Meta-Analysis Procedures Studies were included in the meta-analysis if they utilized a treatment-comparison or quasi-experimental design and reported sufficient information to allow effect sizes to be computed. Some research reports contained studies with multiple treatment/comparison groups. In total, 10 research reports containing 22 distinct treatment/comparison group contrasts were included in the meta-analysis. Because all studies utilized multiple outcome measures, these measures were categorized by type (reading comprehension, fluency, word, word fluency, and spelling), and a separate meta-analysis was conducted for each measure type. In cases where a study included more than one outcome measure within each category, effect sizes were averaged and the average and its standard error were included in the meta-analysis. A random-effects model was used to analyze effect sizes. Recent methodological innovations in meta-analysis such as multi-level modeling ([MLM] Hox, 2002) and structural equation modeling ([SEM] Cheung, 2008) were considered as approaches to the random-effects analyses of the effect sizes. However, the small number of effect sizes in each of the analyses (n = 5 to 22 effect sizes depending on outcome type) presented a significant limitation to the implementation of MLM or SEM. Therefore, a traditional approach was taken to the Mean effect size statistics and their standard errors were computed and heterogeneity of variance was evaluated using the Q-statistic. When statistically significant variance was found, moderator variables were introduced into the random-effects models, resulting in models. Categorical moderator variables were used in all cases due to the way that the variables of interest were reported in the studies included in the meta-analysis. Moderators included (a) total hours of intervention (less than 115 vs. 115 or more), (b) size of instructional
T (LST/PALS): Direct teaching of phonetics, phonology, morphology, and orthography 3x week. Partner reading with predicting, summarizing, and main idea 2x week. C (Saxon/SRA Skill Acquisition): Instruction in decoding, spelling, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension 3x week. Independent comprehension activities 2x week. WJ-III Passage Comp WJ-III Reading Fluency WJ-III Letter–Word ID WJ-III Word Attack ES = .84 ES = .08 ES = .96 ES = 1.02 Cantrell et al., 2010 T (LSC): Instruction in strategies for word reading, visual imagery, self-questioning, paraphrasing, memorizing word meanings, and sentence writing. C (Typical Practice): English language arts class or elective. GRADE Reading Comp 6th grade T vs. C ES = .21 9th grade T vs. C ES = .10 England et al., 2002 T (Failure Free Reading): Instruction in previewing, background knowledge, and oral language/vocabulary. Oral reading at the word, phrase, and sentence level. Independent reading and spelling activities. WJ Passage Comp WJ Letter–Word ID WJ Word Attack WJ Dictation Pretest (SS) 82.48 84.60 85.43 85.17 Posttest (SS) 93.22** 90.60** 93.32** 88.10 Gabor, 2010 T (TRTS/CPSS): Multisensory, synthetic phonics instruction provided to 8 students. Cognitive process strategies for spelling, not described, provided to 4 students. Schonell Word Reading Schonell Spelling Pretest 9.29 (RA) 8.4 (SA) Posttest 11.08 (RA)** 9.76 (SA)** Graham et al., 2007 T (QuickSmart): Instruction aimed at improving students’ speed of word recognition, reading fluency, and comprehension skills with timed flashcards, vocabulary, repeated reading, and comprehension strategy instruction. PAT Reading Comp CASS Literacy Speed CASS Literacy Accuracy Pretest T C 27.86 44.30 scores nr scores nr Posttest T C 60.50** 69.40 scores nr scores nr
C (Average/High Achieving Students): Typical school instruction. Lang et al., 2009 T1 (Read 180): Teacher-led whole group instruction of background knowledge, vocabulary, word study, comprehension, writing, and grammar followed by small group instruction, independent reading, and individual adaptive computer work on decoding, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and spelling. T2 (Reach 2002): Instruction in 3 Reading, Reasoning and Writing, and Spelling Through Morphographs—providing phonemic awareness, decoding/word analysis, fluency, oral language, comprehension, writing, and spelling. T3 (RISE): Differentiated instruction delivered in text theme units created by teacher. Includes independent reading, whole group discussion and modeling of reading skills/strategies, and small group–targeted instruction. C (SOAR): Typical school reading intervention program. FCAT Reading Comp High Risk Ss T1 vs. C1 ES = -.14 T2 vs. C2 ES = -.16 T3 vs. C3 ES = -.08 Moderate Risk Ss T1 vs. C1 ES = .05 T2 vs. C2 ES = .22 T3 vs. C3 ES = .24 Mercer et al., 2000 T (Great Leaps Reading Program for 6–9 mos, mos, or 19–25 mos): Fluency-based instruction in sounds, sight phrases, and oral reading. Graphing of students’ progress. CBM – ORF Pretest 6–9 mos: 38.26 10–18 mos: 57.37 19–25 mos: 29.09 Posttest 6–9 mos: 70.21*** 10–18 mos: 86.53*** 19–25 mos: 69.45*** Rankhorn et al., 1998 T1 (Failure Free Reading): Instruction in previewing, listening to teacher read, answering questions, and reading and reviewing controlled text. WJ Passage Comp WJ Letter–Word ID WJ Word Attack Pretest 77.95 73.97 81.33 Posttest 89.85** 83.77** 88.36** 18
WJ Dictation 76.51 86.67** Snider, 1997 T (Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading Decoding): Explicit instruction in phonics and application to words, sentences, and paragraphs. ORF Literature-based Increases of approx. 30–65 wcpm Somers et al., 2010 T1 (RAAL): Flexible implementation of metacognitive conversations, sustained silent reading, language study, content/theme instruction, and writing. T2 (Xtreme Reading): Prescribed instruction in vocabulary, word identification, self-questioning, visual imagery, paraphrasing, and inferencing in various content areas. C (Typical Practice): Regularly scheduled elective. GRADE Reading Comp GRADE Vocabulary T1 vs. C1 ES = .12 ES = .00 T2 vs. C2 ES = .05 ES = .03 Spencer & Manis, 2010 T (Great Leaps): Fluency training in sounds, words, phrases, and text using repeated readings. C (Skills for School Success): Instruction on using textbooks, taking tests, organizing assignments, and study skills. WRMT Passage Comp GORT-III Fluency WRMT Word ID WRMT Word Attack TOWRE PDE TOWRE SWE T vs. C ES = .09 ES = .45 ES = .33 ES = .49 ES = .36 ES = .14 Torgesen et al., 2001 T1 (ADD): Phonemic awareness, encoding, and decoding taught with articulatory cues. Reading decodable text and questioning. T2 (EP): Phonemic decoding and encoding taught. Reading in trade books, writing sentences with new words, and fluency of word reading included. WRMT Passage Comp GORT Reading Comp GORT Rate GORT Accuracy WRMT Word Attack WRMT Word ID TOWRE PDE Pretest T1 83.0 73.3 73.8 68.5 71.3 68.9 74.3 Posttest T1 91.0 85.6 75.4 89.4 96.4 82.4 83.3 Pretest T2 82.2 79.4 71.5 77.5 70.1 66.4 75.7 Posttest T2 92.0 86.0 72.1 87.5 90.3 80.5 83.7
5–7 months 8–9 months More than 1 year .63 .45 .45 .31 1.11 -.18 1.33 -.12 1.21 32 57 42 .07 .14 .29 -.11 .35 -.23 1.02 .03 .70 28 55 12 Instructional Group Size Group Instruction 1:1 .35 .51 .05 .73 -.18 1.33 10 121 .14 -.23 1.02 95 0 Note: ES = Effect Size.