5. 100,000 to 200,000 – homo sapiens, sapiens a. Out of – started in and migrated b. Multiregional thesis – all developed independently Stone Age – First period of prehistory - Tool use separates hominids from ancestors Paleolithic – Old Stone Age – 10,000 to 2.5 million years ago Crude tools – clubs, axes, bones for shelter, protection, food, cloth Natural shelters – cave/canyons Began tentlike structures/huts Wooden/stone structures by Mesolithic 1 million years ago – fire Warfare – rocks, clubs – food preparation tools used for combat Weapons found in bones 5. Clothes from hides/furs and later plant fibers a. cloth for color 6. Families, clans, tribes a. Select sexual partners – not seasonal b. Long term sexual – emotions + child rearing c. Family units created clans Neolithic – New Age – 5,000-10,000 years ago Nature and causes of changes associated with the time span Change due to Great Ice Age – Pleistocene Ice Age Continuities and breaks within the time span Mesolithic – Middle Stone Age – 10,000-12,000 years ago – transition Difficult to generalize Lack of information Regions developed at different times Diverse Interpretations What are the issues involved in using "civilization" as an organizing principle in world history? Westerncentric meaning 1. food producing w/ surplus 2. increase in population 3. specialization of 4. social hierarchy 5. growth of trade 6. centralization of religious/political authority 7. monumental buildings 8. written records 9. technical innovation – the arts World historians – more broad view – importance of human creativity 1. Interaction of human beings in creative manner 2. Cultural and material build What is a civilization
Food surplus Advanced cities Advanced technology Skilled workers Complex institutions – government, religion System of writing/record keeping What is the most common source of change: connection or diffusion versus independent invention? Connection/diffusion – due to interaction vs. invented something new or used it in a new way a. Diffusion – ironwork – Assyrians to Kushites b. Invention – Nok people of – smelting iron 2. Farming of certain crops – diffusion – > > > a. Others independent – sub-Saharan , , 3. After emergence, diffusion takes over – exchange of techniques, seeds, crops Developing agriculture and technology Agricultural, pastoral, and foraging societies, and their demographic characteristics (Include , the , and .) Foraging societies – small groups of people traveled – climate/food availability 1. Bad - climate, disease, famine, natural disasters 2. No permanent shelters 3. to how much land can feed 4. Mammals, fished, gathered 5. Organization a. Some had chiefs, leaders, religious figures b. Coordination needed for hunting large game – later used for warfare 6. Worshipped deities – buried dead 100,000 years ago – burial sites a. Sacrifices, ceremonies 7. Expression through art – art 32,000 old, flutes 30,000 years old 8. Gender division of labor a. Physical differences – men hunted, made war, labor b. Women gathered, prepared food, maintained home, children c. Roles not seen as superior, just different - debatable Pastoral societies – domestication of animals Mountain regions, insufficient rainfall Small scale agriculture to add to milking Extended family important Women w/ few rights, men controlled food production Power based on size of herd Couldn’t settle needed to look for food for herd Seasonal migration Difficult to become “civilized” * to experiment w/ plants/seeds Mix animal husbandry w/ domestication
Wheels for carts sails for boats Combine copper with tin to make bronze Weapons, tools – Bronze Age Iron follows 7. Neolithic Age – New Stone Age – ends with metalworking a. 6600 BCE – Copper used in , b. Metalurghy – extracting from raw ore and metalwork – crafting – quite difficult 1. Jewelry predates 6400 BCE, but tools not efficient until later 8. 3500-3000 BCE – Bronze from copper/tin discovered in Middle East, Balkans, Southeast Asia – later part Neolithic Age – Bronze Age a. and never had a bronze age – tin scarce b. Scarcity of tin pushed need for international 9. 