They differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words. Stems, the same as words, can be simple, derived, compound and compound-derived. Stems that coincide with roots are known as simple stems, e. g. trees, reads, etc. Stems that include one or more affixes are called derived stems, e. g. governments, teacher’s, etc. Binary stems comprising two simple or derived stems are called compound stems, e. g. schoolboy, etc. Compound-derived stems consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, e. g. middle-of-the-roaders, job-hopper. b) Structurally morphemes can be divided into three types: free morphemes, bound morphemes, semi-free morphemes (see Table 1). A free morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. Root-morphemes are free morphemes, for instance, the root-morpheme friend – of the noun friendship is naturally qualified as a free morpheme because it coincides with one of the forms of the noun friend. A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are, naturally, bound morphemes, for they always make part of a word, e. g. the suffixes -ness, -ship, -ise (-ize), etc., the prefixes un-, dis-, de-, etc. (e. g. readiness, comradeship, to activise; unnatural, to displease, to decipher, etc.). Bound morphemes can be further subdivided into derivational or inflectional. morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or of the affected word. For instance, in the word happiness, the addition of the bound morpheme -ness to the root happy changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a (happiness). In the word unkind, un- functions as a derivational morpheme, for it inverts the meaning of the word formed by the root kind. Many root-morphemes also belong to the class of ex-
However in English the beginning of the word hamburger was associated with the English word ham, and the end of the word burger got the meaning a bun cut into two parts. On the analogy with the word hamburger quite a number of new words were coined, such as: baconburger, beefburger, cheeseburger, fishburger, etc. In the seventieths of the twentieth century there was a political scandal in the hotel “Watergate” where the Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election headquarters. Republicans managed to install bugs there and when they were discovered there was a scandal and the ruling American government had to resign. The name “Watergate” acquired the meaning “a political scandal”, “corruption”. Similarly to this word quite a number of other words were formed by using the splinter gate (apheresis of the word Watergate), such as: Irangate, Westlandgate, shuttlegate, milliongate, etc. The splinter gate is added mainly to Proper names: names of people involved in the scandal or a geographical name denoting the place where the scandal occurred. The splinter mobile was formed by clipping the beginning of the word automobile and is used to denote special types of automobiles, such as: snowmobile, tourmobile, etc. The splinter napper was formed by clipping the beginning of the word kidnapper and is used to denote different types of crimes, such as: busnapper, babynapper, dognapper, etc. The splinter aholic (holic) was formed by clipping the beginning of the word alcoholic of Arabian origin where al denoted the koh’l – “powder for staining lids”. The splinter (a)holic means infatuated by the object denoted by the stem of the word, e. g. bookaholic, computerholic, coffeeholic, cheesaholic, workaholic and many others. Splinters can be called pseudomorphemes because they are neither roots nor affixes, they are more or less artificial. Splinters have only one function in English: they serve to alter the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, whereas
perfect place for our camping holiday. 17. There are people from around here who could make a pretty decent guess. 18. Instead of putting your dime right in, you get a dial tone and make your call. 19. He reached for her again and Ollie Weeks said sharply: “Bud! Cool it! 20. His achievements pale into insignificance by the side of her victory. 21. Ollie agreed, and dropped an empty into the beer cooler. 22. He bears the rough well. 23. The platforms swarmed with office workers, and Dave had to shoulder his way through the crowd. 24. Down the road, in twos and threes, more people were gathering in for the day of marketing. 25. My thoughts have been much occupied with the ups and downs, the fortunes and misfortunes of married life. Exercise 6. Comment on the examples of converted pairs in the sentences below. State to what part of speech they belong. 1. a) My grandmother bottled the juice and canned the pickles. b) My grandmother put the juice in a bottle and the pickles in a can. 2. a) She microwaved her lunch. b) She heated her lunch in the microwave (noun). 3. The doctor eyed my swollen eye. 4. a) The Goreans quickly pointed out that there had already been a hand count in the Florida presidential race, and that Bush himself had signed a law calling for their use in Texas. b) Gore showed no sign of pain or remorse. 5. a) And the drama that reached such a fever pitch after the polls closed had begun a good two years earlier, with the first maneuverings in Washington and Texas. b) An auctioneer in a baseball cap sits at a high wooden podium, calling out the styles of furniture in a staccato rhythm, taking about 30 seconds to announce and close a sale. 6. a) Rove instructed his staff to call network officials to complain, then he went before the cameras himself to protest publicly. b) Mr. Bush has not always been in step with his generation, staying distant
