Chronic ecotoxicity N/A Persistence N/A Bioaccumulation N/A Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A N/A Has anything happened before in Australia? Needle stick injuries occur in Australia at low relative frequency to the number of sharps handled in the health care system but, overall, the estimate of 18,000 needle stick injury incidents per year2 (in Australian health care) is unacceptably high. Public incidents of exposure to waste pharmaceuticals, drugs or medicines in Australia, are typically through individual cases of needle-stick injury from standing on hypodermic syringes in public places, discarded carelessly by needle users. In June 2000, six children were diagnosed with a mild form of smallpox (vaccinia virus) after having played with glass ampoules containing expired smallpox vaccine at a garbage dump in Vladivostok (Russia) 3. Although the infections were not life-threatening, the vaccine ampoules should have been treated before being discarded. What control measures are in place to manage risks posed by this waste? Industry – systematic controls Australian hospitals have stringent policies and procedures in place to ensure segregation, signage, labelling and containerisation of these wastes, as well as clear management responsibility. Hospitals also have waste management plans, procedures and training programs that require strict handling practices. The Biohazard Waste Industry, as part of the Waste Management Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and Related Wastes 4. Best practice standards have been developed in Australia5: - The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards of Practice for the Safe Handling of Cytotoxic Drugs in Pharmacy Departments (2004) - The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards of Practice for the Transportation of Cytotoxic Drugs from Pharmacy Departments (2007) Industry – exposure controls As described in The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards of Practice for the Safe Handling of Cytotoxic Drugs in Pharmacy Departments (2004) 5 Government State and territory governments regulate the management of hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and disposal of all hazardous wastes, including waste pharmaceuticals,
Where does it come from? Main sources Wood product manufacturing and other CCA timber preservation processes. How is it managed? Main fates Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill. Some reuse and recycling of CCA timber itself occurs and significant stockpiling may occur1. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0.01% Includes CCA chemical wastes – does not include intact CCA treated timber Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 570 ACT: 0 NSW: 9 NT: 0 Qld: 206 SA: 304 Tas: 0 Vic: 31 WA: 20 Potential health impacts Overview Chromium (VI), as the potential worst case constituent of CCA treatment wastes, has been chosen to reference specific health impacts for this waste. The most common hazards of human exposure to Cr (VI) compounds are irritation of the skin, eyes, mouth, throat, lungs and intestines. Acute poisoning, through inhalation, can result in death. Cr (VI) is carcinogenic via inhalation. Acute toxicity Extreme: Very toxic and may be fatal by inhalation. Toxic if swallowed or in contact with skin – contact causes severe skin burns and allergic reactions and severe eye damage. Chronic toxicity Low: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure if inhaled, but the consequences of acute effects will be most severe. On the skin, chromic acid can cause chronic ulcers known as ‘chrome holes’. Carcinogenicity High: Classified as “sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans” and inhaled hexavalent chromium is a known human carcinogen. Particularly with respect to lung cancer. Reproductive toxicity High: Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child and may cause genetic defects. Workplace health & safety impacts Exposure to CCA impregnation solutions could arise as the result of splashes or as contaminated dust or wood fragments/ shavings. Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium has been associated with lung cancer and arsenic is also classed as a human carcinogen. Population scale impacts There has been ongoing media and public interest in the use of CCA-treated timber and the possible health risks it may present, particularly when used in settings where children
How is it managed? Main fates Waste solvents are often subject to reclamation, with any residues sent to energy recovery processes such as incineration or hazardous waste landfill. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0.19% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 13,730 ACT: 0 NSW: 761 NT: 0 Qld: 11,195 SA: 26 Tas: 44 Vic: 1,705 WA: 0 Potential health impacts Overview Some organic solvents (such as benzene) have been replaced with other substances due to their carcinogenic properties, which is a primary health concern for these types of wastes Other toxic properties can be varied, and include being narcotic and possibly mutagenic or teratogenic. The flammability risk also heightens the care in which this waste should be handled. Acute toxicity Low - medium: Harmful if swallowed – may cause lung damage. Vapours may cause drowsiness and dizziness. Acute effects may also range from an alcohol-like intoxication to narcosis (stupor or insensibility) which may lead to unconsciousness. May be irritating to skin. Chronic toxicity Low - medium: Both short and long term exposure to certain organic solvents has been found to be