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NutrientsNutrientsnutrientsNutrients2072-6643MDPI 10.3390/nu10121837nutrients-10-01837ArticleAssociation of Sports Participation and Diet with Motor Competence in Austrian Middle School Students https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3861-5364Drenowatz Clemens 1*https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7150-1203Greier Klaus 231 Division of Physical Education, University of Education Upper Austria, 4020 Linz, Austria2 Division of Physical Education, Private University of Education (KPH-ES), 6422 Stams, Austria; barajasmatthew@example.net Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria* Correspondence: barajasmatthew@example.net; Tel.: {{PHONE+SOCIAL_SECURITY_NUMBER}} 12 2018 10 12 183071-28-6727 26 11 2018 © 2018 by the authors.2018Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Physical activity and diet are important contributors to overall health and development in adolescents. There remains, however, limited research on the combined association of sports participation and dietary pattern on motor competence, which is crucial for an active lifestyle during and beyond adolescence. The present study, therefore, examined the association between sports participation, dietary pattern, and motor competence in 165 middle school students (55% male) between 11 and 14 years of age. Body weight and height were measured, and motor competence was determined via the German motor test during regular Physical Education (PE). Further, participants completed a food frequency questionnaire and reported their engagement in club sports. Of the total sample 20% were overweight/obese and 49% reported participation in club sports, with no differences between boys and girls. Interaction effects of sports participation and dietary pattern on motor competence were limited, but sports participation and healthy diet were independently associated with higher motor performance. Healthy dietary choices, along with participation in club sports, therefore, should be promoted in adolescents in order to facilitate motor development. As adolescence is a crucial time for the establishment of lifelong behaviors, such efforts could facilitate a healthy lifestyle throughout adulthood.

physical activityfood intakeadolescentsmovement skillsfitness
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1. Introduction
Low levels of physical activity (PA) and poor dietary choices are considered key health risk factors in youth [1]. In fact, 70% of premature deaths are attributed to behavioral choices begun during adolescent years [2]. Accordingly, adolescence provides a crucial window of opportunity for sustainable health promotion, including sufficient PA and healthy dietary choices [3]. Current guidelines emphasize a minimum of 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous PA [4], along with a diverse dietary intake that includes high consumption of leafy greens, fruits and vegetables, poultry, fish, and dairy while the consumption of fat and sugars should be limited [5]. Nevertheless, sedentary choices during leisure time, along with prolonged sitting times during school time are common in youth [6,7,8], and many children and adolescents do not meet current dietary recommendations [9,10]. Low PA levels most likely also contributed to a decline in physical fitness and motor competence in children and adolescents [11,12], which is a crucial contributor to a sustainable active lifestyle, as well as overall health and well-being [13,14].

In light of these trends, organized PA, including club sports, provides important opportunities for PA and the establishment of healthy behaviors [15,16]. In fact, a study in Australian adolescents between 10 and 16 years of age showed that they accrued the majority of their total PA during organized PA such as club sports [17]. Participation in sports during childhood and adolescence has also been associated with higher PA levels during adulthood [18,19]. With more than two-thirds of children and adolescents in various European countries participating in club sports, this may also be a viable setting for interventions targeting an active and healthy lifestyle [20]. In addition to beneficial associations with overall PA [21,22,23], participation in club sports has been associated with increased physical fitness and motor performance [24,25], as well as beneficial socio-emotional outcomes [26] and higher academic achievement [27,28]. A recent study further indicates beneficial associations between club sports participation and food intake [29], but the overall evidence on this relationship remains equivocal [30]. This may, at least partially, be attributed to higher energy needs in more active youth [31]. Accordingly, there appears to be a positive association between physical fitness and energy intake in children and adolescents [31,32]. Nevertheless, higher physical fitness has been associated with healthier dietary choices in adolescents, while this association is less clear in children [33,34,35].

Limited research, however, is available on the combined association of dietary pattern and sports participation with motor competence. Given the complex interaction between behavioral choices (i.e., diet and sports) and motor development, and the importance of motor competence in the promotion of an active lifestyle [36], such information may help with the refinement of current interventions, as well as the development of new strategies for the promotion of motor development in youth. The present study, therefore, examines the combined and independent association of club sports participation and dietary habits with motor competence in Austrian middle-school students. It was hypothesized that club sports participation, as well as healthy dietary patterns, are positively associated with motor competence. Further, it was hypothesized that the association between dietary pattern and motor competence is more pronounced in adolescents not participating in club sports.

