Contents Page Abstract … iii Acknowledgements … v List of Tables … xv Glossary … xvii Abbreviations … xxi Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction … 1 1.2 Stimulus for the research … 1 1.3 The opportunity to conduct an empirical qualitative study … 3 1.4 Selection of the case institutions … 4
2.8 The search for a definition of internationalisation to support the study … 47 2.9 Comprehensive internationalisation … 53 2.10 Developing a conceptual framework … 54 2.11 Summary … 59 Chapter 3 Context 3.1 Introduction … 61 3.2 Timeline influences on Chinese higher education … 61 3.2.1 500 BCE – 1900CE: The influence of ancient China … 62 3.2.2 1900 – 1949: Early western influences on higher education … 63 3.2.3 1949 – 1964: Chinese Communist Party and the Russian influence … 64 3.2.4 1965-1978: The Cultural Revolution … 65 3.2.5 1978 – 1990: Deng Xiaoping’s Open Door policy … 65 Contents Page 3.2.6 1990 – 1995: Decentralisation, massification and quality assurance … 67 3.2.7 1996 – 2000: Project 985 and world-class universities … 67 3.2.8 2000-2007: Going Global … 68 3.2.9 2008 – Present day: China as a rising power in a global system of higher education … 69 3.3 To summarise socio-political influences on the development of internationalisation in China … 70 3.4 Timeline influences on UK higher education … 74 3.4.1 1200 – 1800: Foundation of the first universities in the UK … 74 3.4.2 1800 – 1900: Influence of the British Empire … 75 3.4.3 1900 – 1960: Postcolonial and commonwealth Influence, the growth of international students … 75
3.4.4 1960 – 1969: The mass expansion of higher education and the introduction of fees for international students … 76 3.4.5 1970 – 1990: Thatcher and the introduction of full fees for international students … 76 3.4.6 1990 – 2005: Blair and PMI 1, developing the market in international student recruitment … 77 3.4.7 2006 – 2009: PMI 2, promoting the UK brand as a world leader in higher education … 79 3.4.8 2010 – 2013: The coalition government and the impact of border control … 80 3.4.9 2013 – ongoing: The future of internationalisation, the East is rising … 81 3.5 To summarise socio-political influences on the development of internationalisation in the UK … 83 3.6 Comparative perspectives on government influences in China and England … 86 3.7 Summary … 88 Contents Page Chapter 4 Methodology 4.1 Introduction … 89 4.2 Reconciling positionality … 90 4.3 Insider/outsider ethnographic research … 96 4.4 Subjectivity and the research process … 95 4.5 Accepting uncertainty … 97 4.6 Finding a methodological approach … 98 4.7 A case study approach … 99 4.8 Semi-structured interviews … 103 4.9 Research questions underpinning this study … 105 4.10 Selection of the case institutions … 105 4.11 Selection of respondents … 107
4.12 An unexpected set back at the beginning of the data collection … 108 4.13 Informed consent and cultural values and norms … 110 4.14 The data analysis … 112 4.14.1 Structuring the single case data analysis … 112 4.14.2 Structuring the multi-case analysis … 113 4.14.3 Iteration 2 of the comprehensive internationalisation conceptual framework … 116 4.14.4 Iteration 3 of the comprehensive internationalisation conceptual framework … 121 4.15 Summary … 126 5. Chapter 5 Single Case Analysis 5.1 Introduction … 127 5.2 Internationalisation enthusiasts … 127 5.3 The interviews … 129 Contents Page 5.4 The single case analysis … 131 5.5 Huángsè University … 131 5.5.1 Respondent profiles at Huángsè University … 134 5.6 Yellow University … 136 5.6.1 Respondent profiles at Yellow University … 138 5.7 Hόng University … 140 5.7.1 Respondent profiles at Hόng University … 143 5.8 Red University … 144 5.8.1 Respondent profiles at Red University … 146 5.9 Lán Sè University … 148 5.8.1 Respondent profiles at Lán Sè University … 150 5.10 Blue University … 151 5.10.1 Respondent profiles at Blue University … 154
Abbreviations ARWU Academic Rankings of World Universities ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations BCE Before Common Era BIS The Department for Business Innovation and Skills CCP Chinese Communist Party CEC China Education Centre CI Confucius Institute DTI Department for Trade and Industry EEC European Economic Community HERS Higher Education Ranking Systems HEI Higher Education Institution HSK Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi proficiency test IMF International Monetary Fund NPM New Public Management OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PGR Post Graduate Research PMI1 Prime Ministers Initiative 1 PMI2 Prime Ministers Initiative 2 TESOL Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages THE Times Higher Education
