Ashworth et al., 2004 UK 2004 Before and after incentive (no control group) Change in use of prescription budget (overspent/underspent) of primary care organization (PCO) PCO prescribing budgets were, on average, overspent by 4.5 per cent in the first year and marginally under spent by 0.6 per cent in the second year. Many PCOs had successfully turned a first year prescribing overspend into a second year under spend. PCOs that successfully reversed their overspend (49 out of 84; 58 per cent) Cattaneo et al., 2001 Italy 1998-1999 Before and after study (no control) Change in breast feeding rates (intermediate outcome) Significant increase in breast feeding rates Fairbrother et al., 1999 New York 12 months Before and after study with control group July 1995-July 1996 Childhood immunization coverage rates (process) Bonus group improved significantly in documented up-to-date immunization status, with an overall change of 25.3% (P _ 0.01),
et al., 2007 Cincinnati USA Between October 1, 2003,andNovember30,2006 No control group but interrupted time series desing. Good quality, so will count as control Asthma improvement in children Influenza vaccination rates all-payer asthma population receiving “perfect care” increased from 4% to 88%, with 18 of 44 practices (41%) achieving a perfect care percentage of 95% or greater influenza vaccine increased from 22% at baseline (2003- 2004 season [September 1 through March 31]) to 41% for the season, to 62% for the 2005-2006 season, with 7 of 44 practices (16%) achieving an influenza vaccination percentage of 80% or greater for the 2005- 2006 season.
Supplementary file S11 Characteristics of included studies Recipient of incentive Size of incentive Risk Evaluation design Type Groups Small Medium Large Low High No control RCT A B C Outcomes with statistically significant positive effect (N=190) n (%) 33 (17.3) 156 (81.7) 29 (16) 43 (23.8) 109 (60.2) 147 (78.2) 41 (21.8) 93 (48.9) 86 (45.3) 11 (5.8) 102 (57.3) 49 (27.5) 27 (15.2) Other outcomes (N=80) no statistically significant effect statistically significant negative effect negative effect n (%) 12 (15) 68 (85) 21 (27) 12 (15.4) 45 (57.6) 79 (75.2) 26 (24.8) 5 (6.3) 62 (77.5) 13 (16.2) 37 (47.5) 26 (33.3) 15 (19.2) Total number of outcomes (270) n (%) 45 (16.7) 224 (83.3) 50 (19.3) 55 (21.2) 154 (59.5) 226 (77.1) 67 (22.9) 98 (36.3) 148 (55.2) 24 (8.5) 139 (54.8) 75 (29) 42 (16.2) *type A-schemes with high chance of success, type B-schemes with medium chance of success, type C- schemes with low chance of success *number of studies= 96
patient evaluation Bischoff et al, 2012 Bischoff et al, 2012 (%) Before and after data Percentage of summaries completed on day of discharge 38% N=563 83% N=2560 0.003 0.056 Inclusion of all recommended elements on summary 5% N=80 88% N=80 1.03 0.101 VD= 0.077 0.318 0.227 National Health Insurance P4P (NHI-P4P) Taiwan Lee et al., 2010 Mean difference Essential diabetes exams and tests All patients in the P4P program (n = 12,499). Comparison group (n = 26,172) 2.450 0.005 Rwanda PBF program Basinga et al., 2011 Mean difference Any prenatal care N=80 N=86 0·002 −0•021 0•025 0.006 0.079 Four or more prenatal care visits 0·008 −0•063 0•079 0.005 0.077 Institutional delivery 0·081 0·015 0·146 0.005 0.077 Tetanus vaccine during prenatal visit 0·051 −0·002 0·103 0.006 0.078 Standardized total quality score 0·157 0·026 0·289 0.006 0.078 Younger than 23 months preventive visit, previous 4 weeks 0·119 0·041 0·198 0.006 0.078 24–59 months preventive visit, previous 4 weeks 0·111 0·059 0·162 0.006 .079 12–23 months fully immunized −0·055 −0·184 0·074 0.006 r=0.5 0.002 0.078 0.041 0.65
