reactions and Equations 31.1.1 Writing a Chemical Equation\nIs there any other shorter way for representing chemical equations?\nChemical equations can be made more concise and useful if we use\nchemical formulae instead of words. A chemical equation represents a", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nChemical equations can be made more concise and useful if we use\nchemical formulae instead of words. A chemical equation represents a\nchemical reaction. If you recall formulae of magnesium, oxygen andmagnesium oxide, the above word-equation can be written as \u2013\nMg + O\n2 \u2192 MgO (1.2)\nCount and compare the number of atoms of each element on the\nLHS and RHS of the arrow. Is the number of atoms of each element the\nsame on both the sides? If not, then the equation is unbalanced because\nthe mass is not the same on both sides of the equation. Such a chemicalequation is a skeletal chemical equation for a reaction. Equation (1.2) is\na skeletal chemical equation for the burning of magnesium in air.\n1.1.2 Balanced Chemical Equations\nRecall the law of conservation of mass that you studied in Class IX; mass\ncan neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. That is, thetotal mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical reaction", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\ncan neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. That is, thetotal mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical reaction\nhas to be equal to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.\nIn other words, the number of atoms of each element remains the\nsame, before and after a chemical reaction. Hence, we need to balance a\nskeletal chemical equation. Is the chemical Eq. (1.2) balanced? Let us\nlearn about balancing a chemical equation step by step.\nThe word-equation for Activity 1.3 may be represented as \u2013\nZinc + Sulphuric acid \u2192 Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen\nThe above word-equation may be represented by the following\nchemical equation \u2013\nZn + H\n2SO4 \u2192 ZnSO4 + H2(1.3)\nLet us examine the number of atoms of different elements on both\nsides of the arrow.", + "Element Number of atoms in Number of atoms\nreactants (LHS) in products (RHS)\nZn 1 1\nH2 2\nS1 1\nO4 4\nAs the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nsides of the arrow.\nElement Number of atoms in Number of atoms\nreactants (LHS) in products (RHS)\nZn 1 1\nH2 2\nS1 1\nO4 4\nAs the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of\nthe arrow, Eq. (1.3) is a balanced chemical equation.\nLet us try to balance the following chemical equation \u2013\nFe + H2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + H2(1.4)Science 4Step I: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each\nformula. Do not change anything inside the boxes while balancing theequation.\nFe + H\n2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + H2(1.5)\nStep II: List the number of atoms of different elements present in the\nunbalanced equation (1.5).", + "Do not change anything inside the boxes while balancing theequation.\nFe + H\n2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + H2(1.5)\nStep II: List the number of atoms of different elements present in the\nunbalanced equation (1.5).\nElement Number of atoms Number of atoms\nin reactants (LHS) in products (RHS)\nFe 1 3\nH2 2\nO1 4\nTo equalise the number of atoms, it must be remembered that we\ncannot alter the formulae of the compounds or elements involved in thereactions. For example, to balance oxygen atoms we can put coefficient\u20184\u2019 as 4 H\n2O and not H2O4 or (H2O)4. Now the partly balanced equation\nbecomes \u2013", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n2O and not H2O4 or (H2O)4. Now the partly balanced equation\nbecomes \u2013\nFe + 4 H2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + H2\nStep IV: Fe and H atoms are still not balanced. Pick any of these elements\nto proceed further. Let us balance hydrogen atoms in the partly balancedequation.\nTo equalise the number of H atoms, make the number of molecules\nof hydrogen as four on the RHS.Step III: It is often convenient to start balancing with the compound\nthat contains the maximum number of atoms. It may be a reactant or aproduct. In that compound, select the element which has the maximumnumber of atoms. Using these criteria, we select Fe\n3O4 and the element\noxygen in it. There are four oxygen atoms on the RHS and only one onthe LHS.", + "It may be a reactant or aproduct. In that compound, select the element which has the maximumnumber of atoms. Using these criteria, we select Fe\n3O4 and the element\noxygen in it. There are four oxygen atoms on the RHS and only one onthe LHS.\nTo balance the oxygen atoms \u2013\nThe equation would be \u2013\n Fe + 4 H2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + 4 H2Atoms of In reactants In products\noxygen\n(i) Initial 1 (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)\n(ii) To balance 1\u00d74 4\nAtoms of In reactants In products\nhydrogen\n(i) Initial 8 (in 4 H2O) 2 (in H2)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\noxygen\n(i) Initial 1 (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)\n(ii) To balance 1\u00d74 4\nAtoms of In reactants In products\nhydrogen\n(i) Initial 8 (in 4 H2O) 2 (in H2)\n(ii) To balance 8 2 \u00d7 4(1.6)\n(partly balanced equation)\n(1.7)\n(partly balanced equation)Chemical Reactions and Equations 5To equalise Fe, we take three atoms of Fe on the LHS.\n3 Fe + 4 H2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + 4 H2(1.8)\nStep VI: Finally, to check the correctness of the balanced equation, we\ncount atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.\n3Fe + 4H2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + 4H2\nThe numbers of atoms of elements on both sides of Eq. (1.9) are\nequal. This equation is now balanced.", + "3Fe + 4H2O \u2192 Fe3O4 + 4H2\nThe numbers of atoms of elements on both sides of Eq. (1.9) are\nequal. This equation is now balanced. This method of balancing chemicalequations is called hit-and-trial method as we make trials to balancethe equation by using the smallest whole number coefficient.\nStep VII: Writing Symbols of Physical States Carefully examine", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nStep VII: Writing Symbols of Physical States Carefully examine\nthe above balanced Eq. (1.9). Does this equation tell us anything aboutthe physical state of each reactant and product? No information hasbeen given in this equation about their physical states.\nTo make a chemical equation more informative, the physical states\nof the reactants and products are mentioned along with their chemicalformulae. The gaseous, liquid, aqueous and solid states of reactantsand products are represented by the notations (g), (l), (aq) and (s),respectively. The word aqueous (aq) is written if the reactant or productis present as a solution in water.\nThe balanced Eq. (1.9) becomes\n3Fe(s) + 4H\n2O(g) \u2192 Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) (1.10)\nNote that the symbol (g) is used with H2O to indicate that in this\nreaction water is used in the form of steam.", + "Usually physical states are not included in a chemical equation unless\nit is necessary to specify them.\nSometimes the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure,", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nUsually physical states are not included in a chemical equation unless\nit is necessary to specify them.\nSometimes the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure,\ncatalyst, etc., for the reaction are indicated above and/or below the arrowin the equation. For example \u2013\nCO(g) + 2H (g)2340atmCH OH(l)3 \uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 (1.11)\n6CO (aq) 6H O(l) C H O (aq) 6O22 6 1 2 62 ++Sunlight\nChlorophyll\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 \uf8e7 ((aq) (1.12)\n (Glucose)\nUsing these steps, can you balance Eq. (1.2) given in the text earlier?Step V: Examine the above equation and pick up the third element which\nis not balanced. You find that only one element is left to be balanced,that is, iron.", + "(1.2) given in the text earlier?Step V: Examine the above equation and pick up the third element which\nis not balanced. You find that only one element is left to be balanced,that is, iron.\nAtoms of In reactants In products\niron\n(i) Initial 1 (in Fe) 3 (in Fe3O4)\n(ii) To balance 1\u00d73 3\n(1.9)\n(balanced equation)Science 61.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC AL REAAL REAAL REAAL REAAL REA CTIONSCTIONSCTIONSCTIONSCTIONS", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n(1.9)\n(balanced equation)Science 61.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC1.2 TYPES OF CHEMIC AL REAAL REAAL REAAL REAAL REA CTIONSCTIONSCTIONSCTIONSCTIONS\nWe have learnt in Class IX that during a chemical reaction atoms of one\nelement do not change into those of another element. Nor do atoms\ndisappear from the mixture or appear from elsewhere. Actually, chemicalreactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to\nproduce new substances. You will study about types of bonds formed\nbetween atoms in Chapters 3 and 4.\n1.2.1 Combination Reaction\nActivity 1.4Activity 1.4Activity 1.4Activity 1.4Activity 1.4\n\u0084Take a small amount of calcium oxide\nor quick lime in a beaker.\n\u0084Slowly add water to this.\n\u0084Touch the beaker as shown in Fig. 1.3.", + "\u0084Slowly add water to this.\n\u0084Touch the beaker as shown in Fig. 1.3.\n\u0084Do you feel any change in temperature?\nFigure 1.3\nFormation of slakedlime by the reaction ofcalcium oxide withwater\nCalcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084Do you feel any change in temperature?\nFigure 1.3\nFormation of slakedlime by the reaction ofcalcium oxide withwater\nCalcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime\n(calcium hydroxide) releasing a large amount of heat.\nCaO(s) + H2O(l) \u2192 Ca(OH)2(aq) (1.13)\n(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)\nIn this reaction, calcium oxide and water combine to form a single\nproduct, calcium hydroxide. Such a reaction in which a single productis formed from two or more reactants is known as a combination reaction.QUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONS\n1. Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?\n2. Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.\n(i) Hydrogen + Chlorine \u2192 Hydrogen chloride\n(ii)Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate \u2192 Barium sulphate +\n Aluminium chloride\n(iii)Sodium + Water \u2192 Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen\n3.", + "Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.\n(i) Hydrogen + Chlorine \u2192 Hydrogen chloride\n(ii)Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate \u2192 Barium sulphate +\n Aluminium chloride\n(iii)Sodium + Water \u2192 Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen\n3. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the\nfollowing reactions.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nAluminium chloride\n(iii)Sodium + Water \u2192 Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen\n3. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the\nfollowing reactions.\n(i) Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react\nto give insoluble barium sulphate and the solution of sodiumchloride.\n(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric\nacid solution (in water) to produce sodium chloride solution andwater.?Chemical Reactions and Equations 7Let us discuss some more examples of combination reactions.\n(i) Burning of coal\nC(s) + O2(g) \u2192 CO2(g) (1.15)\n(ii) Formation of water from H2(g) and O2(g)\n2H2(g) + O2(g) \u2192 2H2O(l) (1.16)\nIn simple language we can say that when two or more substances\n(elements or compounds) combine to form a single product, the reactionsare called combination reactions.\nIn Activity 1.4, we also observed that a large amount of heat is evolved.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n(elements or compounds) combine to form a single product, the reactionsare called combination reactions.\nIn Activity 1.4, we also observed that a large amount of heat is evolved.\nThis makes the reaction mixture warm. Reactions in which heat isreleased along with the formation of products are called exothermicchemical reactions.\nOther examples of exothermic reactions are \u2013(i) Burning of natural gas\nCH\n4(g) + 2O2 (g) \u2192 CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) (1.17)\n(ii) Do you know that respiration is an exothermic process?\nWe all know that we need energy to stay alive. We get this energy\nfrom the food we eat. During digestion, food is broken down into simplersubstances. For example, rice, potatoes and bread containcarbohydrates. These carbohydrates are broken down to form glucose.This glucose combines with oxygen in the cells of our body and providesenergy. The special name of this reaction is respiration, the process ofwhich you will study in Chapter 6.\nC", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nC\n6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(aq) \u2192 6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l) + energy (1.18)\n(Glucose)\n(iii) The decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is also an\nexample of an exothermic reaction.\nIdentify the type of the reaction taking place in Activity 1.1, where\nheat is given out along with the formation of a single product.\nDo You Know?A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction 1.13 is used for white washing\nwalls. Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a thin\nlayer of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is formed after two to\nthree days of white washing and gives a shiny finish to the walls. It is interesting tonote that the chemical formula for marble is also CaCO\n3.", + "Calcium carbonate is formed after two to\nthree days of white washing and gives a shiny finish to the walls. It is interesting tonote that the chemical formula for marble is also CaCO\n3.\nCa(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) \u2192CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) (1.14)\n(Calcium (Calcium\nhydroxide) carbonate)Science 8Figure 1.5\nHeating of lead nitrate andemission of nitrogen dioxide\nFigure 1.4Correct way of heatingthe boiling tubecontaining crystalsof ferrous sulphateand of smelling theodour", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nHeating of lead nitrate andemission of nitrogen dioxide\nFigure 1.4Correct way of heatingthe boiling tubecontaining crystalsof ferrous sulphateand of smelling theodour\nActivity 1.6Activity 1.6Activity 1.6Activity 1.6Activity 1.6\n\u0084Take about 2 g lead nitrate powder in a boiling\ntube.\n\u0084Hold the boiling tube with a pair of tongs andheat it over a flame, as shown in Fig. 1.5.\n\u0084What do you observe? Note down the change,if any.\nYou will observe the emission of brown fumes.\nThese fumes are of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The\nreaction that takes place is \u2013Activity 1.5Activity 1.5Activity 1.5Activity 1.5Activity 1.5\n\u0084Take about 2 g ferrous sulphate crystals\nin a dry boiling tube.\n\u0084Note the colour of the ferrous sulphatecrystals.", + "\u0084Note the colour of the ferrous sulphatecrystals.\n\u0084Heat the boiling tube over the flame ofa burner or spirit lamp as shown inFig. 1.4.\n\u0084Observe the colour of the crystals afterheating.\nHave you noticed that the green colour of the ferrous sulphate crystals", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084Observe the colour of the crystals afterheating.\nHave you noticed that the green colour of the ferrous sulphate crystals\nhas changed? You can also smell the characteristic odour of burningsulphur.\n2FeSO\n4(s) Heat\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g) (1.19)\n(Ferrous sulphate) (Ferric oxide)\nIn this reaction you can observe that a single reactant breaks down\nto give simpler products. This is a decomposition reaction. Ferroussulphate crystals (FeSO\n4, 7H2O) lose water when heated and the colour\nof the crystals changes. It then decomposes to ferric oxide (Fe2O3),\nsulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). Ferric oxide is a solid,\nwhile SO2 and SO3 are gases.\nDecomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nsulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). Ferric oxide is a solid,\nwhile SO2 and SO3 are gases.\nDecomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon\ndioxide on heating is an important decomposition reaction used invarious industries. Calcium oxide is called lime or quick lime. It hasmany uses \u2013 one is in the manufacture of cement. When a decompositionreaction is carried out by heating, it is called thermal decomposition.", + "Calcium oxide is called lime or quick lime. It hasmany uses \u2013 one is in the manufacture of cement. When a decompositionreaction is carried out by heating, it is called thermal decomposition.\nCaCO\n3(s) Heat\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 CaO(s) + CO2(g) (1.20)\n(Limestone) (Quick lime)\nAnother example of a thermal decomposition reaction is given\nin Activity 1.6.1.2.2 Decomposition ReactionChemical Reactions and Equations 9Activity 1.7Activity 1.7Activity 1.7Activity 1.7Activity 1.7\nActivity 1.8Activity 1.8Activity 1.8Activity 1.8Activity 1.8\n\u0084Take about 2 g silver chloride in a china dish.\n\u0084What is its colour?\n\u0084Place this china dish in sunlight for some time\n(Fig. 1.7).\n\u0084Observe the colour of the silver chloride after sometime.\nFigure 1.7", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084What is its colour?\n\u0084Place this china dish in sunlight for some time\n(Fig. 1.7).\n\u0084Observe the colour of the silver chloride after sometime.\nFigure 1.7\nSilver chloride turns greyin sunlight to form silvermetalYou will see that white silver chloride turns grey in sunlight. This is\ndue to the decomposition of silver chloride into silver and chlorine bylight.\n2AgCl(s) \nSunlight\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g) (1.22)\u0084Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes at its\nbase and fit rubber stoppers in these holes.Insert carbon electrodes in these rubberstoppers as shown in Fig. 1.6.\n\u0084Connect these electrodes to a 6 voltbattery.\n\u0084Fill the mug with water such that theelectrodes are immersed. Add a few dropsof dilute sulphuric acid to the water.\n\u0084Take two test tubes filled with water andinvert them over the two carbon electrodes.", + "\u0084Connect these electrodes to a 6 voltbattery.\n\u0084Fill the mug with water such that theelectrodes are immersed. Add a few dropsof dilute sulphuric acid to the water.\n\u0084Take two test tubes filled with water andinvert them over the two carbon electrodes.\n\u0084Switch on the current and leave theapparatus undisturbed for some time.\n\u0084You will observe the formation of bubblesat both the electrodes. These bubbles displace water in thetest tubes.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084Switch on the current and leave theapparatus undisturbed for some time.\n\u0084You will observe the formation of bubblesat both the electrodes. These bubbles displace water in thetest tubes.\n\u0084Is the volume of the gas collected the same in both the test tubes?\n\u0084Once the test tubes are filled with the respective gases, remove\nthem carefully.\n\u0084Test these gases one by one by bringing a burning candle close\nto the mouth of the test tubes.\nCAUTION: This step must be performed carefully by the teacher.\n\u0084What happens in each case?", + "\u0084Once the test tubes are filled with the respective gases, remove\nthem carefully.\n\u0084Test these gases one by one by bringing a burning candle close\nto the mouth of the test tubes.\nCAUTION: This step must be performed carefully by the teacher.\n\u0084What happens in each case?\n\u0084Which gas is present in each test tube?Figure 1.6\nElectrolysis of water2Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) (1.21)\n(Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) (Nitrogen (Oxygen)\ndioxide)\nLet us perform some more decomposition reactions as given in\nActivities 1.7 and 1.8.Science 10\nFigure 1.8\n(a) Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution?QUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONS\n1. A solution of a substance \u2018X\u2019 is used for white washing.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nFigure 1.8\n(a) Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution?QUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONS\n1. A solution of a substance \u2018X\u2019 is used for white washing.\n(i) Name the substance \u2018X\u2019 and write its formula.\n(ii) W rite the r eaction of the substance \u2018X\u2019 named in (i) above with\nwater.\n2. Why is the amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes in Activity\n1.7 double of the amount collected in the other? Name this gas.\n1.2.3 Displacement Reaction\nActivity 1.9Activity 1.9Activity 1.9Activity 1.9Activity 1.9\n\u0084Take three iron nails and clean them by\nrubbing with sand paper.\n\u0084Take two test tubes marked as (A) and(B). In each test tube, take about 10 mLcopper sulphate solution.", + "\u0084Take two test tubes marked as (A) and(B). In each test tube, take about 10 mLcopper sulphate solution.\n\u0084Tie two iron nails with a thread andimmerse them carefully in the coppersulphate solution in test tube B forabout 20 minutes [Fig. 1.8 (a)]. Keep oneiron nail aside for comparison.\n\u0084After 20 minutes, take out the iron nailsfrom the copper sulphate solution.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084After 20 minutes, take out the iron nailsfrom the copper sulphate solution.\n\u0084Compare the intensity of the blue colourof copper sulphate solutions in test tubes(A) and (B), [Fig. 1.8 (b)].\n\u0084Also, compare the colour of the iron nailsdipped in the copper sulphate solutionwith the one kept aside [Fig. 1.8 (b)].Take about 2 g barium hydroxide in a test tube. Add 1 g of ammonium chloride and mixwith the help of a glass rod. Touch the bottom of the test tube with your palm. What do youfeel? Is this an exothermic or endothermic reaction?Carry out the following ActivitySilver bromide also behaves in the same way.\n2AgBr(s)Sunlight\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 2Ag(s) + Br2(g) (1.23)\nThe above reactions are used in black and white photography.\nWhat form of energy is causing these decomposition reactions?", + "2AgBr(s)Sunlight\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 2Ag(s) + Br2(g) (1.23)\nThe above reactions are used in black and white photography.\nWhat form of energy is causing these decomposition reactions?\nWe have seen that the decomposition reactions require energy either\nin the form of heat, light or electricity for breaking down the reactants.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nWe have seen that the decomposition reactions require energy either\nin the form of heat, light or electricity for breaking down the reactants.\nReactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermicreactions.Chemical Reactions and Equations 11Why does the iron nail become brownish in colour and the blue colour\nof copper sulphate solution fade?\nThe following chemical reaction takes place in this Activity\u2013\nFe(s) + CuSO4(aq) \u2192 FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) (1.24)\n (Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate)\nIn this reaction, iron has displaced or removed another element,\ncopper, from copper sulphate solution. This reaction is known asdisplacement reaction.", + "This reaction is known asdisplacement reaction.