The evidence and gaps in the evidence that have come from this systematic review have important implications for policy makers and researchers. These are listed below. Data and measurement Develop better quality and standard of measurement in surveys The data available through current surveys do not allow us to draw nuanced estimates of experiences of discrimination, identity-based harassment and violence. They also do not allow comparison between the experiences of people with different protected characteristics, of the experiences of people from different countries in GB. Sustain sources of evidence that comparison over time The lack or loss of evidence that allows comparison over time is a problem and makes it difficult to assess confidently whether experiences of prejudice and discrimination are improving, getting worse, or changing form for particular groups. Improve evidence on the perspectives of perpetrators as well as victims of particular acts of discrimination, identity-based harassment and violence within particular contexts and time periods This will provide greater insight into which interventions might work best in particular contexts, and to what extent the focus of intervention should be on perpetrators, victims, or both. Develop a comprehensive framework on tackling prejudice and discrimination This would enable assessment of the evidence systematically across different approaches and interventions to substantially improve its relevance for policymaking. The framework would need to take account of the social context, the particular settings, the time frame and duration of change, and the particular protected characteristics that are implicated when planning interventions. Improve the robustness and quality of evaluations Development of a quality threshold approach to guide future interventions will enable more confident and systematic assessment of what is effective, why it is effective, and substantially improve relevance for policymaking.
EHRC ‘Stop and think again’ (2013) Evaluated various interventions initiated by different police forces (Thames Valley, Leicestershire, Dorset, London Met, West Midlands) since the EHRC ‘Stop and think again’ report (2010) *new policies implemented by police forces *training needs *disproportionality in number of Black and Asian people subjected to stop and search Some police force areas, though not all, saw a reduction in race disproportionality. The common among these interventions is the use of educational methods. None of the interventions were strongly evaluated, but each does show either a reduction in prejudiced attitudes/discriminatory behaviours, or a greater awareness of racial prejudice and cultural difference. As highlighted above, when people can be led to value diversity they are likely to feel less prejudice, therefore educational programmes that can increase awareness of the value of cultural diversity may be beneficial. Increased contact between groups can also foster positive attitudes, even when the contact is not direct (as in the VLE example above). Show Racism the Red Card (SRtRC) is a large-scale campaign in the UK aimed at educating against racism and, more recently, homophobia. The campaign website highlights positive feedback from participants who have taken part in events run by SRtRC and gives examples of those that have been run across the UK. However, there was no evidence of any direct evaluation of the campaign or measurement of any changes in attitudes or behaviours, therefore it was not possible for us to judge the assessability of the campaign. The resources on the SRtRC website suggest the use of a multi-method educational approach, which is considered effective in other interventions highlighted within this report. 5.7 Intersectionalities In order to avoid duplication, intersectional evidence is only reviewed in one of the relevant chapters. To locate sections on other intersectionalities involving this protected characteristic, see Table A1.1 in the Appendix. Race and age
high enough standard of evaluation to determine their effectiveness with a high level of confidence. Research on intersectional issues suggests that women’s experiences need to be separated from men’s in sexual orientation research to understand particular difficulties faced by being a lesbian woman. This is especially true for disabled women. Religious values were perceived to conflict with sexual orientation. For example, among ethnic minority men where sexual and ethnic identities conflicted, there were more negative experiences (for example, attacks were more violent). 9.2 Expressions of prejudice Values Abrams and Houston (2006) that half of British people felt that it was important to satisfy the needs of gay and lesbian people. In a 2011 European survey, marriage was rejected by 42.1 per cent of British respondents and 37.2 per cent of respondents thought that homosexuality was immoral (Zick et al., 2011). However, there is evidence that attitudes are becoming more positive. A survey of 1,968 Scottish people who were not lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT) showed that 62 per cent acknowledged that prejudice towards LGBT people exists (French et al., 2015; Noller and Somerville, 2012). Half of Welsh respondents surveyed shared this view (White and Spear, 2013), and most people in Britain think that LGBT people should be able to be open about their sexual orientation (Cowan, 2007; Stonewall, 2012). Surveys across Great Britain (GB) show that religious attitudes, lack of acceptance, and negative parental attitudes have been cited as explanations for the prevalence of LGBT prejudice. They also show that a gay or lesbian person would be more likely to conceal their sexual orientation in religion, education and politics. These spheres are perceived to be less ‘gay friendly’ than the arts and entertainment industries (Cowan, 2007; Stonewall, 2012). Parents and schools are considered important avenues to help reduce prejudice towards lesbian and gay people (Noller and Somerville, 2012; White and Spear, 2013), as are employment and health and social care settings (Stonewall, 2012). These findings are congruent with the main settings in which homophobic discrimination has been researched and point to primary areas in which interventions could be directed.
