Table 8.1: Options for form of standards – advantages and disadvantages Form Definition Implementation Resources Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Fixed number of allowed exceedances (including zero) Simple to define. Arbitrary definition. Easy to apply in principle. Could result in unfair comparisons between jurisdictions, as some have more natural and trans-boundary events than others. Current approach – no additional resources required None. Minimal change in reporting process. Requires development of simple and clear guidelines on classification of pollution events. Percentile rule Simple definition. Provides stable and practical reference point. Does not aid the understanding of events. Simple calculation based on existing data. No additional data required. Easy to average over several years. Could result in unfair comparisons between jurisdictions, as some suffer more natural & trans-boundary events than others. Few or no additional resources required. None. Focuses on providing protection for people residing in or near areas of high average concentration rather than extreme events. Consistency with some USEPA air quality standards. AAQ NEPM reports would not support an assessment of effort and progress in anthropogenic air pollution control. Potentially complex to explain to Natural events rule (in combination with either a fixed number of allowed exceedances or a percentile) Exceedances stated in relation to real and defined pollution events. Definition of thresholds is currently unclear. How are small-scale events treated? Do natural events affect non-exceedance periods? All breaches of standards caused by human activity are accounted for. Potentially impractical for jurisdictions with large land areas where bush fires and planned burning are prevalent but data are very limited (e.g. NT). None. Potentially resource intensive. Likely to require additional analysis of data. Difficult to fund for smaller jurisdictions. Fairer comparison of anthropogenic pollution across jurisdictions. Allows a direct assessment of the success of policy efforts to control anthropogenic pollution. Lack of transparency. Elements are likely to be open to interpretation and ‘gaming’. Removes confusion concerning the concept of allowable exceedances.
Table 8.2: The current burden of disease for baseline exposure levels (Source: Morgan et al. 2013) PM metric Exposure(a) Age group (outcome) Geographical coverage Attributable mortality (deaths per year) Years of life lost (2008 only) Reduction in life expectancy at birth Attributable hospital admissions Attributable hospital emergency department attendance (cases per year) Cardiovascular (cases per year) Respiratory (cases per year) PM10 Short-term 0–14 years (respiratory) Four cities – – – – 1,130, or 2.2% (95% CI: 0.2% to 4.3%) – 65+ years (pneumonia and short-term bronchitis) Four cities – – – – 530, or 2.5% (95% CI: 0.3% to 5.0%) – PM2.5 Long-term All Four cities 1,590, or 2.2% (95% CI: 1.4% to 3.0%) – – – – – Sydney 520, or 2.0% (95% CI: 1.2% to 2.7%)(b) 6,300 – – – – Sydney – – 72 days for males and 65 days for females – – – Short-term 0–14 years (asthma) Four cities – – – – – 120, or 0.6% (95% CI: 0.4% to 0.8%)(c) All Four cities – – – 2,070, or 1.4% (95% CI: 0.6% to 2.1%) – – Attributable cases estimated for baseline exposures above a background (or baseline) exposure for PM10 and PM2.5 of 7.5 μg/m3 and 2.7 μg/m3 respectively. Based on an additional analysis conducted by NSW Health to estimate the baseline number of years of life lost due to long-term exposure to PM2.5 in Sydney. The total number of years of life that would be saved over the next 100 years by reducing long-term PM2.5 exposure to background was estimated to be 916,000 life years. There may be some overlap between asthma emergency department visits among 0–14 year olds associated with PM2.5 exposure and respiratory hospital admissions among 0–14 year olds associated with PM10 exposure.
WHO Regional Office for Europe (2013), Review of evidence on health aspects of air pollution – REVIHAAP Project, Technical Report, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark. Wilton, E, Smith, J, Gimson, N and Phillips, J (2009), ‘Source apportionment and modelling of PM10 in Hastings, New Zealand’, Air Quality and Climate Change, vol. 43(2), pp. 31–39.
20 Secondary pollutant precursors Evaluate the options to assess ozone and secondary particle precursors. No. Considered to be outside the scope of Impact Statement. 21 Future work Initiate research into the composition of particles in Australia and associated health impacts. No. Considered to be outside the scope of Impact Statement. 22 Initiate health research on the impact of air pollution (in particular, particles) in regional areas. No. Considered to be outside the scope of Impact Statement. 23 Monitor and report coarse particle fraction. No. Considered to be outside the scope of Impact Statement.
