Outcome Criteria Description Measurement Methodology Affective outcomes Attitudes and motivational outcomes (e.g., self-efficacy; well-being; satisfaction). Self-report questionnaires Cognitive outcomes Declarative knowledge; procedural knowledge; cognitive strategies (e.g., problem-solving). Recognition and recall tests Skill-based outcomes Compilation and automaticity of new skills (e.g., leadership skills; technical skills; competencies). Behavioural observation in the workplace (e.g. feedback questionnaire) Results Individual, team and organizational performance Financial results; objective or goal achievement; productivity
Table 2: Summary of coaching effectiveness studies included in the meta-analysis. Authors Sample Country Organizational context Occupation of participants Outcomes measured Research design Coaching technique Longevity of intervention1 Duration of sessions Number of sessions2 feedback Format of coaching Bozer & Sarros, 2012 96 Israel Various Management Affective Skill-based Between subjects 15.2 weeks 30 – 120 minutes 6-8 Not specified telephone & e-mail Bright & Crockett, 2012 115 US Various Various Affective Between subjects Not specified 4 weeks 30 minutes 1 No Telephone Cerni, Curtis & Colmar, 2010 14 US Education Principals Skill-based Between Subjects Epstein's constructive thinking programme (1998) 10 weeks 60 minutes 10 No Evers, Brouwers & Tomic, 2006 60 US Government Agency Management Affective Between subjects GROW model (Whitmore, 1992) 17.3 weeks Not specified Not specified No Not specified Finn, 2007 17 Australia Not specified Senior management Affective Skill-based Between subjects Not specified 12 weeks 60 minutes 6 Yes and telephone` Grant, Curtayne & Burton, 2009 41 Australia Health Executives & senior managers Affective Results Between subjects solution focussed (Grant, 2003) GROW model (Whitmore, 1992) 10 weeks Not specified 4 Yes and telephone Grant, 44 Australia Education Teachers Affective Between 20 weeks Not 10 Yes
Green & Rynsaardt, 2010 Skill-based Results solution focussed (Grant, 2003) GROW model (Whitmore, 1992) specified Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005 31 UK Finance Not specified Affective Between subjects Not specified 34.7 weeks Not specified Not specified No Kines et al., 2010 51 Denmark Construction Construction foremen Skill-based Between subjects Not specified 42 weeks Not specified 8 No et al., 2010 30 US Retail Store managers Skill-based Between subjects Not specified 6 weeks 30-60 minutes 6 Yes and telephone Luthans & Peterson, 2003 20 US Manufacturing Various Affective Skill-based Within subjects Not specified 13 weeks Not specified 1 Yes Moen & Allgood, 2009 127 Norway Not specified Executives & managers Affective Between subjects Not specified 52 weeks Not specified Not specified No Not specified Moen & Skaalvik, 2009 19 Norway Not specified CEO’s Affective Between subjects Not specified 13 weeks 60-90 minutes 7 No and telephone Olivero et al., 1997 31 US Health Management Results Within subjects Not specified 8.7 weeks 60 minutes 8 No Smither et al., 2003 1361 US No specified Senior managers Skill-based Between subjects Not specified Not specified Not specified 2-3 Yes Taie, 2011 120 Egypt Health Nurses Skill-based Between subjects Not specified Not specified Not specified Not specified No Toegel & Nicholson, 2005 89 UK Finance Senior managers Skill-based Within subjects Not specified 39 weeks 90 minutes 2 Yes and telephone