2. Materials and Methods
A convenience sample of nine classes between grades 6 and 8 from middle schools in the Federal State of Tyrol, Austria, were selected for participation, resulting in 172 eligible participants between 11 and 14 years of age. Parents were informed about the nature of the study via mail, and provided written informed consent. Oral assent was obtained from the participants at the time of data collection, which occurred during May and June of 2018. The study was performed according to the ethical standards of the 2008 Declaration of Helsinki, with the study protocol being approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Innsbruck, the school board of the Federal State of Tyrol and the principals of the participating schools (approval number: 16/2017).

Anthropometric measurements. Body weight (kg) and height (cm) were measured according to standard procedures during a physical education class, by trained technicians, with participants wearing gym clothes and being barefoot. Body weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg with a gauged body scale (SECA® 803, Seca, Hamburg, Germany), and height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm with a mobile stadiometer (SECA® 217, Seca, Hamburg, Germany). Body mass index (BMI, kg/m2) was calculated and converted to BMI percentiles based on the German reference system [37]. Subsequently, participants were classified as non-overweight/obese or overweight/obese using the 90th percentile.

Motor Competence. Following anthropometric measurements, motor competence was assessed via the German motor test (Deutscher Motorik Test, DMT6-18), which consists of eight test items to evaluate endurance, power, speed, coordination, and agility [38]. Specifically, the DMT6-18 consists of a 20 m sprint, sideways jumping, standing long jump, sit ups, push-ups, backwards balancing, a stand and reach test, and a 6 min run. After a standardized 5 min warm-up, participants started the test with the 20 m sprint. Other tests were completed in random order, except for the 6 min run, which was completed at the end of the session. All tests, including practice trials, were administered in accordance with the specifications provided by the test manual [38]. In addition to raw performance scores, age- and sex-specific standardized values were calculated based on a German reference sample, which were used in the statistical analyses. The mean of these standardized scores was further used to calculate an overall motor competence score.

Dietary assessment. Dietary information was obtained via a standardized food frequency questionnaire that has been used previously with Austrian adolescents [39]. The questionnaire was administered by a trained technician during regular class time. Participants reported the frequency (days/week) of the consumption of 42 foods that were subsequently summarized into food groups. Principal component analysis was used to identify dietary patterns. The analysis revealed three factors with an Eigenvalue >1, which explained 55.9% of the total variance of dietary intake. Specifically, factor 1 was characterized by high loadings of meat, fish, bread (white and/or wholemeal), pasta and sweets consumption (meat/carbohydrates (CHO)); factor 2 was characterized by high loadings of milk, cereal, nuts and fruits (milk/cereal); and factor 3 was characterized by high consumption of water and vegetables, as well as low consumption of fast food (FF) and soft drinks (water/low FF).

Club sports participation. Participants also reported whether they participated in club sports, and how much time was spent in organized PA. Due to the limited variability in time spent in club sports, participants were stratified into club sports or no club sports for subsequent analyses.

Statistical Analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and data was checked for normal distribution. Sex differences for club sports participation and weight status were determined via Chi-square tests, while differences in motor competence and dietary pattern were examined via multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Tertiles of diet factor scores were used to examine the interaction and the main effects of club sports participation and dietary pattern on motor competence and body weight via 2 × 3 MANOVA (sports participation × diet factor tertiles). In a secondary multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), sex and BMI percentiles were included as covariates (2 × 3 MANCOVA).

3. Results
A total of 165 middle school students (55% male) provided complete data on food intake and motor competence. Descriptive data of the sample are shown in Table 1. Boys were significantly older than girls, and accordingly, were taller and heavier. There was, however, no sex difference in BMI percentile and the prevalence of overweight/obesity (girls: 17.1%, boys: 23.2%, p = 0.358). Almost half of the sample (48.5%) reported participation in club sports, with no difference in the sports participation rate between boys and girls (boys: 46.2%, girls: 51.4%, p = 0.506). Based on the absolute performance scores, boys performed significantly better than girls in the standing long jump and sit ups (p < 0.001) while girls performed better than boys in the stand and reach test (p < 0.001). Using age- and sex-normalized values, girls displayed higher scores compared to boys in the stand and reach test, sit ups, and 6-min run (Table 1). Boys, on the other hand, performed significantly better than girls at the 20 m sprint when using age- and sex-normalized values. Sex differences in total motor competence were borderline significant (p = 0.056), with girls having higher values than boys.

Dietary pattern also differed between boys and girls. Specifically, girls reported less frequent consumption of meat and soft drinks compared to boys, while their consumption of fruits and vegetables was more frequent (Table 2). This resulted in significantly lower scores on the meat/CHO factor (p = 0.020) in girls, while their score was higher for the water/low FF factor, compared to boys (p = 0.006). No significant sex difference occurred for the milk/cereal factor (p = 0.225).

