widely spaced except when they happen to collide. In a solid, atoms are closely spaced and may vibrate in position but do not change relative locations. Solids may be formed from molecules, or they may be extended structures with repeating subunits (e.g., crystals). (MS-PS1-1) The changes of state that occur with variations in temperature or pressure can be described and predicted using these models of matter. (MS-PS1-4) PS1.B: Chemical Reactions (8th Grade) Substances react chemically in characteristic ways. In a chemical process, the that make up the original substances are regrouped into different molecules, and new substances have different properties from those of the reactants. (Note: This Disciplinary Core Idea is also addressed by MS-PS1-2 and MS-PS1-5.) PS3.A: Definitions of Energy (8th Grade) The term “heat” as used in everyday language refers both to individual atoms in a complex molecule or extended structure.] MS-PS1-3. Gather and make sense of information to describe that synthetic materials come from natural resources and impact society. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on natural resources that undergo a chemical process to form the synthetic material. Examples of new materials include new medicine, foods, and alternative fuels.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to qualitative information.] MS-PS1-4. Develop a model that predicts and describes changes in particle motion, temperature, and state of a pure substance when thermal energy is added or removed. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on qualitative molecular-level models of solids, liquids, and gases to show that adding or removing thermal energy increases or decreases kinetic energy of the particles until a change of state occurs. Examples of models could include drawings and diagrams. Science Probe: 2-6 “Boiling Time and Temperature” Science Probe: 2-7 “Freezing Ice” Science Probe: 2-8 “What’s in the Bubbles?” Science 2-9 “Chemical Bonds” Science Probe: 2-10 “Ice-Cold Lemonade” Science Probe: 2-11 “Mixing Water” Science Probe: 4-6 “Ice Water”
thermal motion (the motion of atoms or molecules within a substance) and radiation (particularly infrared and light). In science, heat is used only for this second meaning; it refers to energy transferred when two objects or systems are at different temperatures. (secondary to MS-PS1-4) The relationship between the temperature and the total energy of a system depends on the types, states, and amounts of matter present. (secondary to MS-PS1-4) Examples of particles could include molecules or inert atoms. Examples of pure substances could include water, carbon dioxide, and helium.] Disciplinary Core Ideas: Chemical Reactions Students who demonstrate understanding can: Connections to other DCIs and Articulations Essential Vocabulary (Highlight denotes District Content Vocabulary) Science Assessment Probes Science Demos, Labs/Activities PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter (8th Grade) Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it. (MS-PS1-2) (Note: This Disciplinary Core Idea is also addressed by MS-PS1-3.) PS1.B: Chemical Reactions (8th Grade) MS-PS1-2. Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after the substances interact to determine if a chemical reaction has occurred. [Clarification Statement: Examples of reactions could include burning sugar or steel wool, fat reacting with sodium hydroxide, and mixing zinc with HCl.] [Assessment Boundary: Connections: MS.PS3.D MS.LS1.C MS.LS2.B (MS-PS1-5); MS.ESS2.A Articulations: 5.PS1.B HS.PS1.A (MS-PS1-6); HS.PS1.B HS.PS3.A (MS-PS1-6); HS.PS3.B Pure substance Element Density Melting Solubility Flammability Odor Reactants Conservation of Mass Endothermic Exothermic Science Probe: 1-10 “Is It Matter? Science Probe: 1-11 “Is It Made of Molecules” Science 2-1 “Comparing Cubes” Science 2-2 “Floating Logs”
Substances react chemically in characteristic ways. In a chemical process, the atoms that make up the original substances are regrouped into different molecules, and these new substances have different properties from those of the reactants. (Note: This Disciplinary Core Idea is also addressed by The total number of each type of atom is conserved, and thus the mass does not change. (MS-PS1-5) Some chemical reactions release energy, others store energy. (MS-PS1-6) ETS1.B: Developing Possible Solutions (8th Grade) A solution needs to be tested, and then modified on the basis of the test results, in order to improve it. (secondary to MS-PS1-6) ETS1.C: Optimizing the Design Solution (8th Although one design may not perform the best across all tests, identifying the characteristics of the design that performed the best in each test can provide useful information for the redesign Assessment is limited to analysis of the following properties: density, melting point, boiling point, solubility, flammability, and odor.] MS-PS1-5. Develop and use a model to describe how the total number of atoms does not change in a chemical reaction and thus mass is conserved. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on law of conservation of matter, and on physical models or drawings, including digital forms, that represent atoms.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the use of atomic masses, balancing symbolic equations, or intermolecular forces.] MS-PS1-6. Undertake a design project to construct, test, and modify a device that either releases or absorbs thermal energy by chemical processes.* [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the design, controlling the transfer of energy to the environment, and modification of a device factors such as type and concentration of a substance. Examples of 6); HS.PS3.D (MS-PS1-6) Science Probe: 2-3 “Floating High and Low” Science 2-4 “Solids and Science Probe: 2-5 “Turning the Dial” Science Probe: 2-6 “Boiling Time and Temperature” Science Probe: 2-7 “Freezing Ice” Science Probe: 2-8 “What’s in the Bubbles?” Science Probe: 2-9 “Chemical Bonds” Science Probe: 2-10 “Ice-Cold Lemonade” Science 2-11 “Mixing Water” Science Probe: 4-6 “Ice Water”
process—that is, some of the characteristics may be incorporated into the new design. (secondary to The iterative process of testing the most promising solutions and modifying what is proposed on the basis of the test results leads to greater refinement and ultimately to an optimal solution.(secondary to designs could involve chemical reactions such as dissolving ammonium chloride or calcium chloride.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to the criteria of amount, time, and temperature of substance in testing the device.]
matter present. PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer (7th Grade) When the motion energy of an object changes, is inevitably some other change in energy at the same time. (MS-PS3-5) The amount of energy transfer needed to change the temperature of a matter sample by a given amount depends on the nature of the matter, the size of the sample, and the environment. (MS-PS3-4) Energy is spontaneously transferred out of hotter regions or objects and into colder ones. (MS-PS3-3) PS3.C: Relationship Between Energy and Forces (7th Grade) When two objects interact, each one exerts a force on the that can cause energy to be transferred to or from the object. ETS1.A: Defining and Delimiting an Engineering Problem (7th The more precisely a design task’s criteria and constraints can be defined, the more likely it is that interacting at a distance changes, different amounts of potential energy are stored in the system. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on relative amounts of potential energy, not on calculations of potential energy. Examples of objects within systems interacting at varying distances could include: the Earth and either a roller coaster cart at varying positions on a hill or objects at varying heights on shelves, changing the direction/orientation of a magnet, and a balloon with static electrical charge brought closer to a classmate’s hair. Examples of models could include representations, diagrams, pictures, and written descriptions of systems.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to two objects and electric, magnetic, and gravitational interactions.] MS-PS3-3. Apply scientific principles to design, construct, and test a device that either minimizes or maximizes thermal energy transfer.* [Clarification Statement: 2-10 “Ice-Cold Lemonade” Science 2-11 “Mixing Science Probe: 4-6 “Ice Water” Science Probe: 4-7 “Warming Water” Science Probe: PS-19 “Rolling to a Stop” Science Probe: PS-43 “Lifting a Rock”
of thermal energy transferred.] MS-PS3-5. Construct, use, and present arguments to support the claim that when the motion energy of an object changes, energy is transferred to or from the object. [Clarification Statement: Examples of empirical evidence used in arguments could include an inventory or representation of the energy before and after the transfer in the form of temperature changes or motion of object.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include calculations of energy.] Disciplinary Core Ideas: and Electromagnetic Radiation Students who demonstrate understanding can: Connections to other DCIs and Articulations Essential Vocabulary (Highlight denotes District Content Vocabulary) Science Assessment Probes Science Demos, Labs/Activities PS4.A: Wave Properties (6th A simple wave has a repeating pattern with a specific wavelength, frequency, and amplitude. (MS-PS4-1) A sound wave needs a medium through which it is transmitted. MS-PS4-1. Use mathematical representations to describe a simple model for waves that includes how the amplitude of a wave is related to the energy in a wave. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on Connections: MS.LS1.D (MS-PS4-2) Articulations: 4.PS3.A (MS-PS4-1); 4.PS3.B (MS-PS4-1); 4.PS4.A 4.PS4.B (MS-PS4-2); 4.PS4.C (MS-PS4-3); HS.PS4.A (MS-PS4-1),(MS-PS4- 2),(MS-PS4-3); Wave Wavelength Frequency Amplitude Medium Transmit (ted) Transparent Science “Can It Reflect Light?” Science “Apple in the Dark:” Science Probe:
