第一次世界大战期间的德国历史

第一次世界大戰期間，德意志帝國是最終戰敗的同盟國之一。 在盟國奧匈帝國向塞爾維亞宣戰之後，它開始參與大戰。除了 1914 年東普魯士入侵的短暫時期之外，德國本土在大部分時間中仍相對免受廣泛入侵。皇家海軍實施的嚴密封鎖導致了德國城市的嚴重食物短缺，尤其是在 1916-17 年冬季。戰爭結束時，德國的失敗和廣泛的民眾不滿引發了 1918-19 年的德國革命，這場革命最終推翻了君主制並建立了魏瑪共和國。

1914 年，與歐洲其他國家的人民類似，德國人民以復雜的情緒應對戰爭爆發。最近的研究挑戰了人們普遍懷有熱情（1914 年精神）的理論。由容克地主統治的德國政府將戰爭視為結束被敵對國家法國，俄羅斯和英國包圍的一種方式。外交大臣伯恩哈德・馮・比洛指出，戰爭是為了使該國獲得「太陽下的一席之地」，公眾普遍的民族主義很容易支持這一點。德國當局希望戰爭能夠使公眾作為君主制國家團結起來，並減輕由德國社會民主黨的迅速發展所帶來的威脅，德國社會民主黨曾是戰前德國帝國議會中最有影響力的政黨。儘管德國社會民主黨加入了第二國際，但它結束了與帝國政府的分歧，放棄了國際主義原則，反而來支持戰爭。

事情很快證明，德國沒有為這場持續數月之久的戰爭做好準備。最初，在德國戰時基礎上沒有採取任何措施來調節經濟。而且在整個戰爭中，德國戰爭經濟的組織狀況仍然很糟糕。德國依賴食品和原材料的進口，但這由於英國對德國的封鎖而被迫終止。首先限制糧食價格，然後實行定量配給。1915 年，德國為了生產糧食和保存穀物，豬玀屠殺中屠殺了 500 萬頭豬。 1916/17 年的冬天被稱為「蘿蔔冬天」，因為馬鈴薯收成不好，人們開始吃動物的食物，包括品蘿蔔。在 1914 年 8 月至 1919 年中旬的戰爭中，由於營養不良，疲憊不堪，疾病和絕望率高而導致的平民死亡人數約有 474,000 人。

## 參考資料

## 延伸閱讀

* Watson, Alexander. _Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I_ (2014), excerpt （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）

### 軍事

* Cecil, Lamar, Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900-1941 **II**, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press: 176, 1996, ISBN 978-0-8078-2283-8, OCLC 186744003
* Chickering, Roger, et al. eds. _Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914-1918 (Publications of the German Historical Institute)_ (2000). ISBN 0-521-77352-0. 584 pgs.
* Cowin, Hugh W. _German and Austrian Aviation of World War I: A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower_ (2000). Osprey Pub Co. ISBN 1-84176-069-2. 96 pgs.
* Cruttwell, C.R.M.F. _A History of the Great War: 1914-1918_ (1935) ch 15-29 online free
* Cross, Wilbur, Zeppelins of World War I, 1991, ISBN 978-1-55778-382-0
* Herwig, Holger H. _The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918_ (1996), mostly military
* Horne, John, ed. _A Companion to World War I_ (2012)
* Hubatsch, Walther; Backus, Oswald P, Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914–1918, Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1963, OCLC 250441891
* Kitchen, Martin. _The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918_ (London: Croom Helm, 1976)
* Morrow, John. _German Air Power in World War I_ (U. of Nebraska Press, 1982); Contains design and production figures, as well as economic influences.
* Sheldon, Jack. The German Army on the Somme: 1914 - 1916. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books Ltd. 2005. ISBN 978-1-84415-269-8.

The militarism mean the countries need to develop military or army levels
From 1880 to 1914,the military expenditure of the six bog powers(viz.Germany,Russia,Austria,Italy,France,and Britain)

