紀爾茲

**克里弗德・紀爾茲**（英語：Clifford Geertz，1926 年 8 月 23 日 —2006 年 10 月 30 日），美國文化人類學家，象徵人類學代表人物。知名著作有《文化的詮釋》、《劇場國家》、《地方知識》、《農業的內捲化：印度尼西亞生態變遷的過程》等。

## 生平

經 Antioch College 與哈佛大學，於 1956 年取得博士學位。之後歷任加州大學柏克萊分校、芝加哥大學、普林斯頓高等研究院。

## 研究

主要成就在於對於摩洛哥、印尼包括爪哇、峇里島等地的社會文化作了深入的田野調查研究，並以此為基礎，對文化、知識的性質提出新的看法。在他最重要的著作之一《文化的詮釋》中，他對於文化概念的深入探討和詮釋，包括如深刻寫描等概念，其影響超出人類學，而及於社會學、文化史、文化研究等方面。此外在另一部重要著作《地方知識》中，以實例來深入探討人類學對於個別地區的研究所獲得的種種知識，有其如何的意義。

### 文化概念

《文化的詮釋》的首篇文章《深刻寫描》開宗明義的指出整本書的目的，以及他心目中的人類學研究。

他的目的簡單的說是要更加精確的定義「文化」這個概念。他採取的是一符號學的取向，認為文化是人自己織出並居於其中的「意義之網」（引用德國社會學家馬克斯・韋伯語）。而人類學的工作便是要找出這些「意義之網」究竟是什麼。至於人類學家是怎麼做到這一點，他引用英國哲學家吉爾伯特・賴爾著名的短語：「深刻寫描」（thick description）。想像一個男孩正為了向他的同伴暗示些什麼，而不停的擠眉弄眼；另一個男孩走進來，看到這一幕，便開始模仿起來，甚至還帶有點玩笑意味。我們怎麼知道這兩個動作事實上是不一樣的動作？

對他而言，如果我們是緊緊遵守行為主義的教條，換言之僅觀察行為本身，我們可能沒有辦法區辨這兩個動作哪裡不同。畢竟，他們都不過是眨眼的動作罷了。但關鍵就在這裡，我們之所以能夠知道這兩個動作不一樣，就在於我們掌握了這兩個男孩 - 行動者 - 的意圖（intention; 或另一個格爾茨喜歡的短語：what they are up to）。其中一個正運用了「擠眉弄眼」這一有特定意義結構支撐的行動在傳遞某些想法、意圖；而另一個僅僅是單純的模仿。

## 著作

* "Religion as a Cultural System". In _Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion_. Ed. Michael Banton. pp. 1–46. ASA Monographs, 3. London: Tavistock Publications. 1966
* _The Religion of Java （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）_ (1960), University Of Chicago Press 1976 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28510-3
* _Peddlers and Princes: Social Development and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）_ (1963), University Of Chicago Press 1968 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28514-6
* _Agricultural Involution: the process of ecological change in Indonesia_ (1964)
* _Islam Observed, Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia_ (1968), University Of Chicago Press 1971 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28511-1
* _The Interpretation of Cultures_ (1973), Basic Books 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-465-09719-7
* _Kinship in Bali_ (1975) coauthor: Hildred Geertz, University Of Chicago Press 1978 paperback: ISBN 0-226-28516-2
* _Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）_ (1980), Princeton University Press 2001 paperback: ISBN 0-691-00778-0
* _Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）_ (1983), Basic Books 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-465-04162-0
* "Anti-Anti-Relativism" (1984), _American Anthropologist_, vol. 86, no. 2, pp. 263–278.
* _Works and Lives: The Anthropologist As Author_ (1988), Stanford University Press 1990 paperback: ISBN 0-8047-1747-8
* _After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）_ , Harvard University Press 1995 paperback: ISBN 0-674-00872-3
* _Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）_ , Princeton University Press 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-691-08956-6
* "An inconstant profession: The anthropological life in interesting times" (2002), _Annual Review of Anthropology_, vol. 31, pp. 1–19 Viewable at hypergeertz.jku.at （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）