Abbreviations are subdivided into five groups: Acronyms which are read in accordance within the reading rules as though they were ordinary words: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), UNO (United Nations Organization). Alphabetic abbreviations in which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress: USA, BBC, MP. Alphabetic abbreviations sometimes concern names of famous people: G.B.S. (George Bernard Shaw), B.B. (Brigitte Bardot). Compound abbreviations in which the first constituent is a letter and the second part is a complete word: A-bomb (atomic-bomb), L-driver (learner – driver). In compound abbreviation also may be clipped one or both constituents: Interpol (international police). Graphic abbreviations which can be found in texts for economy of space. They are pronounced as the corresponding unabbreviated words: Mr., Mrs., m (mile), ltd (limited). There are several semantic groups of graphic abbreviations: a) days of the week, e. g. Mon – Monday, Tue – Tuesday, etc. b) names of months, e. g. Apr – April, Aug – August, etc. c) names of counties in UK, e. g. Yorks – Yorkshire, Berks –Berkshire, etc. d) names of states in USA, e. g. Ala – Alabama, Alas – Alaska, etc. e) names of address, e. g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., etc. f) military ranks, e. g. capt. col. – colonel, sgt – sergeant, etc. g) scientific degrees, e. g. B.A. – Bachelor of Arts, D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. (Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e. g., M.B. – Medicinae Baccalaurus), h) units of time, length, weight, e. g. f/ft –foot/feet, sec. – second, in. – inch, mg. – milligram, etc. The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e. g. “m” can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, “l.p.” can be read as long-playing, low pressure. captain,
quite different sound in different languages. For example, English dogs bark (cf. the Ukr. гавкати) or howl (cf. the Ukr. вити). The English cock cries cock-a-doodle-doo (cf. the Ukr. ку-ка-рі-ку). In England ducks quack and frogs croak cf. the Ukr. крякати said about ducks and квакати said about frogs). It is only English and Ukrainian cats who seem capable of mutual understanding when they meet, for English cats mew or miaow (meow). The same can be said about cows: they moo (but also low). Some names of animals and especially of birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation: crow, cuckoo, humming-bird, whip-poor-will, cricket. There are some semantic groups of words formed with the aid of sound imitation a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle, etc. b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter, etc., c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle, etc. The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e. g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children), etc. R. Southey’s poem “How Does the Water Come Down at Lodore” is a classical example of the stylistic possibilities offered by onomatopoeia: the words in it sound an echo of what the poet sees and describes. Here it comes sparkling, And there it flies darkling ... Eddying and whisking, Spouting and frisking, ... And whizzing and hissing, ... And guggling and struggling, ... And bubbling and troubling and doubling, And flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping ... And thumping and pumping and bumping and jumping,
Learning. These are for the most part scientific words. These words were not used as often as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e. g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto, etc. Classical borrowings continue to come in Modern English as well. Mainly they are words formed by means of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are many of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography). French borrowings. The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them appeared in English at the time of the Norman Conquest. French effected not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as the local population was chiefly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings: a) words relating to government: administer, empire, state, government; b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle; c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister; d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery; e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl; f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew. Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mostly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings: a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville; b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre;
1. “All right, from that perspective, I can buy it. We’ll call social services”, he said. 2. These then are the three men who will have principal control over us during the coming weeks. 3. “I think this could be my salvation from a lunatic asylum which is the alternative if I have to go on publishing wheelbarrow”. 4. We returned to Sully and the two prisoners were paraded in front of Captain Glasser in his office. 5. That left two pages on four-year-old Tika, who’d been shot on a dog bed, and one paragraph on five-month-old ViVi, who’d been suffocated in her crib. 6. Liz laughed, intrigued by the prospect. 7. Phil rattled off a geographic profile of the Harringtons’ known activities and organizations. 8. I wondered what we left behind – a watch or two, a few cents photograph or a magazine and some ammunition. 9. The only thing he didn’t like was the wine list. 10. Selfishness runs in the family, Liz thought drily. Etymological Doublets Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. Consequently, we get two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. In English they fall into some groups. The words shirt and skirt are of the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape differs and yet they are similar and this reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated. They both mean clothing items. Etymological doublets may enter the vocabulary by different roots. Some of these pairs (like shirt and skirt, scabby and shabby) consist of a native word and a borrowed one. Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are historically derived from the same root: canal (Latin) – channel (French), captain (Latin) – chieftan (French).
