Table 1. Principles of teaching and learning (adapted from , ) Principle Instructional Strategies 1. Engagement with abstracted phenomena. Higher levels of learning involve active and purposeful engagement with complex abstracted phenomena. Case study Role plays Semantic webbing Concept webbing Debates 2. Multiplicity of perspectives. Higher levels of learning include diverse and/or multiple perspectives about the issues(s) or problems(s) presented. Guided hypertext with annotations Multiple information sources Sequenced content databases 3. Relatedness. Higher levels of learning involve phenomena that have relevance to the learners. Press conference / debate with invited expert Online case histories with raw data 4. Learning methods. Higher levels of learning include diverse ways of knowing. Open-ended questioning WebQuest Problem-based learning Delphi or nominal group technique 5. Responsibility. Higher levels of learning require learners to assume greater responsibility in the learning process. Group cooperative projects Presentations Active self assessment rubrics 6. Meaning making. Higher levels of learning require learners to build meaning into the issues and problems presented. Antithetical questions Scaffold discussion Reflective question posing 7. Reconstruction. Higher levels of learning require learners to understand that their own world view is not the only one (or necessarily the correct one). Role reversal questions Brainstorming
labels. Later in the day the instructor removed the extreme labels and the final step was selecting the first choice. I think positive results can come from this exercise. These are my perspectives as an instructor and learner. significance is not understood. This activity allowed the group to generate a considerable range of individual thoughts. We were able to narrow our ideas by elaborating, clarifying, and voting on the perspectives of the group. Historically, we have seen the Delphi implemented in 1970, which allowed for the exchange of ideas before taking a vote. But is it effective online? For the nominal group technique to be effective, and whether or not I would use it, I would need to have the option of making the senders name invisible to the other participants in the conference. If this can be done, then each participant will •Defines and accurately describes problems/issues •Selects one or two main concepts from the unit notes and/or course text •Does not adequately link the information selected •If a conclusion is reached, it is based on limited information 3. responses •Uses two or more data/information sources but fails to explain the links/relationships between the data sources This example, again, is largely descriptive but there is an effort to address the question and provide explanations for the
feel less reluctant to express themselves freely and might then be an effective activity. problems that have been identified. However, there is inconsistency between the argument formation and the conclusion drawn at the end. A number of connections could have also been made, but have been missed in relation to their significance to the whole. The nominal group technique is a activity that involves a democratic voting process. This was a new process for me as both a learner and an instructor - even though it has a history of more than three decades within the field of adult education. The discussion for this activity reflected the various perspectives of the •Begins to provide explanations about problems and issues - but is inconsistent with other information and misses important information available •Does not notice inconsistencies in argument formation •Mainly descriptive style writing - but there is evidence of basic cause and effect links 4. Relational responses There are multiple information sources with coherent links made This example begins to be qualitatively and quantitatively different from the prior three examples. It attempts to explain relationships among various information sources and provides judgment with supporting arguments. There is evidence that centered
participants. A problem with the NGT was that individual input was on personal perceptions, issues, or experiences rather than the idea of a more inclusive subject to be studied. It seemed we danced around the problem a bit making me think that this activity would be more effective if aliases were used. It should also be more As an educator I see this technique as being useful for drawing the learners into a discussion. But my position is that a “live chat session” would have been a more effective and efficient activity. the student is able to appreciate the significance of the parts in relation to the whole. The NGT is a consensus planning tool that helps prioritize issues (ref). Research on the NGT shows that in numerous circumstances the process produces better results than unstructured group interactions (ref). Research has also revealed that minimizing interaction between group members increases creativity and stimulates more ideas (ref). At the onset, it appeared that, as the above cited research indicates, this kind of structured discussion was effective. However, as the discussion progressed it •Substantiated positions are
became obvious that we began addressing two distinctly different problems. From my own experiences using this technique in my face-to-face classroom, I know that focusing on a second issue that emerges is manageable. But, online, I felt focusing on only one problem would have made the process more productive. As an adult instructor, I have used this technique in my face-to-face courses and experienced many of the benefits cited in the literature - with very few organizational, management, or procedural difficulties. However this experience, as an online learner, helped me recognize some of the potential reached that are consistent with the information provided •Begins to provide explanations or theories resulting from the linking of information •Evidence of cause and effect judgments •Movement from descriptive to explanative 5. Extended abstract responses •Information is used to support positions from resources provided in the course (e.g., text; course notes) as well as outside resources (e.g., prior course information; journal articles; books) In this example, the student has made connections in not only the given subject area, but is also able to transfer the principles and ideas underlying the specific problem presented. NGT is an instructional method that facilitates skills in a group setting (ref). The NGT provides a structured and building
problems that can arise when teaching online. I must note that I am more aware of these potential problems only because of having experienced them as an online learner. As Carl Rogers theorized: “The only learning that significantly influences behavior is self-discovery, learning.” interactive learning environment where, as the activity unfolds, no individual is able to dominate the discussion; each person must present an opinion, making the activity inclusive and democratic. These are ideals consistent with some adult education learning theories (e.g., refs) and certain distance education theories (e.g., refs). As the activity progresses, learners assume greater responsibility and the facilitator's role becomes secondary. This, in turn, provides the opportunity for learners to feel a sense of empowerment because each •Possible explanations, theories and hypotheses have been generated and substantiated using resources cited and reflections •Conceptualizations are at a level extending beyond what has been provided in the course content •Recognition of the multiplicity of perspectives given the complexity of the problem resulting in a number of possible positions on the