harmful to the kidney. Petroleum distillates, for example, gasoline, jet fuel and turpentine, are among the most toxic. Carcinogenicity High: Some organic solvents may cause cancer and heritable genetic damage. Benzene is the main organic solvent which has definitively been proven to cause cancer in humans from industrial use – the main cancer being leukaemia. Reproductive toxicity Low: Limited evidence of reproductive impacts – possible risk of impaired fertility. Workplace health & safety impacts Inhalation is usually the most significant route of entry by which organic solvents enter the human body at work. Poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption. Population scale impacts Most non-industrial applications of benzene, a natural constituent of crude oil and one of the most elementary petrochemicals, have been limited by benzene’s carcinogenicity. However, significant primary exposure occurs routinely in everyday activities, particularly relating to petrol (gasoline) or other fossil fuel use. These include petrol vapour exposure
aromatic hydrocarbons present which are listed as known, probable, or possible carcinogens. Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure. Reproductive toxicity High: Repeated exposure may impair fertility or cause harm to the unborn child. Workplace health & safety impacts Common exposure risk to workers involved in motor vehicle or other mechanical repairs, machine shops and maintenance of industrial machinery. Inhalation is a significant route of entry into the body at work, most likely to contribute to chronic impacts. Skin contact is a more likely form of entry for acute effects - poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption. Potential environment impacts Overview Oil spills at sea have occurred throughout history with catastrophic impacts on local ecosystems. The infamous Exxon Valdez oil tanker incident in Alaska in 1989 was shocking in terms of both its scale and its impact. Immediate effects were over 100,000 birds and mammals were killed1 and 16,000 – 21,000 gallons were estimated to still remain on surrounding beaches as recently as 2014, 25 years later.2 Dissolved oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic loading of waters, such as occurs with oil spills, which effects fish populations both as a physical surface barrier to the atmosphere and from unnaturally active biochemical processes in response to degradation of the organic waste discharge. Acute ecotoxicity High: Oils can cause devastating physical effects such as coating animals and plants with oil and suffocating them by oxygen depletion, foul shorelines, clog water treatment plants and catch fire when ignition sources are present. Chronic ecotoxicity High: Can destroy future and existing food supplies, breeding animals and habitats. Persistence Medium: Oils will biodegrade in the environment, the rate dependent on the type of oil spilled, but can form products that linger in the environment for many years. Bioaccumulation Low: Does not bioaccumulate in fish. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? Spills of oils can occur on a scale varying from a vehicle or truck sized accident or spill incident, all the way through to oil tanker spills at sea. In either case the environmental damage that can result is due to oil’s immiscibility with water, and its consequent tendency to spread across large distances by blanketing the surface of waterways. While there have been no oil spill environmental disasters of the scale of the Exxon
4. Farrington, J and McDowell, J. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Mixing Oil and Water: Tracking the sources and impacts of oil pollution in the marine environment. Oceanus Magazine, Vol. 43, No.1, November 2004. Accessed 23 April 2015 from: 5. 'Used oil' MSDS: Accessed 23 April 2015 from: Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions Waste name: Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions Basel waste category:Y9 Basel permit code: A4060 NEPM code: J120 What is it? Hazard score (0 – 6) Low Moderate Medium High Extreme 2.6 – 3.0 Description of the waste This category describes the core waste Y8 (waste oils) in the context of mixtures with water, which may result in high water content with residual levels of oil contamination and mixtures of hydrocarbon materials and water (oily water), or mixtures of same that have formed an emulsion – oil droplets dispersed (but not dissolved) in water (the continuous phase). This category describes oil contents in water up to a maximum of 50% oil and typically substantially below this. Wastes include truck and vehicle washwaters, skimmer and interceptor waters, vehicle coolant waters and potentially shipping bilge water. Waste form Liquid Physical/ chemical description Oil has similar properties and risks to the environment as a ‘contaminant’ in water than it does as a neat material. However, oily waters may not be as obviously tainted, which could result in ingestion risks of oil products (for human health) and dissolved oxygen impacts in the marine environment. Oil and water emulsions cause oil to sink and disappear from the surface, giving the visual illusion that it is gone and the threat to the environment has ended. Why is it hazardous? Primary hazard H13: Capable of yielding another hazard or hazardous material Capable, by any means, after disposal, of yielding another material, e.g., leachate, which possesses any other hazardous characteristics. Secondary hazard H11: Toxic (delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects, including carcinogenicity.
