smallholders, 7% state’s schemes and 20% owns by government schemes such as FELDA, FELCRA and RISDA (Figure 6) Figure 6: Distribution of oil palm plantation ownership in 2009 (Total hectarage: 4.69 million hectares) 2.1.2 The Importance of Palm Oil Oil palm produces one of the most popular edible oils in the world, palm oil. Palm oil is versatile oil with good nutritional value providing crucial source of food and energy supplies globally. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit (Sumathi et al., 2008). The oil is light yellow to red in colour and is rich in beta-carotenes (the precursor of Vitamin A) and Vitamin E. The palm kernel oil is almost colourless and produced from the seed (Poku, 2002). Palm oil can be used in making margarine, ice-cream and as an ingredient in many processed foods, cosmetics and also engine lubricants. Apart from that, palm oil is used to produce many other downstream oleo-chemical products such as soap, palm fatty acids, palm methyl esters and many more (Sumathi et al., 2008). Moreover, the palm oil industry produces large quantities of biomass by-products such as EFB, fibres, shells, fronds, and trunks which can be converted into many value added product (Sumathi et al., 2008). More importantly, palm oil has been providing bio energy, an alternative fuel source to supplement the decreasing high carbon fossil fuels. The renewable energy, biodiesel is a mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from feedstock, such as vegetable oils. It is synthesized from the triglycerides in friendly
mulching and used as a fertilizer supplements (Zulkifli and Wan Hasamudin, 2004; Vijaya et al., 2010) The fruitlets from the stripper are sent to a digester where they are digested into a homogenous oily mash by means of a mechanical stirring process. The digested mash is the pressed fruitlets using a screw press to remove most of the crude palm oil (CPO). At this stage, CPO comprises of a mixture of oil, water and fruit solids which is screened on a vibrating screen to remove as much solids as possible. The CPO is then clarified in a continuous settling tank operation. The decanted CPO passes through a centrifugal purifier and desander to remove any remaining solids, and is transferred to the vacuum dryer to remove moisture. Finally, CPO is pumped into storage tanks before it is sent off for export or refining at the refineries (Vijaya et al., 2010) to get a wide range of palm products of specified quality. Palm oil may be further fractionated, using simple crystallization and separation method to obtain solid (stearin) and liquid (olein) fractions of various melting characteristics to make them suitable for a variety of food and products (MPOC, 2010). Like other vegetable oils, palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel which exhibits similar properties as petroleum-derived diesel. Palm oil offers sustainable alternatives to renewable energy that is environmentally friendly. Palm biodiesel can be produced via transesterification process between crude palm oil and alcohol with the presence of an acidic or alkaline catalyst (Yee et al., 2009). MPOB has successfully developed biofuel for motor vehicle from palm oil, with formulation of blended crude palm oil with medium fuel oil as boiler fuel in power plants, and a blend of palm olein with diesel. To encourage the use of palm diesel in the country, Malaysia is embarking on a project to produce mass palm biodiesel as a substitute to the high conventional diesel prices (Khoo and Chandramohan, 2002). The emerging biodiesel industry is expected to contribute to the economy and development of the country.
2 1.5 3 2.2 4 2.5 5 2.5 If yield between 20-25 tonne/ha/yr Year 6 and above (every 4 month) 2.5 2.5 2.5 If yield more than 26 tonne/ha/yr Year 6 and above (every 4 month) 2.5 3.0 3.0 Table 9: Recommended rates of fertilizer application for oil palm using straight fertilizers Palm age (year) of fertilizer Rate (kg/palm/year) Fertile soil Less fertile soil Planting stage Rock phosphate 0.20 0.25 0 - 1 Urea Rock phosphate MOP 0.20 0.50 0.30 0.35 0.50 0.70 1 – 2 Urea Rock phosphate MOP 0.70 1.00 0.70 1.0 1.0 1.0 2 – 3 Urea Rock phosphate MOP 1.00 1.25 0.90 1.3 1.25 2.10
participated by environmental experts from over 100 countries including 27 developing countries. ISO 14000 standards are designed not only mutually supportive, but they can also be used independently of each other to achieve environmental goals. Based on ISO (2009), the ISO 14000 series is developed to be implemented according to the same Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle underlying all ISO management systems standards. Table 11 classifies the ISO 14000 standards according to PDCA cycle. Table 11: List of ISO 14000 standards Plan Do Check Act Environmental management system implementation Conduct life cycle assessment and manage environmental aspects Conduct audits and evaluate environmental performance Communication and use environmental declarations and claims ISO 14050 : 2009 Environmental management – Vocabulary ISO 14040 : 2006 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework ISO : 2001 Environmental management – Environmental assessment of sites and organizations (EASO) ISO 14020 : 2000 Environmental labels and declarations – General principles ISO 14001 : 2004 Environmental management systems – Requirements with guidance for use ISO/TR 14047 : 2003 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines ISO : 1999 Environmental management – Environmental performance evaluation – Guidelines ISO : 1999 Environmental labels and declarations – environmental claims (Type II environmental labeling) ISO : 2004 Environmental management systems – General guidelines on principles, systems and support techniques ISO/TR 14047 : 2003 Environmental management – Life cycle impact assessment – Examples of application of ISO 14042 ISO 19011 : 2002 Guidelines for quality and/or environmental management systems auditing ISO 14024 : 1999 Environmental labels and declarations – Type I environmental labeling – Principles and procedures ISO/DIS 14005 Environmental management system – ISO/TS 14048 : 2002 Environmental management – Life ISO 14024 : 2006 Environmental labels and declarations – Type
Guidelines for the phased implementation of an environmental management system, including the use of environmental performance evaluation assessment – Data documentation format III environmental declarations – Principles and procedures ISO/AWI 14033 Environmental management – Quantitative environmental information – Guidelines and examples Address environmental aspects in products and products standards Evaluate greenhouse gas performance ISO Guide 64 : 2008 Guide for addressing environmental issues in product standards ISO/TR : 2000 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Examples of application of ISO 14041 to goal and scope definition and inventory analysis ISO 14064-3 : 2006 Greenhouse gases – Part 3: Specification with guidance for the validation and verification of greenhouse gases assertions ISO : 2006 Environmental management – Environmental communication – Guidelines and examples ISO/CD 14006 Environmental management systems – Guidelines on ISO/CD Environmental management – Material flow cost accounting – General principles and framework ISO 14065 : 2007 Greenhouse – Requirements for greenhouse gas validation and verification bodies for use in accreditation or other forms of recognition ISO/WD 14045 Eco-efficiency assessment – Principles and requirements Manage greenhouse design
Table 15: Impact assessment parameters used in the study Impact Category Characterization Damage Category Common Characterization Factor Emission to - Emissions Carcinogens DALY/ kg Human Health - Air, soil Respiratory organics DALY/ kg Human Health - Air Respiratory inorganics DALY/ kg Human Health - Air Climate change DALY/ kg Human Health Global Warming Potential Air Radiation DALY/ kg Human Health - Air, soil layer DALY/ kg Human Health Ozone Depletion Potential Air Ecotoxicology PAF*m2*year/ kg Ecosystem Quality - Air, water, soil Acidification PDF*m2*year/ kg Ecosystem Quality Acidification Potential Air Eutrophication PDF*m2*year/ kg Ecosystem Quality Eutrophication Potential Water Land use Solid Waste Decreased diversity PDF*m2*year/ kg Ecosystem Quality - - Resource depletion Resource Depletion Potential Metals/ Minerals SE/ kg Resources - - Fossil fuels SE/ kg Resources - -
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