\nOther examples of displacement reactions are\nZn(s) + CuSO\n4(aq) \u2192 ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) (1.25)\n (Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate)\nPb(s) + CuCl2(aq) \u2192 PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s) (1.26)\n (Copper chloride) (Lead chloride)\nZinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace\ncopper from its compounds.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nPb(s) + CuCl2(aq) \u2192 PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s) (1.26)\n (Copper chloride) (Lead chloride)\nZinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace\ncopper from its compounds.\n1.2.4 Double Displacement Reaction\nActivity 1.10Activity 1.10Activity 1.10Activity 1.10Activity 1.10\n\u0084Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate\nsolution in a test tube.\n\u0084In another test tube, take about 3 mL ofbarium chloride solution.\n\u0084Mix the two solutions (Fig. 1.9).\n\u0084What do you observe?\nFigure 1.9Formation of bariumsulphate and sodiumchlorideYou will observe that a white substance, which is\ninsoluble in water, is formed. This insoluble substanceformed is known as a precipitate. Any reaction thatproduces a precipitate can be called a precipitation reaction.", + "This insoluble substanceformed is known as a precipitate. Any reaction thatproduces a precipitate can be called a precipitation reaction.\nNa\n2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) \u2192 BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq) (1.27)\n(Sodium (Barium (Barium (Sodium", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nNa\n2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) \u2192 BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq) (1.27)\n(Sodium (Barium (Barium (Sodium\nsulphate) chloride) sulphate) chloride)Figure 1.8 (b) Iron nails and copper sulphate solutions compared before and after the experimentScience 121.2.5 Oxidation and Reduction\nActivity 1.11Activity 1.11Activity 1.11Activity 1.11Activity 1.11\n\u0084Heat a china dish containing about 1 g\ncopper powder (Fig. 1.10).\n\u0084What do you observe?\nFigure 1.10\nOxidation of copper tocopper oxideThe surface of copper powder becomes coated with\nblack copper(II) oxide. Why has this blacksubstance formed?This is because oxygen is added to copper andcopper oxide is formed.", + "\u0084What do you observe?\nFigure 1.10\nOxidation of copper tocopper oxideThe surface of copper powder becomes coated with\nblack copper(II) oxide. Why has this blacksubstance formed?This is because oxygen is added to copper andcopper oxide is formed.\n2Cu + O\n2 Heat\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 2CuO (1.28)\nIf hydrogen gas is passed over this heated material (CuO), the black\ncoating on the surface turns brown as the reverse reaction takes placeand copper is obtained.\nCuO +H Cu+H O22Heat\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7 \uf8e7 (1.29)\nIf a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nCuO +H Cu+H O22Heat\uf8e7\u2192\uf8e7\uf8e7 \uf8e7 (1.29)\nIf a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.\nIf a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be reduced.\nDuring this reaction (1.29), the copper(II) oxide is losing oxygen and\nis being reduced. The hydrogen is gaining oxygen and is being oxidised.In other words, one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reducedduring a reaction. Such reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactionsor redox reactions.\n(1.30)\nSome other examples of redox reactions are:\nZnO + C \u2192+Zn CO (1.31)\nMnO HCl MnCl H O Cl22 2 242+\u2192 + + (1.32)Recall Activity 1.2 , where you have mixed the solutions of lead(II) nitrate\nand potassium iodide.(i) What was the colour of the precipitate formed? Can you name the compound\nprecipitated?", + "(i) What was the colour of the precipitate formed? Can you name the compound\nprecipitated?\n(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.(iii) Is this also a double displacement reaction?What causes this? The white precipitate of BaSO\n4 is formed by the\nreaction of 2\u2013", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.(iii) Is this also a double displacement reaction?What causes this? The white precipitate of BaSO\n4 is formed by the\nreaction of 2\u2013\n4SO and Ba2+. The other product formed is sodium chloride\nwhich remains in the solution. Such reactions in which there is an\nexchange of ions between the reactants are called double displacementreactions.Chemical Reactions and Equations 13In reaction (1.31) carbon is oxidised to CO and ZnO is reduced to Zn.\nIn reaction (1.32) HCl is oxidised to Cl2 whereas MnO2 is reduced to MnCl2.\nFrom the above examples we can say that if a substance gains oxygen\nor loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is oxidised. If a substance losesoxygen or gains hydrogen during a reaction, it is reduced.\nQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONS\n?1. Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when\nan iron nail is dipped in it?\n2. Give an example of a double displacement reaction other than", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n?1. Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when\nan iron nail is dipped in it?\n2. Give an example of a double displacement reaction other than\nthe one given in Activity 1.10.\n3. Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances\nthat are reduced in the following reactions.\n(i) 4Na(s) + O2(g) \u2192 2Na2O(s)\n(ii) CuO(s) + H2(g) \u2192 Cu(s) + H2O(l)1.31.31.31.31.3HAHAHAHAHAVE YOU OBSERVED THE EFFECTS OF OVE YOU OBSERVED THE EFFECTS OF OVE YOU OBSERVED THE EFFECTS OF OVE YOU OBSERVED THE EFFECTS OF OVE YOU OBSERVED THE EFFECTS OF O XIDXIDXIDXIDXIDAAAAATIONTIONTIONTIONTION\nREAREAREAREAREACTIONS IN EVERYDCTIONS IN EVERYDCTIONS IN EVERYDCTIONS IN EVERYDCTIONS IN EVERYD AAAAAY LIFE?Y LIFE?Y LIFE?Y LIFE?Y LIFE?", + "1.3.1 Corrosion\nYou must have observed that iron articles are shiny when new, but get\ncoated with a reddish brown powder when left for some time. This processis commonly known as rusting of iron. Some other metals also get", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\ncoated with a reddish brown powder when left for some time. This processis commonly known as rusting of iron. Some other metals also get\ntarnished in this manner. Have you noticed the colour of the coating\nformed on copper and silver? When a metal is attacked by substancesaround it such as moisture, acids, etc., it is said to corrode and this\nprocess is called corrosion. The black coating on silver and the green\ncoating on copper are other examples of corrosion.\nCorrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships\nand to all objects made of metals, specially those of iron. Corrosion of\niron is a serious problem. Every year an enormous amount of money isspent to r eplace damaged iron. You will learn more about corrosion in\nChapter 3.\n1.3.2 Rancidity\nHave you ever tasted or smelt the fat/oil containing food materials leftfor a long time?\nWhen fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell\nand taste change. Usually substances which prevent oxidation", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nWhen fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell\nand taste change. Usually substances which prevent oxidation\n(antioxidants) are added to foods containing fats and oil. Keeping food\nin air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation. Do you know thatchips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with gas such as\nnitrogen to prevent the chips from getting oxidised ?Recall Activity 1.1 , where a magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling flame in air (oxygen)\nand changes into a white substance, magnesium oxide. Is magnesium being oxidised orreduced in this reaction?Science 14What you have learnt\n\u0084A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products and their physical\nstates symbolically.\n\u0084A chemical equation is balanced so that the numbers of atoms of each type involvedin a chemical reaction are the same on the reactant and product sides of theequation. Equations must always be balanced.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n\u0084In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new singlesubstance.\n\u0084Decomposition reactions are opposite to combination reactions. In a decompositionreaction, a single substance decomposes to give two or more substances.\n\u0084Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are called exothermicreactions.\n\u0084Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.\n\u0084When an element displaces another element from its compound, a displacementreaction occurs.\n\u0084Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are exchanged in double displacementreactions.\n\u0084Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.\n\u0084Reactions also involve the gain or loss of oxygen or hydrogen by substances.Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. Reduction is the loss of oxygenor gain of hydrogen.\nEXERCISES\n1. Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?\n2PbO(s) + C(s) \u2192 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)\n(a) Lead is getting reduced.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nEXERCISES\n1. Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?\n2PbO(s) + C(s) \u2192 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)\n(a) Lead is getting reduced.\n(b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.\n(c) Carbon is getting oxidised.\n(d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.\n(i) (a) and (b)\n(ii) (a) and (c)\n(iii) (a), (b) and (c)\n(iv) all\n2. Fe2O3 + 2Al \u2192 Al2O3 + 2Fe\nThe above reaction is an example of a\n(a) combination reaction.\n(b) double displacement reaction.Chemical Reactions and Equations 15(c) decomposition reaction.\n(d) displacement reaction.\n3. What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings? Tick the\ncorrect answer.\n(a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.\n(b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.\n(c) No reaction takes place.\n(d) Iron salt and water are produced.", + "What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings? Tick the\ncorrect answer.\n(a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.\n(b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.\n(c) No reaction takes place.\n(d) Iron salt and water are produced.\n4. What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be\nbalanced?\n5. Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n4. What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be\nbalanced?\n5. Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.\n(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.\n(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulpur dioxide.\n(c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride\nand a precipitate of barium sulphate.\n(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen\ngas.\n6. Balance the following chemical equations.\n(a) HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 \u2192 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O\n(b) NaOH + H2SO4 \u2192 Na2SO4 + H2O\n(c) NaCl + AgNO3 \u2192 AgCl + NaNO3\n(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4 \u2192 BaSO4 + HCl\n7. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.", + "Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.\n(a) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide \u2192 Calcium carbonate + Water\n(b) Zinc + Silver nitrate \u2192 Zinc nitrate + Silver\n(c) Aluminium + Copper chloride \u2192 Aluminium chloride + Copper", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n(a) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide \u2192 Calcium carbonate + Water\n(b) Zinc + Silver nitrate \u2192 Zinc nitrate + Silver\n(c) Aluminium + Copper chloride \u2192 Aluminium chloride + Copper\n(d) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate \u2192 Barium sulphate + Potassium chloride\n8. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of\nreaction in each case.\n(a) Potassium bromide(aq) + Barium iodide(aq) \u2192 Potassium iodide(aq) +\nBarium bromide(s)\n(b) Zinc carbonate(s) \u2192 Zinc oxide(s) + Carbon dioxide(g)\n(c) Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) \u2192 Hydrogen chloride(g)\n(d) Magnesium(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) \u2192 Magnesium chloride(aq) + Hydrogen(g)\n9. What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.\n10. Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.\n11.", + "What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.\n10. Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.\n11. Why are decomposition reactions called the opposite of combination reactions?\nWrite equations for these reactions.Science 16Group Activity\nPerform the following activity.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\n11. Why are decomposition reactions called the opposite of combination reactions?\nWrite equations for these reactions.Science 16Group Activity\nPerform the following activity.\n\u0084Take four beakers and label them as A, B, C and D.\n\u0084Put 25 mL of water in A, B and C beakers and copper sulphate solution in beaker D.\n\u0084Measure and record the temperature of each liquid contained in the beakers above.\n\u0084Add two spatulas of potassium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, anhydrous copper\nsulphate and fine iron fillings to beakers A, B, C and D respectively and stir.\n\u0084Finally measure and record the temperature of each of the mixture above.\nFind out which reactions are exothermic and which ones are endothermic in nature.12. Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in\nthe form of heat, light or electricity.\n13. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions?\nWrite equations for these reactions.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS -TEXTBOOK NOTES.txt\nthe form of heat, light or electricity.\n13. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions?\nWrite equations for these reactions.\n14. In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution involved\ndisplacement by copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.\n15. What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.16. Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each.\n(a) Oxidation\n(b) Reduction\n17. A shiny brown coloured element \u2018X\u2019 on heating in air becomes black in colour.\nName the element \u2018X\u2019 and the black coloured compound formed.\n18. Why do we apply paint on iron articles?19. Oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. Why?20. Explain the following terms with one example each.\n(a) Corrosion\n(b) Rancidity", + "CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS.txt\nChemical Reactions & \nequations \nPower Point Presentation END", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\nVery Short Answer Type Questions [2 Marks]", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n1. \u201cWe need to balance a skeletal chemical equation.\u201d Give reason to justify the \nstatement. \n2. Giving an example list two information which make a chemical equation \nmore useful (informative). \n3. Name the reducing agent in the following reaction: \n 3MnO 2 + 4Al \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 > 3Mn + 2Al 2O3 \nState which is more reactive, Mn or Al and why? \n4. (i) Write a balanced chemical equation for process of photosynthesis. \n (ii)When do desert plants take up carbon dioxide and perform \nphotosynthe sis? \n5. What is observed when a solution of potassium iodide solution is added to \na solution of lead nitrate? Name the type of reaction. Write a balanced \nchemical equation to represent the above chemical reaction. \n6. Write balanced chemical equations for the fol lowing reactions.", + "5. What is observed when a solution of potassium iodide solution is added to \na solution of lead nitrate? Name the type of reaction. Write a balanced \nchemical equation to represent the above chemical reaction. \n6. Write balanced chemical equations for the fol lowing reactions. \n(i) Silver bromide on exposure to sunlight decomposes into silver and \nbromine, \n(ii) Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen \ngas.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n(i) Silver bromide on exposure to sunlight decomposes into silver and \nbromine, \n(ii) Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen \ngas. \n7. Identify the type of reaction(s) in the following equations. \n(i)CH 4 + 2O 2 ----\uf0e0 CO 2 + 2 H2O \n(ii) Pb(NO 3)2 + 2KI \u2014\u2014\u2013>Pbl 2 + 2KNO 3 \n(iii) CaO + H2O \u2014\u2014\u2013> Ca(OH) 2 \n(iv) CuSO 4 + Zn \u2014\u2014\u2013> ZnSO 4 + Cu \n8. Write balanced equation for the reaction between magnesium and \nhydrochloric acid. Name the products obtained, identify the type of reaction. \n9. Describe an activity to observe what happens when quick lime is added to \nwater taken in a beaker. State two important observations and name the type \nof reaction taking place. \n10.", + "Name the products obtained, identify the type of reaction. \n9. Describe an activity to observe what happens when quick lime is added to \nwater taken in a beaker. State two important observations and name the type \nof reaction taking place. \n10. What is the colour of ferrous sulphate crystals? How does this colour change \nafter heating? \n11. Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is \ndipped in it? Write two observations.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\nafter heating? \n11. Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is \ndipped in it? Write two observations. \n12. Translate the following statement into chemical equation and then balance it : \nBarium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to gi ve aluminium chloride \nand a precipitate of barium sulphate. State the two types in which this reaction \ncan be classified. \n13. Why decomposition reactions are called the opposite of combination \nreactions? Write equations for these reactions. \n14. AgN0 3 (aq) + NaCl( aq)\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 \u2013 > AgCl (s)\u2193 + NaN0 3(aq) \nFeS + H 2S0 4\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 - > FeS0 4 + H 2S\u2191 \nConsider the above mentioned two chemical equations with two different \nkinds of arrows (\u2191and \u2193) along with product. What do these two different \narrows indicate? \n15.", + "What do these two different \narrows indicate? \n15. Hydrogen being a highly infla mmable gas and oxygen being a supporter of \ncombustion, yet water which is a compound made up of hydrogen and oxygen", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\narrows indicate? \n15. Hydrogen being a highly infla mmable gas and oxygen being a supporter of \ncombustion, yet water which is a compound made up of hydrogen and oxygen \nis used to extinguish fire. Why? 16. Using a suitable chemical equation, justify that some chemical reactions are \ndetermined by: \n(i) change in c olour, (ii) change in temperature. \n17. (a) A solution of substance \u2018X\u2019 is used for white washing. What is the \nsubstance \u2018X\u2019? State the chemical reaction of \u2018X\u2019 with water. \n(b) Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail \nis dipped i n it? \n18. Write the balanced equation for the following reaction and identify the type of \nreaction in each case. \n(i) Potassium bromide + Barium iodide \u2014-> Potassium iodide + Barium \nbromide. \n(ii) Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) \u2014-> Hydrogen chloride(g) \n19.", + "(i) Potassium bromide + Barium iodide \u2014-> Potassium iodide + Barium \nbromide. \n(ii) Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) \u2014-> Hydrogen chloride(g) \n19. A zinc plate was put into a solution of copper sulphate kept in a glass \ncontainer. It was found that blue colour of the solution gets fader and fader", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n19. A zinc plate was put into a solution of copper sulphate kept in a glass \ncontainer. It was found that blue colour of the solution gets fader and fader \nwith the passage of time. After few days, when zinc plate was taken out of the \nsolution, a number of holes were observed o n it. \n(i) State the reason for changes observed on the zinc plate. \n(ii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved. \n20. A white salt on heating decomposes to give brown fumes and a residue is \nleft behind. \n(i) Name the salt. \n(ii) Write the equation f or the decom -position reaction. \n21. When a solution of potassium iodide is added to a solution of lead nitrate in a \ntest tube, a reaction takes place. \n(a) What type of reaction is this? \n(b) Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the above reaction. \n22. Define combination reaction. Give one example of a combination reaction \nwhich is also exothermic \n23. (a) Classify the following reactions into different types.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n22. Define combination reaction. Give one example of a combination reaction \nwhich is also exothermic \n23. (a) Classify the following reactions into different types. \n (i) Na 2SO 4 + BaCl 2 -----\uf0e0 BaSO 4 + NaCl \n (ii) CaO + H 2O --------\uf0e0 Ca(OH) 2 \n (iii) CaCO 3 ----------\uf0e0 CaO + CO 2 \n(b) Which of the above reaction(s) is/are precipitation reaction(s)? Why a \nreaction is called precipitation reaction?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n24. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between sodium chloride \nand silver nitrate indicating the physical state of the reactants and the \nproducts. \n25. What is a redox reaction? When a magnesium ribbon burns in air with a \ndazzling flame and forms a white ash, is magnesium oxidized or reduced? \nWhy? \n26. Write any two observations in an activity w hich may suggest that a \nchemical reaction has taken place. Give an example in support of your \nanswer. \n27. When the powder of a common metal is heated in an open china dish, its \ncolour turns black. However, when hydrogen is passed over the hot black \nsubstance s o formed, it regains its original colour. Based on the above \ninformation, answer the following questions. \n(i) What type of chemical reaction takes place in each of the two given steps? (ii) Name the metal initially taken in the powder form. Write balanced chemical \nequations for both reactions.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n(i) What type of chemical reaction takes place in each of the two given steps? (ii) Name the metal initially taken in the powder form. Write balanced chemical \nequations for both reactions. \n28. In electrolysis of water, why is the volume of gas collected over one electrode \ndouble that of gas collected over the other electrode? \n29. Name the products formed on strongly heating ferrous sulphate crystals. What \ntype of chemical reaction occurs in this change? \n30. What is an oxidation reaction? Give an example of oxidation reaction. Is \noxidation an exothermic or an endothermic reaction? \n31. Describe an activity to demonstrate the change that takes place when white \nsilver chlor ide is kept in sunlight. State the type of chemical reaction which \ntakes place. \n32. When magnesium ribbon burns in air or oxygen, a product is formed. State \nthe type of chemical reaction and name the product formed in the reaction. \nWrite balanced chemical equa tion of this reaction.