Still others were borrowed from the same language twice at different time: travel (Norman. Fr.) – travail (Parisian Fr.), cavalry (Norman. Fr.) – chivalry (Parisian Fr.). A doublet may also include a shortened word and the one from which it was derived: history – story, fanatic – fan, shadow – shade. Etymological hybrids are words whose elements came from different languages, e. g. eatable (native root + Romanic suffix), distrust (native root + Romanic prefix), beautiful (Romanic root + native suffix), etc. Etymological triplets are groups of three words of common origin: hospital (lat) – hostel (Norm. Fr.) – hotel (Par. Fr.), to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm. Fr.) – to chase (Par. Fr.). Exercise 6. Compare the meaning of the following etymological doublets or triplets. State their origin. major – mayor, captain – chieftan, shirt – skirt, shriek – screech, canal – channel, corpus – corpse – corps, dike – ditch, travel – travail, shrew – screw, cart – chart, shadow – shade, naked – nude, lapel – label, ward – guard, hale – hail, shabby – scabby, pauper – poor, vast – waste, wine – vine, zealous – jealously, basis – base, deacon – dean, papyrus – paper, chief – chef, hospital – hostel – hotel, saloon – salon, suit – suite, camp – campus, street – stratum, catch – chase, cavalry – chivalry, dragon – dragoon – drake, plan – plane – plain, gentle – genteel – gentile, stack – stake – steak. Exercise 7. State the origin of the following etymological doublets, if any. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. 1. After crossing a rather large prairie, we arrived at the skirts of a little wood that was enlivened by the songs and flight of a large number of birds. 2. He once found a little fox
quickly and speedily – preposition on and upon Note that synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the “aperture in the iris of the eye” is not synonymous with student. Likewise, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died. In English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While England’s new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English (Anglo-Saxon). Thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. Some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that have similar meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm). Synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In contemporary research the term synonyms may be used for words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing in connotations, or connotative components. Types of Semantic Components The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative (or sometimes referential) component. The denotative component expresses the conceptual content of a word. The following list presents denotative components of some English verbs:
3. Homophones which are identical in sound but different in spelling, e. g. arms – alms; buy – by; him – hymn; knight – night; piece – peace; rain – reign; scent – cent; steel – steal; write – right and many others. These words are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; plain and plan; key and quay; sow and sew, etc. (see Table 11). Table 11 ˗- Homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms Another classification was suggested by Professor A. I. Smirnitskiy. He added to Skeat’s classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning. He subdivided the group of perfect homonyms in Skeat’s classification into two types of homonyms: perfect which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and their grammar form, and homoforms which
Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case one should distinguish between: Lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e. g. plane n. (літак) – plain n. (рівнина), light a. (світлий) – light a. (легкий).