1500-1200 BCE – Iron Age – Hittites a. Spread to in 1000 BCE, in 500 BCE b. Possible to cultivate hard packed soil/more land c. Wave of invasions from outside features of early civilizations in different environments: culture, state, and social structure A. Mesopotamia 1. Culture a. Independent innovation that passed to Egypt/Indus b. 4000 BCE bronze, copper c. irrigation canals d. 3500 Sumerians – cuneiform – first writing – stylus – objects > sounds e. Number system – 60 – movement of heavenly bodies 1. navigation 2. time f. Architecture – ziggurats – 1) glory of civilization, 2) many gods 1. Clay primary building material g. epic – Epic of Gilgamesh – 1) great flood story 1. King’s to achieve immortality h. traders 2. State a. Unpredictable flooding – need for government – irrigation b. City-states – controlled city + surrounding area c. Geography – lack of natural barriers – invasion – defensive d. Conflicts over water/property rights e. Akkadians/Babylonians – spread Sumerian culture 1. Code of Hammurabi – first written law code a. Different rules for gender/social classes b. Very harsh, favored upper class c. Systematic, consistent set of regulations, not arbitrary will of a ruler f. After 900 BCE –Assyrians and Persians ruled g. king-like figure – lugal “big man” 3. Social structure
a. Ruled by elite, rulers, priests b. Farmed by slaves – could purchase freedom c. Patriarchal – men could sell wives/children to pay debts 1. 1600 BCE women wearing veils 2. But…women could gain power courts, priestesses, scribes, small business B. Egypt 1. Culture a. 3000 BCE – b. pharaoh – pyramids – for self/families 1. Decorated w/ colorful paintings c. polytheists – afterlife > mummification 1. Egyptian Book of the Dead – what happened to soul, how to reach happy 2. afterlife > mummification and tombs d. bronze tools weapons after e. – independent innovation iron – spread to f. some trade w/ and g. hieroglyphics – from trade contacts 1. papyrus – making h. geography – protected – create unique civilization i. less urban than Mesopotamians j. 365 day calendar, medicine, math, astronomy 2. State a. overflowed annually – predictable b. irrigation led to organization/government c. agricultural villages engaged in trade d. pharaoh – king – power 1. living incarnation of sun god e. geography – protected from invading people f. beginning 3100 when unites Upper and g. 2040-1640 BCE Middle Kingdom – culturally dynamic h. – 1500 – regained from foreign invaders Hyksos – focused on military i. by 900 in control of foreign invaders – internal disorder, invasions 3. Social structure a. Social classes, but commoners could enter government service – rise in social status b. Patriarchal, but women had some privileges 1. Women sometimes acted as regents for young rulers, priestesses, scribes 2. managed household finances/education of children 3. right to divorce husbands/alimony 4. could own property 5. Queen Hatshepsut C. Indus – 2500 - 1. Culture a. Streets laid out in precise grid – houses had running water/sewage b. Harappan writing not deciphered – much unclear
Broaden use of metals Agriculture improves ox-drawn plow collar to prevent choking Aryans Vedas – part of Hindu scripture transmitted orally – later recorded in Sanskrit Sanskrit – language Epic Age (1000-600 BCE) Ramayana Mahabharata – greatest epic poem of Upanishads – collection of religious epic poems Mauryans Guptas Classical Age of Supported Hinduism led to revival in Hindu art, literature, music Great temples built Fashioning iron for many uses/weapons Guptas – enthusiastic patrons of Hindu culture High towered temples Lavish wall paintings – of Ajanta Growth of Sanskrit as language of educated Inoculation of smallpox Sterilization during surgery/cleaning wounds Plastic surgery/setting of bones Astronomy – eclipses – identification of planets Classic temple – courtyards, paintings, sculptures Scientific/mathematic breakthroughs Pi, zero, decimal system numerical system – called “Arabic” due to traders Overview – celebration of life, human experience Served as inspiration for Renaissance and Enlightenment Greek – Golden Age – 500-350 BCE – “Periclean Age” Philosophy Truth through rational thought and deliberate observation Many findings proved erroneous Process, not findings that are key Precedent – seeking knowledge for its own sake – pure science Nature became focus – more orderly than gods through human examination not religious ritual Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Rational inquiry Socrates – seek answers by asking questions Be rational with moral issues