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\nthe type of chemical reaction and name the product formed in the reaction. \nWrite balanced chemical equa tion of this reaction. \n33. Distinguish between a displacement reaction and a double displacement \nreaction. Identify the displacement and the double displacement reaction from \nthe following reactions. \n(i) CuSO 4 + Zn ----\uf0e0 ZnSO 4 +Cu \n(ii) Pb(NO 3)2 + KI -----\uf0e0 PbI 2 + 2 KNO 3", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\nShort Answer Type Questions (II) [3 Marks] \n \n34. Write the chemical equation of the reaction in which the following changes \nhave taken place with an example of each: \n(i) Change in colour \n(ii) Change in temperature \n(iii) Formation of precipitate \n35. State the type of chemical reactions and chemical equations that take place in \nthe following: \n(i) Magnesium wire is burnt in air. \n(ii) Electric current is passed through water. \n(iii) Ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases \u2018are mixed. \n36. (a) Write the essential c ondition for the following reaction to take place: \n 2AgBr \u2014-> 2Ag + Br 2 \nWrite one application of this reaction. \n(b) Complete the following chemical equation of a chemical reaction \n Heat \n 2FeS0 4 \u2014\uf0e0 Fe2O3 +\u2026\u2026. + \u2026\u2026 \n(c) What happens when water is added to quick lime? Write chemical \nequation.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n37. 2g of ferrous sulphate crystals are heated in a dry boiling tube. \n(i) List any two observations. \n(ii) Name the type of chemical reaction taking place. \n(iii) \u2018Write the chemical equation for the reaction. \n38. Write chemical equation reactions taking place when carried out with the help \nof \n(a) Iron reacts with steam (b) Magnesium reacts with dil HCl \n(c) Copper is heated in air. \n39. Which products will be obtained when lead nit rate is heated simply? Write \nbalanced chemical equation for the reaction? State the type of chemical \nreaction that occur in the change. \n40. What is meant by skeletal type chemical equation? What does it represent? \nUsing the equation for electrolytic decomposit ion of water, differentiate \nbetween a skeletal chemical equation and a balanced chemical equation. \n41. What is rancidity? Mention any two ways by which rancidity can be prevented. \n42. Write balanced chemical equation for the reactions that take place during", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n41. What is rancidity? Mention any two ways by which rancidity can be prevented. \n42. Write balanced chemical equation for the reactions that take place during \nrespir ation. Identify the type of combination reaction that takes place during \nthis process and justify the name. Give one more example of this type of \nreaction. \n43. What is redox reaction? Identify the substance oxidised and the substance \nreduced in the following reactions. \n(i)2PbO + C \u2014\u2013> 2Pb + CO 2 \n(ii)MnO 2 + 4HCl \u2014\u2013> MnCl 2 + 2H 20 + Cl 2 \n44. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reaction and identify \nthe type of reaction. \nThermite reaction, iron (III) oxide reacts with aluminium and gives molten iron \nand aluminium oxide. \n45. A solution of potassium chloride when mixed with silver nitrate solution, an \ninsoluble white substance is formed.", + "Thermite reaction, iron (III) oxide reacts with aluminium and gives molten iron \nand aluminium oxide. \n45. A solution of potassium chloride when mixed with silver nitrate solution, an \ninsoluble white substance is formed. Write the chemical reaction involved and \nalso mention the type of the chemica l reaction?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\ninsoluble white substance is formed. Write the chemical reaction involved and \nalso mention the type of the chemica l reaction? \n46. Write balanced equations for the following mentioning the type of reaction \ninvolved. \n(i) Aluminium + Bromine \u2014\u2013> Aluminium bromide \n(ii) Calcium carbonate \u2014\u2013> Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide \n(iii) Silver chloride \u2014\u2013>Silver + Chlorine \n47. (a) Why is res piration considered as an exothermic reaction? \n(b) Define the terms oxidation and reduction. \n(c) Identify the substance that is oxidised and reduced in the following \nreaction \n Zn + CuO ----\uf0e0 ZnO + Cu", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n48. What is meant by \n(i) precipitation reac tion, \n(ii) exothermic reaction, \n(iii) oxidation reaction? \nWrite balanced chemical equations for an example of each . \n49. You might have noted that when copper powder is heated in a china dish, the \nsurface of copper powder becomes coated with a black colour substance. \n(i) How has this black coloured substance formed? \n(ii) What is that black substance? \n(iii) Write the chemical equation of the reaction that takes place. \n50. (a) What happens chemically when quicklime is added to water filled in a \nbucket? \n(b) On what basis is a chemical equation balanced? \n(c ) What change in colour is observed when white silver chloride is left \nexposed to sunlight? State the type of chemical reaction in this change. 51. What happens when an aqueous solution of sodium sulphate reac ts with an \naqueous solution of barium chloride? State the physical conditions of", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\naqueous solution of barium chloride? State the physical conditions of \nreactants in which the reaction between them will not take place. Write the \nbalanced chemical equation for the reaction and name the type of reaction. \n52. When you have mixed the solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium iodide, \n(i) what was the colour of the precipitate formed and can you name the \nprecipitate? \n(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction. \n(iii) Is this also a double displac ement reaction? \n53. Name the type of reaction represented by the following equation: \n(i) CaO + H 2O ---\uf0e0 Ca(OH) 2 \n(ii) 3BaCl 2 + Al 2(SO 4)3 ---\uf0e0 3 BaSO 4 + 2 AlCl 3 \n heat \n(iii) 2 FeSO 4 ----------------- \uf0e0 Fe2O3 + SO 2 + SO 3 \n54.", + "Write the chemical equation of the reaction in which the following changes \nhave taken place with an example of each: \n(i) Change in colour \n(ii) Change in temperature \n(iii) Formation of precipitate", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\nhave taken place with an example of each: \n(i) Change in colour \n(ii) Change in temperature \n(iii) Formation of precipitate \n55. Balance the following chemical equations. \n(i) BaCl 2 + H 2SO 4 ------\uf0e0 BaSO 4 + HCl \n(ii) Ca(OH) 2 + HNO 3 ----\uf0e0 Ca(NO 3)2 + H 2O \n(iii)Pb(NO 3)2 ------\uf0e0 PbO +NO 2 +O 2 \n(iv) MnO 2 + HCl ----\uf0e0 MnCl 2 + H 2O + Cl 2 \n56. Balance the following chemical reactions and identify the type of reaction.", + "Balance the following chemical reactions and identify the type of reaction. \n(a) Mg (s) + Cl 2 (g) ---\uf0e0 MgCl 2(s) \n(b) HgO (s) --\uf0e0 Hg(l) + O 2(g) \n(c) Na(s) + S (s) ----------\uf0e0 Na2S(s) \n(d) TiCl4 (l) + Mg (s) ----\uf0e0 Ti(s) + MgCl 2(s) \n(e) CaO (s) + SiO 2(s) ---\uf0e0 CaSiO 3(s) \n(f) H2O2(l) --------\uf0e0 H2O(l) + O 2(g) \n57. During the reaction of some metas with dilute hydrochloric acid, following \noberservations were made. \n(a) Silver meta does not show any change \n(b) The temperature of the reaction mixture rises when aluminium (Al) is \nadded. \n(c) The reaction os sodium metal is found to be highly explosive", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS.txt\n(a) Silver meta does not show any change \n(b) The temperature of the reaction mixture rises when aluminium (Al) is \nadded. \n(c) The reaction os sodium metal is found to be highly explosive \n(d) Some bubbles of a gas are seen when lead (Pb) is reacted with acid. \nExplain these observations givi ng suitable reasons.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nTest items \n \n \n \nLOB: Compare the characteristics of initial & final substances in order to check whether the \nchange is physical or chemical \n \n1) A student poured 100 mL of water in a bottle and added 40 mL vinegar to it. A balloon was filled \nwith 20 g baking soda and was fixed at the mouth of the bottle. Slowly the shape of the balloon \nchanged, as shown. \n \n \n \nThe student claims that a chemical change happened when the two substances were mixed. Is \nthe claim made by the student correct? \n \n(a) Yes, as a new substance was formed in the form of a gas. \n(b) Yes, as the mass remains the same throughout the experiment. \n(c) No, as the formation of bubbles in the mixture shows a physical change. \n(d) No, as the change in the shape and size of the balloon shows a physical change.", + "(c) No, as the formation of bubbles in the mixture shows a physical change. \n(d) No, as the change in the shape and size of the balloon shows a physical change. \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n \n2) A student makes a list of some activities he observes one day.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\n2) A student makes a list of some activities he observes one day. \n \n \n \n \nWhich activity can the student classify as a chemical change? \n \n(a) Activity 1, as the properties of the substances in the mixture change. \n(b) Activity 2, as the physical state of the apple pie changes when cut. \n(c) Activity 3, as the shape of the can changes. \n(d) Activity 4, as the shape and size of the wooden log changes. \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \nLOB : Relate the substances taking part in the chemical reaction & substances formed in the \nchemical reaction in order to classify them as reactants & products \n1) Sodium and chlorine are reacted and as a result, sodium chloride is formed which is also called \ntable salt. What option gives the reactants and products of the reaction?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\n(a) reactants -sodium; products - chlorine \n(b) reactants -sodium and table salt; products - chlorine \n(c) reactants -tables salt; products - sodium and chlorine \n(d) reactants -sodium and chlorine; products - sodium chloride \nCorrect Answer: Option (d) \n \n \n2) The image shows some chemical reactions. \n \n \n \nWhich option identifies the reactants and products of the reactions? \n \n(a) \n(b) \n(c) \n(d) \nCorrect Answer: Option (c) \nLOB : Use chemical symbols & chemical formulae correctly in order to acquire the skill of writing \nchemical equations \n1) A student performs an experiment to form aluminium chloride from aluminium and chlorine. \nWhich options gives the chemical equation of the reaction?", + "Which options gives the chemical equation of the reaction? \n(a) Al + Cl2 \uf0e0\uf020AlCl 2 \n(b) 2Al + Cl2 \uf0e0\uf0202AlCl \n(c) 2Al + 3Cl 2 \uf0e0\uf0202AlCl 3 \n(d) 3Al + 3Cl 2 \uf0e0\uf0203AlCl 3 \n \nCorrect Answer: Option (c)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nCorrect Answer: Option (c) \n \n \n2) A researcher adds barium hydroxide to hydrochloric acid to form a white -colored barium \nchloride. Which option gives the balanced chemical equation of the reaction? \n \n(a) HCl + Ba(OH) 2 \uf0e0\uf020BaCl 2 + 2HOH \n \n(b) 2HCl + Ba(OH) 2 \uf0e0\uf020BaCl 2 + 2HOH \n \n(c) 2HCl + Ba(OH) 2 \uf0e0\uf020BaH 2 + 2HCl + O2 \n \n(d) HCl + 2Ba(OH) \uf0e0\uf0202BaCl 2 + 2HOH + O2 \n \nCorrect Answer: Option (b) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nLOB : Apply Law of Conservation of Mass in order to balance chemical equations \n1) A student writes a balanced chemical equation.", + "Pb(s) + CuCl 2(aq) \uf0ae\uf020PbCl 2(aq) + Cu(s) \nWhich option gives the number of elements on the LHS and RHS of the chemical equation? \n(a) \n \n \n(b) \n \n \n \n(c) \n \n \n(d) \n \n \n \nCorrect Answer: Option (d) \n \n \n2) The image shows a balanced chemical equation of the reaction between sodium and chlorine to \nform sodium chloride. \n \n \n \nWhich option shows the number of atoms on both sides of the reaction? \n(a)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nWhich option shows the number of atoms on both sides of the reaction? \n(a) \n \n \n(b) \n \n \n(c) \n \n \n(d) \n \n \nCorrect Answer: Option (b)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nLOB: Categorize the given reactions as (combination/ decomposition) based on the reactants & \nproducts of a chemical reaction \n1) A student writes a chemical equation of the reaction between carbon monoxide and hydrogen. \nCO 2 + 2H 2 -> CH 3OH \nHow can the reaction be classified? \n(a) The reaction is an example of a combination reaction as a compound separates into two \ncompounds. \n(b) The reaction is an example of a decomposition reaction as a compound dissociates into \ntwo compounds. \n(c) The reaction is an example of a combination reaction as two compounds react to form a \nsingle compound. \n(d) The reaction is an example of a decomposition reaction as two compounds react to form \na single compound.", + "(c) The reaction is an example of a combination reaction as two compounds react to form a \nsingle compound. \n(d) The reaction is an example of a decomposition reaction as two compounds react to form \na single compound. \nCorrect Answer: Option (c) \n2) A student learns that some products are formed as a result of combining two compounds while \nsome compounds are formed as a result of dissociation of two compounds. The image shows", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nsome compounds are formed as a result of dissociation of two compounds. The image shows \ntwo reactions.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nWhich reaction is an example of a combination reaction and a decomposition reaction? \n(a) both the reactions are examples of combination reaction \n(b) both the reactions are examples of a decomposition reaction \n(c) reaction P is an example of a combination reaction while reaction Q is an example of a \ndecomposition reaction \n(d) P is an example of a decomposition reaction while reaction Q is an example of a \ncombination reaction \nCorrect Answer: Option (c)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nLOB: Classify the given reaction as displacement or double displacement based on the type of \nreactants used & products formed \n1) A student adds lead and silver to two different test tubes containing an equal amount of copper \nsulphate solution. The student observes that the color of the solution in the test tube with lead \nchanges. What explains the change in the colour of the solution? \n(a) A displacement reaction takes place as lead replaces copper from the solution. \n(b) A combination reaction takes place as lead combines with sulpha te in the solution. \n(c) decomposition reaction takes place as copper dissociates from sulphate in the solution. \n(d) A double displacement reaction takes place as copper dissociates from sulphate and \nlead combines with sulphate in the solution.", + "(c) decomposition reaction takes place as copper dissociates from sulphate in the solution. \n(d) A double displacement reaction takes place as copper dissociates from sulphate and \nlead combines with sulphate in the solution. \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n2) The chemical reaction between potassium chloride and silver nitrate is given by the chemical", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nlead combines with sulphate in the solution. \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n2) The chemical reaction between potassium chloride and silver nitrate is given by the chemical \nequation.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nWhat can be inferred from the chemical equation? \n(a) silver nitrate and potassium undergo a decomposition reaction to form silver chloride \nand potassium nitrate \n(b) silver nitrate and potassium undergo a displacement reaction to form silver chloride \nand potassium nitrate \n(c) silver nitrate and potassium undergo a combination reaction to form silver chloride and \npotassium nitrate \n(d) silver nitrate and potassium undergo double displacement reaction to form silver \nchloride and potassium nitrate \nCorrect Answer: Option (d) \n \n \nLOB: Predict the reaction as Oxidation or Reduction based on the addition/ removal of oxygen/ \nhydrogen/ electrons to the reactants to form products. \n1) The image shows a reaction between zinc and hydrogen. \n Which option shows oxidation? \n(a) Zn \uf0ae\uf020Zn!\" \n(b) 2H! \uf0ae\uf020H2 \n(c) Zn!\"", + "1) The image shows a reaction between zinc and hydrogen. \n Which option shows oxidation? \n(a) Zn \uf0ae\uf020Zn!\" \n(b) 2H! \uf0ae\uf020H2 \n(c) Zn!\" \uf0ae\uf020Zn \n(d) H 2 \uf0ae2H! \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n \n \n2) The image shows a reaction between iron oxide and hydrogen.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\n2) The image shows a reaction between iron oxide and hydrogen. \n \n \nWhich option shows the compounds undergoing oxidation and reduction? \n(a) \n \n \n \n(b) \n \n \n(c) \n \n \n(d) \n \n \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n \n \n \n \n \nLOB: Observe colour change in iron, copper and silver articles over time in order to outline the \neffects of corrosion in our surroundings (real life situations, stating any two)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nLOB: Observe colour change in iron, copper and silver articles over time in order to outline the \neffects of corrosion in our surroundings (real life situations, stating any two) \n \n1) A student notices that a new hammer made of iron is shiny while an old one kept in the toolbox \nfor long has a reddish -brown powder deposit over it. What does the change in colour of the \nhammer indicate? \n(a) effect of moisture on metals \n(b) iron hammer turns brown after some time \n(c) effects of kept in a box for a longer duration \n(d) iron changes colour when kept with other tools \nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n2) A student notices that her silver jewellery turned dull and had a gray -black film over it after \nwearing for a few months. What results in the change in colour of the silver metal?", + "What results in the change in colour of the silver metal? \n(a) dust deposits over the jewellery which changes its colour", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\n(b) the jewellery comes in contact with air, moisture, and acids and corrodes \n(c) the polish over the jewellery was removed after wearing for a few months \n(d) silver breaks due to wear and tear and turns its colour changes due to rusting \nCorrect Answer: Option (b) \n \n \nLOB: Detect changes in smell, colour, taste of food items overtime, in order to explain effects of \noxidation on food items \n \n1) A student learns that food companies fill bags of chips with nitrogen gas. What is the purpose \npacking it with nitrogen? \n(a) it prevents rancidity of chips \n(b) it keeps the mosquitoes away from chips \n(c) it keeps the chips dry if the pack falls in water \n(d) prevents chips from spilling out when the pack is opened \n \nCorrect Answer: Option (a)", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \n \n \n \n \n2) A student notices that the bread kept out has a green coloured coating over it after a few days. \nWhat explains the reason for the student\u2019s observation? \n(a) the oils in the bread oxidises and causes rancidity \n(b) bread comes in contact with atmospheric moisture and corrodes \n(c) the oils in the bread reduces and cause the change in the colour of the bread \n(d) comes in contact with the atmospheric nitrogen and a layer deposit over it", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nCorrect Answer: Option (a) \nSuggested Teacher Resources \n1 Activity \nObjective Categorize the given reactions as (combination/ decomposition) based on the \nreactants & products of a chemical reaction. \nPrerequisite Identify the changes that a reaction mixture undergoes during a chemical \nreaction, what are reactants, what are products \nMaterial \nRequired Test tubes, boiling tube, distilled water, burner, sugar, iron fillings, sulphur \npowder \nVocabulary Combination Reaction: A reaction in which a single product is formed from \ntwo or more reactants is known as a combination reaction. \n \nDecomposition Reaction: A reaction in which a single substance decomposes \nto give two or more substances. \n \nProcedure Procedure 1: \n1. Take a small amount of iron fillings and sulphur powder in a boiling \ntube. \n2.", + "Procedure Procedure 1: \n1. Take a small amount of iron fillings and sulphur powder in a boiling \ntube. \n2. Heat the boiling tube strongly over the flame of a burner or spirit lamp \nand observe changes.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nProcedure 2: \n1. Take about 2 g sugar crystals in a dry boiling tube. (Note the colour of \nthe crystals.) \n2. Heat the boiling tube over the flame of a burner or spirit lamp and \nobserve changes. \nReflection \nQuestions \nText to real \nworld \nconnection Propane is a fuel used to provide heat for some homes. It is stored in large \ntanks as shown here. Can you predict the chemical equation for burning of \npropane? \n \n \nBeyond the \nclassroom What type of reaction takes place inside the human and plant cells? \n \n \n \n \nMaterial \nrequired Fresh potato chips, 2 glass jars with lid, Aluminium foil. \nProcedure 1. Wrap the glass jar with aluminium foil. Tape the foil in place so that no \nlight can enter the container. \n2.", + "Procedure 1. Wrap the glass jar with aluminium foil. Tape the foil in place so that no \nlight can enter the container. \n2. Place fresh potato chips in the foil -wrapped jar and in a similar clear jar \nwithout foil around it.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nActivity \n Reaction No. Materials \nused Chemicals \nused Describe the \nreactants \n(number of \nreactants) Procedure Describe \nthe \nproducts \n(number of \nproducts) Type of \nreaction \nCalcium \nOxide + \nwater \nHeating \nSugar \n \n 3. Taste the potato chips and rate their flavour on a 5-point scale, 1 being \nextremely dislike the flavour and 5 being extremely like the flavour. \n(Enter your data in a table.) \n4. Place the two jars on a window sill where they will be exposed to \nsunlight. \n5. Taste potato chips from each jar at intervals of 1-2 days for 1-2 weeks \nand record the taste of potatoes in both the jars. \n6. Make a graph of your data, noting the flavor of the potato chips stored \nthese two ways versus storage time.", + "6. Make a graph of your data, noting the flavor of the potato chips stored \nthese two ways versus storage time. The y-axis should be the flavor \nscore and the x-axis the time in days. \nReflection \nquestions 1. What effect does the aluminium foil have on the taste of potatoes after 2 \nweeks?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-TEST QUESTIONS.txt\nscore and the x-axis the time in days. \nReflection \nquestions 1. What effect does the aluminium foil have on the taste of potatoes after 2 \nweeks? \n2. Is there anything else that will affect the taste of potatoes over 2 weeks \napart from the sunlight?", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations\nIntroduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations\nPhysical and chemical changes\nChemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties\nare formed.