managers at each lower level. As yet, there is only very limited evidence for cascading of leader behaviors (Bass et al., 1987; Chun et al., 2009). There is no evidence that key CEO behaviors will be imitated by low-level managers, or that lower-level members of an organization will embrace the CEO’s vision without a credible strategy and major changes in programs, reward systems, and cultural values. Facilitating Conditions According to Bass (1996, 1997), transformational leadership is considered effective in any situation or culture. The theory does not specify any conditions which authentic transformational leadership is irrelevant or ineffective. In support of this position, the positive relationship between transformational leadership and effectiveness has been replicated for many leaders at different levels of authority, in different types of organizations, and in several different countries (Bass, 1997). The criterion of leadership effectiveness has included a variety of different types of measures. The evidence supports the conclusion that in most if not all situations, some aspects of transformational leadership are relevant. However, universal relevance does not mean that transformational leadership is equally effective in all situations or equally likely to occur. A number of situational variables may increase the likelihood that transformational leadership will or may enhance the effect of such leadership on followers (Bass, 1985, 1996; Hinkin & Tracey, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Pawar & Eastman, 1997; Pettigrew, 1988; Purvanova & Bono, 2009; Waldman et al., 2001). The change-oriented components of transformational leadership are likely to be more important in a dynamic, unstable environment that increases the need for change, and such leadership is more likely when leaders are encouraged and empowered to be flexible and innovative (e.g., a decentralized organization with an entrepreneurial culture). The cross-cultural research on perceived importance of transformational leadership suggests that it may be used more often in some cultures than in others (see Chapter 14). Finally, there is growing evidence that the traits and values of followers may determine how they respond to a leader’s transformational or charismatic behaviors (e.g., de Vries, Roe, & Taillieu, 2002; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001). Research on Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
done. It is best to emphasize the positive aspects of the vision rather than the obstacles and dangers that lie ahead. Confidence is expressed in both words and actions. Lack of self-confidence is reflected in tentative, faltering language (e.g., “I guess,” “maybe,” “hopefully”) and some nonverbal cues (e.g., frowns, lack of eye contact, nervous gestures, weak posture). Express confidence in followers. The motivating effect of a vision also depends on the extent to which subordinates are confident about their ability to achieve it. Research on the Pygmalion effect found that people perform better when a leader has high expectations for them and shows confidence in them (Eden, 1984, 1990; Eden & Shani, 1982; Field, 1989; McNatt & Judge, 2004; Sutton & Woodman, 1989). It is especially important to foster confidence and optimism when the task is difficult or dangerous, or when team members lack confidence in themselves. If appropriate, the leader should remind followers how they overcame obstacles to achieve an earlier triumph. If they have never been successful before, the leader may be able to make an analogy between the present situation and success by a similar team or organizational unit. Review the specific strengths, assets, and resources that they can draw on to carry out the strategy. List the advantages they have relative to opponents or competitors. Explain why they are as good as or better than an earlier team that was successful in performing the same type of activity. Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values. A vision is reinforced by leadership behavior that is consistent with it. Concern for a value or objective is demonstrated by the way a manager spends time, by resource allocation decisions made when trade-offs are necessary between objectives, by the questions the manager asks, and by what actions the manager rewards. Dramatic, highly visible actions can be used to emphasize key values, as in the following example: The division manager had a vision that included relationships in which people were open, creative, cooperative, and oriented toward learning. Past meetings of the management team had been overly formal, with detailed agendas, elaborate presentations, and excessive criticism. He began a three-day meeting to communicate his vision for the division by inviting people to a beachfront ceremony where they burned a pile of agendas, handouts, and evaluation forms.