Dietary patterns did not differ by sports participation. The association between sports participation and meat/CHO intake, however, reached borderline significance (p = 0.057), with lower values occurring in adolescents participating in club sports. There was no difference in the prevalence of overweight/obesity by club sports participation, and across tertiles of diet factors. Also, no interaction effects of diet pattern and club sports participation on BMI percentile were observed.

Motor competence, however, was significantly associated with club sports participation and dietary pattern. Combined associations of diet and sports participation with motor competence, however, were limited. The only significant combined association was observed between club sports participation and milk/cereal consumption on backwards balancing (p = 0.008), with a stronger association between dietary pattern and motor competence in adolescents not participating in club sports (Table 3).

Several independent associations of club sports participation and dietary pattern on motor performance were observed. Specifically, club sports participation was associated with better performance on all individual motor competence test items (p < 0.050), except for the stand and reach test, resulting in better overall motor competence in participants reporting club sports, compared to those not reporting club sports (Figure 1). Regarding dietary patterns, higher water/low FF consumption was associated with better performance on sideways jumping (p for trend = 0.022), push-ups (p for trend = 0.020), sit ups (p for trend = 0.030), and 6-min run (p for trend = 0.032) (Figure 2). Further, lower scores on the milk/cereal factor were associated with better standing long jump performance and total motor competence (p for trend < 0.050). There was no significant association between meat/CHO consumption and motor competence. All previously reported results remained essentially unchanged after adjusting for sex and BMI percentile.

4. Discussion
Even though several studies have examined the association between sports/PA and motor competence [40,41,42,43], there exists limited research on the association between motor competence and dietary pattern. To the authors' knowledge, this was also the first study that examined the combined association of dietary pattern and club sports participation with motor competence in Austrian adolescents. While there were no significant associations between dietary patterns and club sports participation, the present study showed independent associations of dietary pattern, as well as club sports participation with motor competence in middle school students. Specifically, club sports participation and healthier dietary choices (i.e., high water and low fast food/soft drink consumption) were associated with higher motor competence. High milk/cereal consumption, on the other hand, was associated with lower motor competence, particularly in participants not reporting club sports. These associations were independent of body weight, and neither club sports participation nor dietary pattern was associated with body weight in the present study.

The positive association between club sports participation and motor competence is consistent with previous research [43,44,45]. Longitudinal studies further indicate that the strength and directionality of the association between motor competence and club sports participation, as well as PA change over time [46,47]. Particularly during adolescence, motor competence appears to be an important facilitator and precursor for participation in sports clubs, while high PA and sports participation may be a prerequisite for motor development during childhood [45,46,47]. Accordingly, children and adolescents enter either a positive spiral of high PA, including sports participation and increased motor competence, or a vicious cycle of low motor competence and disengagement from sports. The importance of motor competence for sustainable participation in sports during adolescence may be attributed to an easier acquisition of sport-specific skills in children with higher motor competence. Higher motor competence also enhances self-efficacy, which facilitates participation in PA and sports [46]. In addition to actual motor competence, perceived competence appears to play an important role in the motivation for participation in sports [48], which is an important component to continuous engagement in various forms of PA.

Participation in organized sports has also been associated with other healthy lifestyle choices, including diet [29,49,50,51]. The present study, however, did not show healthier dietary patterns in club sports participants. Other studies also reported inconsistent results for the association between club sports participation and dietary pattern [29,52,53]. Even though sports participation has been associated with higher intake of fruits and vegetables, club sports participants also have been shown to consume high amounts of fast food and sugar-sweetened beverages [52]. In fact, it has been argued that sports participation during middle school is a strong risk factor for high fast food consumption during high-school years [54]. The higher fast food consumption in sports participants may be attributed to a more irregular eating pattern and a lower amount of meals barajasmatthew@example.net. The higher energy needs of more active adolescents may also contribute to the consumption of more energy dense foods, including fast foods. The results of the present study, nevertheless, indicate beneficial associations of a healthy dietary pattern with motor competence, independent of club sports participation. Specifically, healthier dietary choices were associated with better performance on agility, strength, and endurance tests. Previous studies also reported increased cardiorespiratory fitness with healthier dietary choices, particularly during adolescence [33,35,55]. While this may, at least partially, be attributed to an indirect association between body weight and motor competence [56], there was no difference in motor competence between overweight/obese and normal weight adolescents in the present study. Another possible explanation, therefore, could be that healthier dietary patterns indicate a greater parental support for a healthy lifestyle in general, including the facilitation of PA. Accordingly, parents may facilitate exposure to diverse movement experiences, which would facilitate motor development, even in the absence of club sports participation. Further, dietary pattern has been associated with sedentary choices, which also affect motor development [47]. Specifically, high media time has been associated with poorer diet quality [57,58] as well as low motor competence [47,59].