There was no evidence about links between attitudes and behaviours relating to pregnancy and maternity. Most of the evidence in this area focused on employment settings in which employer prejudices may reflect structural and economic factors that they perceive to involve conflict between equality and the economic needs of business. Women in employment settings who have returned to work after a period of parental leave report being discriminated against. The evidence suggests that a lack of knowledge and understanding underpins employers’ discriminatory behaviours rather than prejudiced attitudes. Outside of the workplace, teenage mothers report feeling excluded, stigmatised and stereotyped, suggesting that they may be particularly vulnerable to discrimination. Challenges in this area are amplified by intersections with disability, race and sexual orientation that may feed into disparities in healthcare. The literature search did not identify any interventions specifically for this protected characteristic. The link between prejudiced attitudes and unlawful behaviour Prejudice is an important, though not the only, determinant of whether or not individuals engage in discrimination or identity-based harassment or violence towards a person or group of people. Other important drivers of discrimination include poor institutional practices and laws, and public misinformation or misunderstanding. A very limited volume of research (12 papers out of a total of 197) has directly examined the link between a person’s prejudices and the discrimination that is experienced by someone else as a result. These cannot be directly compared with one another as they focus on different groups, types of question and outcomes, and they differ in scale. There is no evidence of direct links for the protected characteristics of disability, marriage, or pregnancy. However, the evidence does show that there are links, albeit in different forms and involving different elements of prejudice for different protected characteristics. It is also possible by drawing on aggregate evidence (for example, the prevalence of hostile attitudes in a population and the prevalence of experiences of discrimination towards a protected characteristic) to infer the extent of the links. The most prevalent elements of prejudice for a particular protected characteristic are reflected in the ways that the people with that protected characteristic experience discrimination. An example is
activity and events to increase contact, work with children and young people, support for a network of people with experience of mental health problems to take leadership roles in challenging discrimination, media engagement to improve media reporting and representations of mental health issues, and focused work with Black and ethnic minority communities. community attitudes towards the mentally ill scale employment related attitudes mental health knowledge intended future contact awareness of campaign campaign), as did tolerance and support for community care. Evans et al. (2015) Disability The Wheelchair Sports Project (England): Embodied experience of wheelchair basketball for non-disabled people. Trained coaches delivered sessions during PE over 12-week period. - observations - semi-structured interviews with 24 children in four groups. Students reported increased similarities between disabled and non-disabled people, increased empathy, familiarity with and frustrations of wheelchair use. Improvement in language. 45 Faulkner (2012) Disability As Evans-Lacko et al (2013) but with a South Asian population in Harrow, London. As et al (2013) 67 per cent of people improved their attitudes towards mental health. 43 per cent of those who have seen the activity in Harrow say it has encouraged them to reflect on their own behaviours. 28 Henderson et al. (2014) Disability All Time to Change interventions In England since they began. - Discrimination and Stigma Scale Over the course of Time to Change experiences of discrimination have fallen 71
- Resource generator-UK used to assess access to social capital and risen slightly, with a significant decrease overall. Significant increases in discrimination from friends and in social life were found between 2011–12. Also an increase in feeling the need to conceal one’s diagnosis. Loughran (2013) Disability Time to Change (England): Children and people’s pilot program including: leadership volunteering, educational programme, community events, campaign materials with local organisations and social marketing. - attitudes to mental health - knowledge of mental health and confidence were measured pre- and post- intervention Young people’s and stakeholders’ (such as siblings, parents, youth professionals) attitudes towards mental health improved. Increased understanding and empathy. 15 Loughran and Boon (2015) Disability Time to Change (England): Young people's programme, social contact, schools programmes and national social marketing. Included: training for teachers, young leadership groups in schools, resources/promo materials, resources for parents, pop-up villages, social marketing (vloggers and Time to Talk Days). - knowledge about and attitudes towards mental health - language used when discussing mental health - empowerment to challenge stigma - experienced discrimination - confidence 10 per cent improvement in mental health knowledge. Improvement in attitudes and reduction of derogatory language. six per cent reduction in experience of discrimination. Increase in talking about mental health and awareness. 15 et al. (2009) Disability See Me, national Scottish campaign to end mental health discrimination involves an outreach programme, Asked service users about experiences of discrimination. Interviewed media professionals to ascertain Evaluation shows an increased awareness of issues. 65
