In 1928, Leon Trotsky insisted that developments in China might well be of decisive importance for the anticipated "proletarian world revolution."2 At about that time, Karl Wittfogel, then an orthodox Marxist, was preparing an account of the revolutionary significance of the thought of Sun Yat-sen, founder of the KMT and the most readily recognized leader of the 1911 uprising that brought an end to dynastic rule in China.3 The years between 1922 and 1928 were critical to the Oriental policy of the Comintern. They were the years in which the Executive Committee of the Comintern (ECCI) first attempted to formulate and then implement a
revolutionary movements were to deal with each other in an increasingly complex and threatening world environment.27 For Marxists, of whatever persuasion, it was evident that revolutionaries in less-developed economic environments, given the absence of proletarians, could only be "bourgeois." Both Marx and Lenin had recognized as much. Revolutionaries in colonial or "semicolonial" economic circumstances, given their origins, their social base, and their ideological purposes, would be unqualifiedly bourgeois. At the same time, the "bourgeois nationalists" in the economically less developed nations—by the very disturbances they create and the concessions they extract from
Most curious of all, of course, irrespective of whatever "class analysis" informed Marxist-Leninist policies, there was Stalin's judgment that in China a preoccupation with class interests was really of little practical importance. As late as April 1927, when the Comintern's united front policy was disintegrating into tragedy, Stalin could still insist that the respective interests of classes involved in the Chinese revolution were of relatively minor consequence because "a powerful national factor" had drawn all "revolutionary forces of the country together into one camp." In his judgment, it was the nationalist "struggle against imperialism" that was the "'predominating factor ... determining the character of the re
University Press, 1957). The Chinese Nationalist account is detailed and instructive; see Warren Kuo, Analytic History of the Chinese Communist Party (Taipei: Institute of International Relations, 1968), particularly book 1. For a Marxist-Leninist account of all these issues, see A. M. Grigoriev, "The Comintern and the Revolutionary Movement in China in the Late 1920s and the Early 1930s"; and A. B. Reznikov, "The Comintern's Oriental Policy," in The Comintern and the East, ed. R. A. Ulyanovsky (Moscow: Progress, 1978), pp. 25-106, 410-451. Kuo, Analytic History, 1:34, 59f., 90-92; see "The First Program of the Communist Party of China 1921," in ibid., p. 45. Chen Duxiu, "A Letter to All Comrades of the Party," Chinese Studies in History, Spring 1970, p. 226. Dov Bing, "Sneevliet and the Early Years of the Chinese Communist Party," China Quarterly 48 (October-December 1971): 67-97.
See Chen Chun, "Chinese Archaeology and the West," Archaeological Review from Cambridge 8 (1989): 1, as cited in Sautman, "Racial Nationalism." John W. Olsen, "The Practice of Archaeology in China Today," Antiquity 1, no. 6 (1987), as cited in Sautman, "Racial Nationalism," p. 32. See, for example, Armando Lodolini, La storia delta razza italiana da Augusto a Mussolini (Rome: Unione Editoriale d'ltalia, 1939); Giovanni Marro, Primato della razza italiana (Milan: Principato, 1940). In that reactive nationalism was distinguished from the biological racism of National Socialist Germany. For the National Socialists, nationalism was a function of race. The primacy was given to race rather than the nation. See the discussion in A. James Gregor, Contemporary Radical Ideologies: Totalitarian Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York: Random House, 1968), chap. 5.
