保罗·米尔格龙

**保羅・羅伯特・米爾格龍**（英語：**Paul Robert Milgrom**，1948 年 4 月 20 日 —），美國經濟學家，2020 年諾貝爾經濟學獎得主。他是史丹福大學雪萊和倫納德・伊利人文和科學院教授，1987 年起就一直擔任此職。米爾格龍是博弈論專家，尤其擅長拍賣理論和定價策略。他還與 Nancy Stokey 一起提出了無交易定理。

## 生平

1948 年生於底特律，1970 年畢業於密西根大學學士學位，1979 年獲得史丹福大學博士學位。

## 出版物

* Milgrom, Paul. The Structure of Information in Competitive Bidding. New York: Garland Press. 1979a.  (Ph.D. Dissertation)
* Milgrom, Paul. A Convergence Theorem for Competitive Bidding with Differential Information. Econometrica. 1979b, **47** (3): 679–88. JSTOR 1910414. doi:10.2307/1910414.
* Milgrom, Paul. An Axiomatic Characterization of Common Knowledge (PDF). Econometrica. 1981a, **49** (1): 219–222 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 1911137. doi:10.2307/1911137. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-07-13）.
* Milgrom, Paul. Rational Expectations, Information Acquisition, and Competitive Bidding. Econometrica. 1981b, **49** (4): 921–943. JSTOR 1912511. doi:10.2307/1912511.
* Milgrom, Paul. Good News and Bad News: Representation Theorems and Applications. Bell Journal of Economics. 1981c, **12** (2): 380–91. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.465.6331 . JSTOR 3003562. doi:10.2307/3003562.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Limit Pricing and Entry Under Incomplete Information: An Equilibrium Analysis (PDF). Econometrica. 1982, **50** (2): 443–59 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 1912637. doi:10.2307/1912637. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-10-17）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John Roberts. Predation, Reputation, and Entry Deterrence (PDF). Journal of Economic Theory. 1982, **27** (2): 280–312 [2021-06-05]. ISSN 0022-0531. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(82)90031-X. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-07-13）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Stokey, Nancy. Information, Trade and Common Knowledge (PDF). Journal of Economic Theory. 1982, **26** (1): 17–27 [2021-06-05]. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(82)90046-1. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2021-01-03）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Weber, Robert. The Value of Information in a Sealed Bid Auction (PDF). Journal of Mathematical Economics. 1982a, **10** (1): 105–14 [2021-06-05]. ISSN 0304-4068. doi:10.1016/0304-4068(82)90008-8. hdl:10419/220822 . （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-07-13）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Weber, Robert. A Theory of Auctions and Competitive Bidding. Econometrica. 1982b, **50** (5): 1089–1122. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.186.4633 . JSTOR 1911865. doi:10.2307/1911865.
* Kreps, David; Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John; Wilson, Robert. Rational Cooperation in the Finitely‑Repeated Prisoners' Dilemma (PDF). Journal of Economic Theory. 1982, **27** (2): 245‑252 [2021-06-05]. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(82)90029-1. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-10-13）.
* Engelbrecht-Wiggans, R.; Milgrom, Paul R.; Weber, Robert J. Competitive bidding and proprietary information (PDF). Journal of Mathematical Economics. 1983, **11** (2): 161–169 [2021-06-05]. doi:10.1016/0304-4068(83)90034-4. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-10-18）.
* Milgrom, Paul. Axelrod's "The Evolution of Cooperation". The RAND Journal of Economics. 1984, **15** (2): 305–309. JSTOR 2555683. doi:10.2307/2555683.
* Milgrom, Paul; Weber, Robert. Distributional Strategies for Games with Incomplete Information (PDF). Mathematics of Operations Research. 1985, **10** (4): 619–32 [2021-06-05]. doi:10.1287/moor.10.4.619. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-10-18）.