### 國內戰線

* Allen, Keith. "Sharing Scarcity: Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914– 1923," _Journal of Social History_ (1998), 32#2, pp. 371–96.
* Armeson, Robert. _Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor: A Study of the Military-Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I_ (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1964)
* Bailey, S. 「The Berlin Strike of 1918," _Central European History_ (1980), 13#2, pp. 158–74.
* Bell, Archibald. _A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914–1918_ (London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1937)
* Broadberry, Stephen and Mark Harrison, eds. _The Economics of World War I_ (2005) ISBN 0-521-85212-9. Covers France, UK, USA, Russia, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands
* Burchardt, Lothar. 「The Impact of the War Economy on the Civilian Population of Germany during the First and the Second World Wars," in _The German Military in the Age of Total War,_ edited by Wilhelm Deist, 40–70. Leamington Spa: Berg, 1985.
* Chickering, Roger. _Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918_ (1998), wide-ranging survey
* Daniel, Ute. _The War from Within: German Working-Class Women in the First World War_ (1997)
* Dasey, Robyn. "Women's Work and the Family: Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War," in _The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany,_ edited by Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee, (London: Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 221–53.
* Davis, Belinda J. _Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin_ (2000) online edition （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Dobson, Sean. _Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig, 1910–1920_ (2000).
* Domansky, Elisabeth. "Militarization and Reproduction in World War I Germany," in _Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870–1930,_ edited by Geoff Eley, (University of Michigan Press, 1996), pp. 427–64.
* Donson, Andrew. "Why did German youth become fascists? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution," _Social History,_ Aug2006, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 337–358
* Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916," _Armed Forces & Society_ (1976), 3#1, pp. 121–145. online （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Feldman, Gerald. _Army, Industry, and Labor in Germany, 1914–1918_ (1966)
* Ferguson, Niall _The Pity of War_ (1999), cultural and economic themes, worldwide
* Hardach, Gerd. _The First World War 1914-1918_ (1977), economics
* Herwig, Holger H. _The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918_ (1996), one third on the homefront
* Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19," _German History_ (1993), 11#2, pp. 161–88 online （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Kocka, Jürgen. _Facing total war: German society, 1914-1918_ (1984). online at ACLS e-books （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Lee, Joe. "German Administrators and Agriculture during the First World War," in _War and Economic Development,_ edited by Jay M. Winter. (Cambridge UP, 1922).
* Lutz, Ralph Haswell. _The German revolution, 1918-1919_ (1938) a brief survey online free
* Marquis, H. G. "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War." _Journal of Contemporary History_ (1978) 12: 467–98.
* McKibbin, David. _War and Revolution in Leipzig, 1914–1918: Socialist Politics and Urban Evolution in a German City_ (University Press of America, 1998).
* Moeller, Robert G. "Dimensions of Social Conflict in the Great War: A View from the Countryside," _Central European History_ (1981), 14#2, pp. 142–68.
* Moeller, Robert G. _German Peasants and Agrarian Politics, 1914–1924: The Rhineland and Westphalia_ (1986). online edition （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Offer, Avner. _The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation_ (1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany
* Osborne, Eric. _Britain's Economic Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919_ (2004)
* Richie, Alexandra. _Faust's Metropolis: a History of Berlin_ (1998), pp. 234–83.
* Ryder, A. J. _The German Revolution of 1918_ (Cambridge University Press, 1967)
* Siney, Marion. _The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1914–1916_ (1957)
* Steege, Paul. _Black Market, Cold War: Everyday Life in Berlin, 1946-1949_ (2008) excerpt and text search （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Terraine, John. "'An Actual Revolutionary Situation': In 1917 there was little to sustain German morale at home," _History Today_ (1978), 28#1, pp. 14–22, online
* Tobin, Elizabeth. "War and the Working Class: The Case of Düsseldorf, 1914–1918," _Central European History_ (1985), 13#3, pp. 257–98
* Triebel, Armin. "Consumption in Wartime Germany," in _The Upheaval of War: Family, Work, and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918_ edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 159–96.
* Usborne, Cornelie. "Pregnancy Is a Woman's Active Service," in _The Upheaval of War: Family, Work, and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918_ edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 289–416.
* Verhey, Jeffrey. _The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth, and Mobilization in Germany_ (2006) excerpt （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Welch, David. _Germany and Propaganda in World War I: Pacifism, Mobilization and Total War_ (IB Tauris, 2014)
* Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. _Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914-1919_ (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars vol 1 excerpt （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）; vol 2 excerpt and text search （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Winter, Jay. _Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History_ (1995)
* Ziemann, Benjamin. _War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914-1923_ (Berg, 2007) online edition

### 一手資料

* Gooch, P. G. _Recent Revelations Of European Diplomacy_ (1940). pp3–100
* Lutz, Ralph Haswell, ed. _Fall of the German Empire, 1914–1918_ (2 vol 1932). 868pp online review （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, primary sources

## 外部連結

* （德語） "Der Erste Weltkrieg" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） (in English) "The First World War" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） at Living Museum Online (LeMO)
* Articles relating to Germany （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） at 1914-1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War
  * Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Germany （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Fehlemann, Silke: Bereavement and Mourning (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Bruendel, Steffen: Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Davis, Belinda: Food and Nutrition (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Oppelland, Torsten: Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Stibbe, Matthew: Women's Mobilisation for War (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen von: Making Sense of the War (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Ullmann, Hans-Peter: Organization of War Economies (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Gross, Stephen: War Finance (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Altenhöner, Florian: Press/Journalism (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Ther, Vanessa: Propaganda at Home (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Pöhlmann, Markus: Warfare 1914-1918 (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Löffelbein, Nils: War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  * Whalen, Robert Weldon: War Losses (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Germany and the First World War （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） article index at Spartacus Educational
* Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau (German occupied Poland) from World War I, 1915-1916 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） From the Collections at the Library of Congress