Table 2. Festuca species in Australia Scientific name Synonyms/Varieties/ Subspecies Common name Areas present in Australia Flowering time Natural hybrids (and their respective synonyms if available) F1 (•x)e,fFestuca archeri E.B.Alexeev e,x, yTAS. F2 •a,e,f,tFestuca asperula Vickery a,tGraceful fescue a,d,e,i,t, yNSW, VIC., a,d,e, yTas, I,yACT tDecember - February F3 (•b,g,t)e,fFestuca benthamiana Vickery e,gFestuca duriuscula var. aristata Benth. bFescue e,yVIC, b,d,i,t,ySA, yNSW tOctober - November F4 •aFestuca glauca Vill. a, yNSW, yACT, ySA, F5 (*w)e,fFestuca longifolia Thuill. wHard fescue, Blue fescue eQLD? F6 •a,e,f,tFestuca muelleri Vickery a,d,e,i,t, yNSW, VIC., d,e,I, yACT tDecember - March F7 *a,e,f,tFestuca nigrescens Lamk. aFestuca L. subsp. commutate Gaud., tFestuca rubra L. var. commutate Lam. aChewings fescue a,d,e,i,t,yNSW, VIC., yTAS., aS.A, WA, d,e,I, yACT tNovember - January
Sierra No No Quartet No Yes Turf Premier II N/A No Barlennium N/A No Brightstar N/A No Stallion Supreme N/A No L. multiflorum Pasture ‘Biennial’ early season flowering diploid Dargo No Yes ‘Biennial’ mid-season flowering diploid Caversham No No Eclipse No Yes ‘Biennial‘ late season flowering diploid Concord No No Conquest No No Crusader No Yes Dargle No Yes Diplex No No Flanker No Yes Grasslands StatusPlus No Yes Grasslands Warrior No Yes Hulk No Yes Mariner No Yes MarbellaSud No No No Yes Tabu No Yes
Harrisia cactus Eriocereus martinii pear Opuntia aurantiaca Horehound Marrubium vulgare Wiregrass Aristida ramosa Lantana Lantana camara Woody weeds Dodonaea, Eremophila spp. 4 – 2005). Common name Genus name Common name Genus name Awl Dolichodorus Seed-gall Anguina Cyst (larvae) Heterodera Sheath Hemicycliophora Dagger Xiphinema Spiral Helicotylenchus Hoplolaimus Rotylenchus Needle Longidorus Tylenchus Pin Paratylenchus Stubby root Paratrichodorus Ring Criconemella Stunt Tylenchorhynchus Root knot Meloidogyne Ipibora Root lesion Pratylenchus 5 – 2006). Order/Family Scientific name Common name Symptoms Listronotus bonariensis Argentine stem weevil Yellow mottling of grass, dispersed dead yellow patches of turf. The maggot may be
Coleoptera Curculionidae seen in the crown of the plant. Usually starts on the edges of turf. Sphenophorus brunipennis Billbug Damage occurs primarily from November through to January. Infected turf will turn yellow initially and then brown as the larvae chew through stolons and rhizomes. The turf can easily be removed from the soil similar to scarab beetle damage. A second generation can occur in February if environmental conditions are favourable. Scarabaeidae Aphoditus tasmaniae and Adoryphorus couloni headed cockchafer and Red headed cockchafer Destruction of the turf may occur in autumn through the feeding activity of large larvae when these are present at densities of 200–500 per m2. Heavy infestations can result in the roots of turf plants being severed to such an extent that the turf can be rolled back in sheets. Cyclocephala signaticollis Argentinian scarab Grubs are very damaging root feeders. This causes the plant to weaken and may die in times of slight heat or water stress. This can be identified easily as affected plants lose their stability and wilt. Heteronychus arator African black beetle Irregular dead of turf eaten below ground. Sericesthis geminate and S. pruinose Lawn or Pruinose scarab Caterpillars feed on roots, the sod, this way reducing the turf’s ability to respond to stress. Lepidoptera Hepialidae Oncopora spp. Sod webworm, Underground grass grubs The removal of leaves in irregular The presence of a fine silk web. Excretion on leaves. Noctuidae Agrotis infusa A. ipsilon A. munda Common cutworm or Bogong moth Greasy cutworm Brown or Pink cutworm The cutworm caterpillar strips the grass of its foliage, limiting the grasses’ ability to grow. A more devastating action of the cutworm caterpillar, and the reason for its name, is its tendency to cut off plants above, at or below the soil surface, thus the caterpillar actually destroys far more than it consumes.
