for livestock production, while private-sector investment in processing could potentially open up new markets for the small-scale fishery. Likewise, the prevalence of numerous candidate species highlights the opportunities in mariculture, which again could potentially create employment and subsequently shift labor away from more exploitive occupations. The government has also shown a commitment to oil exploration, which, if fruitful, also has the potential to create employment, particularly in the downstream sector. Overall, there are clearly many strengths and opportunities that can be utilized to spur sustainable growth and development in Kenya’s coastal region. Many of these opportunities also have the potential to generate alternative forms of employment, which, as alluded to above, could potentially lessen the strain being placed on coastal ecosystems. Creating alternative streams of income could, in turn, be conducive to sector spillovers, which could counter the cyclical relationship documented between poverty and natural resource exploitation. It is also positive to note that the Kenyan government has not only recognized the causal links between poverty and resources, but it has begun generating policies that intend to deal with the problem. The emphasis being placed on training, management, alternative employment and the sustainable use of resources all highlight the positive commitment the government is making in relation to the coastal region. Thus, while challenges still remain abundant, opportunities and a commitment to act are clearly present.
the destination countries should be gathered and analyzed. Lack of data on small-scale enterprises that are complementary to the fishing industry such as boat repairs. Inadequate training in aspects such as statistical and socio-economic data collection, analysis, interpretation and reporting; fish stock assessments, etc. Opportunities A few private investors have ventured in commercial grade processing for example, Sea Harvest Ltd that buys octopus from fishers and processes before export. Private companies such as East African Sea Foods, Mombasa Ship Chandlers, Wananchi Marine Products, are currently importing fish from other countries thus showing that there is a supply deficit in the country. This provides an opportunity that small-scale fishers can tap on if they can venture into non-traditional fishing grounds. These private companies are able to provide their own transport the landing beaches where they can buy the fish from small-scale fishers thus strengthening the value chain links. Three cold rooms have been constructed by the Government to support the fishers and these should be tapped into to ensure that fishers obtain competitive prices for their fish. A local bank has developed a loan scheme for the fisheries sector. This loan scheme offers a good opportunity for fishers to upgrade their fishing equipment. The ASCLME should support data generation and a programme to encourage small-scale fishers to venture into fishing grounds. The capacity of small-scale fishers should also be built so that they are able to diversify their economic activities. Threats There is evidence of over-exploitation of coral reef fisheries. A number of fish landing sites have been lost to private property developers. There has been some stiff competition from prawn trawlers who share the same fishing grounds with the small-scale fishers in the Malindi-Ungwana bays. This is a serious threat if not addressed. There is competition over market from recreational fishers who sell their catch to the local tourist hotels who are also the buyers of fish landed by small-scale fishers.
Prawn Penaeus monodon and P. indicus Pond culture; polyculture with finfish and / or mud crab Small-scale experimental 350 kg 4 X X Crab Scylla serrata Cage and pen culture (fattening); occasional polyculture with prawn and / or finfish Small-scale experimental 600 kg 6 X 350KSh / kg1 X Finfish – milkfish and mullet Chanos chanos and Mugil cephalus Pond culture; polyculture with prawn and / or mud crab Small-scale experimental 500 kg 8 X X Seaweed Kappaphycus alvareizi Eucheuma denticulatum Stake and line culture Small-scale experimental - 1 X 1 2007 Farm gate price (Mierera, 2007)
Table 2: Policy Issues for Control of Mangroves and Coastal Forests Critical Ecosystem Policy Issue ICZP Responses Mangrove Forests – 574km long and providing renewable goods and services that are of economic, ecological and environmental value. The area of mangroves is estimated to be 52,980ha spread over 18 forests. Uncoordinated management efforts Undefined land tenure for mangrove areas Conversion of mangrove areas into other uses Lack of management plans for rehabilitation and sustainable harvesting of mangroves Pollution from land and sea sources Develop a harmonised legislative and institutional framework for sustained management Communities living around and deriving benefits from mangroves will be involved in Enhance mangrove research All coastal zone mangroves shall be gazetted to enhance sustainable management Coastal Forests – These coastal forests bear unique species with high drought resilience, high levels of adaptation and endemicity. The reduction and fragmentation of the forests is due to climate change and human factors. Human wildlife conflict in forests due to competition for resources Overexploitation of plant and animal species by local communities Over reliance on wood based forest products due to lack of access to alternatives Uncontrolled harvesting from ungazetted forest areas Inadequate enforcement of existing legislation due to low capacity and inadequate human and financial resources Uncoordinated management Research constrained resulting in inadequate ethno-botanical data and information Significant coastal forest patches to be conserved and protected for prosperity and endemism Systems and structures to be developed for local communities to derive maximum livelihood from coastal forests and participate in their sustainable management Develop a harmonised legislative and institutional framework for sustained management of mangrove ecosystems Enhance status of key sites, with UNESCO heritage sites declared with the participation of neighbouring communities Develop opportunities for sources of livelihood for non-consumptive use of the forest Effective control of wildlife to minimise