Unskilled laborers, small number of slaves – mean people Themes Few live in cities – less than 10% Social hierarchy Confucius – five basic levels of relationships ruler/subject father/son elder brother/younger brother husband/wife friend/friend each relationship has set of duties/responsibilities between superior/subordinate harmony the result of right conduct North – wheat, south – rice Fishing, hunting, forestry, tea growing main industries in mountain Tenant farmers – bulk of rural population – for landlords Power from court of emperor – implemented by scholar-gentry Hierarchy in Provinces Scholar-gentry landlords Military Artisans Landed peasants Landless tenant peasants Hierarchy in Capital Emperor, Officials, Eunuchs, Military, Artisans When crops failed Higher starvation, infanticide, lawlessness, peasant revolts Extended family Call on spirits of dead ancestors – advocates with gods Extended family most influential feature homes – respect to elders Patrilineal wealth – passed down to son Female identity extension of father/husband Family to family network of connections Business, social life, marriage Patriarchal – voice of authority for family – to government Taoist – yin/yang Assertive masculinity vs. gentle/submissive female Women could get power in court Favored concubine/wife Daughters not valued as much – female infanticide Sold as servants/slaves for debts Caste system – introduced by Aryans – migrated 1500 BCE 3000 BCE – – four classes – where is soul
Brahma – priests Warrior class Farmer/merchant class Laborers Scheduled class/untouchables – outside class structure Assigned menial jobs 2. determines occupation, traditions, social strata for spouse Tenets of Hinduism/caste maintained order Aryans Village organization – patriarchal control Customs devalued role of women Not allowed to own property them to fathers and husbands Sati – women killed selves on husband’s funeral pyres Honor and purity to wife More isolated/segregated – purdah Contact w/ family members only, no public Used skin to separate classes New elites had darker skin than conquered people First three classes Aryans – final dark-skinned During Epic Age – warriors and priests reversed authority Mauryans Guptas saw rights diminished Declared minors in need of supervision by male Daughters neglected, infanticide Couldn’t participate in sacred rituals/study religion Couldn’t own property Child marriage became norm – girls six/seven Due to property issues in urban area Because of strict division, slavery not widespread Return of Guptas solidified caste system Proliferated and evolved Brahmin – priestly Kshatriya – warrior Vaishya – producing caste Shudra – servant caste Harijans – untouchables Not even a caste Do tasks that might “pollute” Hindu culture Waste products, butchering, carrying dead Further castes – jatil – subcastes Slavery – Sumerians – survivors of opponents into labor
Fertility – soil/women Class of people emerged to oversee rituals/guide people priests/shamans held important positions Space dedicated for early rituals – temples first buildings Some regional, some transplanted Nomadic as well as early river civilizations Greeks/Romans – represented natural human phenomenon, but appeared like humans Pantheons elaborate groups – positions for each Sumerian-Babylonian deities – set of rituals Olympian deities “celestial bureaucracy” – Aesir and Vanir – northern Transition to Monotheism – Zoroastrianism Polytheism faded as myth or legend Zoroastrianism – partial commitment to monotheism Founded by priest Zoroaster in 500 B.C. Based teaching on Avestas Worship of one god Ahura Mazda – “wise lord” Son Mithra venerated as well Ahriman – god of darkness Belief that Ahura Mazda and Ahriman in cosmic struggle followers go to heaven Ahriman’s go to hell Not monotheism – dual gods of equal power Flourished in until 600s CE w/ Islam Remains in – Parsis Historians say played a role in shaping Jewish/Christian thought Judaism Overview Hebrews – Jews/Jewish not until 900s BCE Religion and societal custom Key part of the Western ethical, cultural, intellectual foundation first monotheistic faith Devoted exclusively to worship of one deity Founding Abraham’s Covenant Patriarch in Sumerian city of , clan leader Covenant with god YHWH (Yahweh/Jehovah) For…complete religious allegiance Get…Hebrews “chosen people” led to “promised land” – - Between 2000 > 1850 BCE left – faith created Son Isaac carried on faith and then grandson Jacob
