翼龍目
Pterosaur

context: zh_tw: 絨球傳送神經訊號，讓眼部肌肉產生小而自動的運動。這讓動物的視網膜產生穩定的影像。翼龍類有大型絨球的原因，可能是因為牠們巨大的翼，巨大的翼意味者有大量的感應訊息要處理。
en: An X-ray study of pterosaur brain cavities revealed that the animals (Rhamphorhynchus muensteri and Anhanguera santanae) had massive flocculi. The flocculus is a brain region that integrates signals from joints, muscles, skin and balance organs. The pterosaurs' flocculi occupied 7.5% of the animals' total brain mass, more than in any other vertebrate. Birds have unusually large flocculi compared with other animals, but these only occupy between 1 and 2% of total brain mass.The flocculus sends out neural signals that produce small, automatic movements in the eye muscles. These keep the image on an animal's retina steady. Pterosaurs may have had such a large flocculus because of their large wing size, which would mean that there was a great deal more sensory information to process. The low relative mass of the flocculi in birds is also a result of birds having a much larger brain overall; though this has been considered an indication that pterosaurs lived in a structurally simpler environment or had less complex behaviour compared to birds, recent studies of crocodilians and other reptiles show that it is common for sauropsids to achieve high intelligence levels with small brains. Studies on the endocast of Allkaruen show that brain evolution in pterodactyloids was a modular process.
qas: question: zh_tw: 動物眼睛哪個部分保持影像穩定？
en: This keeps the image steady on which part of the animals eye?
answers: zh_tw: text: 視網膜
en: text: retina

context: zh_tw: 藉由比較翼龍類與現代鳥類的手掌、腳掌與身體的比例，科學家可以推測翼龍類在地表的生活方式。與神龍翼龍科的體型與後肢相比，牠們的腳掌相當小，腳掌長度是脛骨的 25% 到 30%。這顯示神龍翼龍科較適合在乾燥、硬的地面上行走。無齒翼龍的腳掌較長，長度是脛骨的 47%。濾食性的翼龍類（例如梳頜翼龍超科）具有非常大的腳掌，舉例而言，翼手龍屬的腳掌長度是脛骨的 69%，而南翼龍的腳掌長度是脛骨的 84%，大的腳掌 / 脛骨比例代表牠們適合在軟而泥濘的地面行走，類似現代鳥類。
en: Though traditionally depicted as ungainly and awkward when on the ground, the anatomy of some pterosaurs (particularly pterodactyloids) suggests that they were competent walkers and runners. Early pterosaurs have long been considered particularly cumbersome locomotors due to the presence of large cruropatagia, but they too appear to have been generally efficient on the ground.The forelimb bones of azhdarchids and ornithocheirids were unusually long compared to other pterosaurs, and, in azhdarchids, the bones of the arm and hand (metacarpals) were particularly elongated. Furthermore, as a whole, azhdarchid front limbs were proportioned similarly to fast-running ungulate mammals. Their hind limbs, on the other hand, were not built for speed, but they were long compared with most pterosaurs, and allowed for a long stride length. While azhdarchid pterosaurs probably could not run, they would have been relatively fast and energy efficient.The relative size of the hands and feet in pterosaurs (by comparison with modern animals such as birds) may indicate the type of lifestyle pterosaurs led on the ground. Azhdarchid pterosaurs had relatively small feet compared to their body size and leg length, with foot length only about 25%–30% the length of the lower leg. This suggests that azhdarchids were better adapted to walking on dry, relatively solid ground. Pteranodon had slightly larger feet (47% the length of the tibia), while filter-feeding pterosaurs like the ctenochasmatoids had very large feet (69% of tibial length in Pterodactylus, 84% in Pterodaustro), adapted to walking in soft muddy soil, similar to modern wading birds. Though clearly forelimb-based launchers, basal pterosaurs have hindlimbs well adapted for hopping, suggesting a connection with archosaurs such as Scleromochlus.
qas: question: zh_tw: 神龍翼龍科較適合在怎樣的地面上行走？
en: What type of surface could azhdarchids walk more easily on?
answers: zh_tw: text: 乾燥、硬的地面
en: text: dry, relatively solid ground

context: zh_tw: 克里斯・班尼特、大衛・彼得斯曾先後提出翼龍類屬於原蜥形目，或者是原蜥形目的近親。大衛・彼得斯利用電腦繪圖軟體，企圖找出原蜥形目、翼龍目的關聯。克里斯・班尼特在試圖找尋翼龍類、恐龍的趨同演化特徵時，發現翼龍類除去後肢特徵時，相當類似原蜥形目，因此提出原蜥形目、翼龍類有演化關係。在 2007 年，麥可・班頓（Michael Benton）等人提出不同看法，認為翼龍類與恐龍是近親，即使不考慮後肢特徵，翼龍類仍非常類似恐龍。他們並批評大衛・彼得斯的研究，不是研究原始化石與資料，而採用具爭議性的分析途徑，最後導論出原蜥形目、翼龍類是近親。大衛・彼得斯則堅持電腦繪圖軟體，可用在化石研究上。班頓等人認為雖然目前沒有翼龍類最直系祖先的化石證據，但翼龍類很明顯是屬於主龍類，尤其是鳥頸類主龍演化支。根據他們的分析，翼龍類是斯克列羅龍的姊妹分類單元，或者是從介於斯克列羅龍與兔鱷之間的物種演化而來。在 2011 年，斯特林・奈斯比的早期主龍類研究，也支援翼龍類、斯克列羅龍互為姊妹分類單元的理論。
en: Two researchers, Chris Bennett (1996) and David Peters (2000), have found pterosaurs to be protorosaurs or closely related to them. Peters used a technique called DGS, which involves applying the digital tracing features of photo editing software to images of pterosaur fossils. Bennett only recovered pterosaurs as close relatives of the protorosaurs after removing characteristics of the hind limb from his analysis, in an attempt to test the idea that these characters are the result of convergent evolution between pterosaurs and dinosaurs. However, subsequent analysis by Dave Hone and Michael Benton (2007) could not reproduce this result. Hone and Benton found pterosaurs to be closely related to dinosaurs even without hind limb characters. They also criticized previous studies by David Peters, raising questions about whether conclusions reached without access to the primary evidence, that is, pterosaur fossils, can be held to have the same weight as conclusions based strictly on first-hand interpretation. Hone and Benton concluded that, although more primitive pterosauromorphs are needed to clarify their relationships, pterosaurs are best considered archosaurs, and specifically ornithodirans, given current evidence. In Hone and Benton's analysis, pterosaurs are either the sister group of Scleromochlus or fall between it and Lagosuchus on the ornithodiran family tree. Sterling Nesbitt (2011) found strong support for a clade composed of Scleromochlus and pterosaurs. More recent studies on basal pterosaur hindlimb morphology seem to vindicate a connection to Scleromochlus. Like this archosaur, basal pterosaur lineages have plantigrade hindlimbs that show adaptations for saltation.
qas: question: zh_tw: 根據霍恩和班頓的分析，翼龍之間有什麼關係？
en: What is the relationship between pterosaurs according to Hone and Benton's analysis?
answers: zh_tw: text: 斯克列羅龍的姊妹分類單元，或者是從介於斯克列羅龍與兔鱷之間的物種
en: text: sister group of Scleromochlus or fall between it and Lagosuchus on the ornithodiran family tree