1: modes of governance (adapted from Meuleman, 2008) Hierarchy Network Market Vision, values, mission dimensions Culture Hierarchical Egalitarian Individualist Theories Rational (causal means-end logic), positivist Constructivist (emphasizing bounded rationality, ambiguity), social structuration theory (patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individual actors) Rational choice users and producers), theory, positivist Judging Goal attainment / legitimacy Appropriateness, wisdom via reflexivity and dialogue Efficient use of resources Motive Minimise risk Satisfy identity of the (based on empathy and trust) Maximise (relative) advantage Motive of subordination Fear of punishment Belonging to group, higher purpose Material benefit Role of government Rule society (lower in hierarchy equals less power) Partners (equal) Deliver service (with competing providers/producers for also internally) Response to resistance Legitimate power to coerce into conformity or sanctions (Sticks) Persuasion to engage or decide to expel (Sermons) Negotiate using incentives and inducements (Carrots) Dimensions of orientation Organisational Top down, formal, internal, “hierarchy of decisions” (each step down implements goals set in the step above) Reciprocal, horizontal , informal, empathy, both internal and external (boundaries do not matter) Bottom-up (due to autonomy), suspicious (due to competitive nature of parties), external Actors Subjects (expect to be Partners (expecting equal positions) Customers / clients (expecting service at a decent cost) Choice of actors Controlled by written rules Free, by trust and reciprocity Free, ruled by contribution to one’s advantage and negotiation
Aim of identifying stakeholders Anticipate protest Get their practical knowledge, enhance acceptance Find reliable, professional, contractors Dimensions of structure Organisation Line management, centralized control systems, project teams, for issues Soft structure with minimal level of rules and regulation; process teams within a hierarchy Decentralised, in competition with each other to get resources within a contract setting Decision-making unit Public authority Collective by group Individual players competing Control Authority, oversight e.g. inspection, directives, legal powers of intervention Trust, mutuality e.g. cooperative interaction, informal consultation, negotiation Price (value for money), rivalry e.g. competition, benchmarking Coordination Ex ante imperatives (rules and regulations) Reflexive Ex post through exchange in a competitive setting (invisible hand of Transactions Unilateral Multi-lateral Bi-lateral Roles of communication Communication about policy: give info Communication for policy: organise dialogue (across groups –hence dealing with their social and cognitive fixation and defensiveness to “outsiders”) Communication as policy: incentives, PR to get others to take over a public task Roles of knowledge Clear facts, expertise suited to problems with a consensus on relevant knowledge or when little time (calamities) Involve may parties in the knowledge basis, engage in joint fact finding, transdisciplinary knowledge development, suited to “wicked problems” Proprietary and to be paid for and used for own advantage Context Stable via clear and detailed instructions, rules and procedures Continuous change offers opportunities Flexible and dynamic through competition People dimension Leadership styles Directing, little discretion (delegation comes with control) Coaching and supporting, high of discretion for lower staff Delegation, high level of discretion for senior managers
Relations Dependent (interventionist) Interdependent interplay, interpenetration) Independent interference) Roles of public managers Clerks (administrate) and martyrs (‘servants’ with little room for creativity and entrepreneurship Explorers producing public value Efficiency maximisers within their “market” Competences Legal, financial, project management, information management Network moderation, process management, communication Economics, marketing, PR Values Authoritarian, loyal to truth, obedient, disciplined Communitarian, valuing equality, learning from others, openness, trust Entrepreneurial, rational, emphasizing personal reward/success over loyalty, valuing competition and autonomy Objectives of management development Allow someone to make the right decisions without constant supervision (hence a means of control) Help with societal learning Provide management tools for efficiency Dimensions of results Problem Crisis, disasters, etc. that can be resolved by execution of force; problems that can be divided into clear parts to which appropriate expertise can be applied Complex, unstructured, Routine, non-sensitive issues Typical failure Red tape Never ending talks Inefficiency, market failure, insufficient attention to outcomes Production of… Laws, regulations, controls, procedures, reports, decisions, compliance Consensus, content, agreement, covenants Services, products, contracts, Accountability dimension Honest and fair, process Robust, resilient, adaptive, outcomes Lean and purposeful, outputs