Sedentary behavior and total PA, rather than participation in club sports, are also crucial correlates of body weight [60]. Neither sports participation nor dietary pattern, however, was associated with body weight in the present study. Results on the association between club sports and body weight have generally been inconsistent [52], which may emphasize the importance of total PA rather than sports in weight management. In fact, it has been argued that a large amount of time in youth sport is spent sedentary or in only light PA [61,62]. Similarly, controversy remains on the relationship between diet and adiposity in youth [30]. Even though several studies showed an inverse association between dietary intake and body weight [63,64], there are also studies that did not show any association [65], or even direct associations between diet an body weight [66,67]. At least partially, this may be attributed to problems in obtaining accurate dietary data, particularly in youth [32]. It should, however, also be considered that more active youth have higher energy needs [31]. Accordingly, children and adolescents with high caloric intake may be able to maintain a healthy body weight as long as they are sufficiently active.

Several limitations of this study, however, need to be considered when interpreting the results. There was no objective measurement of total PA in the present study. Due to the reliance on self-reporting, club sports participation was used as an indicator for PA, as this may be reported more accurately than total PA. Previous research also indicated that participation in club sports is directly associated with total PA [52]. The sample distribution, however, did not allow for a differentiation by the amount of participation in club sports (e.g., hours, days); rather, only participants vs. non-participants could be analyzed. An additional limitation is that participants reported frequency rather than total amount of foods consumed, which provides only limited information on the total energy content of the diet. There is also an inherent risk of selective over- or under-reporting, due to social desirability and social approval with any form of diet report. Participants may have difficulties remembering all the foods, and some foods that they consumed may not have been listed on the questionnaire, which could have affected the reported dietary pattern. The cross-sectional nature of the study further does not allow for the establishment of causal relationships and temporal trends between sports participation, dietary pattern, and motor competence. In addition, the generalizability of the results may be limited, due to the small sample size and homogeneity of the study population. The objective assessment of various components of motor competence with a widely used and previously validated test, on the other hand, should be considered a strength of the study.

5. Conclusions
PA and healthy dietary habits play a crucial role in the development and general health of children and adolescents [1]. The present study also showed that both behaviors are independently associated with motor competence, which is an important component in the facilitation of an active lifestyle [36]. The facilitation of participation in sports, along with the promotion of healthy dietary choices may be particularly important during adolescence, as this is a critical time for the development of future lifestyle choices [3]. Accordingly, coaches, parents, and youth need to be educated on the importance of adequate nutrition in addition to participation in various forms of PA, including sports, for optimal motor development. Even though this may require additional efforts and resources, it may be a worthwhile investment to enhance the health and well-being of future generations.

Author Contributions
C.D. and K.G. conceptualized the study. C.D. analyzed the data and drafted the initial manuscript. K.G. organized data collection and provided critical input on the final version of the manuscript. 

Funding
This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figure 1 Main effects of club sports participation on motor competence based on 2 × 3 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) (club sports by Water/low fast food (FF)). Values are sex-and age-normalized means with S.E.; * p < 0.050 ** p < 0.010. MC: motor competence.

Figure 2 Main effects of club sports participation on motor competence based on 2 × 3 MANOVA (club sports by Water/low FF). Values are sex-and age-normalized means with S.E.

nutrients-10-01837-t001_Table 1Table 1 Anthropometric characteristics and motor competence for the total sample and separately for girls and boys. Values are mean ± SD.


	Total Sample
(N = 165)	Girls 
(N = 74)	Boys
(N = 91)	p *	
Age (years) 	12.9 ± 1.2	12.6 ± 1.1	13.1 ± 1.2	0.009	
Height (cm) 	161.3 ± 8.9	158.8 ± 6.8	163.4 ± 9.9	0.001	
Weight (kg)	53.8 ± 14.3	51.3 ± 9.9	55.9 ± 16.9	0.043	
BMI percentile	59.4 ± 29.4	60.9 ± 27.5	58.2 ± 31.0	0.563	
20 m sprint (sec)	3.8 ± 0.4	3.9 ± 0.4	3.7 ± 0.4	0.023	
Balance (steps)	38.2 ± 9.1	39.5 ± 7.5	37.2 ± 10.2	0.755	
Sideways jump (# in 15 s)	42.1 ± 7.5	41.4 ± 7.0	42.6 ± 7.9	0.554	
Stand and reach (cm)	−0.3 ± 9.7	3.8 ± 8.5	−3.6 ± 9.3	0.011	
Push-ups (# in 40 s)	15.6 ± 3.9	15.6 ± 3.4	15.6 ± 4.2	0.067	
Sit ups (# in 40 s)	23.9 ± 4.6	22.4 ± 3.8	25.1 ± 4.9	0.011	
Standing long jump (cm)	171.0 ± 29.7	159.5 ± 25.2	180.3 ± 29.8	0.648	
6 min run (m)	997 ± 157	988 ± 119	1005 ± 183	<0.001	
Total motor competence	103.3 ± 7.7	104.6 ± 6.9	102.3 ± 8.1	0.056	
* p-value based on age- and sex-normalized values. # number of repetitions performed. BMI: Body mass index.