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released present or may present immediate or delayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems. Main likely chemical contaminants Oils, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, other organic pollutants. Where does it come from? Main sources Metal ore and petroleum mining, metal processing and refining, aircraft maintenance, fossil fuel electricity supply, vehicle wash services (retail), vehicle servicing (retail). How is it managed? Main fates Chemical/ physical and biological treatment to remove the hydrocarbon content, then the water is reused or recycled for another purpose. Some wastewaters are discharged to sewer under regulatory agreements. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 5.79% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 416,523 ACT: 1,554 NSW: 97,481 NT: 489 Qld: 195,079 SA: 3,903 Tas: 64 Vic: 63,866 WA: 54,088 Potential health impacts Overview This overview and component assessment of potential human health impacts from oily waters is based on the risks associated with the oil component of the mixture or emulsion. Acute toxicity Low – medium: May be harmful or fatal if swallowed. Chronic toxicity Low – medium: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause drying, cracking, redness, itching, and/or swelling. Carcinogenicity Medium: Oil component contains substances that are known carcinogens. There may be hydrocarbon and chlorinated solvents; metals, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons present which are listed as known, probable, or possible carcinogens. Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure but also route of exposure, since lwater contaminated with low levels of oil is more likely to be swallowed than neat oil, particularly if it is from contamination of a drinking water supply. Reproductive toxicity High: Repeated exposure may impair fertility or cause harm to the unborn child. Workplace health & safety Common exposure risk to workers involved in motor vehicle or other mechanical repairs, machine shops and maintenance of industrial machinery. Skin contact is a likely form of
to their presence in diet. Acute toxicity Low: PCBs can produce skin pigmentation and affect liver function. Chronic toxicity High: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure. Carcinogenicity Extreme: Listed as a likely carcinogen. Reproductive toxicity Low – medium: Possible reproductive toxin. Workplace health & safety impacts Personal protective equipment required. Population scale impacts No impact on broader population. PCBs may have been used as components of caulking compounds with subsequent slow release to the environment. This has been demonstrated in Europe but not in Australia. Potential environment impacts Overview Toxic to marine organisms and to other species who are exposed in the food chain. Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: PCBs are acutely toxic to aquatic organisms. Chronic ecotoxicity Extreme: PCBs are developmental and reproductive toxins in most animal species. Persistence Extreme: PCBs are persistent, with half-lives greater than 10 years. Bioaccumulation Extreme: PCBs are bioaccumulative and concentrations undergo biomagnification up the food chain. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? Release to the environment before the impact of bans on the use of PCBs and the implementation of the PCB Management Plan have resulted in very low level contamination of the environment and contributions to the chemical body burden of Australians. The substance has a long half-life and so concentrations are decreasing slowly. What control measures are in place to Industry – systematic controls Industry has complied with the specifications of the PCB management plan for effective management and destruction of PCB wastes.
including carcinogenicity. Secondary hazard H12: Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released present or may present immediate or delayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems. Other hazard(s) N/A N/A Main likely chemical contaminants Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and heavy metals. Where does it come from? Main sources Tarry residues are produced in the refining of petroleum, re-refining of lubricating oils, production of metallurgical coke or town gas by pyrolysis of coal. How is it managed? Main fates Much of the material is disposed of by combustion, with subsequent disposal of ash to landfill after appropriate treatment. Some has been used as road-making material. Past use for production of carbon black pigment. Spills and leaks at gasworks have resulted in contaminated sites. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0.38% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 27,599 ACT: 0 NSW: 8,612 NT: 19 Qld: 178 SA: 18,628 Tas: 19 Vic: 132 WA: 12 Potential health impacts Overview Public exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated by combustion processes including automobile exhausts, tobacco smoking and uncontrolled combustion is widespread. Consequently most exposure to PAHs is from fine particulate matter that is more readily inhaled or ingested. That is not the case with tarry matter, which poses risks from direct contact with the material or with soil contaminated with it. In the workplace, naphthalene is taken as the indicator component with an eight hour time weighted exposure limit of 10 ppm with short term exposure not to exceed 15 ppm. The Australian Drinking Water Quality Guideline is 10x10-9 g/L for the potent carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene. Heavy metals such as zinc, copper, cobalt and others are often present in tarry matter, especially coal tar. The hazards associated with these components of tarry matter are described in other profiles. Acute toxicity Low: Phenols present in the mixture can cause skin irritation.