Table 3: Management Strategies for Control of Mangroves and Coastal Forests Problem Statement Management Strategies Mangrove Forests Major obstacles which have prevented rational use: Lack of community inputs into management efforts Poverty status of many indigenous coastal communities Lack of alternative livelihood Lack of awareness among decision makers and communities about true values of mangroves Review roles and responsibilities of agencies and organisations to collaborate frameworks among stakeholders Identify potential income-generating activities to improve income of local communities whilst conserving mangroves Management inventory for effective regulation and rehabilitation of degraded areas Mangrove training, education and awareness programmes Capacity building for communities for participatory forest management Develop guidelines for sustainable use of mangrove wetlands Harmonise policies on land, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and environment for effective management of mangrove ecosystems Establish resource use conflict resolution mechanisms Coastal Forests The reduction of forest cover and subsequent fragmentation of forests have accelerated loss of endemic species. Major threats include encroachment for settlement and farming, illegal logging, human wildlife conflict, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Manage wildlife population to minimise conflicts and discourage encroachment of human population into forest boundaries for settlement and farming Improve access to alternative energy sources and construction material to reduce reliance on wood-products Promote farm forestry and agro forestry to provide alternative sources of wood products Promote non-wood based forest products such as bee-keeping, mushroom farming and for alternative livelihood strategies and sources of income Promote forest management partnerships with communities, civil society and other stakeholders Strengthen conservation with gazetting Increase public awareness on forest values and function to promote conservation and
elevate community participation levels Document and enhance the application of indigenous knowledge in management of coastal forest Source: Republic of Kenya 2007 Table 4: ICZM Community Issues and Land-Use Management Problem Statement Management Strategies Coastal Community Issues Coastal communities remain impoverished due to: Lack of legal provisions to ensure access to resources Under-exploitation of some natural resources Inadequate infrastructure Limited capacity and competence in resource management among coastal communities leading to unsustainable use of resources Provision of alternative income generating activities to enable people to move away from the environmentally degrading activity that they are currently engaged in to multiple alternative income sources. Poverty alleviation by encouraging alternative means of deriving incomes - promoting proper land use, creating awareness and providing credit to enhance resource exploitation Restoration of traditional values on sustainable management of natural resources and heritage Public participation and awareness and strengthened community participation in resource management Land Use Issues Poorly managed land has led to low productivity, haphazard developments and environmental degradation ICZM put in place control measures such as Land Control Boards Develop guidelines for development activities Feasibility studies for waste management and waste water treatment Source: Republic of Kenya 2007 6. Development, Trade and Projects A number of different projects are operating in the Kenyan coastal zone and three important projects are highlighted in this section, covering forests and broader livelihoods development. Improved Conservation and Governance for Kenya Coastal Forest Protected Area System This project, originally operating in Kwale District, is piloting better practices to help conserve forest resources for improved livelihoods that are now being used to replicate lessons learned into other coastal Kenyan districts and across Kenya in general. The government, local communities and key partners in
Kwale have played a key role in the success of project initiatives which are being coordinated by WWF in partnership with the government and key players in the district. The government has provided a good environment for implementation of this project and it has benefited from strong partnership. This project is half-way through its implementation. This project’s experience is also contributing to initiatives that will help communities adapt to impacts of climate change (UNDP Kenya 2010). Table 5 provides some further details of this project Table 5: Aspects of Project Implementation Funding Project Initiatives Community Involvement GEF through UNDP has provided funding. Matching funding has been provided by WWF, LAFARGE- Bamburi Cement, Colobus Trust and the Ford Foundation. This is an evidence of commitment and good partnership which has supported communities in Kwale in implementing project activities. The total project budget is USD 3,090,000 both in kind and cash contributions. GEF through UNDP is providing USD 800,000. The project initiatives cover the original Kwale district (now subdivided into