\nExample: Fe(s)\u00a0 + \u00a0CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\nHere, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and\ncopper are formed.\nPhysical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.\nExample: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).\u00a0\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature\nc) Formation of a precipitate\nd) Change in colour\ne) Change of state\nChemical reaction\nChemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by\nmaking or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.\nTypes of chemical reactionsTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nChemical Reactions and Equations I\nWord equation\nA\u00a0 word equation is a\u00a0chemical reaction\u00a0expressed in words rather than\u00a0chemical\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic\nsymbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.\nValency is the combining capacity of an\u00a0element. It can be considered as the number of\nelectrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a\nmolecule.\nWriting chemical equations\nRepresentation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the\nreactants and products is known as a chemical equation.\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".", + "Zn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".\n\u2022 For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2191)\".\n\u2022 For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2193)\".\nBalancing of a Chemical Reaction\nConservation of mass\nAccording to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a\nchemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to\nbalance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.\nIn other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.", "In other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.\u00a0\nShort-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.\u00a0\nShort-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.", "Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.\nCa: a=3c\nC:\u00a0 \u00a0a=d\nO:\u00a0 \u00a03a+4b=8c+3d\nH:\u00a0 \u00a03b=2d\nP:\u00a0 \u00a0 b=2c\nLet's set c=1\nThen a=3 and\nd=a=3\nb=2c=2So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3\nThe balanced equation is\n3CaCO 3+ 2H 3PO 4\u2192Ca3(PO 4)2+ 3H 2CO 3\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nCombination reaction\nIn a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two\ncompounds combine\u00a0to give one single product.\nH2+Cl2\u2192 2HCl\nelement + element \u2192 compound\n2CO +O2\u2192 2CO 2\ncompound + element \u2192 compound\nNH 3+HCl \u2192NH 4Cl\ncompound + compound \u2192 compound\nDecomposition reaction\nA single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or\nmore products.\nTypes of decomposition reactions:\na. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nii)Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nDouble displacement reaction\nAn exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.\nFor example,\u00a0Al 2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Ca( OH)2(aq) \u2192 2Al (OH)3(aq) + 3CaSO 4(s)\nPrecipitation reaction\nAn insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts\nare combined.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nCombination reaction\nIn a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two\ncompounds combine\u00a0to give one single product.\nH2+Cl2\u2192 2HCl\nelement + element \u2192 compound\n2CO +O2\u2192 2CO 2\ncompound + element \u2192 compound\nNH 3+HCl \u2192NH 4Cl\ncompound + compound \u2192 compound\nDecomposition reaction\nA single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or\nmore products.\nTypes of decomposition reactions:\na. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nii)Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nDouble displacement reaction\nAn exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.\nFor example,\u00a0Al 2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Ca( OH)2(aq) \u2192 2Al (OH)3(aq) + 3CaSO 4(s)\nPrecipitation reaction\nAn insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts\nare combined.", "For example, Pb( NO 3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) \u2192 2KNO 3(aq) +PbI 2(\u2193)(s)(yellow )\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.\nReduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.\nOxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.\nReducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.\nExamples:\n1.Fe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0(Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\nFe\u2192Fe+2+ 2e \u2212 \u00a0(oxidation ) ; Fe - reducing agent.\nCu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.\n2.ZnO +C\u2192Zn+CO\nZnO reduces to Zn\u00a0\u2192 reduction\nC oxidises to CO \u2192 oxidation\nZnO - Oxidising agent\nC - Reducing agent\nEndothermic and exothermic reaction\nExothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.\nReduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.\nOxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.\nReducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.\nExamples:\n1.Fe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0(Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\nFe\u2192Fe+2+ 2e \u2212 \u00a0(oxidation ) ; Fe - reducing agent.\nCu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.\n2.ZnO +C\u2192Zn+CO\nZnO reduces to Zn\u00a0\u2192 reduction\nC oxidises to CO \u2192 oxidation\nZnO - Oxidising agent\nC - Reducing agent\nEndothermic and exothermic reaction\nExothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction.", "Most of the combination reactions\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", + "CHAPTER 1- CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS-REVISION NOTES.txt\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", "Corrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) +xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192Ag2S(black) +H2(g)\nRancidity\nIt refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell\nand bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.\nPrevention:\n(i) Use of air-tight containers(ii) Packaging with nitrogen\n(iii) Refrigeration\n(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\nIntroductionAll living organisms have certain common characteristics such as breathing, growing, requiring nutrition, producing offspring, responding to stimuli, etc. that distinguish them from non-living things. There are certain vital processes that maintain homeostasis and proper functioning of the body, they are called life processes. These processes continue to occur even when we are sleeping or not performing any action. These processes are essential for all living organisms including plants and animals. These life processes are nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion.In this chapter, we will learn about the details of these processes occurring in plants, animals and human beings in particular.LifeEarth happens to be the only known planet having a life. There are beings who live, die and become part of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of life processes.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nLife Process\n \n\u2022The maintenance of living organisms is essential even if they are moving, resting or even sleeping.\u2022The processes which together perform the function of maintenance of 'life' are called as life processes.\u2022Nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion are examples of essential life processes.\u2022In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell.\u2022In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out the processes.\nTo know more about Life Process, visit here. Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with a separate solution pdf of this chapter for quick revision from the links below:\u2022Life Processes Short Notes\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Questions\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Solutions", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\nNutritionNutritionThe process of acquiring food that is needed for nourishment and sustenance of the organism is called nutrition.\u2022There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic.\u2022Autotrophic nutrition is present in plants, algae and some bacteria. Organisms produce their own food using light energy or chemical energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, respectively.\u2022Heterotrophic nutrition is present in bacteria, fungi and animals. They derive energy from organic compounds. Such as animals eating plants or other animals for food.\u2022Heterotrophic nutrition has subtypes such as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition.To know more about Nutrition, visit here.Autotrophic NutritionIf an organism can nourish\u00a0itself by making its own food using sunlight or chemicals such mode of nutrition is called as autotrophic nutrition.\u2022Plants photosynthesize (use light energy) and are called photoautotrophs.\u2022Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy and are called chemoautotrophs.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nPhotosynthesis\u2022Photosynthesis is an important process by which food is formed.\u2022The plants make food using sunlight and water, which provides nourishment to other organism and themselves.\u2022Chlorophyll present in the green parts absorbs light energy.\u2022This light energy is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.\u2022Hydrogen is then used to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, typically glucose.\u2022Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis and stomata to facilitate intake of carbon dioxide.The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows:6CO2 + 6H2O \u2192 C6H12O6 + 6O2To know more about Photosynthesis, visit here.\n \nStomata\u2022Stomata are pores on the leaves that help in the exchange of gases.\u2022They are mostly found on the underside of the leaf.\u2022Each stoma is guarded by guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the pore.\u2022The water content of the guard cells is responsible for their function.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Stomata, visit here.Saprophytic NutritionSome organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter. This mode of nutrition is called saprophytic nutrition.\u2022The food is partially\u00a0digested outside the body and then it is absorbed.\u2022E.g. Fungi are saprophytes.Parasitic NutritionSome organisms feed at the expense of another organism and in turn cause harm. This is called the parasitic mode of nutrition.\u2022These parasites live on the body or in the body of a host organism and derive the nutrients directly from the body of the host.\u2022E.g. Leech is an ectoparasite while Ascaris\u00a0is an endoparasite. Cuscuta is a parasitic plant.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nNutrition in Amoeba\u2022Amoeba feeds by holozoic mode of nutrition.\u2022It engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia, the process is called phagocytosis.\u2022The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole.\u2022As the food vacuole passes through the cytoplasm, digestion, absorption and assimilation take place.\u2022When the food vacuole opens to outside, the egestion of undigested food takes place.\n \nTo know more about Nutrition in Amoeba, visit here.Nutrition in Paramoecium\u2022Paramoecium also exhibits holozoic nutrition.\u2022However, they have cilia that help them to engulf the food through the oral groove.\u2022A food vacuole is created enclosing the food.\u2022It moves through the cytoplasm, the process is called cyclosis.\u2022Food digested in the food vacuole is absorbed by the cytoplasm.\u2022Undigested food is given out to a tiny pore\u00a0called anal pore or cytopyge.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nNutrition in Humans\u2022Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based\u00a0food.\u2022Being more complex, humans have a very complicated nutrition system.\u2022The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together function to nourish the body.\u2022There are \ufb01ve stages in human nutrition; Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and Egestion.\u2022Four stages\u00a0i.e. ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion take place in the alimentary canal while assimilation of food takes place in the whole body.To know more about Nutrition in Humans, visit here.Alimentary Canal\u2022The alimentary canal in humans is a long tube of varying diameter.\u2022It starts with the mouth and ends with the anus.\u2022Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine are the parts of the alimentary canal.\n \nTo know more about Alimentary Canal, visit here.\u00a0Mouth", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\n\u2022It is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in the ingestion of food.\u2022The buccal cavity which is present behind the mouth is also commonly referred to as the mouth.\u2022The buccal cavity has teeth and a tongue.\u2022The set of teeth helps in the mastication of food.\u2022The tongue has taste buds on it and thus helps in tasting the food.\u2022The salivary glands open also in the buccal cavity and pour saliva which initiates the process of digestion.Teeth\u2022Teeth are the hard structures present in the buccal cavity.\u2022They help us to cut, shear and masticate the food we eat.\u2022The vertical section of a tooth shows four layers enamel, dentine, cement and dental pulp.\u2022Enamel is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and the hardest part of the human body.\u2022Dentine makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic salts.\u2022Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket.\u2022The dental pulp is the central soft part of a tooth and contains nerve endings, blood and lymph vessels along with connective tissue.", - "\u2022Dentine makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic salts.\u2022Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket.\u2022The dental pulp is the central soft part of a tooth and contains nerve endings, blood and lymph vessels along with connective tissue.\u2022There are four types of teeth in humans, Incisors, canines, molars and premolars, each with a speci\ufb01c function.\u2022Incisors cut the food, canines tear the food while molars and premolars crush it.\u2022The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nOesophagus & StomachOesophagus\u2022The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus.\u2022It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end.\u2022Its function is to transport food and \ufb02uid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach.\u2022Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements.Stomach", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\n\u2022The stomach is a thick-walled bag-like structure.\u2022It receives food from the oesophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other end.\u2022The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices.\u2022Food is churned into a semi-solid mass in the stomach and is called chyme.\u2022Enzymes present in the gastric juice break down the\u00a0food.\u2022Hydrochloric acid\u00a0helps in the partial digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria.\u2022The mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach\u00a0resists the action of HCl on itself.Small Intestine\u2022The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet long in humans.\u2022It has regions, duodenum, the region which follows the stomach, jejunum\u00a0is the middle part and the ileum is the later region which continues further into the large intestine.\u2022The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into \ufb01nger-like\u00a0projections called villi.\u2022A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas\u00a0and liver opens into the duodenum.", - "\u2022The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into \ufb01nger-like\u00a0projections called villi.\u2022A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas\u00a0and liver opens into the duodenum.\u2022Most of the chemical digestion and absorption take place in the small intestine.Large Intestine\u2022The large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long.\u2022It has two regions, colon ( about 1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in length in the adult).\u2022The region of large intestine after ileum is called colon while the last part is called the rectum.\u2022Colon has three regions as, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon.\u2022At the base of the ascending colon, a small \ufb01nger-like out-growth is seen and is called\u00a0an appendix.\u2022It houses many useful bacteria required for digestion of food.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022Rectum opens to outside by anus.\u2022The anus has internal and external anal sphincters.\nPeristalsisA constant wave-like movement of the alimentary canal right from the oesophagus to the small intestine is called as peristalsis.\u2022Muscles present in the wall of the alimentary canal are responsible for peristalsis.\u2022This movement helps to push the food through the alimentary canal.To know more about Peristalsis, visit here.Digestive Glands\u2022Several glands produce digestive juices that help in digestion of the food.\u2022Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas are few to name.\u2022Salivary glands secrete saliva which initiates digestion in the mouth itself.\u2022Gastric glands\u00a0present in the wall of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin.\u2022The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps in digestion of fats.\u2022The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022Enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase are present in the pancreatic juice.Pancreas\u2022The pancreas is a long, \ufb02at gland present behind the stomach in humans.\u2022It is one of the major digestive glands and is of mixed nature i.e. endocrine as well as exocrine.\u2022As an endocrine organ, it secretes two hormones called insulin and glucagon which maintain the blood sugar level.\u2022As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice which is nothing but a mixture of many digestive enzymes.\u2022The digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas include trypsin and chymotrypsin and proteases which digest proteins.\u2022It also includes amylase which digests the starch content of the food.\u2022Pancreatic lipases are the pancreatic enzymes that help in digestion of fats.\nTo know more about Pancreas, visit here.Holozoic NutritionThe mode of nutrition in which animals take their food as a whole is called as holozoic nutrition.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\nIn holozoic nutrition, food passes through \ufb01ve steps as ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.Physiology of Digestion\u2022Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the buccal cavity where teeth masticate the food, saliva gets mixed and it turns into a bolus.\u2022Digestion of starch starts in the buccal cavity itself, with the action of salivary amylase present in the saliva.\u2022Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose.\u2022In the stomach, the churning of food takes place due to the muscular contraction and relaxation of its wall. It breaks down the food into simpler substances.\u2022Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin.", - "It breaks down the food into simpler substances.\u2022Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin. Proteins are broken down into smaller fragments called peptide by the action of pepsin.\u2022The bolus after mixing with gastric juice, turn into a \ufb01ne soluble form known as the chyme.\u2022Chyme enters into the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various enzymes present in the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice.\u2022The digested food is completely absorbed by the villi and microvilli of the small intestine.\u2022Undigested food\u00a0then enters into the large intestine.\u2022The colon is responsible for absorption of water and salts whereas rectum stores the undigested food temporarily before defaecation.To know more about Digestive System, visit here.Digestive System in Other Animals\u2022Digestive systems in different animals vary in structure and function.\u2022The structure of the\u00a0digestive\u00a0system depends on the food habits of the animal.\u2022Alimentary canal in herbivores is long as the cellulose content of their plant-based diet takes a long time to digest.\u2022On the other hand, the alimentary canal of carnivorous animals is comparatively shorter because meat gets digested faster.Anatomy of Digestive Tract\u2022The alimentary canal in humans is approximately 30 feet (9m) long.", - "It is also called the\u00a0gastrointestinal tract.\u2022It starts with the mouth and ends in the anus.\u2022Between these two openings, the alimentary canal is a tube of varying diameter.\u2022Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (divided into three regions duodenum, jejunum and ileum) and large intestine(having two regions colon and rectum) are the parts of the alimentary canal.\u2022Salivary glands, pancreas and liver act as major digestive glands.\u2022Glands present in the wall of the stomach and small intestine also contribute to the digestion of food.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\nRole of HCl\u2022Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is secreted by the gastric glands present in its wall.\u2022the pH of the gastric acid\u00a0is usually between 1.5\u00a0to\u00a03.5\u2022This acid serves the following functions:1.Converts inactive pepsinogen and pro-rennin into active pepsin and rennin respectively.2.Provides an acidic medium for protein digestion.3.Kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection.4.Prevents putrefaction of food in the stomach.\u2022A thick layer of mucus secreted by the mucous glands of the stomach prevents itself from the action of gastric acid.\u2022Excess acid\u00a0damages gastric mucosa and causes gastric and duodenal ulcers.Salivary Glands\u2022Salivary glands are the exocrine glands that secrete saliva and through a system of ducts, it is poured into the mouth.\u2022In humans, three major pairs of salivary glands are present, parotid, submandibular and sublingual.\u2022In healthy individuals between 0.5 to 1.5 litres of saliva is produced per day.", - "it is poured into the mouth.\u2022In humans, three major pairs of salivary glands are present, parotid, submandibular and sublingual.\u2022In healthy individuals between 0.5 to 1.5 litres of saliva is produced per day.\u2022Saliva serves the following functions in the oral cavity:1.It lubricates and protects the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity2.It also gives protection from dental caries3.Saliva prevents microbial growth in the oral cavity.4.Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound contraction5.Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrin. Hence saliva allows digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomach6.Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds located on the tongue.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nHeterotrophic NutritionWhen an organism depends on others for food, such a mode of nutrition is called as a heterotrophic mode of nutrition.