community champions, engagement in decision-making, speaker and media volunteer programmes, developing strategies. whether media reporting has changed prior to the campaign to 2007 and analysed headlines from newspapers at three time points. Kerby et al. (2008) Disability Anti-stigma films: The first short film, ‘A Human Experience’ (Smith, 2005), made in collaboration with service users at Rethink Nottingham and evaluated in England, adopts a ‘talking head’ style approach around three mental health professionals discussing their experiences of being diagnosed with a mental health condition. The second short film, ‘A Day in the Mind of…’ (Green, 2005) made by service users at Framework housing association Nottingham, adopts a perspective on the experience of psychosis. Randomised control design (film vs control) assessed pre, post and eight weeks after watching the film. - attitudes towards mental health - perceived dangerousness - attitudes towards psychiatry - contact with people with a mental health condition - behavioural intentions towards people with a mental health condition Attitudes were less stigmatising after the intervention in the experimental group. Perceived dangerousness decreased between pre- and post-intervention and remained similar eight weeks later. Decrease in social distance between pre- and post- for the intervention group, but this was not sustained eight weeks later. 68 Varughese et al. (2011) Disability Randomised control trial. General public in Essex, England, were asked to complete a questionnaire after looking at a photo of either a) a man with intellectual disability from the cover of the Learning Disability Coalition leaflet entitled ‘Tell it Like it is’, or b) a - ’Attitude to Mental Illness’ questionnaire People’s attitudes to mental health conditions were more positive after looking at photo b. Photo b significantly reduces stigmatised attitudes. 63
positive images to reduce the negative stereotypes of older and younger people. Van de and Abrams (2015a) Age An arts-based intervention. One hundred and fifty-three children from a primary school in England (years 1-6) were surveyed before and after viewing an art exhibition. The intervention aimed to reduce prejudiced attitudes and increase pro-social behaviour towards older people - perceptions and attitudes towards older people - kindness, willingness to cooperate with and prosocial attitudes towards older people - role models - understanding of art forms The results showed that, after the art exhibition, children were less biased against older people and more willing to cooperate with them. There were also differences according to age group, suggesting that some groups are more prone to stigmatise older people. 40 Gadd, Fox and Hale (2014) Sex REaDAPt: Secondary school children (in England, but also France and Spain) read a book in which a university student is in an abusive relationship. The story is discussed over six sessions, alongside presentations and short films that depict domestic violence situations. - the Attitudes towards Domestic Violence questionnaire (ADV) was administered before and after the interventions were delivered - focus group discussions The intervention was effective in reducing both boys’ and girls’ acceptance of domestic violence. Ongoing work to develop a ‘toolkit’ 73 Walker (2013) Sex WAVE intervention de- livers intensive support (two-hourly weekly sessions over a six-week period) to female offenders and women at risk of offending in the UK. - semi-structured interview about their experience with the intervention program Women felt they gained control over their emotions and behaviours. They were more aware of ‘triggers’ to their violent behaviour. Women were not aware of inner thoughts and feelings regarding their power in intimate relationships. 47
Mitchell, Gray and Beniga, (2014) Sexual orientation Evaluated the effectiveness of interventions in England and to tackle homophobic, biphobic and transphobic bullying among school-aged children and young people. The authors reviewed 31 pieces of literature, conducted 20 in-depth telephone interviews with teachers and other providers, observed four schools (case study) and recruited 247 individuals for an online exercise that mapped existing interventions and views on their effectiveness. The review revealed that whole school approaches were considered more effective than reactive approaches, education, teaching, and playground approaches. 40 Warwick and Aggleton, (2014) Sexual orientation Evaluated three Schools’ approaches (in England) to tackling homophobic bullying. Interviewed 58 children and nine members of staff at three different schools all-girls and in London, aiming to identify how the schools address homophobia. Qualitative analysis revealed that children have complex ways of discussing homophobia, addressing aspects such as sexual meanings and identities, sexual communities and rights, power, sexuality- related discrimination, and images of masculinity and femininity. Conversely, schools’ commitment to address homophobia was aligned with their concerns for fairness. 45 Hutchings and Clarkson, (2015) General KiVa is a bullying prevention program, which originated in Finland and has been trialled and evaluated in 14 schools across Wales and three from Cheshire. Pre and post intervention measures of - Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire, which records whether pupils self-identify as victims, non-victims, bullies or non-bullies Significant reductions were reported in bullying and victimisation. Teachers reported high levels of pupil acceptance and engagement with lessons. 63