* Glosten, Larry; Milgrom, Paul. Bid, Ask and Transactions Prices in a Specialist Market with Insider Trading. Journal of Financial Economics. 1985, **14** (1): 71‑100. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.460.947 . ISSN 0304-405X. doi:10.1016/0304-405X(85)90044-3.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Price and Advertising Signals of Product Quality (PDF). Journal of Political Economy. 1986a, **94** (4): 796–821 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 1833203. S2CID 154506015. doi:10.1086/261408. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-08-06）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Relying on the Information of Interested Parties (PDF). The RAND Journal of Economics. 1986b, **17** (1): 18–32 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 2555625. doi:10.2307/2555625. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-08-06）.
* Holmstrom, Bengt; Milgrom, Paul. Aggregation and Linearity in the Provision of Intertemporal Incentives (PDF). Econometrica. 1987, **55** (2): 303–328 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 1913238. doi:10.2307/1913238. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-10-31）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Informational Asymmetries, Strategic Behavior, and Industrial Organization. The American Economic Review. 1987, **77** (2): 184–193. JSTOR 1805448.
* Milgrom, Paul; Oster, Sharon. Job Discrimination, Market Forces and the Invisibility Hypothesis (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics. 1987, **102** (3): 453–476 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 1884213. doi:10.2307/1884213. （原始內容 (PDF) 存檔於 2020-08-06）.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. An Economic Approach to Influence Activities and Organizational Responses. American Journal of Sociology. 1988, **94**: S154–S179. JSTOR 2780245. S2CID 154341784. doi:10.1086/228945.
* Milgrom, Paul. Employment Contracts, Influence Activities, and Efficient Organization Design. Journal of Political Economy. 1988, **96** (1): 42–60 [2021-06-05]. JSTOR 1830709. S2CID 154458173. doi:10.1086/261523. （原始內容存檔於 2021-06-05）.
* Milgrom, Paul and John Roberts. Communication and Inventories as Substitutes in Organizing Production. Scandinavian Journal of Economics. 1988, **90** (3): 275–289. JSTOR 3440309. doi:10.2307/3440309.
* Milgrom, Paul. Auctions and Bidding: A Primer. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 1989, **3** (3): 3–22. JSTOR 1942756. doi:10.1257/jep.3.3.3.
* Fudenberg, Drew; Holmstrom, Bengt and Paul Milgrom. Short-term contracts and long-term agency relationships. Journal of Economic Theory. 1990, **51** (1): 154–159. JSTOR 2006561. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(90)90048-O. hdl:1721.1/64269 .
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. The Efficiency of Equity in Organizational Decision Processes. The American Economic Review. 1990a, **80** (2): 1–31. ISSN 0022-0531. JSTOR 2006561. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(90)90048-O. hdl:1721.1/64269 .
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. The Economics of Modern Manufacturing: Technology, Strategy and Organization. American Economic Review. 1990b, **80** (3): 511–28. JSTOR 2006681.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Rationalizability, Learning and Equilibrium in Games With Strategic Complementarities. Econometrica. 1990c, **58** (6): 1255–1278. JSTOR 2938316. doi:10.2307/2938316.
* Milgrom, Paul; North, Douglass C.; Weingast, Barry R. The role of institutions in the revival of trade: the law merchant, private judges, and the champagne fairs. Economics and Politics. 1990, **2** (1): 1–23. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.669.1678 . doi:10.1111/j.1468-0343.1990.tb00020.x.