\u2022These organisms depend on autotrophs for their nutritional requirements.\u2022E.g. Animals which eat plants as their food are called herbivores.\u2022Animals which eat other animals as their food are called carnivores.\u2022Holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition are all types of heterotrophic nutrition.To know more about Heterotrophic Nutrition, visit here.Glandular Epithelium\u2022Many small glands present in the inner layer of the stomach and intestine take part in the digestion of food.\u2022These glands are present in the epithelial lining of the stomach and intestine.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\n\u2022The glands present in different regions of the stomach are called gastric glands.\u2022They are responsible for the secretion of mucus, hydrochloric acid and enzymes like pepsinogen.\u2022The glands present in the epithelial lining of the small\u00a0intestine and large intestine are called intestinal glands.\u2022Glands of the small intestine are responsible for the secretion of intestinal juice also called succus entericus.\u2022Intestinal juice contains\u00a0hormones,\u00a0digestive enzymes, alkaline mucus, and substances to neutralize\u00a0hydrochloric acid\u00a0coming from the\u00a0stomach.\u2022Intestinal juice completes the digestion started by the pancreatic juice.\u2022Glands of the large intestine are associated with the absorption of water and electrolytes.Villi and Micro Villi\u2022Complete digestion and absorption of food take place in the small intestine.\u2022Pancreatic juice coming from the pancreas, bile from the liver and intestinal juice secreted by the intestinal glands complete the digestion of food material.\u2022All the digested nutrients are absorbed by the long \ufb01nger-like projections present in the ileum of the small intestine.", - "\u2022Pancreatic juice coming from the pancreas, bile from the liver and intestinal juice secreted by the intestinal glands complete the digestion of food material.\u2022All the digested nutrients are absorbed by the long \ufb01nger-like projections present in the ileum of the small intestine.\u2022These small \ufb01nger-like\u00a0projections of the inner wall of intestine are called as villi (singular: villus).\u2022Each villus has its cell membrane of the lumen side again folded into microscopic processes, called microvilli.\u2022Villi increase the internal surface area of the intestinal walls making available a greater surface area for absorption.\u2022Digested nutrients pass into the semipermeable villi through diffusion.\u2022Villi also help in chemical digestion of food by secreting digestive enzymes.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nLiver\n \n\u2022The liver is the largest and major digestive gland of humans\u2022Liver, in humans, is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdomen.\u2022This\u00a0organ is dark reddish-brown in colour due to an extensive blood supply.\u2022Some of the important functions of the liver are as follows:1.It secretes bile that helps in digestion.2.It \ufb01lters the blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body.3.It detoxi\ufb01es various metabolites and antidote.4.The liver makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions.5.It stores and releases glucose as needed.6.It processes\u00a0haemoglobin, from the dead and worn out RBCs, for the iron content (the liver stores iron).7.Conversion of harmful ammonia to urea takes place in the liver.To know more about Liver, visit here.Digestive Juices", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\n\u2022Pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice (succus entericus) are collectively called digestive juices.\u2022A common duct from digestive glands pours the secretions into the duodenum.\u2022Chyme enters the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various enzymes.\u2022In the duodenum, the acidity of chyme is turned to alkalinity\u00a0by the action of bile coming from the liver. This is necessary for pancreatic enzyme action.\u2022Bile also emulsi\ufb01es the fats into smaller globules.\u2022Pancreatic and intestinal amylases break down carbohydrates into glucose.\u2022Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the proteases responsible for the breakdown of proteins \ufb01nally into amino acids.\u2022Lipase is the enzyme which acts on the emulsi\ufb01ed fats and breaks them down into glycerol and fatty acids.Water Absorption in Large Intestine\u2022The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients.\u2022The major function\u00a0of the large\u00a0intestine\u00a0is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and make the stool solid.", - "Water Absorption in Large Intestine\u2022The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients.\u2022The major function\u00a0of the large\u00a0intestine\u00a0is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and make the stool solid.\u2022The large intestine also helps in the absorption of vitamins made by bacteria that normally live in the large intestine.\u2022The innermost layer of the large intestine also acts as a barrier and protects from microbial infections and invasions.\u2022Rectum stores the undigested food temporarily until defecation.RespirationIntroduction to Respiration\u2022Respiration broadly means the exchange of gases.\u2022Animals and plants have different means of exchange of gases.\u2022At a cellular level, respiration means the burning of the food at the for generating the energy needed for other life processes.\u2022Cellular respiration may take place in the presence or absence of oxygen.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\nTo know more about Respiration, visit here.Respiration in Humans\u2022The human respiratory system is more complex and involves breathing, exchange of gases and cellular respiration.\u2022A well de\ufb01ned respiratory system helps breathing and exchange of gases.\u2022Breathing involves the inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide.\u2022The gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and oxygen is supplied to all cells of the body.\u2022Cellular respiration takes place in each and every cell.Respiratory System\u2022The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea/windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.\u2022Bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a pair of lungs.\u2022The rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm, all help in inhalation and exhalation of gases.\u2022Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels.\u2022Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases.To know more about Respiratory System, visit here.", - "all help in inhalation and exhalation of gases.\u2022Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels.\u2022Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases.To know more about Respiratory System, visit here.Physiology of Respiration\u2022Breathing in humans is facilitated by the action of internal intercostal and external intercostal muscles attached to the ribs and the diaphragm.\u2022When the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts and becomes \ufb02attened and the rib cage is expanded due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume of the lungs increases, pressure there drops down and the air from outside gushes in. This is inhalation.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022To exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, becomes dome-shaped again, chest cavity contracts due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume inside the lungs decreases, pressure increases and the air is forced out of the lungs.\u2022Inhaled air increases the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli,\u00a0 so oxygen simply diffuses into the surrounding blood vessels.\u2022Blood coming from cells has more concentration of carbon dioxide than outside air and thus carbon dioxide simply\u00a0diffuses out of the blood vessels into the alveoli.\u2022Thus, breathing takes place due to the combined action of intercostal muscles and diaphragm while the exchange of gases takes place due to simple diffusion.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nInhalation and Exhalation\u2022The process of taking in air rich in oxygen is called\u00a0inhalation.\u2022Similarly, the process of giving out air rich in carbon dioxide is called\u00a0exhalation.\u2022One breath comprises one inhalation and one exhalation.\u2022A person breathes several times in a day.\u2022The number of times a person breathes in one minute is termed as his/her\u00a0breathing rate.To know more about Inhalation and Exhalation, visit here.Diffusion\n \nDiffusion is the\u00a0movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area without spending any energy.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nDiffusion is the\u00a0movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area without spending any energy.\n\u00a0Cellular RespirationCellular respiration is set of metabolic reactions occurring inside the cells to convert biochemical energy obtained from the food into a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).\u2022Metabolism\u00a0refers to a set of chemical reactions carried out for maintaining the living state of the cells in an organism. These can be divided into two categories:\u2022Catabolism\u00a0\u2013 the process of breaking molecules to obtain energy.\u2022Anabolism\u00a0\u2013 the process of synthesizing all compounds required by the cells.\u2022Therefore, respiration is a catabolic process, which breaks large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy to fuel cellular activities.\u2022Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are the important processes of the cellular respiration.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Cellular Respiration, visit here.Aerobic RespirationAerobic respiration is a process in which the food i.e. glucose is converted into energy in the presence of oxygen.\u2022The general equation of aerobic respiration as a whole is as given below-Glucose + oxygen \u21d2\u00a0Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy\u2022This type of respiration takes place in animals, plants and other living organisms.Respiration in Lower Animals\u2022Lower animals lack a sophisticated respiratory system like lungs, alveoli etc.\u2022Respiration\u00a0in them\u00a0takes place by simple exchange mechanisms.\u2022Animals like earthworms take in gases through their skin.\u2022Fishes have gills for gaseous exchange.\u2022Insects have a tracheal system, which is a network of tubes, through which air circulates and gaseous exchange takes place.\u2022Frogs breathe through their skin when in water and through their lungs when on land.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nRespiration in Muscles\u2022Respiration in muscles can be anaerobic when there is not enough oxygen.\u2022Glucose gets broken down into\u00a0carbon dioxide and lactic acid.\u2022This results in the accumulation of lactic acid that makes the muscles sore.\u2022This type of anaerobic respiration is also known as lactic acid fermentation.ATP\u2022It is the energy currency of the cell.\u2022ATP stands for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate.\u2022This molecule is created as a result reactions like photosynthesis, respiration etc.\u2022The three phosphate bonds present in the molecule are high-energy bonds and when they are broken, a large amount of energy is released.\u2022Such released energy is then used for other metabolic reactions.\n \n\u00a0Respiration in Plants\u2022Unlike animals and humans, plants do not have any specialized structures for gaseous exchange\u2022They have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are involved in the exchange of gases.\u2022Compared to animals, plant roots, stems, and leaves respire at a very lower rate.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Respiration in Plants, visit here.Transpiration\n\u2022Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form\u00a0of water vapour from the aerial parts of the plants.\u2022This process occurs mainly through the stomata where the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs.\u2022Transpiration helps in the transportation of water from roots to upper parts of plants and this is explained by 'transpirational pull theory'.\u2022Loss of water, especially from leaves, acts as a straw effect and pulls water upwards from roots.\u2022Transpiration also acts as an excretory mechanism in plants as it helps to get rid of excess water.To know more about Transpiration, visit here.Why Do We Need Lungs", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022In unicellular organisms like an amoeba exchange of gases takes place through a general body surface by osmosis.\u2022In lower animals like an earthworm, the gaseous exchange takes place through their moist skin.\u2022The requirement for oxygen is suf\ufb01ciently met in these ways.\u2022But as the animal starts becoming more and more complex, for example, humans, the requirement of oxygen cannot be met alone by diffusion.\u2022Moreover, diffusion will not be able to supply oxygen to the deep-seated\u00a0cells.\u2022This dif\ufb01culty has led to the evolution of a\u00a0more complex mechanism of gaseous exchange and that is the development of lungs.\u2022The alveoli present in the lungs provide a large surface area required for the necessary gas exchange.Read more: Facts about LungsTransportation in Human Beings", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTransportation\u2022All living organisms\u00a0need a few necessary components like air, water, and\u00a0food for their survival.\u2022On a regular basis, animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking and eating.\u2022The required\u00a0elements are transported to their body cells and tissues by a \u00a0transportation system.\u2022In plants, the vascular tissue is responsible for transporting the substances.Transportation in Humans\u2022Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system.\u2022The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and the heart.\u2022It is responsible for the supply of oxygen, and nutrients, and the removal of carbon dioxide and other excretory products.\u2022It also helps to \ufb01ght infections.\nTo know more about Transportation in Animals and Plants, visit here.Heart", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Transportation in Animals and Plants, visit here.Heart\n \n\u2022The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the\u00a0thoracic region.\u2022The heart is the main pumping organ of the body.\u2022The human heart is divided into four chambers\u00a0which are involved in the transportation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.\u2022The upper two chambers are called atria whereas the lower two chambers are called as\u00a0ventricles.\n \nTo know more about Human Heart, visit here.\u2022The \ufb02ow of blood through the\u00a0heart is as follows:\nBlood Vessels\u2022Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body.\u2022There three types of blood vessels; arteries, veins and blood capillaries.\u2022Arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood.\u2022Gaseous exchange takes place between blood and cells at capillaries.Difference between Arteries and Veins", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\n\u00a0Blood PressureThe pressure exerted by the blood when it \ufb02ows through the blood vessels is called blood pressure.\u2022There are two different variants of blood pressure; systolic and diastolic blood pressure.\u2022The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is \ufb01lling with blood is called diastolic pressure. It constitutes the minimum pressure on arteries.\u2022The normal range of diastolic blood pressure should be 60 \u2013 80 mm Hg.\u2022The pressure\u00a0exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is pumping the blood is called systolic pressure.", - "It constitutes the minimum pressure on arteries.\u2022The normal range of diastolic blood pressure should be 60 \u2013 80 mm Hg.\u2022The pressure\u00a0exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is pumping the blood is called systolic pressure. It constitutes the maximum pressure applied to the arteries.\u2022The normal range of systolic blood pressure should be 90 \u2013 120 mm Hg.To know more about Blood Pressure, visit here.Bleeding\u2022Bleeding occurs when the blood vessels rupture.\u2022Bleeding is stopped by the platelets that help in the clotting of blood at the site of the injury.\u2022Blood Clotting\u00a0is the process of forming a\u00a0clot in order to prevent excess loss of blood from the body.\u2022It is a gel-like mass which is formed by the platelets and a \ufb01bre-like protein in the blood.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nDouble Circulation\u2022In the human body, blood circulates through the heart twice.\u2022Once it goes through the heart during pulmonary circulation and second time during systemic circulation.\u2022Hence, circulation in human beings is called\u00a0double circulation.\n \nTo know more about Double Circulation, visit here.Transportation in PlantsTransportation in Plants\u2022Transportation is a vital process in plants.\u2022The process involves the transportation of water and necessary\u00a0nutrients\u00a0to all parts of the plant for its survival.\u2022Food and water transportation takes place separately in plants.\u2022Xylem transports water and phloem transports food.\n\u00a0To know more about Transportation in Plants, visit here.Phloem", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Transportation in Plants, visit here.Phloem\n \n\u2022The phloem is responsible for translocation of\u00a0nutrients\u00a0and sugar like carbohydrates, produced by the leaves to areas of the plant that are metabolically active.\u2022Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem \ufb01bres, and phloem parenchyma cells are the components of this tissue\u2022The \ufb02ow of material through phloem is bidirectional.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTranslocation\u2022Transport of food in the plant through phloem via a process such as mass \ufb02ow is called as translocation.\u2022Photosynthates i.e. sugars and organic molecules such as amino acids, organic acids, proteins and inorganic solutes like potassium, magnesium, nitrate, calcium, sulfur and iron from source tissues (mature leaves) to the sink cells (areas of growth and storage) are transported through the phloem.\u2022Material like sucrose is loaded from leaves to phloem using the energy of ATP.\u2022Such a transfer increases the osmotic pressure causing the movement of water from nearby cells into phloem tissue and the material gets transported through the phloem.\u2022The same pressure is also responsible for the transfer of substances from phloem to tissues where food is required.\u2022Thus the bulk \ufb02ow of material through phloem takes place in response to an osmotically generated pressure difference.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nXylem\u2022Xylem tissue transports water in plants from root to all other parts of the plant.\u2022Xylem tissue is made up tracheids, vessels, xylem \ufb01bres and xylem parenchyma.\u2022The \ufb02ow of water and minerals through xylem is always unidirectional.\n \nRoot Pressure\u2022Conduction of water through the xylem, from\u00a0roots to upper parts of plants, is due to many forces acting together.\u2022One of the forces responsible for this is root pressure.\u2022Root pressure is osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.\u2022Root pressure helps in the initial transport of water up the roots.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\nTo know more about Root Pressure, visit here.Transport of Water\u2022Water is absorbed by the roots and is transported by xylem to the upper parts of the plant.Imbibition, osmosis, root pressure and transpiration are the forces that contribute towards the upward movement of water, even in the tallest plants.\u2022Imbibition is a process in which water is absorbed by the solids. E.g. seeds take up water when soaked.\u2022Osmosis is a process where water moves from the area of its lower concentration to the area of its higher concentration.\u2022At the roots, the cells take up ions by an active process and this results in the difference of concentration of these ions.\u2022It leads to movement of water, in the root cells, by osmosis.\u2022This creates a continuous column of water that gets pushed upwards.", - "This is root pressure.\u2022Transpiration contributes to the upward movement of water by creating a staw effect.\u2022It pulls the water column upwards as there is a continuous loss of water from leaves.\u2022All these forces act together for water transport through the xylemExcretion in HumansExcretionExcretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste material and other non-useful substances.\u2022Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized system for excretion.\u2022But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in animals.\u2022They do not have special organs for excretion and thus\u00a0excretion in plants is not so complex.Excretion in Unicellular Organisms\u2022In unicellular organisms such as amoeba and bacteria, the waste product is removed by simple diffusion through the general body surface.\u2022Unicellular organisms like the amoeba, and paramecium excrete excess through tiny organelles called contractile vacuoles.\u2022Undigested food in unicellular animals is excreted\u00a0when the food vacuole merges with the general body surface and opens to the outside.Excretory System of Humans\u2022The excretory system in humans includes\u25e6a pair of kidneys,\u25e6a pair of ureters,", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u25e6a urinary bladder and\u25e6urethra.\u2022It produces urine as a waste product.\nTo know more about Human Excretory System, visit here.Kidneys\u2022Paired kidneys are the main excretory organs of the body.\u2022They are basically the \ufb01ltration units of the human body.\u2022Each kidney is made up of many tiny \ufb01ltration units called nephrons.\u2022Kidneys\u00a0perform crucial functions like:1.Filtering waste materials, medications, and toxic substances from the blood.2.Regulation of osmolarity i.e. \ufb02uid balance of the body.3.Regulation of ion concentration in the body.4.Regulation of pH.5.Regulation of extracellular \ufb02uid volume.6.Secreting hormones that help produce red blood cells, promote bone health, and regulate blood pressureNephronNephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidney.\u2022Each kidney has millions of nephrons and it forms the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022Each nephron has two parts: Malpighian body and renal tubule.\u2022Malpighian body is made up of cup-like structure called Bowman's capsule which encloses a bunch of capillaries called glomerulus.\u2022They together \ufb01lter waste materials along with many useful substances.\u2022Renal tubule has regions called proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule.\u2022These regions\u00a0absorb\u00a0back\u00a0useful\u00a0substances into the blood and also \ufb01lter remaining waste substances.\u2022The output from nephrons is called urine.\n\u00a0Haemodialysis\u25e6When the kidneys fail, it results in a lot of complications and to\u00a0compensate this situation a technology called dialysis has been developed.