Chronic toxicity High: Various components of the PAH mixture are known or suspected carcinogens with long term irreversible effects. Carcinogenicity Extreme: The PAH mixture includes known carcinogens. Reproductive toxicity Low: There is no evidence of reproductive toxicity. Workplace health & safety impacts Personal protective equipment. Population scale impacts No widespread impacts Potential environment impacts Overview Most exposure to PAHs is from fine particulate matter that is more readily inhaled or ingested. Low risk because the viscosity of the tarry residue material limits its dispersal to and in the environment. Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: The PAH mixture is toxic to marine organisms and birds. Dispersal of tarry matter into the environment, especially into water, would pose the same threat as an oil spill from a production well, storage or transport would be. Chronic ecotoxicity Insufficient data are available for chronic effects on environmental species. Persistence Extreme: The PAHs are persistent and only slowly degraded in the environment. Bioaccumulation Extreme: PAHs are known to be bioaccumulative. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? Sites in Australia where town gas was produced from coal have been heavily contaminated by tarry matter. During remediation of the sites the tarry matter containing PAHs and heavy metals was removed to secure landfills. A recent example (2012-2014) is remediation of the site of the Toowoomba, Qld, gasworks (. What control measures are in place to manage risks posed by this waste? Industry – systematic controls No systematic controls of industrial management of tarry wastes have been identified. Industry – exposure controls Appropriate PPE is used by workers in the sampling, removal and remediation of sites contaminated with tarry residue waste. Government State and territory environment agencies require residues destined for secure landfill as hazardous waste to be solidified and to meet
including carcinogenicity. Main likely chemical contaminants Nitro compounds, chlorates and perchlorates. Where does it come from? Main sources The production and use of all explosive materials are subject to regulation in Australia. Sources are primarily chemical manufacturing, metal product manufacturing, water supply drainage & sewerage and oil and gas extraction. Also, soap and detergent manufacture and ‘crisp’ manufacturing (as in potato crisps and related snack foods) are sources which arises in small amounts annually. How is it managed? Main fates Wastes are mostly contained within the industries themselves and destroyed under controlled conditions. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0.03% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 2,441 ACT: 0 NSW: 10 NT: 0 Qld: 2,329 SA: 3 Tas: 0 Vic: 81 WA: 18 Potential health impacts Overview Since it used in the paper industry, sodium chlorate is taken as an example (see MSDS – reference 3, below). Acute toxicity Extreme: Sodium chlorate is an irritant to the skin and to mucous membranes (eyes, throat and nose) if dust is inhaled. Humans appear to be more susceptible than animals to acute effects of ingestion of sodium chlorate with doses of 100 grams or more invariably fatal. If ingested, sodium chlorate affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and can cause dizziness and damage to internal organs. The risk of explosion presents an immediate and significant health risk. Chronic toxicity Low: Chronic effects may result from repeated exposure to these wastes. For example perchlorates can potentially inhibit iodide uptake by the thyroid and result in a decrease in thyroid hormone. Carcinogenicity Sodium chlorate is not carcinogenic. Reproductive toxicity Low: The effects of sodium chlorate on blood can result in reproductive effects. Workplace health & safety impacts Protection against dust is essential, particularly because of this category’s explosivity, although these chemicals are usually handled in solution.
Population scale impacts There are no population-scale impacts because exposure to sodium chlorate is confined to industrial settings. Potential environment impacts Overview Very little information is available on the environmental impacts of sodium chlorate. Acute ecotoxicity Medium: Sodium chlorate exhibits low acute toxicity to animals by ingestion of dust exposure. The former use of sodium chlorate as a weedicide shows that it can be toxic to plant life, especially grasses. Chronic ecotoxicity No information is available about chronic toxicity of sodium chlorate. Persistence Sodium chlorate is not persistent in the environment since it is readily reduced to chloride. Bioaccumulation Sodium chlorate is not bioaccumulative. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? No incidents involving sodium chlorate are known in Australia. However, the Bali bombing in 2002 involved potassium chlorate, probably diverted illegally from safety match production (an industry not replicated in Australia). What control measures are in place to manage risks posed by this waste? Industry – systematic controls Manufacturers of explosives for commercial, sporting or military purposes are tightly regulated in Australia. Some substances used by firework manufacturers are also controlled under security regulations. Some of these chemicals have other – examples are sodium chlorate that is used to generate chlorine dioxide for paper pulp bleaching, and ammonium nitrate used as nitrogenous fertilizer – and so regulations extend to those industries, too. Industry – exposure controls Most of the substances are not toxic and most industry controls are directed at avoidance of explosive risks and illegal diversion (theft). Government Under Australia’s National Code of Practice for Chemicals of Security Concern there are 11 chemicals considered high risk. The list includes sodium and potassium chlorates, perchlorates, and nitrates and sodium azide, Most of the chemical substances in the list of 96 chemicals of security concern are those that could be involved in chemical weapons and do not possess explosive potential. Ammonium nitrate is separately regulated by state and territory governments.