those bells ring? 26. Looking through the window, I saw an enormous saw on sale at the hardware store. 27. a) I rose up from my seat to sharpen my rose coloured pencil. b) I picked up a rose from my garden for mother’s day. 28. a) I tear my paper because it sounds bad when you hear it. b) My eyes tear when I see my report card. 29. a) The well started to flood because too much water came in. b) “Well done, Max. You finished your math homework.” 30. a) The fan broke down so I didn’t know how to cool myself. b) I am a fan of Owl City, a one man band whose new song “Firefly” is really great. Paronyms There are several meanings of the word paronym. The term paronym comes from the Greek para “beside” and onoma “name”. Paronyms are the words that are kindred in origin, sound form and meaning and therefore liable to be mixed but in fact different in meaning and usage and therefore only mistakenly interchanged. Paronym is a word similar to another in sound; the partial coincidence in outward form occurs simply by chance and is not conditioned by semantic or word-formation processes. Some scholars regard as paronyms words with the same root that are similar in structure or sound and are the same part of speech or have common grammatical features. But the definition that shows up most often is that “paronyms are words pronounced alike, but have different meanings”, or in other words, words that have the same root. Another word for paronym is cognate. This is the case with the adjectives ingenious and ingenuous. The first of these means “clever” and may be used both of man and of his inventions and doings, e. g. an ingenious craftsman, an ingenious device. Ingenuous means “frank”, “artless”, as an ingenuous smile.
One should bear in mind that degree modifiers are adverbs which lack the primary characteristic of adverbs: the ability to modify verbs. They modify exclusively adjectives and adverbs. Exercise 17. Arrange the qualifiers in bold type according to the degree of intensity. 1. Hindsight, our cruelest and most astute adviser, so easily illuminates our errors of judgment, and yet in the middle of life one seizes upon things that seem to mean so much. 2. I saw Nathan sitting there nursing a bleeding elbow, tears in his eyes, the temptation to touch it growing ever stronger as he looked. 3. “The war is over, right?” he said, and smiled 4. He clutched his face, couldn’t see a thing, and I let go with the most almighty kick to his balls. 5. I had never believed myself to be anything other than honest, straight as a die, implacable almost in my attention to those things that were right and just and equitable. 6. There was blackness behind my eyelids, black and deep enough to swallow me. 7. People change a little every day, and sometimes you can meet someone down the road and they are utterly different from the person you thought they were…but then sometimes it’s you who has changed, and they stay exactly the same, and now you merely see them from a different point of view. 8. .And then suddenly, all too suddenly, she was gone, breezing past me with her grace, her beauty, the scent of something autumnal from her hair. 9. Hands big enough to floor Marty Hooper, sensitive enough to fold an origami bird in Benny’s Soda Shop. 10. Nathan came down a little later. I said nothing. 11. I was talking, rambling a little… I remember I was tired, really tired. 12. Perhaps Maurice’s mind was patterned with equally vivid images, contrasts which had made him a Socialist and which, even now, kept him one despite the knowledge, which surely he shared, that his creed would
my friend. 10. Hey, Danny, hold up there! 11. “My God, Nathan,” she shouted. “When did you get back?” 12. “Okay, just tell me what happened with Nathan and you after Linny came back”. 13. Get up, go to work, mow and lawn, read the paper… Jesus, could you imagine having a life like that? 14. “Ooh, ooh, Danny, that hurt,” I replied. 15. “Danny?” – “Uh huh?” – “Tell me,” Father John repeated. 16. Hell, you know what, guys? A couple of heavies came down and saw me at Eve Chantry’s place. 17. And then he said it too. “Nigger! Damned nigger!” 18. “Trailer trash,” Nathan went on. 19. I could hear myself crying, and then making that sound once more…Uuuhhh… 20. Hell, it was Christmas Eve. We relaxed; we had a drink and a smoke. 21. When I opened my eyes I could see his half-lit face right there above me through the bars. “Jesus Christ!” I started. 22. I thought this was it. This was the moment I die. This is when it goes really ugly and they kick the living crap out of me, and Oh Lord Jesus Christ Almighty, Mary Mother of God… 23. I felt a sound escaping from my lips. Uuuhhh… 24. “So?” he prompted, and I leaned back and looked at him, feeling strangely awkward. 25.…when she said Well thank you, Frank, and thank you to all our listeners today. It certainly has been a day of revelation, hasn’t it? 26. Goddamn. He said Goddamn. So unlike Nathan. 27. Oh God, oh God, oh God…not like this…not like this…any other way than this. 28. “Wow!” said Gary, impressed. 29. “Oh! Don’t be stupid, Neil,” Alice said more brutally than she intended. 30. “Bloody hell! Richard said spitefully. 31. “Jesus!” I was wrong. 32. “Sh-sh,”she said. She came over and took his hand. PART 6. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY Phraseology is a branch of linguistics which studies different types of set expressions. If synonyms may be