Kwale, Kinango and Msambweni), and support conservation activities with a focus on improving livelihoods. There are several project initiatives under the livelihood component including: Renewable and efficient energy technologies Ecotourism Beekeeping aloe and neem products village bank CSO support Youth group tour guide support for Shimba Hills and handicraft. Regarding forest conservation there is community participation in forest management. This has been due to the strong project team composed of the key managing institutions for the three forest type present in the area. These are: Kenya Forest Service for the forest reserves Kenya Wildlife Service for the Large Shimba Hills Nature Reserve National Museums of Kenya for the Kaya forests and WWF as a secretariat for the project. The forest landscape restoration initiative has been successful and communities have been very instrumental in planting useful trees and shrubs in their lands as a way to reduce pressure on the existing natural forests. More than 1.5 million seedlings of 50 different species have been planted in the project area. These included the useful trees and shrubs that are natural in Kwale. Other fast growing commercial tree species have also been grown for income generation and wood fuel. Community participation and awareness has already reduced the unsustainable use of forest products including illegal timber harvesting and incidences of forest fires. Source: UNDP Kenya 2010 Kenya Coastal Development Project
Opportunities Integrated Coastal Management Policy (ICMP) in place and offering potential for constructive and participatory way forward in improving resource management and livelihoods development in the coastal region Lots of interest in supporting projects from big donors like the World Bank and UNEP-GEF means there is not a lack of funds going into sector, and alternative income-generating activities (i.e. activities not dependent on coastal resources) are integral parts of these projects Predominance of marginal lands in coastal region offers scope for further development of livestock production e.g. on the 60 ranches in the area which are not presently operational Threats Current political turmoil and volatility could impact on coastal development through broader impact on Kenya’s economic growth and overall ability to expand exports and develop further Relatedly, government policies at high level are in place but there may not be the will or capacity to implement them at local levels given endemic corruption in the Kenyan system 8. Bibliography CDA (2001) Moving Coastal Management Forward – Kenya Progress Report 1994-1999. Coast Development Authority Kenya. Coastal Portal (2009) Human activities and nature conservation conflicts at the Kenya coastline NEMA (2010) Coast Province Profile. National Environment Management Authority Kenya. Republic of Kenya (2007) National Environmental Management Authority - Integrated Coastal Zone Management Policy. Spider (2010) ICT education and alternative livelihoods for women’s groups in Kenya and India UNDP Kenya (2010) UNDP Kenya News: Improved Conservation and Governance for Kenya Coastal Forest Areas. UNDP Kenya. UNEP (2009) A New Strategic Programme to Strengthen Coastal and Marine Protection in the Western Indian Ocean under Discussion in Mombasa, United Nations Environment Programme. Wio-Lab (2008) Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Land-based Sources and Activities in the Western Indian Ocean Region. World Bank (2009a) Kenya Coastal Development Project Webpage World Bank (2009b) Kenya Coastal Development Project Data Sheet 9. List of Datasets
Refinery Kenya Petroleum Refineries Limited 50% GoK 50% private (Essar) Mombassa Processing capacity of 2.7 million mt/yr Upgrade of the refinery (built in the 60’s) planned “simple” refinery Lack of bulk handling facilities in Mombassa port limits the amount of oil imported Storage Kenya Petroleum Refineries Limited 50% GoK 50% private (Essar) Mombassa 520,022 m3 Storage Kenya Pipeline Company Limited 100% GoK Mombasa Kipevu Oil Storage Facility 300,000 m3 Storage private Mombassa 170,525 m3 Storage Kenya Pipeline Company Limited 100% GoK Nairobi, Nakuru, Kisumu Eldoret Nairo. Airp. Momb. Airp. 97,000 m3 31,000 m3 39,000 m3 42,000 m3 54,000 m3 6,800 m3 Transport Kenya Pipeline Company Limited 100% GoK Pipelines from Monbassa to Nairobi and western cities 14 inches diameter for Mombassa / Nairobi (450 Km) Capacity 440 m3 / hour
Informal sand mining Informal Artisanal mining activity Sand Quarry - - Local 2.2. Coastal Mining Activities Effects Name of Mine Location Employment Economic Benefits National level Micro-level Cement plant (ARM Kenya) Mombassa 700 direct employee Tax and revenue Investment of the project Employment Training for employees Corporate and Social Responsibility undertaken by ARM Kenya Lime mining (ARM Kenya) Mombassa Cement Plant (Bamburi Cement Plant) Mombassa 965 direct employee Tax and revenue Investment of the project Employment Training for employees Corporate and Social Responsibility undertaken by Bamburi Informal coral rocks mining Roka, Bofa and Mtondia in Kilifi District - - Income for local community Informal sand mining Tiwi, Msambweni in Kwale District, Mazeras and Junda on the Kisauni side of Tudor creek and Ngomeni, Arabuko Sokoke in Kilifi District. - - Income for local community 3. Environment Coastal Mining Activity Environmental issues Cement plant, Lime mining (Athi River Mining) The cement industry generates emissions of dust, combustion gases, noise and particulate from the kiln stacks. The operation also generates wastewater, waste from plant maintenance and laboratory waste. Gaseous wastes because the cement plants pumps out into the atmosphere combustion gases – i.e. NOx, CO, CO2, SOx, etc. Cement Plant (Bamburi Cement Plant)