QOF Campbell et al., 2009 Mean difference Coronary heart disease -0.250 n=42 -0.401 0.100 0.024 .155 Asthma -0.468 n=42 -0.748 0.187 . 0.024 .154 Diabetes -0.220 n=42 -0.313 -0.127 0.023 0.153 Continuity of care 0.091 n=42 0.025 0.157 0.023 r=0.5 0.053 0.153 0.229 AQ Sutton et al, 2012 Percentage points 30 day Mortality for CABG and other heart related diseases N 134435 Percentage change N 722139 Percentage change -0.9% 1.3 0.4 2.1 0.013 Premier Jha et al., 2012 Percentage points 30 day Mortality for CABG and other heart related diseases 11.82% N= 137287 11.74% Control=1094034 0.08 −0.30 0.46 0.005 Premier Lindenauer et al., 2007 Percentage points Composite measure of process indicators N= 116613 N=192381 4.3 3.0 5.7 0.008 QOF Doran et al. 2011 Mean difference Composite measure of process indicators N=653 500 N=653 500 1.9 1.4 2.5 0.154 QOF et al. 2012 Percentage points Composite quality score on diabetes in the first year 67.3% Ntotal= 23,780 60% 7.3 6.7 8.0 0.011 QOF Before and after QOF design Simpson et al., 2011 OR Blood pressure below target <150/90 1.11 (1.04 to 1.19) 0.74 (0.67 to 0.82) N=315 0.030
National Health Insurance P4P (NHI-P4P) Taiwan Kuo et al., 2011 OR Quality of care of breast cancer (enroless vs non enrollees) 0.70 N= 4,528 patients in total 0.63 0.062 0.050 0.074 0.003 National Health Insurance P4P (NHI-P4P) Taiwan Li et al., 2010 OR TB cure rate in the first 12 months N= 25754 N= 33536 1.338 1.159 1.544 0.054 Hawaii medical group Gilmore et al., 2007 OR Recommended care (a composite score from 11 indicators) N was not reported 1.27 1.09 1.40 SE = 0.044 Hudson health plan Chien et al., 2010 OR Childhood vaccinations N=155 N=16 1.65 SE= 0.24 0.132 McMenamin et al, 2003 et al, 2003 OR Smoking cessation advise 3.63 N=1104 1.7 7.76 SE= 0.852 Salize et al 2009 Salize et al 2009 OR Smoking abstinence N=20 We might need patient sample here N=21 1.28 0.25 6.48 SE= 0.876 Twardella and Brenner, 2007 Twardella and Brenner, 2007 OR Smoking cessation Participants: 577 patients in 82 practices 1.26 N=557 2.43 SE= 0.250 1.58
Kruse et al., 2013 Kruse et al., 2013 OR Smoking status Documentation N =227574 N 207,471 1.3 1.1 1.4 SE= 0.042 Chen et al., 2010 Chen et al., 2010 OR Quality of diabetes care 19,193 32,365 1.16 1.11 1.22 SE= 0.015 QOF Coleman et al., 2007 OR Brief advise to smokers No N 3.03 2.89 3.09 SE= 0.028 QOF Calvert et al., 2009 OR HbA1c levels of ≤7.5% N=147 1.05 1.01 1.09 SE= 0.011 QOF Simpson et al., 2010 OR Smoking status reporting Total N= 525 R=0.75 4.45 4.43 4.46 0.0042 0.004 Smoking cessation advise 6.75 6.66 6.85 0.0262 0.026 Smoking cessation referral 7.32 6.92 7.73 0.013 0.114 Quit rates 0.73 0.72 0.73 -.075 0.0012 r= 0.75 0.013 0.001 0.115 Bardach et al, 2014 Fagan et al., 2010 Bardach et al, 2014 OR Aspirin therapy, with IVD or DM N=42 R=0.75 N=42 1.28 1.50 0.003 0.056 Blood pressure control No IVD or DM 1.23 1.05 1.44 0.003 0.055 Blood pressure control 0.71 0.4 1.24 -0.82 0.014 0.118
. IVD Blood pressure control DM 1.52 1.12 2.07 0.018 0.134 Blood pressure control IVD or DM 1.37 1.07 1.75 0.009 0.096 Cholesterol control 0.86 0.67 1.09 -0.36 0.003 0.059 Smoking cessation intervention 1.30 1.04 1.63 mean 0.007 0.033 0.083 0.183 Fagan et al., 2010 OR Influenza vaccine N= 1587 Around diabetes= 0.75 N=19356 1.79 1.37 2.35 0.019 0.138 Hemoglobin testing 0.44 0.33 0.65 0.031 0.176 Eye exam 0.98 0.61 0.285 0.534 Ldl test 0.62 0.44 0.86 0.053 0.231 Nephropathy test 0.96 0.62 1.46 -.010 0.184 r=0.75 0.366 0.429 0.605 Gavagan et al, 2010 Gavagan et al, 2010 0R Pap smears 0.043 0.208 Mammograms 0.096 0.309 Pediatric immunization r=0.5 0.721 0.382 0.849 0.618
Larsen et al , 2003 Larsen et al , 2003 % change Diabetes care N=9436 52.85 N= 5785 33.5% 0.019 Tsai et al., 2010 Tsai et al., 2010 % change Tb treatment N= 16434 89.96% no default in treatment N= 638 87.30% no default in treatment 0.067