* Holmstrom, Bengt; Milgrom, Paul. Multitask Principal-Agent Analyses: Incentive Contracts, Asset Ownership and Job Design. Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization. 1991, **7**: 303–328. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.3715 . JSTOR 764957. doi:10.1093/jleo/7.special\_issue.24.
* Abreu, D.; Milgrom, Paul; Pearce, David. Information and Timing in Repeated Partnerships. Econometrica. 1991, **59** (6): 1713–1733. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.295.1370 . JSTOR 2938286. doi:10.2307/2938286.
* Milgrom, Paul; Qian, Yingi; Roberts, John. Complementarities, Momentum, and the Evolution of Modern Manufacturing. The American Economic Review. 1991, **81** (2): 84–88. JSTOR 2006831.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Adaptive and sophisticated learning in normal form games. Games and Economic Behavior. 1991, **82** (100): 82–100. ISSN 0899-8256. doi:10.1016/0899-8256(91)90006-Z.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Economics, Organization and Management. Prentice Hall. 1992. ISBN 978-0132246507.  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (link)
* Bresnahan, Timothy F.; Milgrom, Paul; Paul, Jonathan. The Real Output of the Stock Exchange. Output Measurement in the Services Sectors. 1992: 195–216.
* Meyer, Margaret; Paul Milgrom; Roberts, John. Organizational Prospects, Influence Costs, and Ownership Changes. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. 1992, **1** (1): 9–35. doi:10.1111/j.1430-9134.1992.00009.x.
* Milgrom, Paul. Comparing Optima: Do Simplifying Assumptions Affect Conclusions?. Journal of Political Economy. 1994, **102** (3): 607–615. JSTOR 2138625. S2CID 153568621. doi:10.1086/261948.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Comparing Equilibria. The American Economic Review. 1994, **84** (3): 441–459. JSTOR 2118061.
* Milgrom, Paul; Shannon, Chris. Monotone Comparative Statics. Econometrica. 1994, **62** (1): 157–180. JSTOR 2951479. doi:10.2307/2951479.
* Holmstrom, Bengt; Milgrom, Paul. The Firm as an Incentive System. The American Economic Review. 1994, **84** (4): 972–991. JSTOR 2118041.
* Greif, Avner; Milgrom, Paul; Weingast, Barry R. Coordination, Commitment, and Enforcement: The Case of the Merchant Guild. Journal of Political Economy. 1994, **102** (4): 745–776. JSTOR 2138763. S2CID 154501745. doi:10.1086/261953.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Complementarities and Fit: Strategy, Structure and Organizational Change in Manufacturing. Journal of Accounting and Economics. 1994, **19** (2–3): 179–208. ISSN 0165-4101. doi:10.1016/0165-4101(94)00382-f.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. The Economics of Modern Manufacturing: Reply. The American Economic Review. 1995, **85** (4): 997–999. JSTOR 2118249.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. The LeChatelier Principle. The American Economic Review. 1996a, **86** (1): 113–128. JSTOR 2118261.
* Milgrom, Paul; Roberts, John. Coalition-Proofness and Correlation with Arbitrary Communication Possibilities. Games and Economic Behavior. 1996b, **17** (1): 173–179. doi:10.1006/game.1996.0096.
* Milgrom, Paul. Game theory and the spectrum auctions. European Economic Review. 1998, **42** (3–5): 771–778. ISSN 0014-2921. doi:10.1016/S0014-2921(97)00146-3.
* Milgrom, Paul. Putting Auction Theory to Work: The Simulteneous Ascending Auction. Journal of Political Economy. 2000, **108** (2): 245–272. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.195.7314 . JSTOR 262118. S2CID 14242011. doi:10.1086/262118.
* Ausubel, Lawrence M.; Milgrom, Paul. Ascending Auctions with Package Bidding. The B.E. Journal of Theoretical Economics. 2002, **1** (1). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.528.8990 . ISSN 1534-5963. S2CID 1083684. doi:10.2202/1534-5963.1019.
* Milgrom, Paul; Segal, Ilya. Envelope Theorems for Arbitrary Choice Sets. Econometrica. 2002, **70** (2): 583–601. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.217.4736 . JSTOR 2692283. SSRN 312251 . doi:10.1111/1468-0262.00296.
