Vulnerability indicators for clusters and individual bogs The development of vulnerability indicators presented (Table 3) has focused on the recognised critical components and processes of bogs that are assessable and meaningful at the bog and cluster scale. Table Vulnerability indicators of critical components and processes for clusters and individual bogs characterising bogs that are the most, moderate and least vulnerable to impacts. Degree of vulnerability to impacts Substrate/peat status Organic matter processes and dynamics holding capacity / water table Moisture status Vegetation Most Wasted or lost peat with no true organic matter (either acrotelm and/or catotelm) Little organic matter incorporated into alpine humus soils Water table fluctuates within mineral soils or is constrained by ditches and drains Evidence of desiccation on bog and within bog; evidence of ‘dryland’ plant species invasion Little or no presence of key species such as peat forming Sphagnum, rushes and sedges. Depauperate of other species. Typical Reduced acrotelm but intact Catotelm Some evidence of peat oxidation and subsequent erosion Plant litter may degrade at surface and/or not enter system as peat Little new organic matter incorporated in waterlogged layers Water table fluctuates within both acrotelm and catotelm Deeper peat may dry periodically in drought conditions Some desiccation at bog edges and some dry pools and/or dry water channels Reduced presence of key species such as peat forming Sphagnum, rushes and sedges. Other species reduced. Degree of vulnerability to impacts Substrate/peat status Organic matter processes and dynamics holding capacity / water table Moisture status Vegetation
Least Intact acrotelm and Catotelm Little to no evidence of peat oxidation Organic matter actively fixed and stored in acrotelm & potential for long-term storage in catotelm Low pH indicating anaerobic, peat forming conditions Water table fluctuates diurnally within acrotelm Limited/seasonal water table fluctuation or movement within catotelm Deeper peat is permanently waterlogged Well saturated layers of Sphagnum with full within bog Natural to semi-natural vegetation cover including Sphagnum, rushes, sedges and a diversity of Ericaceous and Myrtaceous shrubs. Identifying pressures and associated impacts from pressures and threatening processes Pressures and associated impacts are grouped in the assessment to reduce duplication and to streamline assessments. It should be that pressures and threats from recreation activities such as skiing and walking are acknowledged as causal factors for some pressures; as such, they are not explicitly assessed in this section. Table Pressures and associated impact from pressures and threatening processes. Adapted from ‘Victorian peatland investment program project’ (Parks Victoria, ARI & WGCMA, 2014) Threat Ungulate impacts in and adjacent to bogs. Vehicle impacts in and adjacent to bogs. Transforming impact Hydrological disturbance Fire Evidence Extent of droppings/ scats, tracks, wallows, pugging, trampling, bank slumping, erosion (horse, deer) Extent of – wheel track rutting/deep muddy tracks, pooling/diversion of water away from the bog Presence of transforming weeds Impact from tracks, roads and any other infrastructure (e.g. pipes, drains) shown by diversions Fire interval and degree of burnt peat