\u25e6It uses a machine \ufb01lter called a dialyzer or arti\ufb01cial kidney.\u25e6This is to remove excess water and salt, to balance other electrolytes in the body and remove waste products of\u00a0metabolism.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u25e6Blood from the body is removed and \ufb02owed through a series of tubes made up of a semipermeable membrane.\u25e6A dialysate \ufb02ows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the membrane.\nExcretion in Plants\u2022The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions produce a lot of excretory products in plants.\u2022Carbon dioxide, excess water produced during respiration and nitrogenous compounds produced during protein metabolism are the major excretory products in plants.\u2022Plants produce two gaseous waste products i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and carbon dioxide during respiration.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on leaves.\u2022Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while carbon dioxide released during respiration is used for\u00a0photosynthesis.\u2022Excess water is excreted by transpiration.\u2022Organic by-products generated by the plant\u00a0are stored in different forms in different parts.\u2022The gums, oils, latex, resins, etc. are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems, leaves, etc.\u2022Eventually, plants shed off these parts.\u2022Few examples of the excretory products of plants are\u00a0oil produced from orange, eucalyptus, jasmine, latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree, and gums from acacia.\u2022Sometimes plants even excrete into the soil.", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Excretion in Plants, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Chapter 5 Periodic Classi\ufb01cation of Elements Notes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 6 Life Processes\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 6 - Life Processes\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1\u2022CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in EuropeFrequently Asked Questions on Life Processes", - "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nQ. The instrument used for measuring blood pressure is called?Ans. A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used for measuring blood pressure.Q. The phloem tissue in plants is responsible for doing which function?Ans. Phloem is the vascular tissues that is responsible for the transport of substances in plantsQ. Why aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy than fermentation?Ans. Aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy in the form of ATPs than fermentation because aerobic respiration involves the complete oxidation of glucose and the release of carbon dioxide and water as end products.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n 1 \n \n \nRevision Not es \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 13 - Magnetic Effects of Electric Current \n \n\u25cf Introduction: \n- A magnet is a material that has the ability to attract metals such as iron, \nnickel, cobalt, and steel. There are two poles to a magnet: north and \nsouth. \n- When liberated, the two poles pursue the earth's north and south poles. \nEach component becomes a magnet when broken into parts. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field : \n- A magnetic field is the area around a magnet where its influence can be \nfelt by any other magnetic element. \n- The magnetic field is measured in Tesla or \n2Weber/m units. \n- Lines of Magnetic Fields \n- Externally, magnetic field lines exit the north pole of a magnet and enter \nthe South Pole, forming closed loops. \n- At the poles, where the magnetic field strength is greatest, magnetic \nfield lines are nearest. There are no magnetic f ield lines that cross one \nother.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nthe South Pole, forming closed loops. \n- At the poles, where the magnetic field strength is greatest, magnetic \nfield lines are nearest. There are no magnetic f ield lines that cross one \nother. \n- The tangent at a place indicates the direction of the magnetic field at \nthat point. \n \n\u25cf Natural Magnet : \n- Magnetite or Lodestone (\n34Fe O ), a naturally occurring black iron ore, \nis a natural magnet. \n \n\u25cf Oersted\u2019s Experiment: \n \n \n 2 \n \n \n- The needle has been deflected, indicating that an electric current has \ncaused a magnetic effect across the copper wire. \n- As a result, we can say that electricity and magnetism are intertwined. \n \n\u25cf Magnet in a Magnetic Field: \n- When a magnet is placed in a magnetic field, it aligns itself along the \nfield lines with the North Pole facing the magnetic field's direction of \ntravel. \n- Due to the contents of the earth, a magnetic field exists on its surface,", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nfield lines with the North Pole facing the magnetic field's direction of \ntravel. \n- Due to the contents of the earth, a magnetic field exists on its surface, \ncausing it to behave like a m agnet. As a result, a magnetic needle is \nemployed to determine the direction on the earth's surface. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Straight Conductor: \n \n \n \nWhen the current in the copper wire is altered, the needle deflection varies \nas well. In reality, as the current rises, the deflection rises with it. \nIt means that when the current through the wire increases, the magnitude \nof the magnetic field produced at a given spot grows. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Circular Conductor: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3 \n \n \n \n \nA current -carrying wire's magnetic field at a particular place is directly \nproportional to the current flowing through it. \nThe field produced by a circular coil with n tu rns is n times larger than that", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nproportional to the current flowing through it. \nThe field produced by a circular coil with n tu rns is n times larger than that \nproduced by a single turn. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field Due To a Solenoid: \nA solenoid is a coil comprising several circular turns of insulated copper \nwire wrapped tightly in the shape of a cylinder. \n \n \n \nA solenoid's magnetic field lines ar e seen in the diagram below. The \nsolenoid's one end acts as a magnetic north pole, while the other acts as a \nmagnetic south pole. \nPole: \nInside the solenoid, the field lines are in the shape of parallel straight lines. \nThis means that the magnetic field ins ide the solenoid is the same at all \nplaces. That means, the field inside the solenoid is uniform. \n \n 4 \n \n \n\u25cf Rules for Determining Direction of Magnetic Field: \n- The direction of the curled fingers points in the direction of the magnetic \nfield if a straight conductor is clutched in the palm of the right hand with", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- The direction of the curled fingers points in the direction of the magnetic \nfield if a straight conductor is clutched in the palm of the right hand with \nthe thumb pointing along the path of current flow. \n- For circular conductors, use the right hand thumb ru le. \n- The thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field if the circular \ncurrent's direction matches with the curled fingers' direction. \n \n \n \n\u25cf The cork screw rule of Maxwell: \nIf the current through a conductor is represented by the direction of linear \nmotion of a cork screw, then the magnetic field is represented by the \ndirection of rotation of the cork screw. \n \n \n\u25cf Ampere\u2019s swimming rule: \nIf a guy swims along a current -carrying w ire with his face constantly facing \nthe magnetic needle, current entering his feet and exiting his head, the \nmagnetic needle's North Pole will always be deflected towards his left \nhand. \n \n \n 5 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Magnetizing a Material:", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nmagnetic needle's North Pole will always be deflected towards his left \nhand. \n \n \n 5 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Magnetizing a Material: \nThe material can exhibit magnetic properties once it has been magnetised. \n \n\u25cf Permanent Magnets: \nA permanent magnet is one that retains its magnetic properties after it has \nbeen magnetised. This is a property of steel. \n \n\u25cf Electromagnets and Their Applications: \n- When a piece of magnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside \nthe coil, a strong magnetic field produced inside the solenoid can be \nused to magnetise it. \n- An electromagnet is a magnet that has been formed in this way. \n- Electric bells, loudspeakers , telephone diaphragms, and electric fans all \nuse electromagnets. \n- Cranes also employ massive electromagnets to transport large loads. \n \n\u25cf Force on Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- Cranes also employ massive electromagnets to transport large loads. \n \n\u25cf Force on Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6 \n \n \n \nWhen a current -carrying conductor is put in a magnetic field, it is subjected \nto a force. When the current in the conductor is reversed, the direction of \nforce is reversed as well. \n \n\u25cf Fleming\u2019s Left Hand Rule: \n \n \nWhen the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand are held \nperpendicular to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of \nthe magnetic field and the middle finger pointing in the direction of the \ncurrent, the thumb points in the direction of the force exerted on the \nconduct or, according to Fleming's left hand rule. \n \n\u25cf Electric Motor : \nA device that converts electrical energy into magnetic energy is known as \nan electric motor. \n \n\u25cf DC Motor: \nPrinciple: Torque acts on a rectangular coil carrying electricity when it is", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nA device that converts electrical energy into magnetic energy is known as \nan electric motor. \n \n\u25cf DC Motor: \nPrinciple: Torque acts on a rectangular coil carrying electricity when it is \nput in a magnetic field, causing it to revolve continually. \nWhen the coil spins, the shaft connecting to it rotates as well, allowing it \nto perform mechanical tasks. \n \n 7 \n \n \n\u25cf Construction and Workin g: \nParts of a DC Motor \n \n \n\u25cf Armature: \nA rectangular coil of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron core makes \nup a D.C. motor. The armature is made up of this coil coiled on a soft iron \ncore. The coil is positioned between the cylindrical concave poles of a \nmagnet and is mounted on an axle. \n \n\u25cf Commutator: \nA commutator is a device that reverses the direction of current flow. A \ncommutator is a copper ring that is divided into two sections, C1 and C2. \nThe split rings are installed on the motor's axle and are shielded from one", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\ncommutator is a copper ring that is divided into two sections, C1 and C2. \nThe split rings are installed on the motor's axle and are shielded from one \nanother. These rings are attached to the coil's two ends. They spin in time \nwith the coil. A battery is linked to the commutator rings. The cables from \nthe batteries are attached to the brushes, which are in touch with the rings, \nrather than the rings themselves. \n \n\u25cf Brushes: \n- Brushes are two thin strips of carbon that press on the two split rings, \nand the split rings revolve between them. \n- A D.C. source is used to power the carbon brushes. \n \n\u25cf The Operation of a DC Motor: \nWhen the coil is turned on, it creates a magnetic field surrounding the \narmature. Rotation is caused by the left side of the armature being pushed \naway from the left magnet and attracted towards the right. \n \n \n \n \n 8 \n \n \n \nThe brushes lose contact with the commutator as the coil turns through\n90\uf0b0", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\naway from the left magnet and attracted towards the right. \n \n \n \n \n 8 \n \n \n \nThe brushes lose contact with the commutator as the coil turns through\n90\uf0b0\n, and the current stops flowing through the coil. \nThe coil, on the other hand, continues to turn due to its own momentum. \nWhen the coil passes past \n180\uf0b0 , the sides are switched. As a result, \ncommutator ring C1 now contacts brush B2, whereas commutator ring C2 \ncontacts brush B1. As a result, the current keeps flowing in the same \ndirection. \n \n\u25cf The efficiency of the DC Motor Increases by: \n- Increa sing the coil's number of turns. \n- Increasing the current's strength. \n- Increasing the coil's cross -sectional area. \n- Increasing the radial magnetic field's strength. \n \n\u25cf Electromagnetic Induction (EMI): \nElectromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nElectromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor. \n \n \nThe English physicist Michael Faraday was the first to demonstrate that a \nmagnet may generat e a current. \n \n 9 \n \n \nHe tested this by moving a magnet in front of a coil of wire linked to a \ngalvanometer. \nHe noticed a deflection in the galvanometer, indicating that it had been \ninduced by a current. \nInduced current is the current generated by the relative moti on of the coil \nand the magnet. \nElectromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor. By moving a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wire, Faraday \ncame to a few conclusions. \n \n\u25cf Experiment: \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe current is induced in the coil due to the relative motion between the", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\ncame to a few conclusions. \n \n\u25cf Experiment: \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe current is induced in the coil due to the relative motion between the \nmagnet and the coil, as indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer. \n \n \n \n 10 \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nWhen the identical pole of the magnet is moved in the other direction, the \ndeflection in the galvanometer is reversed. \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe galvanometer pointer returns to zero, indicating that the deflection in \nthe galvanometer will remain as long as the magnet and coil are in relative \nmotion. \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nWhen the opposite pole is moved in the same direction, the deflection in \nthe galvanometer is reversed. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 11 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe number of turns in the coil affects the deflection in the galvanometer; \nthe more turns in the coil, the higher the deflection. Because the magnetic", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf Observation: \nThe number of turns in the coil affects the deflection in the galvanometer; \nthe more turns in the coil, the higher the deflection. Because the magnetic \nfield travels around each loop of wire in the coil, the magnetic field changes \nmore as the number of coi ls increases. In and out of the coil, the magnet \nmoves quicker. If the magnet is moved faster, the deflection is greater. That \nis, when the magnet moves quicker, the rate at which the current is induced \nincreases. \n \n\u25cf Mutual Induction: \n- Mutual induction is the phenomenon of producing induced emf in one \ncoil as a result of a current shift in an adjacent coil. To further \ncomprehend this, let us conduct an experiment. \n- As indicated, place two coils P and S near to one other. \n- Connect the primary coil P to a battery and a key, and the secondary \ncoil S to a sensitive galvanometer G. \n- The galvanometer shows a deflection whenever the key is pressed or", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- Connect the primary coil P to a battery and a key, and the secondary \ncoil S to a sensitive galvanometer G. \n- The galvanometer shows a deflection whenever the key is pressed or \nreleased. By pressing and releasing the key, you can now see the \ndeflection of the galvanometer needle. Because the curren t passing \nthrough the first coil causes a current in the secondary coil, the needle \ndeflects. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 12 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf What Causes Mutual Induction? \n- When you hit the key K, current begins to flow through the coil P, \nincreasing the magnetic flux associated with P. \n- Because S is so close to P, the magnetic flux associated with S increases \nas well. Induced emf and, as a result, induced current are produced in \nS. \n- According to Lenz's law, the arrow marked 1 indicates the direction of \ninduced current in S. \n \n \n \n- When the key is released, the magnetic flux associated with the coils", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nS. \n- According to Lenz's law, the arrow marked 1 indicates the direction of \ninduced current in S. \n \n \n \n- When the key is released, the magnetic flux associated with the coils \ndrops, causing induced current to flow in the direction indicated by the \n- \n 13 \n \n \narrow marke d 2. The development of induced emf in the secondary coil \nduring the make or break of current in the primary coil is known as \nmutual induction. \n \n\u25cf Rules for Determining the Direction of Induced Current: \n- Fleming's Right Hand Rule can be used to determine the direction of \ninduced current. \n \n \n- Stretch the right hand's forefinger, middle finger, and thumb such that \nthey are all perpendicular to one another. The direction of the magnetic \nfield is shown by the forefinger, the direction of conductor motion is \nindicate d by the thumb, and the direction of induced current in the \nconductor is indicated by the middle finger.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nfield is shown by the forefinger, the direction of conductor motion is \nindicate d by the thumb, and the direction of induced current in the \nconductor is indicated by the middle finger. \n- The above -mentioned phenomenon is used to power the electric \ngenerator. \n \n\u25cf The Right Hand Rule of Fleming: \n- Fleming's Right Hand Rule - Stretch the right hand's forefinger, middle \nfinger, and thumb such that they are all perpendicular to one other. \n- The direction of the magnetic field is shown by the forefinger, the \ndirection of conductor motion is indicated by t he thumb, and the \ndirection of induced current in the conductor is indicated by the middle \nfinger. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 14 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Electric Generator (AC): \n- Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the electric \ngenerator. \n- DC and AC generators are the two types of generators: \n- A cycle dynamo and a car dynamo are both examples of DC generators.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\ngenerator. \n- DC and AC generators are the two types of generators: \n- A cycle dynamo and a car dynamo are both examples of DC generators. \nThey generate DC. \n \n\u25cf Generators - Generators - Generato rs - Generators - Generators In power \nplants and industries, generators or alternators are utilised to generate AC. \n \n\u25cf The Basics of an AC Generator: \nWhen a straight conductor is rapidly moved in a magnetic field, it induces \na current in the conductor. It is based on the electromagnetic induction \nphenomena. \n \n\u25cf Construction: \nThe AC Generator's Main Components: \nA magnet with concave cylindrical poles, an armature, and a current \ncollecting system make up an AC generator. \nSlip rings and brushes make up the present collection system. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 15 \n \n \n \n \n- Armature is a soft iron core around which a coil of insulated copper wire \nwith a large number of turns is coiled. Magnetic poles are cylindrical", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n 15 \n \n \n \n \n- Armature is a soft iron core around which a coil of insulated copper wire \nwith a large number of turns is coiled. Magnetic poles are cylindrical \nand concave. A radial magnetic field is create d by the concave poles. \n- The armature's ends are joined by two slip rings. They spin in time with \nthe coil. Metal slip rings that are isolated from one other are used. \n- There are two carbon brushes, B1 and B2. Each brush has one end that \nis connected to an e xternal circuit and the other end that is in touch with \nthe rotating slip rings. Brushes are linked to a galvanometer and do not \nrevolve with the coil in this case. \n- A diesel engine, flowing water, steam, or high -speed wind rotate the \naxle mechanically from the outside. \n \n\u25cf Working: \n- The armature changes its relative orientation with respect to the \nmagnetic field as it rotates along an axis perpendicular to the field.