The intervention consists of KiVa lessons delivered to year 5 and year 6 pupils - teachers reported on experience of delivering the program in an online survey Anne Frank Trust, (2015) General The Anne Frank Trust intervention involves creating schools ambassadors and peer guides across the UK, to increase awareness of intergroup differences and norms, and to challenge the elements of prejudice. Teachers and pupils surveyed after the intervention on: - knowledge about and the consequences of, prejudice - respect for others - critical thinking skills - confidence - monitoring and challenging discriminatory behaviour Peer guides have increased knowledge about what prejudice is and its negative consequences. Teachers agree that peer guides are more confident, have better critical thinking skills and have an increased respect for others. They are also more likely to challenge and report discriminatory behaviour 67
Protected characteristic Typical social psychological contexts (good relations, intergroup relations) Typically researched settings Typical forms Disability Structural effects, benign indifference Hate crime, education employment Over-simplistic categorisation, patronising stereotypes, negative emotions, low social contact Race Malign antipathy, rivalrous cohesion targeted at particular groups Immigration, nationality, experiences of Black and Asian people, hate crime, education, employment Antipathy, verbal abuse, perceived threat, social distance, reluctance for contact Religion Rivalrous cohesion (sectarianism, conflicts) Employment, hate crimes Social distance, cultural threat, non-recognition of practices Age Structural barriers, benign indifference Population surveys, health, social care, employment, mainly old age Patronising stereotypes and treatment Sex Mixed Education, health, social care, employment Hostile and also paternalistic attitudes, stereotypes and emotions, pay gap Sexual orientation Malign antipathy Hate crime, employment, health, social care, education Antipathy, verbal abuse, social distance, reluctance for contact Gender reassignment Malign antipathy Hate employment health, social care, education Antipathy, verbal violence in relationships, social distance, reluctance for contact Marriage and civil partnership Mixed Forced marriage and same-sex marriage Social distance, contrasting religious or cultural values
Appendix 3: Methodology This methodology section outlines in detail the methods used to conduct the research underpinning the ‘Prejudiced Attitudes and Unlawful Behaviour’ research report. It provides further details on the three parts of the research which were conducted, including: A systematic literature review in which we identified and reviewed the relevant literature on prejudiced attitudes and instances of unlawful discrimination, identity-based harassment and violence. A measurement map in which we identified and assessed data sources and measures of discrimination to identify what has been measured and how. A review of interventions in which we evaluated the quality and impact of interventions that aim to reduce prejudice, discrimination or inappropriate behaviour directed towards people with protected characteristics. These were outlined in Chapter 2, ‘How the research was conducted’. In addition to online searches for evidence, we consulted academics, policy makers, research funders, charities and What Works Centres. This section also describes the criteria that were used to assess whether evidence was appropriate for inclusion in the review, and the development of a framework to determine the quality of the intervention evaluations. In carrying out a systematic review of the evidence, we aimed to follow a procedure that would be replicable and as free from bias as possible, both to ensure we captured the relevant research findings on the topic and to map where there were gaps or uncertainty in the evidence. We used a narrative review, selecting exemplary studies to highlight their successful qualities, drawing out transferable policy learning from successful approaches or interventions, and bringing together common criteria of programme success. We set out the protocols that we followed to conduct the systematic review below. This included: identifying key search terms; searching for and identifying research;
Table A3.3 Elements of the evaluation framework and their origins Criteria Design Description (including rationale & appropriateness) x x x x x x x x x Based on a systematic review x x x Experimental (preferable) x x x x x Selection bias x x Blinding x x Different data sources x Confounding x x N of studies x Description x x x x x x N x x Withdrawal & drop-out analysis x x Method of recruitment x Admission/exclusion criteria x x Provides a protocol x x x x Context of the intervention x x x Ethics Ethical approval, problems, confidentiality, anonymity x x Description & measurement of outcomes x x x x x x x N of DVs x Effect size x x x x Consistency x Theoretical framework x x x x x x x Relevance of evidence to practice x x x Extend the knowledge x