Appendix One: Summary of research, variables monitored, purpose and methods of studies included in the assessment across the mainland Australian Alps State Report Bare substrate Sphagnum Life forms Species Disturbance Palaeoecology Purpose Methods ACT Alexiou (1983) * Effects of feral pigs Qualitative and quantitative quadrats and descriptors Vic Ashton & Hargraves (1983) * * * * Vegetation dynamics Quantitative quadrats 5*5m ACT Carey et al. (2003) * Bushfire impacts Qualitative ACT Clark (1980) Sphagnum growth studies Quantitative Tendril length measures, compaction on pin ACT Clark (1986) * Sphagnum growth studies and fire history of Rotten Swamp Cores and stratigraphy NSW Clarke & Martin (1999) * * * * Characterises: altitude, time and disturbance. selected in 1959-73 on basis of no obvious disturbance, intact bog layer, little or no erosion Quantitative 1959-1963 baseline, 1991 repeat. 11 sites (11 resampled), 0.1m random quadrats, sampling proportional to bog size, domin scale, NSW Clarke et al. (in prep 2014) * * * * * Grazing and fire (2003) recovery/resilience Quantitative 1960s, 1990, 2005, 2007, 2013. 11 sites (11 resampled), 0.1m random quadrats, sampling proportional to bog size, domin scale, Vic Coates et al. (2006) * * * * Regeneration after recurrent fires Quantitative 4*5m quadrats. Resampling studies of Walsh (1984),
ACT Helman & Gilmore (1985) * * * * Vegetation classification Quantitative Valley (‘s’) patches 2*2m quadrats on drainage line ACT Hope and Clark (2008) * * Peat formation and palaeoecology Coring, dating and stratigraphy ACT NSW Hope et al. 2005 * * * * * Preliminary results of post-fire restoration techniques Quantitative 0.25m2 quadrats ACT Hope et al. 2009 * Mapping & field validation of significant sites Lifeform to vegetation community classification ACT Hope, Nanson & Flett 2009 Named bogs in ACT mires map Qualitative/spatial ACT Hope, Nanson & Flett 2009 * * * * Descriptive report on processes of peat forming mires in ACT. 4 sites as examples Cores, paleo analysis, descriptive floristics ACT NSW Hope et al. 2011 * Proposed reseach program for montane and subalpine bogs Research prioritisation ACT NSW Keith (2004) Descriptive Mapping and qualitative descriptions Vic Kershaw et al. (2007) * Vegetation and climate change over the last glacial cycle Coring, dating and stratigraphy Vic Lawrence (1999) * Landscape/catchment-scale study Mapping and qualitative descriptions
Vic Shannon & Morgan (2007) * * * * * Florisitic variation and vegetation classification Quantative 2*2m quadrats along random transect Braun Blaunquet Scale Vic Shannon (2011) * * * * * Florisitic variation and vegetation classification Quantitative 2*2m quadrats random transect Braun Blaunquet Scale Vic Silvester (2009) Ionic regulation/water chemistry chemical analysis Vic Thiele & Prober * * * * * Impacts of feral horses Quantitative pointing inside/outside horse exclosures, stream description Vic Tolsma (2008a) * * * * Condition assessment and management requirements Qualitative with some categorical classes Vic Tolsma (2008b) * * * * Condition assessment and management requirements Qualitative with some categorical classes Vic Tolsma (2009) * * * * Condition assessment and management requirements Qualitative with some categorical classes Vic Tolsma & Shannon (2005) * * * * Condition assessment and management requirements Qualitative with some categorical classes Vic Tolsma & Shannon (2007) * * * * Condition assessment and management requirements Qualitative with some categorical classes
Vic Tolsma & Shannon (2009) * * * * Condition assessment and management requirements Qualitative with some categorical classes Vic Tolsma & Lau (2011) * * Assessment of remote sensing techniques to assist peatland monitoring Spectral classification Vic Wahren, Papst & Williams (1999) * * * * * Vegetation description, floristics and processes Quantitative 15 floristics, point quadrats at permanent transects, cover classes for spp. Vic Wahren, Papst & Williams (2001) * * * * * Grazed and ungrazed comparison, Sphagnum transplants for restoration Quantitative 15 years floristics, point quadrats at permanent transects, cover