from the time of Jesus to the present and, as shown in Table 2, we identify four basic historical eras—demarcated by junctures (Mills, 2010)—that are helpful for our study: 1) biblical and early church; 2) post-Constantine and Middle Ages; 3) Reformation, and 4) contemporary Faith at Work movement. The exemplars we draw upon to develop four ideal-type eras include: (a) the biblical writings of Luke, whose biblical gospel is considered the one that places the most emphasis on salvation (e.g., Fitzmyer, 1970: 223; Ehrman, 2008; e.g., Luke refers to salvation more than any other gospel); (b) nine theologians (Irenaeus, Origen, Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustine, Anselm, Abelard, Luther and Calvin) known for their exemplary contribution to the meaning of salvation up to and including the Reformation (identified and summarized by Haight, 1994), and (c) a description of the past century of the Faith at Work movement in the United States (especially Miller, 2007). After describing the beliefs about salvation characterizing each era, we also provide a description and ideal-type examples of how these beliefs are operationalized in organizational practices in each era. Of course, following Weber, we do not purport to suggest that the four ideal-types subsumed in the four eras always hold, nor that they fully represent the views of even the exemplars we highlight. Rather we offer them as coherent conceptual configurations to help grasp basic differences in the understanding of salvation over time in Christianity. Put differently, we fully recognize that there will be important exceptions to these categories, that the exemplars may not match the categories exactly in all of their teachings, and that the shifts across the three Weberian dimensions of salvation are not changes from one “extreme” to the other but rather as shifts in relative emphasis. We now describe each era in turn. ERA 1: Biblical times and early church
people from suffering. Phase 2: Placating the gods Gods are seen as beings whose “egotistic wishes” needed to be placated (Weber, 1968: 432). Salvation is achieved by community members participating in techniques like worship, supplication, prayer, sacrifices, gifts and performance of rites (Weber, 1968: During this phase religion and doctrine develop, as distinct from magic. This produces the first specialists in religion to coordinate and perform the various rituals and sacraments. Humankind is unable to adequately placate the gods to alleviate suffering. Phase 3: Focus on ethics Recognition that salvation cannot be achieved via the natural realm (which the gods had created, but which they lack desire or perhaps capacity to change), but rather via the transcendent realm of the gods through ethical behavior. The development of orderly judicial systems within relatively stable socio-political contexts. Suffering persists; too many ethical systems among gods. Phase 4: via a prophet toward monotheism (away from the pantheism of the previous phases), often coinciding with the advent of a prophet who is able to take previous disparate teachings and pull them together into a unified, consolidated new path to salvation (Kalberg, 2001: 301, 316). Within the Western Christian tradition this prophet is Jesus of Nazareth (e.g., Luke 24:19). The prophet is associated with relatively simple (often organizational structures. Teachings of prophet need further elaboration, perhaps due to changes in context. Phase 5: and Subsequent religious leaders interpret, codify and integrate the teachings of the prophet, thereby forming “the foundational tenets of ethical salvation doctrines that promised redemption from suffering” (Kalberg, 2001: 302). The understanding of salvation may change as a prophet’s teachings are (re)interpreted over time (e.g., whereas a prophet may initially have been viewed as a role for how to live a salvific life, over time prophet may be seen as means to a heavenly after-life). The associated with this typically coincides with centralization in the socio-political (and economic) realms. Dysfunctions may occur due to coopting between religious elite and elite. Table 3: Key eras of Christian understandings of salvation, and implications for organizational practices ERA 1: ERA 2: ERA 3: and ERA 4a + 4b: Contemporary “faith at work” movement
Biblical and early church fathers and Middle Ages Protestant 4a. Personal Salvationists 4b. Social Salvationists Key exemplars A. Three dimensions of salvation Luke, Ireneaus, Origen Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustine, Anselm, (Abelard) Luther, Calvin, Baxter (as interpreted by Dollar Guiterez, Yoder 1) Modality: as role model vs as sacrifice Role Sacrifice Sacrifice Sacrifice Role model 2) Instantiation: Relative emphasis on where salvation is evident (this world vs This world: Demonstrated in resource sharing; inclusivity/ welcoming the socially marginalized After-life: Performing sacraments; asceticism/ monasteries Resources as confirmation of salvation (rational rules for daily life taken from monasteries) After-life: Resources as confirmation of salvation/ blessing This world: Put into practice via sharing resources 3) Locus of ethical activity: personal vs social Social Social (extra ecclesia nulla salus) Personal (individual calling) Personal Social B. Implications for organization practice Key principles Sharing financial resources, community Centralization, rationalization profit maximization Honest work is blessed with financial reward Develop redemptive structures & systems Exemplary practitioners Jerusalem Love Community (James) St. Benedict of monastery (Catholicism) Josiah Wedgwood (Puritans) Amway (Gospel of Prosperity) Focolare Movement (Radical/ liberation theology)