--- pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity tags: - sentence-transformers - feature-extraction - sentence-similarity language: en --- # Model description The project aims to train sentence embedding models on very large sentence level datasets using a self-supervised contrastive learning objective. We used the pretrained ['MiniLM-L6-H384-uncased'](https://huggingface.co/nreimers/MiniLM-L6-H384-uncased) model and fine-tuned in on a 1B sentence pairs dataset. We use a contrastive learning objective: given a sentence from the pair, the model should predict which out of a set of randomly sampled other sentences, was actually paired with it in our dataset. We developped this model during the [Community week using JAX/Flax for NLP & CV](https://discuss.huggingface.co/t/open-to-the-community-community-week-using-jax-flax-for-nlp-cv/7104), organized by Hugging Face. We developped this model as part of the project: [Train the Best Sentence Embedding Model Ever with 1B Training Pairs](https://discuss.huggingface.co/t/train-the-best-sentence-embedding-model-ever-with-1b-training-pairs/7354). We benefited from efficient hardware infrastructure to run the project: 7 TPUs v3-8, as well as intervention from Google’s Flax, JAX, and Cloud team member about efficient deep learning frameworks. ## Intended uses Our model is intented to be used as a sentence encoder. Given an input sentence, it ouptuts a vector which captures the sentence semantic information. The sentence vector may be used for information retrieval, clustering or sentence similarity tasks. ## How to use Here is how to use this model to get the features of a given text using [SentenceTransformers](https://github.com/UKPLab/sentence-transformers) library: ```python from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer model = SentenceTransformer('flax-sentence-embeddings/all_datasets_v4_MiniLM-L6') text = "Replace me by any text you'd like." text_embbedding = model.encode(text) # array([-0.01559514, 0.04046123, 0.1317083 , 0.00085931, 0.04585106, # -0.05607086, 0.0138078 , 0.03569756, 0.01420381, 0.04266302 ...], # dtype=float32) ``` # Training procedure ## Pre-training We use the pretrained ['MiniLM-L6-H384-uncased'](https://huggingface.co/nreimers/MiniLM-L6-H384-uncased) which is a 6 layer version of ['microsoft/MiniLM-L12-H384-uncased'](https://huggingface.co/microsoft/MiniLM-L12-H384-uncased) by keeping only every second layer. Please refer to the model card for more detailed information about the pre-training procedure. ## Fine-tuning We fine-tune the model using a contrastive objective. Formally, we compute the cosine similarity from each possible sentence pairs from the batch. We then apply the cross entropy loss by comparing with true pairs. ### Hyper parameters We trained ou model on a TPU v3-8. We train the model during 540k steps using a batch size of 1024 (128 per TPU core). We use a learning rate warm up of 500. The sequence length was limited to 128 tokens. We used the AdamW optimizer with a 2e-5 learning rate. The full training script is accessible in this current repository. ### Training data We use the concatenation from multiple datasets to fine-tune our model. The total number of sentence pairs is above 1 billion sentences. We sampled each dataset given a weighted probability which configuration is detailed in the `data_config.json` file. | Dataset | Paper | Number of training tuples | |:--------------------------------------------------------:|:----------------------------------------:|:--------------------------:| | [GOOAQ: Open Question Answering with Diverse Answer Types](https://github.com/allenai/gooaq) | [paper](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2104.08727.pdf) | 3,012,496 | | [Stack Exchange](https://huggingface.co/datasets/flax-sentence-embeddings/stackexchange_title_body_jsonl) | - | 364,001 | | [Flickr 30k](https://shannon.cs.illinois.edu/DenotationGraph/) | [paper](https://transacl.org/ojs/index.php/tacl/article/view/229/33) | 317,695 | | [COCO 2020](COCO 2020) | [paper](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-10602-1_48) | 828,395| | [Code Search](https://huggingface.co/datasets/code_search_net) | - | 1,151,414 | | [TriviaqQA](https://huggingface.co/datasets/trivia_qa) | - | 73,346 | | [SQuAD2.0](https://rajpurkar.github.io/SQuAD-explorer/) | [paper](https://aclanthology.org/P18-2124.pdf) | 87,599 | | [Natural Questions (NQ)](https://ai.google.com/research/NaturalQuestions) | [paper](https://transacl.org/ojs/index.php/tacl/article/view/1455) | 100,231 | | [Simple Wikipedia](https://cs.pomona.edu/~dkauchak/simplification/) | [paper](https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P11-2117/) | 102,225 | | [Quora Question Pairs](https://quoradata.quora.com/First-Quora-Dataset-Release-Question-Pairs) | - | 103,663 | | [Altlex](https://github.com/chridey/altlex/) | [paper](https://aclanthology.org/P16-1135.pdf) | 112,696 | | [Wikihow](https://github.com/pvl/wikihow_pairs_dataset) | [paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09305) | 128,542 | | [Sentence Compression](https://github.com/google-research-datasets/sentence-compression) | [paper](https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/D13-1155/) | 180,000 | | AllNLI ([SNLI](https://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/) and [MultiNLI](https://cims.nyu.edu/~sbowman/multinli/) | [paper SNLI](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d15-1075), [paper MultiNLI](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/n18-1101) | 277,230 | | [Eli5](https://huggingface.co/datasets/eli5) | [paper](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p19-1346) | 325,475 | | [SPECTER](https://github.com/allenai/specter) | [paper](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2020.acl-main.207) | 684,100 | | [S2ORC](https://github.com/allenai/s2orc) Title/Abstract | [paper](https://aclanthology.org/2020.acl-main.447/) | 41,769,185 | | [S2ORC](https://github.com/allenai/s2orc) Citation/Citation | [paper](https://aclanthology.org/2020.acl-main.447/) | 52,603,982 | | [S2ORC](https://github.com/allenai/s2orc) Citation/Abstract | [paper](https://aclanthology.org/2020.acl-main.447/) | 116,288,806 | | [PAQ](https://github.com/facebookresearch/PAQ) | [paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.07033) | 64,371,441 | | [WikiAnswers](https://github.com/afader/oqa#wikianswers-corpus) | [paper](https://doi.org/10.1145/2623330.2623677) | 77,427,422 | | SearchQA | - | 582,261 | | [Yahoo Answers](https://www.kaggle.com/soumikrakshit/yahoo-answers-dataset) Title/Answer | [paper](https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2015/hash/250cf8b51c773f3f8dc8b4be867a9a02-Abstract.html) | 1,198,260 | | [Yahoo Answers](https://www.kaggle.com/soumikrakshit/yahoo-answers-dataset) Title/Question | [paper](https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2015/hash/250cf8b51c773f3f8dc8b4be867a9a02-Abstract.html) | 659,896 | | [Yahoo Answers](https://www.kaggle.com/soumikrakshit/yahoo-answers-dataset) Question/Answer | [paper](https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2015/hash/250cf8b51c773f3f8dc8b4be867a9a02-Abstract.html) | 681,164 | | [MS MARCO](https://microsoft.github.io/msmarco/) | [paper](https://doi.org/10.1145/3404835.3462804) | 9,144,553 | | [Reddit conversationnal](https://github.com/PolyAI-LDN/conversational-datasets/tree/master/reddit) | [paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.06472) | 726,484,430 | | total | | 1,097,953,922 |