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\naxle mechanically from the outside. \n \n\u25cf Working: \n- The armature changes its relative orientation with respect to the \nmagnetic field as it rotates along an axis perpendicular to the field. \n- As a result, the flux is constantly altering over time. \n- An emf is produced by a shift in magnetic flux. \n- An electric current passes through the armature if the outer terminals \nare linked to an external circuit. \n- The galvanometer needle deflection indicates that an emf has been \ninduced. After every half rotation o f the coil, the direction of the \ninduced emf is reversed. \n- As a result, the current changes direction twice in one coil revolution. \n- Take a look at the diagram below to see how the direction of current \nchanges: \n \n 16 \n \n \n \n- Alternating current is a type of current that alternates its direction at \nregular intervals (AC). \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- Alternating current is a type of current that alternates its direction at \nregular intervals (AC). \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator. One brush is always in contact with the arm travelling \nup in the fiel d, while the other brush is always in contact with the arm \ntravelling down. In such a generator, a unidirectional current is \ngenerated. \n- The frequency of the AC current produced in India is 50 hertz (Hz). The \ncoil rotates at a rate of 50 revolutions per sec ond for one second. In one \nsecond, the current changes direction 100 times in 50 rotations. \n \n\u25cf DC Generator: \n- The output generated here is one -way. \n- To do this, the slip rings are replaced with split rings. \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator.", - "\u25cf DC Generator: \n- The output generated here is one -way. \n- To do this, the slip rings are replaced with split rings. \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator. One brush is always in contact with the arm travelling \nup in the field, while the other brush is always in co ntact with the arm", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n(DC) generator. One brush is always in contact with the arm travelling \nup in the field, while the other brush is always in co ntact with the arm \ntravelling down. In such a generator, a unidirectional current is \ngenerated. \n- alternating current \n \n\u25cf Direct current: \nDC, occurs when the current flows in the same direction. The current \ngenerated by a cell or battery is one -way. As a result, it's a DC source. In \nan electrical circuit, it is represented as: \n \n \n \n \n 17 \n \n \n \nThe voltage V/s time graph for a DC source is represented as fo llows: \n \n \n \nThe +ve and -ve terminals are fixed. \n \n\u25cf Alternating Current: \n- Alternating current is defined as a current that changes direction at \nregular intervals. \n- The majority of power plants produce AC current. \n- In an electrical circuit, it is represented as: \n \n \n \nThe voltage V/s time graph for an AC source is represented as follows: \n \n 18", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- In an electrical circuit, it is represented as: \n \n \n \nThe voltage V/s time graph for an AC source is represented as follows: \n \n 18 \n \n \n \n \nThe current changes direction every half cycle, hence there are no stable \nterminals. \n\u25cf Domestic Electric Circuits: \nElectric power is typically generated in locations that are remote from \nwhere it is consumed. Electricity is generated at 11,000 volts at the \ngenerating station. This voltage alternates at a 50 Hz frequency. \nTo reduce energy loss during transmission, power is transported over long \ndistances at high voltage. \n\u25cf Domestic Wiring: \nThe live wire, neutral wire, and earth wire are the three wires that br ing \nelectricity into our home. We use a colour code for insulating these wires \nto minimise confusion. The live wire is red, whereas the neutral wire is \nblack. The earth cable is insulated with green plastic. The live wire has a", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nto minimise confusion. The live wire is red, whereas the neutral wire is \nblack. The earth cable is insulated with green plastic. The live wire has a \n220 volt potential, while th e neutral wire has no potential. As a result, the \npotential difference between the live and neutral wires is 220 volts. \n \n 19 \n \n \n- The earth wire is constructed of copper and is substantially thicker. It's \nconnected to a copper plate buried deep underground on one end. The \nearth is connected to the electric metre, which is subsequently \nconnected to the main switch. \n- Electricity is deli vered to our homes via a main supply, which is either \nsupported by above electric poles or underground wires. \n- The live and neutral wires from the electric pole enter a box with a \nprimary fuse F1 installed directly outside our house. The live wire is \nlinked in series with the fuse. This is because the live wire is the sole", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nprimary fuse F1 installed directly outside our house. The live wire is \nlinked in series with the fuse. This is because the live wire is the sole \none with a high potential of 220 volts, whereas the neutral wire has no \npotential. \n- F1 has a high amperage rating of roughly 50 amperes. As a result, it \nprevents any damage to the entire electrical wiring entering the house, \nsuch as fire, caused by a short -circuit or overload. \n- The two lines then enter the electricity metre, which keeps tr ack of how \nmuch electricity we use in kilowatt -hours (kWh). The electric supply \ndepartment of our city erected this metre. \n- The two wires that emerge from the metre are then connected to a main \nswitch in a distribution box. For customer safety, another fuse F2 is \nconnected in series with the live wire in this box. \n- In a house, there are two different circuits: lighting circuit and power \ncircuit. The lighting circuit, which uses a 5 A fuse, is used to power", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- In a house, there are two different circuits: lighting circuit and power \ncircuit. The lighting circuit, which uses a 5 A fuse, is used to power \nelectric bulbs, fans, radios, TVs, and tube lights, w hile the power circuit, \nwhich uses a 15 A fuse, is used to power electric heaters, electric irons, \ngeysers, and refrigerators, among other things. \n- The distribution circuits are always linked together in parallel. Even if \na defect or short -circuiting occurs in one line of a parallel circuit, the \ncorresponding fuse blows, keeping the other circuits and appliances \nintact and preventing damage to the entire house. The power -fuse will \nblow if a short -circuit happens in the power circuit, but our lights will \ncontinue to burn because the lighting circuit is untouched. \n- All other electrical equipment can use the main line's steady voltage. As \nillustrated in the diagram, in addition to the two wires, a third wire \nknown as the ground wire enters our home.", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- All other electrical equipment can use the main line's steady voltage. As \nillustrated in the diagram, in addition to the two wires, a third wire \nknown as the ground wire enters our home. \n- The earth is connected to the electric metre first, and then to the main \nswitch. This cable, together with the live and neutral wires, is then run \ninto the rooms. \n \n \n \n 20 \n \n \n\u25cf Electric Fuse: \n- The term \"electric fuse\" refers to a device that limits the current in an \nelectric circuit. The fuse protects the circuit as well as the electrical \nequipment from damage. \n- The fuse wire is usually made of a lead and tin alloy. It has a low melting \npoint and will break the circuit if the current is too high. The maximum \ncurrent allowed across the circuit determines the thickness and length \nof the fuse wire. \n- In the beginning of the electric circuits, it is connected in series. \n- The fuse wire becomes heated and melts when the circuit current", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nof the fuse wire. \n- In the beginning of the electric circuits, it is connected in series. \n- The fuse wire becomes heated and melts when the circuit current \nexceeds a preset value owing to voltage variations or short -circuiting. \nAs a result, the connection is broken as illustrated in the diagram, and \nno current flows. The appliance will not be damaged as a result of this. \n \n\u25cf Causes of Damage to Electric Circuits: \nOverloading \n- When a significant number of high -power electrical appliances (such as \nan electric iron or a water heater) are turned on at the same time, the \ncircuit draws an enormous amount of current. This is known as \noverloading, and it can lead to overheating of the wire and a fire. It can \nalso occur as a result of an unintentional increase in supply voltage. \n \n\u25cf Short -circuiting: \n- When the live and neutral wires of an electric circuit come into direct \ntouch, a short circuit develops. The wires may come into contact with", - "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf Short -circuiting: \n- When the live and neutral wires of an electric circuit come into direct \ntouch, a short circuit develops. The wires may come into contact with \neach other due to a faulty connection or the insulation wearing away. \nThis condition causes the wires to overheat, resulting in a fire. \n \n\u25cf Earthing of Electrical Appliances: \n- The metal of an electrical equipment is 'earthed' to prevent electric \nshocks. The term \"earthed\" refers to a metal wire (copper) that connects \nthe appliance's metal case to the earth (at zero potential). The earth wire \nhas one end that is buried deep in th e ground and the other end that is \nattached to the three pin socket. \n- The metal casing of the electrical appliance will remain at zero potential \nwhen it is switched on because it is in contact with the earth wire in the \nthree pin socket. It thereby protects us from receiving an electric shock \neven if we unintentionally conta ct it.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\nIntroductionAll living organisms multiply or reproduce and produce offspring of a similar kind. Reproduction is an essential process for the existence of a species and the continuation of life.Here, in this chapter, we will learn about how different unicellular and multicellular organisms such as bacteria, algae, plants, animals and human beings reproduce. What are the different reproductive structures and modes of reproduction such as cell division, vegetative reproduction, asexual reproduction, and sexual reproduction.ReproductionReproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.To know more about Reproduction, visit here.Asexual reproductionAsexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female.", - "A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female. They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.To know more about Sexual reproduction, visit here.Asexual ReproductionFission\u2022Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms.\u2022When the \ufb01ssion results in two daughter cells, it is binary \ufb01ssion (e.g. paramecium).\u2022When \ufb01ssion results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple \ufb01ssion (e.g. Plasmodium).\u2022Planes of \ufb01ssion may be different for different organisms.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nTo know more about Binary Fission, visit here.Budding\u2022Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent\u2019s body, which gives rise to a new individual.\u2022Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).\n \nTo know more about Budding, visit here.Regeneration and fragmentation\u2022Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g. lizard).\u2022Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each piece grows into a whole new organism.\u2022E.g. Planaria, Hydra", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra To know more about Regeneration and fragmentation, visit here.Spore formationOrganisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from their fruiting body. Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and begin to grow.\n \nRead more: Spore FormationVegetative propagation", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nRead more: Spore FormationVegetative propagation\n \n\u2022This is a\u00a0type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.\u2022The vegetative part of the plant,\u00a0like leaves, stem, roots, gives rise to a new plant.\u2022Vegetative propagation can be arti\ufb01cial or natural.\u2022Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc.\u2022Arti\ufb01cial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.To know more about Vegetative propagation, visit here.Sexual ReproductionTypes of Cell division\n \nTwo types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:Mitosis\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0somatic\u00a0cells\u2022Maintains\u00a0the\u00a0chromosome\u00a0number\u2022Produces\u00a0two,\u00a0diploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0asexual\u00a0reproduction,\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0growth,\u00a0cell\u00a0replacement\u00a0and\u00a0 regenerationMeiosis", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0sex\u00a0cells\u2022Reduces\u00a0the\u00a0number\u00a0of\u00a0chromosomes\u00a0by\u00a0half\u2022Produces\u00a0four\u00a0haploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0sexual\u00a0reproduction, i.e\u00a0gamete formationTo know more about Cell division, visit here.The Reproductive SystemIn humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete) is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive systems in humans.To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here.Male reproductive system\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the male sex hormone testosterone.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nMale main reproductive organs\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as the structural and functional unit.\u2022Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and mature in the epididymis.\u2022Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete hormone testosterone.Male accessory reproductive organs\u2022Several accessory reproductive organs aid in the reproductive process.\u2022The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of the reproductive system which make semen and nourish the sperm.\u2022Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ.Male Ducts\u2022In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.\u2022A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to the urethra.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.To know more about Male Reproductive System, visit here.Female reproductive systemThe human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.\u00a0\nFemale main reproductive organ", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\n\u2022The main reproductive organ in a\u00a0female is a\u00a0pair of ovaries.\u2022They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.Female accessory reproductive organ\u2022Uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.\u2022The uterus is the site of fetal development and the vagina receives sperm from the male.", - "Ovum is carried from ovaries to the uterus through a pair of oviducts.To know more about the Female reproductive system, visit here.Menstrual CycleMenstruation\u2022Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal from the body when fertilization does not happen.\u2022During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down while the ovum is removed from the body.\u2022Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone, all have their roles in menstruation.\u2022In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.To know more about Menstrual Cycle, visit here.FertilizationHuman reproductionHumans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms and the female produces eggs. When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny.To know more about Fertilization, visit here.Contraceptive Methods", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.Contraceptives\u2022Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\n\u2022Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods, surgical methods, etc.Coitus Interruptus\u2022It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male ejaculates inside the female reproductive tracts.Rhythm Method\u2022Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile and the chances of fertilization are very high.Condoms\u2022One of the most effective methods of contraception.\u2022A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy.\u2022It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.Diaphragms\u2022Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.\u2022They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.\u2022They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the ovaries.Emergency Pill\u2022Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy.", - "Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.\u2022They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the ovaries.Emergency Pill\u2022Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy.\u2022They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent a successful implantation even if the egg gets fertilized.IUD\u2022IUD stands for Intrauterine Device.\u2022They can be used for a couple of years.\u2022It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and preventing successful implantation of the zygote.Sterilization\u2022Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile.\u2022This can be done in both males and females.\u2022In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal ligation.To know more about Contraceptive Methods, visit here.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\nReproduction in PlantsPlants reproduce by both, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants. Let\u2019s learn now about sexual reproduction in plants.To know more about Reproduction in Plants, visit here.Sexual reproduction in \ufb02owering plants\u2022Sexual reproduction in plants happens through \ufb02owers.\u2022Essential whorls of the \ufb02owers such as androecium and gynoecium help in the sexual reproduction of plants.Read more:\u00a0 Sexual Reproduction in PlantsNon-essential parts of \ufb02owers\u2022The typical structure of \ufb02owers contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.\u2022Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.", - "\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.Essential whorls of \ufb02owers\u2022Androecium and gynoecium are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a \ufb02ower.\u2022Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules which are female gametes.\u2022Bisexual \ufb02owers contain both the whorls while unisexual \ufb02owers contain either of them.\u2022Each individual member of androecium is called a\u00a0stamen and consists of anther\u00a0and \ufb01lament.\u2022Anther produces haploid pollen grains.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022Each individual member of gynoecium is called\u00a0pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary. \nPollinationThe process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a \ufb02ower is known as pollination.\u2022It is required for fertilization.\u2022Pollination has two types, self-pollination\u00a0(autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy).\u2022In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the same \ufb02ower or another \ufb02ower of the same plant.\u2022In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another \ufb02ower.\u2022Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc.Know more: PollinationFertilizationFusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.\u2022In \ufb02owering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and generate two male nuclei.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei.\u2022One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm.\u2022Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to the embryo and future plant.\u2022After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away.\nKnow more: Fertilisation in PlantsAlso Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity And Evolution Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8: How do Organisms Reproduce?\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 8 - How Do Organisms Reproduce\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 8: How do Organisms ReproduceWhat is difference between \ufb01ssion and fusion?", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nFission is the process where an atom splits into two or more smaller parts. Whereas fusion involves the fusing of two or smaller atoms into a larger particular.What is fragmentation?Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where the parent organism breaks into fragments. Each of these fragments are capable of growing independently into a new organism.What is a gamete cell?Gamete cell are the reproductive cells of an organism. Female gametes are referred to a ova or egg cells and male gametes are known as sperms.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\nIntroductionHeredity refers to the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next.\u00a0Evolution is de\ufb01ned as the gradual process by which a simple life form leads to the development of complex organisms over a period of time, spanning several generations.Here in this chapter, we will learn about the mechanism by which variations are created, the rules of heredity determining their pattern of inheritance, and how the accumulation of these variations leads to evolution.HeredityThe transfer of traits from one generation to the next is termed heredity. Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA.", - "Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA. Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of genes, heredity and variations.Sexual reproduction\u2022The mode of reproduction involves two individuals; one male and one female.\u2022They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.Genes\u2022Gene is the functional unit of heredity.\u2022Every gene controls one or several particular characteristic features in living organisms.Read more: GenesHeredityThe process by which the features of an organism are passed on from one generation to another is called heredity.\u2022The process is done by genes, which de\ufb01ne the characters in the organism.To know more about Heredity, visit here.Mendel's work\u2022Gregor Johann Mendel, known as 'Father of Genetics', was an Austrian Monk who worked on pea plants to understand the concept of heredity.\u2022His work laid the foundation of modern genetics.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\u2022He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment.\nDominant traitsThe traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination and can be seen are called Dominant traits.\u2022In Mendel\u2019s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea plants tends to express more than the short trait.\u2022Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait.Recessive traitsA trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as recessive.\u2022So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant allele exists.To know the difference between Dominant traits and Recessive traits, visit here.Monohybrid cross\u2022When only one character is considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a monohybrid cross.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\u2022The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the monohybrid ratio.\u2022E.g., If a tall plant (TT) is crossed with a dwarf plant (tt), we get 3 tall:1 short plant at the end of the F2 generation.\u2022So, 3:1 is a monohybrid ratio.\u2022Here, the height of the plant is considered at a time.Below is the example of a monohybrid cross between a true-breeding pea plant with green pods (GG) and yellow pods (gg). Here, the green colour of the pod is the dominant trait. Hence, in the F1 generation, all plants contain green pea pods.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nTo know more about Monohybrid cross, visit here.Dihybrid cross\u2022When two characters are considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a dihybrid cross.\u2022The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the dihybrid ratio.\u2022E.g.,\u00a0If a plant with round and green pea is crossed with a plant with wrinkled and yellow pea,\u2022The \ufb01rst generation plants would\u00a0all have round and green peas.\u2022On crossing the same for an F2 generation, we would observe four combinations of characters in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.\n \n\u2022Thus, 9:3:3:1 is the dihybrid ratio.\nTo know more about Dihybrid cross, visit here.InheritanceIn Biology, inheritance pertains to the transfer of traits from one generation to another.To know more about Mendel's laws of inheritance, visit here.Laws of Mendel", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\nLaw of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting alleles and one always expresses itself in the organism.It is called the dominant gene and it expresses in any possible combination.Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated completely during the formation of gametes without any mixing of alleles.Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can segregate independently of different characters during gamete formation.Sex determination\u2022The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on the composition of the genetic material is called sex determination.\u2022In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors.\u2022In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome.\u2022XX is female and XY is male\u2022An ovum always contains X chromosome.