philosophy Personal salvation Five of Moses – Torah of Abraham and descendants Increased in number – became slaves in – Moses became leader brought them back to land promised by God Return called the Exodus Central event on 40-year trek – – Ten Commandments Only one God No idol worship Honor parents Murder forbidden Stealing forbidden Moses – author of Torah “teaching” – first five books in Hebrew scripture – Tanakh Christian Bible first five books of Old Testament Messiah “Annointed One” would someday appear to free them from oppression Talmud “Instruction” – strict code of conduct/righteous behavior ethical monotheism Dietary restrictions charity, social responsibility, concern for the poor Restrictions on sexual practices Women respected in home, but extremely patriarchal retributive principle – eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth common to Practice slavery – like many Middle Eastern religions Spread Not a missionary religion Did little to attempt to convert non-Jews – even 70 years in Impact Christianity First monotheistic religion Hinduism Locations - Belief System Applied Principal religion of Spread through waters of , islands of Vietnam/Cambodia – some adopted Sanskrit During Mauryan – Buddhism gained more Reestablished during Gupta
Basic Features Originated Aryan invaders Vedic roots – no precise date of birth people + invaders – 1500 BC Vedism – core – four Aryan scriptures Vedas – knowledge on obedience to gods Complex rituals/sacrifices for priests Oral form back to 4500 BCE Oldest/largest – Rig-Veda – hymns/stories Gods/goddesses Agni – fire god Mitra – patron of humankind Surya – sun god Indra – god of war/storms Early Hindu scriptures Upanishads – 900-500 BCE Essays and poems to outline Hindu spirituality Emphasize simplicity Inner development of individual methods for spiritual improvement Yoga – meditative practices physical/mental discipline Puranas – popular tales about gods and heroes Sutras – moral teachings Laws of Manu – 200 BCE > 200 CE – support of caste system Texts that were religious and literary Mahabharata – epic of 90,000 stanzas longest poem in the world? war between two royal houses Bhagavad-Gita “Song of the Lord” Poetic dialogue between Arjuna/Krishna Lectures on duty Ramayana – 350 BCE – adventures of Rama Seventh incarnation of Vishnu Hinduism – Muslim invaders – non-religious practices “Beyond the ” Roots further back than any other religion still practiced Not a single faith Founded by single group/person Single of gods single body of scripture synthesis of many religious traditions
Combined polytheistic gods of nature of Brahmins and made them represent concepts Everything part of divine essence – Brahman – “Ultimate Reality” “One” Brahma enters gods or different of one god Deities – Vishnu – preserver, Shiva - destroyer Meaningful life has found union with divine soul Every living creature has atman – individual soul is an illusion – maya causes suffering Prevents union with Brahman achieved through reincarnation – after death new soul/animal Cycle of life, death, rebirth – samsara Spiritual perfection < incarnation and reincarnation Karma – person’s good or evil deeds – “law of deeds” Evil actions, spiritual laxity > karmic debt – trapped in samsara Good actions, spiritual discipline > greater understanding of moral duty – dharma Need to eliminate karmic debt – gains release - Moksha Change castes or go to an animal Methods of achieving moksha Veda – obedience to gods, ritual practices Requires reliance on Brahmin Upanishads, later scriptures proper conduct/spiritual exercises prayer, meditation, ritual, worship, good actions Eventually reaches – moksha United with the soul of Brahma No longer experiences worldly sufferings Does not have single founder Developed gradually Embraced variety of forms of worship Deities Brahman, but recognizes hundreds of gods/goddesses including Vedic deities All gods – avatars – incarnations of the Brahman 200 BCE – three gods largest following Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Vishnu the Preserver as minor Vedic sun god Became Savior figure, friend to humanity In incarnations, appears as a hero 7th - Rama – In Ramayana 8th – – teaches Arjuna