Antitrogus morbillosus Tableland pasture scarab The extent of damage by the grubs is dependent on the level of infestation, seasonal conditions and grazing management. Usually worsened in shallow soil and where plant growth is restricted by dryness and overgrazing, which reduces the plants capacity to replace severed roots (Goodyer and Nicholas, 2005). Anoplognathus spp. Christmas beetles (Goodyer and Nicholas, 2005) Heteronychus arator African black beetle (Goodyer and Nicholas, 2005) Larvae feed on roots and may sever them (Gregg, 1997). Othnonius batesi soil scarab (Goodyer and Nicholas, 2005) Rhopaea spp. Pasture white grub (Goodyer and Nicholas, 2005) Sericesthis geminata Sericesthis nigrolineata Pruinose scarab Dusky pasture scarab Larvae damage the roots. In severe infestations the roots can be entirely removed so that the pasture is torn up by grazing animals or birds searching for larvae. Less severe damage can cause water stress as a result of root loss and an inability to recover from defoliation (Gregg, 1997). Tenebrionidae Pie dish beetles Larvae attack germinating and the stems of seedlings. Established pastures can support substantial populations with little effect, but newly seeded pastures can be severely damaged (Gregg, 1997).
Leaf spot Bipolaris sorokiniana (syn. Helminthosporium sativum) Hot, humid conditions. dark purple to black coloured spots on the leaf blade. As spots enlarge, the centres often turn light tan. At temperatures exceeding 30°C, distinct spots are often absent and the entire leaf blade appears dry and straw coloured. A warm weather disease affecting leaf sheaths, crowns and roots. Severe thinning of turfgrass stand can occur in a short time. Pythium blight, Grease spot, Cottony blight Pythium spp. Warm weather disease, most destructive between 30-35ºC. Survives well in water and poorly drained soils. Circular reddish brown spots, 2-15 cm in diameter. Infected leaves appear wet, dark and active mycelium can be seen in the morning. Leaves then shrivel and turn reddish brown. Red thread Corticium fuciforme Temperatures greater than 20ºC with dry nutrient deficient i.e. nitrogen. Occurs on water soaked turf. Dark leaves in small areas and is more obvious in longer grass. Red-pink mycelium is seen on leaves. A leaf disease. Rolf's Disease Sclerotium rolfsii Warm humid weather, dry soils with excessive thatch. Generally the turf is unhealthy. Yellowish shaped area that is 68 cm in diameter. There is visible regrowth in the centre. The spores (sclerotia) may be present, they are 2 mm in diameter and orange-black or brown in colour. Slime moulds Physarium spp. Mycilago spp. Moderate temperature with excessively wet soils with poor drainage. Bluish-grey or They are unsightly as they mass on the leaf surface. They spread up to 25 cm across. This is a saprophytic disease.
