References 113 Chapter 7. Generalizing From Research Results: Inferential Statistics 114 Chapter Overview 114 Starter Questions 114 Introduction 115 Generalizing From Data: Inferential Statistics 115 The Return of Standard Deviation 116 Confidence Level, Sampling, and the Normal Curve 117 Confidence Level and Sample Size 120 Testing for Differences Between and Groups 121 The t Test 121 t Test: Formula 122 t Test: Example 123 Another Type of t 125 Analysis of Variance 125 ANOVA: Formula 126 ANOVA: Example 126 Testing for Relationships Between and Among Variables 127 Correlation 127 Regression 129 Partials, and Parts 129 The Decision: Accept or Reject Your Findings 129 Ethics Panel: A Communicative Tension 130 Chapter Summary 131 Key Terms 131 Application Exercises 131 Exercise 1: Predicting Group Wealth 131 Exercise 2: Generalizing From a Sample to a Population 132 Exercise 3: Gender and Beverage Preferences 132 Recommended Reading and Web Resources 132 Reference 132 Chapter 8. Sampling: Who, What, and How Many? 133 Chapter Overview 133 Starter Questions 133 Introduction 134 Nonprobability Sampling 134 Convenience Sampling 135 Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 135 College Rankings 116 References 116 Chapter 7: Generalizing From Research Results: Inferential Statistics 117 Chapter Overview 117 Chapter Objectives 117 Introduction 118 The Language of Curves 118 (previously in Chapter 6) Generalizing From Data: Inferential Statistics 119 The Normal Curve and the Central Limit Theorem 119 The Normal z Scores, and the Return of Standard Deviation 120 Calculating Probabilities Based on the Normal Distribution 122 z Scores, Hypotheses, and Decision Making 123 Confidence Level and Sample Size 124 Testing for Differences Between and Groups 125 The t Test 125 t Test: Formula 126 t Test: Example 127 Another Type of t 129 Analysis of Variance 129 ANOVA: Formula 130 ANOVA: Example 130 Testing for Relationships Between and Among Variables 131 Correlation 131 Regression 132 Paths, Partials, and Parts 132 Two Final Decisions 132 Accept or Reject My Findings? 132 If It’s Significant, Is It Significant? 133 Ethics Panel: A Communicative Tension 134 Chapter Summary 135 Key 135 Application Exercises 136 Exercise 1: Predicting Wealth 136 Exercise 2: Generalizing From a Sample to a Population 136 Exercise 3: Gender and Beverage Preferences 136 Exercise 4: "The Internet of Things" Revisited 136 Recommended Web Resources 137 References 137 Chapter 8: Sampling: Who, What, and How Many? 138 Chapter Overview 138 Chapter Objectives 138 Introduction 139 Nonprobability Sampling 139
The Double Negative 161 Language 161 Guiding Respondents Through Surveys 161 Filter Questions and Instructions 162 Surveys and the Web 162 Improving Survey Response Rates 163 Capturing and Processing Survey Data 165 Other People’s Surveys 166 Ethics Panel: Clients and Methods as Ethical Decisions 166 Research in Practice: Using Qualitative and Post-Studies to Transform Student Advising 168 Chapter Summary 170 Key Terms 170 Application Exercises 171 Exercise 1: Expanding on a Basic Question 171 Exercise 2: Survey Method Decision 171 Exercise 3: Survey Wording 171 Recommended Reading 171 Recommended Web Resources 171 References 172 Chapter 10. Experiments: Researching Cause and Effect 173 Chapter Overview 173 Starter Questions 173 Introduction: Advantages and Disadvantages of Experiments 174 Field Experiments and Ex Post Facto Designs 175 Basic Experimental Design 176 One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 176 Designing for Control 177 Two-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 177 Designing for Random Assignment 178 Two-Group Random Assignment Pretest- Posttest Design 178 The Solomon Four-Group Design 179 Time Series Analysis 179 Factorial Designs 180 Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Design 182 Validity and Experimental Design 182 Internal Validity 182 External Validity 183 Manipulation Checks 185 Ethics Two Famous and Controversial Experiments 185 Stanley Milgram’s Experiments on Authority 186 Framing Questions 165 