Theorising comprehensive internationalisation 2.1 Introduction This chapter provides the reader with an overview of the key theoretical approaches, discourses and debates that have informed the study. It draws attention to the contested nature of globalisation and internationalisation and identifies the need for western researchers to appreciate that internationalisation is understood and enacted in similar and different ways in China and England. The review identifies emerging discourses that are dominating debates on inequalities and the ethical consequences of internationalisation in global higher education. Hudzik (2015) frames such inequities in higher education as the dark side of internationalisation and examples of the dark side with specific reference to China are examined. The chapter also outlines the search to find a seminal definition of internationalisation to underpin the study and support the development of a conceptual framework to structure and support the data analysis. 2.2 Conceptualising globalisation and internationalisation in higher education Conceptualisations of globalisation and internationalisation are fluid and contested and difficult to pin down. Maringe and Foskett (2010) argue cogently that globalisation and internationalisation are two sides of the same coin both simultaneously acting on and shaping and mutually reinforcing the other. Globalisation provides the impetus for higher education institutions to internationalise and as universities intensify internationalisation activities the pace and scope of globalisation is accelerated. Enders (2004: p.365), claimed
Any teaching or learning activity in which students are in a different country (the host country) to that in which the institution providing the education is based (the home country). (GATE 2000:1) The literature focused on Transnational Education (TNE) also identified ethical concerns related to the exploitative impact of western universities establishing branch campuses overseas without due regard for the local environments in which they are located. Tickly (2001); Kim (2009, 2010); Naidoo (2009); Ryan (2009); Kauppinen (2012); Caruana and Montgomery (2015) and Hudzik (2015) Stafford and Taylor (2016) identify the need for more western universities to adopt more respectful approaches to TNE delivery of programmes and they emphasise that arrangements should strengthen the higher education infrastructure of host nations. Yang (2008: p.274) analysed the impact of TNE in China and argued that China was perhaps the world’s ‘most complex, overhyped and under analysed market for TNE’. He argued that the Chinese government accepted TNE particularly the establishment of branch campuses by some of the most elite institutions in the world as a means of rapidly boosting capacity within the Chinese higher education system and accelerating the process of reform in the higher education system. Yang (ibid.) argues that the consequences of branch campus developments in China have not been without their drawbacks and many tensions and challenges have been created by western universities transplanting branch campuses into overseas environments without respect for indigenous contexts, values and traditions. Recently Jane Knight (2015 p.1) suggested that approaches to TNE are transforming and she proposed that three new generic models of international
changing but changing at an unprecedented rate and the evidence considered in this timeline summary suggests that he could be right. Table 3.1: Time line summary of key developments influencing internationalisation in higher education in China Date Context Key influences on internationalisation in higher education in China References 500BCE – 1900 The influence of ancient China Higher learning focused on training civil servants in private academies shuyuan and civil service examinations keju were crucial. Hayhoe (1984 2014) Yang (2009,2014 2016) Ryan (2011a) Marginson (2013) Liu et al.(2015) 1900 – 1949 Early western influences on higher education. Peking University, Fudan university, Tianjin University, Jia Tong University established between 1885 and 1905 Hayhoe (1984 2014) Brandenburg and Zhu (2007) Wang (2013) 1949 – 1964 Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Russian influence Soviet model of higher education was adopted with a highly-centralised system. Hayhoe (1984, 2014) Ouyang (2004) British Council (2012) Wang (2013) 1965 – 1978 The Cultural Revolution Most formal higher education suspended. Mio and Cheng (2010) Wang (2013, 2014) Hayhoe (2014)