### 著作編年

* 1957 Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example. American Anthropologist 59(1):32-54.
* 1959 Form and Variation in Balinese Village Structure. American Anthropologist 61:991-1012.
* 1959 The Javanese Village. In Local, Ethnic, and National Loyalties in Village Indonesia. Ed. G. William Skinner. pp. 34–41. New Haven: Southeast Asian Program, Yale University.
* 1960 Religion of Java. Glencoe: Free Press.
* 1961 The Rotating Credit Association: A "Middle Rung" in Development. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10:241-263.
* 1962 Studies in Peasant Life: Community and Society. In Biennial Review of Anthropology 1961. Ed. Bernard J. Siegal. pp. 1–41. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
* 1962 The Growth of Culture and the Evolution of Mind. In Theories of the Mind. Ed. J. Scher. pp. 713–740. New York: Free Press.
* 1963 Agricultural Involution: The Process of Agricultural Change in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* 1963 Peddlers and Princes: Social Change and Economic Modernization in Two Indonesian Towns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* 1963 (editor) Old Societies and New States. New York: Free Press.
* 1963 The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States. In Old Societies and New States. Ed. Clifford Geertz. pp. 105–157. Glencoe: Free Press.
* 1964 Ideology as a Cultural System. In Ideology and Discontent. Ed. David Apter. pp. 47–76. New York: Free Press.
* 1965 The Social History of an Indonesian Town. Cambridge: MIT Press.
* 1965 Modernization in a Muslim Society: The Indonesian Case, 201-211, in Robert O. Tilman (ed), Man, State, and Society in Contemporary South East Asia. London: Pall Mall.
* 1966 Person, Time, and Conduct in Bali: An Essay in Cultural Analysis. Southeast Asia Program, Cultural Report Series. New Haven: Yale University.
* 1966 Religion as a Cultural System. In Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion. Ed. Michael Banton. pp. 1–46. ASA Monographs, 3. London: Tavistock Publications.
* 1966 The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man. In New Views of the Nature of Man. Ed. J. Platt. pp. 93–118. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* 1967 Politics Past, Politics Preset: Some Notes on the Contribution of Anthropology to the Study of the New States. European Journal of Sociology 8(1):1-14.
* 1967 The Cerebral Savage: On the Work of Claude Levi-Strauss. Encounter 48(4):25-32.
* 1967 Tihingan: A Balinese Village. In Villages in Indonesia. Ed. R. N. Koentjaraningrat. pp. 210–243. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
* 1967 Under the Mosquito Net. New York Review of Books, September 14.
* 1968 Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 136 pp.
* 1968 Thinking as a Moral Act: Dimensions of Anthropological Fieldwork in the New States. Antioch Review 28(2):139-158.
* 1972 Religious Change and Social Order in Soeharto's Indonesia. Asia 27:62-84.
* 1972 The Wet and the Dry: Traditional Irrigation in Bali and Morocco. Human Ecology 1:34-39.
* 1972 Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight. Daedalus 101(1 Winter).
* 1973 The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York: Basic.
* 1973 Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture. In The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. Clifford Geertz. pp 3–30. New York: Basic Books.
* 1976 From the Native's Point of View. In Meaning in Anthropology. Eds. Keith H. Basso and Henry A. Selby. pp. 221–237. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
* 1977 Found in Translation: On the Social History of the Moral Imagination. Georgia Review 31(4 Winter):788-810.
* 1977 Curing, Sorcery, and Magic in a Javanese Town. In Culture, Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology. Ed. David Landy. pp. 146–153. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
* 1979 [with Hildred Geertz and Lawrence Rosen] Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society: Three Essays in Cultural Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See his own contribution on "Suq: The Bazaar Economy in Sefrou" (pp. 123–225).
* 1980 Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
* 1983 Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.
* 1983 Centers, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power. In Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. Clifford Geertz. pp. 121–146. New York: Basic Books.
* 1983 "From the Native's Point of View": On the Nature of Anthropological Knowledge. In Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. Clifford Geertz. pp. 55–70. New York: Basic Books.
* 1983 Notions of Primitive Thought: Dialogue with Clifford Geertz. In States of Mind. ed & comp Jonathan Miller. pp. 192–210. New York: Pantheon.
* 1984 Anti-Anti-Relativism. 1983 Distinguished Lecture. American Anthropologist 82:263-278.
* 1984 Culture and Social Change: The Indonesian Case. Man 19:511-532.
* 1986 The Uses of Diversity. In Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol. 7. Ed. Sterling M. McMurrin. pp. 251–275. Cambridge and Salt Lake City: Cambridge University Press and University of Utah Press.
* 1988 Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

The four studies included in the book are:

　
: * "The World in a Text: How to Read Tristes Tropiques" (pp. 25–48).
* "Slide Show: Evans-Pritchard's African Transparencies" (pp. 49–72).
* "I-Witnessing: Malinowski's Children" (pp. 73–101).
* "Us/not-Us: Benedict's Travels" (pp. 102–128).

* 1989 Margaret Mead, 1901-1978. Biographical Memoirs 58:329-341. National Academy of Sciences.
* 1990 History and Anthropology. New Literary History 21(2 Winter):321-335.
* 1991 The Year of Living Culturally. New Republic, October 21, 30-36.
* 1992 "Local Knowledge" and Its Limits: Some Obiter Dicta. Yale Journal of Criticism 5(2):129-135.
* 1993 "Ethnic Conflict": Three Alternative Terms. Common Knowledge 2(3 Winter):54-65.
* 1994 Life on the Edge. [Review of Tsing, In the Realm of the Diamond Queen]. New York Review of Books 41(7 April ):3-4.
* 1995 After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist. [The Jerusalem-Harvard Lectures]. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
* 1995 Culture War. [Review essay on Sahlins, How "Natives" Think and Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook]. New York Review of Books 42(19 November 30):4-6.
* 2000 _Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics._ Princeton: Princeton University Press.
* 2010 _Life Among the Anthros and Other Essays_ edited by Fred Inglis (Princeton University Press; 272 pages)

For a complete list of all publications by Clifford Geertz see http://hypergeertz.jku.at （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） [1] （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, including a list of translations into Chinese.

## 參考文獻

## 外部連結

* HyperGeertz@WorldCatalogue （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） 克利福德・蓋爾茨（Clifford Geertz）所有作品的所有語言的文獻記錄
* 克利福德・蓋爾茨（Clifford Geertz）的中文作品 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
* Clifford Geertz 接受英國人類學家 Alan MacFarlane 訪談 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）