Community Community groups such as Scouts collect X-ray films for disposal. References 1. . 2. C. Swedlund and E.Y. Swedlund, Photography, a handbook of history, materials and processes (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2nd ed., 1981. 3. Photographic Industry (OECD Emission Scenario Document) 2004. DOI: 10.1787/9789264221222-en. 4. Ilford Photo. MSDSs for various Photographic developer and fixer chemicals used in Australia. Accessed April 2015 from: Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics Waste name: Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics Basel waste Basel permit code: Dependant on chemicals used NEPM code: A100 What is it? Hazard score (0 – 6) Low Moderate Medium High Extreme 2.6 – 3.0 Description of the waste The wastes derive from overspray of coating materials together with excess material removed in cleaning of equipment. Surface treatments of metals provide protection against corrosion. After thorough cleaning of the surface (an alkaline or acid wash) a coating of manganese, zinc or iron phosphate is applied. Zinc chromate is commonly used for aluminium surfaces but some coatings contain chromate, fluoride and other anionic species (see MSDS for Alodine 1200S). Plastic items may be coated with protective films applied as powder (followed by thermal fusion) or spray (in the case of polyurethane). Chemical coatings are being replaced by surface modification techniques, especially in the case of non-polar materials such as polyethylene and polypropylene. These use plasma or corona discharge to improve adhesion of inks, adhesives and sealants to the treated surface. Waste form Solid and liquid category: Y17
Community The National Pollutant Inventory, a legislated community right to know reporting program (), includes nickel carbonyl as one of the chemical pollutants it tracks for emissions to air, water and land, and transfers of waste, in Australia. No nickel carbonyl emissions were reported in Australia in its most recent year, 2013/14 References 1. Australian Government Department of the Environment. National Pollutant Inventory Fact Sheet – nickel carbonyl. Accessed March 14, 2015 from: 2. Strem Chemicals Inc. MSDS for nickel carbonyl. Accessed March 14, 2015 from: http://www.strem.com/catalog/msds/28-1150 3. Ni carbonyl risk phrases. Accessed March 14, 2015 from: 4. National Environment Protection Council (1999). National Pollutant Inventory Technical Advisory Panel Final Report. Beryllium; beryllium compounds Waste name: Beryllium; beryllium compounds Basel waste category:Y20 Basel permit code: A1010, A1020 NEPM code: D160 What is it? Hazard score (0 – 6) Low Moderate Medium High Extreme 3.9 - 4.9 Description of the waste Waste from machining of alloys of beryllium with copper or aluminium. E-waste. Emissions to air from coal-burning. Because beryllium alloys are used in electrical and electronic equipment, beryllium may be present as a minor component of E-waste. Waste form Solid Physical/ chemical description Beryllium-containing wastes may be mixed with other components in solid E-waste. The species emitted to air by coal-fired power stations is beryllium oxide, BeO (CASR# 1304-56-9) that is very high-melting and almost insoluble in water. Why is it hazardous? Primary hazard H11: Toxic (delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects, including carcinogenicity. Secondary hazard H4.1: Flammable solids Solids, or waste solids, other than those classed as explosives, which under conditions encountered in transport are readily combustible, or may cause or contribute to fire through friction. Other hazard(s) N/A N/A
Waste form Solid Physical/ chemical description Selenium is an odourless metalloid (an element which has both metallic and non-metallic properties) like arsenic and antimony but most closely resembling tellurium. It can be a grey (the 'metallic' and most stable form), red or black solid. Selenium can be present in sulfide minerals and also iron oxide minerals. However is among the rarer elements on Earth. Common selenium salts such as selenium dioxide, selenium disulphide and selenium hexafluoride are either slightly water soluble or insoluble. Why is it hazardous? Primary hazard H12: Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released present or may present immediate or delayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems. Secondary hazard H11: Toxic (delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects, including carcinogenicity. Other hazard(s) N/A N/A Main likely chemical contaminants As, S and heavy metals Where does it come from? Main sources Inorganic chemical manufacturing, metal smelting, metal recycling. How is it managed? Main fates Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill. Limited recycling and recovery of selenium may occur in Australia. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0.001% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 40 ACT: 0 NSW: 32 NT: 0 Qld: 1 SA: 7 Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0 Potential health impacts Overview Selenium is a trace element essential in a human diet but can be harmful at levels only 5 to 10 times the daily recommended intake. For example, Accidentally swallowing a large quantity of selenium supplement pills could be life-threatening without immediate medical treatment. Acute toxicity High: Toxic by inhalation and if swallowed. Acute and fatal toxicities
Why is it hazardous? Primary hazard H11: Toxic (delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects, including carcinogenicity. Secondary hazard H12: Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released present or may present immediate or delayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems. Other hazard(s) N/A N/A Main likely chemical contaminants Thallium is likely to be a contaminant of other metals. Where does it come from? Main sources Australia does not mine thallium directly however it is produced as a by-product of ore smelting. Small amounts of thallium waste are likely to be present in electronics and commercial medical imaging equipment2. How is it managed? Main fates No data is kept on the generation or fate of thallium waste. Waste should be treated to immobilise the hazard before being disposed of in hazardous waste landfill. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 0 ACT: 0 NSW: 0 NT: 0 Qld: 0 SA: 0 Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0 Potential health impacts Overview The most common route of thallium exposure occurs through inhalation or ingestion of dust particles or through water and food contamination. In its pure form, thallium is tasteless and odourless. Short and long-term exposure can result in a variety of adverse health effects, mainly involving the central nervous system, system and major organs. Thallium is more toxic to humans than mercury, cadmium, lead, copper or zinc and has been responsible for many accidental and occupational poisonings4. Acute toxicity High: Very harmful if inhaled or swallowed. Ingesting thallium over a can result in issues with the gastro-intestinal system, nervous system, lungs, heart, liver and kidneys1. It can also cause death5. Chronic toxicity High: Long-term exposure to thallium can result in issues with the nervous system, such as numbness of extremities, joint pain and fatigue.
hydrogen peroxide). Cyanide remaining in the plating bath is destroyed by treatment with hypochlorite before the liquid is discharged to sewer as trade waste. Before final disposal the remaining metals are precipitated and the resulting sludge may be treated to recover metals or transferred as hazardous waste to secure landfill. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 0.001% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 108 ACT: 0 NSW: 1 NT: 0 Qld: 15 SA: 13 Tas: 0 Vic: 26 WA: 52 Potential health impacts Overview These water-soluble cyanides are extremely toxic to humans, and toxic effects can also be experienced from fume or mist containing cyanides and gaseous hydrogen cyanide that might exist in equilibrium with the dissolved species. Acute toxicity Extreme: Ingestion of small quantities of cyanide leads to failure of the central nervous and respiratory systems and rapid death. Chronic toxicity Low- medium: Long-term exposure to lower concentrations of cyanide can affect many body functions. Carcinogenicity Cyanides are not known to be carcinogenic. Reproductive toxicity Cyanides do not exhibit reproductive toxicity. Workplace health & safety impacts Good ventilation of the workplace and implementation of safe working practices is essential where cyanides are handled. Codes of conduct exist for transport of cyanides used in the mining industry. Provision of personal protective equipment may be necessary where spills or leaks occur. Population scale impacts There are no impacts on the wider community from these industrial chemicals. Potential environment impacts Overview Cyanides are toxic to all animal species. Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Acute effects can be observed when animals have access to tailings dams in which cyanide-containing material is concerned. Fences can restrict access of many species but birds may still be at risk. Chronic ecotoxicity High: Cyanides exhibit high long-term chronic toxicity to aquatic life. Persistence Low: Cyanides are destroyed in the environment, mainly by oxidation, and so are not persistent.