1978 – 1990 Deng Xiaoping’s Open Door policy 1980 Decision of Reform of the Higher Education system (CCP 1985) focus on reducing the gap in education development between China and the west. Vidovich et al. (2007) Wang (2013,2014) Yang and Mie (2015) 1990 – 1995 Decentralisation, massification and quality assurance The Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China issued in 1993 CCP and State Council 1993 increased emphasis on internationalisation. 1995 Launch of 211 Project Planning to create 100 universities fit to meet the challenges of 21C. Vidovich et al. (2007). Brandenburg, Zhu (2007) Altbach (2011) Wang (2013, 2014) 1996 – 2000 Project 985 and world class universities 1998 Launch of 985 project to produce world-class universities, initially 9 universities (world class) extended to 39 (world known) in 2004 Action plan for revitilisation of Education in the 21 Century launched (MoE and State Council 1999) Increasing emphasis on internationalisation and decentralisation. Vidovich et al. (2007). Brandenburg, Zhu (2007) Altbach (2011) Wang (2013, 2014) 2000 – 2007 Going Global 2003-2007 Ministry of Education updated Action Plan for the revitalisation of Education: going global (MOE 2004). Soft power initiatives adopted. Note 2003 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) established by Shanghai Jiaotong University. 195,503 international student studying in China in 2007 MOE (2004, 2010) Vidovich et al. (2007) Ryan (2011) Wang (2013, 2014) Montgomery (2015) CSC website 2015 2008 – present day China as a rising power in a global system of higher education The National Outline for Mid- and Long-term Education Planning and Development (State Council 2010) with references to the benefits of Wang (2014)
Table 3.2: Time line summary of key developments influencing internationalisation in higher education in UK. Context Key influences on Internationalisation in higher education in UK References Foundation of the first universities in the UK Foundation of oldest European universities Naples, Toulouse, Lund, Oxford and Cambridge Walker (2014) Hudzik (2015) Influence of the British Empire International students attracted to Britain from Colonies (particularly India). Pietsch (2012) Walker (2014) Postcolonial and commonwealth influence: growth of international students No government policy re international students, no fees for international students at this time. Belcher (1987) Rivzi and Lingard (2009) Humphrey (2011) Walker (2014) Mass expansion of HE: introduction of fees for international students 27,000 international students studying in UK in 1960. Robbins Report 1963 1969 introduction of £250 differential fee for overseas students. Humfrey (2011) Walker (2014)
Thatcher government: introduction of marketization in higher education 1979 Thatcher government introduced full fees Introduction of market competition and universities turned to international student recruitment for income. Olsen and Peters (2005) Turner and Robson (2008) Walker (2014) Developing the market in international student recruitment: Blair and PMI1 Increasing reliance on income from international student recruitment Launch of PMI 1 acknowledging importance of international student recruitment to British economy. Luijten-Lub et al. (2005)Walker (2014) Lomer (2016) Promoting UK brand as a world leader in higher education: PMI2 Launch of PMI2 with broader focus on quality and development of networks and partnerships Blair (2006) DfES (2006) Walker (2014) Lomer (2016) The Coalition government: impact of border control Conservative party manifesto pledge to reduce net migration. 2013 Launch of Government’s first International Education Strategy: International Education Global Growth and Prosperity. UKBA (2010) Universities UK (2011) 3.6 Comparative perspectives on government influences in China and England The timeline summaries evidence that there are many similarities and some distinct differences between factors influencing the development of internationalisation in higher education in China and England. Perhaps the most significant differences are the different characters of the nation-states and the different models of higher education regulation at play in the two countries (Vidovich et al. 2007; Wang 2014 and Walker 2014). Marginson (2013) argues that the state’s role in China is qualitatively different to the role of the state in England, the CCP’s involvement is more explicit and directive than the UK government’s devolved model of control. Every university in China has representatives of the communist party working as members of the governance
Table 4.1: Respondent and institution key for iterations 2 and 3 of the comprehensive internationalisation conceptual framework Chinese universities Key Chinese respondents Key English universities Key English respondents Key Identifying University HU Dean HU1 Yellow University Site YU Dean YU1 Huángsè University HU Associate Professor HU2 Yellow University YU Research Fellow EY2 Hόng University HoU Vice President HoU1 Red University RU Deputy Vice RU1 Hόng University HoU Dean HoU2 Red University RU Dean RU2 Hόng University HoU Deputy Head International affairs HoU3 Red University RU International Office Manager RU3 Lán Sè University LU Vice President LU1 Blue University BU Deputy Vice BU1 Lán Sè University LU Dean LU2 Blue University BU Dean BU2 Lán Sè University LU Deputy Head International Affairs LU3 Blue University BU International Office Manager BU3