grass (“a person with harmful intentions”; “a hidden enemy”), etc. Half-unities – binary word-groups in which one of the components is literal, while the other is phraseological bound (the so-termed phrasemes), e. g. black frost (“frost without ice or snow”), small talk (“polite talk about unimportant things”), a tall story (“a lie”), Dutch courage (“courage of a drunk”), husband's tea (“very weak tea”), to talk turkey (“to talk plainly and honestly about practical matters”), etc. Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) – word-groups with the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly limited, e. g. to make friends (but not ‘to do friend’ or ‘to make comrades’), to bear a grudge, to break silence, to make sure, to take into account, unconditional surrender, ways and means, now and then, etc. Phraseological collocation is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaning Phraseological expressions – proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar quotations, e. g. Birds of a feather flock together (= Рибак рибака пізнає здалека); Still water runs deep(= Тиха вода греблю рве); No pains no gains (= Без труда нема плода); Something is rotten in the state of Denmark (= Не все гаразд у Датському королівстві); Brevity is the soul of wit (= Стислість – основа дотепності) (W. Shakespeare); Fools rush in where angels fear to tread (= дурням закон не писаний) (A. Pope), etc. (see Table 13). Table 13 ˗- Semantic classification of phraseological units
speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect. These words are mostly of foreign origin and have polymorphemic structure, e. g. solitude, fascination, cordial, paternal, divergent, commence, assist, comprise, endeavour, exclude, heterogeneous, miscellaneous, hereby, thereby, herewith, wherein, etc. Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e. g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely: 1) terms or scientific words such as, e g. renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.; 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e. g. whilom – ‘formerly’, aught – ‘anything’, ere – ‘before’, albeit – ‘although’, fare – ‘walk’, tarry – ‘remain’, nay – ‘no’; etc.; 3) barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e. g., bon mot – ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc.; 4) neologisms such as, e. g. teledish (“a dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television transmissions”), roam-a-phone (“a portable telephone”), graviphoton (“a hypothetical particle”), etc. Terms are words or nominal groups which convey specialized concepts used in science, technology, art, etc., e. g. gerontology, phoneme, radar, knee joint, common denominator, periodic table, still life, choreography, etc. Poetic words are stylistically marked; they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists. Poetic words are diverse; they include: a) archaic words (commix – mix); b) archaic forms (vale – valley); c) historic words (argosy – large merchant ship); d) poetic words proper (anarch, brine). Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic, thus distinguishing it from non-fiction texts.
Tick off the cases of adjectival phraseological units: a) as dead as a door nail; b) to lose one’s head; c) high and dry; d) good heavens! Tick off the cases of metaphoric epithets: a) a sullen sky; b) threatening eyes; c) a lemon moon; d) a sausage finger. Tick off the cases of syncope (medial clipping) : a) fancy (fantasy); b) specs (spectacles); c) doc (doctor); d) plane (aeroplane). Tick off the cases of acronyms: a) NATO; b) FBI; c) d) e. g. Tick off the cases of phrasal nouns: a) a breakdown; b) pile-up; c) timetable; d) blackboard. Tick off the cases of phrasal verbs: a) pick apart; b) fall behind; c) jump high; c) fall flat. Tick off the cases of conversion: a) to begin; b) to telephone; c) to love; d) to write. TEST 7 1. Tick off the cases of ideographic synonyms: a) fast – rapid; b) compounding –composition; c) to begin – to commence; d) to shine – to gleam. 2. Tick off the cases of absolute synonyms: a) b) word-building – word-formation; c) to start – to initiate; d) to glitter – to glimmer. 3. Tick off the cases of homonyms proper: a) plane – plain; b) lead – lead; c) row – row; d) bark – bark 4. Tick off the cases of homographs: a) arms – alms; b) sewer – sewer; c) scent – cent; d) wind – wind. 5. Tick off the cases of lexical homonyms: a) light – light; b) weather – whether; c) tear – tear; d) piece – peace.
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