* Milgrom, Paul. Putting Auction Theory to Work. Cambridge University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-53672-1.
* Hatfield, John W.; Milgrom, Paul. Matching with Contracts. The American Economic Review. 2005, **95** (4): 913–935 [2022-05-30]. JSTOR 4132699. doi:10.1257/0002828054825466. （原始內容存檔於 2015-09-20）.
* Ausubel, Lawrence M.; Cramton, Peter; Milgrom, Paul. Cramton, Peter; Shoham, Yoav; Steinberg, Richard , 編. The Clock-Proxy Auction: A Practical Combinatorial Auction Design. In Combinatorial Auctions, Edited by Cramton, P., Shoham, Y., and Steinberg, R. (MIT Press). 2006. ISBN 978-0-2620-3342-8. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262033428.001.0001.
* Ausubel, Lawrence M.; Milgrom, Paul. Cramton, P.; Shoham, Y.; Steinberg, R. , 編. The Lovely but Lonely Vickrey Auction. In Combinatorial Auctions (MIT press). 2006a: 17–40. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.120.7158 . ISBN 9780262033428. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262033428.003.0002.
* Ausubel, Lawrence M.; Milgrom, Paul. Cramton, P.; Shoham, Y.; Steinberg, R. , 編. Ascending Proxy Auctions. In Combinatorial Auctions. 2006b.
* Milgrom, Paul. Package Auctions and Exchanges. Econometrica. 2007, **75** (4): 935–965. JSTOR 4502017. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0262.2007.00778.x.
* Milgrom, Paul. What the Seller Won't Tell You: Persuasion and Disclosure in Markets. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 2008, **22** (2): 115–131. JSTOR 27648244. doi:10.1257/jep.22.2.115 .
* Hall, Robert E.; Milgrom, Paul R. The Limited Influence of Unemployment on the Wage Bargain. The American Economic Review. 2008, **98** (4): 1653–1674. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.516.6267 . JSTOR 29730140. S2CID 18040832. doi:10.1257/aer.98.4.1653.
* Day, R.; Milgrom, Paul. Core-selecting package auctions. International Journal of Game Theory. 2008, **36** (3–4): 393–407. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.529.9950 . S2CID 7593117. doi:10.1007/s00182-007-0100-7.
* Milgrom, Paul. Assignment Messages and Exchanges. American Economic Journal: Microeconomics. 2009, **1** (2): 95–113. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.487.2981 . doi:10.1257/mic.1.2.95.
* Milgrom, Paul; Bruno Strulovici. Substitute goods, auctions, and equilibrium. Journal of Economic Theory. 2009, **144** (1): 212–247. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.497.9686 . doi:10.1016/j.jet.2008.05.002.
* Milgrom, Paul. Ascending Prices and Package Bidding: A Theoretical and Experimental Analysis. American Economic Journal: Microeconomics. 2010, **2** (3): 160–185. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.727.4004 . doi:10.1257/mic.2.3.160.
* Milgrom, Paul. Simplified mechanisms with an application to sponsored-search auctions. Games and Economic Behavior. 2010, **70** (1): 62–70. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.151.6989 . SSRN 1022220 . doi:10.1016/j.geb.2008.12.003.
* Levin, Jonathan; Milgrom, Paul. Online Advertising: Heterogeneity and Conflation in Market Design. American Economic Review. 2010, **100** (2): 603–607. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.727.1750 . doi:10.1257/aer.100.2.603.
* Milgrom, Paul. Critical Issues in the Practice of Market Design. Economic Inquiry. 2011, **49** (2): 311–320. S2CID 153765277. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2010.00357.x.
* Budish, E.; Che, Y.-K.; Kojima, F.; Milgrom, Paul. Designing Random Allocation Mechanisms: Theory and Applications. American Economic Review. 2013, **103** (2): 585–623. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.649.5582 . doi:10.1257/aer.103.2.585.

## 外部連結

* 官方網站
* 由 Google 學術搜索索引的保羅・米爾格龍出版物

## 參考資料