The results showed differences in the models that fit the two groups. The non-Asian model. The theoretical model fit the non-Asian data, X2(9, N = 136) = 16.49, p = .057. Furthermore, we found additional support for the theoretical model when we compared it with the data-driven model and found consistent results. A data-driven model was estimated using modification indices by removing all of the paths of a saturated model that did not significantly improve the fit of the model. A data-driven model with good fit, X2(9, N = 136) = 10.90, p = .282; CFI = .985, found the same significant paths that were found in the theoretical model (see Figure 3). Mediation estimates were confirmed with bootstrapped Sobel tests (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Interest negatively predicted parental influence in the choice of major. Selecting a major based on parental influence predicted more amotivation. More enjoyment mediated higher interest to predict more intrinsic motivation, z = 2.95, p = .003 and less amotivation, z = -4.00, p < .001. Higher amotivation mediated less enjoyment to predict lower GPA, z = 2.27, p = .023 and mediated higher parental influence to predict lower GPA, z = -2.11, p = .035. See Figure 3 for the estimates of the significant paths. The Asian model. The theoretical model did not fit the Asian data, X2(9, N = 57) = 44.25, p < .001, thus, we used modification indices to estimate a data-driven model, which fits the data, X2(6, N = 57) = 4.98, p = .547; CFI = 1. See Figure 4 for the significant paths of the model. Cross-validation analysis showed that alternative near-equivalent models exist for the Asian data, however, the current model is chosen because of the nature of the variables. For example, the direction of the path between parental influence and amotivation should not be reversed. Unlike non-Asians, perceived higher employment opportunities predicted less amotivation. Higher employment opportunities also predicted choosing a major based more strongly on parental influence. Also different from non-Asians, choosing a major based strongly
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Which university are you currently enrolled in? Are you an international student? Yes No If yes, where were you from? Do you receive financial aid? Yes No What is your mother’s education level? 1 – Grade 1-6 9 – Vocational or technical school graduate 2 – Grade 7 10 – Associate degree 3 – 8 11 – College degree (BS/BA) 4 – 9 12 – Some advanced work, but no graduate degree 5 – Grade 10 13 – MS/MA (Master's degree) 6 – Grade 11 14 – Some work toward doctorate or advanced degree 7 – High school graduate 15 – MD, JD, DO, DDS or Ph.D. (etc.) 8 – Some college/vocational 99 – Don’t know or technical school What is your father’s education level? 1 – Grade 1-6 9 – Vocational or technical school graduate 2 – Grade 7 10 – Associate degree 3 – Grade 8 11 – College degree (BS/BA) 4 – Grade 9 12 – Some advanced work, but no graduate degree
5 – Grade 10 13 – MS/MA (Master's degree) 6 – 11 14 – Some work toward doctorate or advanced degree 7 – High school graduate 15 – MD, JD, DO, DDS or Ph.D. (etc.) 8 – Some college/vocational 99 – Don’t know or technical school