Index Academic community, 17, 18, 50. ^3 Adriatic area, 174, 175, 177, 181 Africa, 4, 6, 8, 66, 175, 182 Agriculture, 58, 67, 82-81. 84, UK, 118, 130, 153 agrarian economies, 89-90, 113, 130. Stv a/se 1 ess developed economies agrarian reforms, 131 communes for, 12! Albania, 176, 177, 180, 181, 206 Alcorn company, 186 Angola, 4 Animal territoriality, 137 Anthropologists, 162-163 Apter, David. 155 Arab/Muslim world, 180 Archaeology, 163 ASEAN. See Association of South Hast Asian Nations Asia, 6, 8, 66, 128, 13«, 175, 209 British in, 10 Hast Asia, 4, 187, 188, 189, 201, 215, 21M Association of South lias,! Asian Nations (ASP.AN), IS6, 1S7 Associa/one Na/ionalista ilaliana, 53, 174 Austria Hungary, 174, 175, 1/6 Autarchy, 92, 218 Authoritarianism,1*!, 115, 116, 13d, 141, 143,201, 221 (n27) vs. totalitarianism, 21 Sec «<-,'si> Military issues, interim military dictatorships; Totalitarianism Balance of power, 183 Balkans, 177, 182, 218 Banks, 104 Belgium, 4 Bcttleheim, Charles, 125 Bhutan, 1S5, 193 Biological continuity. See under Nationalism Blue Shirt Society. 77-82, 87, 91, 94, 207 Bolsheviks, 1, 2, 13,18, 24, 29, 63, 80, 81, 94, 202,
Revolution(s). taxonomv ol revolutionary movements / regimes ami totalitarianism, 210, 211, 217, 221(n27). See a/so Totalitarianism Sir iiiso Kuomintang, as fascist; Marxism, interpretation of fascism; Marxism, shared characteristics with fascism; under Racial issues Feudalism, 102,103-104, 111, 118, 129 First island chain, 189, 190, 191 Food.188 France, 4, 45(n22), 5h, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 18.3 Franco, Francesco, 213 Fukuyama, Francis, 207 "Fundamental Principles on Implementing a Patriotic Education" (CCP manual), 155 Futurism, 53 Gandhism, 51 strategy, 187 194 Gemrehin, 197(n62) Germany, 4, 24, 56, 80, 85, 87, 92, 115, 160, 183, 206 Wilhelmine, 202 Gibraltar, 175, 177, 179 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 220(nl0) Ciori, Fernando, I96(n-I8) Grandi, Dido, 17-18, 22(n53), 63-64, 197(n62) Great Britain, 4, 10,17, 20(n25), Sty 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 1S3, 196(n4.3), 201 Great Leap Forward, 105, I47(n55) Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. See Cultural Revolution Greece, 180, 181 Group consciousness, I69(n33) Guam, 191 t iulf of Tonkin, 166 Gumplow-ic/, Ludvvig, I69(n33) I Ian Dynasty, 185 Flegel, G.W.F., 207 I lobson. I A , 5, 28, 44(n 12), 84, 98(n46) Holland, 4 Hsieh Shih-chung, 162 I lua Guofeng, 126 Huang Di (Yellow Emperor), 161 162 Hu Han-nun, 3n Human rights, 111, 166 Hu Sheng, I45(nl6), 2200*0
as response to subordination/national humiliation, 11, 12, 13. 16. 17, 54-55, 56, 58. 76, 10.3, 136, 156, 158, 164. 184, 192, 197(n63). 203, 206, 207 Stalin on, 36,37,40 state nationalism, 156 Sun Yat-sen on, 157-159 See ahnt under Class issues; Deng Xiaoping; Mao Zedong; Racial issues Nationalization, 103 National liberation movements, 27-28, ,31 National security, 188, 189, 191 National Socialism, 13, 16, 19(n7), 24, 80, 94, 113, 160, 171(n7i), 183,202,212,213-214,216 Snttnna! System of Political Economy (List), 11, 21(n31), 140 National Voluntary Labor Movement, 78 Naval power. Sec under Military issues NET. Sec Lenin, V. 1., New Economic Policy Nepal, 185, 193 Netuna island, I98(n79) New Life Movement (Vitalism). 7,5-76, 77, 78, 81 North Korea, 206 Oil, 186, 187, 188 Olivetti, A. ()., 53 "On Socialist Democracyand the Legal System" (poster), 108-112 Opium War ot 1840, 56 Oppression, 5, 8, 17, 29, 32, 111 Organism, analogy of, 61 Purine uuzionulistc (Sighele), 194(nS) Palestine Mandate, 177 Panljasila, 51 Panun/.io, Sergio, 53, 213, 22()(nl7), 222(n44) Papini, Giovanni. 12, 174 Parallelogram ot forces, 27 Parliamentarv governmenl, 62 Patriotism, 2l(n40), 155, 156, 168(n2l), 192, 208 Peasantry, 27, 34, .35, 36, 101, 102, 103, 105, 107 property rights ol, 121 People's Daily, 156 People's Liberation Army (PLA), N8(n89), 20()(n 101) Navy (PLAN), 186, 189, 190, |99(n91)