classes for spp. Vic Wahren (1997) * * * * * Vegetation, floristics, impacts, grazing, restoration treatments Quantitative 15 years floristics, point quadrats at permanent transects, cover classes for spp. Vic Wahren & Walsh (2000) * * * * * Impact of fires on vegetation Quantitative quadrats at permanent transects, cover classes for spp. Vic (ex BHP) (1984) * * * Vegetation community classification Quantitative 4*5m quadrats Vic Western et al. (2009) * Peatland influence on catchment hydrology Quantitative weirs, flow gauges, hydrological modelling Vic Whinam & Buxton (1997) * Sphagnum growth Quantitative pin method
NSW Whinam & Chilcott 2002 * * * * * Floristic classification and environmental relationships Species cover abundance 10*10m quadrats, peat depth, hummock/hollow depth, pH, Sphagnum tendril length. Analysis presence/absence ACT NSW Whinam et al. (2010) * * * * * Post 2003 fire experimental restoration treatments: shading, fertilisation & transplants Quantitative 2003, bi-annual between 2004-2009, 7 sites, 0.25m2 quadrats, sampling proportional to bog size, per cent cover. NSW Wimbush and Costin et al. Hydrology of bogs in alps: soil and veg, surface run off, evapotranspiration Weirs, hydrological observations Vic Wild et al. (2010) * Hydrological disturbance impacts on peatlands Quantitative and qualitative Stream gaugings, substrate moisture in cores along gradients relative to disturbance Vic Wild & Poll (2011) * * * * * Re-monitoring horse exclusion plots of Thiele and Prober (1999) Quantitative pointing inside/outside horse exclosures, stream description Vic Wild & Poll (2012) * * * * * Peatland monitoring - baseline Quantitative pointing, line intercepts, belt transects & qualitative observations Vic Wild & Poll (2013) * * * * * Peatland monitoring - baseline Quantitative pointing, line intercepts, belt transects & qualitative observations Vic Wild & Poll (2014) * * * * * Peatland monitoring - baseline Quantitative pointing, line intercepts, belt transects & qualitative observations
Disturbance features Qualitative visual assessment of presence/absence Whinam et al. (ACT) Ginini pig impacts & fire impacts Good (NSW) fire impacts Tolsma (Vic) horses & deer, fire impacts Grover (Vic) fire impacts Shannon (Vic) horses Quantitative assessment Robertson (NSW) Modified Landscape Function Analysis Shannon (Vic) Modified Landscape Function Analysis Wild (Vic) 2m belt transect x 5 in each bog quantifying impacts/presence/absence of scats Thiele and Prober, Wild (Vic) Transects and exclosure plots (horses) Hydrology Flow and nutrient buffering Silvester (2009) Stream flow, substrate moisture status Whinam, Hope et al. (various) substrate moisture in cores Wild et al. (2010) substrate moisture in cores along gradients relative to disturbance Substrate characteristics Peat composition Hope et al. (numerous) stratigraphy and coring Significant Fauna Presence/absence of threatened species/populations Osborne (various) Corrobee frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) Malone (1985) Baw Baw Frog (Philoria frosti) Appendix Three: Bog studies included in the meta-analysis of the ‘state’ of bogs across the mainland Australian Alps Alexiou P.N. (1983) Effects of feral pigs (Sus scrofa) on subalpine vegetation at Smokers Gap, A.C.T. Proceedings Ecological Society of Australia 12, 135–142. Ashton, D.H. and Hargreaves, G.R. (1983). Dynamics of subalpine vegetation at Echo Flat, Lake Mountain, Victoria. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 12, 35-60. Carey, A., Evans, M., Hann, P., Lintermans, M., Macdonald, T., Ormay, P., Sharp, S., Shorthouse, D. and Webb, N. (2003) Technical Report 17 Wildfires in the ACT 2003: Report on initial impacts on natural ecosystems. Environment ACT, Canberra.
