Explanations for poverty New Right Key point Developed by Charles Murray (1996) There is an underclass in society that includes those living poverty. The poor are dependent on benefits and welfare and this takes away the incentive to work. Single-parenthood and unemployment causes the underclass. State benefits are too generous and makes poverty worse by creating welfare dependency. Criticisms This theory blames the poor for being poor and therefore stereotypes and stigmatises those in poverty. Some critics argue that the underclass does not exist. Social Exclusion Key Points Developed by Burchardt et al. (2002) Some groups of people are excluded from being able to participate in society. They are unable to buy the goods and services they need, feel they cannot participate or make a valuable contribution to society in a political or economic manner. These people are suffering from low income, poor housing, poor skills, family breakdown and live in high crime areas and as a consequence are disadvantaged throughout the generations. Criticisms Not all people who experience these types of social exclusion experience poverty. Stereotypical to a certain point. Marxism Key Points Capitalism creates wealth for the owners and those in power, and therefore produces poverty amongst among sections of the working class. The fear of poverty can keep workers disciplined. If people demand higher wages then employers can threaten to replace them with others who want their jobs. Criticisms There is a minimum wage for all employees. Trade unions support employees to achieve higher wages. Many employers have a bonus or share schemes for their workers. Would communism really the answer?
In only a few subject areas in Higher Education are there more male than female undergraduates. Exceptions are computer science with 80% male students and engineering and technology with 85% male students. The most female-dominated subjects are education and subjects allied to medicine, such as nursing, physiotherapy etc, where 81% of students are female. Employment Nearly half of people in employment are women, however women and men differ in the jobs they do and the hours they work. Nearly half of women (44%) and about one in ten men who work are More than four-fifths of skilled trades people and process, plant and machine operatives are men. In administrative and secretarial occupations, as well as in personal service jobs, at least four-fifths of workers are women. Women hold the majority of jobs in the education & health & social work sectors Men are the majority in transport, storage & communication & construction. Vertical segregation Women tend to be under-represented at the most senior positions. Middle class women often proceed so far and then encounter the glass ceiling where they can see where they would like to go but the ceiling (e.g stereotypical assumptions, sexism etc) impedes further progress. The Gender Gap The gender pay gap compares the earnings of female and male employees, whilst the gender income gap compares the individual incomes of all women and men. Average hourly earnings for women working full-time are 18% lower than for men working full-time, and for women working part-time hourly earnings are 40% lower. Pensions 56% of female employees and 63% of male employees of working age are members of one or more occupational or personal pension schemes. However, women are less likely to make regular contributions to a pension.
Values – the members of each class share similar values: Loyalty to workmates A belief in pursuing goals as a group rather than individually An emphasis on immediate gratification (i.e. enjoy yourself now) A fatalistic attitude to life believing that life chances depend on luck A belief in traditional conjugal roles (i.e. roles of husbands and wives) Individualism A belief in deferred gratification (i.e. planning for the future) An image of society as a place where there are opportunities for individuals who work hard A belief in joint conjugal roles (i.e. roles of husbands and wives) Health Living longer and staying healthy seems to be associated with different social groups Working class people experience poorer mortality than the middle class Working class people are more likely to die before retirement of cancer stroke and heart disease than middle class people Working class people are three times more likely to have a serious illness A professional can expect to live on average seven years longer than an unskilled working man Visit the doctor more often and tend to have more regular checkups Have a better diet and take more exercise so have less serious illness than working class people Education Success seems to be associated with different social groups Less likely to attend nursery school More likely to start school unable to read More likely to get fewer GCSE’s or to get low grades Less likely to get into Year 12 and go to university Less likely get a well paid job because of insufficient qualifications More affluent people are more successful than poorer people Higher levels of education which in turn leads to better careers Parents have enough money for their children to stay at school or go on to university Parents have greater expectations that their children will do well Work Economic success seems to be associated with different social groups The working class tend to receive lower wages They enjoy less job security They receive fewer fringe benefits than the middle class Have less chances for promotion Are often in professional jobs and so get paid more than the working class Have good job security Get more benefits and perks from their job Have more contacts which may help with promotion or finding employment
Halsey found that the evidence supported the claim that there was more upward social mobility in British society over the past century with less downward social mobility, although some did exist. These changes in the class system Halsey likened to a shift from a pyramid to a lemon shape. The pyramid contained a small number of upper class at the top, a larger number of middle class in the middle and a disproportionate number of working class at the bottom. The lemon shape contained small numbers of upper and working class at either end with a large middle class in-between. So We can say that even thought it is possible for people to move up the class structure however it is not easy. It is much easier for those at the top to stay there. Glossary: words you should know ___________________________________________________________________ Social stratification Social class Caste Slavery Estate Status Ascribed status Achieved status Poverty line Poverty trap Absolute poverty Relative Poverty Distribution of wealth Prejudice Racism White-collar worker Blue-collar worker Working class Middle class Aristocracy Underclass Discrimination Scape-goating Life chances Redistribution of wealth Market situation Social mobility Inter-generational social mobility Intra-generational social mobility Changing class structure: New and traditional working class Proletarianisation De-skilling