Smut, Leaf smut, Stripped or Flag smut. Ustilago spp. Moist, humid warm weather. Blackish areas on leaves may be rubbed off with fingers. Spring dead spot Leptosphaeria narmari and L. korrae Circular dead first appear in spring. The spots appear in many of the same places and expand for 3 to 4 years. After the second or third year, the disease often appears as rings of dead grass, and may disappear after 3 or 4 more years. Take all patch Gaeumannomyces graminis Common to newly established turfs, diminishing with the build up of antagonistic microorganisms in soil. Favours high pH. Patch of bronzed or bleached turf 10-15 cm diameter grows to 1 m over a period of years. Black runner hyphae can be seen under base of leaf sheath, on crowns and roots. 8 – Common Name Scientific Name Hosts Environmental Factors Symptoms/Damage Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) Perennial ryegrass Reductions in establishment, competitiveness, persistence, productivity and pasture quality (Clarke and Eagling, 1994). Blind seed disease Gloeotinia granigena Perennial ryegrass Extended periods of leaf wetness in late November/early December and air temperatures of 1525°C favour the highest incidence. Seed heads. Infection usually results in seed death. Seed from heavily infected stands has reduced commercial value because of poor germination rates (Vargas, 2005). Brown blight Drechslera siccans (syn. Perennial ryegrass, The leaf-spot, and root rot Small brown spots which enlarge and may develop white centres
Helminthosporium siccans) Italian ryegrass stages occur during the cool weather of spring and fall, few signs of the disease are evident during warm summer months (Vargas, 2005) and/or dark brown streaks appear on the leaf blade. Heavy infections can result in severe thinning (Vargas, 2005). Drechslera spp. Perennial ryegrass Foliage (Clarke and Eagling, 1994). Helminthosporium spp. Perennial ryegrass, Tall fescue Foliage (Clarke and Eagling, 1994). Crown rust Puccinia coronata Perennial ryegrass, Tall fescue Long, cool, wet winters or times when grass is growing most slowly (Vargas, 2005). Initially yellow spots develop on the leaves. Later orange-brown pustules 0.5 to 1 mm long occur on both leaf surfaces. The black spore (teliospore) stage can be found as early as September, and through the summer and autumn. Infected leaves die prematurely and severely rusted plants become stunted (Clarke, 1999b). Damping off Fusarium, Pythium and Phytophora Cool, moist conditions. Damage is done prior to emergence resulting in failure of seeds to emerge. If emergence occurs, seedlings collapse. Ergot Claviceps spp. Perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, Tall fescue Dark purple sclerotia (resting body) develop in place of a healthy seed and protrude from the glume. There appearance is preceded by ay honey dew stage which appears 2-3 weeks after flowering (Clarke, 1999a). Fairy ring Marasmius oread, Basidiomycetess Perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass and Tall fescue Unknown, though a change in nitrogen source or levels may stimulate growth. Ring of darker coloured, fast growing grass stimulated by the fungi breaking down organic material in mat or thatch.
Leaf spot Bipolaris sorokiniana (syn. Helminthosporium sativum) Perennial ryegrass, Tall fescue Hot, humid conditions. dark purple to black coloured spots on the leaf blade. As spots enlarge, the centres often turn light tan. At temperatures exceeding 30°C, distinct spots are often absent and the entire leaf blade appears dry and straw coloured. A warm weather disease affecting leaf sheaths, crowns and roots. Severe thinning of turfgrass stand can occur in a short time (Vargas, 2005). Reduces yield and quality of tall fescue and its ability to recover after grazing. Longer the infection, greater the losses (Clarke and Eagling, 1994). Net-blotch Drechslera dictyoides Paul and Parbery (syn. Helminthosporium dictyoides Drechslera) Tall fescue In spring spores are produced and can be transferred to healthy plant tissue, but the leaf-spot phase is inconspicuous at this time. Crown and root infection is thought to take place in spring, but symptoms are not expressed until the warm, dry weather of summer. Initially occurs as irregular dark purple to black transverse strands, resembling dark threads drawn across the leaf creating a net-like appearance (Clarke and Eagling, 1994). Ryegrass mosaic virus (RMV) Perennial ryegrass Reductions in dry weight yields (Clarke and Eagling, 1994). Stem rust Puccinia graminis Perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, Tall fescue elongated, 1-10 × mm pustules with ragged edges occur on the leaves, stems and seed head. Later in the season the pustules may turn black when the fungus produces a resting stage spore (teliospore). These spores, in Australia, have no further part in the