"People's War under Modern Conditions," 189 Philippine Islands, 4, Pipes, Richard, !9(nS) PLA. See People's Liberation Army PLAN. See People's Liberation Army. Navy Piu ralism, 208, 209, 213, 223(n5«) Plutocracies, 14, 15,63,92,93, 140, 159,174, 178, 181, 182, 184, 201, 202, 203, 204, 208, 209, 216 Poland, 20(n25) Political Parties (Michels), 96(n17) Political parties (revolutionary), 210, 211, 212, 218 Political theater, 65 Populism, 211 Portugal, 4 Poverty, 5, 6, 7, 154 Poverty uf Philosophy (Marx), 135 Power, 11, 111, 112-113 Prezzoiini, Giuseppe, 12,174 Trices, 106, 130, 214 Priester, Karin, 53 Private enterprise, 104, 132 Private property, 13,109, 112, 11.3, 114, 115, 117, 119, 121, 123(n49), 131, 134, 136, 143, 164, 216. See also under Mao Zedong; Sun Yat-sen Privilege, 109, 111, 112, 113 Productive forces, 119, 132, 135, 1.36, 137, 138-139. See aki> Dong Xiaoping, theory of productive forces Productivity, 1,5, 106, 130 Profite, 7, 8, 9, 20(n21), 26, 27, 83, 84. 86, 92, 103, 106, 113, 132, 134, 136, 137, 140, 143, 148(n67), IM, 167, 216 decline in, 28, 44(nl2) Proletariat, h, 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 26, 28, 33, 64, 108, 109, 114, 115, 117 as homogeneous class, 34 Property rights. See Private properly Qing dynasty, 85, 129 Racial issues, 59, 72(nn 54, 55), 202, 217 and fascism, 161, I69(n34), I70(n52) and nationalism, 159, 160, 171(n71) uatio-races, 160 new race, ltd, 163, |70(nn 48,
proletarian. 14, 15, 26, 28, 30, 54, 88, 92, 202 Sun on, 16 taxonomy of revolutionary movements/regimes, world, 28, 29, 30, 84, 88, 120, 131, 156 Revolutionary parties. See Political parties (revolutionary) Revolutionary people concept, 118 Rights, 15, 60-61, 62, 110, 121, 142, 143, 149(u95). See also Private property Risorgimento, 55 Rooco, Alfredo, 11-12, 53, 55, 58, 60, 67 Roma uel eontineute uero (Gori), |96(n48) Roman Empire, 159, 177, 179, 182 Roy M. N., 39, 41—42, 49, 50, 53, 58, 63, 64, 65, 68, 94, 10()(n87), 137 Russia, 4, 176, 202 Sakhalin Island, 193 Salvatorelli, Luigi, 53 Schiffrin, Harold, 61 Secret societies, 158 Seleeti'd Works for Instruction in i'alriolie fdueatiou (GCP), 155 Sengaku Islands, 185, 190 Shambaugh, David, 200(nl01) Shimonoseki, Ircaty of, 55 Shortages, 188 Siam, 184 Sighele, Scipio, P>4(n8) Singapore, 190 Smith, Anthony, 50, 53 Snocvliet. Sir Maring, I lenricus Si'i'iii/ Interpretation of History, file: A Refutation of the Marxian l]eonoiuie Interpretation of History (William), 97(n33) Socialism, 16,57,58,63,82, 103, 109, 110, 112, 115, 116, 117 with Chinese characteristics, 3, 121, 140, 142, I44(nl5) heretical, 154 See also Fascism, Marxism Social science, 65, 79, 218 Society for the Regeneration ot China. See Xing Zhong Hui Solidarity, 59 Song Yimin, 199(n93) South Ch'na Sea. See Hast
and South China Seas South Korea, 134, 187, 190 Sovereignty, 83, 90, 91, 131, 153, 156, 186 Soviet Union, 3, 13-14, 17, 37, 80, 82, 87, 95(h), 10.5, 143, interpretation of Maoism in. 106-107, 115 Spain, 4, 180, 181, 184, 213, 222(n44) Spanish American War, 4 Special/exclusive economic zones, 154, 186, 187, 190 Spirito, Ugo, 214 Spratlys, 186, 190 Stability, 142, 154, 155 Stalin, fosef, 1, 3, 13, 14, 26, 46(41), 115, 206, 220(nl0) and China, 204-205 and Kuomintang, 41 and nationalism, 36, 37, 43 Stalinism, 17, 105, 106, 113, 114, 149(n91), 212, 213-214 Starvation, 105 State(s), 92 contract theory of, 60 as ecclesiastical, 212 pedagogical state, 212, 222(n40) revolutionary party as virtual state, 211 state institutions, 210 state nationalism, 156 state's role, 57, 58, 87, 90, 104, 138, 142, I49(n95), 164, 165, 211, 212 sialism, 161 as totalitarian, 210. See also Totalitarianism tributary states, 184-185, 193 .Sec also Industrialization, advanced industrial economies; Less-developed economies Suez, 175, 177, 179 Sun Yat-sen, 2-3, 15, 17, 25, 53, 55, 61, 73(n82), 133, 136-1.37, 156, 173, 204, 207, 209, 217 and China's lost territories, 184- 185 collaboration with foreign powers, 83, 87, 92, 93 death of, 32, and democracy, 165-466, 213, 223(n59) developmental program of, 57, 58, 71(n37), 82, 83, 103, 137, 153 as fascist, 39, 41, 42, 43, 49, 58, 64, 67, 68, 75, 77, 95,
107, 116, 127, 191, 201 Vitalism. See New Life Movement Voitinsky, G. N., 35 Voluntarism, 106, 107, 152 Voluntary associations, 7, 166 Wages, 106, 111, 113, 136, 137, 140, 164 Wang Ching-wei, 42 Wang Xi/.he, 108-112, Weapons, 56, 57, 73(n82), 161, 188, 191 Webb, Beatrice and Sidney, 1, 17 White Terror, 76 William, Maurice, 97(n.3.3) Wittfogel, Karl, 25, 95(n) World War 1, 13, 14, 57, 176-178, 202 peace treaties after, World War II, 15.3, 167, 184, 218 Xing Zhong Hui (Society for the Regeneration of China), 55-56 Yellow Lmperor, 161-162 Young people, 156, 193 Yugoslavia, 177, 180, 218 Zhang Liangzhong, 190 Zhirinovsky Vladimir, 193 Zhou Lnlai, 141 Zinoviev, Georgi, 42