Later, James had the laws forbidding witchcraft in England rewritten. Whereas an offense might have been punishable only by prison time, it was now punishable by death. For most of his life, James upheld the belief that he was meant to rid England of witches. Later in life, after several people who had participated in trials confessed that they had lied, his strong belief began to crumble. Still, his laws against the practice outlived him. Discussion Questions: Do you think, from this production of The Tempest, that Shakespeare himself believed in magic or witchcraft? Or did he include it in his play for some other reason? If so, what might that reason have been? Is there anything in our day, in our culture, that allows us to re-enter the world of Shakespeare’s original audience members, many of whom did believe in magic and witchcraft. Is Prospero’s of magic a mistake or immoral in some way? It is what brought about the loss of his dukedom, but his mastering of the elements is also what empowers him to regain his dukedom. Language as Power (by Katherine Cline) Books and language are at the very core of The Tempest, and in this work, language, one of then main tools of the human imagination, plays a very rich role. The entire play is, like a good novel, an intricate game orchestrated by its author, Prospero. He, in many ways, controls the characters of the play like the pawns in the chess match played by Ferdinand and Miranda, manipulating their surroundings and moving them around the island at his discretion. He sends Ariel to create the tempest and strand the sailors on the island; he separates Ferdinand from his father and subsequently lets him “happen upon” Miranda; he allows Stephano, Trinculo, and Caliban to conspire against him; he thwarts them, and he
himself on the backs of those on the island. Every time Caliban attempts to lash out at his oppressors, he fails. He is powerless against the forces of Prospero, of the Westerner, who makes him to haul firewood. By all rights, the island belongs to Caliban, and Prospero has taken it. As for the history of The Tempest, it was written around 1610. Less than two hundred earlier, Columbus had discovered the already inhabited “New World.” Before this, as far back as ancient Rome, Africa faced colonization efforts by Europeans. Colonization would have been something Shakespeare was very familiar with. Just two years before The Tempest was written, Jamestown was established in America. Discussion Questions: Can we know from The Tempest whether Shakespeare approved or disapproved of colonization? Is Caliban better off because of his encounter with Western Europeans? Is he in any way off? What gives a civilization the right to occupy another civilization? Is this a question that is explored in The Tempest? Commedia dell’arte in The Tempest (by Katherine Cline) The commedia dell’arte is, according Jennifer Meagher, a “theatrical form characterized by improvised dialogue and a cast of colorful stock characters that
emerged in northern Italy in the fifteenth century and rapidly gained popularity throughout Europe.” Most readers can agree that there are elements of comedy in The Tempest; the witty, intelligent banter of Sabrina, Gonzola, Adrian, and Francesca and the drunken escapades of Stephano and Trinculo are both comedic in their own ways, but many scholars have suggested that Stephano and Trinculo are commedia characters. In fact, Kevin Gilvary equates these two characters to two characters from classic Italian comedy: Stephano to Pulchinello and Trinculo to Brighello, respectively (page 11). Pulchinello and Brighello are traditionally servant characters, much like Stephano and Trinculo. Pulchinello, says Meagher, is often depicted as “crafty and cantankerous, beating people with his batacchio [slapstick club] at every opportunity,” while other productions portray Pulchinello as gluttonous, often carrying wine. Stephano, his counterpart in The Tempest, is introduced as having floated ashore on a butt of wine, and he is the first to give Caliban alcohol. Brighello, meanwhile, “is sometimes vindictive, deceitful, and violent, at other times easily duped and the brunt of jokes” (Meagher). This is an apt description of Trinculo, who is both violent in his conspiring to murder Prospero and humorously dull-witted in how easily Ariel can trick him. While Stephano, Trinculo, and Caliban are plotting against Prospero, Ariel appears (invisible) and throws his voice to make it sound like Trinculo’s, and the comically violent argument that ensues is reminiscent of Pulchinello using his stick. And Gilvary points out other Tempest characters with commedia counterparts: Alonso and Pantalone, Ferdinand and Fausto, Antonio and Gratiano, Gonzala and Caviello, Miranda and Filli, and Prospero and the magician. Gilvary also cites similarities between events in The Tempest and three earlier commedia plays: Il Mago (The Magician), La Nave (The