Mean Summer net solar radiation (1980 to 2006) Vulnerability Mean monthly radiation surfaces for Australia at 1 arc-second resolution by Jenet Austin, John Gallant, Tom Van Niel, CSIRO Land and Water Date: 19.03.2014 Predicted mean Summer (Dec-Mar) net radiation from 1980 to 2006. Predictions based on solar geometry, elevation, slope, aspect, albedo, cloud cover, air temperature, vapour pressure and vegetation cover. Continuous variable binned to 3 states: 1= 0-10 MJ.m-2.d-1 2= 10-15 MJ.m-2.d-1 3= 15-20 MJ.m-2.d-1 Fine scale data (1 degree) on topography and past solar exposure can be used to identify which alpine bogs may be most susceptible to increased solar radiation in the future. Projected change in daily rainfall (2100) Threat Climate Futures - Landscapes and Policy Hub Change in maximum precipitation rate in a time-step (mm/day). Calculated by subtracting the average value for 1960-1989 from the average value from 2070-2099. Continuous variable binned to 5 states: 1= -22 to -20 mm 2= -20 to -19 mm 3= -19 to -18.5 mm 4= -18.5 to -17 mm 5= -17 to -15.5 mm Declines in rainfall may impact bog vegetation and hydrology. Projected change in max Temp (2100) Threat Climate Futures - Landscapes and Policy Hub Change in maximum temperature (K). Calculated by subtracting the average value for 1961-1990 from the average value from 2070-2099. Continuous variable binned to 5 states (positive values – increasing temperature): 1= 3-3.5 Kelvin/ oC 2= 3.5-3.8 Kelvin/ oC 3= 3.9-4.3 Kelvin/ oC 4= 4.3-4.7 Kelvin/ oC 5= 4.7-5.1 Kelvin/ oC Higher temperatures will influence plant growth and may be too high for some bog taxa. Higher temperatures (in association with winds) also result in higher rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration of water from alpine bogs. Evapotranspiration in the hottest month is the current limiting factor for Sphagnum peatlands ().
Threats plants Threat (composite) Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite layer from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Combine map of all weeds likely to impact alpine bogs (hawkweed, broom, willows, blackberries & daisy) 5 states: 0= No threats 1= Hawkweed, blackberry OR ox-eye daisy 2= Willows OR any 2 other species 3= Willows & 1 other species OR 3 species (none willow) 4= Willows & 2 other species Layer includes current distribution of all exotic plants understood to act as transforming weeds known to establish or impact alpine bogs. See description of layers for individual species for more detail. Pigs (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite layer from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations feral pigs have been observed. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no pigs observed 0 = Area searched and pigs observed Pigs are a significant problem in ACT & NSW, they damage alpine bog soils and vegetation by wallowing and digging which can lower water tables and exacerbate drying of peat layers (). Deer (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite layer from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations where feral deer have been observed. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no deer observed 0 = Area searched and deer observed Increasing threat with increased range noted recently. Impact alpine bog soils and vegetation through trampling, wallowing and browsing ().
Foxes (current distribution) Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations where foxes have been observed. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no observed 0 = Area searched and foxes observed Impacts natural values of bogs including native frogs, fish and crayfish in some areas (). Horses (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations feral horses have been observed. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no horses observed 0 = Area searched and horses observed Alpine bog soils and Sphagnum are susceptible to hoof damage which can lead to desiccation, soil erosion () altered vegetation composition and hydrological processes () and can impact on water retention (). Hawkweed (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations where orange hawkweed (Heiracium aurantiacum) has been identified and usually controlled. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no hawkweed observed 0 = Area searched and hawkweed observed Can form dense populations over large areas (). Broom (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite layer from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations where English/Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) has been identified and usually controlled. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no broom observed 0 = Area searched and broom observed Although not commonly a weed of bogs, English broom is highly invasive and can outcompete native species () and can result in increased fuel loads in adjacent areas.
Willow (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations willows has been identified and usually controlled. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no willows observed 0 = Area searched and willows observed Willows are ecosystem ‘engineers’ and can hydrology of bogs and dry them out from increased evapo-transpiration. Blackberries (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite layer from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations where blackberries have been identified and usually controlled. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no blackberries observed 0 = Area searched and blackberries observed Potential emerging threat as climate warms and the potential range expands and blackberries persist in and exposed areas. Ox-eye daisy (current distribution) Threat Bioregional Futures & Freshwater Ecosystems - Landscapes and Policy Hub. Composite layer from data of NSW OEH, Parks Victoria, Atlas of Living Australia Locations ox-eye daisy has been identified and usually controlled. 3 states -9999 = No data -888 = Area searched and no ox-eye daisy observed 0 = Area searched and daisy observed Potential emerging threat. Capable of spread into burnt native vegetation (, )