Negative Wording 165 The Double Negative 165 Language 165 Guiding Respondents Through Surveys 166 Filter Questions and Instructions 166 Online Surveys 167 Online Survey Design 167 Involvement 167 Control 167 Privacy 167 Technology 168 Mobile Surveys 168 Improving Survey Response Rates 168 Capturing and Processing Survey Data 171 Using Other People’s Surveys 171 Ethics Panel: Clients and Methods as Ethical Decisions 172 Chapter Summary 173 Key Terms 173 Application Exercises 174 Exercise 1. Survey Wording 174 Exercise 2. Survey Method 174 Exercise 3. Mobile Technologies 174 Exercise 4. Survey Mode 174 Recommended Reading 175 Recommended Web Resources 175 References 176 Chapter 10: Experiments: Researching Cause and Effect 177 Chapter Overview 177 Chapter Objectives 177 Introduction: Advantages and Disadvantages of Experiments 178 Field Experiments and Ex Post Facto Designs 179 Experimental Design 181 One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design 181 Designing for Control 181 Two-Group Pretest–Posttest Design 182 Designing for Random Assignment 182 Two-Group Random Assignment Pretest– Posttest Design 183 The Solomon Four-Group Design 183 Time Series Analysis 184 Factorial Designs 184 Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Design 186 Validity and Experimental Design 187 Internal Validity 187 External Validity 188 Manipulation Checks 189
Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment 186 Research in Practice: Using Qualitative Research to Understand Hispanic Banking Needs 186 Chapter Summary 188 Key Terms 188 Application Exercises 189 Exercise 1: Further Adventures With Study Conditions 189 Exercise 2: An Experiment in Persuasion 189 Exercise 3: Hybrid or Regular? 189 Recommended Reading 189 Recommended Web Resources 190 Reference 190 Chapter 11. Watching and Listening: Qualitative Research for In-Depth Understanding 191 Chapter Overview 191 Starter Questions 191 Introduction: Advantages and Disadvantages of Watching and Listening Methods 192 Qualitative and Quantitative: Similarities and Differences 192 Watching and Listening Methods 195 Interviews 196 Interview Structure 196 Interview Setting 197 Interview Sensitivities 198 Interview Sequence 198 Interview Question 198 Interview Question Prompts 199 Focus Groups 199 Ethnographic Methods 200 Researcher-Participant Relationships 201(moved to beginning of chapter.) Ethnographic Starting Points 203 Observational Studies 204 Unobtrusive Measures 205 Conversation Analyses and Case Studies 205 Making Sense of Qualitative Data 206 Fixed Coding 206 Flexible Coding 206 Drowning in Data? Software to the Rescue 208 Ethics In Which a Professor Becomes a Student 208 Ethics Panel: Two Famous and Controversial Experiments 190 Stanley Milgram’s Experiments on Authority 190 Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment 191 Chapter Summary 191 Key 191 Application Exercises 192 Exercise 1. Further Adventures With Study Conditions 192 Exercise 2. An Experiment in Persuasion 192 Exercise 3. Hybrid or Regular? 192 Exercise 4. Assessing the Effect of an Instructional Program 193 Recommended Reading 193 Recommended Web Resources 194 References 194 Chapter 11: Watching and Listening: Qualitative Research for In-Depth Understanding 195 Chapter Overview 195 Chapter Objectives 195 Introduction: Advantages and Disadvantages of Watching and Listening Methods 196 Qualitative and Quantitative: Similarities and Differences 196 Researcher–Participant Relationships 197 (New section. Mentioned later in previous ed. Chapter) Watching and Listening Methods 198 Interviews 199 Interview Structure 199 Interview Persona 200 Interview Setting 200 Interview Sensitivities 201 Interview Recording 201 Interview Sequence 201 Interview Question 201 Interview Question Prompts 202 Focus Groups 202 Online Focus Groups 203 Ethnographic Methods 204 Ethnographic Starting Points 206 Online Ethnography 206 Observational Studies 207 Unobtrusive Measures 207 Conversation Analysis 208 Making Sense of Qualitative Data 208 Fixed Coding 208 Flexible Coding 209 Drowning in Data? CAQDAS to the Rescue 210