(ZRB). يلي (1) ، (2) هذه ، ، و (3) (ZRB) لا ، (WAJ) 18 1988 ، (JVA) 30 2001 (MWI) 54 هذه ، لا . ، هذه (ZRB). ، لا ، ، (ZRB) .
Policy-makers should look for policies that address current vulnerabilities and development needs, as well as potential climate risks Actions to address vulnerability to climate change should be pursued through social development, service provision and improved natural resource management practices A broad range of stakeholders should be involved in climate change including civil society, sectoral departments and senior policy-makers Climate change adaptation should be informed by successful ground-level experiences in vulnerability reduction NGOs should play a dominant role in building awareness and capacity at the local level The following is an example adopted by the IPCC for national environmental policies instrumentations and evaluations criteria. Table 1: National environmental policies instrumentations and evaluations criteria (based on IPCC, 2007) Instrument Criteria Environmental effectiveness Cost-effectiveness Meets distributional considerations Institutional feasibility Regulations and standards Emissions level set directly, though subject to exceptions Depends on deferrals and compliance Depends on design; uniform application often leads to higher overall compliance costs. Depends on level playing field. Small/new actors may be disadvantaged. Depends on technical capacity; popular with regulators in countries with weakly functioning markets. Taxes and charges Depends on ability to set tax at a level that induces behavioural change. Better with broad application; higher administrative costs where institutions are weak. Regressive; can be ameliorated with revenue recycling. Often politically unpopular; may be difficult to enforce with underdeveloped institutions. Tradable Permits Depends on emissions cap, participation and compliance. Decreases with limited participation and fewer sectors. Depends on initial permit allocation. May pose difficulties for small emitters. Requires well functioning markets and complementary institutions. Voluntary agreements Depends on programme design, including clear targets, a baseline scenario, third party involvement in design and review and monitoring provisions. Depends on flexibility and extent of government incentives, rewards and penalties. Benefits accrue only to participants. Often politically popular; requires significant number of administrative staff. Subsidies and other incentives Depends on programme design; less certain than Regulations / standards. Depends on level and programme design; can be market distorting. Benefits selected participants, possibly some that do not need it. Popular with recipients; potential resistance from vested interests. Can be difficult to phase out. Research and development Depends on consistent funding; when technologies are developed and polices for diffusion. May have high benefits in the long term. Depends on programme design and the degree of risk. Benefits initially selected participants; potentially easy for funds to be misallocated. Requires many separate decisions. Depends on research capacity and long term funding. making,
introduced as the basis for strategies for IWRM. Consider the roles of local authorities and river basin organizations (RBOs) in adaptation strategies when drafting an IWRM plan. Legal frameworks, economics and health, and other variable conditional elements that have been analysed from the corner stone for implementation of IWRM and are decisive in how it contributes to climate change adaptation. During evaluation, results must be measured against indicators, taking into consideration the adaptation measures proposed in the plan. Throughout the process, stakeholder involvement is essential so that the results of the impacts assessment and strategic choice are owned by the implementing agencies. The range of solutions and strategies has been broadened over time by improvements in technologies. What has changed is our understanding and implementation of the integrated ensemble of water management measures that conform to modern principles and policies. A catchment is composed of many users, who reside upstream and downstream of each other. Strategy Development and Planning for Adaptation Jordan has distinguished experience in the region in water policy formulation especially with regards to demand management, stakeholder participation, and public-private partnerships that are considered major achievements towards IWRM implementation. Nevertheless, there are some challenges that may impede policy implementation, for example, institutional roles of all actors are still not well defined, there is still a need for updating existing laws that regulate groundwater abstraction and more importantly the inadequate technical and institutional capabilities in the water sectors. Moreover, insufficient financial resources and the carrying capacity of water infrastructure may further delay policy implementation. IWRM is the key process that should be used in the water sector for water-related developments and measures, and hence for achieving the water-related MDGs. However, the potential impacts of climate change and associated increasing climate variability need to be sufficiently incorporated into IWRM plans. IWRM should form the encompassing paradigm for coping with natural climate variability and the prerequisite for adapting to the consequences of global warming and associated climate change under conditions of uncertainty. Adaptation is a process by which individuals, communities and countries seek to cope with the consequences of climate change, including climate variability. It should lead to harmonization with countries’ more pressing development priorities such as poverty