NSW_E29 NSW EPA Mt Thorley Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM NSW_E30 NSW EPA Muswellbrook Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM/BAM NSW_E31 NSW EPA Muswellbrook NW Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM NSW_E32 NSW EPA Singleton Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM/BAM NSW_E33 NSW EPA Singleton NW Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM NSW_E34 NSW EPA Singleton South Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM NSW_E35 NSW EPA Warkworth Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM NSW_E36 NSW EPA Wybong Upper Hunter Rural – coal mining Campaign – UHAQMN TEOM NSW_E37 NSW EPA Albion Park Illawarra Semi-rural Performance Yes TEOM NSW_E38 NSW EPA Albion Park South Illawarra Semi-rural Performance Yes TEOM NSW_E39 NSW EPA Kembla Grange Illawarra Residential Performance Yes TEOM NSW_E40 NSW EPA Warrawong Illawarra Residential/industrial TEOM NSW_E41 NSW EPA Wollongong Illawarra CBD Trend Yes TEOM/BAM NSW_E42 NSW EPA Albury Regional NSW Rural Campaign – Pop. exposure TEOM NSW_E43 NSW EPA Bathurst Regional NSW Rural Campaign – Pop. Exposure TEOM NSW_E46 NSW EPA Tamworth Regional NSW Rural Campaign – Pop. Exposure TEOM NSW_E47 NSW EPA Wagga Wagga Regional NSW Rural TEOM NSW_E48 NSW EPA Wagga Wagga N Regional NSW Rural Campaign – Pop. exposure TEOM/BAM NSW_A01 ANSTO Liverpool Sydney Urban/industrial Campaign – Research Grav. filter NSW_A02 ANSTO Lucas Heights Sydney Rural Campaign – Research Grav. filter NSW_A03 ANSTO Mascot Sydney Urban Campaign – Research Grav. filter NSW_A04 ANSTO Mayfield Lower Hunter Urban Campaign – Research Grav. filter NSW_A05 ANSTO Muswellbrook Upper Hunter Urban periphery Campaign – Research Grav. filter NSW_A06 ANSTO Richmond Sydney Mixed urban/rural Campaign – Research Grav. filter NSW_A07 ANSTO Warrawong Illawarra Urban/industrial Campaign – Research Grav. filter
QLD_D11 DSITIA South Brisbane SEQ Roadside TEOM/FDMS QLD_D12 DSITIA Springwood SEQ Residential, major roads Performance: population average Gravimetric reference method/Partisol/TEOM QLD_D14 DSITIA Woolloongabba SEQ Roadside Trend-peak Gravimetric reference method/TEOM/FDMS QLD_D15 DSITIA/Caltex Wynnum N SEQ Industry/residential, Caltex refineries TEOM QLD_D16 DSITIA The Gap Mt Isa Residential Population average TEOM QLD_D20 DSITIA Pimlico Townsville Residential, major roads, industry (port operations, metals processing) Campaign: population average TEOM QLD_D22 DSITIA West Mackay Mackay Light industry/residential, agricultural burning Yes TEOM QLD_D26 DSITIA South Gladstone Gladstone Industry/residential, major roads, industry (power generation, metals processing) Trend Yes TEOM/FDMS QLD_D27 DSITIA Clinton Gladstone Airport/residential Gravimetric reference method/TEOM/FDMS QLD_D28 DSITIA Targinie (Swans Rd) Gladstone Rural/residential FDMS QLD_D29 DSITIA Targinie (Stupkin L) Gladstone Rural/residential TEOM QLD_D30 DSITIA Boat Creek Gladstone Rural/residential FDMS QLD_D31 DSITIA Boyne Island Gladstone Residential FDMS Table D.4: SA monitoring sites Site code Organisation Site name Region Site description Purpose GRUB PM10 PM2.5 Instrument(s) SA_E01 EPA SA Birkenhead Adelaide Residential/light industrial TEOM SA_E02 EPA SA Christie Downs Adelaide Residential, urban Trend Yes TEOM SA_E03 EPA SA Elizabeth Downs Adelaide Residential, urban Performance Yes TEOM SA_E04 EPA SA Kensington Gardens Adelaide Residential, urban Trend Yes TEOM SA_E05 EPA SA Netley Adelaide Residential/light industrial area, traffic Trend Yes TEOM SA_E06 EPA SA Pt Pirie, Frank Green Park Spencer Residential/industrial Trend Yes TEOM SA_E07 EPA SA Pt Pirie, Oliver Street Spencer Residential/industrial Trend Yes TEOM SA_E09 EPA SA Whyalla, Schulz Park Spencer Residential/industrial Trend Yes TEOM SA_E10 EPA SA Whyalla, Walls St Spencer Industrial (steelworks) TEOM