(MS-PS4-2) PS4.B: Electromagnetic Radiation (6th Grade) When light shines on an object, it is reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through the object, depending on the object’s material and the frequency (color) of the light. The path that light travels can be traced as straight lines, except at surfaces between different transparent materials (e.g., air and water, air and glass) where the light path bends. (MS-PS4-2) A wave model of light is useful for explaining brightness, color, and the bending of light at a surface between media. (MS-PS4-2) However, because light can travel through space, it cannot be a matter wave, like sound or water waves. (MS-PS4-2) PS4.C: Information Technologies and Instrumentation (6th Grade) Digitized signals (sent as wave pulses) are a more reliable way to encode and describing waves with both qualitative and quantitative thinking.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include electromagnetic waves and is limited to standard repeating waves.] MS-PS4-2. Develop and use a model to describe that waves are reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through various materials. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on both light and mechanical waves. Examples of models could include drawings, simulations, and written descriptions.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to qualitative applications pertaining to light and mechanical waves.] MS-PS4-3. Integrate qualitative scientific and technical information to support the claim that digitized signals (sent as wave pulses) are a more reliable way to encode and transmit information. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on a understanding that waves can be used for communication purposes. Examples could include using fiber optic cable to transmit HS.PS4.B HS.PS4.C (MS-PS4-3) “Birthday Candles” dependent
In multicellular organisms, the body is a system of multiple interacting subsystems. These subsystems are groups of cells that work together to form tissues and organs that are specialized for particular body functions. (MS-LS1-3) LS1.D: Information Processing (6th Grade) Each sense receptor responds to different inputs (electromagnetic, mechanical, chemical), transmitting them as signals that travel along nerve cells to the brain. The signals are then processed in the brain, resulting in immediate behaviors or memories. and ways parts of cells contribute to the function. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the cell functioning as a whole system and the primary role of identified parts of the cell, specifically the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, cell membrane, and cell wall.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment of organelle structure/function relationships is limited to the cell wall and cell membrane. Assessment of the function of the organelles is limited to their relationship to the whole cell. Assessment does not include the biochemical function of cells or cell parts.] MS-LS1-3. Use argument supported by evidence for how the body is a system of interacting subsystems composed of groups of cells. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the conceptual understanding that cells form tissues and tissues form organs specialized for particular body functions. Examples could include the interaction of subsystems within a system and the
Growth of organisms and population increases are limited by access to resources. (MS-LS2-1) LS2.B: Cycle of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems (8th Grade) Food webs are models that demonstrate how matter and energy is transferred between producers, consumers, and decomposers as the three groups interact within an ecosystem. Transfers of matter into and out of the physical environment occur at every level. Decomposers recycle nutrients from dead plant or animal matter back to the soil in terrestrial environments or to the water in aquatic environments. The atoms that make up the organisms in an ecosystem are cycled repeatedly between the living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. (MS-LS2-3) LS2.C: Ecosystem Dynamics, Functioning, and Resilience (8th Ecosystems are dynamic in nature; their characteristics can vary over time. Disruptions to any physical or biological component of during periods of abundant and scarce resources.] MS-LS2-3. Develop a model to describe the cycling of matter and flow of energy among living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on describing the conservation of matter and flow of energy into and out of various ecosystems, and on defining the boundaries of the system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the use of chemical reactions to describe the processes.] MS-LS2-4. Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that changes to physical or biological components of an ecosystem affect populations. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on recognizing patterns in data and making warranted inferences about changes in populations, and on evaluating empirical evidence supporting arguments about changes to ecosystems.]
