Lab Skills Microscope: Total Magnification = Eyepiece x Objective lens Diaphragm – Regulates Light 1 mm = 1000 μm (micrometers) Objects are viewed upside down and backwards. (iodine or methylene blue) – makes it easier to see specimen details. Slide Preparation: Specimen Staining… ___________________________________________________________________________________ Graduated Cylinder: measures liquid volume READ THE BOTTOM OF THE CURVE (MENISCUS). ___________________________________________________________________________________ Centrifuge – spins rapidly and separates (ex. cell parts) according to density. USE FOR THINGS YOU CAN’T SEE WITH A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. Microdissecting Instruments – can remove cell parts. ex. chloroplasts, nucleus, mitochondria… USE FOR THINGS YOU CAN’T SEE WITH A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. ___________________________________________________________________________________
Indicators: Lugol’s Solution (Iodine) – turns starch blue-black Benedict’s Solution (a blue solution) – turns sugar red-orange when heated. Bromthymol Blue – turns acids yellow – turns CO2 yellow (carbonic acid) Blue Litmus – turns red in an acid Red Litmus – turns blue in a base pH Paper – shows acidity (pH 1 – 14: 1 = strong acid → 14 = strong base {7 = neutral}) ___________________________________________________________________________________ Chromatography – separates dissolvable pigments based on molecule density. Gel Electrophoresis – sorts molecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) according to size by using electricity to drag them through a gelatin-like medium. Classification Kingdoms Examples Bacteria Bacteria E. coli Blue-green Algae(cyanobacteria) Archaea extremophiles methanogens, halophiles
Protista Protozoa (animal-like)------------------ Amoeba, Paramecium Algae – photosynthetic------------------ Spyrogyra, Euglena Fungi Absorb nutrients from mushrooms, yeast Environment… Plants Bryophytes (no-vascular tissue) moss Tracheophytes (true roots, stems ferns, pine trees, oak, geranium… and leaves) Animals Coelenterates (Cnidaria) – 2 layered body cavity… Annelids – segmented worms earthworm (Lumbricus terrestus) Arthropods – jointed appendages/ grasshopper exoskeleton… Chordates – dorsal nerve cord humans, dogs, dolphins, etc… Sub-phylum – vertebrates – true backbone - humans CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM IS ON EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-species Most General Most Specific ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________ Biochemistry: Element – a substance composed of a single kind of atom. Living Things: N-CHOPS (Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur) Atom – smallest part of an element Compound – combinations of two or more different elements Organic – “Living” – with carbon (and hydrogen). pH: Potential of Hydrogen (H+); Acid—Neutral—Base Acid ~ 0 – 6.9 Neutral = 7.0 Base ~ 7.1 – 14.0 Enzymes work best at certain (optimum) pHs “-ase” suffix ending for enzymes. Biochemicals… Carbohydrates: 2: 1 ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen (Carbo – Hydrates ~ water {H2O}). Monosaccharides – simple sugars. → “-ose” suffix ending for sugars.
D = Left Atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins. E = Left Ventricle – pumps blood through the aorta to the body F = Right Ventricle – pumps blood into the pulmonary artery. G = Valve – prevents back flow between chambers. H = Inferior Vena Cava – brings blood from body cells found below the heart to the right atrium. I = Right Atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava. Lymphatic System: carries (ICF – intercellular fluid), blood plasma leaked from capillaries, back to the circulatory system. → Along with the lymph nodes, this secondary circulatory system aids in the in fighting disease (immunity = the immune system). Blood: mostly water and dissolved substances (nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc… = plasma); contains three different kinds of cells. → Red Cells (RBC): contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen; manufactured in the bone marrow.. → White Blood Cells (WBC): patrol the body for foreign organisms and materials (phagocytes), and make antibodies to fight against virus particles and other substances (lymphocytes); also made in bone marrow. → Platelets: aid in the formation of blood clots (to plug up wounded blood vessels). Immunity: protects body systems from invasion by foreign organisms and substances. White Blood Cell: attack invaders (phagocytes) or make antibodies (lymphocytes). Antigen: foreign organism or substance that initiates the immune response. Antibodies – special proteins “tailor made” by lymphocytes that attack specific antigens. Pathogen – disease-causing organism