Sole-mother families –0.301 0.462 ** 0.365 ** 0.500 ** 0.547 Wave 2 Family form (unchanged; ref. = Married families) Cohabiting families –0.185 0.175 0.145 –0.008 0.151 Sole-mother families –0.763 *** 0.695 *** 0.471 ** 0.940 *** 0.681 Wave 3 Family form (unchanged; ref. = Married families) Cohabiting families –0.196 0.535 ** 0.484 * 0.258 0.193 Sole-mother families –0.677 *** 0.725 *** 0.720 *** 1.137 *** 0.723 (a) These measures were only generated based on parents’ reports. Note: Items that formed this scale were the same in Wave 2 and Wave 3, but differed in Wave 1. The family forms in this table remained the same across the three waves and comprised those in which the children lived with their biological parents.. Statistical differences are shown as: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Data have been weighted. ** * ** * ** *
Table 10: Regressions of child outcomes, full model PPVT score Outcome indices (a) SDQ social–emotional sub-scales Physical development index development Learning index Overall development index Prosocial behaviour Peer problems Emotional problems Hyperactivity problems Conduct problems a Primary caregivers’ reports Wave 1 Family form (unchanged; ref. = Married families) Cohabiting families 0.159 –0.496 –0.666 0.434 –0.425 –0.056 0.054 –0.048 –0.098 0.570 *** Sole-mother families –0.515 0.240 –1.012 –1.378 –1.076 –0.045 0.070 0.030 0.106 0.498 ** Wave 2 Family form (unchanged; ref. = Married families) Cohabiting families 0.486 0.032 –0.913 –0.413 –0.721 –0.098 0.186 0.066 0.079 0.165 Sole-mother families –0.056 1.963 ** –1.765 ** –1.462 * –0.672 –0.151 0.267 * 0.158 0.095 0.428 *** Wave 3 Family form (unchanged; ref. = Married families) Cohabiting families 0.777 * –0.042 –0.540 –0.595 –0.546 0.357 ** 0.203 0.152 0.123 0.168 Sole-mother families –0.112 –0.641 –2.578 *** –0.916 –1.876 * –0.201 0.286 * 0.462 ** 0.350 * 0.232 * Teachers’ reports Wave 1 Family form (unchanged; ref. = Married families) Cohabiting families 0.085 –0.021 0.064 0.01 –0.085
Full time 88.4 75.2 88.8 76.6 90.6 81.1 Part time 6.0 8.8 * 6.0 9.3 * 5.4 8.6 * Not 5.6 16.1 5.2 14.1 4.1 10.3 No. of 436 304 251 Note: The family forms in this table remained the same across the three waves and comprised those in which the children lived with their biological parents. For both mothers and fathers, cohabiting parents and sole mothers were compared with married parents. Statistical differences are shown as: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Data have been weighted. Missing data result in slight variations in numbers of observations across variables. Table A4: Mean scores of parenting practice scales of fathers and mothers by family type, Waves 1 to 3 (cross-sectional analysis) Mothers Fathers Married mothers Cohabiting mothers Sole mothers Married fathers Cohabiting fathers Wave 1 Warm parenting a 4.43 4.43 4.49 * 4.09 4.04 Hostile parenting b 2.17 2.26 ** 2.24 * 2.28 2.36 * Use of reasoning c 4.25 4.22 4.28 3.99 3.93 Consistency of parenting d 4.07 3.88 *** 3.84 *** 3.98 3.78 *** No. of observations 3702 435 655 3702 435 Wave 2 Warm parenting a 4.45 4.45 4.46 4.13 4.09 Hostile parenting b 2.16 2.24 2.23 * 2.08 2.12 Use of reasoning c 4.23 4.20 4.27 3.96 3.88 Consistency of parenting d 4.15 3.98 *** 3.98 *** 4.07 3.92 * No. of observations 3333 303 615 3333 303 Wave 3 Warm parenting a 4.34 4.27 4.35 4.06 4.07 Hostile parenting b 2.13 2.17 2.20 2.17 2.18 Use of reasoning c 4.14 4.09 4.14 3.91 4.03 * * * * * * ** ** ** ** ** **
Financial hardship (up to six –0.107 –0.020 0.025 0.154 Rating of financial prosperity (1 to 6) 0.067 –0.080 –0.113 * –0.189 ** Mothers’ ratings of parenting self-efficacy 0.111 * –0.073 –0.067 –0.089 Mothers’ parenting style Warm parenting –0.021 0.049 0.102 0.196 Hostile parenting –0.496 *** 0.206 ** 0.237 ** 0.719 *** Inductive reasoning –0.057 0.034 0.117 * 0.104 Consistency 0.161 * –0.029 –0.024 –0.258 ** Mothers’ K–6 depression scale 0.055 0.116 0.074 –0.045 Constant 8.414 *** 1.090 1.093 1.611 r2 0.145 0.056 0.051 0.173 No. of respondents 2900 2901 2900 2902 Note: HH = household. Statistical differences are shown as: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Data have been weighted.
Constant 9.543 *** –1.044 2.356 0.555 r2 0.101 0.029 0.023 0.122 No. of respondents 2591 2592 2590 2592 Note: HH = household. The family forms in this table remained the same across the three waves and comprised those in which the children lived with their biological parents. Statistical differences are shown as: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Data have been weighted.