nutrients-10-01837-t002_Table 2Table 2 Frequency of consumption of food groups (days/week). Values are Means ± SD.


	Total Sample	Girls	Boys	
p
	
Meat	2.5 ± 1.2	2.1 ± 1.1	2.7 ± 1.2	0.002	
Fish & Eggs	1.8 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 1.0	2.0 ± 1.3	0.051	
Milk	2.2 ± 1.0	2.2 ± 1.1	2.3 ± 1.0	0.458	
Carbs	2.2 ± 1.1	2.2 ± 1.0	2.2 ± 1.1	0.702	
Bread	3.2 ± 0.9	3.3 ± 0.8	3.1 ± 1.0	0.371	
Nuts & Seeds	1.2 ± 0.9	1.2 ± 1.0	1.2 ± 0.9	0.662	
Fast Food	1.6 ± 0.9	1.5 ± 0.8	1.7 ± 0.9	0.105	
Sweets	2.6 ± 1.1	2.5 ± 1.1	2.7 ± 1.2	0.420	
Fruits	2.7 ± 1.2	2.9 ± 1.3	2.6 ± 1.1	0.044	
Veggie	2.5 ± 1.5	2.9 ± 1.6	2.2 ± 1.4	0.003	
Soft Drink	2.3 ± 1.3	2.0 ± 1.1	2.6 ± 1.3	0.001	
Water	4.4 ± 1.6	4.6 ± 1.7	4.2 ± 1.5	0.126	
nutrients-10-01837-t003_Table 3Table 3 Motor competence by milk/veggie consumption and sports participation. Values are sex-and age-normalized Means † ± SD.


	Low Milk/Cereal	Moderate Milk/Cereal	High Milk/Cereal	

	Club Sports	No Club Sports	Club Sports	No Club Sports	Club Sports	No Club Sports	
20 m sprint 1	108.9 ± 13.0	107.5 ± 9.5	106.9 ± 10.7	103.8 ± 14.1	108.1 ± 12.5	99.5 ± 13.0	
Balance 1,3,*	104.6 ± 9.6	107.6 ± 8.2	107.8 ± 8.8	99.4 ± 10.2	108.4 ± 9.8	103.6 ± 11.1	
Sideways jump 1,*	118.0 ± 6.9	111.6 ± 9.7	116.7 ± 7.9	111.7 ± 12.6	117.6 ± 7.9	110.1 ± 12.3	
Stand and reach 	101.5 ± 12.1	102.0 ± 9.3	101.9 ± 12.0	97.8 ± 12.3	100.3 ± 11.8	98.7 ± 11.1	
Push-ups 1,*	111.2 ± 9.6	109.1 ± 7.9	110.1 ± 11.5	104.3 ± 13.3	111.5 ± 10.8	102.2 ± 10.9	
Sit ups 1	97.3 ± 8.7	96.9 ± 7.7	96.0 ± 9.2	92.1 ± 10.4	97.0 ± 7.4	91.8 ± 7.5	
Standing long jump 1,*,2	107.2 ± 9.2	104.2 ± 9.2	105.5 ± 12.6	100.6 ± 13.7	105.1 ± 11.0	97.4 ± 11.7	
6 min run 1,*	97.0 ± 10.1	94.1 ± 11.4	98.3 ± 9.1	89.3 ± 12.2	97.0 ± 9.6	89.8 ± 11.6	
Total motor competence† 1,*,2	105.8 ± 6.4	104.2 ± 5.8	105.5 ± 6.3	100.0 ± 9.4	105.8 ± 7.1	98.4 ± 7.5	
† Values >100 indicate above-average performance, while values <100 indicate below-average performance. 1 Significant main effect for club sport (p < 0.050; * p < 0.010). 2 Significant main effect for milk/veggie consumption (p for trend < 0.050; * p < 0.010). 3 Significant interaction effect of milk/veggie consumption and club sport participation (p < 0.050; * p < 0.010).
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