humans rely on—for example, water purification and recycling. (secondary to MS-LS2-5) ETS1.B: Developing Possible Solutions (8th Grade) There are systematic processes for evaluating solutions with respect to how well they meet the criteria and constraints of a problem. (secondary to MS-LS2-5) Disciplinary Core Ideas: Growth, Development, and Reproduction of Organisms Students who demonstrate understanding can: Connections to other DCIs and Articulations Essential Vocabulary (Highlight denotes District Content Vocabulary) Science Assessment Probes Science Demos, Labs/Activities LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms (6th Grade) Organisms reproduce, either sexually or asexually, and transfer their genetic information to their offspring. (secondary to MS-LS3-2) Animals engage in characteristic behaviors that increase the odds of reproduction. (MS-LS1-4) Plants reproduce in a variety of ways, sometimes depending on animal behavior and specialized features for reproduction. (MS-LS1-4) MS-LS1-4. Use argument on empirical evidence and scientific reasoning to support an explanation for how characteristic animal behaviors and specialized plant structures affect the probability of successful reproduction of animals and plants respectively. [Clarification Statement: Examples of behaviors that affect the probability of animal reproduction could include nest building to protect young from cold, herding of animals to protect young from predators, and vocalization of animals and Connections: MS.LS1.A (MS-LS3-1); MS.LS2.A Articulations: 3.LS1.B 3.LS3.A 3.LS3.B HS.LS1.A (MS-LS3-1); HS.LS1.B HS.LS2.A HS.LS2.D (MS-LS1-4); HS.LS3.A HS.LS3.B HS.LS4.C (MS-LS4-5) Sexual Asexual Genetic Offspring Reproduction Genes Chromosomes Proteins Variations Variants Inherited traits Alleles Mutations Natural selection Artificial selection Science Probe: LS-19 “Eggs” Science LS-21 “DNA, and Chromosomes” Science Probe: LS-22 “Eye Color”
Genetic factors as well as local conditions affect the growth of the adult plant. (MS-LS1-5) LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits (8th Grade) Genes are located in the chromosomes of cells, with each chromosome pair containing two variants of each of many distinct genes. Each distinct gene chiefly controls the production of specific proteins, which in turn affects the traits of the individual. Changes (mutations) to genes can result in changes to proteins, which can affect the structures and functions of the organism and thereby change traits. (MS-LS3-1) Variations of inherited traits between parent and offspring arise from genetic differences that result from the subset of chromosomes (and therefore genes) inherited. (MS-LS3-2) LS3.B: Variation of Traits (8th Grade) In sexually reproducing organisms, each parent contributes half of the genes acquired (at random) by the offspring. Individuals have two of each chromosome and hence two alleles of colorful plumage to attract mates for breeding. Examples of animal behaviors that affect the probability of plant reproduction could include transferring pollen or seeds, and creating conditions for seed germination and growth. Examples of plant structures could include bright flowers attracting butterflies that transfer pollen, flower nectar and odors that attract insects that transfer pollen, and hard shells on nuts that squirrels bury.] MS-LS1-5. Construct a scientific explanation based on evidence for how environmental and genetic factors influence the growth of organisms. [Clarification Statement: Examples of local environmental conditions could include availability of food, light, space, and water. Examples of genetic factors include large breed cattle and species of grass affecting growth of organisms. Examples of evidence could include drought decreasing plant growth, fertilizer increasing plant growth, different
traits in a population, and the suppression of others. (MS-LS4-4) LS4.C: Adaptation (8th Grade) Adaptation by natural selection acting over generations is one important process by which species change over time in response to changes in environmental conditions. Traits that support successful survival and reproduction in the new environment become more common; those that do not become less common. Thus, the distribution of traits in a population changes. similarity or differences of the gross appearance of anatomical structures.] MS-LS4-3. Analyze displays of pictorial data to compare patterns of similarities in the embryological development across multiple species to identify relationships not evident in the fully formed anatomy. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on inferring general patterns of relatedness among embryos of different organisms by comparing the macroscopic appearance of diagrams or pictures.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment of comparisons is limited to gross appearance of anatomical structures in embryological development.] MS-LS4-4. Construct an explanation based on evidence that describes how genetic variations of traits in a population increase some individuals’ probability of surviving and reproducing in a specific environment. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on using simple probability statements and proportional reasoning to construct explanations
ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System (6th Grade) The system consists of the sun and a collection of objects, including planets, their moons, and asteroids that are held in orbit around the sun by its gravitational pull on them. (MS-ESS1-2),(MS-ESS1-3) This of the solar system can explain eclipses of the sun and the moon. Earth’s spin axis is fixed in direction over the short term but tilted relative to its orbit around the sun. The seasons are a result of that tilt and are caused by the differential intensity of sunlight on different areas of Earth across the year. (MS-ESS1-1) The solar system appears to have formed from a disk of dust and gas, drawn together by gravity. within galaxies and the solar system. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis for the is on gravity as the force that holds together the solar system and Milky Way galaxy and controls orbital motions with-in them. Examples of models can be physical (such as the analogy of distance along a football field or computer visualizations of elliptical orbits) or conceptual (such as mathematical proportions relative to the size of familiar objects such as their school or state).] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include Kepler’s Laws of orbital motion or the apparent retrograde motion of the planets as viewed from Earth.] MS-ESS1-3. Analyze and interpret data to determine properties of objects in the solar system. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the analysis of data from Earth-based instruments, space-based telescopes, and spacecraft to determine similarities and differences among solar HS.PS2.A HS.PS2.B HS.ESS1.A (MS-ESS1-2); HS.ESS1.B HS.ESS2.A (MSESS1- 3) Seasons 2-25 “Objects in the Sky” Science Probe: 3-25 “Where Do Stars Go?” Science Probe: 4-23 “Moonlight” Science Probe: 4-24 “Lunar Eclipse” Science Probe: 4-25 “Solar Eclipse” (Make sure to read the purpose of the following probes all found in the Astronomy Formative Assessment Probes book.) Science Probe: Astro-10: “Pizza Sun” Science Probe: Astro-11: “How Far Away Is the Sun?” Science Probe: Astro-12: “Sunspots”
The planet’s systems interact over scales that range from microscopic to global in size, and they operate over fractions of a second to billions of years. These interactions have shaped Earth’s history and will determine its future. (MS-ESS2-2) ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions (7th Grade) Maps of ancient land and water patterns, based on investigations of rocks and fossils, make clear how Earth’s plates have moved great distances, collided, and spread apart. (MS-ESS2-3) ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes (7th Grade) Water’s movements—both on the land and underground—cause weathering and erosion, change the land’s surface features and create underground formations. (MS-ESS2-2) the formation of Earth or the earliest evidence of life). Examples can include the formation of mountain chains and ocean basins, the evolution or extinction of particular living organisms, or significant volcanic eruptions.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include recalling the names of specific periods or epochs and events within them.] MS-ESS2-2. Construct an explanation based on evidence for how geoscience processes have changed Earth’s surface at varying time and spatial scales. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how processes change Earth’s surface at time and spatial scales that can be large (such as slow plate motions or the uplift of large mountain ranges) or small (such as rapid landslides or microscopic geochemical reactions), and how many geoscience processes (such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and meteor impacts) usually behave gradually but are punctuated by catastrophic events. Examples of HS.LS4.A HS.LS4.C HS.ESS1.C HS.ESS2.A 2),(MS-ESS2-3); HS.ESS2.B HS.ESS2.C (MS-ESS2-2); HS.ESS2.D (MS-ESS2-2); HS.ESS2.E (MS-ESS2-2); HS.ESS3.D (MS-ESS2-2)