Bioaccumulation Cyanides are not bioaccumulative. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? High concentrations of cyanide in a tailings dam in central NSW led to the deaths of several thousand birds in 1995. Many birds were killed in 2003 when containers of sodium cyanide on a truck travelling to a WA mine cracked and released cyanide. Sodium cyanide was released to the harbour from production facility in Gladstone Qld in 2012. In the period 1990-2015 Australia has experienced release of cyanide due to transport accidents on three occasions. Several thousand litres of cyanide solution spilled in Northern Territory in 2002, poisoning birds and dingoes. Solid cyanide was released after a train derailment in 1992 in NSW (100 tonnes) and a truck accident in Northern Territory in 2007. What control measures are in place to manage risks posed by this waste? Industry – systematic controls The mining industry subscribes to a Cyanide Code of Practice that provides detailed specification of industry practice. Industry – exposure controls Workplace controls involve education of the workforce, provision of personal protective equipment, and regular monitoring of the work environment. Controls over the content of an access to tailings dams are increasingly stringent. For example, at the Cowal mine in central NSW, the dam is surrounded by two-metre high wire mesh fence, buried 0.5 metres deep and also an electrified fence. Government Safe Work Australia provides guidance to the use of dangerous chemicals in the electroplating industry and advocates a six-point plan for elimination of hazards: elimination, substitution, isolation, engineering controls, administrative controls, personal protective equipment., Mining operations are conducted under license from state and territory governments. Licenses increasingly require lower levels of cyanide in tailings dams and/or complete destruction of cyanide before discharge. Legislation also applies to transport to hazardous good such as cyanide. Community Some mines have community consultative bodies that contribute to best practice management of many aspects of the mining and treatment operations including cyanide management. References Guidance note: controlling hazards in the electroplating industry: . Pollution Prevention and Control. Technologies for Plating Operations: . Cyanide management (Leading practice Sustainable Development program for the Mining Industry, 2008): .
Bioaccumulation Low: Triaryl phosphates are slowly degraded in the environment and in living systems so bioaccumulation is not expected. Organophosphate pesticides are destroyed in the body and so are not bioaccumulative. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? Workplace exposures with poisoning of various extents are reported to state poisons centres. What control measures are in place to manage risks posed by this waste? Industry – systematic controls There are no controls over uses of triaryl phosphates but organophosphate pesticides are highly regulated. Their use requires the approval of the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) which reviews their status from time to time as new evidence emerges. A number have been deregistered in recent years but there are still approximately 20 such compounds in use. APVMA has set the maximum daily intake of Dichlorvos, for example, at 0.0001 mg/kg body weight/day. Dichlorvos-containing products are listed under Schedules 5-7 depending on concentration. Industry – exposure controls An enzyme-based product developed by CSIRO and Orica and marketed as LandmarkTM is available for destruction of organophosphate residues in water and soils. Government State and territory regulations govern uses of organophosphate pesticides. National oversight is maintained by the government agency APVMA. Community Community may be exposed through spray drift or from inappropriate use of domestic products containing organophosphate pesticides. References 1. Dichlorvos Chemical review: . 2. G.W. Levot, ‘Effective Remediation of Diazinon from Spent Sheep Dip Wash by Disposal on Land’, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47(1) (2007), 13-16. 3. Organophosphates:: Health Surveillance. Guide for Employers. . 4. Landmark: . 5. For triphenyl phosphate: .
impacts on other lifeforms are lacking. Chronic ecotoxicity Low: Acetonitrile exhibits slight chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms Persistence Low: Acetonitrile and acrylonitrile have half-lives of a few days in the environment. Bioaccumulation Neither acetonitrile nor acrylonitrile is bioaccumulative. Where are the risks of impacts most likely? Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low Has anything happened before in Australia? No incidents in Australia have been identified. What control measures are in place to manage risks posed by this waste? Industry – systematic controls Health concerns are higher for acrylonitrile and ethane dinitrile on account of their toxicity than for acetonitrile. Industry – exposure controls Acetonitrile and acrylonitrile are generally used in closed systems so workers are not directly exposed during normal operations. Regulatory limits (see above) apply. Government Workplace health and safety limits are promulgated by government agencies in States and Territories. Community Since these are industrial chemicals with relatively small emissions to air, the exposure of the general public is slight. References 1. Public Release Summary on the Evaluation of the new Active Constituent Ethanedinitrile in the product Sterigas 1000 Fumigant (2013): . 2. Acetonitrile: . 3. Toxic Substances Portal – Acrylonitrile (2013): . Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols Waste name: Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols Basel waste category:Y39 Basel permit code: A3070 NEPM code: M150 What is it? Hazard score (0 – 6) Low Moderate Medium High Extreme 3.1 – 3.8 Description of the waste Phenol is an industrial chemical that is used in the manufacture of resins, plastics, fibres, adhesives, iron, steel, aluminium, leather, and rubber. Chlorophenols are a small group of chemicals that substitute