Table 7.1: Iteration 2 Comprehensive internationalisation conceptual framework (Theme B) Iteration2 Theme B Internationalisation of the curricula Activities and identified in Nvivo HU1 HU2 HoU1 HoU2 HoU3 LU1 LU2 LU3 YU1 YU2 RU1 RU2 RU3 BU1 BU2 BU3 International dimensions in teaching & learning X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Programmes taught in English X X X X X X X X X X X X English language proficiency X X X X X X X X X x X X X X Employability X X X X X X X X X X X Resistance to internationalisation: staff attitudes X X X X X X X X X X X X Internationalisation of the curriculum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Benefits of intercultural exchange X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Digital technologies X X X X
3 Table 8.2. The first column of iteration 3 of the conceptual framework identifies where cross cutting sub-themes are coded in other sections of the framework and discussed in other chapters and sections of this thesis. At the beginning of each sub-theme discussion the location of other related discussions is provided. .
publications and citations in international journals and they felt that challenges were greater for Chinese scholars in the social sciences rather than the natural sciences. 8.6 Sub-theme C3: Reforming university systems, government support and global rankings (Also related to discussions on sub-themes A1, A2, A3, B1, C2,) There was a marked difference in how the respondents in England and China viewed government support for internationalisation. English respondents cited the Government’s immigration policies and border control policies as presenting serious barriers to internationalisation. When asked what they saw as the major challenge to internationalisation in higher education without exception the English respondents’ first comment was UK immigration policies: Border control. The UK government policy is quite hostile to international students despite what David Cameron says….I think challenges are the UK government treating them as immigrants rather than temporary residents and taking away the post-study work visa has been catastrophic for students from India and the Indian subcontinent who use that, particularly the postgrad students (PVC Blue University) Challenges…. if I was sitting with a recruitment hat on, obviously government policy, immigration policy, things like that.’ (English international Office manager Blue University) Barriers to internationalisation…… Well partly they’ve been national in that the coalition government’s policy on migration….and the activities of the Border Agency (PVC Red University). All the English respondents expressed frustration that government policy was seriously impeding institutional internationalisation strategies, particularly in relation to student recruitment from Asia and the Indian subcontinent. English
Appendix 3 -Iterations 1, 2 and 3 of the Comprehensive Internationalisation Conceptual Framework Table 2.1: Iteration 1 Comprehensive Internationalisation conceptual framework (Theme A) Theme A International student and staff mobility including and student and staff recruitment Activities and identified in Nvivo Huángsè University Hόng University Lan Se University Yellow University Red university Blue university International student recruitment Visiting scholars Staff and student exchanges Conference attendance International staff recruitment Broadening staff and student perspectives TNE joint programmes TNE branch campuses
Table 4.1: Respondent and institution key for iterations 2 and 3 of the comprehensive internationalisation conceptual framework Chinese universities Key Chinese respondents Key English universities Key English respondents Key Identifying University HU Dean HU1 Yellow University Site YU Dean YU1 Huángsè University HU Associate Professor HU2 Yellow University YU Research Fellow EY2 Hόng University HoU Vice President HoU1 Red University RU Deputy Vice Chancellor RU1 Hόng University HoU Dean HoU2 Red University RU Dean RU2 Hόng University HoU Deputy Head International affairs HoU3 Red University RU International Office Manager RU3 Lán Sè University LU Vice President LU1 Blue University BU Deputy Vice Chancellor BU1 Lán Sè University LU Dean LU2 Blue University BU Dean BU2 Lán Sè University LU Deputy Head International Affairs LU3 Blue University BU International Office Manager BU3