renewable or replaceable over human lifetimes. These resources are distributed unevenly around the planet as a result of past geologic processes. (MS-ESS3-1) energy, and groundwater resources are the result of past and current geoscience processes. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how these resources are limited and typically and how their distributions are significantly changing as a result of removal by humans. Examples of uneven distributions of resources as a result of past processes include but are not limited to petroleum (locations of the burial of organic marine sediments and subsequent geologic metal ores (locations of past volcanic and hydrothermal activity associated with subduction zones), and soil (locations of active weathering and/or deposition of rock).] Disciplinary Core Ideas: Weather and Climate Students who demonstrate understanding can: Connections to other DCIs and Articulations Essential Vocabulary (Highlight denotes District Content Vocabulary) Science Assessment Probes Science Labs/Activities ESS2.C: The of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes (7th Grade) The complex patterns of the changes and the movement of water MS-ESS2-5. Collect data to provide evidence for how the motions and complex interactions of air masses results in changes in Connections: MS.PS1.A (MS-ESS2-5); MS.PS2.A MS.PS3.A Atmosphere Wind Landforms Air Mass High Pressure Science Probe: 4-19 “Camping Trip”
ESS3.D: Global Climate Change (7th Grade) Human activities, such as the release of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, are major factors in the current rise in Earth’s mean surface temperature (global warming). Reducing the level of climate change and reducing human vulnerability to whatever climate changes do occur depend on the understanding of climate science, engineering capabilities, and kinds of knowledge, such as understanding of behavior and on applying that knowledge wisely in decisions and activities. (MS-ESS3-5) Emphasis is on how patterns vary by latitude, altitude, and geographic land distribution. Emphasis of atmospheric circulation is on the sunlight-driven latitudinal banding, the Coriolis effect, and resulting prevailing emphasis of ocean circulation is on the transfer of heat by the global ocean convection cycle, which is constrained by the Coriolis effect and the outlines of continents. Examples of models can be diagrams, maps and globes, or digital representations.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the dynamics of the Coriolis effect.] MS-ESS3-5. Ask questions to clarify evidence of the factors that have caused the rise in global temperatures over the past century. [Clarification Statement: Examples of factors include human activities (such as fossil fuel combustion, cement production, and agricultural activity) and natural processes (such as changes in incoming solar radiation or volcanic activity). Examples of evidence can include
tables, graphs, and maps of global and regional temperatures, atmospheric levels of such as carbon dioxide and methane, and the rates of human activities. Emphasis is on the major role that human activities play in causing the rise in global temperatures.] Disciplinary Core Ideas: Human Impacts Students who demonstrate understanding can: Connections to other DCIs and Articulations Essential Vocabulary (Highlight denotes District Content Vocabulary) Science Assessment Probes Science Demos, Labs/Activities ESS3.B: Natural Hazards (7th Grade) Mapping the history of natural hazards in a region, combined with an understanding of related geologic forces can help forecast the locations and likelihoods of future events. (MS-ESS3-2) ESS3.C: Impacts on Earth Systems (7th Grade) Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing MS-ESS3-2. Analyze and interpret data on natural hazards to forecast future catastrophic events and inform the development of technologies to mitigate their effects. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how some natural hazards, such as volcanic eruptions and severe weather, are preceded by phenomena that allow for reliable predictions, but others, such as earthquakes, occur suddenly and with no notice, and thus are not yet Connections: MS.PS3.C MS.LS2.C MS.LS4.D Articulations: 3.LS2.C .LS4.D 3.ESS3.B (MS-ESS3-2); 4.ESS3.B (MS-ESS3-2); 5.LS2.A (MS-ESS3- 3),(MS-ESS3-4); 5.ESS3.C Natural hazard Geologic forces Volcanic eruptions Severe Weather Tornadoes Floods Earthquakes Mass wasting Tsunamis Hurricanes Forest fires Magnitudes Frequencies Positive impacts Negative impacts (None at this time)