The Uses of Science 33 Research on People 33 Conclusion 34 ■■ Key Terms 35 ■■ Highlight s 35 ■■ Exercises 36 Discussing Research 36 Finding Research 36 Critiquing Research 37 Doing Research 37 Ethics Questions 38 3. Ethics in Research 39 Historical Background 42 Ethical Principles 43 Protecting Research Subjects 44 Avoid Harming Research Participants 44 Obtain Informed Consent 46 Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances 51 Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality 52 Maintaining Honesty and Openness 53 Research in the News: Honesty in Research 53 Achieving Valid Results 54 Encouraging Appropriate Application 55 Conclusion 56 ■■ Key Terms 56 ■■ Highlight s 56 ■■ Exercises 57 Discussing Research 57 Finding Research 57 Critiquing Research 57 Research 58 Ethics Questions 58 4. Conceptualization and Measurement 59 What Do We Have in Mind? 60 Conceptualization 60 Research in the News: How Poverty Is Measured Matters 62 Variables and Constants 62 How Will We Know When We’ve Found It? 63 Using Available Data 64 Content Analysis 65 Constructing Questions 66 Single Questions 66 Indexes and Scales 67 Making Observations 68 Collecting Unobtrusive Measures 69 Combining Measurement Operations 70 How Much Information Do We Really Have? 71 Nominal Level of Measurement 71 Ordinal Level of Measurement 72 Interval Level of Measurement 73 Ratio Level of Measurement 74 Careers and Research: Russell Schutt, PhD 36 Conclusion 37 ■ Key 37 ■ Highlights 37 ■ Student Study Site 38 ■ Exercises 38 Chapter 3: Ethics in Research 43 Historical Background 46 Ethical Principles 47 Protecting Research Subjects 48 Avoid Harming Research Participants 48 Obtain Informed Consent 51 Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances 55 Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality 56 Research That Matters 57 Maintaining Honesty and Openness 57 Research in the News: What an IRB Say? 58 Achieving Valid Results 59 Careers and Research: Kristen Kenny, Research Compliance Specialist 60 Encouraging Appropriate Application 60 Conclusion 61 ■ Key Terms 61 ■ Highlights 62 ■ Student Study Site 62 ■ Exercises 62 Chapter 4: Conceptualization and Measurement 65 What Do We Have in Mind? 66 Conceptualization 66 Research That Matters 67 Research in the News: What Is Your Race? 68 Variables and Constants 68 How Will We Know When We’ve It? 69 Using Available Data 71 Content Analysis 72 Constructing Questions 72 Single Questions 72 Indexes and Scales 73 Making Observations 75 Combining Measurement Operations 75 How Much Information Do We Really Have? 76 Nominal Level of Measurement 76
Comparison of Levels of Measurement 74 Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 75 Measurement Validity 75 Face Validity 75 Content Validity 76 Criterion Validity 76 Construct Validity 76 Reliability 77 Test-Retest Reliability 78 Interitem Reliability (Internal Consistency) 78 Alternate-Forms Reliability 78 Interobserver Reliability 78 Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 79 Conclusion 79 ■■ Key Terms 80 ■■ Highlight s 81 ■■ Exercises 81 Discussing Research 81 Finding Research 82 Critiquing Research 82 Doing Research 82 Ethics Questions 84 5. Sampling 85 How Do We Prepare to Sample? 86 Define Sample Components and the Population 86 Evaluate Generalizability 88 Assess the Diversity of the Population 88 Consider a Census 89 What Sampling Method Should We Use? 90 Probability Sampling Methods 90 Research in the News: Sample Polls Indicate Latino Turnout Likely to Lag 91 Simple Random Sampling 92 Systematic Random Sampling 93 Cluster Sampling 93 Stratified Random Sampling 95 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 96 Availability Sampling 97 Quota Sampling 97 Purposive Sampling 97 Snowball Sampling 99 Conclusion 99 ■■ Key Terms 99 ■■ Highlight s 100 ■■ Exercises 100 Discussing Research 100 Finding Research 101 Critiquing Research 101 Doing Research 101 Ethics Questions 102 6. Causation and Experimental Design 103 Causal Explanation 104 What Causes What? 104 Ordinal Level of Measurement 78 Interval of Measurement 78 Level of Measurement 78 Comparison of Levels of Measurement 79 Careers and Research: Dana Hunt, Principal Scientist 80 Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 80 Measurement Validity 81 Face Validity 81 Criterion Validity 81 Construct Validity 81 Reliability 82 Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 83 Conclusion 84 ■ Key Terms 85 ■ Highlights 85 ■ Student Site 86 ■ Exercises 86 Chapter 5: Sampling and Generalizability 91 How Do We Prepare to Sample? 92 Define Sample Components and the Population 92 Evaluate Generalizability 93 Assess the Diversity of the Population 94 Consider a Census 94 Research That Matters 95 What Sampling Method Should We Use? 96 Probability Sampling Methods 96 Research in the News: What Are Best Practices for Sampling Vulnerable Populations? 98 Simple Random Sampling 99 Systematic Random Sampling 99 Cluster Sampling 99 Stratified Random Sampling 101 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 103 Availability Sampling 103 Careers and Research: Ross Koppel, Sociologist 103 Quota Sampling 104 Purposive Sampling 105 Snowball Sampling 105 Conclusion 105 ■ Key 106 ■ Highlights 106