Chronic toxicity High: Repeated ingestion of some of these substances/ wastes may cause liver and thyroid toxicity, based on definitive evidence in animal studies. Carcinogenicity Medium: Most of the evidence is speculative, due to limited human studies, but many of the chemicals classified in this category are listed as possible human carcinogens. Reproductive toxicity Medium: Studies on animals and humans have shown that some PBDEs can act as endocrine system disruptors and may even be teratogenetic (able to disturb the growth and development of an embryo or foetus). Workplace health & safety impacts Wide scale consumer product use at work, such as of computers and office furniture, could result in low levels of exposure to organohalogen substances or wastes in the workplace, although their containment within the product will limit this potential. An exception to this is the e-waste dismantling industry, where there may be excessive handling or breakage of plastic components that contain BFR chemicals. Also, firefighting has historically involved the handling of PFOS in concentrate form. Population scale impacts The concentrations of PBDEs in human blood, breast milk, and body fat indicate that most people are exposed to low levels of PBDEs, and many of these chemicals are known to be highly persistent and bioaccumulative. More significant impacts appear to occur in the environment than directly on human health. Potential environment impacts Overview Environmental impacts vary with individual substances, as this category is a catch-all for a wide range of wastes. Consequently the environmental impact summaries below err on the side of worst case substances. However highly halogenated organic compounds such as the PBDEs, PFOS and HBCD all demonstrate significant aquatic toxicity and persistence in the environment, as well as tending towards biomagnification (increasing accumulation along the food chain). Many of the more recent listings on the Stockholm Convention have occurred due to these pernicious environmental (more so than health) impacts. Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms Chronic ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects Persistence Extreme: Highly persistent in the environment. For PBDEs, compounds with less bromine atoms in their structure are more persistent in the environment than higher brominated congeners. Bioaccumulation Extreme: For PBDEs, compounds with less bromine atoms in their structure tend to bioaccumulate more than higher brominated congeners.
destroy, other goods or the means of transport; they may also cause other hazards. Secondary hazard H11: Toxic (delayed or chronic) Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects, including carcinogenicity. Other hazard(s) H4.1: Flammable solids Solids, or waste solids, other than those classed as explosives, which under conditions encountered in transport are readily combustible, or may cause or contribute to fire through friction. H13: Capable of yielding another hazard or hazardous material Capable, by any means, after disposal, of yielding another material, e.g., leachate, which possesses any of the characteristics listed above. Main likely chemical contaminants Other inorganic salts. Where does it come from? Main sources 98% of this waste category is made up of D300 Non-toxic salts. These are almost exclusively from Coal Seam Gas (CSG) mining and extraction. How is it managed? Main fates Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 1.29% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 93,010 ACT: 0 NSW: 20,193 NT: 0 Qld: 56,372 SA: 505 Tas: 3,780 Vic: 1,088 WA: 11,071 Potential health impacts Overview Common table salt is an edible product. However, even something so apparently benign can be harmful, especially by ingestion, at high levels over a period of time. Most of these inorganic chemicals show moderate to high health effects, with inorganic sulfides being the most acutely and chronically toxic. This is especially so if sulfides are present in acidic conditions and hydrogen sulfide gas is formed. Acute toxicity High- extreme: Inhalation of high concentrations of Hydrogen Sulfide can cause dizziness, headache, and nausea. Exposure to
Why is it hazardous? Primary hazard Odour amenity, pathogen potential and 'spreading' potential to blanket environmental media, such as surface waters, when spilled, causing environmental impacts. Secondary hazard H12: Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released present or may present immediate or delayed adverse impacts to the environment by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems. Other hazard(s) H3: Flammable liquids The word ‘flammable’ has the same meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or liquids containing solids in solution or suspension (for example, paints, varnishes, lacquers, etc, but not including substances or wastes otherwise classified on account of their dangerous characteristics) which give off flammable vapour at temperatures of not more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test, or not more than 65.6°C, open-cup test. Main likely chemical contaminants N/A Where does it come from? Main sources Animal effluent and residues Abattoirs, broiler sheds and poultry processing facilities and fish processing facilities. Grease trap waste Restaurants, cafes and fast food outlets. How is it managed? Main fates Significant reuse or recycling of grease trap waste occurs. Composting and bio-digestion methods are typically applied to recycle, reclaim or recovery energy from animal industry wastes, with some used as inputs into fertiliser products. Alternatively these wastes may be managed through landfill. How much is generated in Australia? Volume score (% of national tonnes in 2013) <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20% 12.59% Waste arising in 2013 (tonnes) TOTAL: 905,350 ACT: 5,024 NSW: 319,854 NT: 10,395 Qld: 255,770 SA: 72,118 Tas: 22,150 Vic: 140,222 WA: 79,817 Potential health impacts Overview Grease trap waste is made up solids and sludges from cooking of both animal and vegetable oils, which are obviously edible oils. However, the cooking process degrades these oils and, in