\u2022An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm,\u00a0gives rise to a male child and upon fusion with X containing sperm gives rise to a girl child.To know more about Sex determination, visit here.TraitsTraits are characteristic features of an organism, manifested in a physical form that is visible or in a physiological aspect of the organism.", - "gives rise to a male child and upon fusion with X containing sperm gives rise to a girl child.To know more about Sex determination, visit here.TraitsTraits are characteristic features of an organism, manifested in a physical form that is visible or in a physiological aspect of the organism.Acquired characters\u2022The traits that are acquired by an organism over the period of its lifetime are termed acquired characteristics.\u2022These characters that are not passed on to the DNA of germ cells do not get transferred to the next generation. E.g. loss of muscles and less weight due to starvation, loss of limb or tails due to injury, etc.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\nInherited characters\u2022The traits that are inherited from the parents are called inherited characters.\u2022These traits always get transferred to the next generation but depending on the dominance or recessiveness they may or may not be expressed.\u2022Examples are height, skin colour and eye colour.To know more about Acquired and Inherited Traits, visit here.VariationVariation is the measure of the difference between individuals of the same species. Offspring is not identical to parents, there exist some variations. Each individual in a population differs from the others. Recombination and mutation are the main causes of variations.Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation among individuals of a species and the long-term accumulation of variations plays a signi\ufb01cant role in evolution. The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations.", - "The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations. These differences lead to different/varied physical characters or biochemical pathways.To know more about Genetics, visit here.Natural selection\u2022It is the phenomenon by which a favourable trait in a population of a species is selected.\u2022Changing natural conditions exert equal pressure on all the existing species.\u2022The species/organisms which are better adapted to the changing conditions survive and reproduce i.e. selected by nature and species/organisms which cannot adapt perish i.e. rejected by nature.SpeciationGenetic driftNatural selection can play an important role in deciding the traits that survive in a population. However, random \ufb02uctuations in gene variants are seen on many occasions. This phenomenon is known as genetic drift. Thus, genetic drift is a change in the frequency of an existing allele in a small population.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\nGenetic drift may cause a gene variant to disappear from the population and thus reduce genetic variation.SpeciationIt is the process of formation of a new species from existing ones due to several evolutionary forces like genetic drift, isolation of populations, natural selection, etc.\u00a0 Speciation leads to diversity in the ecosystem and the diversity and diversity lead to evolution.To know more about Speciation and evolution, visit here.Gene \ufb02owGene \ufb02ow is the transfer of genes from one population to the next. This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population.", - "This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population. This results in the change in gene frequencies of a population.PopulationA population is a community or a group of animals, plants or any living organism that can reproduce with each other and have fertile, viable offspring.Charles Darwin\u2022Charles Darwin also called the\u00a0\"Father of Evolution\" was an English Naturalist and Biologist.\u2022Five years of the expedition in a ship called HMS Beagle to Galapagos Island helped him write his theory of evolution.\u2022In 1859 he published a book called Origin of Species, in which he put his theory of evolution in detail.To know more about Charles Darwin's Contribution to the Theory of Evolution, visit here.Evolution and FossilsEvolutionEvolution is a tangible change in the heritable characteristics of a population over several generations. These changes can give rise to a new species or the species might change themselves to become better adapted to the surrounding environment.Read more: Evolution", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\nOrigin of species\u2022After a successful expedition on HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote a book on what he observed on the Galapagos Islands.\u2022In the book named 'The Origin of Species, he wrote a detailed theory of evolution which was mostly based on Natural Selection.Origin of life - Haldane's theory\u2022JBS Haldane was a British Scientist who theorized that life originated from organic and lifeless matter.\u2022His theory was proved to be correct by Urey and Miller\u2019s experiment.\u2022It was called the theory of abiogenesis.Evolutionary evidence - fossils\u2022There are plenty of pieces of evidence to support the theory of evolution.\u2022Fossils happen to be the biggest of them.\u2022Fossils are the preserved remains of ancient animals or plants that died millions of years ago.\u2022The fossils help us understand the anatomy and even physiology of these organisms and understand how evolution worked and led to the formation of organisms that we see today.Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.", - "Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.\u2022The soft tissues of the body get quickly leaving behind the hard bones or shells\u2022Over time sediments build over it and harden into rock\u2022As the bones decay, mineral seep in to replace the contents cell by cell, process called as petri\ufb01cation\u2022If bones decay completely, it leaves behind the cast of the animal.To know more about Fossils, visit here.Evolutionary relationshipsEvolutionary relationships of animals can be deduced by studying the homologous organs and analogous organs.Homologous organs are those which have a similar\u00a0structure but different function.\u2022Wings of birds and forelimbs of mammals: they have similar structure but are modi\ufb01ed to suit different functions\u2022A tendril of pea plant and spine of barberry plant: both are modi\ufb01ed leaves, but perform different\u00a0functions.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nAnalogous organs are those which have a similar function but a different structure and origin too.\u2022Wings of bats, birds and wings of insects: both are used for \ufb02ying, but structurally are very different\u2022Leaves of opuntia and peepal: both perform photosynthesis, but leaves of Opuntia are modi\ufb01ed stem whereas peepal leaves are normal leaves.\nTo know more about Fossils Evolutionary Relationships, visit here.Evolution by stage\u2022Evolution is a slow process and does not happen overnight.\u2022There are several stages in the evolution of almost every animal that we see today.\u2022Complexities do not evolve suddenly, but evolve bit by bit and may have limited use at certain stages.\u2022This gradual evolutionary process is called evolution by stages.To know more about Evolution by Stages, visit here.Arti\ufb01cial selection\u2022Sometimes a single species can evolve into several different species due to arti\ufb01cial selection.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\n\u2022E.g. the cabbage family. A single ancestor in the cabbage family gave rise to several different species due to the selection of different traits.Molecular phylogeny\u2022The evolutionary relationship among different biological species is called phylogeny.\u2022It gives rise to an evolutionary tree.\u2022In molecular phylogeny these relationships are studied at the hereditary molecular level, mainly using DNA sequences.\u2022It involves the analysis of DNA composition and gene comparison between different species.Human Evolution\u2022Humans are known to belong to the primate family.\u2022Humans today have a very close genetic connection to chimps and other primates.\u2022While the complete evolutionary process of Humans from Primates is still a mystery, a larger picture of human evolution has been formed.\u2022Some of the ancestors of Humans include Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Cro-magnon man, and \ufb01nally us, the Homo sapiens.\u2022Human evolution traces back to Africa. Then they migrated all over the world.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nMigration of Early HumansTo know more about Human Evolution, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 9 - Heredity And EvolutionFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 9: Heredity and EvolutionWhat is evolution?\n \nThe development of plants, animals, etc over many thousand years from simple forms to complex advanced forms.What does the Law of Segregation state?The law of segregation states that each individual that is a diploid has a pair of alleles (copies) for a particular trait.What is meant by natural selection?The process through which organisms adapt and change themselves in huge populations is known as natural selection.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\n\nIntroductionThe human body is a complex machine performing tons of functions and processes to maintain and sustain life. Explore how the body controls its movements and coordinates its actions with other parts of the body and the environment by exploring notes for Class 10 Chapter 7 Control and Coordination.The Nervous SystemMovement in organismsThe ability of organisms to move certain body parts is movement.When they move from one place to another, it is called locomotion.Organisms show movements in response to stimuli.Introduction to control & coordination\u2022Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrients/food, etc.\u2022All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems.\u2022Hormones are chemical messengers, which assist the nervous system in carrying out various functions. They are secreted by endocrine glands.\u2022Hormones in plants\u00a0coordinate\u00a0the movements.To know more about The Nervous System, visit here.THE\u00a0NERVOUS\u00a0SYSTEM", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nNeuronNeuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.\u2022Each neuron has three main parts:\u00a0dendrites, cyton/soma/cell body and axon.\u2022Dendrites\u00a0receive impulses from other neurons.\u2022Cyton/soma processes the impulse.\u2022Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron or to muscles/glands, etc.\u2022Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated.\u2022The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nCentral nervous systemThe central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Functions of different parts of the brain are:\u2022The cerebrum is responsible for\u00a0reasoning, logic, emotions, speech, memory, visual processing, recognition of auditory and taste stimuli, etc.\u2022Cerebellum regulates and coordinates body\u00a0movements, posture and balance.\u2022Pons relays signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain.\u2022Medulla Oblongata controls all involuntary movements like vomiting, sneezing, yawning, heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, etc.\u2022Medulla oblongata continues as the spinal cord which runs through the vertebral column and it controls re\ufb02ex actions.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nRead more: Central Nervous SystemPeripheral nervous system\u2022The nerves coming out from the brain and the spinal cord constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS).\u2022There are 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves in humans.Read more: Peripheral Nervous SystemSomatic nervous system\u2022It forms a part of the PNS.\u2022The nerves of PNS that control the voluntary actions of the body form the somatic nervous system.Autonomic nervous system\u2022All the nerves of the PNS that control the involuntary actions in the body form the autonomic nervous system. E.g.\u00a0respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, etc. are regulated by the autonomic nervous system.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\n\u2022Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.\u2022The\u00a0sympathetic nervous system\u00a0prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often referred to as the \ufb01ght-or-\ufb02ight response, while the\u00a0parasympathetic nervous system\u00a0has almost the exact opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high-energy functions.Re\ufb02ex actionRe\ufb02ex action\u00a0is a\u00a0sudden, involuntary reaction\u00a0of the body in response to stimuli.To know more about Re\ufb02ex Action, visit here.Re\ufb02ex arc\u2022It is the path\u00a0followed by an electrical impulse\u00a0during a re\ufb02ex action.\u2022The impulse travels from the receptor organ to the spinal cord/brain. It is processed there and the information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.\u2022Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector organ are the components of a re\ufb02ex arc.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nProtection of CNSThe brain is protected by 3 main layers -\u2022The bony skull (cranium)\u2022The cerebrospinal \ufb02uid\u2022The meninges (Dura mater, Arachnoid and Pia mater).Plant Hormones and MovementsPlant hormonesControl and coordination in plants are\u00a0carried out by hormones.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nTo know more about Plant hormones, visit here.Growth independent movementsThe movements which are not\u00a0growth related are called nastic movements. These movements\u00a0occur in response to environmental stimuli but\u00a0the direction of response is not dependent on the direction of the stimulus.\u2022The movement in the touch-me-not plant\u00a0is thigmonastic movement (movement in response to touch).Plant HormoneFunctionAuxinHelps in Growth of Plant TissueCytokininPromotes Cell division, delays ageing of cellsGibberellinsHelps in the growth of stems, initiates seed germination, promotes flowering, cell division and seed growth after germinationAbscisic acidInhibits growth and causes wilting of leaves, promotes dormancy of buds and seedsEthyleneThis is a gaseous hormone which causes the ripening of fruits", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nGrowth-related movements in plantsThe movements which are\u00a0growth related are called tropic movements. These movements\u00a0occur in response to environmental stimuli and the direction of the response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus.To know more about Tropic Movements in Plants, visit here.Examples:\u2022Phototropic movement (light-dependent)\u2022Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent)\u2022Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent)\u2022Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent)\u2022Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)GeotropismMovement of plant parts in response to earth's gravitational force is known as geotropism/gravitropism.\u2022Towards gravity - positive geotropism\u2022Away from gravity - negative geotropism\u2022The root grows towards gravity and shoot grows away from gravity", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nPhototropismMovement of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism.\u2022Towards light-positive phototropism\u2022Away from light - negative phototropism\u2022Stems move\u00a0towards light and roots move away from lightTo know more about Phototropism, visit here.HydrotropismMovement of plant parts in response to water or moisture.\u2022Towards water-positive hydrotropism\u2022Away from water - negative hydrotropism\u2022Again, root movement in search of water is positive hydrotropism\u2022E.g.\u00a0movement of roots towards high humidity level\nChemotropismMovement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism.\u2022Towards chemical - positive chemotropism\u2022Away from chemical - negative chemotropism\u2022The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule is positive chemotropism", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nThigmotropismMovement of plant parts\u00a0in response to touch is called as thigmotropism.\u2022Towards touch - Positive thigmotropism\u2022Away from touch - negative thigmotropism\u2022Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropism\nThe Endocrine SystemExocrine glandsExocrine glands\u00a0are glands that discharge secretions by means of \u00a0ducts, which open\u00a0onto an epithelial surface.\u00a0Endocrine glandsEndocrine glands are the ductless glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream in humans.The endocrine glands present in the human body are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, ovary (female), testis (male), etc. Let us now learn more about each of the glands below.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nTo know more about Exocrine glands, visit here.Pituitary gland\u2022It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.\u2022It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.\u2022It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH). Under-secretion of GH causes Dwar\ufb01sm and over-secretion causes Gigantism in children and \u2018Acromegaly\u2019 in adults.To know more about Pituitary gland, visit here.Thyroid gland\u2022It is a butter\ufb02y-shaped gland located in the throat.\u2022It secretes the hormone\u00a0\u2018Thyroxine\u2019 which regulates\u00a0the metabolism of\u00a0the body.\u2022Iodine is required to synthesize thyroxine in the body.\u2022In the case of iodine de\ufb01ciency, under-secretion of thyroxine leads to goitre.To know more about Thyroid gland, visit here.", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\n\nPancreas\u2022It is a leaf-like gland present behind the stomach in the abdomen.\u2022It is an endocrine as well an exocrine gland.\u2022As an endocrine gland, it manufactures two hormones - Insulin and glucagon. Both these hormones act antagonistically and regulate the sugar level in the blood.\u2022As an\u00a0exocrine gland, it secretes\u00a0enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids in food.\u2022An insuf\ufb01cient amount of insulin from the pancreas leads to diabetes.To know more about Pancreas, visit here.Adrenal gland\u2022Occurs in pairs above each kidney.\u2022It decreases in size with age.\u2022Secrets the hormone adrenaline which helps in \ufb02ight and \ufb01ght response.\u2022Also secretes nor adrenalineTo know more about the Adrenal gland, visit here.Gonads\u2022Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females.\u2022The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.", - "visit here.Gonads\u2022Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females.\u2022The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.\u2022Testosterone and oestrogen help in producing gametes and are responsible for\u00a0the sexual characteristics of males and females respectively.\u2022Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.To know more about Gonads, visit here.Other endocrine organs\u2022The other endocrine organs include the hypothalamus, parathyroid, pineal and thymus glands.To know more about The Endocrine System, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 7 - Control And Coordination\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1\u2022CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe", - "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 7: Control and CoordinationWhat is the function of the Central nervous system?The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the centre of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement.What are some facts about the human brain?1. 60% of the human brain is composed of fat2. The brain contains about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion connections3. The texture of the brain is similar to that of \ufb01rm jellyHow many parts does the human eye have?The human eye totally consists of 7 parts that work together.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nCarbon and Its Compounds\nSoaps and Detergents:- \nCleansing Action of Soap\nWhen soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form\nspherical shape micelles.\nThe non-polar hydrophobic part or tail\u00a0of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of\nthe fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head, (\u2212COO\u2212Na+, remains attracted to water\nmolecules.\nThe agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles\nand detach them from the \ufb01bres of the fabric.Hard Water\nHard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,\nand sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.", - "When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.\n2C17H35COONa +MgCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Mg+ 2NaCl\n2C17H35COONa +CaCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Ca+ 2NaCl", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nsalts of fatty acids.\n2C17H35COONa +MgCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Mg+ 2NaCl\n2C17H35COONa +CaCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Ca+ 2NaCl\nThese precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere\u00a0with the cleaning\nability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.\nCovalent Bonds\nDif\ufb01culty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion\nTo achieve the electronic con\ufb01guration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses\nfour of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.", - "If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.\nMoreover, in C4+\u00a0ion it is dif\ufb01cult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nMoreover, in C4+\u00a0ion it is dif\ufb01cult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)\n2. Have high melting and boiling points\n3. Conduct electricity when melted\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents\nCovalent Bond\nA covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.\u00a0It is\nprimarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with\nsimilar electronegativity.\nLewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nLewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.\u00a0\nLewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8\nCovalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2\nFormation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:\nEach hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (He). \nTherefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.Formation of a\u00a0double bond in an oxygen molecule:\nEach oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.\nIt is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.\nA double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines\nbetween the two atoms.\nA triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., two\u00a0pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\ni.e., two\u00a0pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.\n- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond>double\nbond>single bond\n- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two\nbonds or a single bond.Bond length:\n- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.\n- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond