To measure indicators of positive and negative affect the software matched the number of words against an internal dictionary relating to positive and negative affect. We then converted the word counts (number of matches) indicating social connectedness and affect into percentages to account for varying narrative lengths. We used independent samples t-tests to test the effect of nostalgia condition on these indicators of social connectedness and affect. As predicted, those in the nostalgia condition mentioned social connectedness more often those in the neutral condition (Mnostalgia= 3.04, SD = 2.04 vs. Mneutral = 1.49, SD = 2.04; t(102) = 3.74, p < .01). Nostalgia participants also mentioned positive affect more often than did neutral participants (Mnostalgia= 5.07, SD = 3.14 vs. Mneutral = 1.74, SD = 1.70; t(102) = 6.09, p < .01). The two groups did not differ on negative affect (t < 1, NS). Duration Listening to Aversive Sounds. We transformed the violin, rooster, and car crash time scores using a natural log transformation (Laran and Janiszewski 2009) to normalize the distribution of the scores. Given that the time scores varied across the different types of sounds (i.e. the car crash scores were 20% shorter than the other clips), we standardized the transformed scores to create a duration index ( = .83). As expected, an independent samples t-test with nostalgia condition predicting duration revealed that participants in the nostalgia condition, compared to those in the neutral condition, indicated that they would listen to the aversive sounds for a shorter time (Mnostalgia = -.12, SD = .81 vs. Mneutral = .20, SD = .91; t(102) = 1.89, p = .06). Mediation Analysis: Social Connectedness (Loved, Protected)
social connectedness was related to coin size (β = -.76, p < .05). Mediation analyses using 5000 bootstrapped samples (Hayes 2012; PROCESS SPSS macro; model 4) with nostalgia condition as the independent variable, social connectedness as the mediator, and coin size index as the dependent variable revealed indirect mediation (Zhao, Lynch, and Chen 2010): controlling for social connectedness, the direct effect of nostalgia on coin size was no longer significant (β = p = .08). Furthermore, the indirect path had a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval that excluded zero (β = -.94, 95% CI: -2.3161 to -.0095), demonstrating that social connectedness mediated the effect of nostalgia on coin size. Although nostalgia predicted positive affect (β = 2.53, p < .01), positive affect did not mediate the effect of nostalgia on coin size (95% CI for indirect path between nostalgia and coin size included zero: -1.7310 to 1.6619). Discussion In experiment 6, participants who had earlier thought about a nostalgic event drew smaller coins than those who had earlier thought about an ordinary autobiographical event. These results are consistent with our hypothesis that nostalgia diminishes the desire for money, as prior work has linked representations of coins to desire for money (Bruner and Goodman 1947; Dubois et al. 2010; Zhou et al. 2009). Experiment 6 also demonstrated that representing coins as small in size was mediated by social connectedness in participants’ narratives. Although participants in the nostalgia condition mentioned more positive affect than those in the neutral condition, this affective state did not account for the relation between nostalgia and money. GENERAL DISCUSSION
1b: Neutral Advertisement REFERENCES Aaker, Jennifer, Melanie Rudd, and Cassie Mogilner (2011), “If Money Doesn’t Make You Happier, Consider Time,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21 (April), 126-30. Addis, Donna R., Alana T. Wong, Daniel L. Schacter (2007), “Remembering the Past and Imagining the Future: Common and Distinct Neural Substrates During Event Construction and Elaboration,” Neuropsychologia, 45 (June), 1363-77. Ariely, Dan, George Loewenstein and Drazen Prelec (2003), “Coherent Arbitrariness: Stable Demand Curves Without Stable Preferences,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118, (February), 73-105. Baron, Ruben M. and David A. Kenny (1986), “The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (December), 1173-82. Batcho, Krystine I. (1995), “Nostalgia: A Psychological Perspective,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80 (February), 131-43. ________ (1998), “Personal Nostalgia, View, Memory, and Emotionality,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87 (October), 411-32. Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary (1995), “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation,” Psychological Bulletin, 117 (May),
497-529. Berntsen, Dorthe and Annette Bohn (2010), “Remembering and Forecasting: The Relation Between Autobiographical Memory and Episodic Future Thinking,” Memory and Cognition, 38 (April), 265-78. Bohn, Annette and Dorthe Berntsen (2010), “The Reminiscence Bump Reconsidered: Children's Prospective Life Stories Show a Bump in Young Adulthood,” Psychological Science, 22 (February), 197-202. Bruner, Jerome S. and Cecile C. Goodman (1947), “Value and Need as Organizing Factors in Perception,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 42 (January) 33-44. Carver, Charles S. and Michael F. Scheier, (2004), “Self-Regulation of Action and Affect,” Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications, 13-39. Cheung, Wing-Yee, Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Erica G. Hepper, Jamie Arndt, and Ad J. J. M. Vingerhoets (2013), “Back to the Future: Nostalgia Increases Optimism,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39 (August), 1484-96. Cieply, Michael and Brooks Barnes (2012), Picture Clears in a Nostalgia Light,” http://nytimes.com/. Cuddleuptome.com, http://cuddle uptome.com/. Dahl, Darren W., Jaideep Sengupta, and Kathleen D. Vohs (2009), “Sex in Advertising: Gender Differences and the Role of Relationship Commitment,” Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (August), 215-31. Dickler, Jessica (2012), “2012’s Hottest Toy Trend: Nostalgia,” .
Dubois, David, Derek D. Rucker, and Adam D. Galinsky (2010), “The Accentuation Bias: Money Literally Looms Larger (and Sometimes Smaller) to the Powerless,” Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1 (July), 199-205. Elliot, Stewart (2009), “Warm and Fuzzy Makes a Comeback,” http://www.nytimes.com/. Faulder, Liana (2012), “Food Trends for 2012,” Postmedia News, http://www.edmontonjournal.com/. Gardner, Meryl P. and Denis W. Rook (1988), “Effects of Impulse Purchases on Consumers’ Affective States,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 15, ed. Michael J. Houston, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 127-30. Gino, Francesca and Cassie Mogilner (2014), “Time, and Morality”, Psychological Science, 25 (February), 414-21. Güth, Werner, Rolf Schmittberger, and Bernd Schwarze (1982), “An Experimental Analysis of Ultimatum Bargaining,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3 (December), 367-88. Hayes, Andrew F. (2012), “PROCESS: A Versatile Computational Tool For Observing Variable Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Modeling,” white paper, The Ohio State University, (accessed October 31, 2013) [available at http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf]. Hepper, G., Timothy D. Ritchie, Constantine Sedikides, and Tim Wildschut (2012), “Odyssey’s End: Lay Conceptions of Nostalgia Reflect Its Original Homeric Meaning,” Emotion, 12 (February), 102-19. Hepper, Erica G., Sara Robertson, Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, and Clay Routledge (2014), “The Time Capsule: Nostalgia Shields Wellbeing from Limited Time Horizons,”
working paper, School of Psychology, University of Southampton, UK SO17 1BJ. Hepper, G., Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Timothy D. Ritchie, Yiu-Fai Yung, Nina Hansen, Georgios Abakoumkin, Gizem Arikan, Sylwia Z. Cisek, Didier B. Demassosso, Jochen E. Gebauer, J. P. Gerber, Roberto González, Takashi Kusumi, Girishwar Misra, Mihaela Rusu, Elena Stephan, Ad J. J. M. Vingerhoets, and Xinyue Zhou (2014), “Pancultural Nostalgia: Prototypical Conceptions Across Cultures,” Emotion. Heyman, James and Ariely, Dan (2004), “Effort for Payment a Tale of Two Markets,” Psychological Science, 15 (November), 787-93. Holak, Susan L. and William J. Havlena (1992), “Nostalgia: An Exploratory Study of Themes and Emotions in the Nostalgic Experience,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 19, ed. John F. Sherry, Jr. and Brian Sternthal, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 381-87. ________ (1998), “Feelings, Fantasies, and Memories: An Examination of Emotional Components of Nostalgia,” Journal of Business Research, 42 (July), 217-26. Holbrook, Morris B. (1993), “Nostalgia and Consumption Preferences,” Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (September), 245-56. Holbrook, Morris B. and Robert M. Schindler (1989), “Some Exploratory Findings on the Development of Musical Tastes,” Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (June), 119-24. ________ (1991), “Echoes of the Dear Departed Past: Some Work in Progress on Nostalgia,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 18, ed. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon, UT : Association for Consumer Research, 330-33.
________ (1994), “Age, Sex, and Attitude Toward the Past as Predictors of Consumer’s Aesthetic Tastes for Cultural Products,” Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (August), 412-22. ________ (2003), “Nostalgic Bonding: Exploring the Role of Nostalgia in the Consumption Experience,” Journal of Consumer Behavior, 3 (December), 107-27. Juhl, Jacob, Clay Routledge, Jamie Arndt, Constantine Sedikides, and Tim Wildschut (2010), “Fighting the Future with the Past: On the Death-Anxiety Buffering Function of Nostalgia,” Journal of Research in Personality, 44 (June), 309-14. Laran, Juliano and Chris Janiszewski (2009), “Behavioral Consistency and Inconsistency in the Resolution of Goal Conflict,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (April), 967-84. Lea, Stephen E.G. and Paul Webley (2006), “Money as Tool, Money as Drug: The Biological Psychology of a Strong Incentive”, Behavioral and Sciences, 29 (April), 161-209. Liu, Wendy and Jennifer Aaker (2008), “The Happiness of Giving the Time-Ask Effect,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (October), 543-57. Martin, Leonard L., Teresa Constantine Sedikides, and Jeffrey D. Green (1997), “How Would I Feel If …? Mood as Input to a Role Fulfillment Evaluation Process,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73 (February), 242-53 Milk, Chris and the Arcade Fire (2010), “Wilderness Downtown,” /. Mogilner, Cassie and Jennifer Aaker (2009), “”The Time vs. Money Effect”: Shifting Products Attitudes and Decisions Through Personal Connection”, Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (August), 277-91. Pennebaker, James W., Martha E. Francis, and Roger J. Booth (2007), “Linguistic Inquiry and
Sedikides, Constantine, Tim Wildschut, and Denise Baden (2004), “Nostalgia: Conceptual Issues and Existential Functions,” in Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology, ed. Jeff Greenberg, Sander L. Koole, and Tom Pyszczynski, New York, NY: Guilford Press, Seehusen, Johannes, Filippo Cordaro, Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Clay Routledge, Ginette C. Blackhart, Kai Epstude, and Ad J. J. M. Vingerhoets (2013), “Individual Differences in Nostalgia Proneness: The Integrating Role of the Need to Belong,” Personality and Individual Differences 55 (November), 904-08. Sony Pictures Sound Effects Series, Vol. 1-5, http://www.sonycreativesoftware.com/sfxseries/. Stephan, Elena, Constantine Sedikides, and Tim Wildschut (2012), “Mental Travel into the Past: Differentiating Recollections of Nostalgic, Ordinary, and Positive Events,” European Journal of Social Psychology, 42 (April), 290-98. Stephan, Elena, Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Xinyue Zhou, Wuming He, Clay Routledge, Wing Yee Cheung, and Ad J. J. M. Vingerhoets (forthcoming), “The Mnemonic Mover: Nostalgia Regulates Avoidance and Approach Motivation,” Emotion. Stern, Barbara B. (1992), “Historical and Personal Nostalgia in Advertising Text: The fin de siècle Effect,” Journal of Advertising, 21 (December), 11-22. Sussman, Abigail B. and Adam L. Alter (2012), “The Exception is the Rule: Underestimating and Overspending on Exceptional Expenses,” Journal of Consumer Research, 39 (December), 800-14. Subaru (2012), First Car Story, http://www.firstcarstory.com/. The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), Oxford, England: Oxford University
Wickman, Forrest (2012), “The 20-Year Nostalgia Cycle—or Is It 40 Years? 15?” http://www.slate.com/. Wildschut, Tim, Constantine Sedikides, Jamie Arndt, and Clay Routledge (2006), “Nostalgia Content: Trigger, Functions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91 (November), 975-93. Wildschut, Tim, Constantine Sedikides, Clay Routledge, Jamie Arndt, and Filippo Cordaro (2010), “Nostalgia as a Repository of Social Connectedness: The Role of Avoidance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98 (April), 573-86. Zauberman, Gal and John G. Lynch Jr, (2005), “Resource Slack and Propensity to Discount Delayed Investments of Time Versus Money,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 134 (February), 23-37. Zhao, Xinshu, John G. Lynch, Jr., and Qimei Chen (2010), "Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis," Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (August), 197-206. Zhou, Xinyue, Constantine Sedikides, Tim Wildschut, and Ding-Guo Gao (2008), “Counteracting Loneliness: On the Restorative Function of Nostalgia,” Psychological Science, 19 (October), 1023-29. Zhou, Xinyue, Katheen D. Vohs, Roy F. Baumesiter (2009), The Symbolic Power of Money: Reminders of Money Alter Social Distress and Physical Pain, Psychological Science, 20 (November), 700-06. Zhou, Xinyue, Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Kan Shi, and Cong Feng (2012), “Nostalgia: The Gift that Keeps on Giving,” Journal of Consumer Research, 39 (June), 39-50.